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THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST
SECOND
THIRD
FOURTH
FIFTH
SIXTH
SEVENTH
EIGHTH
NINTH
TENTH
ELEVENTH
edition, published in three volumes, 1768 — 1771.
ten 1777—1784.
eighteen 1788 — 1797.
twenty 1801 — 1810.
twenty 1815 — 1817.
twenty 1823 — 1824.
twenty-one 1830 — 1842.
twenty-two 1853 — 1860.
twenty-five 1875—1889.
ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903.
published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911.
COPYRIGHT
in ajl countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention
by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
All rights reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
A
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XVI
L to LORD ADVOCATE
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West jand Street
1911
•E3
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XVI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS,^ WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. B. Ch. A. B. CHATWOOD, B.Sc., A.M.lNST.C.E., M.INST.ELEC.E. j j^,,,^
A. B. R. ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. f
Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of Text Book on Classifi- -I Leaf.
cation of Flowering Plants, &fc. \_
A. C. F. ALEXANDER CAMPBELL FRASER, LL.D.
See the biographical article: FRASER, A. C.
A. C. S. ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE. J _ .
See the biographical article: SWINBURNE, A. C. \ l«anaor.
A. D. HENRY AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D.
See the biographical article: DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN.
A. Fi. PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTE FILON.
See the biographical article : FILON, P. M. A. I L80I( ne*
A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A. , F.R.Hisx.Soc.
Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls' Lambert Francis*
College, Oxford. Assistant editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-^ ¥ ' M. . , '
1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of LamM", Nicholson.
England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c. [
A. Gl. ARNOLD GLOVER, M.A., LL.B. (d. 1905) r
Trinity College, Cambridge ; Joint-editor of Beaumont and Fletcher for the Cam- -{ Layard.
bridge University Press.
A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. f Laurentius, Paul;
Lecturer in Church History in the University of Manchester. \ Libertines.
A. G. D. ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, C.M.G., M.A.,LiTT.D., F.R. HiST.S., F.R.S.(Canada). (
Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of Canada. J
Author of The Cradle of New France; &c. Joint editor of Documents relating to the 1
Constitutional History of Canada. I
A. H. S. REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, Lrrr.D., LL.D. f
See the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H. \
A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. f
Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent ] » „„ , / • A/,.,\
College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of 1 lu)gos Uw ran>-
Mysore Educational Service. L
A. J. L. ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX. . r
Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Editor of the Rio News -i Lima (Peru).
(Rio de Janeiro), 1879-1901.
A. L. ANDREW LANG. J _
See the biographical article : LANG, ANDREW. |_ ^a Cloche.
A. M. An. ADELAIDE MARY ANDERSON, M.A. r
H.M. Principal Lady Inspector of Factories, Home Office. Clerk to the Royal
Commission on Labour, 1892-1894. Gamble Gold Medallist, Girton College, Cam- i Labour Legislation.
bridge, 1893. Author of various articles on Industrial Life and Legislation, &c. [
A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE. / Lagrange; Laplace;
See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. ^ Leverrier.
A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. / Lammergeyer; Lapwing;
See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. I Lark; Linnet; Loom.
A. P. C. ARTHUR PHILEMON COLEMAN, M.A., PH.D., F.R.S. f
Professor of Geology in the University of Toronto. Geologist, Bureau of Mines, -\ Labrador (in part).
Toronto, 1893-1910. Author of Reports of the Bureau of Mines of Ontario.
*A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.
V
1935
vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
A. P. Lo. ALBERT PETER Low. [
Deputy Minister of Department of Mines, Canada. Member of Geological Survey 4 Labrador (in part).
of Canada. Author of Report on the Exploration in the Labrador Peninsula ; &c. I
A. Se.* ADAM SEDGWICK, M.A., F.R.S. f
Professor of Zoology at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London. J ¥ , ,,
Fellow, and formerly Tutor, of Trinity College, Cambridge. Professor of Zoology 1 L>arval *orms.
in the University of Cambridge, 1907-1909. I
A. SI. ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.C.P. f
Member of Council of Epidemiplogical Society. Author of The London Water- -I Liquor Laws.
Supply; Industrial Efficiency, Drink, Temperance and Legislation.
A. So. ALBRECHT SOCIN, PH.D. (1844-1899). f
Formerly Professor of Semitic Philology in the Universities of Leipzig and Tubingen, -j Lebanon (in part).
Author of Arabische Grammatik; &c. I
A. S. C. ALAN SUMMERLY COLE, C.B. f
Assistant Secretary for Art, Board of Education, 1900-1908. Author of Ancient] Lace.
Needle Point and Pillow Lace; Embroidery and Lace; Ornament in European Silks; \
&c.
A. St H. G. ALFRED ST HILL GIBBONS. [
Major, East Yorkshire Regiment. Explorer in South Central Africa. Author of "j Lewanika.
Africa from South to North through Marotseland. I
A. S. M. ALEXANDER STUART MURRAY, LL.D. f T
See the biographical article: MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART. j LamP-
A. S. W. AUGUSTUS SAMUEL WILKINS, M.A., LL.D., Lrrr.D. (1843-1905). r
Professor of Latin, Owens College, Manchester, 1869-1905. Author of Roman} Latin Language (in part).
Literature; &c.
A. T. T. A. T. THORSON. f rife-boat- /7«;W <T//i««
Official in Life Saving Service, U.S.A. \ UB
A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. f Leopold I. (Roman Emperor);
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. (^ Levellers.
A. W. Hu. REV. ARTHUR WOLLASTON HUTTON, M.A. C
Rector of Bow Church, Cheapside. Librarian National Liberal Club, 1889-1899. -< Leo XIII.
Author of Life of Cardinal Newman ; Life of Cardinal Manning ; &c.
A. W. R. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. f Landlord and Tenant;
Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws -j Letters Patent;
of England. [ Lodger and Lodgings.
A. W. W. ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LITT.D., LL.D. JinHiro Thm
See the biographical article : WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM. \ *
B. D. J. BENJAMIN DAYDON JACKSON, PH.D. r
General Secretary of the Linnean Society. Secretary to Departmental Committee J ¥ .
of H.M. Treasury on Botanical Work, 1900-1901. Author of Glossary of Botanic] Linnaeus.
Terms; &c.
C. THE RT. HON. THE EARL or CREWE. f T anra.i
See the biographical article: CREWE, IST EARL OF. "^ P
C. C. W. CHARLES CRAWFORD WHINERY, A.M. J La Salle;
Cornell University. Assistant editor nth Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britanmca. ~[ Lincoln, Abraham (in part).
C. Di. CHARLES DIBDIN, F.R.G.S. ("
Secretary of the Royal National Life-boat Institution. Hon. Secretary of the Civil \ Life-boat: British.
Service Life-boat Fund, 1870-1906.
C. D. W. HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON WRIGHT. f Labour Legislation: United
See the biographical article: WRIGHT, HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON. \ States.
C. E.* CHARLES EVERITT, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. f Light: Introduction aud
Formerly Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford. \ History.
C. F. A. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. r
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal J. Long Island (Battle).
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour.
C. F.-Br. CHARLES FORTESCUE-BRICKDALE. -r
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Registrar of the Office of the Land Registry, j Land RppUtratinn
Lincoln's Inn Fields. Author of Registration of Title to Land; The Practice of the]
Land Registry; Land Transfer in Various Countries; &c.
C. H.* SIR CHARLES HOLROYD. J" ¥
See the biographical article: HOLROYD, SIR CHARLES. "j Legros.
C. H. Ha. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. r
Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member J Leo I.-X. (Popes)
of the American Historical Association.
C. J. B.* REV. CHARLES JAMES BALL, M.A. f
University Lecturer in Assyriology, Oxford. Author of Light from the East. \ Lamentations.
C. L. K. CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S., F.S.A. r Ta, „, r.
Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor of J ^ ""J J0' * uaunt>
Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London. duke of.
C. M. CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.Tn. r
Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publizistik \ Lateran Councils.
im Zeitalter Gregor VII. ; Quellen zur Geschichte des Papstthums ; &c.
C. Mo.
C R. B.
DeB.
D. F. T.
D. G. H.
D. H.
D. LI. T.
D. Mn.
D. M. W.
E. B.*
E. C. B.
E. Da.
E. D. J. W.
E.G.
E. Ga.
E.He.
E. J. D.
E.G.*
E. Pr.
E. R. L.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
WILLIAM COSMO MONKHOUSE. J Leighton, Lord.
See the biographical article : MONKHOUSE, W. C.
CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Lrrr., F.R.G S., F.R.Hisx.S.
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow I Lei{ Ericsson;
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography.^ L Johannes.
Lothian Prizemln, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer Boston, 1908. Author of
Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c.
HENRI G. S. A. DE BLOWITZ.
See the biographical article: BLOWITZ, H. DE.
vii
-J Lesseps, Ferdinand de.
DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. . _» J Lasso, Orlando.
Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The^
Goldberg Variations, and analysis of many other classical works.
DAVKeeGper°of3 the^Sofean^Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford Latakia;
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis iSggand S Lebanon (in part).
1903- Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907; Director, British School at
Athens, 1897-1900; Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. L ^^ ^^ o{.
DA7orlAeTBVitish Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal j Launa oR°f ' ** .
Navy; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. t Lepanto, Battle Of, Lissa.
Rhondda.
Inn. Stipendiary Magistrate at Pontypridd and Llantwit Major.
Author of Constructive 4 Leighton, Robert (in
REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A.
Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate.
Congregational Ideals; &c.
SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O.
Extra Groom of the Bedchamber to H.M. King George V. Director ot the Foreign
Department of The Times, 1891-1899. Member of the Institut de Droit Inter- J Lobanov-Rostovskl
national and Officier de 1'Instruction Publique (France). Joint-editor of New
Volumes (loth ed.) of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Author of Russia; Egypt
and the Egyptian Question; The Web of Empire; &c.
ERNEST CHARLES FRANCOIS BABELON.
Professor at the College de France. Keeper of the department of Medals and
Antiquities at the Bibliotheque Nationale. Member of the Academic des Inscrip-
tions et de Belles Lettres, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author ot
Descriptions Historiques des Monnaies de la Republique Romaine; Traites des
MonnaiesGrecquesetRomaines; Catalogue des Camees de la Bibliotheque Nationale.
EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.LITT. (Dublin)
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of The Lausiac History ot Falladius,
in Cambridge Texts and Studies, vol. vi.
EDWARD GEORGE DANNREUTHER (1844-1905).
Member of Board of Professors, Royal College of Music, 1895-1905. Conducted I LIszt>
the first Wagner Concerts in London, 1873-1874. Author of The Music of the
Future; &c. Editor of a critical edition of Liszt's Etudes.
EDWARD D. J. WILSON.
Formerly Leader-writer on The Times.
EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article : GOSSE, EDMUND.
part).
Leo, Brother.
-[ Londonderry, 2nd Marquess of.
-' Lampoon; Lie, Jonas L. E.
I
T
Author of A. Scarlatti: his Life\ Leo, Leonardo.
Liver: Surgery of Liver and
Gall Bladder.
EMILE GARCKE, M.lNST.E.E. J Lighting: Electric (Commercial
Managing Director of British Electric Traction Co., Ltd. Author of Manual of 4 Aspects).
Electrical Undertakings ; &c. {_
5WGonvilleAand0Caius College, Cambridge. Librarian of the Royal Geographical -j Livingstone Mountains.
Society, London. •
EDWARD JOSEPH DENT, M.A., Mus.Bac.
Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge.
and Works.
EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D Sc.
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children s Hospital,
Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late Examiner -<
in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, London and Durham. Author ot
A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students.
EDGAR PRESTAGE. ..
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester.
Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Com- <
mendador, Portuguese. Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon
Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. Author of Letters
of a Portuguese Nun ; Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea ;&c.
SIR EDWIN RAY LANKESTER, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.Sc.
Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. Director of the Natural History Depart-
ments of the British Museum, 1898-1907. President of the British Association,
1006. Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in University College,
London, 1874-1890. Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford,
1891-1898. Vice-President of the Royal Society, 1896. Romanes Lecturer at
Oxford, 1905. Author of Degeneration; The Advancement of Science; The King-
dom of Man ; &c.
Lobo, F. R.;
Lopes, Fernao.
Lamellibranchia (in part).
viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
E. V. L. EDWARD VERRALL LUCAS. f
Editor of Works of Charles Lamb. Author of Life of Charles Lamb. \ Lamb, Charles.
F. E. B. FRANK EVERS BEDDARD, M.A., F.R.S. f
Prosector of Zoological Society, London. Formerly Lecturer in Biology at Guy's w
Hospital, London. Naturalist to " Challenger " Expedition Commission, 1882-
1884. Author of Monograph of the Oligochaeta; Animal Colouration; &c. I
F. E. W. REV. FREDERICK EDWARD WARREN, M.A., B.D., F.S.A. f Lection, Lectionary;
Rector of Bardwell, Bury St Edmunds. Fellow of St John's College, Oxford, Lector*
1865-1882. Author of The Old Catholic Ritual done into English and compared with 1 i •*.„ '.
the Corresponding Offices in the Roman and Old German Manuals; The Liturgy and *"'any>
Ritual of the Celtic Church; &c. [ Liturgy.
F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. f. . , ,. •,
Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. \ LomDarOS (in part).
F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. I"
Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on I Liver: Anatomy
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. |
Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. I
F. J. H. FRANCIS JOHN HA VERFIELD, M.A. , LL.D., F.S.A. f . .. ,
Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of J Legion (in part) ;
Brasenose College. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Fellow of the British Academy. | Limes Germanicus.
Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain ; &c.
F. L.* SIR FRANKLIN LUSHINGTON, M.A. f t^
Formerly Chief Police Magistrate for London. Author of Wagers of Battle. \ '
F. V. B. F. VINCENT BROOKS. j Lithography.
F. v. H. BARON FRIEDRICH VON HUGEL.
Member of Cambridge Philological Society ; Member of Hellenic Society. Author -\ Loisy .
of The Mystical Element of Religion.
F. Wa. FRANCIS WATT, M.A. f
Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Author of Law's Lumber Room; Scotland o/-j Law, John.
to-day; &c.
F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f Labradorite*
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. ~\ , , ,'.
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. ( **P1S ^»zuu-
F. W. Ra. FRANCIS WILLIAM RAIKES, K.C., LL.D. (1842-1906). f
Judge of County Courts, Hull, 1898-1906. Joint-author of The New Practice; &c. \ tllen>
G. A. Gr. GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.LITT. (Dubl.).
Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey of
India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Royal Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President of -i Lahnda.
the Royal Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of
The Languages of India ; &c.
G. E. REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON. M.A., F.R.HiST.S. r .
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909- J i jmhunr
1910. Employed by British Government in preparation of the British Case in the ]
British Guiana- Venezuelan and British Guiana-Brazilian boundary arbitrations. [
G. F. B. GEORGE FREDERICK BARWICK. (
Assistant- Keeper of Printed Books and Superintendent of Reading-room, British \ Lavigerie.
Museum.
G. F. K. GEORGE FREDERICK KUNZ, A.M., PH.D., D.Sc.
Gem Expert to Messrs Tiffany & Co., New York. Hon. Curator of Precious Stones,
American Museum of Natural History, New York. Fellow of Geological Society of ^ Lapidary and Gem-cutting.
America. Author of Precious Stones of North America; &c. Senior Editor of Book
of the Pearl. \_
G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.Sc. f
Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: < Lepidoptera.
Their Structure and Life. [_
G. Sa. GEORGE SAINTSBURV, D.C.L., LL.D. J JUS? L* T0^nB'
See the biographical article: SAINTSBURV, GEORGE E. B. [ HZchefoucauld; Le Sage.
G. S. L. GEORGE SOMES LA YARD. f
Trinity College, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Author of Charles J Linton, William James.
Keene ; Shirley Brooks ; &c.
G. W. T.« REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. r
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old •} Labid.
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.
H. A. L. HENDRIK ANTOON LORENTZ. r
Professor of Physics in the University of Leiden. Author of La theorie electro- < Light: Nature of.
magnetique de Maxwell et son application aux corps mouvanls.
H. B. W.* HENRY BENJAMIN WHEATLEY, F.S.A. f
Assistant Secretary, Royal Society of Arts, 1879-1909. President of the Samuel J London: History.
Pepys Club, 1903-1910. Vice-President of the Bibliographical Society, 1908-1910. |
Author of The Story of London ; London Past and Present ; &c. L
H. B. Wo. HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S. , F.G.S. [Logan, Sir William E.;
Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England and Wales. •! Lonsdale William
President Geologists' Association, 1893-1894. Wollaston Medallist, 1908. I
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A.
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition of i Lloyd George, D.
the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the loth edition. L
H. De. REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J. S Lawrence, St;
Bollandist. Joint-author of the Acta Sanctorum. I Linus.
H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, M.A., F.R.S., PH.D. [
Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge, "j Lizard.
Author of Amphibia and Reptiles (Cambridge Natural History). L
H. F. P. HENRY FRANCIS PELHAM, LL.D. /Livy (in part}.
See the biographical article: PELHAM, H. F. L
H. H. J. SIR HENRY HAMILTON JOHNSTON, K.C.B., G.C.M.G. /Liberia
See the biographical article : JOHNSTON, SIR HENRY HAMILTON. L
H. M. S. HENRY MORSE STEPHENS, M.A., LITT.D. f¥-« •
Professor of History and Director of University Extension, University of California. •( Llttre.
Author of History of the French Revolution ; Revolutionary Europe ; &c. L
H. R. T. HENRY RICHARD TEDDER, F.S.A. (Libraries (in part).
Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London. L
H. St. HENRY STURT, M.A. J Lange Friedrich Albert.
Author of Idola Theatri; The Idea of a Free Church; and Personal Idealism. I
H. T. A. REV. HERBERT THOMAS ANDREWS. [
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, New College, London. Author of the J Loeia
"Commentary on Acts," in the Westminster New Testament; Handbook on the]
Apocryphal Books in the " Century Bible."
H. W. B.* HERBERT WILLIAM BLUNT, M.A. f _
Student, Tutor, and Librarian, Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of All 1 Logic. History.
Souls' College.
H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. f T ._.„..„,.
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, J pn nc'
1895-1902. Author of Charlemagne; England under the Normans and Angevins; I Langton, Stephen.
&c.
H. Y. SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I. /Lhasa (in
See the biographical article : YULE, SIR HENRY. \
I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS. [ Lazarus, Emma;
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. J ¥_-_ Moses-
Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short | J*011' ~°*
History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. L Leon Of Modena.
J. An. JOSEPH ANDERSON, LL.D.
Keeper of the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh. Assistant Secretary to J Lake Dwellings.
the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, and Rhind Lecturer, 1879-1882 and 1892. 1
Editor of Drummond's Ancient Scottish Weapons; &c.
J. A. P. JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow of J Leyden Jar;
University College, London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. 1 Lighting: Electric.
Vice-President of the Institution of Electrical Engineers. Author of The Principles
of Electric Wave Telegraphy ; Magnets and Electric Currents ; &c.
J. A. F. M. JOHN ALEXANDER FULLER MAITLAND, M.A., F.S.A.
Musical critic of The Times. Author of Life of Schumann ; The Musician's Pil- j
grimage ; Masters of German Music ; English Music in the Nineteenth Century ; "j Lind, Jenny.
The Age of Bach and Handel. Editor of Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians ;
&c. I
J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. [ Lias;
Curator and Librarian of the Musi ~' D — '•'•"' ^ — ' * — ' — A"i!
The Geology of Building Stones ; &c.
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of S Llandoverv Group
J. Dr. SIR JAMES DEWAR, F.R.S. , LL.D. -f Liquid Gases.
See the biographical article: DEWAR, SIR J. \
J. D. B. JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. f
King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe, j Torjssa
Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of 1
Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. L
J. D. Br. JAMES DUFF BROWN. f ,
Borough Librarian, Islington Public Libraries. Vice-President of the Library^ Libraries (in part).
Association. Author of Guide to Librarianship; &c.
J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HiST.S. f
Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. La Cueva;
Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. < Larra;
Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of Literature.
Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c.
J. F. St. JOHN FREDERICK STENNING, M.A. f
Dean and Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Aramaic, •{ Leviticus.
Lecturer in Divinity and Hebrew at Wadham College.
f Lancaster, House of;
J. Ga. JAMES GAIRDNER C.B., LL.D. J Leicester, Robert Dudley, earl
See the biographical article: GAIRDNER, JAMES. j
J. G. F. SIR JOSHUA GIRLING FITCH, LL.D. /Lancaster, Joseph.
See the biographical article: FITCH, SIR J. G. L
X
J. 6. N.
J. G. P.*
3. G. R.
J. Hn.
J. H. F.
J. HI. R.
J. J. L.*
J. K. I.
J. Le.
J. L.M.
J. L. W.
J. Mu.
J. M. C.
J. M. G.
J. P. E.
J. P. P.
J. P. Pe.
J.S.
J. Si.
J. S. P.
J. S. K.
J. S. W.
J. T. Be.
J. T. Br.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
JOHN GEORGE NICOLAY (1832-1901).
Marshal of the U.S. Supreme Court, 1872-1887.
&c.
Joint-author of A braham Lincoln: 4 Lincoln, Abraham (in part).
JAMES GORDON PARKER, D.Sc., F.C.S. f
Principal of Leathersellers Technical College, London. Gold Medallist, Society i Leather.
of Arts. Author of Leather for Libraries ; Principles of Tanning ; &c.
JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D. I"
Professor of German Language and Literature, University of London. Editor of the J Lessine (in ttarft
Modern Language Journal. Author of History of German Literature ; Schiller after \
a Century; &c. L
JUSTUS HASHAGEN, PH.D. C Lang, Karl Heinrieh;
Privat-dozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. Author of -I Ledochowski;
Das Rheinland unter der franzosische Herrschaft. [ Leo, Heinrich.
JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A. f •,.. v, , E- ..-_ /• ,».
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. \ Le° VL (EmPeror °1 the
JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., Lirr.D.
Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local Lectures Syndicate. J Las Casas.
Author of Life of Napoleon I. ; Napoleonic Studies ; The Development of the European \
Nations; The Life of Pitt; &c. [_
REV. JOHN JAMES LIAS, M.A.
Chancellor of Llandaff Cathedral. Formerly Hulsean Lecturer in Divinity and
Lady Margaret Preacher, University of Cambridge.
JOHN KELLS INGRAM, LL.D.
See the biographical article: INGRAM, J. K.
*.
{
Langen.
- Leslie, Thomas E. C.
REV. JAMES LEGGE, M.A.
See the biographical article: LEGGE, JAMES.
Lao-Tsze.
JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. [
Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Formerly J Leleges;
Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient Geography, University of j Logrj (Greece)
Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical Archaeology in University of Oxford.
•1
Lancelot.
JESSIE LAIDLAY WESTON.
Author of Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory.
SIR JOHN MURRAY, K.C.B., F.R.S.
See the biographical article: MURRAY, SIR JOHN.
REV. JAMES M. CROMBIE.
Author of Braemar: its Topography and Natural History; Lichenes Britannici.
JOHN MILLER GRAY (18505-1894).
Art Critic and Curator of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, 1884-1894. Author.
of David Scott, R.S.A.; James and William Tassie.
JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN.
Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour.
Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cours elementaire d'histoire du droit '
franc/iis; &c. [
JOHN PERCIVAL POSTGATE, M.A., LITT.D. {
Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of Trinity College, J Latin Literature (in part).
Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor of the Classical Quarterly. J
Editor-in-chief of the Corpus Poetarum Latinorum ; &c. L
REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D.. D.D. f
Canon Residentiary, P. E. Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professorof Hebrew in Lagash;
* I , . . TT« . ~f T> __ ___ i ____ • i~\* ___ _ _ f il __ T T • _____ ;*.__ T"> _____ t* . • . _ . T»_V
/Lake.
-I Lichens (in part).
\ Leech, John.
Lettres de Cachet.
the University of Pennsylvania. Director of the University Expedition to Baby- •
Ionia, 1888-1895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the
Euphrates ; Scriptures, Hebrew and Christian.
JAMES SULLY, LL.D.
See the biographical article: SULLY, JAMES.
JAMES SIME, M.A. (1843-1895).
Author of A History of Germany ; &c.
Larsa.
•I Lewes, George Henry (in part).
j Lessing (in part).
JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. f Laccolite; Lamprophyres;
Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in J Laterite;
Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby | Leucite: Leucile Rocks;
Medallist of the Geological Society of London.
JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., F.S.S., F.S.A. (Scot.).
Secretary, Royal Geographical Society. Hon.
i Limestone.
Member, Geographical Societies I T ii/in<r«fnnA
of Paris, Berlin, Rome, &c. Editor of the Statesman's Year Book. Editor of the 1 LlvmSslone-
Geographical Journal.
JOHN STEPHEN WILLISON, LL.D., F.R.S. (Canada).
Editor of The News (Toronto). Canadian Correspondent of The Times.
Sir Wilfrid Laurier and the Liberal Party ; &c.
I
Author of | Laurier.
JOHN THOMAS BEALBY. I" Ladoga (in part);
Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical •< Livonia (in part);
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. I Lop-nor.
J. TAYLOR BROWN.
Leighton, Robert (in part).
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi
J. T. C. JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. [
Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow J T .—..ii-i.™- i.- /• A
of University Cdlege, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in the 1 Lanieuibrancnia (in part).
University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. L
J. T. S.* JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D. f_
Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. \ LanguedOC.
J. V.* JULES VIARD. j~
Archivist at the National Archives, Paris. Officer of Public Instruction. Author ~\ Le MaQOn.
of La France sous Philippe VI. de Valois ; &c.
J. W. D.
CAPTAIN J. WHITLY DIXON, R.N. f T
Nautical Assessor to the Court of Appeal. I °'
J. W. He. JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A. ("
Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient History at •< Lasker.
Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the German
Empire; &c.
J. W. L. G. JAMES WHITBREAD LEE GLAISHER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. f
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Formerly President of the Cambridge J Legendre, A. M.J
Philosophical Society, and the Royal Astronomical Society. Editor of Messenger 1 Logarithm.
of Mathematics and the Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics. (.
K. H. KlLLINGWORTH HEDGES, M.lNST.C.E., M.lNST.ELECT.E. f
Hon. Secretary of the Lightning Research Committee. Author of Modern Lightning -I Lightning Conductor.
Conductors; &c.
K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. f
Editor of The Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the -j LHUUS.
Orchestra.
L. A. W. LAURENCE AUSTINE WADDELL, C.B., C.I.E., LL.D., M.B. f
Lieut.-Colonel I.M.S. (retired). Author of Lhasa and its Mysteries; &c. j Lhasa (in part).
L. B. LAURENCE BINYON. f
See the biographical article: BINYON, L. \ Lawson, Cecil Gordon.
L. D.* Louis MARIE OLIVIER DUCHESNE. f T ..
See the biographical article : DUCHESNE, L. M. O. \ L|1D<
L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A.
Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of J Lepioollte;
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Minera- I Leucite (in part);
logical Magazine. [ LiTOCOnite.
L. T. D. SIR LEWIS TONNA DIBDIN, M.A., D.C.L., F.S.A. f
Dean of the Arches; Master of the Faculties; and First Church Estates Com- J Lincoln Judgment, The.
missioner. Belcher of Lincoln's Inn. Author of Monasticism in England; &c.
L. V.* LUIGI VlLLARI. r
Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper Correspondent in J Leopold II. (Grand Duke of
east of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906, Philadelphia, 1907, and | Tuscany).
Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town and Country; &c.
M. Br. MARGARET BRYANT. ( Landor: Bibliography;
\ La Sale.
M. Ca. MORITZ CANTOR, PH.D. c
Honorary Professor of Mathematics in the University of Heidelberg. Author of J Leonardo of Pisa.
Vorlesungen liber die Ceschichte der Mathematik ; &c.
M. H. S. MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A. ["
Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of Fine Art Committee of Inter-
national Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome, and the Franco- I T,_ r- „ „„•„„ /• >. A
British Exhibition, London. Author of History of "Punch"; British Portrait] Lme Engraving (in part).
Painting to the Opening of the Nineteenth Century; Works of G. F. Watts, R.A.;
British Sculpture and Sculptors of To-day; Henriette Ronner; &c.
M. N. T. MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. f i~conia.
Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. \ .
Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. \_ Leomdas; Leotycnides.
M. 0. B. C. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. f Leo I.-V, (Emperors of the
Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham -< East) ;
University, 1905-1908. [ Lesbos; Leuctra.
M. P.* LEON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET. r
Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Auxiliary of the Institute of J L'AubeSpine.
France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences).
N. G. G. NICHOLAS G. GEDYE. f¥. ,.,. , „ /• .\
Chief Engineer to the Tyne Improvement Commission. \ Llght
0. Hr. OTTO HENKER, Pn.D. f
On the Staff of the Carl Zeiss Factory, Jena, Germany. \ Lens.
[Ladoga (in part);
P. A. K. PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. Lithuanians and Letts:
See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A. -j Historv
[Livonia (in part).
Xll
P. C. M.
P. C. Y.
P.O.
P. Gi.
P. G. H.
R. A. S. M.
R. G.
R. I. P.
R. J. M.
R. K. D.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
R. L.*
R. M'L.
R. M. B.
R. N. B.
R. S. C.
R.We.
R. W. C.
S. A. C.
S. C.
StC.
S. D. F. S.
S. N.
PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., D.Sc., LL.D.
Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in
Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891.
Lecturer on Biology at Charing Cross Hospital, 1892-1894; at London Hospital,
1894. Examiner in Biology to the Royal College of Physicians, 1892-1896, 1901-
1903. Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903.
PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A.
Magdalen College, Oxford.
PERCY GARDNER, Lrrr.D., LL.D., F.S.A.
See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY.
Life; Longevity.
f Laud, Archbishop;
-i. Lauderdale, Duke of;
[Leeds, 1st Duke of.
Leochares.
PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LiTT.D. r
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University I »
Reader in Comparative Philology. Late Secretary of the Cambridge Philological |
Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology ; &c. I
PHILIP GILBERT HAMERTON.
See the biographical article: HAMERTON, PHILIP GILBERT.
ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A.
St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explora-
tion Fund.
RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D.
See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD.
REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S.
Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London.
RONALD JOHN McNEiLL, M.A.
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the S/ James's
Gazette, London.
Line Engraving (in part).
Lachish.
-| Leopard!.
f Leaf-insect;
\ Locust (in part).
f Lawn Tennis;
Leicester, R. Sidney, earl of;
Lockhart, George.
SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS.
Formerly Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Keeper of Oriental Printed
Books and MSS. at British Museum, 1892-1907. Member of the Chinese Consular -
Service, 1858-1865. Author of The Language and Literature of China: Europe
and the Far East; &c.
RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of
Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The Deer
of all Lands; The Came Animals of Africa; &c.
Li Hung Chang.
Langur;
Lemming (in part) ;
Lemur;
Leopard (in part);
Lion (in part);
Litopterna.
ROBERT M'LACHLAN.
Editor of the Entomologists' Monthly Magazine.
ROBERT MICHAEL BALLANTYNE.
See the biographical article: BALLANTYNE, R. M.
I Locust
part).
Life-boat: British (in part).
ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs,
1613-1725 ; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469
to 1796; &c.
ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.Lirr. (Cantab.).
Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester.
Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville
and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects.
RICHARD WEBSTER, A.M. J
Formerly Fellow in Classics, Princeton University. Editor of The Elegies of] Long Island
Maximianus; &c. I
Ladislaus I. and IV. ot
Hungary;
Laski.
Latin Language (in part);
Liguria: Archaeology and
Philology.
THE VERY REV. R. W. CHURCH, D.D.
See the biographical article: CHURCH, R. W.
STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A.
Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew and J Levites.
Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic In-
scriptions; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old
Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c.
SIDNEY COLVIN, LL.D.
See the biographical article: COLVIN, SIDNEY.
VISCOUNT ST CYRES.
See the biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, IST EARL OF.
REV. STEWART DINGWALL FORDYCE SALMON, M.A., D.D. (i
Professor of Systematic Theology and Exegesis of the Epistles, Lf.F.C. College .
Aberdeen, 1876-1905. Author of The Parables of our Lord; &c. Editor of The
International Library of Theology; &c.
f Lombards:
\ The Kingdom in Italy.
-{ Leonardo da Vinci.
, Liguori.
r
Logos (in part).
SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D., D.Sc.
See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON.
[ Latitude;
\Light: Velocity.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Xlll
T. As.
THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LiTT., F.S.A.
Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Corresponding Member
of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1897. Author of The Classical Topo-
graphy of the Roman Campagna ; &c.
T. A. I.
T. Ca.
T. C. A.
T. Da.
T. F. C.
T. F. H.
T. H. H.*
T. K.
T. Mo.
, T. M. L.
T. Se.
T. W. R. D.
T. Wo.
V. B. L.
V. H. B.
W. A. B. C.
W. A. P.
W. E. Co.
W. F. I.
THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M. A., LL.D.
Trinity College, Dublin.
THOMAS CASE, M.A.
President of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Formerly Waynflete Professor of
Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy at Oxford and Fellow of Magdalen College.
Author of Physical Realism ; &c.
SIR THOMAS CLIFFORD ALLBUTT, K.C.B., M.A., M.D., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. f
Regius Professor of Physic in the University of Cambridge. Physician to Adden- J i ,•,*--
brooke's Hospital, Cambridge. Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. 1
Editor of Systems of Medicine. \
THOMAS DAVIDSON, LL.D.
Labicana, Via; Labici;
Lampedusa; Lanciano;
Lanuvium; Larino;
Latina, Via; Latiurn;
Laurentina, Via; Lavinium;
Lecce; Leghorn; Leontini;
Licodia Eubea;
Ligures Baebiani;
LLiguria: History; Locri: Italy.
/Livery Companies;
I London: Finance,
Logic.
THEODORE FREYLIN' IHUYSEN COLLIER, Pn.D.
Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass., U.S.A.
THOMAS F. HENDERSON.
Author of Mary Queen of Scots and the Casket Letters; &c.
Longfellow.
Laodieea, Synod of.
Latimer.
SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc., F.R.G.S.
Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-
1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H.M. Commissioner for the Perso- -\ Ladakh and Baltistan.
Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Gates of India;
&c.
THOMAS KIRKUP, M.A., LL.D.
Author of An Inquiry into Socialism; Primer of Socialism; &c.
Lassalle.
THOMAS MOORE, F.L.S. (1821-1887). f
Curator of the Garden of the Apothecaries Company at Chelsea, 1848-1087. Editor J '¥
of the Gardeners' Magazine of Botany; Author of Handbook of British Ferns; 1 Labyrinth.
Index Filicum ; Illustrations of Orchidaceous Plants.
REV. THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, LL.D., D.D. (
Principal of the United Free Church College, Glasgow. Formerly Assistant to the
Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Author of "
History of the Reformation ; Life of Luther ; &c.
THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A.
Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, University of London.
Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of Dictionary of National'
Biography, 1891-1900. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c.
THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D.
Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. Professor of Pali and
Buddhist Literature, University College, London, 1882-1904. President of the
Pali Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of '
Royal Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the
Buddhists; Early Buddhism; Buddhist India; Dialogues of the Buddha; &c.
THOMAS WOODHOUSE.
Head of the Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical College,
Dundee.
VIVIAN BYAM LEWES, F.I.C., F.C.S.
Professor of Chemistry, Royal Naval College. Chief Superintendent Gas Examiner .
to the Corporation of the City of London.
VERNON HERBERT BLACKMAN, M.A., D.Sc.
Professor of Botany in the University of Leeds. Formerly Fellow of St John's .
College, Cambridge.
REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S.
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature '
and in History; &c. Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-1889.
WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, -
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c.
THE RT. REV. WILLIAM EDWARD COLLINS, M.A., D.D.
Bishop of Gibraltar. Formerly Professor of Ecclesiastical History, King's College,
London. Lecturer of Selwyn and St John's Colleges, Cambridge. Author of The '
Study of Ecclesiastical History; Beginnings of English Christianity; &c.
WILLIAM FERGUSSON IRVINE, HON. M.A. (Liverpool).
Hon. Secretary and General Editor of Historical Society of Lancashire and Cheshire.
Hon. Local Secretary for Cheshire of the Society of Antiquaries. Author of Liver- '
pool in the reign of Charles II.; Old Halls of Wirral; &c.
Lollards.
Lever, Charles.
Lamaism.
Linen and Linen Manu-
factures.
Lighting: Oil and Gas.
Lichens (in part).
Lausanne; Leuk;
Liechtenstein; Linth;
Locarno; Lode, Le.
Laibach, Congress of;
Lights, Ceremonial use of.
Libellatici.
Liverpool.
XIV
W. H. Be.
W. H. F.
W. M. R.
W. P. T.
W. R. So.
W. R. S.-R.
W. T. Ca.
W. T. D.
W. W. R.*
W. W. S.
W. Y. S.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. (Cantab.)-
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, London.
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth
College, Sheffield. Author of Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets ; &c.
SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S.
See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H.
- Lamech.
r Lemming (in part);
•I Leopard (in part);
I- Lion (in part),
f Lely, Sir Peter;
I Lippi.
WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.
See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL.
WILLIAM PETERJ^IELD TRENT, LL.D., D.C.L.
Professor of English Literature. Columbia University. Author of English < Lanier.
Culture in Virginia; A Brief History of American Literature; &c.
WILLIAM RITCHIE SORLEY, M.A., Lrrr.D., LL.D. . r
Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of King's 1
College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of Trinity 1
College. Author of The Ethics of Naturalism ; The Interpretation of Evolution ; &c. I
WILLIAM RALSTON SHEDDEN-RALSTON, M.A. ("
Formerly Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British Museum. Author -j LermontOV.
of Russian Folk Tales; &c. [_
WILLIAM THOMAS CALMAN, D.Sc., F.Z.S.
Assistant in charge of Crustacea, Natural History Museum, South Kensington.
Author of " Crustacea" in A Treatise on Zoology, edited by Sir E. Ray Lankester.
WILLIAM TREGARTHEN DOUGLASS, M.lNST.C.E., M.I.M.E.
Consulting Engineer to Governments of Western Australia, New South Wales,
Victoria, Cape of Good Hope, &c. Erected the Eddystone and Bishop Rock Light-
houses. Author of The New Eddystone Lighthouse; &c.
WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC.THEOL.
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York.
WALTER WILLIAM SKEAT, LiTT.D., LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article : SKEAT, W. W.
WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D.
See the biographical article: SELLAR, WILLIAM YOUNG.
Lobster.
Lighthouse (in part).
j Leo XI. and XII. (popes).
j Layamon.
j Latin Literature (in part).
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Labiatae.
Lancashire.
Legitimacy.
Lent.
Lacrosse.
Lantern.
Leguminosae.
Leprosy.
Lagos.
Lapland.
Leicestershire.
Libel.
Lahore.
Larceny.
Leipzig.
Liberal Party.
Lake District.
Larch.
Leith.
Liliaceae.
Lambeth Conferences.
Lead Poisoning.
Lemnos.
Lille.
Lanarkshire.
Leeds.
Lemon.
Lily.
Limitation, Statutes of.
Lincoln.
Lincolnshire.
Lippe.
Lisbon.
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XVI
La letter which was the twelfth letter of the Phoenician
alphabet. It has in its history passed through many
changes of form, ending curiously enough in its usual
manuscript form with a shape almost identical with that
which it had about 900 B.C. ( ^ L ). As was the case with B
and some other letters the Greeks did not everywhere keep the
symbol in the position in which they had borrowed it \, . This,
which was its oldest form in Attica and in the Chalcidian colonies
of Italy, was the form adopted by the Romans, who in time
converted it into the rectangle L, which passed from them to the
nations of western Europe. In the Ionic alphabet, however,
from which the ordinary Greek alphabet is derived it appeared
as A. A still more common form in other parts of Greece was f> ,
with the legs of unequal length. The editors of Herodotus have
not always recognized that the name of Labda, the mother of
Cypselus, in the story (v. 92) of the founding of the great family
of Corinthian despots, was derived from the fact that she was
lame and so suggested the form of the Corinthian /* . Another
form f* or h was practically confined to the west of Argolis.
The name of the Greek letter is ordinarily given as Lambda, but
in Herodotus (above) and in Athenaeus x. p. 453 e, where the
names of the letters are given, the best authenticated form is
Labda. The Hebrew name, which was probably identical with
the Phoenician, is Lamed, which, with a final vowel added as
usual, would easily become Lambda, b being inserted between
m and another consonant. The pronunciation of / varies a
great deal according to the point at which the tongue makes
contact with the roof of the mouth. The contact, generally
speaking, is at the same point as for d, and this accounts for an
interchange between these sounds which occurs in various
languages, e.g. in Latin lacrima from the same root as the Greek
SaKpv and the English tear. The change in Latin occurs in a
very limited number of cases and one ' explanation of their
occurrence is that they are borrowed (Sabine) words. In pro-
nunciation the breath may be allowed to escape at one or both
sides of the tongue. In most languages / is a fairly stable sound.
Orientals, however, have much difficulty in distinguishing
between I and r. In Old Persian / is found in only two foreign
words, and in Sanskrit different dialects employ r and / differently
in the same words. Otherwise, however, the interchanges
between r and / were somewhat exaggerated by the older philo-
logists. Before other consonants / becomes silent in not a few
languages, notably in French, where if is replaced by u, and in
English where it has occasionally been restored in recent times,
XVI. I
e.g. in fault which earlier was spelt without / (as in French whence
it was borrowed), and which Goldsmith could still rhyme with
aught. In the isth century the Scottish dialect of English
dropped / largely both before consonants and finally after a and
u, a' =all, /a' = fall, />M' = pull, W = wool, bulk pronounced like
book, &c., while after o it appears as w, row (pronounced ran) =
roll, know— knoll, &c. It is to be observed that L = SO does not
come from this symbol, but was an adaptation of ^, the western
Greek form of x, which had no corresponding sound in Latin
and was therefore not included in the ordinary alphabet. This
symbol was first rounded into J, and then changed first to J.
and ultimately to L. (P. Gi.)
LAACHER SEE, a lake of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
Province, 5 m. W. of Brohl on the Rhine, and N. of the village
of Niedermendig. It occupies what is supposed to be a crater
of the Eifel volcanic formation, and the pumice stone and basalt
found in great quantities around it lend credence to this theory.
It lies 850 ft. above the sea, is 5 m. in circumference and 160 ft.
deep, and is surrounded by an amphitheatre of high hills. The
water is sky blue in colour, very cold and bitter to the taste.
The lake has no natural outlet and consequently is subjected
to a considerable rise and fall. On the western side lies the
Benedictine abbey of St Maria Laach (Abbatia Lacensis) founded
in 1093 by Henry II., count palatine of the Rhine. The abbey
church, dating from the I2th century, was restored in 1838.
The history of the monastery down to modern times appears to
have been uneventful. In 1802 it was abolished and at the close
of the Napoleonic wars it became a Prussian state demesne.
In 1863 it passed into the hands of the Jesuits, who, down to
their expulsion in 1873, published here a periodical, which still
appears, entitled Stimmen aus Maria Laach. In 1892 the
monastery was again occupied by the Benedictines.
LAAGER, a South African Dutch word (Dutch leger, Ger.
lager, connected with Eng. " lair ") for a temporary defensive
encampment, formed by a circle of wagons. The English word
is " leaguer," an armed camp, especially that of a besieging or
"beleaguering" army. The Ger. lager, in the sense of "store,"
is familiar as the name of a light beer (see BREWING).
LAAS, ERNST (1837-1885), German philosopher, was born
on the i6th of June 1837 at Furstenwalde. He studied theology
and philosophy under Trendelenburg at Berlin, and eventually
became professor of philosophy in the new university of Strass-
burg. In Kant's Analogien der Erfahrung (1876) he keenly
criticized Kant's transcendentalism, and in his chief work
Idealismus und Positivismus (3 vols., 1879-1884), he drew a
5
LA BADIE— LABE
clear contrast between Platonism, from which he derived trans
cendentalism, and positivism, of which he considered Protagora
the founder. Laas in reality was a disciple of Hume
Throughout his philosophy he endeavours to connect meta
physics with ethics and the theory of education.
His chief educational works were Der deutsche Aufsatz in den
obern Gymnasialklassen (1868; 3rd ed., part i., 1898, part ii., 1894)
and Der deutsche Unterricht auf hohern Lehrans fallen (1872; 2nd ed
1886). He contributed largely to the Vierteljahrsschr. f. wiss. Philos
(1880-1882); the Litterarischer NacMass, a posthumous collection
was published at Vienna (1887). See Hanisch, Der Positivismus von
Ernst Laas (1902); Gjurits, Die Erkennlnistheorie des Ernst Laas
(1903); Falckenberg, Hist, of Mod. Philos. (Eng. trans., 1895).
LA BADIE, JEAN DE (1610-1674), French divine, founder of
the school known as the Labadists, was born at Bourg, not far
from Bordeaux, on the i3th of February 1610, being the son ol
Jean Charles de la Badie, governor of Guienne. He was sent
to the Jesuit school at Bordeaux, and when fifteen entered the
Jesuit college there. Jn 1626 he began to study philosophy
and theology. He was led to hold somewhat extreme views
about the efficacy of prayer and the direct influence of the Holy
Spirit upon believers, and adopted Augustinian views about
grace, free will and predestination, which brought him into
collision with his order. He therefore separated from the
Jesuits, and then became a preacher to the people, carrying on
this work in Bordeaux, Paris and Amiens. At Amiens in 1640
he was appointed a canon and teacher of theology. The hostility
of Cardinal Mazarin, however, forced him to retire to the Car-
melite hermitage at Graville. A study of Calvin's Institutes
showed him that he had more in common with the Reformed
than with the Roman Catholic Church, and after various
adventures he joined the Reformed Church of France and
became professor ot theology at Montauban in 1650. His reasons
for doing so he published in the same year in his Declaration
de Jean de la Badit. His accession to the ranks of the Pro-
testants was deemed a great triumph; no such man since Calvin
himself, it was said, had left the Roman Catholic Church.
He was called to the pastorate of the church at Orange on the
Rhone in 1657, and at once became noted for his severity of
discipline. He set his face zealously against dancing, card-
playing and worldly entertainments. The unsettled state of
the country, recently annexed to France, compelled him to leave
Orange, and in 1659 he became a pastor in Geneva. He then
accepted a call to the French church in London, but after
various wanderings settled at Middelburg, where he was pastor
to the French-speaking congregation at a Walloon church.
His peculiar opinions were by this time (1666) well known, and
he and his congregation found themselves in conflict with the
ecclesiastical authorities. The result was that la Badie and his
followers established a separate church in a neighbouring town.
In 1669 he moved to Amsterdam. He had enthusiastic disciples,
Pierre Yvon (1646-1707) at Montauban, Pierre Dulignon
(d. 1679), Francois Menuret (d. 1670), Theodor Untereyk (d.
1603), F. Spanheim (1632-1701), and, more important than
any, Anna Maria v. Schurman (1607-1678), whose book Eucleria
is perhaps the best exposition of the tenets of her master. At
the head of his separatist congregation, la Badie developed his
views for a reformation of the Reformed Churches: the church
is a communion of holy people who have been born again from
sin; baptism is the sign and seal of this regeneration, and is
to be administered only to believers; the Holy Spirit guides
the regenerate into all truth, and the church possesses throughout
all time those gifts of prophecy which it had in the ancient days;
the community at Jerusalem is the continual type of every
Christian congregation, therefore there should be a community
of goods, the disciples should live together, eat together, dance
together; marriage is a holy ordinance between two believers,
and the children of the regenerate are born without original
sin, marriage with an unregenerate person is not binding.
They did not observe the Sabbath, because — so they said — their
life was a continual Sabbath. The life and separatism of the
community brought them into frequent collision with their
neighbours and with the magistrates, and in 1670 they accepted
the invitation of the princess Elizabeth, abbess of Herford in
Westphalia, to take up their abode within her territories, and
settled in Herford to the number of about fifty. Not finding the
rest they expected they migrated to Bremen in 1672, and
afterwards to Altona, where they were dispersed on the death
of the leaders. Small communities also existed in the Rhineland,
and a missionary settlement was established in New York.
Jean de la Badie died in February 1674.
La Badie's works include La Propheiie (1668), Manuel de piete
(1669), Protestation de bonne foi et saine doctrine (1670), Brieve
declaration de nos sentiments touchant I'Eglise (1670). See H. van
Berkum, De Labadie en de Labadisten (Sneek, 1851); Max Gobel
(1811-1857), Gesch. d. christl. Lebens in der rheinisch-westphalischen
Kirche (Coblenz, 3 vols., 1849-1860) ; Heinrich Heppe (1820-1879),
Geschichte des Pietismus (Leiden, 1879); Albrecht Ritschl, Geschichle
des Pietismus, vol. i. (Bonn, 1880); and especially Peter Yvon,
A brege precis de la vie et de la conduite et des vrais sentiments de feu
Mr de Labadie, and Anna Maria v. Schurman, Eucleria (Altona,
1673, 1678). Cf. the article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie.
LABARUM, the sacred military standard of the early Christian
Roman emperors, first adopted by Constantine the Great after
his miraculous vision in 312, although, according to Gibbon,
he did not exhibit it to the army till 323. The name seems to
have been known before, and the banner was simply a Christian-
ized form of the Roman cavalry standard. Eusebius (Life
of Const, i. 31) describes the first labarum as consisting of a
long gilded spear, crossed at the top by a bar from which hung
a square purple cloth, richly jewelled. At the upper extremity
of the spear was a golden wreath encircling the sacred monogram,
formed of the first two letters of the name of Christ. In later
banners the monogram was sometimes embroidered on the cloth.
A special guard of fifty soldiers was appointed to protect the
sacred standard. The derivation of the word labarum is
disputed; it appears to be connected with the Basque labarna,
signifying standard. See FLAG.
LAB6, LOUISE CHARLIN PERRIN (c. 1525-1366), French
poet, called La Belle Cordiere, was born at Lyons about 1525,
the daughter of a rich ropemaker, named Charley or Charlin.
At the siege of Perpignan she is said to have fought on horse-
back in the ranks of the Dauphin, afterwards Henry II. Some
time before 1551 she married Ennemond Perrin, a ropemaker.
She formed a library and gathered round her a society which
included many of the learned ladies of Lyons, — Pernette du
Guillet, Claudine and Sibylle Sceve and Clemence de Bourges,
and the poets Maurice Sceve, Charles Fontaine, Pontus de
Tyard; and among the occasional visitors were Clement Marot
and his friend Melin de Saint-Gelais, with probably Bonaventure
des Periers and Rabelais. About 1550 the poet Olivier de Magny
passed through Lyons on his way to Italy in the suite of Jean
d'Avanson, the French envoy to the Holy See. As the friend
of Ronsard, " Prince of Poets," he met with an enthusiastic
reception from Louise, who straightway fell in love with him.
There seems little doubt that her passion for Magny inspired
icr eager, sincere verse, and the elegies probably express her
;rief at his first absence. A second short visit to Lyons was
'ollowed by a second longer absence. Magny's influence is
shown more decisively in her Sonnets, which, printed in 1555,
quickly attained great popularity. During his second visit to
taly Magny had apparently consoled himself, and Louise, despair-
ng of his return, encouraged another admirer, Claude Rubys,
when her lover returned unexpectedly. Louise dismissed
^ubys, but Magny's jealousy found vent in an ode addressed
o the She Aymon (Ennemond), which ruined her reputation;
tvhile Rubys, angry at his dismissal, avenged himself later in
his Histmre veritable de Lyons (1573). This scandal struck a
atal blow at Louise's position. Shortly afterwards her husband
died, and she returned to her country house at Parcieu, where
he died on the 25th of April 1566, leaving the greater part of
he fortune she was left to the poor. Her works include, besides
he Elegies and Sonnets mentioned, a prose Debal de folie et
i' amour (.translated into English by Robert Greene in 1608).
See editions of her CEuvres by P. Blanchemain (1875), and by C.
Boy (2 vols., 1887). A sketch of Louise Lab6 and of the Lyonnese
LABEL— LABIATAE
Society is in Miss Edith Sichel's Women and Men of the French
Renaissance (1901). See also J. Favre, Olivier de Magny (1885).
LABEL (a French word, now represented by lambeau, possibly
a variant ; it is of obscure origin and may be connected with a
Teutonic word appearing in the English " lap," a flap or fold),
a slip, ticket, or card of paper, metal or other material, attached
to an object, such as a parcel, bottle, &c., and containing a name,
address, description or other information, for the purpose of
identification. Originally the word meant a band or ribbon
of linen or other material, and was thus applied to the fillets
(infulae) attached to a bishop's mitre. In heraldry the
" label " is a mark of " cadency."
In architecture the term " label " is applied to the outer
projecting moulding over doors, windows, arches, &c., sometimes
called " Dripstone " or " Weather Moulding," or " Hood
Mould." The former terms seem scarcely applicable, as this
moulding is often inside a building where no rain could
come, and consequently there is no drip. In Norman times
the label frequently did not project, and when it did it was
very little, and formed part of the series of arch mouldings. In
the Early English styles they were not very large, sometimes
slightly undercut, sometimes deeply, sometimes a quarter round
with chamfer, and very frequently a " roll " or " scroll-moulding,"
so called because it resembles the part of a scroll where the edge
laps over the body of the roll. Labels generally resemble the
string-courses of the period, and, in fact, often return horizontally
and form strings. They are less common in Continental archi-
tecture than in English.
LABEO, MARCUS ANTISTIUS (c. 50 B.C.-A.D. 18), Roman
jurist, was the son of Pacuvius Antistius Labeo, a jurist who
caused himself to be slain after the defeat of his party at Philippi.
A member of the plebeian nobility, and in easy circumstances,
the younger Labeo early entered public life, and soon rose to
the praetorship; but his undisguised antipathy to the new
regime, and the somewhat brusque manner in which in the
senate he occasionally gave expression to his republican sym-
pathies— what Tacitus (Ann. iii. 75) calls his incorrupta libertas —
proved an obstacle to his advancement, and his rival, Ateius
Capito, who had unreservedly given in his adhesion to the
ruling powers, was promoted by Augustus to the consulate,
when the appointment should have fallen to Labeo; smarting
under the wrong done him, Labeo declined the office when it
was offered to him in a subsequent year (Tac. Ann. iii. 75;
Pompon, in fr. 47, Dig. i. 2). From this time he seems to have
devoted his whole time to jurisprudence. His training in the
science had been derived principally from Trebatius Testa.
To his knowledge of the law he added a wide general culture,
devoting his attention specially to dialectics, philology (gram-
matica), and antiquities, as valuable aids in the exposition,
expansion, and application of legal doctrine (Cell. xiii. 10).
Down to the time of Hadrian his was probably the name of
greatest authority; and several of his works were abridged
and annotated by later hands. While Capito is hardly ever
referred to, the dicta of Labeo are of constant recurrence in the
writings of the classical jurists, such as Gaius, Ulpian and Paul;
and no inconsiderable number of them were thought worthy
of preservation in Justinian's Digest. Labeo gets the credit
of being the founder of the Proculian sect or school, while
Capito is spoken of as the founder of the rival Sabinian one
(Pomponius in fr. 47, Dig. i. 2); but it is probable that the
real founders of the two scholae were Proculus and Sabinus,
followers respectively of the methods of Labeo and Capito.
Labeo's most important literary work was the Libri Posteriorum,
so called because published only after his death. It contained a
systematic exposition of the common law. His Libri ad Edictum
embraced a commentary, not only on the edicts of the urban and
peregrine praetors, but also on that of the curule aediles. His
Probabihum (TriSavuv) lib. VIII., a collection of definitions and
axiomatic legal propositions, seems to have been one of his most
characteristic productions.
See van Eck, " De vita, moribus, et studiis M. Ant. Labeonis "
(Franeker, 1692), in Oelrichs's Thes. nmi., vol. i. ; Mascovius, De
sectis Sabtmanor. et Proculianor. (1728); Pernice, M. Antistius
Labeo. Das rom. Privatrecht im ersten Jahrhunderte der Kaizerzeit
(Halle, 1873-1892).
LABERIUS, DECIMUS (c. 105-43 B.C.), Roman knight and
writer of mimes. He seems to have been a man of caustic wit,
who wrote for his own pleasure. In 45 Julius Caesar ordered
him to appear in one of his own mimes in a public contest with
the actor Publilius Syrus. Laberius pronounced a dignified
prologue on the degradation thus thrust on his sixty years,
and directed several sharp allusions against the dictator. Caesar
awarded the victory to Publilius, but restored Laberius to his
equestrian rank, which he had forfeited by appearing as a mimus
(Macrobius, Sat. ii. 7). Laberius was the chief of those who
introduced the mimus into Latin literature towards the close
of the republican period. He seems to have been a man of
learning and culture, but his pieces did not escape the coarseness
inherent to the class of literature to which they belonged;
and Aulus Gellius (xvi. 7, i) accuses him of extravagance in
the coining of new words. Horace (Sat. i. 10) speaks of him in
terms of qualified praise.
In addition to the prologue (in Macrobius), the titles of forty-four
of his mimi have been preserved ; the fragments have been collected
by O. Ribbeck in his Comicorum Latinorum reliquiae (1873).
LABIATAE (i.e. " lipped," Lat. labium, lip), in botany, a
natural order of seed-plants belonging to the series Tubiflorae
of the dicotyledons, and containing about 150 genera with
2800 species. The majority are annual or perennial herbs
FIG. I. — Flowering Shoot of Dead-nettle (Lamium album). 1,
Flower cut lengthwise, enlarged; # calyx, enlarged; 3, floral
diagram.
inhabiting the temperate zone, becoming shrubby in warmer
climates. The stem is generally square in section and the simple
exstipulate leaves are arranged in decussating pairs (i.e. each
pair is in a plane at right angles to that of the pairs immediately
above and below it); the blade is entire, or toothed, lobed
or more or less deeply cut. The plant is often hairy, and the hairs
are frequently glandular, the secretion containing a scent
characteristic of the genus or species. The flowers are borne
in the axils of the leaves or bracts; they are rarely solitary
as in Scutellaria (skull-cap), and generally form an apparent
whorl (verticillaster) at the node, consisting of a pair of cymose
inflorescences each of which is a simple three-flowered dichasium
as in Brunella, Salvia, &c., or more generally a dichasium passing
over into a pair of monochasial cymes as in Lamium (fig. i),
Ballota, Nepeta, &c. A number of whorls may be crowded at the
apex of the stem and the subtending leaves reduced to small
bracts, the whole forming a raceme- or spike-like inflorescence
as in Mentha (fig. 2, 5) Brunella, &c.; the bracts are sometimes
large and coloured as in Monarda, species of Salvia, &c., in the
latter the apex of the stem is sometimes occupied with a cluster
of sterile coloured bracts. The plan of the flower is remarkably
uniform (fig. i, 3); it is bisexual, and zygomorphic in the
LABICANA, VIA— LABICHE
median plane, with 5 sepals united to form a persistent cup-
like calyx, 5 petals united to form a two-lipped gaping corolla,
4 stamens inserted on the corolla-tube, two of which, generally
the anterior pair, are longer than the other two (didynamous
arrangement) — sometimes as in Salvia, the posterior pair is
aborted — and two superior median carpels, each very early
divided by a constriction in a vertical plane, the pistil consisting
of four cells each containing one erect anatropous ovule attached
to the base of an axile placenta; the style springs from the
centre of the pistil between the four segments (gynobasic), and
is simple with a bifid apex. The fruit comprises four one-seeded
nutlets included in the persistent calyx; the seed has a thin
testa and the embryo almost or completely fills it. Although
the general form and plan of arrangement of the flower is very
uniform, there are wide variations in detail. Thus the calyx
may be tubular, bell-shaped, or almost spherical, or straight
or bent, and the length and form of the teeth or lobes varies
also; it may be equally toothed as in mint (Mentha) (fig. 2,
3), and marjoram (Origanum), or two-lipped as in thyme
(Thymus), Lamium (fig. i) and Salvia (fig. 2, 1); the number
of nerves affords useful characters for distinction of genera,
there are normally five main nerves between which simple or
forked secondary nerves are more or less developed. The shape
FIG. 2. — 1, Flower of Sage (Salvia offidnalis). %, Corolla of same
cut open showing the two stamens; 8, flower of spearmint (Mentha
viridis); 4< corolla of same cut open showing stamens; 5, flower-
ing shoot of same, reduced ; 6, floral diagram of Salvia.
of the corolla varies widely, the differences being doubtless
intimately associated with the pollination of the flowers by insect-
agency. The tube is straight or variously bent and often
widens towards the mouth. Occasionally the limb is equally
five-toothed, or forms, as in Mentha (fig. 2, 8, 4) an almost
regular four-toothed corolla by union of the two posterior teeth.
Usually it is two-lipped, the upper lip being formed by the two
posterior, the lower lip by the three anterior petals (see fig. i,
and fig. 2, 1,6); the median lobe of the lower lip is generally
most developed and forms a resting-place for the bee or other
insect when probing the flower for honey, the upper lip shows
great variety in form, often, as in Lamium (fig. i), Slachys, &c.,
it is arched forming a protection from rain for the stamens,
or it may be flat as in thyme. In the tribe Odmoideae the four
upper petals form the upper lip, and the single anterior one
the lower lip, and in Teucrium the upper lip is absent, all five
lobes being pushed forward to form the lower. The posterior
stamen is sometimes present as a staminode, but generally
suppressed; the upper pair are often reduced to staminodes
or more or less completely suppressed as in Salvia (fig. 2, 2, 6);
rarely are these developed and the anterior pair reduced. In
Coleus the stamens are monadelphous. In Nepeta and allied
genera the posterior pair are the longer, but this is rare, the
didynamous character being generally the result of the anterior
pair being the longer. The anthers are two-celled, each cell
splitting lengthwise; the connective may be more or less
developed between the cells; an extreme case is seen in Salvia
(fig. 2, 2), where the connective is filiform and jointed to the
filament, while the anterior anther-cell is reduced to a sterile
appendage. Honey is secreted by a hypogynous disk. In the
more general type of flower the anthers and stigmas are pro-
tected by the arching upper lip as in dead-nettle (fig. i) and many
other British genera; the lower lip affords a resting-place for
the insect which in probing the flower for the honey, secreted
on the lower side of the disk, collects pollen on its back.
Numerous variations in detail are found in the different genera;
in Salvia (fig. 2), for instance, there is a lever mechanism, the
barren half of each anther forming a knob at the end of a short
arm which when touched by the head of an insect causes the
anther at the end of the longer arm to descend on the insect's
back. In the less common type, where the anterior part of the
flower is more developed, as in the Odmoideae, the stamens
and style lie on the under lip and honey is secreted on the upper
side of the hypogynous disk; the insect in probing the flower
gets smeared with pollen on its belly and legs. Both types
include brightly-coloured flowers with longer tubes adapted to
the visits of butterflies and moths, as species of Salvia, Stachys,
Monarda, &c.; some South American species of Salvia are
pollinated by humming-birds. In Mentha (fig. 2, 8), thyme,
marjoram (Origanum), and allied genera, the flowers are nearly
regular and the stamens spread beyond the corolla.
The persistent calyx encloses the ripe nutlets, and aids in
their distribution in various ways, by means of winged spiny
or hairy lobes or teeth; sometimes it forms a swollen bladder.
A scanty endosperm is sometimes present in the seed; the
embryo is generally parallel to the fruit axis with a short inferior
radicle and generally flat cotyledons.
The order occurs in all warm and temperate regions; its chief
centre is the Mediterranean region, where some genera such as
Lavandula, Thymus, Rosmarinus and others form an important
feature in the vegetation. The tribe Odmoideae is exclusively
tropical and subtropical and occurs in both hemispheres. The order
is well represented in Britain by seventeen native genera; Mentha
(mint) including also M. piperita (peppermint) and M. Pulegium
(pennyroyal) ; Origanum vulgare (marjoram) ; Thymus Serpyllum
(thyme); Calaminiha (calamint), including also C. Clinopodium
(wild basil) and C. Adnos (basil thyme); Salvia (sage), including
S. Verbenaca (clary); Nepeta Cataria (catmint), N. Glechoma
(ground-ivy) ; Brunella (self-heal) ; Scutellaria (skull-cap) ; Stachys
(woundwort) ; S. Betonica is wood betony ; Galeopsis (hemp-nettle) ;
Lamium (dead-nettle) ; Ballota (black horehound) ; Teucrium
(germander) ; and Ajuga (bugle).
Labiatae are readily distinguished from all other orders of the
series excepting Verbenaceae, in which, however, the style is
terminal ; but several genera, e.g. Ajuga, Teucrium and Rosmarinus,
approach Verbenaceae in this respect, and in some genera of that
order the style is more or less sunk between the ovary lobes. The
fruit-character indicates an affinity with Boraginaceae from which,
however, they differ in habit and by characters of ovule and embryo.
The presence of volatile oil renders many genera of economic use,
such are thyme, marjoram (Origanum), sage (Salvia), lavender
(Lavandula), rosemary (Rosmarinus), patchouli (Pogostemon) . The
tubers of Stachys Sieboldi are eaten in France.
LABICANA, VIA, an ancient highroad of Italy, leading E.S.E.
from Rome. It seems possible that the road at first led to
Tusculum, that it was then prolonged to Labici, and later still
became a road for through traffic; it may even have superseded
the Via Latina as a route to the S.E., for, while the distance
from Rome to their main junction at Ad Bivium (or to another
junction at Compitum Anagninum) is practically identical, the
summit level of the former is 725 ft. lower than that of the
latter, a little to the west of the pass of Algidus. After their
junction it is probable that the road bore the name Via Latina
rather than Via Labicana. The course of the road after the
first six miles from Rome is not identical with that of any modern
road, but can be clearly traced by remains of pavement and
buildings along its course.
See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School, at Rome, i. 215 sqq.
LABICHE, EUGENE MARIN (1815-1888), French dramatist,
was born on the 5th of May 1815, of bourgeois parentage. He
read for the bar, but literature had more powerful attractions,
and he was hardly twenty when he gave to the Cherubin — an
impertinent little magazine, long vanished and forgotten — a
LABICI— LABID
short story, entitled, in the cavalier style of the period, Les
plus belles sont les plus fausses. A few others followed much in
the same strain, but failed to catch the attention of the public.
He tried his hand at dramatic criticism in the Revue des theatres,
and in 1838 made a double venture on the stage. The small
Theatre du Pantheon produced, amid some signs of popular
favour, a drama of his, UAvocat Loubet, while a vaudeville,
Monsieur de Coislin ou I'homme infiniment poll, written in
collaboration with Marc Michel, and given at the Palais Royal,
introduced for the first time to the Parisians a provincial actor
who was to become and to remain a great favourite with them,
Grassot, the famous low comedian. In the same year Labiche,
still doubtful about his true vocation, published a romance
called La Cle des champs. M. Leon Halevy, his successor at
the Academy and his panegyrist, informs us that the publisher
became a bankrupt soon after the novel was out. "A lucky
misadventure, for," the biographer concludes, " this timely
warning of Destiny sent him back to the stage, where a career
of success was awaiting him." There was yet another obstacle
in the way. When he married, he solemnly promised his wife's
parents that he would renounce a profession then considered
incompatible with moral regularity and domestic happiness.
But a year afterwards his wife spontaneously released him from
his vow, and Labiche recalled the incident when he dedicated
the first edition of his complete works: " To my wife." Labiche,
in conjunction with Varin,1 Marc Michel,2 Clairville,3 Dumanoir,4
and others contributed comic plays interspersed with couplets
to various Paris theatres. The series culminated in the memor-
able farce in five acts, Un Chapeau de pailie d'ltalie (August
1851). It remains an accomplished specimen of the French
imbroglio, in which some one is in search of something, but does
not find it till five minutes before the curtain falls. Prior to
that date Labiche had been only a successful vaudevilliste among
a crowd of others; but a twelvemonth later he made a new
departure in Le Misanthrope et I'Auvergnat. All the plays
given for the next twenty-five years, although constructed on
the old plan, contained a more or less appreciable dose of
that comic observation and good sense which gradually raised
the French farce almost to the level of the comedy of character
and manners. " Of all the subjects," he said, " which offered
themselves to me, I have selected the bourgeois. Essentially
mediocre in his vices and in his virtues, he stands half-way
between the hero and the scoundrel, between the saint and the
profligate." During the second period of his career Labiche
had the collaboration of Delacour,6 Choler,6 and others. When
it is asked what share in the authorship and success of the plays
may be claimed for those men, we shall answer in Emile Augier's
words: " The distinctive qualities which secured a lasting
vogue for the plays of Labiche are to be found in all the comedies
written by him with different collaborators, and are conspicuously
absent from those which they wrote without him." A more
useful and more important collaborator he found in Jean Marie
Michel Geoffroy (1813-1883) whom he had known as a debutant
in his younger days, and who remained his faithful interpreter
to the last. Geoffroy impersonated the bourgeois not only to the
public, but to the author himself; and it may be assumed that
Labiche, when writing, could see and hear Geoffroy acting the
character and uttering, in his pompous, fussy way, the words
that he had just committed to paper. Celimare le bien-aime
(1863), Le Voyage de M. Perrichon (1860), La Grammaire, Un
Pied dans le crime, La Cagnotte (1864), may be quoted as the
happiest productions of Labiche.
In 1877 he brought his connexion with the stage to a close,
and retired to his rural property in Sologne. There he could be
1 Victor Varin, pseudonym of Charles Voirin (1798-1869).
2 Marc Antoine Amedee Michel (1812-1868), vaudevillist.
3 Louis Francois Nicolaise, called Clairville (1811-1879), part-
author of the famous Fitte de Mme Angot (1872).
4 Philippe Frangois Pinel, called Dumanoir (1806-1865).
^"Alfred Charlemagne Lartigue, called Delacour (1815-1885).
For a list of this author's pieces see O. Lorenz, Catalogue General
(vol. ii., 1868).
6 Adolphe Joseph Choler (1822-1889).
seen, dressed as a farmer, with low-brimmed hat, thick gaiters
and an enormous stick, superintending the agricultural work
and busily engaged in reclaiming land and marshes. His life-
long friend, Augier, visited him in his principality, and, being
left alone in the library, took to reading his host's dramatic
productions, scattered here and there in the shape of theatrical
brochures. He strongly advised Labiche to publish a collected
and revised edition of his works. The suggestion, first declined
as a joke and long resisted, was finally accepted and carried
into effect. Labiche's comic plays, in ten volumes, were issued
during 1878 and 1879. The success was even greater than had
been expected by the author's most sanguine friends. It had
been commonly believed that these plays owed their popularity
in great measure to the favourite actors who had appeared in
them; but it was now discovered that all, with the exception
of Geoffroy, had introduced into them a grotesque and caricatural
element, thus hiding from the spectator, in many cases, the true
comic vein and delightful delineation of human character.
The amazement turned into admiration, and the engouemenl
became so general that very few dared grumble or appear
scandalized when, in 1880, Labiche was elected to the French
Academy. It was fortunate that, in former years, he had never
dreamt of attaining this high distinction; for, as M. Pailleron
justly observed, while trying to get rid of the little faults which
were in him, he would have been in danger of losing some of
his sterling qualities. But when the honour was bestowed upon
him, he enjoyed it with his usual good sense and quiet modesty.
He died in Paris on the 23rd of January 1888.
Some foolish admirers have placed him on a level with Moliere,
but it will be enough to say that he was something better than
a public amuseur. Many of his plays have been transferred
to the English stage. They are, on the whole, as sound as they
are entertaining. Love is practically absent from his theatre.
In none of his plays did he ever venture into the depths of
feminine psychology, and womankind is only represented in
them by pretentious old maids and silly, insipid, almost dumb,
young ladies. He ridiculed marriage according to the invariable
custom of French playwrights, but in a friendly and good-
natured manner which always left a door open to repentance
and timely amendment. He is never coarse, never suggestive.
After he died the French farce, which he had raised to some-
thing akin to literature, relapsed into its former grossness and
unmeaning complexity. (A. Fi.)
His Theatre complet (10 vols., 1878-1879) contains a preface by
Emile Augier.
LABICI, an ancient city of Latium, the modern Monte
Compatri, about 17 m. S.E. from Rome, on the northern slopes
of the Alban Hills, 1739 ft. above sea-level. It occurs among
the thirty cities of the Latin League, and it is said to have
joined the Aequi in 419 B.C. and to have been captured by the
Romans in 418. After this it does not appear in history, and
in the time of Cicero and Strabo was almost entirely deserted
if not destroyed. Traces of its ancient walls have been noticed.
Its place was taken by the respublica Lavicanorum Quintanensium,
the post-station estabh'shed in the lower ground on the Via
Labicana (see LABICANA, VIA), a little S.W. of the modern village
of Colonna, the site of which is attested by various inscriptions
and by the course of the road itself.
See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, i. 256
sqq. (T. As.)
LABID (Abu 'Aqll Labid ibn Rabl'a) (c. 560-6. 661), Arabian
poet, belonged to the Bam 'Amir, a division of the tribe of the
Hawazin. In his younger years he was an active warrior and
his verse is largely concerned with inter-tribal disputes. Later,
he was sent by a sick uncle to get a remedy from Mahomet at
Medina and on this occasion was much influenced by a part of
the Koran. He accepted Islam soon after, but seems then to
have ceased writing. In Omar's caliphate he is said to have
settled in Kufa. Tradition ascribes to him a long life, but
dates given are uncertain and contradictory. One of his poems
is contained in the Mo'allakat
Twenty of his poems were edited by Chalidi (Vienna, 1880);
another thirty-five, with fragments and a German translation of the
LABIENUS— LA BOURDONNAIS
whole, were edited (partly from the remains of A. Huber) by C.
Brockelmann (Leiden, 1892); cf. A. von Kremer, Uber die Gedichte
des Lebyd (Vienna, 1881). Stories of Labld are contained in the
Kitabul-Agh&ni, xiv. 93 ff. and xv. 137 ff. (G. W. T.)
LABIENUS, the name of a Roman family, said (without
authority) to belong to the gens Atia. The most important
member was TITUS LABIENUS. In 63 B.C., at Caesar's instigation,
he prosecuted Gaius Rabirius (q.v.) for treason; in the same
year, as tribune of the plebs, he carried a plebiscite which in-
directly secured for Caesar the dignity of pontifex maximus
(Dio Cassius xxxvii. 37). He served as a legatus throughout
Caesar's Gallic campaigns and took Caesar's place whenever he
went to Rome. His chief exploits in Gaul were the defeat of
the Treviri under Indutiomarus in 54, his expedition against
Lutetia (Paris) in 52, and his victory over Camulogenus and the
Aedui in the same year. On the outbreak of the civil war,
however, he was one of the first to desert Caesar, probably owing
to an overweening sense of his own importance, not adequately
recognized by Caesar. He was rapturously welcomed on the
Pompeian side; but he brought no great strength with him,
and his ill fortune under Pompey was as marked as his success
had been under Caesar. From the defeat at Pharsalus, to which
he had contributed by affecting to despise his late comrades,
he fled to Corcyra, and thence to Africa. There he was able by
mere force of numbers to inflict a slight check upon Caesar at
Ruspina in 46. After the defeat at Thapsus he joined the younger
Pompey in Spain, and was killed at Munda (March I7th, 45).
LABLACHE, LUIGI (1794-1858), Franco-Italian singer, was
born at Naples on the 6th of December 1 704, the son of a merchant
of Marseilles who had married an Irish lady. In 1806 he entered
the Conservatorio della Pieta de Turchini, where he studied
music under Gentili and singing under Valesi, besides learning
to play the violin and violoncello. As a boy he had a beautiful
alto voice, and by the age of twenty he had developed a magnifi-
cent bass with a compass of two octaves from Et> below to
Eb above the bass stave. After making his first appearance
at Naples he went to Milan in 1817, and subsequently travelled
to Turin, Venice and Vienna. His first appearances in London
and Paris in 1830 led to annual engagements in both the English
and French capitals. His reception at St Petersburg a few years
later was no less enthusiastic. In England he took part in many
provincial musical festivals, and was engaged by Queen Victoria
to teach her singing. On the operatic stage he was equally
successful in comic or tragic parts, and with his wonderfully
powerful voice he could express either humour or pathos. Among
his friends were Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti and Mercadante.
He was one of the thirty-two torch-bearers chosen to surround
the coffin at Beethoven's funeral in 1827. He died at Naples
on the 23rd of January 1858 and was buried at Maison Lafitte,
Paris. Lablache's Leporello in Don Giovanni was perhaps his
most famous impersonation; among his principal other roles
were Dandini in Cenerenlola (Rossini), Assur in Semiramide
(Rossini), Geronimo in La Gazza Ladra (Rossini), Henry VIII.
in Anna Bolena (Donizetti), the Doge in Marino Faliero
(Donizetti), the title-r61e in Don Pasquale (Donizetti), Geronimo
in // Matrimonio Segreto (Cimarosa), Gritzenko in L'Etoile du
Nord (Meyerbeer), Caliban in The Tempest (Halevy).
LABOR DAY, in the United States, a legal holiday in nearly
all of the states and Territories, where the first Monday in
September is observed by parades and meetings of labour
organizations. In 1882 the Knights of Labor paraded in New
York City on this day; in 1884 another parade was held, and it
was decided that this day should be set apart for this purpose.
In 1887 Colorado made the first Monday in September a legal
holiday; and in 1909 Labor Day was observed as a holiday
throughout the United States, except in Arizona and North
Dakota; in Louisiana it is a holiday only in New Orleans
(Orleans parish), and in Maryland, Wyoming and New Mexico
it is not established as a holiday by statute, but in each may
be proclaimed as such in any year by the governor.
LA BOURBOULE, a watering-place of central France, in
the department of Puy-de-D6me, 4! m. W. by N. of Mont-Dore
by road. Pop. (1906) 1401. La Bourboule is situated on the
right bank of the Dordogne at a height of 2790 ft. Its waters,
of which arsenic is the characteristic constituent, are used in
cases of diseases of the skin and respiratory organs, rheumatism,
neuralgia, &c. Though known to the Romans they were not
in much repute till towards the end of the igth century. The
town has three thermal establishments and a casino.
LABOUR CHURCH, THE, an organization intended to give
expression to the religion of the labour movement. This
religion is not theological — it leaves theological questions to
private individual conviction — but " seeks the realization of
universal well-being by the establishment of Socialism — a
commonwealth founded upon justice and love." It asserts that
" improvement of social conditions and the development of
personal character are both essential to emancipation from
social and moral bondage, and to that end insists upon the duty
of studying the economic and moral forces of society." The
first Labour Church was founded at Manchester (England)
in October 1891 by a Unitarian minister, John Trevor. This
has disappeared, but vigorous successors have been established
not only in the neighbourhood, but in Bradford, Birmingham,
Nottingham, London, Wolverhampton and other centres of
industry, about 30 in all, with a membership of 3000. Many
branches of the Independent Labour Party and the Social
Democratic Federation also hold Sunday gatherings for adults
and children, using the Labour Church hymn-book and a similar
form of service, the reading being chosen from Dr Stanton Coil's
Message of Man. There are special forms for child-naming,
marriages and burials. The separate churches are federated
in a Labour Church Union, which holds an annual conference
and business meeting in March. At the conference of 1909,
held in Ashton-under-Lyne, the name " Labour Church " was
changed to " Socialist Church."
LA BOURDONNAIS, BERTRAND FRANCOIS, COUNT MAKE
DE (1690-1753), French naval commander, was born at Saint
Malo on the nth of February 1699. He went to sea when a
boy, and in 1718 entered the service of the French India Company
as a lieutenant. In 1724 he was promoted captain, and displayed
such bravery in the capture of Mahe of the Malabar coast that
the name of the town was added to his own. For two years
he was in the service of the Portuguese viceroy of Goa, but in
1735 he returned to French service as governor of the lie de
France and the lie de Bourbon. His five years' administration
of the islands was vigorous and successful. A visit to France
in 1740 was interrupted by the outbreak of hostilities with Great
Britain, and La Bourdonnais was put at the head of a fleet in
Indian waters. He saved Mahe, relieved General Dupleix at
Pondicherry, defeated Lord Peyton, and in 1746 participated
in the siege of Madras. He quarrelled with Dupleix over the
conduct of affairs in India, and his anger was increased on. his
return to the lie de France at finding a successor to himself
installed there by his rival. He set sail on a Dutch vessel to
present his case at court, and was captured by the British,
but allowed to return to France on parole. Instead of securing
a settlement of his quarrel with Dupleix, he was arrested (1748)
on a charge of gubernatorial peculation and maladministration,
and secretly imprisoned for over two years in the Bastille.
He was tried in 1751 and acquitted, but his health was
broken by the imprisonment and by chagrin at the loss of
his property. To the last he made unjust accusations against
Dupleix. He died at Paris on the icth of November 1753.
The French government gave his widow a pension of 2400
livres.
La Bourdonnais wrote Traite de la mature des vaisseaux
(Paris 1723), and left valuable memoirs which were published
by his grandson, a celebrated chess player, Count L. C. Mahe
de la Bourdonnais (1795-1840) (latest edition, Paris, 1890).
His quarrel with Dupleix has given rise to much debate; for
a long while the fault was generally laid to the arrogance and
jealousy of Dupleix, but W. Cartwright and Colonel Malleson
have pointed out that La Bourdonnais was proud, suspicious
and over-ambitious.
LABOUR EXCHANGE— LABOUR LEGISLATION
See P. de Gennes, Memoire pour le sieur de la Bourdonnais , ave
les pieces justificatives (Paris, 1750); The Case of Mde la Bourdon
nais, in a Letter to a Friend (London, 1748); Fantin des Odoards
Revolutions de I'Inde (Paris, 1796) ; Collin de Bar, Histoire de I'Ind
ancienne et moderns (Paris, 1814); Barchou de Penhoen, Histoir
de la conquete et de la fondation de I' empire anglais dans I'Inde (Paris
1840) ; Margry; " Les Isles de France et de Bourbon sous le gouverne
ment de La Bourdonnais," in La Revue maritime et coloniale (1862)
W. Cartwright, " Dupleix et I'Inde francaise," in LaRevue britanniqu
(1882); G. B. Malleson, Dupleix (Oxford, 1895); Anandaranga
Pillai, Les Franc,ais dans I'Inde, Dupleix et Labourdonnais , extrait
du journal d'Anandaran-gappoulle 1736-1748, trans, in French b>
Vinsor in Ecole speciale des langues orientales vivantes, series 3
vol. xv. (Paris, 1894).
LABOUR EXCHANGE, a term very frequently applied to
registries having for their principal object the better distribution
of labour (see UNEMPLOYMENT). Historically the term is appliec
to the system of equitable labour exchanges established in
England between 1832 and 1834 by Robert Owen and his
followers. The idea is said to have originated with Josiah Warren
who communicated it to Owen. Warren tried an experiment in
1828 at Cincinnati, opening an exchange under the title of a
" time store." He joined in starting another at Tuscarawas
Ohio, and a third at Mount Vernon, Indiana, but none were
quite on the same line as the English exchanges. The funda-
mental idea of the English exchanges was to establish a currency
based upon labour; Owen in The Crisis for June 1832 laid down
that all wealth proceeded from labour and knowledge; that
labour and knowledge were generally remunerated according
to the time employed, and that in the new exchanges it was
proposed to make time the standard or measure of wealth.
This new currency was represented by " labour notes," the notes
being measured in hours, and the hour reckoned as being worth
sixpence, this figure being taken as the mean between the wage
of the best and the worst paid labour. Goods were then to be
exchanged for the new currency. The exchange was opened
in extensive premises in the Gray's Inn Road, near King's Cross,
London, on the 3rd of September 1832. For some months
the establishment met with considerable success, and a consider-
able number of tradesmen agreed to take labour notes in payment
for their goods. At first, an enormous number of deposits was
made, amounting in seventeen weeks to 445,501 hours. But
difficulties soon arose from the lack of sound practical valuators,
and from the inability of the promoters to distinguish between
the labour of the highly skilled and that of the unskilled. Trades-
men, too, were quick to see that the exchange might be worked
to their advantage; they brought unsaleable stock from
their shops, exchanged it for labour notes, and then picked
out the best of the saleable articles. Consequently the labour
notes began to depreciate; trouble also arose with the pro-
prietors of the premises, and the experiment came to an untimely
end early in 1834.
See F. Podmore's Robert Owen, ii. c. xvii. (1906); B. Jones
to-operative Production, c. viii. (1894); G. J. Holyoake, History of
Co-operation, c. viii. (1906).
LABOUR LEGISLATION. Regulation of labour,1 in some
form or another, whether by custom, royal authority, ecclesi-
astical rules or by formal legislation in the interests of a com-
munity, is no doubt as old as the most ancient forms of civiliza-
tion. And older than all civilization is the necessity for the
greater part of mankind to labour for maintenance, whether freely
or in bonds, whether for themselves and their families or for the
requirements or superfluities of others. Even while it is clear,
however, that manual labour, or the application of the bodily
forces— with or without mechanical aid— to personal mainten-
ance and the production of goods, remains the common lot of
the majority of citizens of the most developed modern com-
munities, still there is much risk of confusion if modern technical
terms such as " labour," " employer," " labour legislation "
are freely applied to conditions in bygone civilizations with
wholly different industrial organization and social relationships.
1 The term " labour " (Lat. labor) means strictly any energetic
work, though in general it implies hard work, but in modern
parlance it is specially confined to industrial work of the kind done
by the working-classes."
In recent times in England there has been a notable disappearance
from current use of correlative terms implying a social relation-
ship which is greatly changed, for example, in the rapid passage
from the Master and Servant Act 1867 to the Employer and
Workman Act 1875. In the i8th century the term "manu-
facturer " passed from its application to a working craftsman
to its modern connotation of at least some command of capital,
the employer being no longer a small working master. An
even more significant later change is seen in the steady develop-
ment of a labour legislation, which arose in a clamant social
need for the care of specially helpless " protected " persons in
factories and mines, into a wider legislation for the promotion
of general industrial health, safety and freedom for the worker
from fraud in making or carrying out wage contracts.
If, then, we can discern these signs of important changes
within so short a period, great caution is needed in rapidly
reviewing long periods of time prior to that industrial revolution
which is traced mainly to the application of mechanical power
to machinery in aid of manual labour, practically begun and
completed within the second half of the i8th century. " In
1740 save for the fly-shuttle the loom was as it had been since
weaving had begun . . . and the law of the land was" (under
the Act of Apprentices of 1563) "that wages in each district
should be assessed by Justices of the Peace."2 Turning back
to still earlier times, legislation — whatever its source or authority
—must clearly be devoted to aims very different from modern
aims in regulating labour, when it arose before the labourer,
as a man dependent on an " employer " for the means of doing
work, had appeared, and when migratory labour was almost
unknown through the serfdom of part of the population and the
special status secured in towns to the artisan.
In the great civilizations of antiquity there were great aggrega-
tions of labour which was not solely, though frequently it was
predominantly, slave labour; and some of the features of
manufacture and mining on a great scale arose, producing the
same sort of evils and industrial maladies known and regulated
in our own times. Some of the maladies were described by Pliny
and classed as " diseases of slaves." And he gave descriptions
of processes, for example in the metal trades, as belonging entirely
to his own day, which modern archaeological discoveries trace
back through the earliest Jinown Aryan civilizations to a pre-
historic origin in the East, and which have never died out in
western Europe, but can .be traced in a concentrated manu-
facture with almost unchanged methods, now in France, now
in Germany, now in England.
Little would be gained in such a sketch as this by an endeavour
to piece together the scattered and scanty materials for a com-
parative history of the varying conditions and methods of labour
regulation over so enormous a range. While our knowledge
continually increases of the remains of ancient craft, skill and
massed labour, much has yet to be discovered that may throw
light on methods of organization of the labourers. While much,
and in some civilizations most, of the labour was compulsory
or forced, it is clear that too much has been sometimes assumed,
and it is by no means certain that even the pyramids of Egypt,
much less the beautiful earliest Egyptian products in metal
work, weaving and other skilled craft work, were, typical
Droducts of slave labour. Even in Rome it was only at times
•;hat the proportion of slaves valued as property was greater
:han that of hired workers, or, apart from capture in war or
self-surrender in discharge of a debt, that purchase of slaves
by the trader, manufacturer or agriculturist was generally
-.pnsidered the cheapest means of securing labour. As in early
England the various stages of village industrial life, medieval
.own manufacture, and organization in craft gilds, and the
>eginnings of the mercantile system, were parallel with a greater
or less prevalence of serfdom and even with the presence in
part of slavery, so in other ages and civilizations the various
methods of organization of labour are found to some extent
ogether. The Germans in their primitive settlements were
accustomed to the notion of slavery, and in the decline of the
2 H. D. Traill, Social England, v. 602 (1896).
8
LABOUR LEGISLATION
[UNITED KINGDOM
Roman Empire Roman captives from among the most useful
craftsmen were carried away by their northern conquerors.
The history and present details of the labour laws of various
countries are dealt with below in successive sections: (i) history
of legislation in the United Kingdom; (2) the results as shown
by the law in force in 1909, with the corresponding facts for
(3) Continental Europe and (4) the United States. Under other
headings (TRADE-UNIONS, STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS, ARBITRA-
TION AND CONCILIATION, &c., &c.) are many details on cognate
subjects.
i. HISTORY IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
i i. Until the Close of the i^th Century. — Of the main conditions
of industrial labour in early Anglo-Saxon England details are
scanty. Monastic industrial communities were added in
Christian times to village industrial communities. While
generally husbandry was the first object of toil, and developed
under elaborate regulation in the manorial system, still a con-
siderable variety of industries grew up, the aim being expressly to
make each social group self-sufficing, and to protect and regulate
village artisans in the interest of village resources. This pro-
tective system, resting on a communal or co-operative view of
labour and social life, has been compared as analogous to the
much later and wider system under which the main purpose
was to keep England as a whole self-sufficing.1 It has also been
shown how greatly a fresh spirit of enterprise in industry and
trade was stimulated first by the Danish and next by the Norman
invasion; the former brought in a vigour shown in growth of
villages, increase in number of freemen, and formation of trading
towns; the latter especially opened up new communications
with the most civilized continental people, and was followed
by a considerable immigration of artisans, particularly of
Flemings. In Saxon England slavery in the strictest sense
existed, as is shown in the earliest English laws, but it seems
that the true slave class as distinct from the serf class was com-
paratively small, and it may well be that the labour of an
ordinary serf was not practically more severe, and the remunera-
tion in maintenance and kind not much less than that of agri-
cultural labourers in recent times. In spite of the, steady
protest of the Church, slavery (as the exception, not the general
rule) did not die out for many centuries, and was apt to be
revived as a punishment for criminals, e.g. in the fierce provisions
of the statute of Edward VI. against beggars, not repealed,
until IS97- At no time, however, was it general, and as the larger
village and city populations grew the ratio of serfs and slaves
to the freemen in the whole population rapidly diminished,
for the city populations " had not the habit and use of slavery,"
and while serfs might sometimes find a refuge in the cities from
exceptionally severe taskmasters, " there is no doubt that free-
men gradually united with them under the lord's protection,
that strangers engaged in trade sojourned among them, and that
a race of artisans gradually grew up in which original class
feelings were greatly modified." From these conditions grew two
parallel tendencies in regulation of labour. On the one hand
there was, under royal charters, the burgh or municipal organiza-
tion and control of artisan and craft labour, passing later into
the more, specialized organization in craft gilds; on the other
hand, there was a necessity, sometimes acute, to prevent undue
diminution in the numbers available for husbandry or agricul-
tural labour. To the latter cause must be traced a provision
appearing in a succession of statutes (see especially an act of
Richard II., 1388), that a child under twelve years once employed
in agriculture might never be transferred to apprenticeship in a
craft. The steady development of England, first as a wool-
growing, later as a cloth-producing country, would accentuate
this difficulty. During the I3th century, side by side with de-
velopment of trading companies for the export of wool from
England, may be noted many agreements on the part of monas-
teries to sell their wool to Florentines, and during the same
century absorption of alien artisans into the municipal system
was practically completed. Charters of Henry I. provided for
1 W. Cunningham, Growth of English Commerce and Industry.
naturalization of these aliens. From the time of Edward I.
to Edward III. a gradual transference of burgh customs, so far
as recognized for the common good, to statute law was in pro-
gress, together with an assertion of the rights of the crown against
ecclesiastical orders. " The statutes of Edward I.," says Dr.
Cunningham, " mark the first attempt to deal with Industry
and Trade as a public matter which concerns the whole state,
not as the particular affair of leading men in each separate
locality." The first direct legislation for labour by statute,
however, is not earlier than the twenty-third year of the
reign of Edward III., and it arose in an attempt to control the
decay and ruin, both in rural and urban districts, which followed
the Hundred Years' War, and the pestilence known as the Black
Death. This first " Statute of Labourers " was designed for the
benefit of the community, not for the protection of labour or
prevention of oppression, and the policy of enforcing customary
wages and compelling the able-bodied labourer, whether free or
bond, not living in merchandise or exercising any craft, to work
for hire at recognized rates of pay, must be reviewed in the
circumstances and ideals of the time. Regulation generally in
the middle ages aimed at preventing any individual or section
of the community from making what was considered an excep-
tional profit through the necessity of others.2 The scarcity of
labour by the reduction of the population through pestilence
was not admitted as a justification for the demands for increased
pay, and while the unemployed labourer was liable to be com-
mitted to gaol if he refused service at current rates, the lords of
the towns or manors who promised or paid more to their servants
were liable to be sued treble the sum in question. Similar
restrictions were made applicable to artificers and workmen.
By another statute, two years later, labourers or artificers who
left their work and went into another county were liable to
be arrested by the sheriff and brought back. These and similar
provisions with similar aims were confirmed by statutes of
1360, 1368 and 1388, but the act of 1360, while prohibiting
" all alliances and covins of masons, carpenters, congregations,
chapters, ordinances and oaths betwixt them made," allowed
" every lord to bargain or covenant for their works in gross
with such labourers and artificers when it pleaseth them, so
that they perform such works well and lawfully according to the
bargain and covenant with them thereof made." Powers were
given by the acts of 1368 and 1388 to justices to determine
matters under these statutes and to fix wages. Records show
that workmen of various descriptions were pressed by writs
addressed to sheriffs to work for their king at wages regardless
of their will as to terms and place of work. These proceedings
were founded on notions of royal prerogative, of which impress-
ment of seamen survived as an example to a far later date. By
an act of 1388 no servant or labourer, man or woman, however,
could depart out of the hundred to serve elsewhere unless bearing
a letter patent under the king's seal stating the cause of going
and time of return. Such provisions would appear to have
widely failed in their purpose, for an act of 1414 declares that
the servants and labourers fled from county to county, and
justices were empowered to send writs to the sheriffs for fugitive
labourers as for felons, and to examine labourers, servants and
their masters, as well as artificers, and to punish them on con-
fession. An act of 1405, while putting a property qualification on
apprenticeship and requiring parents under heavy penalties to
put their children to such labour as their estates required, made
a reservation giving freedom to any person " to send their
children to school to learn literature." Up to the end of the isth
century a monotonous succession of statutes strengthening,
modifying, amending the various attempts (since the first
Statute of Labourers) to limit free movement of labour, or
demands by labourers for increased wages, may be seen in the
acts of 1411, 1427, 1444, 1495. It was clearly found extremely
difficult, if not impracticable, to carry out the minute control
of wages considered desirable, and exceptions in favour of certain
occupations were in some of the statutes themselves. In 1512
the penalties for giving wages contrary to law were repealed so
^ W. Cunningham, Growth of English Commerce and Industry.
UNITED KINGDOM]
LABOUR LEGISLATION
far as related to masters, but it also appears that London work-
men would not endure the prevalent restrictions as to wages,
and that they secured in practice a greater freedom to arrange
rates when working within the city. Several of these statutes,
and especially one of 1514, fixed the hours of labour when
limiting wages. During March to September the limits were
5 A.M. to 7 or 8 P.M., with half an hour off for breakfast and an
hour and a half off for midday dinner. In winter the outside
limits were fixed by the length of daylight.
Throughout the i5th century the rapidly increasing manu-
facture of cloth was subject to a regulation which aimed at
maintaining the standard of production and prevention of bad
workmanship, and the noteworthy statute 4 Edward IV. c. i,
while giving power to royal officers to supervise size of cloths,
modes of sealing, &c., also repressed payment to workers in
" pins, girdles and unprofitable wares," and ordained payment
in true and lawful money. This statute (the first against
" Truck ") gives an interesting picture of the way in which
clothiers — or, as we should call them, wholesale merchants and
manufacturers — delivered wool to spinners, carders, &c., by
weight, and paid for the work when brought back finished.
It appears that the work was carried on in rural as well as town
districts. While this industry was growing and thriving other
trades remained backward, and agriculture was in a depressed
condition. Craft gilds had primarily the same purpose as the
Edwardian statutes, that is, of securing that the public should
be well served with good wares, and that the trade and manu-
facture itself should be on a sound basis as to quality of products
and should flourish. Incidentally there was considerable regula-
tion by the gilds of the conditions of labour, but not primarily
in the interests of the labourer. Thus night work was prohibited
because it tended to secrecy and so to bad execution of work;
working on holidays was prohibited to secure fair play between
craftsmen and so on. The position of apprentices was made
clear through indentures, but the position of journeymen was
less certain. Signs are not wanting of a struggle between journey-
men and masters, and towards the end of the I5th century
masters themselves, in at least the great wool trade, tended to
develop from craftsmen into something more like the modern
capitalist employer; from an act of 1555 touching weavers
it is quite clear that this development had greatly advanced
and that cloth-making was carried on largely by employers
with large capitals. Before this, however, while a struggle
went on between the town authorities and the craft gilds, journey-
men began to form companies of their own, and the result of
the various conflicts may be seen in an act of Henry VI., providing
that in future new ordinances of gilds shall be submitted to
justices of the peace — a measure which was strengthened in
i5°3-
2. From Tudor Days until the Close of the i8lh Century. — A
detailed history of labour regulation in the i6th century would
include some account of the Tudor laws against vagrancy and
methods of dealing with the increase of pauperism, attributable,
at least in part, to the dissolution of the monasteries under
Henry VIII., and to the confiscation of craft gild funds, which
proceeded under Somerset and Edward VI. It is sufficient here
to point to the general recognition of the public right to compel
labourers to work and thus secure control of unemployed as
well as employed. The statutes of Henry VIII. and Edward VI.
against vagrancy differed rather in degree of severity than in
principle from legislation for similar purposes in previous and
subsequent reigns. The Statute of Labourers, passed in the
fifth year of Elizabeth 's reign (1562), as well as the poor law of
the same year, was to a considerable extent both a consolidating
and an amending code of law, and was so securely based on public
opinion and deeply rooted custom that it was maintained in
force for two centuries. It avowedly approves of principles
and aims in earlier acts, regulating wages, punishing refusal
to work, and preventing free migration of labour. It makes,
however, a great advance in its express aim of protecting the
poor labourer against insufficient wages, and of devising a
machinery, by frequent meeting of justices, which might yield
"unto the hired person both in time of scarcity and in time of
plenty a convenient proportion of wages." Minute regulations
were made governing the contract between master and servant,
and their mutual rights and obligations on parallel lines for
(a) artificers, (b) labourers in husbandry. Hiring was to be by
the year, and any unemployed person qualified in either calling
was bound to accept service on pain of imprisonment, if
required, unless possessed of property of a specified amount
or engaged in art, science or letters, or being a " gentleman."
Persons leaving a service were bound to obtain a testimonial,
and might not be taken into fresh employment without produc-
ing such testimonial, or, if in a new district, until after showing
it to the authorities of the place. A master might be fined £5,
and a labourer imprisoned, and if contumacious, whipped, for
breach of this rule. The carefully devised scheme for technical
training of apprentices embodied to a considerable extent the
methods and experiences of the craft gilds. Hours of labour
were as follows: "All artificers and labourers being hired for
wages by the day or week shall, betwixt the midst of the months
of March and September, be and continue at their work at or
before 5 o 'clock in the morning and continue at work and not
depart until betwixt 7 and 8 o 'clock at night, except it be in
the time of breakfast, dinner or drinking, the which time at
the most shall not exceed two hours and a half in a day, that is
to say, at every drinking half an hour, for his dinner one hour
and for his sleep when he is allowed to sleep, the which is from
the midst of May to the midst of August, half an hour; and all
the said artificers and labourers betwixt the midst of September
and the midst of March shall be and continue at their work
from the spring of the day in the morning until the night of the
same day, except it be in time afore appointed for breakfast
and dinner, upon pain to lose and forfeit one penny for every
hour's absence, to be deducted and defaulked out of his wages
that shall so offend." Although the standpoint of the Factory
Act and Truck Act in force at the beginning of the 2oth century
as regards hours of labour or regulation of fines deducted from
wages is completely reversed, yet the difference is not great
between the average length of hours of labour permissible under
the present law for women and those hours imposed upon the
adult labourer in Elizabeth 's statute. Apart from the stand-
point of compulsory imposition of fines, one advantage in the
definiteness of amount deductable from wages would appear
to lie on the side of the earlier statute.
Three points remain to be touched on in connexion with the
Elizabethan poor law. In addition to (a) consolidation of
measures for setting vagrants to work, we find the first com-
pulsory contributions from the well-to-do towards poor relief
there provided for, (6) at least a theoretical recognition of a
right as well as an obligation on the part of the labourer to be
hired, (c) careful provision for the apprenticing of destitute
children and orphans to a trade.
One provision of considerable interest arose in Scotland,
which was nearly a century later in organizing provisions for
fixing conditions of hire and wages of workmen, labourers and
servants, similar to those consolidated in the Elizabethan
Statute of Labourers. In 1617 it was provided (and reaffirmed
in 1661) that power should be given to the sheriffs to compel
payment of wages, "that servants may be the more willing to
obey the ordinance." The difficulties in regulation of compulsory
labour in Scotland must, however, have been great, for in 1672
houses of correction were erected for disobedient servants, and
masters of these houses were empowered to force them to work
and to correct them according to their demerits. While servants
in manufacture were compelled to work at reasonable rates
they might not enter on a new hire without their previous
master's consent.
Such legislation continued, at least theoretically, in force
until the awakening effected by the beginning of the industrial
revolution — that is, until the combined effects of steady con-
centration of capital in the hands of employers and expansion
of trade, followed closely by an unexampled development of
invention in machinery and application of power to its use,
IO
LABOUR LEGISLATION
[UNITED KINGDOM
completely altered the face of industrial England. From time
to time, in respect of particular trades, provisions against
truck and for payment of wages in current coin, similar to the
act of Edward IV. in the woollen industry, were found necessary,
and this branch of labour legislation developed through the
reigns of Anne and the four Georges until consolidation and
amendment were effected, after the completion of the industrial
revolution, in the Truck Act of 1831. From the close of the
1 7th century and during the i8th century the legislature is
no longer mainly engaged in devising means for compelling
labourers and artisans to enter into involuntary service, but
rather in regulating the summary powers of justices of the peace
in the matter of dispute between masters and servants in relation
to contracts and agreements, express or implied, presumed to
have been entered into voluntarily on both sides. While the
movement to refer labour questions to the jurisdiction of the
justices thus gradually developed, the main subject matter for
their exercise of jurisdiction in regard to labour also changed,
even when theoretically for a time the two sets of powers — such
as (a) moderation of craft gild ordinances and punishment of
workers refusing hire, or (b) fixing scales of wages and enforce-
ment of labour contracts — might be concurrently exercised.
Even in an act of George II. (1746) for settlement of disputes
and differences as to wages or other conditions under a contract
of labour, power was retained for the justices, on complaint of
the masters of misdemeanour or ill-behaviour on the part of
the servant, to discharge the latter from service or to send him
to a house of correction " there to be corrected," that is, to be
held to hard labour for a term not exceeding a month or to be
corrected by whipping, In an act with similar aims of George
IV. (1823), with a rather-wider scope, the power to order corporal
punishment, and in 1867 to hard labour, for breach of labour
contracts had disappeared, and soon after the middle of the
1 9th century the right to enforce contracts of labour also dis-
appeared. Then breach of such labour contracts became
simply a question of recovery of damages, unless both parties
agreed that security for performance of the contract shall be
given instead of damages.
While the endeavour to enforce labour apart from a contract
died out in the latter end of the i8th century, sentiment for
some time had strongly grown in favour of developing early
industrial training of children. It appears to have been a special
object of charitable and philanthropic endeavour in the i7th
century, as well as the i8th, to found houses of industry, in
which little children, even under five years of age, might be
trained for apprenticeship with employers. Connected as this
development was with poor relief, one of its chief aims was to
prevent future unemployment and vagrancy by training in
habits and knowledge of industry, but not unavowed was
another motive: " from children thus trained up to constant
labour we may venture to hope the lowering of its price."1
The evils and excesses which lay enfolded within such a move-
ment gave the first impulse to the new ventures in labour
legislation which are specially the work of the igth century.
Evident as it is " that before the Industrial Revolution very
young children were largely employed both in their own homes
and as apprentices under the Poor Law," and that " long before
Peel's time there were misgivings about the apprenticeship
system," still it needed the concentration and prominence of
suffering and injury to child life in the factory system to lead
to parliamentary intervention.
3. From 1800 to the Codes of 1872 and 1878. — A serious out-
break of fever in 1784 in cotton mills near Manchester appears
to have first drawn widespread and influential public opinion
to the overwork of children, under terribly dangerous and
insanitary conditions, on which the factory system was then
largely being carried on. A local inquiry, chiefly by a group
of medical men presided over by Dr Percival, was instituted
by the justices of the peace for Lancashire, and in the forefront
of the resulting report stood a recommendation for limitation
1 From an " Essay on Trade " (1770) , quoted in History of Factory
Legislation, by B. L. Hutching and A. Harrison (1903), pp. 5, 6.
and control of the working hours of the children. A resolution
by the county justices followed, in which they declared their
intention in future to refuse " indentures of parish Apprentices
whereby they shall be bound to Owners of Cotton Mills and other
works in which children are obliged to work in the night or more
than ten hours in the day." In 1795 the Manchester Board of
Health was formed, which, with fuller information, more
definitely advised legislation for the regulation of the hours and
conditions of labour in factories. In 1802 the Health and Morals
of Apprentices Act was passed, which in effect formed the first
step towards prevention of injury to and protection of labour
in factories. It was directly aimed only at evils of the apprentice
system, under which large numbers of pauper children were
worked in cotton and woollen mills without education, for
excessive hours, under wretched conditions. It did not apply to
places employing fewer than twenty persons or three apprentices,
and it applied the principle of limitation of hours (to twelve a
day) and abolition of night work, as well as educational require-
ments, only to apprentices. Religious teaching and suitable
sleeping accommodation and clothing were provided for in the
act, also as regards apprentices. Lime-washing and ventilation
provisions applied to all cotton and woollen factories employing
more than twenty persons. " Visitors " were to be appointed
by county justices for repression of contraventions, and were
empowered to " direct the adoption of such sanitary regulations
as they might on advice think proper." The mills were to be
registered by the clerk of the peace, and justices had power to
inflict fines of from £2 to £5 for contraventions. Although
enforcement of the very limited provisions of the act was in
many cases poor or non-existent, in some districts excellent
work was done by justices, and in 1803 the West Riding of
Yorkshire justices passed a resolution substituting the ten hours'
limit for the twelve hours' limit of the act, as a condition of
permission for indenturing of apprentices in mills.
Rapid development of the application of steam power to manu-
facture led to growth of employment of children in populous
centres, otherwise than on the apprenticeship system, and before
long the evils attendant on this change brought the general
question of regulation and protection of child labour in textile
factories to the front. The act of 1819, limited as it was, was
a noteworthy step forward, in that it dealt with this wider
scope of employment of children in cotton factories, and it is
satisfactory to record that it was the outcome of the efforts
and practical experiments of a great manufacturer, Robert
Owen. Its provisions fell on every point lower than the aims
he put forward on his own experience as practicable, and notably
in its application only to cotton mills instead of all textile factories.
Prohibition of child labour under nine years of age and lin itation
of the working day to twelve in the twenty-four (without
specifying the precise hour of beginning and closing) were the
main provisions of this act. No provision was made for enforce-
ment of the law beyond such as was attempted in the act of
1802. Slight amendments were attempted in the acts of 1825
and 1831, but the first really important factory act was in 1833
applying to textile factories generally, limiting employment
of young persons under eighteen years of age, as well as children,
prohibiting night work between 8.30 P.M. and 5.30 A.M., and
first providing for "inspectors " to enforce the law. This is
the act which was based on the devoted efforts of Michael
Sadler, with whose name in this connexion that of Lord Ashley,
afterwards earl of Shaftesbury, was from 1832 associated.
The importance of this act lay in its provision for skilled inspec-
tion and thus for enforcement of the law by an independent
body of men unconnected with the locality in which the manu-
factures lay, whose specialization in their work enabled them
to acquire information needed for further development of
legislation for protection of labour. Their powers were to a
certain extent judicial, being assimilated to those possessed
by justices; they could administer oaths and make such " rules,
regulations and orders " as were necessary for execution of the
act, and could hear complaints and impose penalties under the
act. In 1844 a textile factory act modified these extensive
UNITED KINGDOM]
LABOUR LEGISLATION
ii
inspectoral powers, organizing the service on lines resembling
those of our own time, and added provision for certifying
surgeons to examine workers under sixteen years of age as to
physical fitness for employment and to grant certificates of age
and ordinary strength. Hours of labour, by the act of 1833,
were limited for children under eleven to 9 a day or 48 in the
week, and for young persons under eighteen to 12 a day or 69
in the week. Between 1833 and 1844 the movement in favour
of a ten hours' day, which had long been in progress, reached
its height in a time of great commercial and industrial distress,
but could not be carried into effect until ^847. By the act of
1844 the hours of adult women were first regulated, and were
limited (as were already those of " young persons ") to 12 a day;
children were permitted either to work the same hours on alter-
nate days or " half-time," with compulsory school attendance
as a condition of their employment. The aim in thus adjusting
the hours of the three classes of workers was to provide for a
practical standard working-day. For the first time detailed
provisions for health and safety began to make their appearance
in the law. Penal compensation for preventible injuries due to
unfenced machinery was also provided, and appears to have
been the outcome of a discussion by witnesses before the Royal
Commission on Labour of Young Persons in Mines and Manu-
factures in 1841.
From this date, 1841, begin the first attempts at protective
legislation for labour in mining. The first Mines Act of 1842
following the terrible revelations of the Royal Commission
referred to excluded women and girls from underground working,
and limited the employment of boys, excluding from underground
working those under ten years, but it was not until 1850 that
systematic reporting of fatal accidents and until 1855 that other
safeguards for health, life and limb in mines were seriously
provided by law. With the exception of regulations against
truck there was no protection for the miner before 1842; before
1814 it was not customary to hold inquests on miners killed
by accidents in mines. From 1842 onwards considerable inter-
action in the development of the two sets of acts (mines and
factories) , as regards special protection against industrial injury
to health and limb, took place, both in parliament and in the
department (Home Office) administering them. Another
strong influence tending towards ultimate development of
scientific protection of health and life in industry began in the
work and reports of the series of sanitary commissions and Board
of Health reports from 1843 onwards. In 1844 the mines
inspector made his first report, but two years later women were
still employed to some extent underground. Organized inspec-
tion began in 1850, and in 1854 the Select Committee on Accidents
adopted a suggestion of the inspectors for legislative extension
of the practice of several colliery owners -in framing special
safety rules for working in mines. The act of 1855 provided
seven general rules, relating to ventilation, fencing of disused
shafts, proper means for signalling, proper gauges and valve
for steam-boiler, indicator and brake for machine lowering and
raising; also it provided that detailed special rules submitted
by mine-owners to the secretary of state, might, on his approval,
have the force of law and be enforceable by penalty. The
Mines Act of 1860, besides extending the law to ironstone
mines, following as it did on a series of disastrous accidents
and explosions, strengthened some of the provisions for safety.
At several inquests strong evidence was given of incompetent
management and neglect of rules, and a demand was made for
enforcing employment only of certificated managers of coal
mines. This was not met until the act of 1872, but in 1860
certain sections relating to wages and education were introduced.
Steady development of the coal industry, increasing association
among miners, and increased scientific knowledge of means of
ventilation and of other methods for securing safety, all paved
the way to the Coal Mines Act of 1872, and in the same year
health and safety in metalliferous mines received their first
legislative treatment in a code of similar scope and character
to that of the Coal Mines Act. This. act was amended in 1886,
and repealed and recodified in 1887; its principal provisions
are still in force, with certain revised special rules and modifica-
tions as regards reporting of accidents (1906) and employment
of children (1903). It was based on the recommendations of a
Royal Commission, which had reported in 1864, and which had
shown the grave excess of mortality and sickness among metal-
liferous miners, attributed to the inhalation of gritty particles,
imperfect ventilation, great changes of temperature, excessive
physical exertion, exposure to wet, and other causes. The pro-
hibition of employment of women and of boys under ten years
underground in this class of mines, as well as in coal mines,
had been effected by the act of 1842, and inspection had been
provided for in the act of 1860; these were in amended form
included in the code of 1872, the age of employment of boys
underground being raised to twelve. In the Coal Mines Act
of 1872 we see the first important effort to provide a complete
code of regulation for the special dangers to health, life and
limb in coal mines apart from other mines; it applied to
" mines of coal, mines of stratified ironstone, mines of shale and
mines of fire-clay." Unlike the companion act — applying to
all other mines — it maintained the age limit of entering under-
ground employment for boys at ten years, but for those between
ten and twelve it provided for a system of working analogous
to the half-time system in factories, including compulsory school
attendance. The limits of employment for boys from twelve
to sixteen were 10 hours in any one day and 54 in anyone week.
The chief characteristics of the act lay in extension of the
" general " safety rules, improvement of the method of formulat-
ing " special " safety rules, provision for certificated and com-
petent management, and increased inspection. Several important
matters were transferred from the special to the general rules,
such as compulsory use of safety lamps where needed, regulation
of use of explosives, and securing of roofs and sides. Special
rules, before being submitted to the secretary of state for
approval, must be posted in the mine for two weeks, with a
notice that objections might be sent by any person employed
to the district inspector. Wilful neglect of safety provisions
became punishable in the case of employers as well as miners
by imprisonment with hard labour. But the most important
new step lay in the sections relating to daily control and super-
vision of every mine by a manager holding a certificate of com-
petency from the secretary of state, after examination by a
board of examiners appointed by the secretary of state, power
being retained for him to cause later inquiry into competency
of the holder of the certificate, and to cancel or suspend the
certificate in case of proved unfitness.
Returning to the development of factory and workshop law
from the year 1844, the main line of effort — after the act of
1847 had restricted hours of women and young persons to 10
a day and fixed the daily limits between 6 A.M. and 6 P.M.
(Saturday 6 A.M. to 2 P.M.) — lay in bringing trade after trade
in some degree under the scope of this branch of law, which had
hitherto only regulated conditions in textile factories. Bleaching
and dyeing works were included by the acts of 1860 and 1862;
lace factories by that of 1861; calendering and finishing by
acts of 1863 and 1864; bakehouses became partially regulated
by an act of 1863, with special reference to local authorities for
administration of its clauses. The report of the third Children's
Employment Commission brought together in accessible form
the miserable facts relating to child labour in a number of un-
regulated industries in the year 1862, and the act of 1864 brought
some of (these earthenware-making, lucifer match-making,
percussion cap and cartridge making, paper-staining, and fustian
cutting) partly under the scope of the various textile factory
acts in force. A larger addition of trades was made three years
later, but the act of 1864 is particularly interesting in that it
first embodied some of the results of inquiries of expert medical
and sanitary commissioners, by requiring ventilation to be
applied to the removal of injurious gases, dust, and other im-
purities generated in manufacture, and made a first attempt
to engraft part of the special rules system from the mines atts.
The provisions for framing such rules disappeared in the Con-
solidating Act of 1878, to be revivra in a better form later.
12
LABOUR LEGISLATION
[FACTORIES AND WORKSHOPS
The Sanitary Act of 1866, administered by local authorities,
provided for general sanitation in any factories and workshops
not under existing factory acts, and the Workshops Regulation
Act of 1867, similarly to be administered by local authorities,
amended in 1870, practically completed the application of the
main principle of the factory acts to all places in which manual
labour was exercised for gain in the making or finishing of
articles or parts of articles for sale. A few specially dangerous
or injurious trades brought under regulation in 1864 and 1867
(e.g. earthenware and lucifer match making, glass-making)
ranked as "factories," although not using mechanical power,
and for a time employment of less than fifty persons relegated
certain work-places to the category of "workshops," but broadly
the presence or absence of such motor power in aid of process
was made and has remained the distinction between factories
and workshops. The Factory Act of 1874, the last of the series
before the great Consolidating Act of 1878, raised the minimum
age of employment for children to ten years in textile factories.
In most of the great inquiries into conditions of child labour
the fact has come clearly to light, in regard to textile and non-
textile trades alike, that parents as much as any employers
have been responsible for too early employment and excessive
hours of employment of children, and from early times until
to-day in factory legislation it has been recognized that they
must to some extent be held responsible for due observation of
the limits imposed. For example, in 1831 it was found necessary
to protect occupiers against parental responsibility for false
certificates of age, and in 1833 parents of a child or " any Person
having any benefit from the wages of such child " were made
to share responsibility for employment of children without school
attendance or beyond legal hours.
During the discussions on the bill which became law in 1874,
it had become apparent that revision and consolidation of the
multiplicity of statutes then regulating manufacturing industry
had become pressingly necessary; modifications and exceptions
for exceptional conditions in separate industries needed re-
consideration and systematization on clear principles, and the
main requirements of the law could with great advantage be
applied more generally to all the industries. In particular,
the daily limits as to period of employment, pauses for meals,
and holidays, needed to be unified for non-textile factories and
workshops, so as to bring about a standard working-day, and
thus prevent the tendency in "the larger establishments to
farm out work among the smaller, where it is done under less
favourable conditions both sanitary and educational. " * In
these main directions, and that of simplifying definitions., sum-
marizing special sanitary provisions that had been gradually
introduced for various trades, and centralizing and improving
the organization of the inspectorate, the Commission of 1876
on the Factory Acts made its recommendations, and the Factory
Act of 1878 took effect. In the fixed working-day, provisions
for pauses, holidays, general and special exceptions, distinctions
between systems of employment for children, young persons
and women, education of children and certificates of fitness for
children and young persons, limited regulation of domestic
workshops, general principles of administration and definitions,
the law of 1878 was made practically the same as that embodied
in the later principal act of 1901. More or less completely revised
are: (a) the sections in the 1878 act relating to mode of control-
ling sanitary conditions in workshops (since 1891 primarily
enforced by the local sanitary authority); (b) provision for
reporting accidents and for enforcing safety (other than fencing
of mill gearing and dangerous machinery); (c) detailed regula-
tion of injurious and dangerous process and trades; (d) powers
of certifying surgeons; (e) amount of overtime permissible
(greatly reduced in amount and now confined to adults) ; (/)
age for permissible employment of a child has been raised from
ten years to twelve years. Entirely new since the act of 1878
are the provisions: (a) for control of outwork; (b) for supplying
particulars of work and wages to piece-workers, enabling them
'Minutes of Evidence, Jiouse of Commons, 1876; quoted in
History of Factory Legislation, by Harrison and Hutchinson, p. ifo.
to compute the total amount of wages payable to them; (e)
extension of the act to laundries; (/) a tentative effort to limit
the too early employment of mothers after childbirth.
II. LAW OF UNITED KINGDOM, 1910
Factories and Workshops. — The act of 1878 remained until
1901, although much had been meanwhile superimposed, a
monument to the efforts of the great factory reformers of the
first half of the igth century, and the general groundwork of
safety for workers in factories and workshops in the main
divisions of sanitation, security against accidents, physical
fitness of workers, general limitation of hours and times of employ-
ment for young workers and women. The act of 1901, which
came into force ist January 1902 (and became the principal
act), was an amending as well as a consolidating act. Comparison
of the two acts shows, however, that, in spite of the advantages
of further consolidation and helpful changes in arrangement of
sections and important additions which tend towards a specialized
hygiene for factory life, the fundamental features of the law
as fought out in the igth century remain undisturbed. So far
as the law has altered in character, it has done so ch'efly by
gradual development of certain sanitary features, originally
subordinate, and by strengthening provision for security against
accidents and not by retreat from its earlier aims. At the same
time a basis for possible new developments can be seen in the
protection of " outworkers " as well as factory workers against
fraudulent or defective particulars of piece-work rates of wages.
Later acts directly and indirectly affecting the law are certain
acts of 1903, 1906, 1907, to be touched on presently.
The act of 1878, in a series of acts from 1883 to 1895, received
striking additions, based (i) on the experience gained in other
branches of protective legislation, e.g. development
of the method of regulation of dangerous trades by ^ddu'oas
. . , . . . . . . / to act of
special rules and administrative inquiry into i^jg.
accidents under Coal Mines Acts; (2) on the findings
of royal commissions and parliamentary inquiries, e.g. increased
control of "outwork " and domestic workshops, and limitation
of "overtime "; (3) on the development of administrative
machinery for enforcing the more modern law relating to public
health, e.g. transference of administration of sanitary provisions
in workshops to the local sanitary authorities; (4) on the trade-
union demand for means for securing trustworthy records of
wage-contracts between employer and workman, e.g. the section
requiring particulars of work and wages for piece-workers. The
first additions to the act of 1878 were, however, almost purely
attempts to deal more adequately than had been attempted
in the code of 1878 with certain striking instances of trades
injurious to health. Thus the Factory and Workshop Act of
1883 provided that white-lead factories should not be carried
on without a certificate of conformity with certain conditions,
and also made provision for special rules, on lines later superseded
by those laid down in the act of 1891, applicable to any employ-
ment in a factory or workshop certified as dangerous or injurious
by the secretary of state. The act of 1883 also dealt with sanitary
conditions in bakehouses. Certain definitions and explanations
of previous enactments touching overtime and employment
of a child in any factory or workshop were also included in the
act. A class of factories in which excessive heat and humidity
seriously affected the health of operatives was next dealt with
in the Cotton Cloth Factories Act 1889. This provided for
special notice to the chief inspector from all occupiers of cotton
cloth factories (i.e. any room, shed, or workshop or part thereof
in which weaving of cotton cloth is carried on) who intend to
produce humidity by artificial means; regulated both tempera-
ture of workrooms and amount of moisture in the atmosphere,
and provided for tests and records of the same; and fixed a
standard minimum volume of fresh air (600 cub. ft.) to be ad-
mitted in every hour for every person employed in the factory.
Power was retained for the secretary of state to modify by order
the standard for the maximum limit of humidity of the atmo-
sphere at any given temperature. A short act in 1870 extended
this power to other measures for the protection of health.
FACTORIES AND WORKSHOPS] LABOUR LEGISLATION
The special measures from 1878 to 1889 gave valuable pre-
cedents for further developments of special hygiene in factory
life, but the next advance in the Factory and Workshop Act
1891, following the House of Lords Committee on the sweating
system and the Berlin International Labour Conference, extended
over much wider ground. Its principal objects were: (a) to
render administration of the law relating to workshops more
efficient, particularly as regards sanitation; with this end in
view it made the primary controlling authority for sanitary
matters in workshops the local sanitary authority (now the
district council), acting by their officers, and giving them the
powers of the less numerous body of factory inspectors, while at
the same time the provisions of the public Health Acts replaced
in workshops the very similar sanitary provisions of the Factory
Acts; (b) to provide for greater security against accidents and
more efficient fencing of machinery in factories; (c) to extend
the method of regulation of unhealthy or dangerous occupations
by application of special rules and requirements to any incident
of employment (other than in a domestic workshop) certified
by the secretary of state to be dangerous or injurious to health
or dangerous to life or limb; (d) to raise the age of employment
of children and restrict the employment of women immediately
after childbirth; (e) to require particulars of rate of wages to
be given with work to piece-workers in certain branches of the
textile industries; (/) to amend the act of 1878 in various
subsidiary ways, with the view of improving the administration
of its principles, e.g. by increasing the means of checking the
amount of overtime worked, empowering inspectors to enter
work-places used as dwellings without a justice's warrant, and
the imposition of minimum penalties in certain cases. On this
act followed four years of greatly accelerated administrative
activity. No fewer than sixteen trades were scheduled by the
secretary of state as dangerous to health. The manner of pre-
paring and establishing suitable rules was greatly modified by
the act of 1901 and will be dealt with in that connexion.
The Factory and Workshop Act 1895 followed thus on a
period of exercise of new powers of administrative regulation
(the period being also that during which the Royal Commission
on Labour made its wide survey of industrial conditions), and
after two successive annual reports of the chief inspector of
factories had embodied reports and recommendations from the
women inspectors, who in 1893 were first added to the inspector-
ate. Again, the chief features of an even wider legislative effort
than that of 1891 were the increased stringency and definiteness
of the measures for securing hygienic and safe conditions of work.
Some of these measures, however, involved new principles, as
in the provision for the prohibition of the use of a dangerous
machine or structure by the order of a magistrate's court, and
the power to include in the special rules drawn up in pursuance
of section 8 of the act of 1891, the prohibition of the employment
of any class of persons, or the limitation of the period of employ-
ment of any class of persons in any process scheduled by order
of the secretary of state. These last two powers have both been
exercised, and with the exercise of the latter passed away,
without opposition, the absolute freedom of the employer of
the adult male labourer to carry on his manufacture without
legislative limitation of the hours of labour. Second only in
significance to these new developments was the addition, for
the first time since 1867, of new classes of workplaces not
covered by the general definitions in section 93 of the Con-
solidating Act of 1878, viz. : (a) laundries (with special conditions
as to hours, &c.); (b) docks, wharves, quays, warehouses and
premises on which machinery worked by power is temporarily
used for the purpose of the construction of a building or any
structural work in connexion with the building (for the purpose
only of obtaining security against accidents). Other entirely
new provisions in the act of 1895, later strengthened by the act
of 1901, were the requirement of a reasonable temperature in
workrooms, the requirement of lavatories for the use of persons
employed in any department where poisonous substances are
used, the obligation on occupiers and medical practitioners to
report cases of industrial poisoning; and the penalties imposed
on an employer wilfully allowing wearing apparel to be made,
cleaned or repaired in a dwelling-house where an inmate is
suffering from infectious disease. Another provision empowered
the secretary of state to specify classes of outwork and areas
with a view to the regulation of the sanitary condition of premises
in which outworkers are employed. Owing to the conditions
attached to its exercise, no case was found in which this power
could come into operation, and the act of 1901 deals with the
matter on new lines. The requirement of annual returns from
occupiers of persons employed, and the competency of the person
charged with infringing the act to give evidence in his defence,
were important new provisions, as was also the adoption of the
powers to direct a formal investigation of any accident on the
lines laid down in section 45 of the Coal Mines Regulation Act
1887. Other sections, relating to sanitation and safety, were
developments of previous regulations, e.g. the fixing of a standard
of overcrowding, provision of sanitary accommodation separate
for each sex where the standard of the Public Health Act Amend-
ment Act of 1890 had not been adopted by the competent local
sanitary authority, power to order a fan or other mechanical
means to carry off injurious gas, vapour or other impurity
(the previous power covering only dust). The fencing of
machinery and definition of accidents were made more precise,
young persons were prohibited from cleaning dangerous
machinery, and additional safeguards against risk of injury by
fire or panic were introduced. On the question of employment
the foremost amendments lay in the almost complete prohibition
of overtime for young persons, and the restriction of the power
of an employer to employ protected persons outside his factory
or workshop on the same day that he had employed them in
the factory or workshop. Under the head of particulars of work
and wages to piece-workers an important new power, highly
valued by the workers, was given to apply the principle with
the necessary modifications by order of the secretary of state
to industries other than textile and to outworkers as well as
to those employed inside factories and workshops.
In 1899 an indirect modification of the limitation to employ-
ment of children was effected by the Elementary Education
Amendment Act, which, by raising from eleven to
twelve the minimum age at which a child may, by
the by-laws of a local authority, obtain total or
partial exemption from the obligation to attend school, made it
unlawful for an occupier to take into employment any child
under twelve in such a manner as to prevent full-time attendance
at school. The age of employment became generally thereby
the same as it has been for employment at a mine above ground
since 1887. The act of 1901 made the prohibition of employ-
ment of a child under twelve in a factory or workshop direct
and absolute. Under the divisions of sanitation, safety, fitness
for employment, special regulation of dangerous trades, special
control of bakehouses, exceptional treatment of creameries, new
methods of dealing with home work and outworkers, important
additions were made to the general law by the act of 1901, as
also in regulations for strengthened administrative control.
New general sanitary provisions were those prescribing : (a)
ventilation per se for every workroom, and empowering the
secretary of state to fix a standard of sufficient ventilation;
(b) drainage of wet floors; (c) the power of the secretary of
state to define in certain cases what shall constitute sufficient
and suitable sanitary accommodation. New safety provisions
were those relating to — (a) Examination and report on steam
boilers; (b) prohibition of employment of a child in cleaning
below machinery in motion; (c) power of the district council
to make by-laws for escape in case of fire. The most important
administrative alterations were : (a) a justice engaged in the
same trade as, or being officer of an association of persons
engaged in the same trade as, a person charged with an offence
may not act at the hearing and determination of the charge;
(b) ordinary supervision of sanitary conditions under which
outwork is carried on was transferred to the district council,
power being reserved to the Home Office to intervene in case of
neglect or default by any district council.
"°
LABOUR LEGISLATION [FACTORIES AND WORKSHOPS
Acts of
1903, 1906,
1907.
The Employment of Children Act 1903, while primarily
providing for industries outside the scope of the Factory Act,
incidentally secured that children employed as half-
timers should not also be employed in other occupa-
tions. The Notice of Accidents Act 1906 amended
the whole system of notification of accidents, simul-
taneously in mines, quarries, factories and workshops, and
will be set out in following paragraphs. The Factory and
Workshop Act of 1907 amended the law in respect of laundries
by generally applying the provisions of 1901 to trade laundries
while granting them choice of new exceptional periods, and by
extending the provisions of the act (with certain powers to the
Home Office by Orders laid before parliament to allow variations)
to institution laundries carried on for charitable or reformatory
purposes. The Employment of Women Act 1907 repealed
an exemption in the act of 1901 (and earlier acts) relating to
employment of women in flax scutch mills, thus bringing this
employment under the ordinary provisions as to period of
employment.
The following paragraphs aim at presenting an idea of the
scope of the modified and amended law, as a whole, adding
where clearly necessary reference to the effect of acts, which
ceased to apply after the 3ist of December 1901 : —
The workplaces to which the act applies are, first, " factories "
and "workshops"; secondly, laundries, docks, wharves, &c.,
enumerated above as introduced and regulated partially
only by the act of 1895 and subsequent acts. Apart from
this secondary list, and having regard to workplaces
which remain undefined by the law, the act may broadly be said to
apply to premises, rooms or places in which manual labour, with or
without the aid of mechanical power, is exercised for gain in or
incidental to the making, altering, repairing, ornamenting, washing,
cleaning or finishing or adapting for sale of any article or part of any
article. If steam, water or other mechanical power is used in aid of
the manufacturing process, the workplace is a factory; if not, it is
a workshop. There is, however, a list of eighteen classes of works
(brought under the factory law for reasons of safety, Sic., before
workshops generally were regulated) which are defined as factories
whether power is used in them or not. Factories are, again, sub-
divided into textile and non-textile: they are textile if the machinery
is employed in preparing, manufacturing or finishing cotton, wool,
hair, silk, flax, hemp, jute, tow, China grass, cocoanut fibre or other
like material either separately or mixed together, or mixed with any
other material, or any fabric made thereof; all other factories are
non-textile. The distinction turns on the historical origin of factory
regulation and the regulations in textile factories remain in some
respects slightly more stringent than in the non-textile factories
and workshops, though the general provisions are almost the same.
Three special classes of workshops have for certain purposes to be
distinguished from ordinary workshops, which include tenement
workshops: (a) Domestic workshops, i.e. any private house, room or
place, which, though used as a dwelling, is by reason of the work
carried on there a workshop, and in whicn the only persons employed
are members of the same family, dwelling there alone — in these
women's hours are unrestricted; (b) Women's workshops, in which
neither children nor young persons are employed — in these a more
elastic arrangement of hours is permissible than in ordinary work-
shops; (c) Workshops in which men only are employed — these come
under the same general regulations in regard to sanitation as other
workshops, also under the provisions of the Factory Act as regards
security, and, if certified by the secretary of state, may be brought
under special regulations. They are otherwise outside the scope of
the act of 1901.
The person to whom the regulations apply in the above-defined
workplaces are children, i.e. persons between the ages of twelve and
fourteen, young persons, i.e. boys or girls between the ages of fourteen
(or if an educational certificate has been obtained, thirteen) and
eighteen years of age, and women, i.e. females above the age of
eighteen; these are all " protected " persons to whom the general
provisions of the act, inclusive of the regulation of hours and times
of employment, apply. To adult men generally those provisions
broadly only apply which are aimed at securing sanitation and
safety in the conduct of the manufacturing process.
The person generally responsible for observance of the provisions
of the law, whether these relate to health, safety, limitation of
the hours of labour or other matters, is the occupier (a term un-
defined in the act) of the factory, workshop or laundry. There are,
however, limits to his responsibility: (a) generally, where the
occupier has used due diligence to enforce the execution of the act,
and can show that another person, whether agent, servant, workman
or other person, is the real offender; (b) specially in a factory the
sections relating to employment of protected persons, where the
owner or hirer of a machine or implement driven by mechanical
power is some person other than the occupier of the factory, the
Sanita-
tion.
owner or hirer, so far as respects any offence against the act com-
mitted in relation to a person who is employed in connexion with the
machine or implement, and is in the employment or pay of the
owner or hirer, shall be deemed to be the occupier of the factory;
(c) for the one purpose of reporting accidents, the actual employer
of the person injured in any factory or workshop is bound under
penalty immediately to report the same to the occupier; (d) so far
as relates to sanitary conditions, fencing of machinery, affixing of
notices in tenement factories, the owner (as defined by the Public
Health Act 1875), generally speaking, takes the place of the occupier.
.Employment in a factory or workshop includes work whether for
wages or not: (a) in a manufacturing process or handicraft, (b) in
cleaning any place used for the same, (c) in cleaning or oiling any part
of the machinery, (d) any work whatsoever incidental to the process
or handicraft, or connected with the article made. Persons found in
any part of the factory or .workshop, where machinery is used or
manufacture carried on, except at meal-times, or when machinery
is stopped, are deemed to be employed until the contrary is proved.
The act, however, does not apply to employment for the sole purpose
of repairing the premises or machinery, nor to the process of pre-
serving and curing fish immediately upon its arrival in the fishing
boats in order to prevent the fish from being destroyed or spoiled,
nor to the process of cleaning and preparing fruit so far as is necessary
to prevent it from spoiling during the months of June, July, August
and September. Certain light handicrafts carried on by a family
only in a private house or room at irregular intervals are also outside
the scope of the act.
The foremost provisions are those relating to the sanitary con-
dition of the workplaces and the general security of every class of
worker. Every factory must be kept in a cleanly con-
dition, free from noxious effluvia, ventilated in such a
manner as to render harmless, so far as practicable, gases,
vapours, dust or other impurities generated in the manufacture ; must
be provided with sufficient and suitable sanitary conveniences separate
for the sexes; must not be overcrowded (not less than 250 cubic ft.
during the day, 400 during overtime, for each worker). In these
matters the law of public health takes in workshops the place of the
Factory Act, the requirements being substantially the same.
Although, however, primarily the officers of the district council
enforce the sanitary provisions in workshops, the government factory
inspectors may give notice of any defect in them to the district
council in whose district they are situate; and if proceedings are not
taken within one month by the latter, the factory inspector may act
in default and recover expenses from the district council. This power
does not extend to domestic workshops which are under the law
relating to public health so far as general sanitation is concerned.
General powers are reserved to the secretary of state, where he
is satisfied that the Factory Act or law relating to public health
as regards workplaces has not been carried out by any district
council, to authorize a factory inspector during a period named in
his order to act instead of the district council. Other general sanitary
provisions administered by the government inspectors are the re-
quirement in factories and workshops of washing conveniences where
poisonous substances are used; adequate measures for securing and
maintaining a reasonable temperature of such a kind as will not
interfere with the purity of the air in each room in which any person
is employed ; maintenance of sufficient means of ventilation in every
room in a factory or workshop (in conformity with such standard as
may be prescribed by order of the secretary of state) ; provision of a
fan to carry off injurious dust, gas or other impurity, and prevent
their inhalation in any factory or workshop; drainage of floors
where wet processes are carried on. For laundries and bakehouses
there are further sanitary regulations; e.g. in laundries all stoves for
heating irons shall be sufficiently separated from any ironing-room
or ironing-table, and the floors shall be " drained in such a manner
as will allow the water to flow off freely "; and in bakehouses a
cistern supplying water to a bakehouse must be quite separate from
that supplying water to a water-closet, and the latter may not
communicate directly with the bakehouse. Use of underground
bakehouses (i.e. a baking room with floor more than 3 ft. below the
ground adjoining) is prohibited, except where already used at the
passing of the act; further, in these cases, after 1st January 1904,
a certificate as to suitability in light, ventilation, &c., must be ob-
tained from the district council. In other trades certified by the
secretary of state further sanitary regulations may be made to increase
security for health by special rules to be presently touched on. The
secretary of state may also make sanitary requirements a condition
of granting such exceptions to the general .law as he is empowered to
grant. In factories, as distinct from workshops, a periodical lime
washing (or washing with hot water and soap where paint and
varnish have been used) of all inside walls and ceilings once at least
in every fourteen months is generally required (in bakehouses once
in six months). As regards sufficiency and suitability of sanitary
accommodation, the standards determined by order of the secretary
of state shall be observed in the districts to which it is made applic-
able. An order was made called the Sanitary Accommodation Order,
on the 4th of February 1903, the definitions and standards in which
have also been widely adopted by local sanitary authorities in
districts where the Order itself has no legal force, the local authority
having parallel power under the Public Health Act of 1890.
FACTORIES AND WORKSHOPS] LABOUR LEGISLATION
Security in the use of machinery is provided for by precautions
as regards the cleaning of machinery in motion and working between
. the fixed and traversing parto of self-acting machines
Security driven by power, by fencing of machinery, and by em-
powering inspectors to obtain an order from a court of
accidents. summary jurisdiction to prohibit the use, temporarily or
absolutely, of machinery, ways, works or plant, including use of a
steam boiler, which cannot be used without danger to life and
limb. Every hoist and fly-wheel directly connected with mechanical
power, and every part of a water-wheel or engine worked by
mechanical power, and every wheel race, must be fenced, whatever
its position, and every part of mill-gearing or dangerous machinery
must either be fenced or be in such position that it is as safe as if
fenced. No protected persons may clean any part of mill-gearing in
motion, and children may further not clean any part of or below
manufacturing machinery in motion by aid of mechanical power-,
young persons further may not clean any machinery if the inspector
notifies it to the occupier as dangerous. Security as regards the use
of dangerous premises is provided for by empowering courts of
summary jurisdiction, on the application of an inspector, to prohibit
their use until the danger has been removed. The district council, or,
in London, the county council, or in case of their default the factory
inspector, can require certain provisions for escape in case of fire in
factories and workshops in which more than forty persons are em-
ployed; special powers to make by-laws for means of escape from
fire in any factory or workshop are, in addition to any powers for
prevention of fire that they possess, given to every district council,
in London to the county council. The means of escape must be kept
free from obstruction. Provisions are made for doors to open out-
wards in each room in which more than ten persons are employed, ind
to prevent the locking, bolting or fastening of doors so that they
cannot easily be opened from inside when any person is employed or
at meals inside the workplace. Further, provisions for security may
be provided in special regulations. Every boiler for generating
steam in a factory or workshop or place where the act applies must
have a proper safety valve, a steam gauge, and a water gauge, and
every such boiler, valve and gauge must be maintained in proper
condition. Examination by a competent person must take place
at least once in every fourteen months. The occupier of any factory
or workshop may be liable for penal compensation not exceeding £100
in case of injury or death due to neglect of any provision or special
rule, the whole or any part of which may be applied for the benefit
of the injured person or his family, as the secretary of state deter-
mines. When a death has occurred by accident in a factory or
workshop, the coroner must advise the factory inspector for the
district of the place and time of the inquest. The secretary of state
may order a formal investigation of the circumstances of any accident
as in the case of mines. Careful and detailed provisions are made for
the reporting by occupiers to inspectors, and entry in the registers
at factories and workshops of accidents which occur in a factory or
workshop and (a) cause loss of life to a person employed there, or (b)
are due to machinery moved by mechanical power, molten metal,
hot liquid, explosion, escape of gas or steam, electricity, so disabling
any person employed in the factory or workshop as to cause him to
be absent throughout at least one whole day from his ordinary work,
(c) are due to any other special cause which the secretary of state may
determine, (d) not falling under the previous heads and yet cause
disablement for more than seven days' ordinary work to any person
working in the factory or workshop. In the case of (a) or (b) notice
has also to be sent to the certifying surgeon by the occupier. Cases
of lead, phosphorus, arsenical and mercurial poisoning, or anthrax,
contracted in any factory or workshop must similarly be reported
and registered by the occupier, and the duty of reporting these cases
is also laid on medical practitioners under whose observation they
come. The list of classes of poisoning can be extended by the
secretary of state's order.
Certificates of physical fitness for employment must be obtained
by the occupier from the certifying surgeon for the district for all
Physical Pers°ns under sixteen years of age employed in a factory,
fitness of anc' *n any c'ass °f workshops to which the requirement
workers ^as been extended by order of the secretary of state, and
an inspector may suspend any such persons tor re-ex-
amination in a factory, or for examination in a workshop, when
" disease or bodily infirmity " unfits the person, in his opinion, for
the work of the place. The certifying surgeon may examine the
process as well as the person submitted, and may qualify the certifi-
cate he grants by conditions as to the work on which the person is fit
to be employed. An occupier of a factory or workshop or laundry
shall not knowingly allow a woman to be employed therein within
four weeks after childbirth.
The employment of children, young persons and women is regu-
lated as regards ordinary and exceptional hours of work, ordinary
Hours of an^ exceptional meal-times, length of spells and holidays.
protected ^he outs'de limits of ordinary periods of employment and
persons. holidays are, broadly, the same for textile factories as for
non-textile factories and workshops; the main difference
lies in the requirement of not less than a total two hours' interval for
meals out of the twelve, and a limit of four and a half hours for any
spell of work, a longer weekly half holiday, and a prohibition of
overtime, in textile factories, as compared with a total one and a half
hours' interval for meals and a limit of five hours for spells and
(conditional) permission of overtime in non-textile factories. The
hours of work must be specified, and from Monday to Friday may be
between 6 A.M. and 6 P.M., or 7 A.M. to 7 P.M. ; in non-textile factories
and workshops the hours also may be taken between 8 A.M. and 8 P.M.
or by order of the secretary of state for special industries 9 A.M. to
9 P.M. Between these outside limits, with the proviso that meal-
times must be fixed and limits as to spells observed, women and
young persons may be employed the full time, children on the
contrary only half time, on alternate days, or in alternate sets
attending school half time regularly. On Saturdays, in textile
factories in which the period commences at 6 A.M. all manufactur-
ing work must cease at 12 if not less than one hour is given for meals,
or 11.30 if less than one hour is given for meals (half an hour extra
allowed for cleaning), and in non-textile factories and workshops
at 2 P.M., 3 P.M. or 4 P.M., according as the hour of beginning is 6 A.M.,
7 A.M. or 8 A.M. In " domestic workshops " the total number of hours
for young persons and children must not exceed those allowed in
ordinary workshops, but the outside limits for beginning and ending
are wider; and the case is similar as regards hours of women in
" women's workshops." Employment outside a factory or workshop
in the business of the same is limited in a manner similar to that laid
down in the Shop Hours Act, to be touched on presently. Overtime
in certain classes of factories, workshops and warehouses attached
to them is permitted, under conditions specified in the acts, for
women, to meet seasonal or unforeseen pressure of business, or
where goods of a perishable nature are dealt with, for young persons
only in a very limited degree in factories liable to stoppage for
drought or flood, or for an unfinished process. These and other
cases of exceptional working are under minute and careful adminis-
trative regulations. Broadly these same regulations as to exceptional
overtime may apply in laundries but the act of 1907 granted to
laundries not merely ancillary to the manufacture carried on in a
factory or workshop (e.g. shirt and collar factories), additional power
to fix different periods of employment for different days of the week,
and to make use of one or other of two exceptional methods of
arranging the daily periods so as to permit of periods of different
length on different days; these exceptional periods cannot be
worked in addition to overtime permissible under the general law.
Laundries carried on in connexion with charitable or reformatory
institutions were brought in 1907 within the scope of the law, but
special schemes for regulation as to hours, meals, holidays, &c., may
be submitted by the managers to the secretary of state, who is em-
Eowered to approve them if he is satisfied that they are not less
ivourable than the corresponding provisions of the principal act;
such schemes shall be laid as soon as possible before both Houses of
Parliament.
Night work is allowed in certain specified industries, under con-
ditions, for male young persons, but for no other workers under
rjaagerouf
eighteen, and overtime for women may never be later than
to P.M. or before 6 A.M. Sunday work is prohibited except, aaflun.
under conditions, for Jews; and in factories, workshops /,ea/<ftj,
and laundries six holidays (generally the Bank holidays) iaaustrles
must be allowed in the year. In creameries in which
women and young persons are employed the secretary of state may
by special order vary the beginning and end of the daily period of
employment, and allow employment for not more than three hours
on Sundays and holidays.
The general provisions of the act may be supplemented where
specially dangerous or unhealthy trades are carried on, by special
regulations. This was provided for in the law in force until 3lst
December 1901, as in the existing principal act, and the power to
establish rules had been exercised between 1892 and 1901 in twenty-
two trades or processes where injury arose either from handling of
dangerous substances, such as lead and lead compounds, phosphorus,
arsenic or various chemicals, or where there is inhalation of irritant
dust or noxious fumes, or where there is danger of explosion or in-
fection of anthrax. Before the rule could be drawn up under the acts
of 1891 to 1895, the secretary of state had to certify that in the par-
ticular case or class of cases in question (e.g. process or machinery),
there was, in his opinion, danger to life or limb or risk of injury to
health; thereupon the chief inspector might propose to the occupier
of the factory or workshop such special rules or measures as he thought
necessary to meet the circumstances. The occupier might object
or propose modifications, but if he did not the rules became binding
in twenty-one days; if he objected, and the secretary of state did not
assent to any proposed modification, the matters in difference had
to be referred to arbitration, the award in which finally settled the
rules or requirement to be observed. In November 1901, in the case
of the earthenware and china industry, the last arbitration of the
kind was opened and was finally concluded in 1903. The parties to
the arbitration were the chief inspector, on behalf of the secretary of
state, and the occupier or occupiers, but the workmen interested
might be and were represented on the arbitration. In the establishing
of the twenty-two sets of existing special rules only thrice has
arbitration been resorted to, and only on two of these occasions
were workmen represented. The provisions as to the arbitration
were laid down in the first schedule to the Act of 1891, and were
similar to those under the Coal Mines Regulation Acts. Many of
these codes have still the force of law and will continue until in due
i6
LABOUR LEGISLATION
[COAL MINES
course revised under the amended procedure of the act of 1901.
They might not only regulate conditions of employment, but also
restrict or prohibit employment of any class of workers; where
such restriction or prohibition affected adult workers the rules had to
be laid for forty days before both Houses of Parliament before
coming into operation. The obligation to observe the rules in
detail lies on workers as well as on occupiers, and the section in
the act of 1891 providing a penalty for non-observance was drafted,
as in the case of the mines, so as to provide for a simultaneous fine
for each (not exceeding two pounds for the worker, not exceeding ten
pounds for the employer).
The provisions as to special regulations of the act of 1901 touch
primarily the method of procedure for making the regulations, but
they also covered for the first time domestic workshops and added a
power as to the kind of regulations that may be made; further,
they strengthened the sanction for observance of any rules that may
be established, by placing the occupier in the same general position
as regards penalty for non-observance as in other matters under the
act. On the certificate of the secretary of state that any manu-
facture, machinery, plant, process or manual labour used in factories
or workshops is dangerous or injurious to life, health or limb, such
regulations as appear to the secretary of state to meet the necessity
of the case may be made by him after he has duly published notice :
(l) of his intention; (2) of the place where copies of the draft regu-
lations can be obtained ; and (3) of the time during which objections
to them can be made by persons affected. The secretary of state
may modify the regulations to meet the objections made. If not,
unless the objection is withdrawn or appears to him frivolous, he
shall, before making the regulations, appoint a competent person to
hold a public inquiry with regard to the draft regulations and to
report to him thereon. The inquiry is to be made under such rules
as the secretary of state may lay down, and when the regulations are
made, they must be laid as soon as possible before parliament. Either
House may annul these regulations or any of them, without prejudice
to the power of the secretary of state to make new regulations.
The regulations may apply to all factories or workshops in which the
certified manufacture, process, &c., is used, or to a specified class.
They may, among other things, (a) prohibit or limit employment
of any person or class of persons; (b) prohibit, limit, or control use
of any material or process; (c) modify or extend special regulations
contained in the Act. Regulations have been established among
others in the following trades and processes: felt hat-making where
any inflammable solvent is used; file-cutting by hand; manu-
facture of electric accumulators; docks, processes of loading, un-
loading, &c. ; tar distilling; factories in which self-acting mules are
used; use of locomotives; spinning and weaving of flax, hemp and
jute; manufacture of paints and colours; heading of yarn dyed by
means of lead compounds.
Although the Factory and Workshop Acts have not directly
regulated wages, they have made certain provision for securing to
the worker that the amount agreed upon shall be received :
(a) by extending every act in force relating to the inspec-
tion of weights, measures and weighing machines for use
in the sale of goods to those used in a factory or workshop
for checking or ascertaining the wages of persons em-
ployed ; (b) by ensuring that piece-workers in the textile
trades (and other trades specified by the secretary of state) shall
receive, before commencing any piece of work, clear particulars of
the wages applicable to the work to be done and of the work to which
that rate is to be applied. Unless the particulars of work are ascer-
tainable by an automatic indicator, they must be given to textile
workers in writing, and in the case of weavers in the cotton, worsted
and woollen trades the particulars of wages must be supplied
separately to each worker, and also shown on a placard in a con-
spicuous position. In other textile processes, it is sufficient to
furnish the particulars separately to each worker. The secretary of
state has used his powers to extend this protection to non-textile
workers, with suitable modifications, in various hardware industries,
including pen-making, locks, chains, in wholesale tailoring and
making of wearing apparel, in fustian cutting, umbrella-making,
brush-making ana a number of other piece-work trades. He
further has in most of these and other trades used his power to extend
this protection to outworkers.
With a view to efficient administration of the act (a) certain
notices have to be conspicuously exhibited at the factory or work-
shop, (b) registers and lists kept, and (c) notices sent
to the inspector by the occupier. Among the first the
most important are the prescribed abstract of the act,
the names and addresses of the inspector and certifying surgeon,
the period of employment, and specified meal-times (which may not
be changed without fresh notice to the inspector), the air space and
number of persons who may legally be employed in each room, and
prescribed particulars of exceptional employment; among the
second are the general registers of children and young persons em-
ployed, of accidents, of limewashing, of overtime, and lists of out-
workers; among the third are the notice of beginning to occupy a
factory or workshop, which the occupier must send within one
month, report of overtime employment, notice of accident, poisoning
or anthrax, and returns of persons employed, with such other par-
ticulars as may be prescribed. These must be sent to the chief
Measure*
and par-
ticulars
to piece-
workers.
Adminis-
tration.
inspector at intervals of not less than one and not more than three
years, as may be directed by the secretary of state.
The secretary of state for the Home Department controls the
administration of the acts, appoints the inspectors referred to in
the acts, assigns to them their duties, and regulates the manner and
cases in which they are to exercise the powers of inspectors. The
act, however, expressly assigns certain duties and powers to a chief
inspector and certain to district inspectors. Many provisions of the
acts depend as to their operation on the making of orders by the
secretary of state. These orders may impose special obligations
on occupiers and increase the stringency of regulations, may apply
exceptions as to employment, and may modify or relax regulations
to meet special classes of circumstances. In certain cases, already
indicated, his orders guide or determine the action of district councils,
and, generally, in case of default by a council he may empower his
inspectors to act as regards workplaces, instead of the council, both
under the Factory Acts and Public Health Acts.
The powers of an inspector are to enter, inspect and examine, by
day or by night, at any reasonable time, any factory or workshop
(or laundry, dock, &c.), or part of one, when he has reason to believe
that any person is employed there; to take with him a constable if
he has reasonable cause to expect obstruction ; to require production
of registers, certificates, &c., under the acts; to examine, alone or
in the presence of any other person, as he sees fit, every person in the
factory or workshop, or in a school where the children employed are
being educated; to prosecute, conduct or defend before a court of
summary jurisdiction any proceeding under the acts; and to exercise
such other powers as are necessary for carrying the act into effect.
The inspector has also the duty of enforcing the Truck Acts in places,
and in respect of persons, under the Factory Acts. Certifying
surgeons are appointed by the chief inspector subject to the regula-
tions of the secretary of state, and their chief duties are (a) to examine
workers under sixteen, and persons under special rules, as to physical
fitness for the daily work during legal periods, with power to grant
qualified certificates as to the work for which the young worker is fit,
and (6) to investigate and report on accidents and cases of lead,
phosphorus or other poisoning and anthrax.
In 1907 there were registered as under inspection 110,276
factories, including laundries with power, 146,917 workshops
(other than men's workshops), including laundries without
power; of works under special rules or regulations (included
in the figures just given) there were 10,586 and 19,687 non-
textile works under orders for supply of particulars to piece-
workers. Of notices of accidents received there were 124,325,
of which 1179 were fatal; of reported cases of poisoning there
were 653, of which 40 were fatal. Prosecutions were taken by
inspectors in 4474 cases and convictions obtained in 4211 cases.
Of persons employed there were, according to returns of occupiers,
1904, 4,165,791 in factories and 688,756 in workshops.
Cool Mines. — The mode of progress to be recorded in the
regulation of coal mines since 1872 can be contrasted in one
aspect with the progress just recorded of factory legislation
since 1878. Consolidation was again earlier adopted when
large amendments were found necessary, with the result that
by far the greater part of the law is to be found in the act of
1887, which repealed and re-enacted, with amendments, the
Coal Mines Acts of 1872 and 1886, and the Stratified Ironstone
Mines (Gunpowder ) Act, 1881. The act of 1881 was simply
concerned with rules relating to the use of explosives underground.
The act of 1886 dealt with three questions: (a) The election
and payment of checkweighers (i.e. the persons appointed and
paid by miners in pursuance of section 13 of the act of 1887 for
the purpose of taking a correct account on their behalf of the
weight of the mineral gotten by them, and for the correct
determination of certain deductions for which they may be liable) ;
(b) provision for new powers of the secretary of state to direct
a formal investigation of any explosion or accident, and its causes
and circumstances, a provision which was later adopted in the
law relating to factories; (c) provision enabling any relatives
of persons whose death may have been caused by explosions
or accidents in or about mines to attend in person, or by agent,
coroners' inquests thereon, and to examine witnesses. The act
of 1887, which amended, strengthened and consolidated these
acts and the earlier Consolidating Act of 1872, may also be
contrasted in another aspect with the general acts of factory
legislation. In scope it formed, as its principal forerunner had
done, a general code; and in some measure it went farther in
the way of consolidation than the Factory Acts had done,
inasmuch as certain questions, which in factories are dealt w;th
COAL MINES]
LABOUR LEGISLATION
by statutes distinct from the Factory Acts, have been included
in the Mines Regulation Acts, e.g. the prohibition of the payment
of wages in public-houses, and the machinery relating to weights
and measures whereby miners control their payment; further,
partly from the less changing nature of the industry, but probably
mainly from the power of expression gained for miners by their
organization, the code, so far as it went, at each stage answered
apparently on the whole more nearly to the views and needs of
the persons protected than the parallel law relating to factories.
This was strikingly seen in the evidence before the Royal Com-
mission on Labour in 1892-1894, where the repeated expression
of satisfaction on the part of the miners with the provisions
as distinct from the administration of the code (" with a few
trifling exceptions ") is in marked contrast with the long and
varied series of claims and contentions put forward for amend-
ment of the Factory Acts.
Since the act of 1887 there have followed five minor acts,
based on the recommendation of the officials acting under the
acts, while two of them give effect to claims made by the miners
before the Royal Commission on Labour. Thus, in 1894, the
Coal Mines (Checkweigher) Act rendered it illegal for an employer
(" owner, agent, or manager of any mine, or any person employed
by or acting under the instructions of any such owner, agent,
or manager ") to make the removal of a particular checkweigher
a condition of employment, or to exercise improper influence
in the appointment of a checkweigher. The need for this
provision was demonstrated by a decision of the Court of Session
in Edinburgh, which upheld an employer in his claim to the
right of dismissing all the workmen and re-engaging them on
condition that they would dismiss a particular checkweigher.
In 1896 a short act extended the powers to propose, amend
and modify special rules, provided for representation of workmen
on arbitration under the principal act on any matter in difference,
modified the provision for plans of mines in working and
abandoned mines, amended three of the general rules (inspection
before commencing work, use of safety lamp and non-inflamm-
able substances for stemming), and empowered the secretary
of state by order to prohibit or regulate the use of any explosive
likely to become dangerous. In 1900 another brief act raised
the age of employment of boys underground from twelve to
thirteen. In 1903 another amending act allowed as an alternative
qualification for a manager's certificate a diploma in scientific
and mining training after at least two years' study at a university
mining school or other educational institution approved by the
secretary of state, coupled with practical experience of at least
three years in a mine. In the same year the Employment
of Children Act affected children in mines to the extent already
indicated in connexion with factories. In 1905 a Coal Mines
(Weighing of Minerals) Act improved some provisions relating
to appointment and pay of checkweighers and facilities for them
and their duly appointed deputies in carrying out their duties.
In 1906 the Notice of Accidents Act provided for improved
annual returns of accidents and for immediate reporting to the
district inspector of accidents under newly-defined conditions
as they arise in coal and metalliferous mines.
While the classes of mines regulated by the act of 1887 are the
same as those regulated by the act of 1872 (i.e. mines of coal, of
stratified ironstone, of shale and of fire-clay, including
1887 works above ground where the minerals are prepared for
use by screening, washing, &c.) the interpretation of the
term " mine " is wider and simpler, including " every shaft in the
course of being sunk, and every level and inclined plane in the
course of being driven, and all the shafts, levels, planes, works,
tramways and sidings, both below ground and above ground, in and
adjacent to and belonging to the mine." Of the persons responsible
under penalty for the observance of the acts the term " owner " is
defined precisely as in the act of 1872, but the term " agent " is
modified to mean " any person appointed as the representative of the
owner in respect of any mine or any part thereof, and, as such,
superior to a manager appointed in pursuance of this act." Of the
persons protected, the term " young person " disappeared from the
act, and " boy," i.e. " a male under the age of sixteen years," and
" girl," i.e. " a female under the age of sixteen years,' take their
place, and the term " woman " means, as before, " a female of the
age of sixteen years and upwards." The prohibition of employment
underground of women and girls remains untouched, and the pro-
hibition of employment underground of boys has been successively
extended from boys of the age of ten in 1872 to boys of twelve in
1887 and to boys of thirteen in 1900. The age of employment of
boys and girls above ground in connexion with any mine is raised
from ten years in 1872 to twelve years since 1887. The hours of
employment of a boy below ground may not exceed fifty-four in any
one week, nor ten in any one day from the time of leaving the surface
to the time of returning to the surface. Above ground any boy or
girl under thirteen (and over twelve) may not be employed on more
than six days in any one week; if employed on more than three days
in one week, the daily total must not exceed six hours, or in any other
case ten hours. Protected persons above thirteen are limited to the
same daily and weekly total of hours as boys below ground, but there
are further provisions with regard to intervals for meals and pro-
hibiting employment for more than five hours without an interval of
at least half an hour for a meal. Registers must be kept of all
protected persons, whether employed above or below ground.
Section 38 of the Public Health Act 1875, which requires separate and
sufficient sanitary conveniences for persons of each sex, was first
extended by the act of 1887 to the portions of mines above ground in
which girls and women are employed ; underground this matter is in
metalliferous mines in Cornwall now provided for by special rules.
Ventilation, the only other requirement in the acts that can be classed
as sanitary, is provided for in every mine in the " general rules "
which are aimed at securing safety of mines, and which, so far as
ventilation is concerned, seelc to dilute and render harmless noxious
or inflammable gases. The provision which prohibits employment
of any persons in mines not provided with at least two shafts is made
much more stringent by the act of 1887 than in the previous code, by
increasing the distance between the two shafts from 10 to 15 yds.,
and increasing the height of communications between them. Other
provisions amended or strengthened are those relating to the following
points: (a) Daily personal supervision of the mine by the certificated
manager; (6) classes of certificates and constitution of board for
granting certificates of competency; (c) plan of workings of any mine
to be kept up to a date not more than three months previously at the
office of the mine; (d) notice to be given to the inspector of the
district by the owner, agent or manager, of accidents in or about any
mine which cause loss of life or serious personal injury, or are caused
by explosion of coal or coal dust or any explosive or electricity or
any other special cause that the secretary of state specifies by order,
and which causes any personal injury to any person employed in or
about the mine; it is provided that the place where an explosion or
accident occurs causing loss of life or serious personal injury shall be
left for inspection for at least three days, unless this would tend to
increase or continue a danger or impede working of the mine: this
was new in the act of 1887; (e) notice to be given of opening and
abandonment of any mine: this was extended to the opening or
abandonment of any seam; (/) plan of an abandoned mine or seam
to be sent within three months; (g) formal investigation of any ex-
plosion or accident by direction of the secretary of state: this
provision, first introduced by the act of 1886, was modified in 1887
to admit the appointment by the secretary of state of " any com-
petent person to hold the investigation, whereas under the earlier
section only an inspector could be appointed.
The " general rules " for safety in mines have been strengthened in
many ways since the act of 1872. Particular mention may be made
of rule 4 of the act of 1887, relating to the inspection of
conditions as to gas ventilation beyond appointed stations
at the entrance to the mine or different parts of the mine;
this rule generally removed the earlier distinction between mines in
which inflammable gas has been found within the preceding twelve
months, and mines in which it has not been so found; of rules 8, 9, 10
and n, relating to the construction, use, &c., of safety lamps, which
are more detailed and stringent than rule 7 of the act of 1872, which
they replaced; of rule 12, relating to the use of explosives below
ground; of rule 24, which requires the appointment of a competent
male person not less than twenty-two years of age for working the
machinery for lowering and raising persons at the mine; of rule 34.
which first required provision of ambulances or stretchers with
splints and bandages at the mine ready for immediate use; of rule
38, which strengthened the provision for periodical inspection of
the mine by practical miners on behalf of the workmen at their own
cost. With reference to the last-cited rule, during 1898 a Prussian
mining commission visited Great Britain, France and Belgium, to
study and compare the various methods of inspection by working
miners established in these three countries. They found that, so far
as the method had been applied, it was most satisfactory in Great
Britain, where the whole cost is borne by the workers' own organiza-
tions, and they attributed part of the decrease in number of accidents
per thousand employed since 1872 to the inauguration of this
system.
The provisions as to the proposal, amendment and modification
of " special rules," last extended by the act of 1896, may be con-
trasted with those of the Factory Act. In the latter s lgl
it is not until an industry or process has been scheduled r^
as dangerous or injurious by the secretary of state's
order that occasion arises for the formation of special rules, and
then the initiative rests with the Factory Department whereas in
mines it is incumbent in every case on the owner, agent or manager
General
rules.
i8
LABOUR LEGISLATION
[QUARRIES
to propose within three months of the commencement of any work-
ing, for the approval of the secretary of state, special rules best
calculated to prevent dangerous accidents, and to provide for the
safety, convenience and proper discipline of the persons employed
in or about the mine. These rules may, if they relate to lights and
lamps used in the mine, description of explosives, watering and
damping of the mine, or prevention of accidents from inflammable
gas or coal dust, supersede any general rule in the principal act.
Apart from the initiation of the rules, the methods of establishing
them, whether by agreement or by resort to arbitration of the
parties (i.e. the mine owners and the secretary of state), are practic-
ally the same as under the Factory Act, but there is special provision
in the Mines Acts for enabling the persons working in the mine to
transmit objections to the proposed rules, in addition to their subse-
quent right to be represented on the arbitration, if any.
Of the sections touching on wages questions, the prohibition of
the payment of wages in public-houses remains unaltered, being
re-enacted in 1887; the sections relating to payment by weight for
amount of mineral gotten by persons employed, and for check-
weighing the amount by a " checkweigher " stationed by the majority
of workers at each place appointed for the weighing of the material,
were revised, particularly as to the determination of deductions by
the act of 1887, with a view to meeting some problems raised by
decisions on cases under the act of 1872. The attempt seems not to
have been wholly successful, the highest legal authorities having
expressed conflicting opinions on the precise meaning of the terms
" mineral contracted to be gotten." The whole history of the de-
velopment of this means of securing the fulfilment of wage contract
to the workers may be compared with the history of the sections
affording protection to piece-workers by particulars of work and
wages in the textile trades since the Factory Act of 1891.
As regards legal proceedings, the chief amendments of the act of
1872 are: the extension of the provision that the " owner, agent,
Admlnls- or manager " charged in respect of any contravention
tratloa. by another person might be sworn and examined as an
ordinary witness, to any person charged with any offence
under the act. The result of the proceedings against workmen by
the owner, agent or manager in respect of an offence under the act
is to be reported within twenty-one days to the inspector of the
district. The powers of inspectors were extended to cover an inquiry
as to the care and treatment of horses and other animals in the mine,
and as to the control, management or direction of the mine by the
manager.
An important act was passed in 1908 (Coal Mines Regulation
Act 1908) limiting the hours of work for workmen below ground.
It enacted that, subject to various provisions, a workman was
not to be below ground in a mine for the purpose of his work,
and of going to and from his work, for more than eight hours
in any consecutive twenty-four hours. Exception was made
in the case of those below ground for the purpose of rendering
assistance in the event of an accident, or for meeting any danger,
or for dealing with any emergency or work incompleted, through
unforeseen circumstances, which requires to be dealt with to
avoid serious interference in the work of the mine. The
authorities of every mine must fix the times for the -lowering
and raising of the men to begin and be completed, and such
times must be conspicuously posted at the pit head. These
times must be approved by an inspector. The term " workman "
in the act means any person employed in a mine below ground
who is not an official of the mine (other than a fireman, examiner
or deputy), or a mechanic or a horse keeper or a person engaged
solely in surveying or measuring. In the case of a fireman,
examiner, deputy, onsetter, pump minder, fanman or furnace
man, the maximum period for which he may be below ground
is nine hours and a half. A register must be kept by the
authorities of the mine of the times of descent and ascent,
while the workmen may, at their own cost, station persons
(whether holding the office of checkweigher or not) at the pit
head to observe the times. The authorities of the mine may
extend the hours of working by one hour a day on not more than
sixty days in one calendar year (s. 3) . The act may be suspended
by order in council in the event of war or of imminent national
danger or great emergency, or in the event of any grave economic
•disturbance due to the demand for coal exceeding the supply
available at any time. The act came into force on the ist of
July 1909 except for the counties of Northumberland and Durham
where its operation was postponed until the ist of January 1910.
In 1905 the number of coal-mines reported on was 3126, and the
number of persons employed below ground was 691,112 of whom
43.443 were under 16 years of age. Above ground 167,261 were
•employed, of whom 6154 were women and girls. The number of
separate fatal accidents was 1006, causing the loss of 1205 lives. Of
prosecutions by far the greater number were against workmen,
numbering in coal and metalliferous mines 953; owners and
managers were prosecuted in 72 cases, and convictions obtained in
43 cases.
Quarries. — From 1878 until 1894 open quarries (as distinct
from underground quarries regulated by the Metalliferous
Mines Regulation Act) were regulated only by the Factory
Acts so far as they then applied. It was laid down in section
93 of the act of 1878 (41 Viet. c. 16), that " any premises or place
shall not be excluded from the definition of a factory or workshop
by reason only that such premises, &c., are or is in the open
air," thereby overruling the decision in Kent v. Astley that
quarries in which the work, as a whole, was carried on in the open
air were not factories; in a schedule to the same act quarries
were defined as " any place not being a mine in which persons
work in getting slate, stone, coprolites or other minerals."
The Factory Act of 1891 made it possible to bring these places
in part under " special rules " adapted to meet the special risks
and dangers of the operations carried on in them, and by order
of the secretary of state they were certified, December 1892,
as dangerous, and thereby subject to special rules. Until then,
as reported by one of the inspectors of factories, quarries had
been placed under the Factory Acts without insertion of appro-
priate rules for their safe working, and many of them were
developed in a most dangerous manner without any regard
for safety, but merely for economy," and managers of many had
" scarcely seen a quarry until they became managers." In his
report for 1892 it was recommended by the chief inspector of
factories that quarries should be subject to the jurisdiction of
the government inspectors of mines. At the same time currency
was given, by the published reports of the evidence before the
Royal Commission on Labour, to the wish of large numbers
of quarrymen that open as well as underground quarries should
come under more specialized government inspection. In 1893
a committee of experts, including inspectors of mines and of
factories, was appointed by the Home Office to investigate the
conditions of labour in open quarries, and in 1894 the Quarries
Act brought every quarry, as defined in the Factory Act 1878,
any part of which is more than 20 ft. deep, under certain of the
provisions of the Metalliferous Mines Acts, and under the
inspection of the inspectors appointed under those acts; further,
it transferred the duty of enforcing the Factory and Workshop
Acts, so far as they apply in quarries over 20 ft. deep, from the
Factory to the Metalliferous Mines inspectors.
The provisions of the Metalliferous Mines Acts 1872 and 1875,
applied to quarries, are those relating to payment of wages in
public-houses, notice of accidents to the inspector, appointment
and powers of inspectors, arbitration, coroners' inquests, special
rules, penalties, certain of the definitions, and the powers of
the secretary of state finally to decide disputed questions whether
places come within the application of the acts. For other
matters, and in particular fencing of machinery and employment
of women and young persons, the Factory Acts apply, with a
proviso that nothing shall prevent the employment of young
persons (boys) in three shifts for not more than eight hours
each. In 1899 it was reported by the inspectors of mines that
special rules for safety had been established in over 2000 quarries.
In the reports for 1905 it was reported that the accounts of blast-
ing accidents indicated that there was " still much laxity in
observance of the Special rules, and that many irregular and
dangerous practices are in vogue." The absence or deficiency
of external fencing to a quarry dangerous to the public has been
since 1887 (50 & 51 Viet. c. 19) deemed a nuisance liable to be
dealt with summarily in the manner provided by the Public
Health Act 1875.
In 1905, 94,819 persons were employed, of whom 59,978 worked
inside the actual pits or excavations, and 34,841 outside. Compared
with 1900, there was a total increase of 924 in the number of persons
employed. Fatal accidents resulted in 1900 in 127 deaths; compared
with 1899 there was an increase of 10 in the number of deaths, and, as
Professor Le Neve Foster pointed out, this exceeded the average
death-rate of underground workers at mines under the Coal Mines
Acts during the previous ten years, in spite of the quarrier " having
SHOP HOURS]
LABOUR LEGISLATION
nothing to fear from explosions of gas, underground fires or inunda-
tions." He attributed the difference to a lax observance of pre-
cautions which might in time be remedied by stringent administra-
tion of the law. In 1905 there were 97 fatal accidents resulting in
99 deaths. In 1900 there were 92 prosecutions against owners or
agents, with 67 convictions, and 13 prosecutions of workers, with 12
convictions, and in 1905 there were 45 prosecutions of owners or
agents with 43 convictions and 9 prosecutions of workmen with 5
convictions.
In 1883 a short act extended to all " workmen " who are manual
labourers other than miners, with the exception of domestic or
Payment menia' servants, the prohibition of payment of wages in
of waxes public-houses, beer-shops and other places for the sale
in nuhiic. ot spirituous or fermented liquor, laid down in the Coal
III pUDHCm •»«•!-» t • i •* * it • r •» * • i •
houses. Mines Regulations and Metalliferous Mines Regulation
Acts. The places covered by the prohibition include any
office, garden or place belonging to or occupied with the places
named, but the act does not apply to such wages as are paid by the
resident, owner or occupier of the public-house, beer-shop -and other
places included in the prohibition to any workman bona fide em-
ployed by him. The penalty for an offence against this act is one
not exceeding £ 10 (compare the limit of £20 for the corresponding
offence under the Coal Mines Act), andalloffences maybe prosecuted
and penalties recovered in England and Scotland under the Summary
Jurisdiction Acts. The act does not apply to Ireland, and no special
inspectorate is charged with the duty of enforcing its provisions.
Shop Hours. — In four brief acts, 1892 to 1899, still in force,
the first very limited steps were taken towards the positive
regulation of the employment of shop assistants. In the act
of 1904 certain additional optional powers were given to any
local authority making a " closing order " fixing the hour (not
earlier than 7 P.M. or on one day in the week i P.M.) at which
shops shall cease to serve customers throughout the area of
the authority or any specified part thereof as regards all shops
or as regards any specified class of shops. Before such an order
can be made (i) a prima facie case for it must appear to the local
authority; (2) the local authority must inquire and agree;
(3) the order must be drafted and sent for confirmation or other-
wise to the central authority, that is, the secretary of state for
the Home Department; (4) the order must be laid before
both Houses of Parliament. The Home Office has given every
encouragement to the making of such orders, but their number
in England is very small, and the act is practically inoperative
in London and many large towns where the need is greatest.
As the secretary of state pointed out in the House of Commons
on the ist of May 1907, the local authorities have not taken
enough initiative, but at the same time there is a great difficulty
for them in obtaining the required two-thirds majority, among
occupiers of the shops to be affected, in favour of the order,
and at the same time shop assistants have no power to set the
law in motion. In England 364 local authorities have taken
no steps, but in Scotland rather better results have been
obtained. The House resolved, on the date named, that more
drastic legislation is required. As regards shops, therefore, in
place of such general codes as apply to factories, laundries,
mines — only three kinds of protective requirement are binding
on employers of shop assistants: (i) Limitation of the weekly
total of hours of work of persons under eighteen years of age
to seventy-four inclusive of meal-times; (2) prohibition of the
employment of such persons in a shop on the same day that they
have, to the knowledge of the employer, been employed in any
factory or workshop for a longer period than would, in both
classes of employment together, amount to the number of hours
permitted to such persons in a factory or workshop; (3) provision
for the supply of seats by the employer, in all rooms of a shop
or other premises where goods are retailed to the public, for the
use of female assistants employed in retailing the goods — the
seats to be in the proportion of not fewer than one to every
three female assistants. The first two requirements are contained
in the act of 1892, which also prescribed that a notice, referring
to the provisions of the act, and stating the number of hours
in- the week during which a young person may be lawfully
employed in the shop, shall be kept exhibited by the employer;
the third requirement was first provided by the act of 1899.
The intervening acts of 1893 and 1895 are merely supplementary
to the act of 1892; the former providing for the salaries and
expenses of the inspectors which the council of any county or
borough (and in the City of London the Common Council) were
empowered by the act of 1892 to appoint; the latter pro-
viding a penalty of 403. for failure of an employer to keep
exhibited the notice of the provisions of the acts, which in the
absence of a penalty it had been impossible to enforce. The
penalty for employment contrary to the acts is a fine not exceeding
£i for each person so employed, and for failure to comply with
the requirements as to seats, a fine not exceeding £3 for a first
offence, and for any subsequent offence a fine of not less than
£i and not exceeding £5.
A wide interpretation is given by the act of 1892 ro the class
of workplace to which the limitation of hours applies. " Shop "
means retail and wholesale shops, markets, stalls and
warehouses in which assistants are employed for hire,
and includes licensed public-houses and refreshment
houses of any kind. The person responsible for the observance of
the acts is the " employer " of the " young persons " (i.e. persons
under the age of eighteen years), whose hours are limited, and of
the " female assistants " for whom seats must be provided. Neither
the term "employer " nor " shop assistant " (used in the title of the
act of 1899) is defined; but other terms have the meaning assigned
to them in the Factory and Workshop Act 1878. The " employer "
has, in case of any contravention alleged, the same power as the
" occupier " in the Factory Acts to exempt himself from fine on proof
of due diligence and of the fact that some other person is the actual
offender. The provisions of the act of 1892 do not apply to members
of the same family living in a house of which the shop forms part, or
to members of the employer's family, or to any one wholly employed
as a domestic servant.
In London, where the County Council has appointed men and
women inspectors to apply the acts of 1892 to 1899, there were, in
I9°°i 73.929 premises, and in 1905, 84,269, under inspection. In the
latter year there were 22,035 employing persons under 18 years of
age. In 1900 the number of young persons under the acts were:
indoors, 10,239 boys and 4428 girls; outdoors, 35,019 boys, 206
girls. In 1905 the ratio between boys and girls had decidedly altered :
indoors, 6602 boys, 4668 girls; outdoors, 22,654 boys, 308 girls. The
number of irregularities reported in 1900 were 9204 and the pro-
secutions were 117; in 1905 the irregularities were 6966 and the
prosecutions numbered 34. As regards the act of 1899, in only
1088 of the 14,844 shops affected in London was there found in 1900
to be failure to provide seats for the women employed in retailing
goods. The chief officer of the Public Control Department reported
that with very few exceptions the law was complied with at the end
of the first year of its application.
As regards cleanliness, ventilation, drainage, water-supply and
sanitary condition generally, shops have been since 1878 (by 41
Viet. c. 16, s. 101) subject to the provisions of the Public Health
Act 1875, which apply to all buildings, except factories under the
Factory Acts, in which any persons, whatever their number be, are
employed. Thus, broadly, the same sanitary provisions apply in
shops as in workshops, but in the former these are enforced solely
by the officers of the local authority, without reservation of any
power, as in workshops for the Home Office inspectorate, to act in
default of the local authority.
Shop assistants, so far as they are engaged in manual, not merely
clerical labour, come under the provisions of the Truck Acts 1831 to
1887, and in all circumstances they fall within the sections directed
against unfair and unreasonable fines in the Truck Act of 1896; but,
unlike employes in factories, workshops, laundries and mines, they
are left to apply these provisions so far as they can themselves, since
neither Home Office inspectors nor officers of the local authority have
any specially assigned powers to administer the Truck Acts in shops.
Truck. — Setting aside the special Hosiery Manufacture
(Wages) Act 1874, aimed at a particular abuse appearing chiefly
in the hosiery industry — the practice of making excessive
charges on wages for machinery and frame rents — only two
acts, those of 1887 and 1896, have been added to the general
law against truck since the act of 1831, which repealed all prior
Truck Acts and which remains the principal act. Further
amendments of the law have been widely and strenuously de-
manded, and are hoped for as the result of the long inquiry
by a departmental committee appointed early in 1906. The
Truck Act Amendment Act 1887, amended and extended the
act without adding any distinctly new principle; the Truck
Act of 1896 was directed towards providing remedies for matters
shown by decisions under the earlier Truck Acts to be outside
the scope of the principles and provisions of those acts. Under
the earlier acts the main objects were: (i) to make the wages
of workmen, i.e. the reward of labour, payable only in current
coin of the realm, and to prohibit' whole or part payment of
wages in food or drink or clothes or any other articles; (2) to
20
LABOUR LEGISLATION
[TRUCK ACTS
forbid agreements, express or implied, between employer and
workmen as to the manner or place in which, or articles on which,
a workman shall expend his wages, or for the deduction from
wages of the price of articles (other than materials to be used
in the labour of the workmen) supplied by the employer. The
act of 1887 added a further prohibition by making
Act 1887. **• illegal Ior an employer to charge interest on any
advance of wages, " whenever by agreement, custom,
or otherwise a workman is entitled to receive in anticipation of
the regular period of the payment of his wages an advance as
part or on account thereof." Further, it strengthened the section
of the principal act which provided that no employer shall have
any action against his workman for goods supplied at any shop
belonging to the employer, or in which the employer is interested,
by (a) securing any workman suing an employer for wages against
any counter-claim in respect of goods supplied to the workman
by any person under any order or direction of the employer,
and (b) by expressly prohibiting an employer from dismissing
any worker on account of any particular time, place or manner
of expending his wages. Certain exemptions to the prohibition
of payment otherwise than in coin were provided for in the act
of 1831, if an agreement were made in writing and signed by
the worker, viz. rent, victuals dressed and consumed under. the
employer's roof, medicine, fuel, provender for beasts of burden
used in the trade, materials and tools for use by miners, advances
for friendly societies or savings banks; in the case of fuel, pro-
vender and tools there was also a proviso that the charge should
not exceed the real and true value. The act of 1887 amended
these provisions by requiring a correct annual audit in the case
of deductions for medicine or tools, by permitting part payment
of servants in husbandry in food, drink (not intoxicants) or
other allowances, and by prohibiting any deductions for sharpen-
ing or repairing workmen's tools except by agreement not forming
part of the condition of hiring. Two important administrative
amendments were made by the act of 1887: (i) a section
similar to that in the Factory and Mines Acts was added, empower-
ing the employer to exempt himself from penalty for contra-
vention of the acts on proof that any other person was the actual
offender and of his own due diligence in enforcing the execution
of the acts; (2) the duty of enforcing, the acts in factories,
workshops, and mines was imposed upon the inspectors of the
Factory and Mines Departments, respectively, of the Home
Office, and to their task they were empowered to bring all the
authorities and powers which they possessed in virtue of the
acts under which they are appointed; these inspectors thus
prosecute defaulting employers and recover penalties under the
Summary Jurisdiction Acts, but they do not undertake civil
proceedings for improper deductions or payments, proceedings
for which would lie with workmen under the Employers and
Persons Workmen Act 1875. The persons to whom the
benefited benefits of the act applied were added to by the act
°^ 1^?> wnich repealed the complicated list of trades
contained in the principal act and substituted the
simpler definition of the Employers and Workmen Act, 1875.
Thus the acts 1831 to 1887, and also the act of 1896, apply to
all workers (men, women and children) engaged in manual
labour, except domestic servants; they apply not only in mines,
factories and workshops, but, to quote the published Home
Office Memorandum on the acts, " in all places where work-
people are engaged in manual labour under a contract with an
employer, whether or no the employer be an owner or agent or
a parent, or be himself a workman; and therefore a workman
who employs' and pays others under him must also observe the
Truck Acts." The law thus in certain circumstances covers
outworkers for a contractor or sub-contractor. A decision of
the High Court at Dublin in 1900 (Squire v. Sweeney) strengthened
the inspectors in investigation of offences committed amongst
outworkers by supporting the contention that inquiry and
exercise of all the powers of an inspector could legally take
place in parts of an employer's premises other than those in
which the work is given out. It denned for Ireland, in a narrower
sense than had hitherto been understood and acted upon by
the Factory Department, the classes of outworkers protected,
by deciding that only such as were under a contract personally
to execute the work were covered. In 1905 the law in England
was similarly declared in the decided case of Squire v. The
Midland Lace Co. The judges (Lord Alverstone, C.J.; and
Kennedy and Ridley, JJ.) stated that they came to the con-
clusion with "reluctance," and said: " We venture to express
the hope that some amendment of the law may be made so as
to extend the protection of the Truck Act to a class of work-
people indistinguishable from those already within its provisions. "
The workers in question were lace-clippers taking out work to
do in their homes, and in the words of the High Court decision
" though they do sometimes employ assistants are evidently,
as a class, wage-earning manual labourers and not contractors
in the ordinary and popular sense." The principle relied on in
the decision was that in the case of Ingram v. Barnes.
At the time of the passing of the act of 1887 it seems to have been
generally believed that the obligation under the principal act to pay
the " entire amount of wages earned " in coin rendered ,. . .
illegal any deductions from wages in respect of fines. „ **°
Important decisions in 1888 and 1889 showed this belief
to nave been ill-founded. The essential point lies in the definition
of the word " wages " as the " recompense, reward or remuneration
of labour," which implies not necessarily any gross sum in question
between employer and workmen where there is a contract to perform
a certain piece of work, but that part of it, the real net wage, which the
workman was to get as his recompense for the labour performed. As
soon as it became clear that excessive deductions from wages as well
as payments by workers for materials used in the work were not
illegal, and that deductions or payments by way of compensation to
employers or by way of discipline might legally (with the single
exception of fines for lateness for women and children, regulated by
the Employers and Workmen Act 1875) even exceed the degree of
loss, hindrance or damage to the employer, it also came clearly into
view that further legislation was desirable to extend the principles
at the root of the Truck Acts. It was desirable, that is to say, to
hinder more fully the unfair dealing that may be encouraged by half-
defined customs in work-places, on the part of the employer in making
a contract, while at the same time leaving the principle of freedom
of contract as far as possible untouched. The Truck Act _.. _ .
of 1896 regulates the conditions under which deductions Ac* iggQ
can be made by or payments made to the employer, out
of the " sum contracted to be paid to the worker," i.e. out of any
gross sum whatever agreed upon between employer and workman.
It makes such deductions or payments illegal unless they are in
pursuance of a contract; and it provides that deductions (or pay-
ments) for (a) fines, (b) bad work and damaged goods, (c) materials,
machines, and any other thing provided by the employer in relation
to the work shall be reasonable, and that particulars of the same in
writing shall be given to the workman. In none of the cases men-
tioned is the employer to make any profit; neither by fines, for
they may only be imposed in respect of acts or omissions which cause,
or are likely to cause, loss or damage; nor by sale of materials, for
the price may not exceed the cost to the employer; nor by deduc-
tions or payments for damage, for these may not exceed the actual or
estimated loss to the employer. Fines and charges for damage must
be " fair and reasonabl' having regard to all the circumstances of the
case," and no contract could make legal a fine which a court held
to be unfair to the workman in the sense of the act. The contract
between the employer and workman must either be in writing signed
by the workman, or its terms must be clearly stated in a notice
constantly affixed in a place easily accessible to the workman to
whom, if a party to the contract, a copy shall be given at the time of
making the contract, and who shall be entitled, on request, to obtain
from the employer a copy of the notice free of charge. On each
occasion when a deduction or payment is made, full particulars in
writing must be supplied to the workman. The employer is bound to
keep a register of deductions or payments, and to enter therein
particulars of any fine made under the contract, specifying the
amount and nature of the act or omission in respect of which the fine
was imposed. This register must be at all times open to inspectors
of mines or factories, who are entitled to make a copy of the contract
or any part of it. This act as a whole applies to all workmen in-
cluded under the earlier Truck Acts; the sections relating to fines
apply also to shop assistants. The latter, however, apparently are
left to enforce the provisions of the law themselves, as no inspectorate
is empowered to intervene on their behalf. In these and other cases
a prosecution under the Truck Acts may be instituted by any person.
Any workman or shop assistant may recover any sum deducted by
or paid to his employer contrary to the act of 1896, provided that
proceedings are commenced within six months, and that where he
has acquiesced in the deduction or payment he shall only recover
the excess over the amount which the court may find to have been
fair and reasonable in all the circumstances of the case. It is ex-
pressly declared in the act that nothing in it shall affect the provisions
CONTINENTAL EUROPE]
LABOUR LEGISLATION
21
of the Coal Mines Acts with reference to payment by weight, or
legalize any deductions, from payments made, in pursuance of those
provisions. The powers and duties of inspectors are extended to
cover the case of a laundry, and of any place where work is given out
by the occupier of a factory or workshop or by a contractor or sub-
contractor. Power is reserved for the secretary of state to exempt
by order specified trades or branches of them in specified areas from
the provisions of the act of 1896, if he is satisfied that they are un-
necessary for the protection of the workmen. This power has been
exercised only in respect of one highly organized industry, the
Lancashire cotton industry. The effect of the exemption is not to
prevent fines and deductions from being made, but the desire for
it demonstrated that there are cases where leaders among workers
have felt competent to make their own terms on their own lines
without the specific conditions laid down in this act. The reports
of the inspectors of factories have demonstrated that in other in-
dustries much work has had to be done under this act, and knowledge
of a highly technical character to be gradually acquired, before
opinions coulfl be formed as to the reasonableness and fairness, or
the contiary, of many forms of deduction. Owing partly to diffi-
culties of legal interpretation involving the necessity of taking test
cases into court, partly to the margin for differences of opinion as to
what constitutes " reasonableness " in a deduction, the average
number of convictions obtained on prosecutions is not so high as
under the Factory Acts, though the average penalty imposed is
higher. In 1904, 61 cases were taken into court resulting in 34
convictions with an average penalty of £l, IDs. In 1905, 38 cases
resulting in 34 convictions were taken with an average penalty of
£i, 35. In 1906, 37 cases resulting in 25 convictions were taken with
an average penalty of £l, los.
Reference should here be made to the Shop Clubs Act of 1902 as
closely allied with some of the provisions of the Truck Acts by its
provision that employers shall not make it a condition of employment
that any workman shall become a member of a shop club unless it is
registered under the Friendly Societies Act of 1896. As in the case of
payment of wages in Public Houses Act, no special inspectorate has
the duty of enforcing this act.
III. CONTINENTAL EUROPE
In comparing legislation affecting factories, mines, shops and
truck in the chief industrial countries of the continent with that
of Great Britain, it is essential to a just view that inquiry should
be extended beyond the codes themselves to the general social
order and system of law and administration in each country.
Further, special comparison of the definitions and the sanctions
of each industrial code must be recognized as necessary, for
these vary in all. In so brief a summary as is appended here
no more is possible than an outline indication of the main general
requirements and prohibitions of the laws as regards: (i) hours
and times of employment, (2) ordinary sanitation and special
requirements for unhealthy and dangerous industries, (3) security
against accidents, and (4) prevention of fraud and oppression in
fulfilment of wage contracts. As regards the first of these sub-
divisions, in general in Europe the ordinary legal limit is rather
wider than in Great Britain, being in several countries not less
than 1 1 hours a day, and while in some, as in France, the normal
limit is 10 hours daily, yet the administrative discretion in-
granting exceptions is rather more elastic. The weekly half-
holiday is a peculiarly British institution. On the other hand,
in several European countries, notably France, Austria, Switzer-
land and Russia, the legal maximum day applies to adult as
well as youthful labour, and not only to specially protected
classes of persons. As regards specialized sanitation for un-
healthy factory industries, German regulations appear to be
most nearly comparable with British. Mines' labour regulation
in several countries, having an entirely different origin linked
with ownership of mines, is only in few and most recent develop-
ments comparable with British Mines Regulation Acts. In
regulation of shops, Germany, treating this matter as an integral
part of her imperial industrial code, has advanced farther than
has Great Britain. In truck legislation most European countries
(with the exception of France) appear to have been influenced
by the far earlier laws of Great Britain, although in some respects
Belgium, with her rapid and recent industrial development,
has made interesting original experiments. The rule of Sunday
rest (see SUNDAY) has been extended in several countries,
most recently in Belgium and Spain. In France this partially
attempted rule has been so modified as to be practically a seventh
day rest, not necessarily Sunday.
France. — Hours of labour were, in France, first limited in factories
(usines et manufactures) for adults by the law of the gth of September
1848 to 12 in the 24. Much uncertainty existed as to the class of
workplaces covered. Finally, in 1885, an authoritative decision
defined them as including: (i) Industrial establishments with motor
power or continual furnaces, (2) workshops employing over 20
workers. In 1851, under condition of notification to the local
authorities, exceptions, still in force, were made to the general limita-
tion, in favour of certain industries or processes, among others for
letterpress and lithographic printing, engineering works, work at
furnaces and in heating workshops, manufacture of projectiles of war,
and any work for the government in the interests of national defence
or security. The limit of 12 hours was reduced, as regards works in
which women or young workersare employed, in 1900 to n.and was
to be successively reduced to ioj hours and to 10 hours at intervals
of two years from April 1900. This labour law for adults was pre-
ceded in 1841 by one for children, which prevented their employment
in factories before 8 years of age and prohibited night labour for any
child under 13. This was strengthened in 1874, particularly as
regards employment of girls under 21, but it was not until 1892 that
the labour of women was specially regulated by a law, still in force,
with certain amendments in 1900. Under this law factory and work-
shop labour is prohibited for children under 13 years, though they
may begin at 12 if qualified by the prescribed educational certificate
and medical certificate of fitness. The limit of daily hours of em-
ployment is the same as for adult labour, and, similarly, from the
1st of April 1902 was loj, and two years later became 10 hours in the
24. Notice of the hours must be affixed, and meal-times or pauses
with absolute cessation of work of at least one hour must be specified.
By the act of 1892 one day in the week, not necessarily Sunday, had
to be given for entire absence from work, in addition to eight recog-
nized annual holidays, but this was modified by a law of 1906 which
generally requires Sunday rest, but allows substitution of another day
in certain industries and certain circumstances. Night labour —
work between 9 P.M. and 5 A.M; — is prohibited for workers under 1 8,
and only exceptionally permitted, under conditions, for girls and
women over 18 in specified trades. In mines and underground
quarries employment of women and girls is prohibited except at
surface works, and at the latter is subject to the same limits as in
factories. Boys of 13 may be employed in certain work underground,
but under 16 may not be employed more than 8 hours in the 24 from
bank to bank. A law of 1905 provided for miners a 9 hours' day
and in 1907 an 8 hours' day from the foot of the entrance gallery
back to the same point.
As in Great Britain, distinct services of inspection enforce the
law in factories and mines respectively. In factories and workshops
an inspector may order re-examination as to physical fitness for the
work imposed of any worker under 16; certain occupations and
processes are prohibited — e.g. girls under 16 at machines worked by
treadles, and the weights that may be lifted, pushed or carried by
girls or boys under 18 are carefully specified. The law applies
generally to philanthropic and religious institutions where industrial
work is carried on, as in ordinary trading establishments; and this
holds good even if the work is by -way of technical instruction.
Domestic workshops are not controlled unless the industry is classed
as dangerous or unhealthy; introduction of motor power brings them
under inspection. General sanitation in industrial establishments is
provided for in a law of 1893, amended in 1903, and is supplemented
by administrative regulations for special risks due to poisons, dust,
explosive substances, gases, fumes, &c. Ventilation, both general
and special, lighting, provision of lavatories, cloakrooms, good
drinking water, drainage and cleanliness are required in all work-
places, shops, warehouses, restaurant kitchens, and where workers
are lodged by their employers hygienic conditions are prescribed for
dormitories. In many industries women, children and young
workers are either absolutely excluded from specified unhealthy pro-
cesses, or are admitted only under conditions. As regards shops and
offices, the labour laws are: one which protects apprentices against
overwork (law of 22nd February 1851), one (law of 2gth December
1900) which requires that seats shall be provided for women and girls
employed in retail sale of articles, and a decree of the 28th of July
1904 defining in detail conditions of hygiene in dormitories for work-
men and shop assistants. The law relating to seats is enforced by the
inspectors of factories. In France there is no special penal legisla-
tion against abuses of the truck system, or excessive fines and
deductions from wages, although bills with that end in view have
frequently been before parliament. Indirect protection to workers
is no doubt in many cases afforded in organized industries by the
action of the Conseils de Prud'hommes.
Belgium. — In 1848 in Belgium the Commission on Labour pro-
posed legislation to limit, as in France, the hours of labour for adults,
but this proposal was never passed. Belgian regulation of labour
in industry remains essentially, in harmony with its earliest begin-
nings in 1863 and onwards, a series of specialized provisions to meet
particular risks of individual trades, and did not, until 1889, give any
adherence to a common principle of limitation of hours and times of
labour for " protected " persons. This was in the law of the I3th of
December 1889, which applies to mines, quarries, factories, work-
shops classed as unhealthy, wharves and docks, transports. As in
France, industrial establishments having a charitable or philanthropic
22
LABOUR LEGISLATION
[CONTINENTAL EUROPE
or educational character are included. The persons protected are
girls and women under 21 years, and boys under 16; and women
over 21 only find a place in the law through the prohibition of their
employment within four weeks after childbirth. As the hours of
labour of adult women remain ordinarily unlimited by law, so are
the hours of boys from 16 to 21. The law of Sunday rest dated the
I7th of July 1905, however, applies to labour generally in all in-
dustrial and commercial undertakings except transport and fisheries,
with certain regulated exceptions for (a) cases of breakdown or
urgency due to force majeure, (b) certain repairs and cleaning, (c)
perishable materials, (d) retail food supply. Young workers are
excluded from the exceptions. The absolute prohibitions of em-
ployment are: for children under 12 years in any industry, manu-
facturing or mining or transport, and for women and girls under 21
years below the surface in working of mines. Boys under 16 years
and women and girls under 21 years may in general not be em-
ployed before 5 A.M. or after 9 P.M., and one day in the seven is to be
set apart for rest from employment; to these rules exception may
be made either by royal decree for classes or groups of processes, or
by local authorities in exceptional cases. The exceptions may be
applied, generally, only to workers over 14 years, but in mines, by
royal decree, boys over 12 years may be employed from 4 A.M. The
law of 1889 fixes only a maximum of 12 hours of effective work, to be
interrupted by pauses for rest of not less than I \ hours, empowering
the king by decree to formulate more precise limits suited to the
special circumstances of individual industries. Royal decrees have
accordingly laid down the conditions for many groups, including
textile trades, manufacture of paper, pottery, glass, clothing, mines,
quarries, engineering and printing works. In some the daily limit
is 10 hours, but in more ioj or II hours. In a few exceptionally un-
healthy trades, such as the manufacture of lucifer matches, vulcaniza-
tion of india-rubber by means of carbcn bi-sulphide, the age of ex-
clusion from employment has been raised, and in the last-named
process hours have been reduced to 5, broken into two spells of 2§
hours each. As a rule the conditions of health and safeguarding of
employments in exceptionally injurious trades have been sought by
a series of decrees under the law of 1863 relating to public health in
such industries. Special regulations for safety of workers have been
introduced in manufactures of white-lead, oxides of lead, chromate
of lead, lucifer match works, rag and shoddy works; and for dangers
common to many industries, provisions against dust, poisons,
accidents and other risks to health or limb have been codified in a
decree of 1896. A royal decree of the 3ist of March 1903 prohibits
employment of persons under 16 years in fur-pulling and in carolling
of rabbit skins, and another of the 1 3th of May 1905 regulates use of
lead in house-nainting. In 1898 a law was passed lo enable the
aulhorities to deal with risks in quarries under the same procedure.
Safety in mines (which are not private property, but state conces-
sions to be worked under strict state control) has been provided for
since 1810. In matters of hygiene, until 1899 the powers of the
public health authorities to intervene were insufficient, and a law
was passed authorizing the government to make regulations for every
kind of risk in any undertaking, whether classed under the law of
public health or not. By a special law of 1888 children and young
persons under 1 8 years are excluded from employment as pedlars,
hawkers or in circuses, except by their parents, and then only if they
have attained 14 years. Abuses of the truck system have, since 1887,
been regulated with care. The chief objects of the law of 1887 were
to secure payment in fulj to all workers, other than those in agri-
culture or domestic service, of wages in legal tender, to prohibit
payment of wages in public-houses, and to secure prompt payment of
wages. Certain deductions were permitted under careful control for
specific customary objects: lodging, use of land, uniforms, food,
firing. A royal order of the loth of October 1903 required use of
automatic indicators for estimating wages in certain cases in textile
processes. The law of the isth of June 1896 regulates the affixing in
workplaces, where at least five workers are employed, of a notice
of the working rules, the nature and rate of fines, if any, and the mode
of their application. Two central services the mines inspectorate
and the factory and workshop inspectorate, divide the duties above
indicated. There is also a system of local administration of the
regulations relating to industries classed as unhealthy, but the
tendency has been to give the supreme control in these matters to the
factory service, with its expert staff.
Holland. — The first law for regulation of labour in manufacture
was passed in 1874, and this related only to employment of children.
The basis of all existing regulations was established in the law of the
5th of May 1889, which applies to all industrial undertakings, ex-
cluding agriculture and forestry, fishing, stock-rearing. Employ-
ment of children under 12 years is prohibited, and hours are limited
for young persons under 16 and for women of any age. These pro-
tected persons may be excluded by royal decree from unhealthy
industries, and such industries are specified in a decree of 1897
which supersedes other earlier regulations. Hours of employment
must not exceed 1 1 in the 24, and at least one hour for rest must be
given between 1 1 A.M. and 3 P.M., which hour must not be spent in a
workroom. Work before 5 A.M. or after 7 P.M., Sunday work, and
work on recognized holidays is generally prohibited, but there are
exceptions. Overtime from 7 to 10 P.M., under conditions, is allowed
for women and young workers, and Sunday work for women, for
example, in butter and cheese making, and night work for boys over
14 in certain industries. Employment of women within four weeks
of childbirth is prohibited. Notices of working hours must be
affixed in workplaces. Underground work in mines is prohibited for
women and young persons under 16, but in Holland mining is a very
small industry. In 1895 the first legislative provision was made for
protection of workers against risk of accident or special injury to
health. Sufficient cubic space, lighting, ventilation, sanitary ac-
commodation, reasonable temperature, removal of noxious gases or
dust, fencing of machinery, precautions against risk from fire and
other matters are provided for. The manufacture of lucifer matches
by means of white phosphorus was forbidden and the export, importa-
tion and sale was regulated by a law of the 28th of May 1901. By
a regulation of the i6th of March 1904 provisions for safety and
health of women and young workers were strengthened in processes
where lead compounds or other poisons are used, and their employ-
ment at certain dangerous machines and in cleaning machinery or
near driving belts was prohibited. No penal provision against
truck exists in Holland, but possibly abuses of the system are pre-
vented by the existence of industrial councils representing both
employers and workers, with powers to mediate or arbitrate in case
of disputes.
Switzerland. — In Switzerland separate cantonal legislation pre-
pared the way for the general Federal labour law of 1877 on which
subsequent legislation rests. Such legislation is also cantonal as
well as Federal, but in the latter there is only amplification or
interpretation of the principles contained in the law ot 1877, whereas
cantonal legislation covers industries not included under the Federal
jaw, e.g. single workers employed in a trade (metier) and employment
in shops, offices and hotels. The Federal law is applied to factories,
workshops employing young persons under 18 or more than 10
workers, and workshops in which unhealthy or dangerous processes
are carried on. Mines are not included, but are regulated in some
respects as regards health and safety by cantonal laws. Further,
the Law of Employers' Liability 1881-1887, which requires in all
industries precautions against accidents and reports of all serious
accidents to the cantonal governments, applies to mines. This led,
in 1896, to the creation of a special mining department, and mines, of
which there are few, have to be inspected once a year by a mining
engineer. The majority of the provisions of the Federal labour law
apply to adult workers of both sexes, and the general limit of the
1 1 -hours' day, exclusive of at least one hour for meals, applies to men
as well as women. The latter have, however, a legal claim, when
they have a household to manage, to leave work at the dinner-hour
half an hour earlier than the men. Men and unmarried women may
be employed in such subsidiary work as cleaning before or after the
general legal limits. On Saturdays and eves of the eight public
holidays the I i-hours' day is reduced to 10. Sunday work and night
work are forbidden, but exceptions are permitted conditionally.
Night workis defined as 8 P.M. to 5 A.M. in summer, 8 P.M. to 6 A.M. in
winter. Children are excluded from employment in workplaces
under the law until 14 years of age, and until 16 must attend con-
tinuation schools. Zurich canton has fixed the working day for
women at 10 hours generally, and 9 hours on Saturdays and eves of
holidays. B&le-Ville canton has the same limits and provides that
the very limited Sunday employment permitted shall be compen-
sated by double time off on another day. In the German-speaking
cantons girls under 18 are not permitted to work overtime; in all
cantons except Glarus the conditional overtime of 2 hours must be
paid for at an enhanced wage.
Sanitary regulations and fencing of machinery are provided for
with considerable minuteness in a Federal decree of 1897. The plans
of every new factory must be submitted to the cantonal govern-
ment. In the case of lucifer match factories, not only the building
but methods of manufacture must be submitted. Since 1901 the
manufacture, sale and import of matches containing white phosphorus
have been forbidden. Women must be absent from employment
during eight weeks before and after childbirth. In certain dangerous
occupations, e.g. where lead or lead compounds are in use, women
may not legally be employed during pregnancy. A resolution of the
federal council in 1901 classed thirty -four different substances in use
in industry as dangerous and laid down that in case of clearly defined
illness of workers directly caused by use of any of these substances the
liability provided by article 3 of the law of the 25th of June 1881,
and article I of the law of the 26th of April 1887, should apply to the
manufacture. Legislative provision against abuses of the truck
system appears to be of earlier origin in Switzerland (l7th century)
than any other European country outside England (isth century).
The Federal Labour Law 1877 generally prohibits payment of
wages otherwise than in current coin, and provides that no deduc-
tion shall be made without an express contract. Some of the
cantonal laws go much farther than the British act of 1896 in for-
bidding certain deductions; e.g. Zurich prohibits any charge for
cleaning, warming or lighting workrooms or for hire of machinery.
By the Federal law fines may not exceed half a day's wage. Ad-
ministration of the Labour laws is divided between inspectors
appointed by the Federal Government and local authorities, under
supervision of the cantonal governments. The Federal Govern-
ment forms a court of appeal against decisions of the cantonal
governments.
CONTINENTAL EUROPE]
LABOUR LEGISLATION
Germany. — Regulation of the conditions of labour in industry
throughout the German empire is provided for in the Imperial
Industrial Code and the orders of the Federal Council based thereon.
By far the most important recent amendment socially is the law
regulating child-labour, dated the joth of March 1903, which relates
to establishments having industrial character in the sense of the
Industrial Code. This Code is based on earlier industrial codes of the
separate states, but more especially on the Code of 1869 of the
North German Confederation. It applies in whole or in part to all
trades and industrial occupations, except transport, fisheries and
agriculture. Mines are only included so far as truck, Sunday and
holiday rest, prohibition of employment underground of female
labour, limitation of the hours of women and young workers are
concerned ; otherwise the regulations for protection of life and limb
of miners vary, as do the mining laws pi the different states. To
estimate the force of the Industrial Code in working, it is necessary to
bear in mind the complicated political history of the empire, the
separate administration by the federated states, and the generally
considerable powers vested in administration of initiating regula-
tions. The Industrial Code expressly retains power for the states to
initiate certain additions or exceptions to the Code which in any
given state may form part of the law regulating factories there.
The Code (unlike the Austrian Industrial Code) lays down no general
limit for a normal working day for adult male workers, but since 1891
full powers were given to the Imperial government to limit hours for
any classes of workers in industries where excessive length of the
working day endangers the health of the worker (R.G.O. § I2oe).
Previously application had been made of powers to reduce the working
day in such unhealthy industries as silvering of mirrors by mercury
and the manufacture of white-lead. Separate states had, under
mining laws, also limited hours of miners. Sunday rest was, in 1891,
secured for every class of workers, commercial, industrial and
mining. Annual holidays were also secured on church festivals.
These provisions, however, are subject to exceptions under con-
ditions. An important distinction has to be shown when we turn to
the regulations for hours and times of labour for protected persons
(women, young persons and children). Setting aside for the moment
hours of shop assistants (which are under special sections since 1900),
it is to " factory workers " and not to industrial workers in general
that these limits apply, although they may be, and in some instances
have been, further extended — for instance, in ready-made clothing
trades— by imperial decree to workshops, and by the Child Labour
Law of 1903 regulation of the scope and duration of employment of
children is much strengthened in workshops, commerce, transport
and domestic industries. The term " factory " (Fabrik) is not de-
fined in the Code, but it is clear from various decisions of the supreme
court that it only in part coincides with the English term, and that
some workplaces, where processes are carried on by aid of mechanical
power, rank rather as English workshops. The distinction is rather
between wholesale manufacturing industry, with subdivision of
labour, and small industry, where the employer works himself.
Certain classes of undertaking, viz. forges, timber-yards, dock-
yards, brickfields and open quarries, are specifically ranked as
factories. Employment of protected persons at the surface of mines
and underground quarries, and in salt works and ore-dressing works,
and of boys underground comes under the factory regulations.
These exclude children from employment under 13 years, and even
later if an educational certificate has not been obtained; until 14
years hours of employment may not exceed 6 in the 24. In processes
and occupations under the scope of the Child Labour Law children
may not be employed by their parents or guardians before 10 years
of age or by other employers before 12 years of age; nor between
the hours of 8 P.M. and 8 A.M., nor otherwise than in full compliance
with requirements of educational authorities for school attendance
and with due regard to prescrioed pauses. In school term time the
daily limit of employment for children is three hours, in holiday time
three hours. As regards factories Germany, unlike Great Britain,
France and Switzerland, requires a shorter day for young persons
than for women — 10 hours for the former, II hours for the latter.
Women over 16 years may be employed II hours. Night work is
forbidden, i.e. work between 8.30 P.M. and 5.30 A.M. Overtime may
be granted to meet unforeseen pressure or for work on perishabla
articles, under conditions, by local authorities and the higher ad-
ministrative authorities. Prescribed meal-times are — an unbroken
half-hour for children in their 6 hours; for young persons a mid-day
pause of one hour, and half an hour respectively in the morning and
afternoon spells; for women, an hour at mid-day, but women with
the care of a household have the claim, on demand, to an extra half-
hour, as in Switzerland. No woman may be employed within four
weeks after childbirth, and unless a medical certificate can then be
produced, the absence must extend to six weeks. Notice of working
periods and meal-times must be affixed, and copies sent to the local
authorities. Employment of protected persons in factory industries
where there are special risks to health or morality may be forbidden
or made dependent on special conditions. By the Child Labour Law
employment of children is forbidden in brickworks, stone breaking,
chimney sweeping, street cleaning and other processes and occupa-
tions. By an order of the Federal Council in 1902 female workers
were excluded from main processes in forges and rolling mills. All
industrial employers alike are bound to organize labour in such a
manner as to secure workers against injury to health and to ensure
good conduct and propriety. Sufficient light, suitable cloakrooms
and sanitary accommodation, and ventilation to carry off dust,
vapours and other impurities are especially required. Dining-
rooms may be ordered by local authorities. Fencing and provision
for safety in case of fire are required in detail. The work of the
trade accident insurance associations in preventing accidents is
especially recognized in provisions for special rules in dangerous or
unhealthy industries. Officials of the state factory departments are
bound to give opportunity to trustees of the trade associations to
express an opinion on special rules. In a large number of industries
the Federal Council has laid down special rules comparable with those
for unhealthy occupations in Great Britain. Among the regulations
most recently revised and strengthened are those for manufacture of
lead colours and lead compounds, and for horse-hair and brush-
making factories. The relations between the state inspectors of
factories and the ordinary police authorities are regulated in each
state by its constitution. Prohibitions of truck in its original sense —
that is, payment of wages otherwise than in current coin— apply to
any persons under a contract of service with an employer for a
specified time for industrial purposes; members of a family working
for a parent or husband are not included ; outworkers are covered.
Control of fines and deductions from wages applies only in factory
industries and shops employing at least 20 workers. Shop hours
are regulated by requiring shops to be closed generally between
9 P.M. and 5 A.M., by requiring a fixed mid-day rest of I j hours and
at least 10 hours' rest in the 24 for assistants. These limits can be
modified by administrative authority. Notice of hours and working
rules must be affixed. During the hours of compulsory closing sale
of goods on the streets or from house to house is forbidden. Under
the Commercial Code, as under the Civil Code, every employer is
bound to adopt every possible measure for maintaining the safety,
health and good conduct of his employes. By an order of the
Imperial Chancellor under the Commercial Code seats must be pro-
vided for commercial assistants and apprentices.
Austria. — The Industrial Code of Austria, which in its present
outline (modified by later enactments) dates from 1883, must be
carefully distinguished from the Industrial Code of the kingdom
of Hungary. The latter is, owing to the predominantly agricultural
character of the population, of later origin, and hardly had practical
force before the law of 1893 provided for inspection and preven-
tion of accidents in factories. No separate mining code exists in
Hungary, and conditions of labour are regulated by the Austrian
law of 1854. The truck system is represseoTon lines similar to those
in Austria and Germany. As regards limitation of hours of adult
labour, Hungary may be contrasted with both those empires in that
no restriction of hours applies either to men's or' women's hours,
whereas in Austrian factories both are limited to an ll-hours' day
with exceptional overtime for which payment must always be made
to the worker. The Austrian Code has its origin, however, like the
British Factory Acts, in protection of child labour. Its present scope
is determined by the Imperial " Patent " of 1859, and all industrial
labour is included except mining, transport, fisheries, forestry,
agriculture and domestic industries. Factories are defined as
including industries in which a " manufacturing process is carried on
in an enclosed place by the aid of not less than twenty workers
working with machines, with subdivision of labour, and under
an employer who does not himself manually assist in the work."
In smalbr handicraft industries the compulsory gild system of
organization still applies. In every industrial establishment, large
or small, the sanitary and safety provisions, general requirement
of Sunday rest, and annual holidays (with conditional exceptions),
prohibition of truck and limitation of the ages of child labour apply.
Night work for women, 8 P.M. to 5 A.M., is prohibited only in factory
industries; for young workers it is prohibited in any industry.
Pauses in work are required in all industries; one hour at least must
be given at mid-day, and if the morning and afternoon spells exceed
5 hours each, another half-hour's rest at least must be given. Children
may not be employed in industrial work before 12 years, and then
only 8 hours a day at work that is not injurious and if educational
requirements are observed. The age of employment is raised to 14
for " factories," and the work must be such as will not hinder physical
development. Women may not be employed in regular industrial
occupation within one month after childbirth. In certain scheduled
unhealthy industries, where certificates of authorization from local
authorities must be obtained by intending occupiers, conditions of
health and safety for workers can be laid down in the certificate.
The Minister of the Interior is empowered to draw up regulations
prohibiting or making conditions for the employment of young
workers or women in dangerous or unhealthy industries. The pro-
visions against truck cover not only all industrial workers engaged in
manual labour under a contract with an employer, but also shop-
assistants; the special regulations against fines and deductions apply
to factory workers and shops where at least 20 workers are employed.
In mines under the law of 1884, which supplements the general
mining law, employment of women and girls underground is pro-
hibited; boys from 12 to 16 and girls from 12 to 18 may only be
employed at light work above ground; 14 is the earliest age of
admission for boys underground. The shifts from bank to bank must
not exceed 12 hours, of which not more than 10 may be effective
LABOUR LEGISLATION
[UNITED STATES
work. Sunday rest must begin not later than 6 A.M., and must be of
24 hours' duration. These last two provisions do not hold in case of
pressing danger for safety, health or property. Sick and accident
funds and mining associations are legislated for in minutest detail.
The general law provides for safety in working, but speci?! rules
drawn up by the district authorities fay down in detail the conditions
of health and safety. As regards manufacturing industry, the
Industrial Code lays no obligation on employers to report accidents,
and until the Accident Insurance Law of 1889 came into force
no statistics were available. In Austria, unlike Germany, the factory
inspectorate is organized throughout under a central chief inspector.
Scandinavian Countries. — In Sweden the Factory Law was
amended in January 1901; in Denmark in July 1901. Until that
year, however, Norway was in some respects in advance of the other
two countries by its law of 1892, which applied to industrial works,
including metal works of all kinds and mining. Women were thereby
prohibited from employment: (a) underground; (b) in cleaning or
oiling machinery in motion; (c) during six weeks after childbirth,
unless provided with a medical certificate stating that they might
return at the end of four weeks without injury to health; (d) in
dangerous, unhealthy or exhausting trades during pregnancy.
Further, work on Sundays and public holidays is prohibited to all
workers, adult and youthful, with conditional exceptions under the
authority of the inspectors. Children over 12 are admitted to
industrial work on obtaining certificates of birth, of physical fitness
and of elementary education. The hours of children are limited to
6, with pauses, and of young persons (of 14 to 18 years) to 10, with
pauses. Night work between 8 P.M. and 6 A.M. is prohibited. All
workers are entitled to a copy of a code of factory rules containing the
terms of the contract of work drawn up by representatives of employes
with the employers and sanctioned by the inspector. Health and
safety in working are provided for in detail in the same law of 1892.
Special rules may be made for dangerous trades, and in 1899 such
rules were established for match factories, similar to some of the
British rules, but notably providing for a dental examination four
times yearly by a doctor. In Denmark, regulation began with un-
healthy industries, and it was not until the law of 1901 came into
force, on the 1st of January 1902, that children under 12 years have
been excluded from factory labour. Control of child labour can be
strengthened by municipal regulation, and this has been done in
Copenhagen by an order of the 23rd of May 1903. In Sweden the
12 years' limit had for some time held in the larger factories; the
scope has been extended so that it corresponds with the Norwegian
law. The hours of children are, in Denmark, 6} for those under 14
years; in Sweden 6 for those under 13 years. Young persons may
not in either country work more than 10 hours daily, and night work,
which is forbidden for persons under 18 years, is now defined as in
Norway. Women may not be employed in industry within four
weeks of childbirth, except on authority of a medical certificate. All
factories in Sweden where young workers are employed are subject to
medical inspection once a year. Fencing of machinery and hygienic
conditions (ventilation, cubic space, temperature, light) are regulated
in detail. In Denmark the use of white phosphorus in manufacture
of lucifer matches has been prohibited since 1874, and special regula-
tions have been drawn up by administrative orders which strengthen
control of various unhealthy or dangerous industries, e.g. dry -cleaning
works, printing works and type foundries, iron foundries and engineer-
ing works. A special act of the 6th of April 1906 regulates labour
and sanitary conditions in bakehouses and confectionery works.
Italy and Spain. — The wide difference between the industrial
development of these southern Latin countries and the two countries
with which this summary begins, and the far greater importance of
the agricultural interests, produced a situation, as regards labour
legislation until as recently as 1903, which makes it convenient to
touch on the comparatively limited scope of their regulations at the
close of the series. It was stated by competent and impartial ob-
servers from each of the two countries, at the International Congress
on Labour Laws held at Brussels in 1897, that the lack of adequate
measures for protection of child labour and inefficient administration
of such regulations as exist was then responsible for abuse of their
forces that could be found in no other European countries. " Their
labour in factories, workshops, and mines constitutes a veritable
martyrdom " (Spain). " I believe that there is no country where
a sacrifice of child life is made that is comparable with that in certain
Italian factories and industries " (Italy). In both countries im-
portant progress has since been made in organizing inspection and
preventing accidents. In Spain the first step in the direction of
limitation of women's hours of labour was taken by a law of 1900,
which took effect in 1902, in regulations for reduction of hours of
labour for adults to II, normally, in the 24. Hours of children under
14 must not exceed 6 in any industrial work nor 8 in any commercial
undertaking. Labour before the age of 10 years and night work
between 6P.M. and 5 A.M. was prohibited, and powers were taken to
extend the prohibition of night work to young persons under 16 years.
The labour of children in Italy was until 1902 regulated in the main
by a law of 1886, but a royal decree of 1899 strengthened it by
classing night work for children under 12 years as " injurious," such
work being thereby generally prohibited for them, though exceptions
are admitted ; at the same time it was laid down that children from
12 to 15 years might not be employed for more than 6 hours at night.
The law of 1886 prohibits employment of children under 9 years in
industry and under 10 years in underground mining. Night work
for women was in Italy first prohibited by the law of the igtn of June
1902, and at the same time also for boys under 15, but this regulation
was not to take full effect for 5 years as regards persons already so
employed; by the same law persons under 15 and women of any age
were accorded the claim to one day's complete rest of 24 hours in the
week; the age of employment of children in factories, workshops,
laboratories, quarries, mines, was raised to 12 years generally and 14
years for underground work; the labour of female workers of any
age was prohibited in underground work, and power was reserved to
further restrict and regulate their employment as well as that of male
workers under 15. Spain and Italy, the former by the law of the
I3th of March 1900, the latter by the law of the igth of June 1902,
prohibit the employment of women within a fixed period of child-
birth; in Spain the limit is three weeks, in Italy one month, which
may be reduced to three weeks on a medical certificate of fitness.
Sunday rest is secured in industrial works, with regulated excep-
tions in Spain by the law of the 3rd of March 1904. It is in the
direction of fencing and other safeguards against accidents and as
regards sanitary provisions, both in industrial workplaces and in
mines, that Italy has made most advance since her law of 1890 for
prevention of accidents. Special measures for prevention of malaria
are required in cultivation of rice by a ministerial circular of the 23rd
of April 1903; work may not begin until an hour after sunrise and
must cease an hour before sunset; children under 13 may not be
employed in this industry. (A. M. AN.)
IV. UNITED STATES
Under the general head of Labour Legislation all American
statute laws regulating labour, its conditions, and the relation
of employer and employe must be classed. It includes a]stg
what is properly known as factory legislation. Labour
legislation belongs to the latter half of the ipth century, so far
as the United States is concerned. Like England in the far past,
the Americans in colonial days undertook to regulate wages
and prices, and later the employment of apprentices. Legislation
relating to wages and prices was long ago abandoned, but the
laws affecting the employment of apprentices still exist in some
form, although conditions of employment have changed so
materially that apprenticeships are not entered as of old; but
the laws regulating the employment of apprentices were the
basis on which English legislation found a foothold when
parliament wished to regulate the labour of factory operatives.
The code of labour laws of the present time is almost entirely
the result of the industrial revolution during the latter part of
the i8th century, under which the domestic or hand-labour
system was displaced through the introduction of power
machinery. As this revolution took place in the United States
at a somewhat later date than in England, the labour legislation
necessitated by it belongs to a later date. The factory, so far
as textiles are concerned, was firmly established in America
during the period from 1820 to 1840, and it was natural that the
English legislation found friends and advocates in the United
States, although the more objectionable conditions accompanying
the English factory were not to be found there.
The first attempt to secure legislation regulating factory
employment related to the hours of labour, which were very long
— from twelve to thirteen hours a day. As machinery Eariy
was introduced it was felt that the tension resulting attempts
from speeded machines and the close attention re- *° reguiate
quired in the factory ought to be accompanied by a '
shorter work-day. This view took firm hold of the operatives,
and was the chief cause of the agitation which has resulted in a
great body of laws applying in very many directions. As early
as 1806 the caulkers and shipbuilders of New York City agitated
for a reduction of hours to ten per day, but no legislation followed.
There were several other attempts to secure some regulation
relative to hours, but there was no general agitation prior to 1831.
As Massachusetts was the state which first recognized the necessity
of regulating employment (following in a measure, and so far as
conditions demanded, the English labour or factory legislation),
the history of such legislation in that state is indicative of that
in the United States, and as it would be impossible in this article
to give a detailed history of the origin of laws in the different
states, the dates of their enactment, and their provisions, it is
best to follow primarily the course of the Eastern states, and
especially that of Massachusetts, where the first.eeneral agitation
UNITED STATES]
LABOUR LEGISLATION
took place and the first laws were enacted. That state in 1836
regulated by law the question of the education of young persons
employed in manufacturing establishments. The regulation of
hours of labour was warmly discussed in 1832, and several
legislative committees and commissions reported upon it, but no
specific action on the general question of hours of labour secured
the indorsement of the Massachusetts legislature until 1874,
although the day's labour of children under twelve years of age
was limited to ten hours in 1842. Ten hours constituted a day's
labour, on a voluntary basis, in many trades in Massachusetts
and other parts of the country as early as 1853, while in the
shipbuilding trades this was the work-day in 1844. In April
1840 President Van Buren issued an order " that all public
establishments will hereafter be regulated, as to working hours,
by the ten-Tiours system." The real- aggressive movement began
in 1845, through numerous petitions to the Massachusetts
legislature urging a reduction of the day's labour to eleven hours,
but nothing came of these petitions at that time. Again, in 1850,
a similar effort was made, and also in 1851 and 1852, but the bills
failed. Then there was a period of quiet until 1865, when an
unpaid commission made a report relative to the hours of labour,
and recommended the establishment of a bureau of statistics
for the purpose of collecting data bearing upon the labour
question. This was the first step in this direction in any country.
The first bureau of the kind was established in Massachusetts in
1869, but meanwhile, in accordance with reports of commissions
and the address of Governor Bullock in 1866, and the general
sentiment which then prevailed, the legislature passed an act
regulating in a measure the conditions of the employment of
children in manufacturing establishments; and this is one of
the first laws of the kind in the United States, although the first
legislation in the United States relating to the hours of labour
which the writer has been able to find, and for which he can fix
a date, was enacted by the state of Pennsylvania in 1849, the law
providing that ten hours should be a day's work in cotton,
woollen, paper, bagging, silk and flax factories.
The Massachusetts law of 1866 provided, firstly, that no child
under ten should be employed in any manufacturing establish-
ment, and that no child between ten and fourteen
Employ- should be so employed unless he had attended some
public or private school at least six months during the
year preceding such employment, and, further, that
such employment should not continue unless the child attended
school at least six months in each and every year; secondly, a
penalty not exceeding $50 for every owner or agent or other person
knowingly employing a child in violation of the act; thirdly,
that no child under the age of fourteen should be employed in any
manufacturing establishment more than eight hours in any one
day; fourthly, that any parent or guardian allowing or consent-
ing to employment in violation of the act should forfeit a sum
not to exceed $50 for each offence; fifthly, that the Governor
instruct the state constable and his deputies to enforce the
provisions of all laws for regulating the employment of children
in manufacturing establishments. The same legislature also
created a commission of three persons, whose duty it was to
investigate the subject of hours of labour in relation to the
social, educational and sanitary condition of the working classes.
In 1867 a fundamental law relating to schooling and hours of
labour of children employed in manufacturing and mechanical
establishments was passed by the Massachusetts legislature.
It differed from the act of the year previous in some respects,
going deeper into the general question. It provided that no
child under ten should be employed in any manufacturing or
mechanical establishment of the commonwealth, and that no
child between ten and fifteen should be so employed unless he
had attended school, public or private, at least three months
during the year next preceding his employment. There were
provisions relating to residence, &c., and a further provision that
no time less than 120 half-days of actual schooling should be
deemed an equivalent of three months, and that no child under
fifteen should be employed in any manufacturing or mechanical
establishment more than sixty hours any one week. The law
meat of
children.
also provided penalties for violation. It repealed the act of
1866.
In 1869 began the establishment of that chain of offices in
the United States, the principle of which has been adopted by
other countries, known as bureaus of statistics of labour,
their especial purpose being the collection and dissemination of
information relating to all features of industrial employment.
As a result of the success of the first bureau, bureaus are in
existence in thirty-three states, in addition to the United States
Bureau of Labour.
A special piece of legislation which belongs to the common-
wealth of Massachusetts, so far as experience shows, was that
in 1872, providing for cheap morning and evening trains for the
accommodation of working men living in the vicinity of Boston.
Great Britain had long had such trains, which were called
parliamentary trains. Under the Massachusetts law some of the
railways running out of Boston furnished the accommodation
required, and the system has since been in operation.
In different parts of the country the agitation to secure legisla-
tion regulating the hours of labour became aggressive again
in 1870 and the years immediately following, there
being a constant repetition of attempts to secure the ^a^ory
enactment of a ten-hours law, but in Massachusetts tina*i87r.
all the petitions failed till 1874, when the legislature of
that commonwealth established the hours of labour at sixty per
week not only for children under eighteen, but for women, the
law providing that no minor under eighteen and no woman over
that age should be employed by any person, firm or corporation
in any manufacturing establishment more than ten hours in any
one day. In 1876 Massachusetts reconstructed its laws relating
to the employment of children, although it did not abrogate the
principles involved in earlier legislation, while in 1877 the
commonwealth passed Factory Acts covering the general pro-
visions of the British laws. It provided for the general inspec-
tion of factories and public buildings, the provisions of the law
relating to dangerous machinery, such as belting, shafting, gear-
ing, drums, &c., which the legislature insisted must be securely
guarded, and that no machinery other than steam engines should
be cleaned while running. The question of ventilation and
cleanliness was also attended to. Dangers connected with
hoistways, elevators and well-holes were minimized by their
protection by sufficient trap-doors, while fire-escapes were made
obligatory on all establishments of three or more storeys in
height. All main doors, both inside and outside, of manufactur-
ing establishments, as well as those of churches, school-rooms,
town halls, theatres and every building used for public assemblies,
should open outwardly whenever the factory inspectors of the
commonwealth deemed it necessary. These provisions remain
in the laws of Massachusetts, and other states have found it wise
to follow them.
The labour legislation in force in 1910 in the various states of the
Union might be classified in two general branches: (A) protective
labour legislation, or laws for the aid of workers who, on account of
their economic dependence, are not in a position fully to protect
themselves; (B) legislation having for its purpose the fixing of the
legal status of the worker as an employ^, such as laws relating to the
making and breaking of the labour contract, the right to form
organizations and to assemble peaceably, the settlement of labour
disputes, the licensing of occupations, &c.
(A) The first class includes factory and workshop acts, laws relating
to hours of labour, work on Sundays and holidays, the payment of
wages, the liability of employers for injuries to their
employes, &c. Factory acts have been passed by pac*01
nearly all the states of the Union. These may be a"dwT*"
considered in two groups — first, laws which relate to con- p
ditions of employment and affect only children, young persons and
women; and second, laws which relate to the sanitary condition of
factories and workshops and to the safety of employe's generally.
The states adopting such laws have usually made provision for
factory inspectors, whose duties are to enforce these laws and who
have power to enter and inspect factories and workshops. The most
common provisions of the factory acts in the various states are those
which fix an age limit below which employment is unlawful. All but
five states have enacted such provisions, and these five states have
practically no manufacturing industries. In some states the laws
fixing an age limit are restricted in their application to factories,
while in others they extend also to workshops, bakeries, mercantile
26
LABOUR LEGISLATION
[UNITED STATES
Hours of
labour.
establishments and other work places where children are employed.
The prescribed age limit varies from ten to fourteen years. Provisions
concerning the education of children in factories and workshops may
be considered in two groups, those relating to apprenticeship and
those requiring a certain educational qualification as a pre-requisite
to employment. Apprenticeship laws are numerous, but they do not
now have great force, because of the practical abrogation of the
apprenticeship system through the operation of modern methods
of production. Most states Have provisions prohibiting illiterates
under a specified age, usually sixteen, from being employed in
factories and workshops. The provisions of the factory acts relating
to hours of labour and night work generally affect only the employ-
ment of women and young persons. Most of the states have enacted
such provisions, those limiting the hours of children occurring more
frequently than those limiting the hours of women. The hour limit
for work in such cases ranges from six per day to sixty-six per week.
Where the working time of children is restricted, the minimum age
prescribed for such children ranges from twelve to twenty-one years.
In some cases the restriction of the hours of labour of women and
children is general, while in others it applies only to employment in
one or more classes of industries. Other provisions of law for the
protection of women and children, but not usually confined in their
operation to factories and workshops, are such as require seats for
females and separate toilet facilities for the sexes, and prohibit em-
ployment in certain occupations as in mines, places where intoxicants
are manufactured or sold, in cleaning or operating dangerous
machinery, &c. Provisions of factory acts relating to the sanitary
condition of factories and workshops and the safety of employ6s
have been enacted in nearly all the manufacturing states of the
Union. They prohibit overcrowding, and require proper ventila-
tion, sufficient light and heat, the lime-washing or painting of walls
and ceilings, the provision of exhaust fans and blowers in places where
dust or dangerous fumes are generated, guards on machinery,
mechanical belts and gearing shifters, guards on elevators and hoist-
ways, hand-rails on stairs, fire-escapes, &c.
The statutes relating to hours of labour may be considered under
five groups, namely: (l) general laws which merely fix what shall
be regarded as a day's labour in the absence of a contract ;
(2) laws defining what shall constitute a day's work on
public roads; (3) laws limiting the hours of labour per
day on public works; (4) laws limiting the hours of labour in certain
occupations; and (5) laws which specify the hours per day or per
week during which women and children may be employed. The
statutes included in the first two groups place no restrictions upon
the number of hours which may be agreed upon between employers
and employes, while those in the other three groups usually limit the
freedom of contract and provide penalties for their violation. A
considerable number of states have enacted laws which fix a day's
labour in the absence of any contract, some at eight and others at
ten hours, so that when an employer and an employ^ make a contract
and they do not specify what shall constitute a day's labour, eight
or ten hours respectively would be ruled as the day's labour in an
action which might come before the courts. In a number of the states
it is optional with the citizens to liquidate certain taxes either by
cash payments or by rendering personal service. In the latter case
the length of the working day is defined by law, eight hours being
usually specified. The Federal government and nearly one-half of the
states have laws providing that eight hours shall constitute a day's
work for employes on public works. Under the Federal Act it is
unlawful for any officer of the government or of any contractor or
subcontractor for public works to permit labourers and mechanics to
work longer than eight hours per day. The state laws concerning
hours of labour have similar provisions. Exceptions arc provided
for cases of extraordinary emergencies, such as danger to human life
or property. In many states the hours of labour have been limited
by law in occupations in which, on account of their dangerous or
insanitary character, the health of the employds would be jeopardized
by long hours of labour, or in which the fatigue occasioned by long
hours would endanger the lives of the employds or of the public.
The occupations for which such special legislation has been enacted
are those of employds on steam and street railways, in mines and
other underground workings, smelting and refining works, bakeries
and cotton and woollen mills. Laws limiting the hours of labour of
women and children have been considered under factory and work-
shop acts.
Nearly all states and Territories of the Union have laws prohibiting
the employment of labour on Sunday. These laws usually make it
a misdemeanour for persons either to labour themselves or
to compel or permit their apprentices, servants or other
"""' employ6s, to labour on the first day of the week. Ex-
ceptions are made in the case of household duties or works of
necessity or charity, and in the case of members of religious societies
who observe some other than the first day of the week.
Statutes concerning the payment of wages of employds may be
considered in two groups: (l) those which relate to the employment
contract, such as laws fixing the maximum period of wage
payments, prohibiting the payment of wages in scrip or
{e*' other evidences of indebtedness in lieu of lawful money,
prohibiting wage deductions on account of fines, breakage of
machinery, discounts for prepayments, medical attendance, relief
funds or other purposes, requiring the giving of notice of reduction of
wages, &c. ; (2) legislation granting certain privileges or affording
special protection to working people with respect to their wages,
such as laws exempting wages from attachment, preferring wage
claims in assignments, and granting workmen liens upon buildings
and other constructions on which they have been employed.
Employers' liability laws have been passed to enable an employ^
to recover damages from his employer under certain conditions when
he has been injured through accident occurring in the
works of the employer. The common-law maxim that the Employers'
principal is responsible for the acts of his agent does not llablllty-
apply where two or more persons are working together under
the same employer and one of the employes is injured through the
carelessness of his fellow-employiS, although the one causing the
accident is the agent of the principal, who under the common law
would be responsible. The old Roman law and the English and
American practice under it held that the co-employ6 was a party to
the accident. The injustice of this rule is seen by a single illustration.
A weaver in a cotton factory, where there are hundreds of operatives,
is injured by the neglect or carelessness of the engineer in charge of
the motive power. Under the common law the weaver could not
recover damages from the employer, because he was the co-employ6
of the engineer. So, one of thousands of employes of a railway
system, sustaining injuries through the carelessness of a switchman
whom he never saw, could recover no damages from the railway
company, both being co-employes of the same employer. The
injustice of this application of the common-law rule has been recog-
nized, but the only way to avoid the difficulty was through specific
legislation providing that under such conditions as those related,
and similar ones, the doctrine of co-employment should not apply,
and that the workman should have the same right to recover damages
as a passenger upon a railway train. This legislation has upset some
of the most notable distinctions of law.
The first agitation for legislation of this character occurred in
England in 1880. A number of states in the Union have now
enacted statutes fixing the liability of employers under certain
conditions and relieving the employd from the application of the
common-law rule. Where the employ^ himself is contributory to
the injuries resulting from an accident he cannot recover, nor can he
recover in some cases where he knows of the danger from the defects
of tools or implements employed by him. The legislation upon the
subject involves many features of legislation which need not be
described here, such as those concerning the power of employes to
make a contract, and those defining the conditions, often elaborate,
which lead to the liability of the employer and the duties of the
employe, and the relations in which damages for injuries sustained
in employment may be recovered from the employer.
(B) The statutes thus far considered may be regarded as protective
labour legislation. There is, besides, a large body of statutory laws
enacted in the various states for the purpose of fixing the legal status
of employers and employes and defining their rights and privileges
as such.
A great variety of statutes have been enacted in the various
states relating to the labour contract. Among these are laws de-
fining the labour contract, requiring notice of termination
of contract, making it a misdemeanour to break a contract *-a*e
of service and thereby endanger human life or expose ° ' "
valuable property to serious injury, or to make a contract of service
and accept transportation or pecuniary advancements with intent to-
defraud, prohibiting contracts of employment whereby employes
waive the right to damages in case of injury, &c. A Federal statute
makes it a misdemeanour for any one to prepay the transportation or
in any way assist or encourage the importation of aliens under
contract to perform labour or service of any kind in the United States,
exceptions being made in the case of skilled labour that cannot
otherwise be obtained, domestic servants and persons belonging to
any of the recognized professions.
The Federal government and nearly all the states and territories
have statutory provisions requiring the examination and licensing
of persons practising certain trades other than those in the
class of recognized professions. The Federal statute re-
lates only to engineers on steam vessels, masters, mates, of"'/"1"
pilots, &c. The occupations for which examinations and
licences are required by the various state laws are those of barbers,
horseshoers, elevator operators, plumbers, stationary firemen, steam
engineers, telegraph operators on railroads and certain classes of
mine workers and steam and street railway employes.
The right of combination and peaceable assembly on the part
of employes is recognized at common law throughout the United
States. Organizations of working-men formed for
their mutual benefit, protection and improvement, Labour
r orgaalxa-
such as for endeavouring to secure higher wages, tloogm
shorter hours of labour or better working conditions,
are nowhere regarded as unlawful. A number of states and the
Federal government have enacted statutes providing for the
incorporation of trade unions, but owing to the freedom from
regulation or inspection enjoyed by unincorporated trade unions,
UNITED STATES]
LABOUR LEGISLATION
27
very few have availed themselves of this privilege. A number of
states have enacted laws tending to give special protection to
.and encourage trade unions. Thus, nearly one-half of the states
have passed acts declaring it unlawful for employers to discharge
workmen for joining labour organizations, or to make it a con-
dition of employment that they shall not belong to such bodies.
Laws of this kind have generally been held to be unconstitu-
tional. Nearly all the states have laws protecting trade
unions in the use of the union label, insignia of membership,
credentials, &c., and making it a misdemeanour to counter-
feit or fraudulently use them. A number of the states exempt
labour organizations from the operations of the anti-trust and
insurance acts.
Until recent years all legal action concerning labour dis-
turbances was based upon the principles of the common law.
Some of the states have now fairly complete statutory
disputes enactments concerning labour disturbances, while
others have little or no legislation of this class. The
right of employes to strike for any cause or for no cause is sus-
tained by the common law everywhere in the United States.
Likewise an employer has a right to discharge any or all of his
employes when they have no contract with him, and he may
refuse to employ any person or class of persons for any reason
or for no reason. Agreements among strikers to take peaceable
means to induce others to remain away from the works of an
employer until he yields to the demands of the strikers are
not held to be conspiracies under the common law, and the
•carrying out of such a purpose by peaceable persuasion and
without violence, intimidation or threats, is not unlawful.
However, any interference with the constitutional rights of
another to employ whom he chooses or to labour when, where
or on what terms he pleases, is illegal. The boycott has been
held to be an illegal conspiracy in restraint of trade. The
statutory enactments of the various states concerning labour
disturbances are in part re-enactments of the rules of common law
and in part more or less departures from or additions to the
•established principles. The list of such statutory enactments is
a large one, and includes laws relating to blacklisting, boy-
cotting, conspiracy against working-men, interference with
employment, intimidation, picketing and strikes of railway
employes; laws requiring statements of causes of discharge of
employes and notice of strikes in advertisements for labour;
laws prohibiting deception in the employment of labour and the
hiring of armed guards by employers; and laws declaring that
certain labour agreements do not constitute conspiracy. Some of
these laws have been held to be unconstitutional, and some have
not yet been tested in the courts.
The laws just treated relate almost entirely to acts either of
employers or of employes, but there is another form of law, namely,
Arbttra t'iat Proyiding for action to be taken by others in the effort
tlon ana to Prevent working people from losing employment, either
concilia- by .their own acts or by those of their employers, or to
settle any differences which arise out of controversies
relating to wages, hours of labour, terms and conditions
•of employment, rules, &c. These laws provide for the mediation and
the arbitration of labour disputes (see ARBITRATION AND CONCILIA-
TION). Twenty-three states and the Federal government have laws
or constitutional provisions of this nature. In some cases they pro-
vide for the appointment of state boards, and in others of local boards
only. A number of states provide for local or special boards in
addition to the regular state boards. In some states it is required
that a member of a labour organization must be a member of the
board, and, in general, both employers and employes must be
represented. Nearly all state boards are required to attempt to
mediate between the parties to a dispute when information is re-
ceived of an actual or threatened labour trouble. Arbitration may
be undertaken in some states on application from either party, in
others on the application of both parties. An agreement to maintain
the status quo pending arbitration is usually required. The modes of
enforcement of obedience to the awards of the boards are various.
Some states depend on publicity alone, some give the decisions the
effect of judgments of courts of law which may be enforced by
execution, while in other states disobedience to such decisions is
punishable as for contempt of court. The Federal statute applies
only to common carriers engaged in interstate commerce, and provides
for an attempt to be made at mediation by two designated govern-
ment officials in controversies between common carriers and their
The
judicial
enforce-
ment of
labour
laws.
employes, and, in case of the failure of such an attempt, for the
formation of a board of arbitration consisting of the same officials
together with certain other parties to be selected. Such arbitration
boards are to be formed only at the request or upon the consent of
both parties to the controversy.
The enforcement of laws by executive or judicial action is an
important matter relating to labour legislation, for without
action such laws would remain dead letters. Under
the constitutions of the states, the governor is the
commander-in-chief of the military forces, and he has
the power to order the militia or any part of it into
active service in case of insurrection, invasion, tumult,
riots or breaches of the peace or imminent danger
thereof. Frequent action has been taken in the case of strikes
with the view of preventing or suppressing violence threatened or
happening to persons or property, the effect being, however, that
the militia protects those working or desiring to work, or the
employers. The president of the United States may use the
land and naval forces whenever by reason of insurrection,
domestic violence, unlawful obstructions, conspiracy, combina-
tions or assemblages of persons it becomes impracticable to
enforce the laws of the land by the ordinary course of judicial
proceedings, or when the execution of the laws is sso hindered
by reason of such events that any portion or class of the people
are deprived thereby of their rights and privileges under the
constitution and laws of the country. Under this general power
the United States forces have been used for the protection of
both employers and employes indirectly, the purpose being to
protect mails and, as in the states, to see that the laws are carried
out.
The power of the courts to interfere in labour disputes is
through the injunction and punishment thereunder for contempt
of court. It is a principle of law that when there are interferences,
actual or threatened, with property or with rights of a pecuniary
nature, and the common or statute law offers no adequate and
immediate remedy for the prevention of injury, a court of equity
may interpose and issue its order or injunction as to what must
or must not be done, a violation of which writ gives the court
which issued it the power to punish for contempt. The doctrine
is that something is necessary to be done to stop at once the
destruction of property and the obstruction of business, and the
injunction is immediate in its action. This writ has been resorted
to frequently for the indirect protection of employes and of
employers. (C. D. W.)
AUTHORITIES. — ENGLISH: (a) Factory Legislation: Abraham
and Davies, Law relating to Factories and Workshops (London, 1897
and 1902); Redgrave, Factory Acts (London, 1897); Royal
Commission on Labour, Minutes of Evidence and Digests, Group
" C " (3 vols., 1892—1893), Assistant Commissioner's Report on
Employment of Women (1893), Fifth and Final Report of the Com-
mission (1894); International Labour Conference at Berlin,
Correspondence, Commercial Series (C, 6042) (1890); House of
Lords Committee on the Sweating System, Report (1891); Home
Office Reports: Annual Reports of H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories
(1879 to 1901), Committee on White Lead and Various Lead
Industries (1894), Working of the Cotton Cloth Factories Acts
(1897), Dangerous Trades (Anthrax) Committee, Do., Miscellane-
ous Trades (1896-97-98-99), Conditions of Work in Fish-Curing
Trade (1898), Lead Compounds in Pottery (1899), Phosphorus in
Manufacture of Lucifer Matches (1899), &c., &c. ; Whately Cooke-
Taylor, Modern Factory System (London, 1891); Oliver, Dangerous
Trades (London, 1902) ; Cunningham, Growth of English Commerce
and Industry (1907); Hutchins and Harrison, History of Factory
Legislation (1903); Traill, Social England, &c., &c. (b) Mines
and Quarries: Statutes: Coal Mines Regulation Acts 1886, 1894,
1896, 1899; Metalliferous Mines Regulation Acts 1872, 1875;
Quarries Act 1894; Royal Commission on Labour, Minutes of
Evidence and Digests, Group "A" (1892-1893, 3 vols.); Roya'
Commission on Mining Royalties, Appendices (1894); Home Office
Reports : Annual General Report upon the Mining Industry
(1894-1897), Mines and Quarries, General Reports and Statistics
(1898 to 1899), Annual Reports of H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories
(1893-1895) (Quarries); Macswinney and Bristowe, Coal Mines
Regulation Act 1887 (London, 1888). (c) Shops: Statutes: Shop
Hours Acts 1892, 1893, 1896, Seats for Shop Assistants Act 1899;
Report of Select Committee of House of Commons on the Shop Hours
Regulation Bill 1886 (Eyre and Spottiswoode). (d) Truck: Home
Office Reports: Annual Reports of H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories,
especially 1895-1900, Memorandum on the Law relating to Truck
LABOUR PARTY— LABRADOR
and Checkweighing Clauses of the Coal Mines Acts 1896, Memor-
andum relating to the Truck Acts, by Sir Kenelm Digby, with text of
Acts (1897).
CONTINENTAL EUROPE: Annuaire de la legislation du travail
(Bruxelles, 1898-1905); Hygiene et securite des travailleurs dans les
ateliers industries (Paris, 1895); Bulletin de I' inspection du travail
(Paris, 1895-1902); Bulletin de I' office international du travail (Paris,
1902—1906); Congres international de legislation du travail (1898);
Die Gewerbeordnung fur das deutsche Reich. (l) Landmann (1897);
(2) Neukamp (1901); Gesetz betr. Kinderarbeit in gewerblichen
Betrieben, 30. Marz 1903 ; Konrad Agahd, Manz'sche Gesetzausgabe,
erster Band und siebenter Band (Wien, 1897-1898); Legge sugli
infortunii del lavoro (Milan, 1900).
UNITED STATES: See the Twenty- Second Annual Report of the
Commissioner of Labor (1907) giving all labour laws in force in the
United States in 1907, with annotations of decisions of courts; bi-
monthly Bulletins of the U.S. Bureau of Labor, containing laws
passed since those published in the foregoing, and decisions of courts
relating to employers and employes; also special articles in these
Bulletins on " Employer and Employe under the Common Law "
(No. l), " Protection of Workmen in their Employment " (No. 26),
" Government Industrial Arbitration'" (No. 60), " Laws relating
to the Employment of Women and Children,' and to Factory In-
spection and the Health and Safety of Employes " (No. 74),
" Wages and Hours of Labor in Manufacturing Industries, 1890 to
1907 " (No. 77), " Review of Labor Legislation of 1908 and 1909 " (No.
85); also " Report of the Industrial Commission on Labor Legisla-
tion " (vol. v., U.S. Commission's Report); C. D. Wright, Industrial
Evolution in the United States (1887) ; Stimson, Handbook to the Labor
Laws of the United States, and Labor in its Relation to Law, Adams
and Sumner, Labor Problems; Labatt, Commentaries on the Law of
Master and Servant.
LABOUR PARTY, in Great Britain, the name given to the
party in parliament composed of working-class representatives.
As the result of the Reform Act of 1884, extending the franchise
to a larger new working-class electorate, the votes of " labour "
became more and more a matter of importance for politicians;
and the Liberal party, seeking for the support of organized
labour in the trade unions, found room for a few working-class
representatives, who, however, acted and voted as Liberals.
It was not till 1893 that the Independent Labour party, splitting
off under Mr J. Keir Hardie (b. 1856) from the socialist organiza-
tion known as the Social Democratic Federation (founded 1881),
was formed at Bradford, with the object of getting independent
candidates returned to parliament on a socialist programme.
In 1900 Mr Keir Hardie, who as secretary of the Lanarkshire
Miners' Union had stood unsuccessfully as a labour candidate
for Mid-Lanark in 1888, and sat as M.P. for West Ham in
1892-1895, was elected to parliament for Merthyr-Tydvil by its
efforts, and in 1906 it obtained the return of 30 members, Mr
Keir Hardie being chairman of the group. Meanwhile in 1899
the Trade Union Congress instructed its parliamentary com-
mittee to call a conference on the question of labour representa-
tion; and in February 1900 this was attended by trade union
delegates and also by representatives of the Independent Labour
party, the Social Democratic Federation and the Fabian Society.
A resolution was carried " to establish a distinct labour group
in parliament, who shall have their own whips, and agree upon
their own policy, which must embrace a readiness to co-operate
with any party which for the time being may be engaged in
promoting legislation in the direct interest of labour," and the
committee (the Labour Representation Committee) was elected
for the purpose. Under their auspices 29 out of 51 candidates
were returned at the election of 1906. These groups were distinct
from the Labour members (" Lib. -Labs ") who obeyed the Liberal
whips and acted with the Liberals. In 1908 the attempts to
unite the parliamentary representatives of the Independent
Labour party with the Trades Union members were successful.
In June of that year the Miners' Federation, returning 15
members, joined the Independent Labour party, now known
for parliamentary purposes as the " Labour Party "; other
Trades Unions, such as the Amalgamated Society of Railway
Servants, took the same step. This arrangement came into
force at the general election of 1910, when the bulk of the
miners' representatives signed the constitution of the Labour
party, which after the election numbered 40 members of parlia-
ment.
LABRADOR,1 a great peninsula in British North America,
bounded E. by the North Atlantic, N. by Hudson Strait, W.
by Hudson and James Bays, and S. by an arbitrary line extending
eastwards from the south-east corner of Hudson Bay, near 51°
N., to the mouth of the Moisie river, on the Gulf of St Lawrence,
in 50° N., and thence eastwards by the Gulf of St Lawrence. It
extends from 50° to 63° N., and from 55° to 80° W., and embraces
an approximate area of 511,000 sq. m. Recent explorations
and surveys have added greatly to the knowledge of this vast
region, and have shown that much of the peninsula is not a
land of " awful desolation," but a well-wooded country, contain-
ing latent resources of value in its forests, fisheries and minerals.
Physical Geography. — Labrador forms the eastern limb of the V
in the Archaean protaxis of North America (see CANADA), and in-
cludes most of the highest parts of that area. Along some portions
of the coasts of Hudson and also of Ungava Bay there is a fringe of
lowland, but most of the interior is a plateau rising toward the south
and east. The highest portion extends east and west between 52°
and 54° N., where an immense granite area lies between the head-
waters of the larger rivers of the four principal drainage basins; the
lowest area is between Hudson Bay and Ungava Bay in the north-
west, where the general level is not more than 500 ft. above the sea.
The only mountains are the range along the Atlantic coast, extending
from the Strait of Belle Isle to Cape Chidley; in their southern half
they rarely exceed 1500 ft., but increase in the northern half to a
general elevation of upwards of 2000 ft., with numerous sharp peaks
between 3000 and 5000 ft., some say 7000 or 8000 ft. The coasts are
deeply indented by irregular bays and fringed with rocky islands,
especially along the high Atlantic coast, where long narrow fiords
penetrate inland. Hamilton Inlet, 250 m. north of the Strait of Belle
Isle, is the longest of these bays, with a length of 1*50 m. and a
breadth varying from 2 to 30 m. The surface of the outer portions
of the plateau is deeply seamed by Valleys, cut into the crystalline
rocks by the natural erosion of rivers, depending for their length and
depth upon the volume of water flowing through them. The valley
of the Hamilton river is the greatest, forms a continuation of the
valley of the Inlet and extends 300 m. farther inland, while its
bottom lies from 500 to 1500 ft. below the surface of the plateau into
which it is cut. The depressions between the low ridges of the
interior are occupied by innumerable lakes, many of great size,
including Mistassini, Mishikamau, Clearwater, Kaniapiskau and
Seal, all from 50 to 100 m. long. The streams discharging these lakes,
before entering their valleys, flow on a level with the country and
occupy all depressions, so that they frequently spread out into lake-
expansions and are often divided into numerous channels by large
islands. The descent into the valleys is usually abrupt, being made
by heavy rapids and falls; the Hamilton, from the level interior, in
a course of 12 m. falls 760 ft. into the head of its valley, this descent
including a sheer drop of 315 ft. at the Grand Falls, which, taken
with the large volume of the river, makes it the greatest fall in North
America. The rivers of the northern and western watersheds drain
about two-thirds of the peninsula ; the most important of the former
are the Koksoak, the largest river of Labrador (over 500 m. long), the
George, Whale and Payne rivers, all flowing into Ungava Bay. The
large rivers flowing westwards into Hudson Bay are the Povung-
nituk, Kogaluk, Great Whale, Big, East Main and Rupert, varying
in length from 300 to 500 m. The rivers flowing south are exceed-
ingly rapid, the Moisie, Romaine, Natashkwan and St Augustine
being the most important ; all are about 300 m. long. The Atlantic
coast range throws most of the drainage northwards into the Ungava
basin, and only small streams fall into the ocean, except the
Hamilton, North-west and Kenamou, which empty into the head of
Hamilton Inlet.
Geology. — The peninsula is formed largely of crystalline schists and
gneisses associated with granites and other igneous rocks, all of
archaean age; there are also large areas of non-fossiliferous, strati-
fied limestones, cherts, shales and iron ores, the unaltered equivalents
of part of the schists and gneisses. Narrow strips of Animikie
(Upper Huronian or perhaps Cambrian) rocks occur along tha low-
lying southern and western shores, but there are nowhere else
indications of the peninsula having been below sea-level since an
exceedingly remote time. During the glacial period the country was
covered by a thick mantle of ice, which flowed out radially from a
central collecting-ground. Owing to the extremely long exposure to
denudation, to the subsequent removal of the greater part of the
decomposed rock by glaciers, and to the unequal weathering of the
component rocks, it is now a plateau, which ascends somewhat
abruptly within a few miles of the coast-line to heights of between
1 From the Portuguese llavrador (a yeoman farmer). The name
was originally given to Greenland (isthalfof i6th century) and was
transferred to the peninsula in the belief that it formed part of the
same country as Greenland. The name was bestowed " because he
who first gave notice of seeing it [Greenland] was a farmer (llavrador)
from the Azores." See the historical sketch of Labrador by W. S.
Wallace in Grenfell's Labrador, &c., 1909.
LABRADORITE
29
500 and 2000 ft. The interior is undulating, and traversed by ridges
of low, rounded hills, seldom rising more than 500 ft. above the
surrounding general level.
Minerals. — The mineral wealth is undeveloped. Thick beds of
excellent iron ore cover large areas in the interior and along the
shores ol Hudson and Ungava Bays. Large areas of mineralized
Huronian rocks have also been discovered, similar to areas in other
parts of Canada, where they contain valuable deposits of gold, copper,
nickel and lead ; good prospects of these metals have been found.
Climate. — The climate ranges from cold temperate on the southern
coasts to arctic on Hudson Strait, and is generally so rigorous that it
is doubtful if the country is fit for agriculture north of 51°, except
on the low grounds near the coast. On James Bay good crops of
potatoes and other roots are grown at Fort George, 54° N., while
about the head of Hamilton Inlet, on the east coast, and in nearly the
same latitude, similar crops are easily cultivated. On the outer coasts
the climate is more rigorous, being affected by the floating ice borne
southwards on the Arctic current. In the interior at Mistassini,
50° 30' N , a crop of potatoes is raised annually, but they rarely
mature. No attempts at agriculture have been made elsewhere
inland. Owing to the absence of grass plains, there is little likeli-
hood that it will ever be a grazing district. There are only two
seasons in the interior: winter begins early in October, with the
freezing of the small lakes, and lasts until the middle of June, when
the ice on rivers and lakes melts and summer suddenly bursts forth.
From unconnected observations the lowest temperatures of the
interior range from -50° F. to -60° F., and are slightly higher along
the coast. The mean summer temperature of the interior is about
55° F., with frosts during every month in the northern portion.
On the Atlantic coast and in Hudson Bay the larger bays freeze solid
between the 1st and I5th of December, and these coasts remain ice-
bound until late in June. Hudson Strait is usually sufficiently open
for navigation about the loth of July.
Vegetation. — The southern half is included in the sub-Arctic forest
belt, and nine species of trees constitute the whole arborescent flora
of this region; these species are the white birch, poplar, aspen, cedar.
Banksian pine, white and black spruce, balsam fir and larch. The
forest is continuous over the southern portion to 53° N., the only
exceptions being the summits of rocky hills and the outer islands of
the Atlantic and Hudson Bay, while the low margins and river
valleys contain much valuable timber. To the northward the size
and number of barren areas rapidly increase, so that in 55° N. more
than half the country is treeless, and two degrees farther north the
limit of trees is reached, leaving, to the northward, only barrens
covered with low Arctic flowering plants, sedges and lichens.
Fisheries, — The fisheries along the shores of the Gulf of St Lawrence
and of the Atlantic form practically the only industry of the white
population scattered along the coasts, as well as of a large proportion
of the inhabitants of Newfoundland. The census (1891) of New-
foundland gave 10,478 men, 2081 women and 828 children employed
in the Labrador fishery in 861 vessels, of which the tonnage amounted
to 33.689; the total catch being 488,788 quintals of cod, 1275 tierces
of salmon and 3828 barrels of herring, which, compared with the
customs returns for 1880, showed an increase of cod and decreases of
salmon and herring. The salmon fishery along the Atlantic coast is
now very small, the decrease being probably due to excessive use of
cod-traps. The cod fishery is now carried on along the entire
Atlantic coast and into the eastern part of Ungava Bay, where
excellent catches have been made since 1893. The annual value of
the fisheries on the Canadian portion of the coast is about $350,000.
The fisheries of Hudson Bay and of the interior are wholly unde-
veloped, though both the bay and the large lakes of the interior are
well stocked with several species of excellent fish, including Arctic
trout, brook trout, lake trout, white fish, sturgeon and cod.
Population. — The population is approximately 14,500, or
about one person to every 3 5 sq. m. ; it is made up of 3 500 Indians,
2000 Eskimo and 9000 whites. The last are confined to the
coasts and to the Hudson Bay Company's trading posts of the
interior. On the Atlantic coast they are largely immigrants
from Newfoundland, together with descendants of English
fishermen and Hudson Bay Company's servants. To the north
of Hamilton Inlet they are of more or less mixed blood from
marriage with Eskimo women. The Newfoundland census of
IQOI gave 3634 as the number of permanent white residents
along the Atlantic coast, and the Canadian census (1891) gave
a white population of 5728, mostly French Canadians, scattered
along the north shore of the Gulf of St Lawrence, while the
whites living at the inland posts did not exceed fifty persons.
It is difficult to give more than a rough approximation of the
number of the native population, owing to their habits of roving
from one trading post to another, and the consequent liability
of counting the same family several times if the returns are
computed from the books of the various posts, the only available
data for an enumeration. The following estimate is arrived
at in this manner: Indians — west coast, 1200; Ungava Bay,
200; east coast, 200; south coast, 1900. Eskimo — Atlantic
coast, 1000; south shore of Hudson Strait, 800; east coast
of Hudson Bay, 500. The Indians roam over the southern
interior in small bands, their northern limit being determined
by that of the trees on which they depend for fuel. They live
wholly by the chase, and their numbers are dependent upon
the deer and other animals; as a consequence there is a constant
struggle between the Indian and the lower animals for exist-
ence, with great slaughter of the latter, followed by periodic
famines among the natives, which greatly reduce their numbers
and maintain an equilibrium. The native population has thus
remained about stationary for the last two centuries. The
Indians belong to the Algonquin family, and speak dialects of
the Cree language. By contact with missionaries and fur-traders
they are more or less civilized, and the great majority of them
are Christians. Those living north of the St Lawrence are
Roman Catholic, while the Indians of the western watershed
have been converted by the missionaries of the Church Mission
Society; the eastern and northern bands have not yet been
reached by the missionaries, and are still pagans. The Eskimo
of the Atlantic coast have long been under the guidance of the
Moravian missionaries, and are well advanced in civilization;
those of Hudson Bay have been taught by the Church Mission
Society, and promise well; while the Eskimo of Hudson Strait
alone remain without teachers, and are pagans. The Eskimo
live along the coasts, only going inland for short periods to hunt
the barren-ground caribou for their winter clothing; the rest
of the year they remain on the shore or the ice, hunting seals
and porpoises, which afford them food, clothing and fuel.
The christianized Indians and Eskimo read and write in their
own language; those under the teaching of the Church Mission
Society use a syllabic character, the others make use of the
ordinary alphabet.
Political Review. — The peninsula is divided politically between
the governments of Canada, Newfoundland and the province
of Quebec. The government of Newfoundland, under Letters
Patent of the 28th of March 1876, exercises jurisdiction along
the Atlantic coast; the boundary between its territory and
that of Canada is a line running due north and south from Anse
Sablon, on the north shore of the Strait of Belle Isle, to 52° N.,
the remainder of the boundary being as yet undetermined. The
northern boundary of the province of Quebec follows the East
Main river to its source in Patamisk lake, thence by a line due
east to the Ashuanipi branch of the Hamilton river; it then
follows that river and Hamilton Inlet to the coast area under
the jurisdiction of Newfoundland. The remainder of the
peninsula, north of the province of Quebec, by order in council
dated the i8th of December 1897, was constituted Ungava
District, an unorganized territory under the jurisdiction of the
government of the Dominion of Canada.
AUTHORITIES. — W. T. Grenfell and others, Labrador: the Country
and the People (New York, 1909) ; R. F. Holmes, " A Journey in the
Interior of Labrador," Proc. R.G.S. x. 189-205 (1887); A. S.
Packard, The Labrador Coast (New York, 1891); Austen Cary,
" Exploration on Grand River, Labrador," Bui. Am. Ceo. Soc. vol.
xxiv., 1892; R. Bell, " The Labrador Peninsula," Scottish Geo. Mag.
July 1895. Also the following reports by the Geological Survey of
Canada: — R. Bell, " Report on an Exploration of the East Coast of
Hudson Bay," 1877-1878; " Observations on the Coast of Labrador
and on Hudson Strait and Bay," 1882-1884; A. P. Low, " Report
on the Mistassini Expedition," 1885; " Report on James Bay and
the Country East of Hudson Bay," 1887-1888; " Report on
Explorations in the Labrador Peninsula, 1892-1895," 1896; " Re-
port on a Traverse of the Northern Part of the Labrador Peninsula,"
1898; " Report on the South Shore of Hudson Strait," 1899. For
History: W. G. Gosling, Labrador (1910). (A. P. Lo.; A. P. C.)
LABRADORITE, or LABRADOR SPAR, a lime-soda felspar
of the plagioclase (q.v.) group, often cut and polished as an
ornamental stone. It takes its name from the coast of Labrador,
where it was discovered, as boulders, by the Moravian Mission
about 1770, and specimens were soon afterwards sent to the
secretary in London, the Rev. B. Latrobe. The felspar itself
is generally of a dull grey colour, with a rather greasy lustre,
but many specimens exhibit in certain directions a magnificent
LABRADOR TEA— LA BRUYERE
play of colours — blue, green, orange, purple or red; the colour
in some specimens changing when the stone is viewed in different
directions. This optical effect, known sometimes as " labrador-
escence," seems due in some cases to the presence of minute
laminae of certain minerals, like gothite or haematite, arranged
parallel to the surface which reflects the colour; but in other
cases it may be caused not so much by inclusions as by a delicate
lamellar structure in the felspar. An aventurine effect is pro-
duced by the presence of microscopic enclosures. The original
labradorite was found in the neighbourhood of Nain, notably
in a lagoon about 50 m. inland, and in St Paul's Island. Here
it occurs with hypersthene, of a rich bronzy sheen, forming a
coarse-grained norite. When wet, the stones are remarkably
brilliant, and have been called by the natives " fire rocks."
Russia has also yielded chatoyant labradorite, especially near
Kiev and in Finland; a fine blue labradorite has been brought
from Queensland; and the mineral is also known in several
localities in the United States, as at Keeseville, in Essex county,
New York. The ornamental stone from south Norway, now
largely used as a decorative material in architecture, owes its
beauty to a felspar with a blue opalescence, often called labra-
dorite, but really a kind of orthoclase which Professor W. C.
Brogger has termed cryptoperthite, whilst the rock in which
it occurs is an augite-syenite called by him laurvigite, from
its chief locality, Laurvik in Norway. Common labradorite,
without play of colour, is an important constituent of such
rocks as gabbro, diorite, andesite, dolerite and basalt. (See
PLAGIOCLASE.) Ejected crystals of labradorite are found on
Monti Rossi, a double parasitic cone on Etna.
The term labradorite is unfortunately used also as a rock-
name, having been applied by Fouque and Levy to a group
of basic rocks rich in augite and poor in olivine. (F. W. R.*)
LABRADOR TEA, the popular name for a species of Ledunt,
a small evergreen shrub growing in bogs and swamps in Greenland
and the more northern parts of North America. The leaves are
tough, densely covered with brown wool on the under face,
fragrant when crushed and have been used as a substitute for
tea. The plant is a member of the heath family (Ericaceae).
LABRUM (Lat. for " lip "), the large vessel of the warm bath
in the Roman thermae. These were cut out of great blocks of
marble and granite, and have generally an overhanging lip.
There is one in the Vatican of porphyry over 12 ft. in diameter.
The term labrum is used in zoology, of a lip or lip-like part; in
entomology it is applied specifically to the upper lip of an insect,
the lower lip being termed labium.
LA BRUYERE, JEAN DE (1645-1696), French essayist and
moralist, was born in Paris on the i6th of August 1645, and not,
as was once the common statement, at Dourdan (Seine-et-Oise)
in 1639. His family was of the middle class, and his reference
to a certain Geoffroy de la Bruyere, a crusader, is only a satirical
illustration of a method of self-ennoblement common in France
as in some other countries. Indeed he himself always signed the
name Delabruyere in one word, thus avowing his roture. His
progenitors, however, were of respectable position, and he could
trace them back at least as far as his great-grandfather, who had
been a strong Leaguer. La Bruyere's own father was controller-
general of finance to the Hotel de Ville. The son was educated
by the Oratorians and at the university of Orleans; he was
called to the bar, and in 1673 bought a post in the revenue
department at Caen, which gave the status of noblesse and a
certain income. In 1687 he sold this office. His predecessor in it
was a relation of Bossuet, and it is thought that the transaction
was the cause of La Bruyere's introduction to the great orator.
Bossuet, who from the date of his own preceptorship of the
dauphin, was a kind of agent-general for tutorships in the royal
family, introduced him in 1684 to the household of the great
Conde, to whose grandson Henri Jules de Bourbon as well as
to that prince's girl-bride Mile de Nantes, one of Louis XIV. 's
natural children, La Bruyere became tutor. The rest of his life
was passed in the household of the prince or else at court, and
he seems to have profited by the inclination which all the Conde
family had for the society of men of letters. Very little is known
of the events of this part — or, indeed, of any part — of his life.
The impression derived from the few notices of him is of a silent,
observant, but somewhat awkward man, resembling in manners
Joseph Addison, whose master in literature La Bruyere un-
doubtedly was. Yet despite the numerous enemies which his
book raised up for him, most of these notices are favourable —
notably that of Saint-Simon, an acute judge and one bitterly
prejudiced against roturiers generally. There is, however, a
curious passage in a letter from Boileau to Racine in which he
regrets that " nature has not made La Bruyere as agreeable as
he would like to be." His Caracteres appeared in 1688, and at
once, as Nicolas de Malezieu had predicted, brought him " bien
des lecteurs et bien des ennemis." At the head of these were
Thomas Corneille, Fontenelle and Benserade, who were pretty
clearly aimed at in the book, as well as innumerable other
persons, men and women of letters as well as of society, on whom
the cap of La Bruyere's fancy-portraits was fitted by manuscript
"keys " compiled by the scribblers.of the day. The friendship
of Bossuet and still more the protection of the Condes sufficiently
defended the author, and he continued to insert fresh portraits
of his contemporaries in each new edition of his book, especially
in the 4th (1689). Those, however, whom he had attacked were
powerful in the Academy, and numerous defeats awaited La
Bruyere before he could make his way into that guarded hold.
He was defeated thrice in 1691, and on one memorable occasion
he had but seven votes, five of which were those of Bossuet,
Boileau, Racine, Pellisson and Bussy-Rabutin. It was not
till 1693 that he was elected, and even then an epigram, which,
considering his admitted insignificance in conversation, was not
of the worst, haesit lateri: —
" Quand la BruySre se pr<5sente
Pourquoi faut il crier haro ?
Pour faire un nombre de quarante
Ne falloit il pas un zeYo ? "
His unpopularity was, however, chiefly confined to the subjects
of his sarcastic portraiture, and to the hack writers of the time,
of whom he was wont to speak with a disdain only surpassed
by that of Pope. His description of the Mercure galant as
" immediatement au dessous de rien " is the best-remembered
specimen of these unwise attacks; and would of itself account
for the enmity of the editors, Fontenelle and the younger
Corneille. La Bruyere's discourse of admission at the Academy,
one of the best of its kind, was, like his admission itself, severely
criticized, especially by the partisans of the " Moderns " in the
" Ancient and Modern " quarrel. With the Caracteres, the
translation of Theophrastus, and a few letters, most of them
addressed to the prince de Conde, it completes the list of his
literary work, with the exception of a curious and much-disputed
posthumous treatise. La Bruyere died very suddenly, and not
long after his admission to the Academy. He is said to have been
struck with dumbness in an assembly of his friends, and, being
carried home to the H&tel de Conde, to have expired of apoplexy
a day or two afterwards, on the loth of May 1696. It is not
surprising that, considering the recent panic about poisoning,
the bitter personal enmities which he had excited and the peculiar
circumstances of his death, suspicions of foul play should have
been entertained, but there was apparently no foundation for
them. Two years after his death appeared certain Dialogues sur
le Quietisms, alleged to have been found among his papers in-
complete, and to have been completed by the editor. As these
dialogues are far inferior in literary merit to La Bruyere's other
works, their genuineness has been denied. But the straight-
forward and circumstantial account of their appearance given
by this editor, the Abbe du Pin, a man of acknowledged probity,
the intimacy of La Bruyere with Bossuet, whose views in his
contest with Fenelon these dialogues are designed to further,
and the entire absence, at so short a time after the alleged author's
death, of the least protest on the part of his friends and repre-
sentatives, seem to be decisive in their favour.
Although it is permissible to doubt whether the value of the
Caracteres has not been somewhat exaggerated by traditional
French criticism, they deserve beyond all question a high place.
LABUAN
The plan of the book is thoroughly original, if that term may be
accorded to a novel and skilful combination of existing elements.
The treatise of Theophrastus may have furnished the firstjdea,
but it gave little more. With the ethical generalizations and
social Dutch painting of his original La Bruyere combined the
peculiarities of the Montaigne essay, of the Pensees and Maximes
of which Pascal and La Rochefoucauld are the masters respect-
ively, and lastly of that peculiar lyth-century product, the
"portrait" or elaborate literary picture of the personal and
mental characteristics of an individual. The result was quite
unlike anything that had been before seen, and it has not been
exactly reproduced since, though the essay of Addison and Steele
resembles it very closely, especially in the introduction of fancy
portraits. In the titles of his work, and in its extreme desultori-
ness, La Bruyere reminds the reader of Montaigne, but he aimed
too much at sententiousness to attempt even the apparent con-
tinuity of the great essayist. The short paragraphs of which his
chapters consist are made up of maxims proper, of criticisms
literary and ethical, and above all of the celebrated sketches of
individuals baptized with names taken from the plays and
romances of the time. These last are the great feature of the
work, and that which gave it its immediate if not its enduring
popularity. They are wonderfully piquant, extraordinarily
life-like in a certain sense, and must have given great pleasure
or more frequently exquisite pain to the originals, who were in
many cases unmistakable and in most recognizable.
But there is something wanting in them. The criticism of
Charpentier, who received La Bruyere at the Academy, and
who was of the opposite faction, is in fact fully justified as far
as it goes. La Bruyere literally " est [trop] descendu dans le
particulier." He has neither, like Moliere, embodied abstract
peculiarities in a single life-like type, nor has he, like Shakespeare,
made the individual pass sub speciem aeternitatis, and serve as
a type while retaining his individuality. He is a photographer
rather than an artist in his portraiture. So, too, his maxims,
admirably as they are expressed, and exact as their truth often
is, are on a lower level than those of La Rochefoucauld. Beside
the sculpturesque precision, the Roman brevity, the profound-
ness of ethical intuition " piercing to the accepted hells beneath,"
of the great Frondeur, La Bruyere has the air of a literary
pctit-mattre dressing up superficial observation in the finery
of esprit,. It is indeed only by comparison that he loses, but then
it is by comparison that he is usually praised. His abundant
wit and his personal " malice " have done much to give him his
rank in French literature, but much must also be allowed to
his purely literary merits. With Racine and Massillon he is
probably the very best writer of what is somewhat arbitrarily
styled classical French. He is hardly ever incorrect— the highest
merit in the eyes of a French academic critic. He is always
well-bred, never obscure, rarely though sometimes " precious "
in the turns and niceties of language in which he delights to
indulge, in his avowed design of attracting readers by form,
now that, in point of matter, " tout est dit." It ought to be
added to his credit that he was sensible of the folly of impoverish-
ing French by ejecting old words. His chapter on " Les ouvrages
de 1'esprit " contains much good criticism, though it shows that,
like most of his contemporaries except Fenelon, he was lamentably
ignorant of the literature of his own tongue.
The editions of La Bruyere, both partial and complete, have been
extremely numerous. Les Caracteres de Theophraste traduits du
Grec, avec les caracteres et les mozurs de ce sie.de, appeared for the
first time in 1688, being published by Michallet, to whose little
daughter, according to tradition, La Bruyere gave the profits of the
book as a dowry. Two other editions, little altered, were published
in the same year. In thefollowing year, and in each year until 1694,
with the exception of 1693, a fresh edition appeared, and, in all these
five, additions, omissions and alterations were largely made. A
ninth edition, not much altered, was put forth in the year of the
author's death. The Academy speech appeared in the eighth edition.
The Quietist dialogues were published in 1699; most of the letters,
including those addressed to Cond<5, not till 1867. In recent times
numerous editions of the complete works have appeared, notably
those of Walckenaer (1845), Servois (1867, in the series of Grands
ecrivains de la France), Asselineau (a scholarly reprint of the last
original edition, 1872) and finally Chassang (1876); the last is one
of the most generally useful, as the editor has collected almost every-
thing of value in his predecessors. The literature of "keys" to
La Bruyere ii extensive and apocryphal. Almost everything that
can be done in this direction and in that of general illustration was
done by Edouard Fournier in his learned and amusing Comedie de
La Bruyere (1866); M. Paul Morillot contributed a monograph on
La Bruyere to the series of Grands ecrivains franfais in 1904.
(G. SA.)
LABUAN (a corruption of the Malay word labuh-an, signifying
an " anchorage "), an island of the Malay Archipelago, off the
north-west coast of Borneo in 5° 16' N., 115° 15' E. Its area
is 30-23 sq. m.; it is distant about 6 m. from the mainland
of Borneo at the nearest point, and lies opposite to the northern
end of the great Brunei Bay. The island is covered with low
hills rising from flats near the shore to an irregular plateau
near the centre. About 1500 acres are under rice cultivation,
and there are scattered patches of coco-nut and sago palms and
a few vegetable gardens, the latter owned for the most part
by Chinese. For the rest Labuan is covered over most of its
extent by vigorous secondary growth, amidst which the charred
trunks of trees rise at frequent intervals, the greater part of the
forest of the island having been destroyed by great accidental
conflagrations. Labuan was ceded to Great Britain in 1846,
chiefly through the instrumentality of Sir James Brooke, the
first raja of Sarawak, and was occupied two years later.
At the time of its cession the island was uninhabited, but in
1881 the population numbered 5731, though it had declined to
5361 in 1891. The census returns for 1901 give the population
at 8411. The native population consists of Malay fishermen,
Chinese, Tamils and small shifting communities of Kadayans,
Tutongs and other natives of the neighbouring Bornean coast.
There are about fifty European residents. At the time of its
occupation by Great Britain a brilliant future was predicted
for Labuan, which it was thought would become a second
Singapore. These hopes have not been realized. The coal
deposits, which are of somewhat indifferent quality, have been
worked with varying degrees of failure by a succession of com-
panies, one of which, the Labuan & Borneo Ltd., liquidated in
1902 after the collapse of a shaft upon which large sums had
been expended. It was succeeded by the Labuan Coalfields
Ltd. The harbour is a fine one, and the above-named company
possesses three wharves capable of berthing the largest Eastern-
going ocean steamers. To-day Labuan chiefly exists as a trading
depot for the natives of the neighbouring coast of Borneo, who
sell their produce — beeswax, edible birds-nests, camphor,
gutta, trepang, &c., — to Chinese shopkeepers, who resell it in
Singapore. There is also a considerable trade in sago, much of
which is produced on the mainland, and there are three small
sago-factories on the island where the raw product is converted
into flour. The Eastern Extension Telegraph Company has a
central station at Labuan with cables to Singapore, Hong-
Kong and British North Borneo. Monthly steam communication
is maintained by a German firm between Labuan, Singapore
and the Philippines. The colony joined the Imperial Penny
Postage Union in 1889. There are a few miles of road on the
island and a metre-gauge railway from the harbour to the coal
mines, the property of the company. There is a Roman Catholic
church with a resident priest, an Anglican church, visited periodic-
ally by a clergyman from the mainland, two native and Chinese
schools, and a sailors' club, built by the Roman Catholic mission.
The bishop of Singapore and Sarawak is also bishop of Labuan.
The European graveyard has repeatedly been the scene of
outrages perpetrated, it is believed, by natives from the mainland
of Borneo, the graves being rifled and the hair of the head and
other parts of the corpses being carried off to furnish ornaments
to weapons and ingredients in the magic philtres of the natives.
Pulau Dat, a small island in the near neighbourhood of Labuan,
is the site of a fine coco-nut plantation whence nuts and copra
are exported in bulk. The climate is hot and very humid.
Until 1869 the expenditure of the colony was partly defrayed by
imperial grants-in-aid, but after that date it was left to its own
resources. A garrison of imperial troops was maintained until l»7*i
when the troops were withdrawn after many deaths from fever and
dysentery had occurred among them. Since then law and order
LABURNUM— LABYRINTH
have been maintained without difficulty by a small mixed police
force of Punjabis and Malays. From the 1st of January 1890 to the
1st of January 1906 Labuan was transferred for •dministrative
purposes to the British North Borneo Company, the governor for the
time being of the company's territories holding also the royal com-
mission as governor of Labuan. This arrangement did not work
satisfactorily and called forth frequent petitions and protests from
the colonists. Labuan was then placed under the government of
the Straits Settlements, and is administered by a deputy governor
who is a member of the Straits Civil Service.
LABURNUM, known botanically as Laburnum vulgare (or
Cytisus Laburnum), a familiar tree of the pea family (Legu-
minosae) ; it is also known as "golden chain " and " golden rain."
It is a native of the mountains of France, Switzerland, southern
Germany, northern Italy, &c., has long been cultivated as an
ornamental tree throughout Europe, and was introduced into
north-east America by the European colonists. Gerard records
it as growing in his garden in 1597 under the names of anagyris,
laburnum or beane trefoyle (Herball, p. 1239), but the date of
its introduction into England appears to be unknown. In
France it is called I'aubour — a corruption from laburnum
according to Du Hamel — as also arbois, i.e. arc-bois, " the
wood having been used by the ancient Gauls for bows. It
is still so employed in some parts of the Maconnois, where the
bows are found to preserve their strength and elasticity for half
a century " (Loudon, Arboretum, ii. 590).
Several varieties of this tree are cultivated, differing in the
size of the flowers, in the form of the foliage, &c., such as the
"oak-leafed" (quercifolium) , pendulum, crispum, &c.; var.
aureum has golden yellow leaves. One of the most remarkable
forms is Cytisus Adami (C. purpurascens) , which bears three
kinds of blossoms, viz. racemes of pure yellow flowers, others
of a purple colour and others of an intermediate brick-red tint.
The last are hybrid blossoms, and are sterile, with malformed
ovules, though the pollen appears to be good. The yellow
and purple " reversions " are fertile. It originated in Paris
in 1828 by M. Adam, who inserted a " shield " of the bark of
Cytisus purpureus into a stock of Laburnum. A vigorous shoot
from this bud was subsequently propagated. Hence it would
appear that the two distinct species became united by their
cambium layers, and the trees propagated therefrom subsequently
reverted to their respective parentages in bearing both yellow
and purple flowers, but produce as well blossoms of an inter-
mediate or hybrid character. Such a result may be called a
" graft-hybrid." For full details see Darwin's Animals and
Plants under Domestication.
The laburnum has highly poisonous properties. The roots
taste like liquorice, which is a member of the same family as
the laburnum. It has proved fatal to cattle, though hares and
rabbits eat the bark of it with avidity (Gardener's Chronicle,
1 88 1, vol. xvi. p. 666). The seeds also are highly poisonous,
possessing emetic as well as acrid narcotic principles, especially
in a green state. Gerard (loc. cit.) alludes to the powerful effect
produced on the system by taking the bruised leaves medicinally.
Pliny states that bees will not visit the flowers (N.H. xvi. 31),
but this is an error, as bees and butterflies play an important
part in the fertilization of the flowers, which they visit for the
nectar.
The heart wood of the laburnum is of a dark reddish-brown
colour, hard and durable, and takes a good polish. Hence it
is much prized by turners, and used with other coloured woods
for inlaying purposes. The laburnum has been called false
ebony from this character of its wood.
LABYRINTH (Gr. \aftvpiv6m, Lat. labyrinthus) , the name
given by the Greeks and Romans to buildings, entirely or partly
subterranean, containing a number of chambers and intricate
passages, which rendered egress puzzling and difficult. The word
is considered by some to be of Egyptian origin, while others
connect it with the Gr. XaOpa, the passage of a mine. Another
derivation suggested |is from X<x/3pus, a Lydian or Carian word
meaning a " double-edged axe " (Journal of Hellenic Studies,
xxi. 109, 268), according to which the Cretan labyrinth or
palace of Minos was the house of the double axe, the symbol
of Zeus.
Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 19, 91) mentions the following as the
four famous labyrinths of antiquity.
1 . The Egyptian : of which a description is given by Herodotus
(ii. 148) and Strabo (xvii. 811). It was situated to the east of
Lake Moeris, opposite the ancient site of Arsinoe or Crocodilo-
polis. According to Egyptologists, the word means " the temple
at the entrance of the lake." According to Herodotus, the
entire building, surrounded by a single wall, contained twelve
courts and 3000 chambers, 1500 above and 1500 below ground.
The roofs were wholly of stone, and the walls covered with
sculpture. On one side stood a pyramid 40 orgyiae, or about
243 ft. high. Herodotus himself went through the upper
chambers, but was not permitted to visit those underground,
which he was told contained the tombs of the kings who had
built the labyrinth, and of the sacred crocodiles. Other ancient
authorities considered that it was built as a place of meeting for
the Egyptian nomes or political divisions; but it is more likely
that it was intended for sepulchral purposes. It was the work
of Amenemhe III., of the I2th dynasty, who lived about 2300 B.C.
It was first located by the Egyptologist Lepsius to the north of
Hawara in the Fayum, and (in 1888) Flinders Petrie discovered
its foundation, the extent of which is about 1000 ft. long by
800 ft. wide. Immediately to the north of it is the pyramid of
Hawara, in which the mummies of the king and his daughter
have been found (see W. M. Flinders Petrie, Hawara, Biahmu,
and Arsinoe, 1889).
2. The Cretan: said to have been built by Daedalus on the
plan of the Egyptian, and famous for its connexion with the
legend of the Minotaur. It is doubtful whether it ever had any
real existence and Diodorus Siculus- says that in his time it had
already disappeared. By the older writers it was placed near
Cnossus, and is represented on coins of that city, but nothing
corresponding to it has been found during the course of the recent
excavations, unless the royal palace was meant. The rocks of
Crete are full of winding caves, which gave the first idea of the
legendary labyrinth. Later writers (for instance, Claudian,
De sexto Cons. Honorii, 634) place it near Gortyna, and a set
of winding passages and chambers close to that place is still
pointed out as the labyrinth; these are, however, in reality
ancient quarries.
3. The Lemnian: similar in construction to the Egyptian.
Remains of it existed in the time of Pliny. Its chief feature
was its 150 columns.
4. The Italian: a series of chambers in the lower part of
the tomb of Porsena at Clusium. This tomb was 300 ft. square
and 50 ft. high, and underneath it was a labyrinth, from which
FIG. i. — Labyrinth of London and Wise.
it was exceedingly difficult to find an exit without the assistance
of a clew of thread. It has been maintained that this tomb is to
be recognized in the mound named Poggio Gajella near Chiusi.
Lastly, Pliny (xxxvi. 19) applies the word to a rude drawing on
the ground or pavement, to some extent anticipating the modern
or garden maze.
On the Egyptian labyrinth see A. Wiedemann, Agyptische Ges-
chichte (1884), p. 258, and his edition of the second book of
Herodotus (rSgo); on the Cretan, C. Hock, Kreta (1823-1829), and
LABYRINTH
33
A. J. Evans in Journal of Hellenic Studies; on the subject generally,
articles in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie and Daremberg and
Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites.
In gardening, a labyrinth or maze means an intricate network
of pathways enclosed by hedges or plantations, so that those
FIG. 2. — Labyrinth of Batty Langley.
who enter become bewildered in their efforts to find the centre or
make their exit. It is a remnant of the old geometrical style of
gardening. There are two methods of forming it. That which
is perhaps the more common consists of walks, or alleys as they
FIG. 3. — Labyrinth at Versailles.
were formerly called, laid out and kept to an equal width or
nearly so by parallel hedges, which should be so close and thick
that the eye cannot readily penetrate them. The task is to get
to the centre, which is often raised, and generally contains a
covered seat, a fountain, a statue or even a small group of trees.
After reaching this point the next thing is to return to the
entrance, when it is found that egress is as difficult as ingress.
To every design of this sort there should be a key, but even those
who know the key are apt to be perplexed. Sometimes the
design consists of alleys only, as in fig. i, published in 1706 by
London and Wise. In such a case, when the farther end is
reached, there only remains to travel back again. Of a more
pretentious character was a design published by Switzer in 1742.
FIG. 4. — Maze at Hampton Court.
This is of octagonal form, with very numerous parallel hedges and
paths, and " six different entrances, whereof there is but one
that leads to the centre, and that is attended with some difficulties
and a great many stops." Some of the older designs for laby-
rinths, however, avoid this close parallelism of the alleys, which,
though equally involved and intricate in their windings, are
carried through blocks of thick planting, as shown in fig. 2, from
a design published in 1728 by Batty Langley. These blocks of
shrubbery have been called wildernesses. To this latter class
belongs the celebrated labyrinth at Versailles (fig. 3), of which
Switzer observes, that it " is allowed by all to be the noblest of
its kind in the world."
Whatever style be adopted, it is essential that there should be a
thick healthy growth of the hedges or shrubberies that confine the
wanderer. The trees used should be impenetrable to the eye, and
so tall that no one can look over them; and the paths should be of
gravel and well kept. The trees chiefly used for the hedges, and
the best for the purpose, are the hornbeam among deciduous trees,
or the yew among evergreens. The beech might be used instead of
the hornbeam on suitable soil. The green holly might be planted
FIG. 5. — Maze at Somerleyton Hall.
as an evergreen with very good results, and so might the American
arbor vitae if the natural soil presented no obstacle. The ground
must be well prepared, so as to give the trees a good start, and a
mulching of manure during the early years of their growth would
be of much advantage. They must be kept trimmed in or clipped,
especially in their earlier stages ; trimming with the knife is much to
be preferred to clipping with shears. Any plants getting much in
advance of the rest should be topped, and the whole kept to some
4 ft. or 5 ft. in height until the lower parts are well thickened, when
it may be allowed to acquire the allotted height by moderate annual
increments. In cutting, the hedge (as indeed all hedges) should be
XVI. 2
34
LABYRINTHULIDEA
kept broadest at the base and narrowed upwards, which prevents it
from getting thin and bare below by the stronger growth being drawn
to the tops.
The maze in the gardens at Hampton Court Palace (fig. 4) is con-
sidered one of the finest examples in England. It was planted in
the early part of the reign of William III., though it has been sup-
posed that a maze had existed there since the time of Henry VIII.
It is constructed on the hedge and alley system, and was, it is
believed, originally planted with hornbeam, but many of the plants
have been replaced by hollies, yews, &c., so that the vegetation
is mixed. The walks are about half a mile in length, and the ground
occupied is a little over a quarter of an acre. The centre contains
two large trees, with a seat beneath each. The key to reach this
resting place is to keep the right hand continuously in contact with
the hedge from first to last, going round all the stops.
The maze in the gardens at Somerleyton Hall, near Lowestoft (fig.
5), was designed by Mr John Thomas. The hedges are of English
FIG. 6. — Labyrinth in Horticultural Society's Garden.
yew, are about 6i ft. high, and have been planted about sixty years.
In the centre is a grass mound, raised to the height of the hedges, and
on this mound is a pagoda, approached by a curved grass path. At
the two corners on the western side are banks of laurels 15 or 16 ft.
high. On each side of the hedges throughout the labyrinth is a
small strip of grass.
There was also a labyrinth at Theobald's Park, near Cheshunt,
when this place passed from the earl of Salisbury into the possession
of James I. Another is said to have existed at Wimbledon House,
the seat of Earl Spencer, which was probably laid out by Brown in
the l8th century. There is an interesting labyrinth, somewhat after
the plan of fig 2, at Mistley Place, Manningtree.
When the gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society at South
Kensington were being planned, Albert, Prince Consort, the president
of the society, especially desired that there should be a maze formed
in the ante-garden, which was made in the form shown in fig. 6.
This labyrinth, designed by Lieut. W. A. Nesfield, was for many years
the chief point of attraction to the younger visitors to the gardens;
but it was allowed to go to ruin, and had to be destroyed. The gardens
themselves are now built over. (T. Mo.)
LABYRINTHULIDEA, the name given by Sir Ray Lankester
(1885) to Sarcodina (q.v.) forming a reticulate plasmodium,
the denser masses united by fine pseudopodical threads, hardly
distinct from some Proteomyxa, such as Archerina.
This is a small and heterogeneous group. Labyrinthula,
discovered by L. Cienkowsky, forms a network of relatively
stiff threads on which are scattered large spindle-shaped enlarge-
ments, each representing an amoeba, with a single nucleus.
The threads are pseudopods, very slowly emitted and withdrawn.
The amoebae multiply by fission in the active state. The nearest
approach to a " reproductive " state is the approximation of the
amoebae, and their separate encystment in an irregular heap.
Labyrinthulidea.
. A colony or " cell-heap " of
Labyrinthula vitellina, Cienk.,
crawling upon an Alga.
. A colony or " cell-heap " of
Chlamydomyxa labyrinthul-
oides, Archer, with fully ex-
panded network of threads
on which the oat-shaped
corpuscles (cells) are moving.
0, Is an ingested food particle ;
at c a portion of the general
protoplasm has detached it-
self and become encysted.
A portion of the network of
Labyrinthula vitellina, Cienk.,
more highly magnified, p, Pro-
toplasmic mass apparently
produced by fusion of several
filaments. p', Fusion of
several cells which have lost
their definite spindle-shaped
contour, s, Corpuscles which
have become spherical and are
no longer moving (perhaps
about to be encysted).
4. A single spindle cell and threads
of Labyrinthula macrocystis,
Cienk. n, Nucleus.
5. A group of encysted cells of L.
Macrocystis, embedded in a
tough secretion.
6. 7. Encysted cells of L. macro-
cystis, with enclosed proto-
plasm divided into four spores.
8, 9. Transverse division of a non-
encysted spindle-cell of L.
macrocystis.
LAC— LACAITA
35
recalling the Acrasieae. From each cyst ultimately emerges a
single amoebae, or more rarely four (figs. 6, 7). The saprophyte
Diplophrys (?) stercorea (Cienk.) appears closely allied to this.
Chlamydomyxa (W. Archer) resembles Labyrinthula in its
freely branched plasmodium, but contains yellowish chromato-
phores, and minute oval vesicles (" physodes ") filled with a
substance allied to tannin — possibly phloroglucin — which glide
along the plasmodial tracks. The cell-body contains numerous
nuclei; but in its active state is not resolvable into distinct oval
amoeboids. It is amphitrophic, ingesting and digesting other
Protista, as well as "assimilating" by its chromatophores, the
product being oil, not starch. The whole body may form a
laminated cellulose resting cyst, from which it may only tem-
porarily emerge (fig. 2), or it may undergo resolution into nucleate
cells which then encyst, and become multinucleate before ruptur-
ing the cyst afresh.
Leydenia (F. Schaudinn) is a parasite in malignant diseases
of the pleura. The pseudopodia of adjoining cells unite to form
a network; but its affinities seem to such social naked Fora-
minifera as Mikrogromia.
SeeCienkowsky./lrcfot)/. Microscopische Anatomic, iii. 274 (1867),
xii. 44 (1876); W. Archer, Quart. Jour. Microscopic Science, xv. 107
(1875); E. R. Lankester, Ibid., xxxix., 233 (1896); Hieronymus and
Jenkinson, Ibid., xlii. 89 (1899); W. Zopf, Beitrdge zur Physiologic
and Morphologic niederer Organismen, ii. 36 (1892), iv. 60 (1894);
Penard, Archil) fur Protistenkunde, iv. 296 (1904); F. Schaudinn
and Leyden, Sitzungsberichte der Koniglich preussischen Akademie
der Wissenschaft, vi. (1896).
LAC, a resinous incrustation formed on the twigs and young
branches of various trees by an insect, Coccus lacca, which infests
them. The term lac (laksha, Sanskrit; lakh, Hindi ) is the same
as the numeral lakh — a hundred thousand — and is indicative
of the countless hosts of insects which make their appearance
with every successive generation. Lac is a product of the East
Indies, coming especially from Bengal, Pegu, Siam and Assam,
and is produced by a number of trees of the species Ficus,
particularly F. religiosa. The insect which yields it is closely
allied to the cochineal insect, Coccus cacti; kermes, C. ilicis
and Polish grains,[C. polonicus, all of which, like the lac insect,
yield a red colouring matter. The minute larval insects fasten
in myriads on the young shoots, and, inserting their long pro-
boscides into the bark, draw their nutriment from the sap of the
plant. The insects begin at once to exude the resinous secretion
over their entire bodies; this forms in effect a cocoon, and, the
separate exudations coalescing, a continuous hard resinous
layer regularly honeycombed with small cavities is deposited
over and around the twig. From this living tomb the female
insects, which form the great bulk of the whole, never escape.
After their impregnation, which takes place on the liberation
of the males, about three months from their first appearance, the
females develop into a singular amorphous organism consisting
in its main features of a large smooth shining crimson-coloured
sac — the ovary — with a beak stuck into the bark, and a few
papillary processes projected above the resinous surface. The
red fluid in the ovary is the substance which forms the lac dye
of commerce. To obtain the largest amount of both resin and
dye-stuff it is necessary to gather the twigs with their living
inhabitants in or near June and November. Lac encrusting
the twigs as gathered is known in commerce as "stick lac"; the
resin crushed to small fragments and washed in hot water to
free it from colouring matter constitutes " seed lac "; and this,
when melted, strained through thick canvas, and spread out into
thin layers, is known as " shellac," and is the form in which the
resin is usually brought to European markets. Shellac varies
in colour from a dark amber to an almost pure black; the palest,
known as " orange-lac," is the most valuable; the darker varieties
— " liver-coloured," " ruby," " garnet," &c. — diminish in
value as the colour deepens. Shellac may be bleached by dissolv-
ing it in a boiling lye of caustic potash and passing chlorine
through the solution till all the resin is precipitated, the product
being known as white shellac. Bleached lac takes light delicate
shades of colour, and dyed a golden yellow it is much used in
the East Indies for working into chain ornaments for the head
and for other personal adornments. Lac is a principal ingredient
in sealing-wax, and forms the basis of some of the most valuable
varnishes, besides being useful in various cements, &c. Average
stick lac contains about 68 % of resin, 10 of lac dye and 6 of a
waxy substance. Lac dye is obtained by evaporating the water
in which stick lac is washed, and comes into commerce in the
form of small square cakes. It is in many respects similar to,
although not identical with, cochineal.
LACAILLE, NICOLAS LOUIS DE (1713-1762), French astro-
nomer, was born at Rumigny, in the Ardennes, on the i$th of
March 1713. Left destitute by the death of his father, who held
a post in the household of the duchess of Vendome, his theological
studies at the College de Lisieux in Paris were prosecuted at the
expense of the duke of Bourbon. After he had taken deacon's
orders, however, he devoted himself exclusively to science, and,
through the patronage of J. Cassini, obtained employment,
first in surveying the coast from Nantes to Bayonne, then, in
1739, in remeasuring the French arc of the meridian. The
success of this difficult operation, which occupied two years, and
achieved the correction of the anomalous result published by
J. Cassini in 1718, was mainly due to Lacaille's industry and
skill. He was rewarded by admission to the Academy and the
appointment of mathematical professor in Mazarin college,
where he worked in a small observatory fitted for his use. His
desire to observe the southern heavens led him to propose, in
1750, an astronomical expedition to the Cape of Good Hope,
which was officially sanctioned, and fortunately executed.
Among its results were determinations of the lunar and of the
solar parallax (Mars serving as an intermediary), the first
measurement of a South African arc of the meridian, and the
observation of 10,000 southern stars. On his return to Paris
in 1754 Lacaille was distressed to find himself an object of public
attention; he withdrew to Mazarin college, and there died,
on the 2ist of March 1762, of an attack of gout aggravated by
unremitting toil. Lalande said of him that, during a compara-
tively short life, he had made more observations and calculations
than all the astronomers of his time put together. The quality
of his work rivalled its quantity, while the disinterestedness
and rectitude of his moral character earned him universal
respect.
His principal works are: Astronomiae Fundamenla (1757), con-
taining a standard catalogue of 398 stars, re-edited by F. Baily
(Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society, v. 93); Tabulae Solares (1758); Coelum
australe stelliferum (1763) (edited by J. D. Maraldi), giving zone-
observations of 10,000 stars, and describing fourteen new constella-
tions; " Observations sur 515 etoiles du Zodiaque " (published in t.
vi.of his Itphemerides, 1763); Lemons elementaires de Mathematiques
(1741), frequently reprinted; ditto de Mecanique (1743), &c.; ditto
a Astronomic (1746), 4th edition augmented by Lalande (1779) ; ditto
d'Optique (1750), &c. Calculations by him of eclipses for eighteen
hundred years were inserted in L' 'Art de verifier les dates (1750); he
communicated to the Academy in 1755 a classed catalogue of forty-
two southern nebulae, and gave in t. ii. of his £phemerides (1755)
practical rules for the employment of the lunar method of longitudes,
proposing in his additions to Pierre Bouguer's Traite de Navigation
(1760) the model of a nautical almanac.
See G. de Fouchy, "Eloge de Lacaille," Hist, de VAcad. des Sciences,
p. 197 (1762); G. Brotier, Preface to Lacaille's Lotium ausirate;
Claude Carlier, Discours historique, prefixed to Lacaille's Journal
historique du voyage fait au Cap (1763); J. J. Lalande, Connoissance
pa
Lit. Handworterbuch; R. Grant, Hist, of Physical Astronomy, pp.
486, &c. ; R. Wolf, Geschichte der Astronomic. A catalogue of 9766
stars, reduced from Lacaille's observations by T. Henderson, under
the supervision of F. Baily, was published in London in 1847.
LACAITA, SIR JAMES [GiACOMo] (1813-1895), Anglo-Italian
politician and writer. Born at Manduria in southern Italy,
he practised law in Naples, and having come in contact with
a number of prominent Englishmen and Americans in that city,
he acquired a desire to study the English language. Although
a moderate Liberal in politics, he never joined any secret society,
but in 1851 after the restoration of Bourbon autocracy he was
arrested for having supplied Gladstone with information on
Bourbon misrule. Through the intervention of the British
and Russian ministers he was liberated, but on the publication
LA CALLE— LACCADIVE ISLANDS
of Gladstone's famous letters to Lord Aberdeen he was obliged
to leave Naples. He first settled in Edinburgh, where he married
Maria Carmichael, and then in London where he made numerous
friends in literary and political circles, and was professor of
Italian at Queen's College from 1853 to 1856. In the latter year
he accompanied Lord Minto to Italy, on which occasion he
first met Cavour. From 1857 to 1863 he was private secretary
(non-political) to Lord Lansdowne, and in 1858 he accompanied
Gladstone to the Ionian Islands as secretary, for which services
he was made a K.C.M.G. the following year. In 1860 Francis II.
of Naples had implored Napoleon III. to send a squadron to
prevent Garibaldi from crossing over from Sicily to Calabria;
the emperor expressed himself willing to do so provided Great
Britain co-operated, and Lord John Russell was at first inclined
to agree. At this juncture Cavour, having heard of the scheme,
entrusted Lacaita, at the suggestion of Sir James Hudson, the
British minister at Turin, with the task of inducing Russell to
refuse co-operation. Lacaita, who was an intimate friend both
of Russell and his wife, succeeded, with the help of the latter,
in winning over the British statesman just as he was about to
accept the Franco-Neapolitan proposal, which was in con-
sequence abandoned. He returned to Naples late in 1860 and the
following year was elected member of parliament for Bitonto,
although he had been naturalized a British subject in 1855.
He took little part in parliamentary politics, but in 1876 was
created senator. He was actively interested in a number of
English companies operating in Italy, and was made one of the
directors of the Italian Southern Railway Co. He had a wide
circle of friends in many European countries and in America,
including a number of the most famous men in politics and
literature. He died in 1895 at Posilipo near Naples.
An authority on Dante, he gave many lectures on Italian literature
and history while in England; and among his writings may be
mentioned a large number of articles on Italian subjects in the
Encyclopaedia Britannica (1857—1860), and an edition of Benvenuto
da Imola's Latin lectures on Dante delivered in 1375; he co-
operated with Lord Vernon in the latter's great edition of Dante's
Inferno (London, 1858-1865), and he compiled a catalogue in four
volumes of the duke of Devonshire's library at Chatsworth (London,
1879).
LA CALLE, a seaport of Algeria, in the arrondissement of
Bona, department of Constantine, 56 m. by rail E. of Bona and 10
m. W. of the Tunisian frontier. It is the centre of the Algerian
and Tunisian coral fisheries and has an extensive industry in
the curing of sardines; but the harbour is small and exposed
to the N.E. and W. winds. The old fortified town, now almost
abandoned, is built on a rocky peninsula about 400 yds. long,
connected with the mainland by a bank of sand. Since the
occupation of La Calle by the French in 1836 a new town has
grown up along the coast. Pop. (1906) of the town, 2774; of the
commune, 4612.
La Calle from the times of its earliest records in the loth century
has been the residence of coral merchants. In the i6th century
exclusive privileges of fishing for coral were granted by the
dey of Algiers to the French, who first established themselves
on a bay to the westward of La Calle, naming their settlement
Bastion de France; many ruins still exist of this town. In 1677
they moved their headquarters to La Calle. The company —
Compagnie d'Afrique — who owned the concession for the fishery
was suppressed in 1798 on the outbreak of war between France
and Algeria. In 1806 the British consul-general at Algiers
obtained the right to occupy Bona and La Calle for an annual
rent of £11,000; but though the money was paid for several
years no practical effect was given to the agreement. The
French regained possession in 1817, were expelled during the
wars of 1827, when La Calle was burnt, but returned and rebuilt
the place in 1836. The boats engaged in the fishery were mainly
Italian, but the imposition, during the last quarter of the igth
century, of heavy taxes on all save French boats drove the foreign
vessels away. For some years the industry was abandoned,
but was restarted on a small scale in 1903.
See Abbe Poiret, Voyage en Barbarie . . . (Paris, 1789); E.
Broughton, Six Years' Residence in Algiers (London, 1839) and Sir
R. L. Playfair, Travels in the Footsteps of Bruce (London, 1877).
LA CALPRENEDE, GAUTHIER DE COSTES, SEIGNEUR DE
(c. 1610-1663), French novelist and dramatist, was born at the
Chateau of Tolgou, near Sarlat (Dordogne), in 1609 or 1610.
After studying at Toulouse, he came to Paris and entered the
regiment of the guards, becoming in 1650 gentleman-in-ordinary
of the royal household. He died in 1663 in consequence of a
kick from his horse. He was the author of several long heroic
romances ridiculed by Boileau. They are: Cassandre (10 vols.,
1642-1650); Cleopatre (1648); Faramond (1661); and Les
Nouvelles, ou les Divertissements de la princesse Alcidiane (1661)
published under his wife's name, but generally attributed to
him. His plays lack the spirit and force that occasionally redeem
the novels. The best is Le Comte d'Essex, represented in 1638,
which supplied some ideas to Thomas Corneille for his tragedy
of the same name.
LA CARLOTA, a town of the province of Negros Occidental,
Philippine Islands, on the W. coast of the island and the left
bank of San Enrique river, about 18 m. S. of Bacolod, the
capital of the province. Pop. (1903), after the annexation of
San Enrique, 19,192. There are fifty-four villages or barrios
in the town; the largest had a population in 1903 of 3254 and
two others had each more than 1000 inhabitants. The Panayano
dialect of the Visayan language is spoken by most of the inhabi-
tants. At La Carlota the Spanish government established a
station for the study of the culture of sugar-cane; by the
American government this has been converted into a general
agricultural experiment station, known as " Government Farm."
LACCADIVE ISLANDS, a group of coral reefs and islands in
the Indian Ocean, lying between 10° and 12° 20' N. and 71°
40' and 74° E. The name Laccadives (laksha divipa, the " hundred
thousand isles ") is that given by the people of the Malabar
coast, and was probably meant to include the Maldives; they
are called by the natives simply Divi, " islands," or Amendivi,
from the chief island. There are seventeen separate reefs,
" round each of which the loo-fathom line is continuous "
(J. S. Gardiner). There are, however, only thirteen islands, and
of these only eight are inhabited. They fall into two groups
— the northern, belonging to the collectorate of South Kanara,
and including the inhabited islands of Amini, Kardamat, Kiltan
and Chetlat; and the southern, belonging to the administrative
district of Malabar, and including the inhabited islands of Agatti,
Kavaratti, Androth and Kalpeni. Between the Laccadives
and the Maldives to the south lies the isolated Minikoi, which
physically belongs to neither group, though somewhat nearer
to the Maldives (q.v.). The principal submerged banks lie north
of the northern group of islands; they are Munyal, Coradive
and Sesostris, and are of greater extent than those on which
the islands lie. The general depth over these is from 23 to 28
fathoms, but Sesostris has shallower soundings " indicating
patches growing up, and some traces of a rim " (J. S. Gardiner).
The islands have in nearly all cases emerged from the eastern
and protected side of the reef, the western being completely
exposed to the S.W. monsoon. The islands are small, none
exceeding a mile in breadth, while the total area is only about
80 sq. m. They lie so low that they would be hardly discernible
but for the coco-nut groves with which they are thickly covered.
The soil is light coral sand, beneath which, a few feet down,
lies a stratum of coral stretching over the whole of the islands.
This coral, generally a foot to a foot and a half in thickness,
has been in the principal islands wholly excavated, whereby
the underlying damp sand is rendered available for cereals.
These excavations — a work of vast labour — were made at a
remote period, and according to the native tradition by giants.
In these spaces (totam, " garden ") coarse grain, pulse, bananas
and vegetables are cultivated; coco-nuts grow abundantly
everywhere. For rice the natives depend upon the mainland.
Population and Trade. — The population in 1901 was 10,274.
The people are Moplas, i.e. of mixed Hindu and Arab descent,
and are Mahommedans. Their manners and customs are similar
to those of the coast Moplas; but they maintain their own
ancient caste distinctions. The language spoken is Malayalim,
but it is written in the Arabic character. Reading and writing
LACCOLITE— LACE
are common accomplishments among the men. The chie
industry is the manufacture of coir. The various processe:
are entrusted to the women. The men employ themselve:
with boatbuilding and in conveying the island produce to th<
coast. The exports from the Laccadives are of the annua
value of about £17,000.
History. — No data exist for determining at what period the
Laccadives were first colonized. The earliest mention of them as
distinguished from the Maldives seems to be by Albiruni (c. 1030)
who divides the whole archipelago (Dibajat) into the Divah Kuzah
or Cowrie Islands (the Maldives), and the Divah Kanbar or Coir
Islands (the Laccadives). (See Journ. Asiat. Soc., September 1844
p. 265). The islanders were converted to Islam by an Arab apostle
named Mumba Mulyaka, whose grave at Androth still imparts a
peculiar sanctity to that island. The kazee of Androth was in 1847
still a member of his family, and was said to be the twenty-seconc
who had held the office in direct line from the saint. This gives
colour to the tradition that the conversion took place about 1250.
It is also further corroborated by the story given by the Ibn Batuta
of the conversion of the Maldives, which occurred, as he heard, four
generations (say one hundred and twenty years) before his visit to
these islands in 1342. The Portuguese discovered the Laccadives in
May 1498, and built forts upon them, but about 1545 the natives
rose upon their oppressors. The islands subsequently became a
suzerainty of the raja of Cannanore, and after the peace of Seringa-
patam, 1792 the southern group was permitted to remain under the
management of the native chief at a yearly tribute. This was often
in arrear, and on this account these islands were sequestrated by the
British government in 1877.
See The Fauna and Geography of the Maldive and Laccadive
Archipelagoes, ed. J. Stanley Gardiner (Cambridge 1901-1905);
Malabar District Gazetteer (Madras, 1908) ; G. Pereira, " As Ilhas de
Dyve " (Boletim da Soc. Geog., Lisbon, 1898-1899) gives details
relating to the Laccadives from the 16th-century MS. volume De
insulis et peregrinatione lusitanorum in the National Library, Lisbon.
LACCOLITE (Gr. Xd/c/cos, cistern, Xitfos, stone), in geology,
the name given by Grove K. Gilbert to intrusive masses
of igneous rock possessing a cake-like form, which he first
described from the Henry Mountains of southern Utah. Their
characteristic is that they have spread out along the bedding
planes of the strata, but are not so broad and thin as the sheets
or intrusive sills which, consisting usually of basic rocks, have
spread over immense distances without attaining any great
thickness. Laccolites cover a comparatively small area and
have greater thickness. Typically they have a domed upper
surface while their base is flat. In the Henry Mountains they
are from i to 5 m. in diameter and range in thickness up to
about 5000 ft. The cause of their peculiar shape appears to
be the viscosity of the rock injected, which is usually of inter-
mediate character and comparatively rich in alkalis, belonging
to the trachytes and similar lithological types. These are
much less fluid than the basalts, and the latter in consequence
spread out much more readily along the bedding planes, forming
thin flat-topped sills. At each side the laccolites thin out rapidly
so that their upper surface slopes steeply to the margins. The
strata above them which have been uplifted and bent are often
cracked by extension, and as the igneous materials well into
the fissures a large number of dikes is produced.' At the base
of the laccolite, on the other hand, the strata are flat and dikes
are rare, though there may be a conduit up which the magma
has flowed into the laccolite. The rocks around are often
much affected by contact alteration, and great masses of them
have sometimes sunk into the laccolite, where they may be
partly melted and absorbed.
Gilbert obtained evidence that th.ese laccolites were filled
at depths of 7000 to 10,000 ft. and did not reach the surface,
giving nse to volcanoes. From the effects on the drainage of
the country it seemed probable that above the laccolites the
strata swelled up in flattish eminences. Often they occur side
by side in groups belonging to a single period, though all the
members of each group are not strictly of the same age. One
laccolite may be formed on the side of an earlier one, and com-
pound laccolites also occur. When exposed by erosion they
give rise to hills, and their appearance varies somewhat with the
stage of development.
In the western part of South America laccolites agreeing in all
essential points W1th those described by Gilbert occur in considerable
nbers and present some diversity of types. Occasionally they are
37
asymmetrical, or have one steep or vertical side while the other is
gently inclined. In other cases they split into a number of sheets
spreading outwards through the rocks around. But the term
laccolite has also been adopted by geologists in Britain and elsewhere
to describe a variety of intrusive masses not strictly identical in
character with those of the Henry Mountains. Some of these rest
on a curved floor, like the gabbro masses of the Cuillin Hills in Skye •
others are injected along a flattish plane of unconformability where
one system of rocks rests on the upturned and eroded edges of an
older series. An example of the latter class is furnished by the felsite
mass of the Black Hill in the Pentlands, near Edinburgh, which has
lollowed the line between the Silurian and the Old Red Sandstone
forcing the rocks upwards without spreading out laterally to anv
great extent.
The term laccolite has also been applied to many granite intrusions
such as those of Cornwall. We know from the evidence of mining
shafts which have been sunk in the country near the edge of these
granites that they slope downwards underground with an angle of
twenty to thirty degrees. They have been proved also to have been
injected along certain wall-marked horizons; so that although the
rocks of the country have been folded in a very complicated manner
the granite can often be shown to adhere closely to certain members
of the stratigraphical sequence for a considerable distance. Hence it
is clear that their upper surfaces are convex and gently arched and it
is conjectured that the strata must extend below them, though at a
great depth, forming a floor. The definite proof of this has not been
attained for no borings have penetrated the granites and reached
sedimentary rocks beneath them. But often in mountainous
countries where there are deep valleys the bases of great granite
laccolites are exposed to view in the hill sides. These granite sills
have a considerable thickness in proportion to their length, raise the
rocks above them and fill them with dikes, and behave generally like
typical laccolites. In contradistinction to intrusions of this type with
a well-defined floor we may place the batholiths, bysmaliths, plutonic
plugs and stocks, which have vertical margins and apparently descend
to unknown depths. It has been conjectured that masses of this type
eat their way upwards by dissolving the rock above them and ab-
sorbing it, or excavate a passage by breaking up the roof of the space
they occupy while the fragments detached sink downwards and are
lost in the ascending magma. (J. s. F.)
LACE (corresponding to Ital. merletto, trina; Genoese pizzo;
Gcr. spitzen; Fr. dentdle; Dutch kanten; Span, encaje; the
English word owes something to the Fr. lassis or lads, but both
are connected with the earlier Lat. laqueus; early French laces
were also called passements or insertions and dents or edgings),
the name applied to ornamental open work formed of threads of
flax, cotton, silk, gold or silver, and occasionally of mohair or
aloe fibre, looped or plaited or twisted together by hand, (i) with
a needle, when the work is distinctively known as " needlepoint
lace "; (2) with bobbins, pins and a pillow or cushion, when the
work is known as "pillow lace"; and (3) by steam-driven
machinery, when imitations of both needlepoint and pillow
laces are produced. Lace-making implies the production of
ornament and fabric concurrently. Without a pattern or design
the fabric of lace cannot be made.
The publication of patterns for needlepoint and pillow laces
dates from about the middle of the i6th century. Before that
period lace described such articles as cords and narrow braids of
plaited and twisted threads, used not only to fasten shoes,
sleeves and corsets together, but also in a decorative manner to
braid the hair, to wind round hats, and to be sewn as trimmings
upon costumes. In a Harleian MS. of the time of Henry VI.
and Edward IV., about 1471, directions are given for the making
of " lace Bascon, lace indented, lace bordered, lace covert, a
arode lace, a round lace, a thynne lace, an open lace, lace for
lattys," &c. The MS. opens with an illuminated capital letter,
n which is the figure of a woman making these articles. The
MS. supplies a clear description how threads in combinations of
twos, threes, fours, fives, to tens and fifteens, were to be twisted
and plaited together. Instead of the pillow, bobbins and pins
with which pillow lace soon afterwards was made, the hands were
used, each finger of a hand serving as a peg upon which was
>laced a " bowys " or "bow," or little ball of thread. Each
>all might be of different colour from the other. The writer of
he MS. says that the first finger next the thumb shall be called
A, the next B, and so on. According to the sort of cord or braid
o be made, so each of the four fingers, A, B, C, D might be called
nto service. A " thynne lace " might be made with three
hreads, and then only fingers A, B, C would be required. A
LACE
" round " lace, stouter than the " thynne " lace, might require
the service of four or more fingers. By occasionally dropping
the use of threads from certain fingers a sort of indented lace or
braid might be made. But when laces of more importance
were wanted, such as a broad lace for " hattys," the fingers on
the hands of assistants were required. The smaller cords or
" thynne laces, "when fastened in simple or fantastic loops along
the edges of collars and cuffs, were called " purls " (see the small
edge to the collar worn by Catherine de' Medici, PI. II. fig. 4).
In another direction from which some suggestion may be derived
as to the evolution of lace-makingf notice should be taken of the
fact that at an early period the darning of varied ornamental
devices, stiff and geometric in treatment into hand-made network
of small square meshes (see squares of " lacis," PL I. fig. i)
became specialized in many European countries. This is held
by some writers to be "opus filatorium," or " opus araneum "
(spider work). Examples of this " opus filatorium," said to date
from the i3th century exist in public collections. The produc-
tions of this darning in the early part of the i6th century came
to be known as " punto a maglia quadra " in Italy and as
" lacis " in France, and through a growing demand for household
and wearing linen, very much of the " lacis " was made in white
threads not only in Italy and France but also in Spain. In
appearance it is a filmy fabric. With white threads also were
the " purlings " above mentioned made, by means of leaden
bobbins or " fuxii," and were called " merletti a piombini " (see
lower border, PI. II. fig. 3). Cut and drawn thread linen work
(the latter known as " tela tirata " in Italy and as " deshilado "
in Spain) were other forms of embroidery as much in vogue as
the darning on net and the " purling." The ornament of much
of this cut and drawn linen work (see collar of Catherine de'
Medici, PI. II. fig. 4), more restricted in scope than that of the
darning on net, was governed by the recurrence of open squares
formed by the withdrawal of the threads. Within these squares
and rectangles radiating devices usually were worked by means
of whipped and buttonhole stitches (PI. II. fig. 5). The general
effect in the linen was a succession of insertions or borders of
plain or enriched reticulations, whence the name " punto a
reticella " given to this class of embroidery in Italy. Work of
similar style and especially that with whipped stitches was done
rather earlier in the Grecian islands, which derived it from Asia
Minor and Persia. The close connexion of the Venetian republic
with Greece and the eastern islands, as well as its commercial
relations with the East, sufficiently explains an early transplant-
ing of this kind of embroidery into Venice, as well as in southern
Spain. At Venice besides being called " reticella," cut work was
also called " punto tagliato." Once fairly established as home
industries such arts were quickly exploited with a beauty and
variety of pattern, complexity of stitch and delicacy of execu-
tion, until insertions and edgings made independently of any
linen as a starting base (see first two borders, PI. II. fig. 3) came
into being under the name of " Punto in aria " (PI. II. fig. 7).
This was the first variety of Venetian and Italian needlepoint
lace in the middle of the i6th century,1 and its appearance then
almost coincides in date with that of the " merletti a piombini,"
which was the earliest Italian cushion or pillow lace (see lower
edging, PI. II. fig. 3).
The many varieties of needlepoint and pillow laces will be
'The prevalence of fashion in the above-mentioned sorts of em-
broidery during the i6th century is marked by the number of pattern-
books then published. In Venice a work of this class was issued by
Alessandro Pagannino in 1527; another of a similar nature, printed
by Pierre Quinty, appeared in the same year at Cologne; and La
Fleur de la science de pourlraicture et patrons de broderie,fa$on arabicque
el ytalique, was published at Paris in 1530. From these early dates
until the beginning of the 1 7th century pattern-books for embroidery
in Italy, France, Germany and England were published in great
abundance. The designs contained in many of those dating from the
early l6th century were to be worked for costumes and hangings, and
consisted of scrolls, arabesques, birds, animals, flowers, foliage, herbs
and grasses. So far, however, as their reproduction as laces might be
concerned, the execution of complicated work was involved which
none but practised lace-workers, such as those who arose a century
later, could be expected to undertake.
touched on under the heading allotted to each of these methods
of making lace. Here, however, the general circumstances of
their genesis may be briefly alluded to. The activity in cord
and braid-making and in the particular sorts of ornamental
needlework already mentioned clearly postulated such special
labour as was capable of being converted into lace-making.
And from the i6th century onwards the stimulus to the industry
in Europe was afforded by regular trade demand, coupled with
the exertions of those who encouraged their dependents or
proteges to give their spare time to remunerative home occupa-
tions. Thus the origin and perpetuation of the industry have
come to be associated with the women folk of peasants and
fishermen in circumstances which present little dissimilarity
whether in regard to needle lace workers now making lace in
whitewashed cottages and cabins at Youghal and Kenmare in
the south of Ireland, or those who produced their " punti in aria "
during the i6th century about the lagoons of Venice, or French-
women who made the sumptuous " Points de France " at
Alencon and elsewhere in the i7th and i8th centuries; or pillow
lace workers to be seen at the present day at little seaside villages
tucked away in Devonshire dells, or those who were engaged
more than four hundred years ago in " merletti a piombini " in
Italian villages or on " Dentelles au fuseau " in Flemish low-
lands. The ornamental character, however, of these several
laces would be found to differ much; but methods, materials,
appliances and opportunities of work would in the main be alike.
As fashion in wearing laces extended, so workers came to be
drawn together into groups by employers who acted as channels
for general trade.2 Nuns in the past as in the present have also
devoted attention to the industry, often providing in the convent
precincts workrooms not only for peasant women to carry out
commissions in the service of the church or for the trade, but
also for the purpose of training children in the art. Elsewhere
lace schools have been founded by benefactors or organized by
some leading local lace-maker3 as much for trading as for
education. In all this variety of circumstance, development
of finer work has depended upon the abilities of the workers being
exercised under sound direction, whether derived through their
own intuitions, or supplied by intelligent and tasteful employers.
Where any such direction has been absent the industry viewed
commercially has suffered, its productions being devoid of artistic
effect or adaptability to the changing tastes of demand.
It is noteworthy that the two widely distant regions of Europe
where pictorial art first flourished and attained high perfection,
north Italy and Flanders, were precisely the localities where
lace-making first became an industry of importance both from
an artistic and from a commercial point of view. Notwithstand-
ing more convincing evidence as to the earlier development of
pillow lace making in Italy the invention of pillow lace is often
credited to the Flemings; but there is no distinct trace of the
time or the locality. In a picture said to exist in the church of
St Gomar at Lierre, and sometimes attributed to Quentin
Matsys (1495), is introduced a girl apparently working at some
sort of lace with pillow, bobbins, &c., which are somewhat
similar to the implements in use in more recent times.4 From
the very infancy of Flemish art an active intercourse was main-
tained between the Low Countries and the great centres of
Italian art; and it is therefore only what might be expected
that the wonderful examples of the art and handiwork of Venice
in lace-making should soon have come to be known to and
rivalled among the equally industrious, thriving and artistic
Flemings. At the end of the i6th century pattern-books were
issued in Flanders having the same general character as those
published for the guidance of the Venetian and other Italian
lace-makers.
• * A very complete account of how these conditions began and
developed at Alencon, for instance, is given in Madame Despierre's
Histoire du Point d'Alen^on (1886) to which is appended an interesting
and annotated list of merchants, designers and makers of Point
d'Alencon.
3 E.g. The family of Camusat at Alencpn from 1602 until 1795.
4 The picture, however, as Seguin has pointed out, was probably
painted some thirty years later, and by Jean Matsys.
LACE
PLATE L
l*i-4f.M »» _»».ML.*J?..1)'J!...»*-»»'wi.***.«%^5l
FIG. i.— PORTION OF A COVERLET COMPOSED OF SQUARES OF "LACIS" OR DARNED NETTING,
DIVIDED BY LINEN CUT-WORK BANDS.
The squares are worked with groups representing the twelve months, and with scenes from the old Spanish dramatic story " Celestina.'
Spanish or Portuguese. l6th century. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)
FIG. 2.— CORNER OF A BED-COVER OF PILLOW-MADE LACE OF A TAPE-LIKE TEXTURE WITH CHARACTERISTICS
IN THE TWISTED AND PLAITED THREADS RELATING THE WORK TO ITALIAN "MERLETTI A PIOMBINI" OR
EARLY ENGLISH "BONE LACE."
Possibly made in Flanders or Italy during the early part of the i?th or at the end of the i6th century. The design includes the
Imperial double-headed eagle of Austria with the ancient crown of the German Empire. (Victoria and Albert Museum.^
XVI. #.
PLATE II.
LACE
FIG. 3.— THREE VANDYKE OR DENTATED BORDERS OF
ITALIAN LACE OF THE LATE i6TH CENTURY.
Style usually called " Reticella " on account of the patterns being
based on repeated squares or reticulations. The two first borders
are of needlepoint work; the lower border is of such pillow lace
as was known in Italy as " merletti a piombini."
FIG. 7.— BORDER OF FLAT NEEDLEPOINT LACE OF
FULLER TEXTURE THAN THAT OF FIG. 3, AND
FROM A FREER STYLE OF DESIGN IN WHICH
CONVENTIONALIZED FLORAL FORMS HELD TO-
GETHER BY SMALL BARS OR TYES ARE USED.
Style called " Punto in Aria," chiefly on account of its indepen-
dence of squares or reticulations. Italian. Early I7th century.
FIG. 4— CATHERINE DE MEDICI, WEARING A LINEN
UPTURNED COLLAR OF CUT WORK AND NEEDLE-
POINT LACE. Louvre. About 1540.
FIG. 5.— CORNER OF A NAPKIN OK HANDKERCHIEF
BORDERED WITH "RETICELLA" NEEDLEPOINT
LACE IN THE DESIGN OF WHICH ACORNS AND
CARNATIONS ARE MINGLED WITH GEOMETRIC
RADIATIONS. Probably of English early i;th century.
FIG. 6.— AMELIE ELISABETH, COMTESSE DE HAINAULT,
WEARING A RUFF OF NEEDLEPOINT RETICELLA
LACE. By MORCELSE. The Hague. About 1600.
(Figs. 4 and 6 by permission of Messrs Braun, Clement & Co.,
Dornach (Alsace}, and Paris.)
LACE
39
France and England were not far behind Venice and Flanders
in making needle and pillow lace. Henry III. of France (1574-
1589) appointed a Venetian, Frederic Vinciolo, pattern maker
for varieties of linen needle works and laces to his court. Through
the influence of this fertile designer the seeds of a taste for lace
in France were principally sown. But the event which par
excellence would seem to have fostered the higher development
of the French art of lace-making was the aid officially given it
in the following century by Louis XIV., acting on the advice
done on a pillow or cushion and with the needle, in the style
of the laces made at Venice, Genoa, Ragusa and other places;
these French imitations were to be called " points de France."
By 1671 the Italian ambassador at Paris writes, " Gallantly
is the minister Colbert on his way to bring the ' lavori d'aria' to
perfection." Six years later an Italian, Domenigo Contarini,
alludes to the " punto in aria," " which the French can now
do to admiration." The styles of design which emanated from
the chief of the French lace centre, Alenfon, were more fanciful
kV|
FIG. 24. — Portion of a Flounce of Needlepoint Lace, French, early i8th century, " Point de France." The honeycomb ground ^is con-
sidered to be a peculiarity of " Point d'Argentan " : some of the fillings are made in the manner of the " Point d'Alencpn " reseau.
of his minister Colbert. Intrigue and diplomacy were put into
action to secure the services of Venetian lace- workers ; and by
an edict dated 1665 the lace-making centres at Alencon, Quesnoy,
Arras, Reims, Sedan, Chateau Thierry, Loudun and elsewhere
were selected for the operations of a company in aid of which
the state made a contribution of 36,000 francs; at the same
time the importation of Venetian, Flemish and other laces was
strictly forbidden.1 The edict contained instructions that the
lace-makers should produce all sorts of thread work, such as those
1 See the poetical skit Revolte des passements et broderies, written
by Mademoiselle de la Tousse, cousin of Madame de Sevigne, in the
middle of the 1 7th century, which marks the favour which foreign
laces at that time commanded amongst the leaders of French fashion.
and less severe than the Venetian, and it is evident that the
Flemish lace-makers later on adopted many of these French
patterns for their own use. The provision of French designs
(fig. 24) which owes so much to the state patronage, contrasts
with the absence of corresponding provision in England and
was noticed early in the i8th century by Bishop Berkeley.
" How," he asks, " could France and Flanders have drawn
so much money from other countries for figured silk, lace and
tapestry, if they had not had their academies of design?"
It is fairly evident too that the French laces themselves, _ known
as " bisette," " gueuse," " campane " and " mignonette," were
small and comparatively insignificant works, without pretence to
design.
LACE
The humble endeavours of peasantry in England (which
could boast of no schools of design), Germany, Sweden, Russia
and Spain could not result in work of so high artistic pretension
as that of France and Flanders. In the i8th century good lace
was made in Devonshire, but it is only in recent years that to
some extent the hand lace-makers of England and Ireland have
become impressed with the necessity of well-considered designs
for their work. Pillow lace making under the name of " bone
lace making " was pursued in the i7th century in Buckingham-
shire, Hertfordshire and Bedfordshire, and in 1724 Defoe refers
to the manufacture of bone lace in which villagers were " wonder-
fully exercised and improved within these few years past."
" Bone " lace dates from the i7th century in England and was
practically the counterpart of Flemish " dentelles au fuseau,"
and related also to the Italian " merletti a piombini " (see
PI. III. fig. 10). In Germany, Barbara Uttmann, a native
of Nuremberg, instructed peasants of the Harz mountains to
twist and plait threads in 1561. She was assisted by certain
refugees from Flanders. A sort of " purling " or imitation of
the Italian " merletti a piombini " was the style of work produced
then.
Lace of comparatively simple design has been made for centuries
in villages of Andalusia as well as in Spanish conventual estab-
lishments. The " point d'Espagne," however, appears to have
been a commercial name given by French manufacturers of a
class of lace made in France with gold or silver threads on the
pillow and greatly esteemed by Spaniards in the i7th century.
No lace pattern-books have been found to have been published
in Spain. The needle-made laces which came out of Spanish
monasteries in 1830, when these institutions were dissolved,
were mostly Venetian needle-made laces. The lace vestments
preserved at the cathedral at Granada hitherto presumed to be of
Spanish work are verified as being Flemish of the i7th century
(similar in style to PI. IV. fig. 14). The industry is not alluded
to in Spanish ordinances of the isth, i6th or i7th centuries, but
traditions which throw its origin back to the Moors or Saracens
are still current in Seville and its neighbourhood, where a
twisted and knotted arrangement of fine cords is often worked '
under the name of " Morisco " fringe, elsewhere called macrame
lace. Black and white silk pillow laces, or " blondes," date from
the 1 8th century. They were made in considerable quantity
in the neighbourhood of Chantilly, and imported for mantillas
by Spain, where corresponding silk lace making was started.
Although after the i8th century the making of silk laces more or
less ceased at Chantilly and the neighbourhood, the craft is now
carried on in Normandy — at Bayeux and Caen — as well as in
Auvergne, which is also noted for its simple " torchon " laces.
Silk pillow lace making is carried on in Spain, especially at
Barcelona. The patterns are almost entirely imitations from
18th-century French ones of a large and free floral character.
Lace-making is said to have been promoted in Russia through
the patronage of the court, after the visit of Peter the Great to
Paris in the early days of the i8th century. Peasants in the
districts of Vologda, Balakhua (Nijni-Novgorod), Bieleff (Tula)
and Mzensk (Orel) make pillow laces of simple patterns. Malta
is noted for producing a silk pillow lace of black or white, or red
threads, chiefly of patterns in which repetitions of circles,
wheels and radiations of shapes resembling grains of wheat
are the main features. This characteristic of design, appearing
in white linen thread laces of similar make which have been
identified as Genoese pillow laces of the early iyth century,
reappears in Spanish and Paraguayan work. Pillow lace in
imitation of Maltese, Buckinghamshire and Devonshire laces
is made to a small extent in Ceylon, in different parts of India
and in Japan. A successful effort has also been made to re-
establish the industry in the island of Burano near Venice, and
pillow and needlepoint lace of good design is made there.
At present the chief sources of hand-made lace are France,
Belgium, Ireland and England.
France is faithful to her traditions in maintaining a lively
i J Useful information has been communicated to the writer of the
present article on lace by Mrs B. Wishaw of Seville.
and graceful taste in lace-making. Fashion of late years has
called for ampler and more boldly effective laces, readily produced
with both braids and cords and far less intricate needle or pillow
work than was required for the dainty and smaller laces of
earlier date.
In Belgium the social and economic conditions are, as they
have been in the past, more conducive and more favourable
than elsewhere to lace-making at a sufficiently remunerative
FIG. 25. — Collar and Berthe of Irish Crochet Lace.
rate of wages. The production of hand-made laces in Belgium
was in 1900 greater than that of France. The principal modern
needle-made lace of Belgium is the "Point de Gaze";
" Duchesse " and Bruges laces are the chief pillow-made laces;
whilst " Point Applique " and " Plat Applique " are frequently
the results not only of combining needle-made and pillow work,
but also of using them in conjunction with machine-made net.
Ireland is the best producer of that substantial looped-thread
FIG. 26. — Collar of Irish Crochet Lace.
work known as crochet (see figs. 25, 26, 27), which must be
regarded as a hand-made lace fabric although not classifiable
as a needlepoint or pillow lace. It is also quite distinct in char-
acter from pseudo-laces, which are really embroideries with a
lace-like appearance, e.g. embroideries on net, cut and embroidered
cambrics and fine linen. For such as these Ireland maintains
a reputation in its admirable Limerick and Carrickmacross
laces, made not only in Limerick and Carrickmacross, but also
LACE
PLATE III.
FIG. 8.— MARY, COUNTESS OF PEMBROKE, WEARING
A COIF AND CUFFS OF RETICELLA LACE.
National Portrait Gallery. Dated 1614.
FIG. 9.— HENRI II..DUCDE MONTMORENCY, WEARING A
FALLING LACE COLLAR. By LE NAIN. Louvre. About 1628.
(By permission of Messrs Braun, Clement & Co.,
Dornach (Alsace), and Paris.)
FIG. io.— SCALLOPPED COLLAR OF TAPE-LIKE
PILLOW-MADE LACE.
Possibly of English early lyth-century work. Its texture is
typical of a development in pillow-lace-making later than that of
the lower edge of " merletti a piombini " in PI. II. fig. 3.
FIG. II.— JAMES II. WEARING A JABOT AND CUFFS
OF RAISED NEEDLEPOINT LACE.
By RILEY. National Portrait Gallery. About 1685.
(Figs. 8 and n, photo by Emery Walker.)
FIG. 12. — JABOT OF NEEDLEPOINT LACE WORKED
PARTLY IN RELIEF, AND USUALLY KNOWN AS
"GROS POINT DE VEN1SE."
Middle of iyth century. Conventional scrolling stems with off-
shooting pseudo-blossoms and leafs are specially characteristic in
design for this class of lace. Its texture is typical of a development
in needle-made lace later than the flat " punto in aria " of PL II. fig. 7.
PLATE IV.
LACE
FIG. 13.— MME VERBIEST, WEARING PILLOW-MADE
LACE,! RESEAU.
From the family group by GONZALEZ COQUES . Buckingham Palace.
About 1664.
(By permission of Messrs Braun, Clement & Co.,
Dornach (Alsace), and Paris.)
FIG. 15— PRINCESS MARIA TERESA STUART, WEARING
A FLOUNCE OR TABLIER OF LACE SIMILAR TO
THAT IN FIG. 17. Dated 1695.
From a group by LARGILLIERE. National Portrait Gallery.
(Photo by Emery Walker.)
* * V' . V : I
FIG. 16— FLOUNCE OF PILLOW-MADE LACE A RESEAU.
Flemish, of the middle of the I7th century. This lace is usually
thought to be the earliest type of "Point d'Angleterre" in contra-
distinction to the "Point de Flandres" (fig. 14).
FIG. 14.— PIECE OF PILLOW-MADE LACE USUALLY
KNOWN AS "POINT DE FLANDRES A BRIDES."
Of the middle of the I7th century, the designs for which were
often adaptations from those made for such needlepoint lace as that
of the Jabot in fig. 12.
FIG. 17 —VERY DELICATE NEEDLEPOINT LACE WITH
CLUSTERS OF SMALL RELIEF WORK.
Venetian, middle of the 1 7th century, and often called "rose-
point lace," and sometimes " Point de Neige."
LACE
in Kinsale, Newry, Crossmaglen and elsewhere. The demand
from France for Irish crochet is now far beyond the supply, a
condition which leads not only to the rapid repetition by Irish
workers of old patterns, but tends also to a gradual debasement
of both texture and ornament. Attempts have been made to
counteract this tend-
ency, with some
success, as the speci-
mens of Irish crochet
in figs. 25, 26 and 27
indicate.
An a p p r e ciable
amount of pillow-
made lace is annu-
ally supplied from
Devonshire, Buck-
FIG. 27.— Lady's Sleeve of Irish Crochet Lace. ingllamshire, Bed-
fordshire and Northampton, but it is bought almost wholly for
home use. The English laces are made almost entirely in accord-
ance with the precedents of the ipth century — that is to say, in
definite lengths and widths, as for borders, insertions and flounces,
although large shaped articles, such as panels for dresses, long
sleeves complete skirts, jackets, blouses, and fancifully shaped
collars of considerable dimensions have of late been freely made
elsewhere. To make such things entirely of lace necessitates
many modifications in the ordinary methods; the English
lace-workers are slow to adapt their work in the manner requisite,
and hence are far behind in the race to respond to the fashionable
demand. No countries succeed so well in promptly answering
the variable call of fashion as France and Belgium.
As regards trade in lace, America probably buys more from
Belgium than from France; France and England come next as
purchasers of nearly equal quantities, after which come Russia and
Italy.
The greatest amount of lace now made is that which issues from
machines in England, France and Germany. The total number of
persons employed in the lace industry in England in 1871 was 49,370,
and in 1901 about 34,929, of whom not more than 5000 made lace
by hand.
The early history1 of the lace-making machine coincides
with that of the stocking frame, that machine having been
adapted about the year 1768 for producing open-looped fabrics
which had a net-like appearance. About 1 786 frames for making
point nets by machinery first appear at Mansfield and later at
Ashbourne and Nottingham and soon afterwards modifications
were introduced into such frames in order to make varieties of
meshes in the point nets which were classed as figured nets.
In 1808 and 1809 John Heathcoat of Nottingham obtained
patents for machines for making bobbin net with a simpler and
more readily produced mesh than that of the point net just
mentioned. For at least thirty years thousands of women
had been employed in and about Nottingham in the embroidery
of simple ornament on net. In 1813 John Leavers began to
improve the figured net weaving machines above mentioned,
and from these the lace-making machines in use at the present
time were developed. But it was the application of the cele-
brated Jacquard apparatus to such machines that enabled
manufacturers to produce all sorts of patterns in thread-work
in imitation of the patterns for hand-made lace. A French
machine called the " dentelliere " was devised (see La Nature
for the 3rd of March 1881), and the patterns produced by it
were of plaited threads. The expense, however, attending the
production of plaited lace by the " dentelliere " is as great as
that of pillow lace made by the hand, and so the machine has
not succeeded for ordinary trade purposes. More successfu
results have been secured by the new patent circular lace machine
of Messrs. Birkin & Co. of Nottingham, the productions of which
all of simple design, cannot be distinguished from hand-mad-
pillow lace of the same style (see figs. 57, 58, 59).
Before dealing with technical details in processes of making
lace whether by hand or by the machine, the component parts o
different makes of lace may be considered. These are governec
1 See Felkin's Machine-wrought Hosiery and Lace Manufactures.
>y the ornaments or patterns, which may be so designed, as
hey were in the earlier laces, that the different component parts
may touch one another without any intervening ground-work.
Jut as a wish arose to vary the effect of the details in a pattern
ground-works were gradually developed and at first consisted of
inks or ties between the substantial parts of the pattern. The
>ars or ties were succeeded by grounds of meshes, like nets.
iometimes the substantial parts of a pattern were outlined with a
single thread or by a strongly marked raised edge of buttonhole-
bitched or of plaited work. Minute fanciful devices were then
ntroduced to enrich various portions of the pattern. Some
of the heavier needle-made laces resemble low relief carving in
vory, and the edges of the relief portions are often decorated
with clusters of small loops. For the most part all this elabora-
ion was brought to a high pitch of variety and finish by French
designers and workers; and French terms are more usual in
speaking of details in laces. Thus the solid part of the pattern
s called the toile or clothing, the links or ties are called brides,
the meshed grounds are called reseaux, the outline to the edges
of a pattern is called cordonnet or brodi, the insertions of
:anciful devices modes, the little loops picots. These terms are
applicable to the various portions of laces made with the needle,
on the pillow or by the machine.
The sequence of patterns in lace (which may be verified upon
referring to PI. I. to VI.) is roughly as follows. From about
1540 to 1590 they were composed of geometric forms set within
squares, or of crossed and radiating line devices, resulting in
a very open fabric, stiff and almost wiry in effect, without
brides or reseaux. From 1590 may be dated the introduction
into patterns of very conventional floral and even human
and animal forms and slender scrolls, rendered in a tape-like
texture, held together by brides. To the period from 1620 to
1670 belongs the development of long continuous scroll patterns
with r&seaux and brides, accompanied in the case of needle-
made laces with an elaboration of details, e.g. cordonnet with
massings of picots. Much of these laces enriched with fillings
or modes was made at this time. From 1650 to 1700 the scroll
patterns gave way to arrangements of detached ornamental
details (as in PI. VI. fig. 22): and about 1700 to 1760 more
important schemes or designs were made (as in PI. V. fig. 19,
and in fig. 24 in text), into which were introduced naturalistic
renderings of garlands, flowers, birds, trophies, architectural
ornament and human figures. . Grounds composed entirely
of varieties of modes as in the case of the riseau rosace (PI. V.
fig. 21) were sometimes made then. From 1760 to 1800 small
details consisting of bouquets, sprays of flowers, single flowers,
leaves, buds, spots and such like were adopted, and sprinkled
over meshed grounds, and the character of the texture was gauzy
and filmy (as in figs. 40 and 42). Since that time variants of
the foregoing styles of pattern and textures have been used
according to the bent of fashion in favour of simple or complex
ornamentation, or of stiff, compact or filmy textures.
Needlepoint Lace.— The way in which the early Venetian
" punto in aria " was made corresponds with that hi which
needlepoint lace is now worked. The pattern is first drawn
upon a piece of parchment. The parchment is then stitched
to two pieces of linen. Upon the leading lines drawn on the
parchment a thread is laid, and fastened through to the parch-
ment and linen by means of stitches, thus constructing a skeleton
thread pattern (see left-
hand part of fig. 30).
Those portions which
are to be represented as
the " clothing " or toile
are usually worked as
indicated in the en-
larged diagram (fig. 29),
and then edged as a rule with buttonhole stitching (fig. 28).
Between these toile portions of the pattern are worked ties
(brides) or meshes (rfseaux) , and thus the various parts united into
one fabric are wrought on to the face of the parchment pattern
and reproducing it (see right-hand part of fig. 30). A knife is
FIG. 28.
FIG. 29.
LACE
passed between the two pieces of linen at the back of the parch-
ment, cutting the stitches which have passed through the parch-
ment and linen, and so releasing the lace itself from its pattern
parchment. In the earlier stages, the lace was made in lengths
to serve as insertions (passements) and also in Vandykes (dentelles)
FlG. 30. — Parchment Pattern showing work in progress : the
more complete lace is on the right half of the pattern.
to serve as edgings. Later on insertions and Vandykes were
made in one piece. All of such were at first of a geometric
style of pattern (PI. II. figs. 3-5 and 6).
Following closely upon them came the freer style of design
already mentioned, without and then with links or ties — brides —
interspersed between the various details of the patterns (PI. II.
fig. 7), which were of flat tapelike texture. In elaborate speci-
mens of this flat point lace some lace workers occasionally used
gold thread with the white thread. These flat laces (" Pun to in
Aria ") are also called " flat Venetian point." About 1640 " rose
(raised) point " laces began to be made (PI. III. fig. 12). They
were done in. relief and those of bold design with stronger reliefs
are called " gros point de Venise." Lace of this latter class was
used for altar cloths, flounces, jabots or neckcloths which hung
beneath the chin over the breast (PI. III. fig. n), as well as for
trimming the turned-over tops of jack boots. Tabliers and
ladies' aprons were also made of such lace. In these no regular
ground was introduced. All sorts of minute embellishments,
like little knots, stars and loops or picots, were worked on to the
irregularly arranged brides or ties holding the main patterns
together, and the more dainty of these raised laces (PI. IV. fig. 17)
exemplify the most subtle uses to which the buttonhole stitch
appears capable of being put in making ornaments. But about
1660 came laces with brides or ties arranged in a honeycomb
reticulation or regular ground. To them succeeded lace in
which the compact relief gave place to daintier and lighter
material combined with a ground of meshes or reseau. The
needle-made meshes were sometimes of single and sometimes of
double threads. A diagram is given of an ordinary method of
making such meshes (fig. 31). At the end of the I7th century
the lightest of the Venetian needlepoint
laces were made; and this class which
was of the filmiest texture is usually
known as " point de Venise a reseau "
(PI. V. fig. 200). It was contemporary
with the needle-made French laces of Alen-
con and Argentan1 that became famous
towards the latter part of the i?th century
FIG. 31.
(PI. V. fig. 206). " Point d'Argentan " has been thought to
be especially distinguished on account of its delicate honeycomb
ground of hexagonally arranged brides (fig. 32), a peculiarity
already referred to in certain antecedent Venetian point laces.
Often intermixed with this hexagonal brides ground is the fine-
meshed ground or rfseau (fig. 2oi), which has been held to be
distinctive of " point d'Alencon." But the styles of patterns
and the methods of working them, with rich variety of insertions
or modes, with the brodl or cordonnet of raised buttonhole stitched
edging, are alike in Argentan and Alencon needle-made laces
(PI. V. fig. 206 and fig. 32). Besides the hexagonal brides
1 After 1650 the lace-workers at Alencon and its neighbourhood
produced work of a daintier kind than that which was being made by
the Venetians. As a rule the hexagonal bride grounds of Alencon
laces are smaller than similar details in Venetian laces. The average
size of a diagonal taken from angle to angle in an Alencon (or so-
called Argentan) hexagon was about one-sixth of an inch, and each
side of the hexagon was about one-tenth of an inch. An idea of the
minuteness of the work can be formed from the fact that a side of a
hexagon would be overcast with some nine or ten buttonhole stitches.
ground and the ground of meshes another variety of grounding
(reseau rosace) was used in certain Alencon designs. This ground
consisted of buttonhole-stitched skeleton hexagons within each
of which was worked a small hexagon of loiU connected with the
outer surrounding hexagon by means of six little ties or brides
(PI. V. fig. 21). Lace with this particular ground has been
called " Argentella," and some writers have thought that it was
a specialty of Genoese or Venetian work. But the character
of the work and the style of the floral patterns are those of
Alencon laces. The industry at Argentan was virtually an off-
shoot of that nurtured at Alencon, where " lacis," " cut work "
and " velin " (work on parchment) had been made for years
before the well-developed needle-made " point d'Alencon "
came into vogue under the favouring patronage of the state-
aided lace company mentioned as having been formed in 1665.
FIG. 32. — Border of Needlepoint Lace made in France about
1740-1750, the clear hexagonal mesh ground, which is compactly
stitched, being usually regarded as characteristic of the point de
France made at Argentan.
Madame Despierre in her Histoire du point d'Alenfon gives an
interesting and trustworthy account of the industry.
In Belgium, Brussels has acquired some celebrity for needle-
made laces. These, however, are chiefly in imitation of those
made at Alencon, but the toiU is of less compact texture and
sharpness in definition of pattern. Brussels needlepoint lace is
often worked with meshed grounds made on a pillow, and a plain
FIG. 33. — Shirt decorated with Insertions of Flat Needlepoint Lace.
(English, I7th century. Victoria and Albert Museum.)
thread is used as a cordonnet for their patterns instead of a thread
overcast with buttonhole stitches as in the French needlepoint
laces. Note the bright sharp outline to the various ornamental
details in PI. V. fig. 206.
Needlepoint lace has also been occasionally produced in
LACE
PLATE V.
FIG. 18.— CHARLES GASPARD GUILLAUME DE VINTI-
MILLE, WEARING LACE SIMILAR IN STYLE OF
DESIGN SHOWN IN FIG. 19. About 1730.
FIG 19— PORTION OF FLOUNCE, NEEDLEPOINT LACE
COPIED AT THE BURANO LACE SCHOOL FROM THE
ORIGINAL OF THE SO-CALLED "POINT DE VENISE
A BRIDES PICOTEES."
1 7th century. Formerly belonging to Pope Clement XIII., but
now the property of the queen of Italy. The design and work,
however, are indistinguishable from those of important flounces of
'' Point de France." The pattern consists of repetitions of two
vertically-arranged groups of fantastic pine-apples and vases with
flowers, intermixed with bold rococo bands and large leaf devices.
The hexagonal meshes ^of the ground, although similar to the
Venetian " brides picotees," are much akin to the button-hole
stitched ground of " Point d'Atgentan." (Victoria and Albert
Museum.)
XVI. 42.
A FIG. 20. B
A.— A LAPPET OF " POINT DE VENISE A RESEAU."
The conventional character of the pseudo-leaf and floral forms
contrasts with that of the realistic designs of contemporary French
laces. Italian. Early i8th century.
B— A LAPPET OF FINE " POINT D'ALENgON."
Louis XV. period. The variety of the fillings of geometric design
is particularly remarkable in this specimen, as is the button-hole
stitched cordonnat or outline to the various ornamental forms.
FIG. 21.— BORDER OF FRENCH NEEDLEPOINT LACE,
WITH GROUND OF "RESEAU ROSACE." 1 8th century.
PLATE VI.
LACE
Flo. 22.— JABOT OR CRAVAT OF PILLOW-MADE LACE. Brussels. Late i;th century. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)
FIG. 23.— JABOT OR CRAVAT OF PILLOW-MADE LACE OF FANTASTIC FLORAL DESIGN, THE GROUND OF WHICH IS
COMPOSED OF LITTLE FLOWERS AND LEAVES ARRANGED WITHIN SMALL OPENWORK VERTICAL STRIPS.
Brussels. i8th century. (Victoria and Albert Museum.)
LACE
43
England. Whilst the character of its design in the early i7th
century was rather more primitive, as a rule, than that of the
contemporary Italian, the method of its workmanship is virtually
the same and an interesting specimen of English needle-made
lace inset into an early 17th-century shirt is illustrated in fig. 33.
Specimens of needle-made work done by English school children
may be met with in samplers of the i7th and i8th centuries.
Needlepoint lace is successfully made at Youghal, Kenmare and
New Ross in Ireland, where of late years attention has been given
to the study of designs for it. The lace-making school at Burano
near Venice produces hand-made laces which are, to a great extent,
careful reproductions of the more celebrated classes of point laces,
such as " punto in aria," " rose point de Venise," " point de
Venise a reseau," "point d'Alencon," "point d'Argentan"
and others. Some good needlepoint, lace is made in Bohemia
and elsewhere in the Austrian empire.
Pillow-made Lace. — Pillow-made lace is built upon no sub-
structure corresponding with a skeleton thread pattern such as
is used for needlepoint lace, but is the representation of a pattern
obtained by twisting and plaiting threads.
These patterns were never so strictly geometric in style as
those adopted for the earliest point lace making from the ante-
cedent cut linen and drawn thread embroideries. Curved forms,
almost at the outset of pillow lace, seem to have been found easy
of execution (see lower border, PL II. fig. 3); its texture was
more lissom and less crisp and wiry in appearance than that of
contemporary needle-made lace. The early twisted and plaited
thread laces, which had the appearance of small cords merging
into one another, were soon succeeded by laces of similar make but
with flattened and broader lines more like fine braids or tapes
(PL I. fig. 2, and PL III. fig. 10). But pillow laces of this tapey
character must not be confused with laces in which actual tape
or braid is used. That peculiar class of lace-work does not arise
until after the beginning of the I7th century when the weaving
of tape is said to have commenced in Flanders. In England
this sort of tape-lace dates no farther back than 1747, when two
Dutchmen named Lanfort were invited by an English firm to
set up tape looms in Manchester.
The process by which lace is made on the pillow is roughly
and briefly as follows. A pattern is first drawn upon a piece
of paper or parchment. It is then
pricked with holes by a skilled " pattern
pricker," who determines where the
principal pins shall be stuck for guid-
ing the threads. This pricked pattern
is then fastened to the pillow. The
pillow or cushion varies in shape in
different countries. Some lace-makers
use a circular pad, backed with a flat
board, in order that it may be placed
upon a table and easily moved. Other
FIG. 34.— Diagram show- lace-workers use a well-stuffed round
.bins in use. pnlow or short boisterj flaUened at
the two ends, so that they may hold it conveniently on their
laps. From the upper part of pillow with the pattern fastened
on it hang the threads from the bobbins. The bobbin threads
thus hang across the pattern. Fig. 34 shows the commence-
ment, for instance, of a double set of three-thread
, plaitings. The compact portion in a pillow lace
as a woven appearance (fig. 35).
About the middle of the i7th century pillow
' lace of formal scroll patterns somewhat in imita-
FIG. 35. tion of those for point lace was made, chiefly
in Flanders. The earlier of these had grounds of
ties or brides and was often called " point de Flandres " (PL IV.
fig. 14) in contradistinction to scroll patterns with a mesh
ground, which were called " point d'Angleterre " (PL IV. fig. 16).
Into Spain and France much lace from Venice and Flanders was
imported as well as into England, where from the i6th century
the manufacture of the simple pattern " bone lace " by peasants
in the midland and southern counties was still being carried on.
In Charles II.'s time its manufacture was threatened with
extinction by the preference given to the more artistic and
finer Flemish laces. The importation of the latter was accord-
ingly prohibited. Dealers in Flemish lace sought to evade the
prohibitions by calling certain of their laces " point d'Angleterre,"
FIG. 36. — Border of English Pillow-made (Devonshire) Lace in
the style of a Brussels design of the middle of the 1 8th century.
and smuggling them into England. But smuggling was made
so difficult that English dealers were glad to obtain the services
of Flemish lace-makers and to induce them to settle in England.
It is from some such cause that the better I7th- and 18th-century
FIG. 37. — Border of English (Bucks, or Beds.) Pillow-made Lace
in the style of a Mechlin design of the latter part of the i8th century.
English pillow laces bear resemblance to pillow laces of Brussels,
of Mechlin and of Valenciennes.
As skill in the European lace-making developed soon after the
middle of the i7th century, patterns and particular plaitings
FIG. 38. — Border of Pillow-made Lace, Mechlin, from a design
similar to such as was used for point d'Alencpn of the Louis XV.
period.
came to be identified with certain localities. Mechlin, for
instance, enjoyed a high reputation for her productions. The
chief technical features of this pillow lace lie in the plaiting of
the meshes, and the outlining of the clothing or toili with a
thread cordonnet. The ordinary Mechlin
mesh is hexagonal in shape. Four of the
sides are of double twisted threads, two
are of four threads plaited three times
(fig- 39)-
In Brussels pillow lace, which has
greater variety of design, the mesh is
also hexagonal; but in contrast with the
Mechlin mesh whilst four of its sides are
of double-twisted threads the other two
are of four threads plaited four times
(fig. 41). The finer specimens of'Brussels
lace are remarkable for the fidelity and
grace with which the botanical forms in many of its patterns
are rendered (PL VI. fig; 23). These are mainly reproductions or
adaptations of designs for point d'Alencon, and the soft quality
imparted to them in the texture of pillow-made lace contrasts
with the harder and more crisp appearance in needlepoint
FIG. 39. — Mechlin
Mesh.
44
LACE
lace. An example of dainty Brussels pillow lace is given in
fig. 42. In the Brussels pillow lace a delicate modelling effect
FIG. 40. — Border of Pillow-made Lace, Mechlin, end of the
l8th century.
is often imparted to the close textures of the flowers by means
of pressing them with a bone instrument which gives concave
shapes to petals and leaves, the edges
of which consist in part of slightly raised
cordonnet of compact plaited work.
Honiton pillow lace resembles Brussels
lace, but in most of the English pillow
laces (Devonshire, Buckinghamshire,
Bedfordshire) the reseau is of a simple
character (fig. 43). As a rule, English
lace is made with a rather coarser thread
than that used in the older Flemish
laces. In real Flemish Valenciennes
lace there are no twisted sides to the
mesh; all are closely plaited (fig. 44)
and as a rule the shape of the mesh is
diamond but without the openings as
FIG. 41. — Enlargement shown in fig. 44. No outline or cordonnet
of Brussels Mesh. to define the pattern is used in Valen-
ciennes lace (see fig. 45). Much lace of the Valenciennes type
(fig- 54) is made at Ypres. Besides these distinctive classes of
pillow-like laces, there are others in which equal care in plait-
FIG. 42. — Portion of a Wedding Veil, 7 ft. 6 in.X6 ft. 6 in., of
Pillow-made Lace, Brussels, late l8th century. The design consists
of light leafy garlands of orange blossoms and other flowers daintily
festooned. Little feathery spirals and stars are powdered over the
ground, which is of Brussels wo* reseau. In the centre upon a more
open ground of pillow-made hexagonal brides is a group of two birds,
one flying towards the other which appears ready to take wing from
its nest; an oval frame containing two hearts pierced by an arrow,
and a hymeneal torch. Throughout this veil is a profusion of pillow
renderings of various modes, the reseau rosace, star devices, &c. The
ornamental devices are partly applied and partly worked into the
ground (Victoria and Albert Museum).
ing and twisting threads is displayed, though the character of
the design is comparatively simple, as for instance in ordinary
pillow laces from Italy, from the Auvergne, from Bucking-
hamshire, or rude and primitive as in laces from Crete,
southern Spain and Russia. Pillow lace-making in Crete is
now said to be extinct. The laces were made chiefly of silk. The
FIG. 43.
FIG. 44.
patterns in many specimens are outlined with one, two or
three bright-coloured silken threads. Uniformity in simple
character of design may also be observed in many Italian,
Spanish, Bohemian, Swedish and Russian pillow laces (see the
lower edge of fig. 46).
Guipure. — This name is often applied to needlepoint and
pillow laces in which the ground consists of ties or brides, but
it more properly designates a kind of lace qr " passementerie,"
made with gimp of fine wires whipped
round with silk, and with cotton
thread. An earlier kind of gimp was
formed with " Cartisane," a little strip
of thin parchment or vellum covered
with silk, gold or silver thread. These
stiff gimp threads, formed into a
pattern, were held together by
stitches worked with the needle. Gold
and silver thread laces have been
usually made on the pillow, though
gold thread has been used with fine
effect in 1 7th-century Italian needle-
point laces.
Machine-made Lace. — We have
already seen that a technical peculi-
arity in making needlepoint lace is
that a single thread and needle are
alone used to form the pattern, and
that the buttonhole stitch and other
loopings which can be worked by
means of a needle and thread mark
a distinction between lace made in
this manner and lace made on the
pillow. For the process of pillow lace
making a series of threads are in
constant employment, plaited and
twisted the one with another. A
buttonhole stitch is not producible
by it. The Leavers lace machine
does not make either a buttonhole
stitch or a plait. An essential prin- FIG. 45.— Lappet of deli-
ciple of this machine-made work is cate Pillow-made Lace,
that the threads are twisted together Valenciennes, about 1750.
as in stocking net. The Leavers lace T.he peculiarity of Valen-
„ . ciennes lace is the filmy
machine is that generally in use at cambric-like texture and
Nottingham and Calais. French in- the absence of any cordon-
genuity has developed improvements net to define the separate
in this machine whereby laces of deli- Pafts of ,^e ornament such
.1 j , , , . as is used in needlepoint lace
cate thread are made; but as fast of Alencon, and in pillow
as France makes an improvement Mechlin and Brussels lace.
England follows with another, and
both countries virtually maintain an equal position in this
branch of industry. The number of threads brought into opera-
tion in a Leavers machine is regulated by the pattern to be
produced, the threads being of two sorts, beam or warp threads
LACE
45
and bobbin or weft threads. Upwards of 8880 are sometimes
used, sixty pieces of lace being made simultaneously, each piece
requiring 148 threads — too beam threads and 48 bobbin threads.
The ends of both sets of threads are fixed to a cylinder upon
which as the manufacture proceeds the lace becomes wound.
^
FIG. 46. — Border to a Cloth. The wide part bearing the double-
headed eagle of Russia is of drawn thread embroidery : the scalloped
edging is of Russian pillow-made lace, though the style of its pattern
is often seen in pillow laces made by peasants in Danubian provinces
as well as in the south of Spain.
The supply of the beam or warp threads is held upon reels, and
that of the bobbins or weft threads is held in bobbins. The
beam or warp thread reels are arranged in frames or trays
beneath the stage, above which and between it and the cylinder
the twisting of the bobbin or weft with beam or warp threads
takes place. The bobbins
containing the bobbin or
weft threads are flat-
tened in shape so as
to pass conveniently be-
tween the stretched beam
or warp threads. Each
bobbin can contain about
120 yds. of thread. By
most ingenious mechan-
ism varying degrees of
tension can be imparted
to warp and weft threads
as required. As the bob-
bins or weft threads pass
like pendulums between
the warp threads the
latter are made to oscil-
late, thus causing them
to become twisted with
the bobbin threads. As
the twistings take place,
combs passing through
both warp and weft
threads compress the
FIG. 47. FIG. 48. twistings. Thus the tex-
ture of the clothing or
toils in machine-made lace may generally be detected by
its ribbed appearance, due to the compressed twisted threads.
Figs. 47 and 48 are intended to show effects obtained by
varying the tensions of weft and warp threads. For in-
stance, if the weft, as threads b, b, b, b in fig. 47, be tight
and the warp thread slack, the warp thread a will be twisted
upon the weft threads. But if the warp thread a be tight and
the weft threads b, b, b, b, be slack, as in fig. 48, then the weft
threads will be twisted on the warp thread. At the same time
FIG. 49. — Section of Lace Machine.
the twisting in both these cases arises from the conjunction of
movements given to the two sets of threads, namely, an oscilla-
tion or movement from side to side of the beam or warp threads,
and the swinging or pendulum-like movement of the bobbin
or weft threads between the
warp threads. Fig. 49 is a
diagram of a sectional eleva-
tion of a lace machine repre-
senting its more essential parts.
E is the cylinder or beam upon
which the lace is rolled as made,
and upon which the ends of
both warp and weft threads are
fastened at starting. Beneath
are w, w, w, a series of trays
or beams, one above the other,
containing the reels of the
supplies of warp threads; c, c
represent the slide bars for the
passage of the bobbin b with
fts ead from * to *, the
FIG. 50.— Machine-made Lace in
landing bars, one on each side
of the rank of warp threads; s, t are the combs which take it
in turns to press together the twistings as they are made.
The combs come away dear from the threads as soon as
they have pressed them together and fall into positions ready
46
LACE
to perform their pressing operations again. The contrivances
for giving each thread a particular tension and movement at
a certain time are connected with an adaptation of the Jacquard
system of pierced cards. The machine lace pattern drafter has
to calculate how many holes shall be punched in a card, and to
.determine the position of
I such holes. Each hole
I regulates the mechanism
for giving movement to a
thread. Fig. 54 displays a
piece of hand-made Valen-
ciennes (Ypres) lace and
fig. 55 a corresponding piece
I woven by the machine. The
latter shows the advantage
I that can be gained by using
very fine gauge machines,
thus enabling a very close
imitation of the real lace to
be made br securing a very
°Pen and clear reseau or net,
such as would be made on a
Pillow Guipure Lace.
coarse machine, and at the same time to keep the pattern fine and
solid and standing out well from the net, as is the case with the
real lace, which cannot be done by using a coarse gauge machine.
In this example the machine used is a 16 point (that is 32 carriages
to the inch), and the ground is made half gauge, that is 8 point,
FIG. 52. — Border of Machine-made Lace in imitation of 17th-
century Pillow Lace.
and the weaving is made the full gauge of the machine, that is
16 point. Fig. 56 gives other examples of hand- and machine-
made Valenciennes lace. The machine-made lace (6) imitating
the real (a) is made on a i4-point machine (that is 28 carriages
to the inch), the ground being 7 point and the pattern being full
gauge or 14 point. Although
the principle in these examples
of machine work is exactly
the same, in so far that they
use half gauge net and full
gauge clothing to produce the
contrast as mentioned above,
the fabrication of these two
examples is quite different,
that in fig. 55 being an example
of tight bobbins or weft, and
slack warp threads as shown
in fig. 47. Whereas the ex-
ample in fig. 56 is made with
slack bobbins or weft threads
and tight warp threads as in
fig. 48. In fig. 57 is a piece of
FIG. 53. — Machine-made Trim-
ming Border in imitation of Irish
Crochet Lace.
hand-made laceofstoutthread,
very similar to much Cluny
lace made in the Auvergne and to the Buckinghamshire "Maltese"
lace. Close to it are specimens of lace (figs. 58 and 59) made by
the new patent circular lace machine of Messrs Birkin of Notting-
ham. This machine although very slow in production actually
reproduces the real lace, at a cost slightly below that of the hand-
made lace. In another branch of lace-making by machinery,
mechanical ingenuity, combined with chemical treatment, has
FIG. 54. — A Piece of Hand-made Pillow Lace, Belgian (Ypres),
aoth century. (The machine imitation is given in fig. 55.)
led to surprising results (figs. 53 and 50). Swiss, German and
other manufacturers use machines in which a principle of the
sewing-machine is involved. A fine silken tissue is thereby
FIG. 55. — Machine-made Lace in
imitation of the Hand-made Speci-
men of fig. 54. (Nottingham, 2Oth
century.)
FIG. 56.— Small Borders
(a) Hand-made and (b)
Machine-made Lace Valen-
ciennes. (Nottingham, 20th-
century.)
enriched with an elaborately raised cotton or thread embroidery.
The whole fabric is then treated with chemical mordants which,
whilst dissolving the silky web, do not attack the cotton or
FIG. 57.— Speci- FIG. 58. — Specimen of Machine-made Lace in
men of Hand-made which the twisting and plaiting of the threads.
Pillow Lace. are identical with those of the hand-made speci-
men of fig. 57. (Nottingham, 2Oth century.)
thread embroidery. A relief embroidery possessing the appear-
ance of hand-made raised needlepoint lace is thus produced.
LACE
FIG. 59. — Specimens of Machine-made Torchon Lace, in the same manner as such lace is made on the pillow by hand. (Nottingham,
2Oth century.)
Figs. 60 and 61 give some idea of the high quality to which this
admirable counterfeit has been brought.
Collections of hand-made lace chiefly exist in museums and
technical institutions, as for instance the Victoria and Albert
FIG. 60. — Machine-made Lace of Modern Design.
Museum in London, the Musee des Arts Decoratifs in Paris, and
museums at Lyons, Nuremberg, Berlin, Turin and elsewhere.
FIG. 61. — Machine-made Lace in imitation of ijth-century
Needlepoint Lace, " Gros point de Venise."
In such places the opportunity is presented of tracing in chrono-
logical sequence the stages of pattern and texture development.
Literature. — The literature of the art of lace-making is considerable.
The series of l6th- and 17th-century lace pattern-books, of which the
more important are perhaps those by F. Vinciolo (Paris, 1587),
Cesare Vecellio (Venice, 1592), and Isabella Catanea Parasole
(Venice, 1600), not to mention several kindred works of earlier and
later date published in Germany and the Netherlands, supplies a
large field for exploration. Signor Ongania of Venice published a
limited number of facsimiles of the majority of such works. M. Alvin
of Brussels issued a brochure in 1863 upon these patterns, and in the
same year the marquis Girolamo d'Adda contributed two biblio-
graphical essays upon the same subject to the Gazette des Beaux- Arts
(vol. xv. p. 342 seq., and voUxyii. p. 421 seq.). In 1864 Cavaliere
A. Merli wrote a pamphlet (with illustrations) entitled Online ed
uso delle trine afilp di rete; Mons F. de Fertiault compiled a brief and
rather fanciful Histoire de la dentelle in 1843, in which he reproduced
statements to be found in Diderot's Encyclopedic, subsequently
quoted by Roland de la Platiere. The first Report of the Department
of Practical Art (1853) contains a " Report on Cotton Print Works
and Lace-Making " by Octavius Hudson, and in the first Report of
the Department of Science and Art are some " Observations on Lace.
Reports upon the International Exhibitions of 1851 (London) and
1867 (Paris), by M. Aubry, Mrs Palliser and others contain informa-
tion concerning lace-making. The most important work first issued
upon the history of lace-making is that by Mrs Bury Palliser (History
of Lace, 1869). In this work the history is treated rather from an
antiquarian than a technical point of view; and wardrobe accounts,
inventories, state papers, fashionable journals, diaries, plays, poems,
have been laid under contribution with surprising diligence. A new
edition published in 1902 presents the work as entirely revised, re-
written and enlarged under the editorship of M. Jourdain and Alice
Dryden. In 1875 the Arundel Society brought out A ncient Needle-
point and Pillow Lace, a folio volume of permanently printed photo-
graphs taken from some of the finest specimens of ancient lace
collected for the International Exhibition of 1874. These were
accompanied by a brief history of lace, written from the technical
aspect of the art, by Alan S. Cole. At the same time appeared a
bulky imperial 410 volume by Seguin, entitled La Dentelle, illustrated
with wood-cuts and fifty photo-typographical plates. Seguin divides
his work into four sections. The first is devoted to a sketch of the
origin of laces; the second deals with pillow laces, bibliography of
lace and a review of sumptuary edicts; the third relates to needle-
made lace ; and the fourth contains an account of places where lace
has bjen and is made, remarks upon commerce in lace, and upon the
industry of lace makers. Without sufficient conclusive evidence
Seguin accords to France the palm for having excelled in producing
practically all the richer sorts of laces, notwithstanding that both
before and since the publication of his otherwise valuable work, many
types of them have been identified as being Italian in origin. De-
scriptive catalogues are issued of the lace collections at South
Kensington Museum, at the Science and Art Museum, Dublin, and at
the Industrial Museum, Nuremberg. In 1881 a series of four Cantor
Lectures on the art of lace-making were delivered before the Society
of Arts by Alan S. Cole.
A Technical History of the Manufacture of Venetian Laces, by
G. M. Urbani de Gheltof, with plates, was translated by Lady
Layard, and published at Venice by Signor Ongania. The History of
Machine-wrought Hosiery and Lace Manufacture (London, 1867), by
Felkin, has already been referred to. There is also a technological
essay upon lace made by machinery, with diagrams of lace stitches
and patterns (Technologische Studien im sachsischen Erzgebirge,
Leipzig, 1878), by Hugo Fischer. In 1886 the Libraire Renouard,
Paris, published a History of Point d'Alenc.on, written by Madame
G. Despierres, which gives a close and interesting account of the
industry, together with a list, compiled from local records, of makers
and dealers from 1602 onwards. — Embroidery and Lace: their manu-
facture and history from the remotest antiquity to the present day, by
Ernest Lefebure, lace-maker and administrator of the Ecole des Arts
Deciratifs, translated and enlarged with notes by Alan S. Cole, was
published in London in 1888. It is a well-illustrated handbook for
amiteurs, collectors and general readers.— Irish laces made from
modern designs are illustrated in a Renascence of the Irish Art of Lace-
making, published in 1888 (London). — Anciennes Dentelles beiges
formant la collection de feue madame Augusta Baronne Liedts el
donnees au Musee de Grunthuis a Bruges, published at Antwerp in
1889, consists of a folio volume containing upwards of 181 photo-
types— many full size — of fine specimens of lace. The ascriptions of
country and date of origin are occasionally inaccurate, on account
of a too obvious desire to credit Bruges with being the birthplace of
all sorts of lace-work, much of which shown in this work is distinctly
Italian in style. — The Encyclopaedia of Needlework, by Thdrese de
Dillmont-Dornach (Alsace, 1891), is a detailed guide to several kinds
of embroidery, knitting, crochet, tatting, netting and most of the
essential stitches for needlepoint lace. It is well illustrated with
wood-cuts and process blocks. — An exhaustive history of Russian
lace-making is given in La Dentelle russe, by Madame Sophie
Davidoff, published at Leipzig, 1895. Russian lace is principally
pillow-work with rather heavy thread, and upwards of eighty
specimens are reproduced by photo-lithography in this book.
A short account of the best-known varieties of Point and Pillow
Lace, by A. M. S. (London, 1899), is illustrated with typical specimens
of Italian, Flemish, French and English laces, as well as with magni-
fied details of lace, enabling any one to identify the plaits, the tw'sts
and loops of threads in the actual making of the fabric. — L 'Industrie
LACE-BARK TREE— LA CHAISE-DIEU
des tulles el dentelles mecaniques dans le Pas de Calais, 1815-1900,
by Henri H6non (Paris, 1900), is an important volume of over 600
pages of letterpress, interspersed with abundant process blocks of
the several kinds of machine nets and laces made at Calais since 1815.
It opens with a short account of the Arras hand-made laces, the pro-
duction of which is now almost extinct. The book was sold for the
benefit of a public subscription towards the erection of a statue in
Calais to Jacquard, the inventor of the apparatus by means of which
all figured textile fabrics are manufactured. It is of some interest to
note that machine net and lace-making at Calais owe their origin to
Englishmen, amongst whom " le sieur R. Webster arriv£ a St Pierre-
les-Calais en Decembre, 1816, venant d'Angleterre, est 1'un des
premiers qui ont etabli dans la communaute une fabrique de tulles,"
&c. Lace-making in the Midlands: Past and Present, by C. C.
Channer and M. E. Roberts (London, 1900) upon the lace-making
industry in Buckinghamshire, Bedforshire and Northamptonshire
contains many illustrations of laces made in these counties from the
1 7th century to the present time. Musee retrospectif. Dentelles a
I'exposition universelle Internationale de 1900 a Paris. Rapport de
Mons. E. Lefebvre contains several good illustrations, especially of
important specimens of Point de France of the 1 7th and i8th
centuries. Le Point de France et les autres dentelliers au X VII' et au
X VIII' siecles, by Madame Laurence de Laprade (Paris, 1905), brings
together much hitherto scattered information throwing light upon
operations in many localities in France where the industry has been
carried on for considerable periods. The book is well and usefully
illustrated.
See also Irische Spitzen (30 half-tone plates), with a short historical
introduction by Alan S. Cole (Stuttgart, 1002) ; Pillow Lace, a
practical handbook by Elizabeth Mincoff and Margaret S. Marriage
(London, 1907); The Art of Bobbin Lace, a practical text-book of
workmanship, &c., by Louisa Tebbs (London, 1907); Antiche trine
italiane, by Elisa Ricci (Bergamo, 1908), well illustrated; Seven
Centuries of Lace, by Mrs John Hungerford Pollen (London and New
York, 1908), very fully illustrated. (A. S. C.)
LACE-BARK TREE, a native of Jamaica, known botanically
as Lagetta lintearia, from its native name lagetto. The inner
bark consists of numerous concentric layers of interlacing 'fibres
resembling in appearance lace. Collars and other articles of
apparel have been made of the fibre, which is also used in the
manufacture of whips, &c. The tree belongs to the natural order
Thymelaeaceae, and is grown in hothouses in Britain.
LACEDAEMON, in historical times an alternative name of
LACONIA (q.v.). Homer uses only the former, and in some
passages seems to denote by it the Achaean citadel, the Therapnae
of later times, in contrast to the lower town Sparta (G. Gilbert,
Studien zur altspartanischen Geschichte, Gottingen, 1872, p. 34
foil.). It is described by the epithets wiXij (hollow) and lap-uitaaa.
(spacious or hollow), and is probably connected etymologically
with XifuKos, locus, any hollow place. Lacedaemon is now the
name of a separate department, which had in 1907 a population
of 87,106.
LACEPEDE, BERNARD GERMAIN ETIENNE DE LA VILLE,
COMTE DE (1756-1825), French naturalist, was born at Agen in
Guienne on the 26th of December 1756. His education was
carefully conducted by his father, and the early perusal of
Buffon's Natural History awakened his interest in that branch
of study, which absorbed his chief attention. His leisure he
devoted to music, in which, besides becoming a good performer
on the piano and organ, he acquired considerable mastery of
composition, two of his operas (which were never published)
meeting with the high approval of Gluck; in 1781-1785 he also
brought out in two volumes his Poetique de la musique. Mean-
time he wrote two treaties, Essai sur Velectricite (1781) and
Physique generale et particuliere (1782-1784), which gained him
the friendship of Buffon, who in 1785 appointed him sub-
demonstrator in the Jardin du Roi, and proposed to him to become
the continuator of his Histoire naturelle. This continuation
was published under the titles Histoire des quadrupedes ovipares
(A des serpents (2 vols., 1788-1789) and Histoire naturelle des
reptiles (1789). After the Revolution Lacepe'de became a
member of the legislative assembly, but during the Reign of
Terror he left Paris, his life having become endangered by his
disapproval of the massacres. When the Jardin du Roi was
reorganized as the Jardin des Plantes, Lacepede was appointed
to the chair allocated to the study of reptiles and fishes. In
1798 he published the first volume of Histoire naturelle des
poissons, the fifth volume appearing in 1803; and in 1804
appeared his Histoire des cetaces. From this period till his death
the part he took in politics prevented him making any further
contribution of importance to science. In 1799 he became a
senator, in 1801 president of the senate, in 1803 grand chancellor
of the legion of honour, in 1804 minister of state, and at the
Restoration in 1819 he was created a peer of France. He died at
Epinay on the 6th of October 1825. During the latter part of
his life he wrote Histoire generale physique et cimle de I' Europe,
published posthumously in 18 vols., 1826.
A collected edition of his works on natural history was published
in 1826.
LACEWING-FLY, the name given to neuropterous insects of
the families Hemerobiidae and Chrysopidae, related to the ant-
lions, scorpion-flies, &c., with long filiform antennae, longish
bodies and two pairs of large similar richly veined wings. The
larvae are short grubs beset with hair-tufts and tubercles. They
feed upon Aphidae or " green fly " and cover themselves with the
emptied skins of their prey. Lacewing-flies of the genus Chrysopa
are commonly called golden-eye flies.
LA CHAISE, FRANCOIS DE (1624-1709), father confessor of
Louis XIV., was born at the chateau of Aix in Forey on the
25th of August 1624, being the son of Georges d'Aix, seigneur
de la Chaise, and of Renee de Rochefort. On his mother's side
he was a grandnephew of Pere Coton, the confessor of Henry IV.
He became a novice of the Society of Jesus before completing
his studies at the university of Lyons, where, after taking the
final vows, he lectured on philosophy to students attracted by
his fame from all parts of France. Through the influence of
Camille de Villeroy, archbishop of Lyons, Pere de la Chaise was
nominated in 1674 confessor of Louis XIV., who intrusted him
during the lifetime of Harlay de Champvallon, archbishop of
Paris, with the administration of the ecclesiastical patronage of
the crown. The confessor united his influence with that of
Madame de Maintenon to induce the king to abandon his liaison
with Madame de Montespan. More than once at Easter he is
said to have had a convenient illness which dispensed him from
granting absolution to Louis XIV. With the fall of Madame
de Montespan and the ascendancy of Madame de Maintenon
his influence vastly increased. The marriage between Louis
XIV. and Madame de Maintenon was celebrated in his presence
at Versailles, but there is no reason for supposing that the
subsequent coolness between him and Madame de Maintenon
arose from his insistence on secrecy in this matter. During the
long strife over the temporalities of the Gallican Church between
Louis XIV. and Innocent XI. Pere de la Chaise supported the
royal prerogative, though he used his influence at Rome to
conciliate the papal authorities. He must be held largely
responsible for the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, but not
for the brutal measures applied against the Protestants. He
exercised a moderating influence on Louis XIV. 's zeal against
the Jansenists, and Saint-Simon, who was opposed to him in
most matters, does full justice to his humane and honourable
character. Pere de la Chaise had a lasting and unalterable
affection for Fenelon, which remained unchanged by the papal
condemnation of the Maximes. In spite of failing faculties he
continued his duties as confessor to Louis XIV. to the end of
his long life. He died on the 2oth of January 1709. The
cemetery of Pe're-la-Chaise in Paris stands on property acquired
by the Jesuits in 1826, and not, as is often stated, on property
personally granted to him.
See R. Chantelauze, Le Pere de la Chaise. Etudes d'histoire re-
ligieuse (Paris and Lyons, 1859).
LA CHAISE-DIEU, a town of central France, in the depart-
ment of Haute Loire, 29 m. N.N.W. of Le Puy by rail. Pop.
(1906) 1203. The town, which is situated among fir and pine
woods, 3500 ft. above the sea, preserves remains of its ramparts
and some houses of the i4th and isth centuries, but owes its
celebrity to a church, which, after the cathedral of Clermont-
Ferrand, is the most remarkable Gothic building in Auvergne.
The west facade, approached by a flight of steps, is flanked by
two massive towers. The nave and aisles are of equal height
and are separated from the choir by a stone rood screen. The
LA CHALOTAIS— LACHES
choir, terminating in an apse with radiating chapel, contains th
fine tomb and statue of Clement VI., carved stalls and some
admirable Flemish tapestries of the early i6th century. There
is a ruined cloister on the south side. The church, which dates
from the i4th century, was built at the expense of Pope Clement
VI., and belonged to a powerful Benedictine abbey founded in
1043. There are spacious monastic buildings of the i8th century
The abbey was formerly defended by fortifications, the chief
survival of which is a lofty rectangular keep to the south of the
choir. Trade in timber and the making of lace chiefly occupy th
inhabitants of the town.
LA CHALOTAIS, LOUIS RENE DE CARADEUC DE (1701-
1785), French jurist, was born at Rennes, on the 6th of March
1701. He was for 60 years procureur general at the parliament
of Brittany. He was an ardent opponent of the Jesuits,
drew up in 1761 for the parliament a memoir on the constitu-
tions of the Order, which did much to secure its suppression
in France; and in 1763 published a remarkable "Essay on
National Education," in which he proposed a programme of
scientific studies as a substitute for those taught by the Jesuits.
The same year began the conflict between the Estates of Brittany
and the governor of the province, the due d'Aiguillon (q.v.).
The Estates refused to vote the extraordinary imposts demanded
by the governor in the name of the king. La Chalotais was the
personal enemy of d'Aiguillon, who had served him an ill turn
with the king, and when the parliament of Brittany sided with
the Estates, he took the lead in its opposition. The parliament
forbade by decrees the levy of imposts to which the Estates
had not consented. The king annulling these decrees, all the
members of the parliament but twelve resigned (October 1764
to May 1765). The government considered La Chalotais one
of the authors of this affair. At this time the secretary of state
who administered the affairs of the province, Louis Philypeaux,
due de la Vrilliere, comte de Saint-Florentin (1705-1777), received
two anonymous and abusive letters. La Chalotais was suspected
of having written them, and three experts in handwriting
declared that they were by him. The government therefore
arrested him, his son and four other members of the parliament.
The arrest made a great sensation. There was much talk of
" despotism." Voltaire stated that the procureur general, in
his prison of Saint Malo, was reduced, for lack of ink, to write
his defence with a toothpick dipped in vinegar — which was
apparently pure legend; but public opinion all over France was
strongly aroused against the government. On the i6th of
November 1765 a commission of judges was named to take charge
of the trial. La Chalotais maintained that the trial was illegal;
being procureur general he claimed the right to be judged by
the parliament of Rennes, or failing this by the parliament of
Bordeaux, according to the custom of the province. The judges
did not dare to pronounce a condemnation on the evidence of
experts in handwriting, and at the end of a year, things remained
where they were at the first. Louis XV. then decided on a
sovereign act, and brought the affair before his council, which
without further formality decided to send the accused into exile.
That expedient but increased the popular agitation; philosophes,
members of the parliament, patriot Bretons and Jansenists
all declared that La Chalotais was the victim of the personal
hatred of the due d'Aiguillon and of the Jesuits. The govern-
ment at last gave way, and consented to recaU the members of
the parliament of Brittany who had resigned. This parliament,
when it met again, after the formal accusation of the due
d'Aiguillon, demanded the recall of La Chalotais. This was
accorded in 1775, and La Chalotais was allowed to transmit
his office to his son. In this affair public opinion showed itself
stronger than the absolutism of the king. The opposition to
the royal power gained largely through it, and it may be regarded
as one of the preludes to the revolution of 1789. La Chalotais,
who was personally a violent, haughty and unsympathetic
character, died at Rennes on the 1 2th of July 1785.
See, besides the Comptes-Rendus des Constitutions des Jesuites and
the Essai d education nationals, the Memoires de la Chalotais (3 vols ,
1766-1767). Two works containing detailed bibliographies are
49
Marion, La Bretagne et le due d'Aiguillon (Paris, 180-1) and B
Pocquet, Le Due d'Aiguillon et La Chalotais (Paris, 1901). See also
a controversy between these two authors in the Bulletin critique for
1902.
LA CHARITE, a town of central France in the department
of Nievre, on the right bank of the Loire, 17 m. N.N.W. of Nevers
on the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railway. Pop. (1906) 3990.
La Charit6 possesses the remains of a fine Romanesque basilica,
the church of Sainte-Croix, dating from the nth and early i2th
centuries. The plan consists of a nave, rebuilt at the end of
the 1 7th century, transept and choir with ambulatory and side
chapels. Surmounting the transept is an octagonal tower of
one story, and a square Romanesque tower of much beauty
flanks the main portal. There are ruins of the ramparts, which
date from the i4th century. The manufacture of hosiery, boots
and shoes, files and iron goods, lime and cement and woollen
and other fabrics are among the industries; trade is chiefly in
wood and iron.
La Charite" owes its celebrity to its priory, which was founded in
the 8th century and reorganized as a dependency of the abbey of
Cluny in 1052. It became the parent of many priories and
monasteries, some of them in England and Italy. The possession of
the town was hotly contested during the wars of religion of the
i6th century, at the end of which its fortifications were dismantled.
LA CHAUSSEE, PIERRE CLAUDE NIVELLE DE (1692-
I7S4), French dramatist, was born in Paris in 1692. In 1731
he published an Epitre d Clio, a didactic poem in defence of
Leriget de la Faye in his dispute with Antoine Houdart de la
Motte, who had maintained that verse was useless in tragedy.
La Chaussee was forty years old before he produced his first
play, La Fausse Antipathie (1734). His second play, Le Prejuge
d la mode (1735) turns on the fear of incurring ridicule felt by
a man in love with his own wife, a prejudice dispelled in France,
according to La Harpe, by La Chaussee's comedy. L'Ecole
des amis (1737) followed, and, after an unsuccessful attempt
at tragedy in Maximinien, he returned to comedy in Melanide
(i74i)- In Melanide the type known as comedie larmoyante
is fully developed. Comedy was no longer to provoke laughter,
but tears. The innovation consisted in destroying the sharp
distinction then existing between tragedy and comedy in French
literature. Indications of this change had been already offered
in the work of Marivaux, and La Chaussee's plays led naturally
to the domestic drama of Diderot and of Sedaine. The new
method found bitter enemies. Alexis Piron nicknames the
author " le Reverend Pere Chaussee," and ridiculed him in one
of his most famous epigrams. Voltaire maintained that the
comedie larmoyante was a proof of the inability of the author
o produce either of the recognized kinds of drama, though he
limself produced a play of similar character in L' Enfant prodigue.
The hostility of the critics did not prevent the public from shed-
ding tears nightly over the sorrows of La Chaussee's heroine.
L'Ecole des meres (1744) and La Gouvernante (1747) form, with
those already mentioned, the best of his work. The strict
moral aims pursued by La Chaussee in his plays seem hardly
consistent with his private preferences. He frequented the
same gay society as did the comte de Caylus and contributed
to the Recueils de ces messieurs. La Chaussee died on the i4th
of May 1754. Villemain said of his style that he wrote prosaic
verses with purity, while Voltaire, usually an adverse critic of
lis work, said he was " un des premiers apres ceux qui ont du
genie."
For the comedie larmoyante see G. Lanson, Nivelle de la Chaussee
t la comedie larmoyante (1887).
LACHES (from Anglo-French lachesse, negligence, from
asche, modern Idche, unloosed, slack), a term for slackness
>r negligence, used particularly in law to signify negligence
>n the part of a person in doing that which he is by law bound
o do, or unreasonable lapse of time in asserting a right, seeking
elief, or claiming a privilege. Laches is frequently a bar to
a remedy which might have been had if prosecuted in proper
ime. Statutes of limitation specify the time within which
/arious classes of actions may be brought. Apart from statutes
of limitation courts of equity will often refuse relief to those
LACHINE— LA CLOCHE
who have allowed unreasonable time to elapse in seeking it,
on the principle mgilanlibus ac non dormientibus jura sub-
veniunt.
LACHINE, an incorporated town in Jacques Cartier county,
Quebec, Canada, 8 m. W. of Montreal, on Lake St Louis, an
expansion of the St Lawrence river, and at the upper end of
the Lachine canal. Pop. (1901) 5561. It is a station on the
Grand Trunk railway and a port of call for ateamers plying
between Montreal and the Great Lakes. It is a favourite summer
resort for the people of Montreal. It was named in 1669 in
mockery of its then owner, Robert Cavelier de la Salle (1643-
1687), who dreamed of a westward passage to China. In 1689
it was the scene of a terrible massacre of the French by the
Iroquois.
LACHISH. a town of great importance in S. Palestine, often
mentioned in the Tell el-Amarna tablets. It was destroyed
by Joshua for joining the league against the Gibeonites (Joshua
x 3!-33) and assigned to the tribe of Judah (xv. 39). Rehoboam
fortified it (2 Chron. xi. 9). King Amaziah having fled hither,
was here murdered by conspirators (2 Kings xiv. 19).
Sennacherib here conducted a campaign (2 Kings xviii. 13)
during which Hezekiah endeavoured to make terms with him:
the campaign is commemorated by bas-reliefs found in Nineveh,
now in the British Museum (see G. Smith's History of Sennacherib,
p. 69). It was one of the last cities that resisted Nebuchadnezzar
(Jer. xxxiv. 7). The meaning of Micah's denunciation (i. 13)
of the city is unknown. The Onomasticon places it 7 m. from
Eleutheropolis on the S. road, which agrees with the generally
received identification, Tell el-Hesi, an important mound
excavated for the Palestine Exploration Fund by Petrie and
Bliss, 1890-1893. The name is preserved in a small Roman
site in the neighbourhood, Umm Lakis, which probably repre-
sents a later dwelling-place of the descendants of the ancient
inhabitants of the city.
See W. M. Flinders Petrie, Tell el-Hesy, and F. J. Bliss, A Mound
of many Cities, both published by the Palestine Exploration Fund.
(R A. S. M.)
LACHMANN, KARL KONRAD FRIEDRICH WILHELM
(1793-1851), German philologist and critic, was born at Bruns-
wick on the 4th of March 1793. He studied at Leipzig and
Gottingen, devoting himself mainly to philological studies.
In 1815 he joined the Prussian army as a volunteer chasseur and
accompanied his detachment to Paris, but did not encounter the
enemy. In 1816 he became an assistant master in the Friedrich
Werder gymnasium at Berlin, and a privat-docentat the university.
The same summer he became one of the principal masters in
the Friedrichs-Gymnasium of Konigsberg, where he assisted
his colleague, the Germanist Friedrich Karl Kopke (1785-1865)
with his edition of Rudolf von Ems' Barlaam und Josaphat
(1818), and also assisted his friend in a contemplated edition
of the works of Walther von der Vogelweide. In January 1818
he became professor extraordinarius of classical philology in
the university of Konigsberg, and at the same time began to
lecture on Old German grammar and the Middle High German
poets. He devoted himself during the following seven years
to an extraordinarily minute study of those subjects, and in
1824 obtained leave of absence in order that he might search
the libraries of middle and south Germany for further materials.
In 1825 Lachmann was nominated extraordinary professor
of classical and German philology in the university of Berlin
(ordinary professor 1 82 7); and in 1830 he was admitted a member
of the Academy of Sciences. The remainder of his laborious
and fruitful life as an author and a teacher was uneventful.
He died on the i3th of March 1851.
Lachmann, who was the translator of the first volume of P. E.
Mtiller's Sagabibhothek des skandmavischen Altertums (1816), is a
figure of considerable importance in the history of German philology
(see Rudolf von Raumer. GeschichtedergermanischenPhilologie, 1870).
In his " Habilitationsschrift " Vber die urspriingliche Gestalt des
Gedichts der Nibelunge Not (1816), and still more in his review of
Hagen's Nibelungen and Benecke's Bonerius, contributed in 1817 to
the Jenaische Literaturzeitung he had already laid down the rules of
textual criticism and elucidated the phonetic and metrical principles
of Middle High German in a manner which marked a distinct
advance in that branch of investigation. The rigidly scientific char-
acter of his method becomes increasingly apparent in the Auswahl
aus den hochdeutschen Dichlern des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts (1820),
in the edition of Hartmann's Iwein (1827), in those of Walther
von der Vogelweide (1827) and Wolfram von Eschenbach (1833), in
the papers " Uber das Hildebrandslied," " tJber althochdeutsche
Betonung und Verskunst," " tJber den Eingang des Parzivals," and
" Uber drei Bruchstticke niederrheiniseher Gedichte " published in
the Abhandlungen of the Berlin Academy, and in Der Nibelunge Not
und die Klage (1826, nth ed., 1892), which was followed by a critical
commentary in 1836. Lachmann's Betrachtungen iiber Homer's
Ilias, first published in the Abhandlungen of the Berlin Academy in
1837 and 1841, in which he sought to show that the Iliad consists of
sixteen independent " lays " variously enlarged and interpolated,
have had considerable influence on modern Homeric criticism
(see HOMER), although his views are no longer accepted. His
smaller edition of the New Testament appeared in 1 83 1 , 3rd ed. 1 846 ;
the larger, in two volumes, in 1842-1850. The plan of Lachmann's
edition, explained by himself in the Stud. u. Krit. of 1830, is a modi-
fication of the unaccomplished project of Bentley. It seeks to
restore the most ancient reading current in Eastern MSS., using the
consent of the Latin authorities (Old Latin and Greek Western
Uncials) as the main proof of antiquity of a reading where the oldest
Eastern authorities differ. Besides Propertius (1816), Lachmann
edited Catullus (1829); Tibullus (1829); Cenesius (1834); Teren-
tianus Maurus (1836) ; Babrius (1845) '< Avianus (1845) • Gaius (1841-
1842); the Agrimensores Romani (1848-1852); Lucilius (edited
after his death by Vahlen, 1876); and Lucretius (1850). The last,
which was the main occupation of the closing years of his life, from
1845, was perhaps his greatest achievement, and has been character-
ized by Munro as " a work which will be a landmark for scholars as
long as the Latin language continues to be studied." Lachmann also
translated Shakespeare's sonnets (1820) and Macbeth (1829).
See M. Hertz, Karl Lachmann, eine Biographie (1851), where a full
list of Lachmann's works is given; F. Leo, Rede zur Sacularfeier
K. Lachmanns (1893); J. Grimm, biography in Kleine Schriften;
W. Scherer in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, xvii., and J. E. Sandys,
Hist, of Classical Scholarship, iii. (1908), pp. 127-131.
LACINIUM, PROMUNTURIUM (mod. Capo delle Colonne),
7 m S.E. of Crotona (mod. Cotrone); the easternmost point
of Bruttii (mod. Calabria). On the cape still stands a single
column of the temple erected to Hera Lacinia, which is said to
have been fairly complete in the i6th century, but to have been
destroyed to build the episcopal palace at Cotrone. It is a
Doric column with capital, about 27 ft. in height. Remains of
marble roof-tiles have been seen on the spot (Livy xlii. 3) and
architectural fragments were excavated in 1886-1887 by the
Archaeological Institute of America. The sculptures found
were mostly buried again, but a few fragments, some decorative
terra-cottas and a dedicatory inscription to Hera of the 6th
century B.C., in private possession at Cotrone, are described
by F. von Duhn in Nolizie degli scavi, 1897, 343 seq. The date
of the erection of the temple may be given as 480-440 B.C.;
it is not recorded by any ancient writer.
See R. Koldewey and O. Puchstein, Die griechischen Tempel in
Unteritalien und Sicilien (Berlin 1899, 41).
LA CIOTAT, a coast town of south-eastern France in the
department of Bouches-du-Rh6ne, on the west shore of the Bay
of La Ciotat, 26 m. S.E. of Marseilles by rail. Pop. (1906)
10,562. The port is easily accessible and well sheltered. The
large shipbuilding yards and repairing docks of the Messageries
Maritimes Company give employment to between 2000 and
3000 workmen. Fishing and an active coasting trade are
carried on; the town is frequented for sea-bathing. La Ciotat
was in ancient times the port of the neighbouring town of
Citharista (now the village of Ceyreste).
LA CLOCHE, JAMES DE ["Prince James Stuart "] (1644 ?-
1669), a character who was brought into the history of England
by Lord Acton in 1862 (Home and Foreign Review, i. 146-
174: "The Secret History of Charles II."). From informa-
tion discovered by Father Boero in the archives of the Jesuits
in Rome, Lord Acton averred that Charles II., when a lad at
Jersey, had a natural son, James. The evidence follows. On
the 2nd of April 1668, as the register of the Jesuit House of
Novices at Rome attests, " there entered Jacobus de la Cloche."
His baggage was exiguous, his attire was clerical. He is described
as " from the island of Jersey, under the king of England, aged
24." He possessed two documents in French, purporting to
have been written by Charles II. at Whitehall, on the 25th of
LA CONDAMINE— LACONIA
September 1665, and on the 7th of February 1667. In both
Charles acknowledges James to be his natural son, he styles
him " James de la Cloche de Bourg du Jersey," and avers that
to recognize him publicly " would imperil the peace of the
kingdoms " — why is not apparent. A third certificate of birth,
in Latin, undated, was from Christina of Sweden, who declares
that James, previously a Protestant, has been received into the
church of Rome at Hamburg (where in 1667-1668 she was
residing) on the 2gth of July 1667. The next paper purports
to be a letter from Charles II. of August 3/13 to Oliva, general
of the Jesuits. The king writes, in French, that he has long
wished to be secretly received into the church. He therefore
desires that James, his son by a young lady " of the highest
quality," and born to him when he was about sixteen, should be
ordained a priest, come to England, and receive him. Charles
alludes to previous attempts of his own to be secretly admitted
(1662). James must be sent secretly to London at once, and
Oliva must say nothing to Christina of Sweden (then meditating
a journey to Rome), and must never write to Charles except
when James carries the letter. Charles next writes on August
29/September g. He is most anxious that Christina should not
meet James; if she knows Charles's design of changing his
creed she will not keep it secret, and Charles will infallibly
lose his life. With this letter there is another, written when the
first had been sealed. Charles insists that James must not be
accompanied, as novices were, when travelling, by a Jesuit
socius or guardian. Charles's wife and mother have just heard
that this is the rule, but the rule must be broken. James, who
is to travel as " Henri de Rohan," must not come by way of
France. Oliva will supply him with funds. On the back of
this letter Oliva has written the draft of his brief reply to Charles
(from Leghorn, October 14, 1668). He merely says that the
bearer, a French gentleman (James spoke only French), will
inform the king that his orders have been executed. Besides
these two letters is one from Charles to James, of date August
4/14. It is addressed to " Le Prince Stuart," though none of
Charles's bastards was allowed to bear the Stuart name. James
is told that he may desert the clerical profession if he pleases.
In that case " you may claim higher titles from us than the
duke of Monmouth." (There was no higher title save prince
of Wales!) If Charles and his brother, the duke of York, die
childless, " the kingdoms belong to you, and parliament cannot
legally oppose you, unless as, at present, they can only elect
Protestant kings." This letter ought to have opened the eyes
of Lord Acton and other historians who accept the myth of
James de la Cloche. Charles knew that the crown of England
was not elective, that there was no Exclusion Act, and that there
were legal heirs if he and his brother died without issue. The
last letter of Charles is dated November 18/28, and purports
to have been brought from England to Oliva by James de la
Cloche on his return to Rome. It reveals the fact that Oliva,
despite Charles's orders, did send James by way of France,
with a socius or guardian whom he was to pick up in France
on his return to England. Charles says that James is to com-
municate certain matters to Oliva, and come back at once.
Oliva is to give James all the money he needs, and Charles
will later make an ample donation to the Jesuits. He acknow-
ledges a debt to Oliva of £800, to be paid in six months. The
reader will remark that the king has never paid a penny to
James or to Oliva, and that Oliva has never communicated
directly with Charles. The truth is that all of Charles's letters
are forgeries. This is certain because in all he writes frequently
as if his mother, Henrietta Maria, were in London, and constantly
in company with him. Now she had left England for France
in 1665, and to England she never returned. As the letters —
including that to " Prince Stuart "—are all forged, it is clear
that de la Cloche was an impostor. His aim had been to get
money from Oliva, and to pretend to travel to England, meaning
to enjoy himself. He did not quite succeed, for Oliva sent a
socius with him into France. His precautions to avoid a meeting
with Christina of Sweden were necessary. She knew no more
of him than did Charles, and would have exposed him.
The name of James de la Cloche appears no more in documents.
He reached Rome in December 1668, and in January a person
calling himself " Prince James Stuart " appears in Naples,
accompanied by a socius styling himself a French knight of
Malta. Both are on their way to England, but Prince James
falls ill and stays in Naples, while his companion departs. The
knight of Malta may be a Jesuit. In Naples, Prince James
marries a girl of no position, and is arrested on suspicion of being
a coiner. To his confessors (he had two in succession) he says
that he is a son of Charles II. Our sources are the despatches
of Kent, the English agent at Naples, and the Lettere, vol. iii.,
of Vincenzo Armanni (1674), who had his information from one
of the confessors of the " Prince." The viceroy of Naples
communicated with Charles II., who disowned the impostor;
Prince James, however, was released, and died at Naples in
August 1660, leaving a wild will, in which he claims for his son,
still unborn, the " apanage " of Monmouth or Wales, " which
it is usual to bestow on natural sons of the king." The son lived
till about 1750, a penniless pretender, and writer of begging
letters.
It is needless to pursue Lord Acton's conjectures about later
mysterious appearances of James de la Cloche at the court of
Charles, or to discuss the legend that his mother was a lady of
Jersey — or a sister of Charles! The Jersey myths may be found
in The Man of the Mask (1908), by Monsignor Barnes, who argued
that James was the man in the iron mask (see IRON MASK).
Later Monsignor Barnes, who had observed that the letter of
Charles to Prince James Stuart is a forgery, noticed the impossi-
bility that Charles, in 1668, should constantly write of his mother
as resident in London, which she left for ever in 1665.
Who de la Cloche really was it is impossible to discover, but
he was a bold and successful swindler, who took in, not only the
general of the Jesuits, but Lord Acton and a generation of
guileless historians. (A. L.)
LA CONDAMINE, CHARLES MARIE DE (1701-1774), French
geographer and mathematician, was born at Paris on the 28th
of January 1701. He was trained for the military profession,
but turned his attention to science and geographical exploration.
After taking part in a scientific expedition in the Levant (1731),
he became a member with Louis Godin and Pierre Bouguer of
the expedition sent to Peru in 1733 to determine the length of a
degree of the meridian in the neighbourhood of the equator.
His associations with his principals were unhappy; the expedi-
tion was beset by many difficulties, and finally La Condamine
separated from the rest and made his way from Quito down the
Amazon, ultimately reaching Cayenne. His was the first
scientific exploration of the Amazon. He returned to Paris
in 1744 and published the results of his measurements and travels
with a map of the Amazon in Mem. de I' academic des sciences,
1745 (English translation 1745-1747). On a visit to Rome La
Condamine made careful measurements of the ancient buildings
with a view to a precise determination of the length of the Roman
foot. The journal of his voyage to South America was published
in Paris in 1751. He also wrote in favour of inoculation, and on
various other subjects, mainly connected with his work in South
America. He died at Paris on the 4th of February 1774.
LACONIA (Gr. AaKowKi?), the ancient name of the south-
eastern district of the Peloponnese, of which Sparta was the
capital. It has an area of some 1,048,000 acres, slightly greater
than that of Somersetshire, and consists of three well-marked
zones running N. and S. The valley of the Eurotas, which
occupies the centre, is bounded W. by the chain of Taygetus
(mod. Pentedaktylon, 7900 ft.), which starts from the Arcadian
mountains on the N., and at its southern extremity forms the
promontory of Taenarum (Cape Matapan). The eastern portion
of Laconia consists of a far more broken range of hill country,
rising in Mt. Parnon to a height of 6365 ft. and terminating in
the headland of Malea. The range of Taygetus is well watered
and was in ancient times covered with forests which afforded
excellent hunting to the Spartans, while it had also large iron
mines and quarries of an inferior bluish marble, as well as of the
famous rosso antico of Taenarum. Far poorer are the slopes of
LACONIA— LACONICUM
Parnon, consisting for the most part of barren limestone uplands
scantily watered. The Eurotas valley, however, is fertile, and
produces at the present day maize, olives, oranges and mulberries
in great abundance. Laconia has no rivers of importance except
the Eurotas and its largest tributary the Oenus (mod. Kelefma).
The coast, expecially on the east, is rugged and dangerous.
Laconia has few good harbours, nor are there any islands lying
off its shores with the exception of Cythera (Cerigo), S. of Cape
Malea. The most important towns, besides Sparta and Gythium,
were Bryseae, Amyclae and Pharis in the Eurotas plain, Pellana
and Belbina on the upper Eurotas, Sellasia on the Oenus, Caryae
on the Arcadian frontier, Prasiae, Zarax and Epidaurus Limera
on the east coast, Geronthrae on the slopes of Parnon, Boeae,
Asopus, Helos, Las and Teuthrone on the Laconian Gulf, and
Hippola, Messa and Oetylus on the Messenian Gulf.
The earliest inhabitants of Laconia, according to tradition,
were the autochthonous Leleges (q.v.). Minyan immigrants then
settled at various places on the coast and even appear to have
penetrated into the interior and to have founded Amyclae.
Phoenician traders, too, visited the shores of the Laconian Gulf,
and there are indications of trade at a very early period between
Laconia and Crete, e.g. a number of blocks of green Laconian
porphyry from the quarries at Croceae have been found in the
palace of Minos at Cnossus. In the Homeric poems Laconia
appears as the realm of an Achaean prince, Menelaus, whose
capital was perhaps Therapne on the left bank of the Eurotas,
S.E. of Sparta; the Achaean conquerors, however, probably
contented themselves with a suzerainty over Laconia and part
of Messenia (q.v.) and were too few to occupy the whole land.
The Achaean kingdom fell before the incoming Dorians, and
throughout the classical period the history of Laconia is that
of its capital Sparta (q.v.). In 195 B.C. the Laconian coast towns
were freed from Spartan rule by the Roman general T. Quinctius
Flamininus, and became members of the Achaean League. When
this was dissolved in 146 B.C., they remained independent under
the title of the " Confederation of the Lacedaemonians " or
"of the Free-Laconians " (icoiv6v rCiv Aa/ceScu/iocuoi' or "EXeuflepo-
\ai«j)vuv) , the supreme officer Of which was a orparr/76s (general)
assisted by a ra/uas (treasurer). Augustus seems to have
reorganized the league in some way, for Pausanias (iii. 21, 6)
speaks of him as its founder. Of the twenty-four cities which
originally composed the league, only eighteen remained as
members by the reign of Hadrian (see ACHAEAN LEAGUE). In
A.D. 395 a Gothic horde under Alaric devastated Laconia, and
subsequently it was overrun by large bands of Slavic immigrants.
Throughout the middle ages it was the scene of vigorous struggles
between Slavs, Byzantines, Franks, Turks and Venetians, the
chief memorials of which are the ruined strongholds of Mistra
near Sparta, Geraki (anc. Geronthrae) and Monemvasia, " the
Gibraltar of Greece," on the east coast, and Passava near
Gythium. A prominent part in the War of Independence was
played by the Maniates or Mainotes, the inhabitants of the
rugged peninsula formed by the southern part of Taygetus. They
had all along maintained a virtual independence of the Turks
and until quite recently retained their medieval customs, living
in fortified towers and practising the vendetta or blood-feud.
The district has be£n divided into two departments (nomes),
Lacedaemon and Laconia, with their capitals at Sparta and
Gythium respectively. Pop. of Laconia (1907) 61,522.
Archaeology. — Until 1904 archaeological research in Laconia
was carried on only sporadically. Besides the excavations under-
taken at Sparta, Gythium and Vaphio (q.v.), the most important
were those at the Apollo sanctuary of Amyclae carried out by
C. Tsountas in 1890 ('E^rjji. dpxatoX. 1892, i ff.) and in 1904 by
A. Furtwangler. At Kampos, on the western side of Taygetus,
a small domed tomb of the " Mycenean " age was excavated in
1890 and yielded two leaden statuettes of great interest, while
at Arkina a similar tomb of poor construction was unearthed
in the previous year. Important inscriptions were found at
Geronthrae (Geraki), notably five long fragments of the Edictum
Diocleliani, and elsewhere. In 1904 the British Archaeological
school at Athens undertook a systematic investigation of the
ancient and medieval remains in Laconia. The results, of which
the most important are summarized in the article SPARTA, are
published in the British School Annual, x. ff. The acropolis of
Geronthrae, a hero-shrine at Angelona in the south-eastern
highlands, and the sanctuary of Ino-Pasiphae at Thalamae have
also been investigated.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Besides the Greek histories and many of the
works cited under SPARTA, see W. M. Leake, Travels in the Morea
(London, 1830), cc. iv.-viii., xxii., xxiii. ; E. Curtius, Peloponnesos
(Gotha, 1852), ii. 203 ff. ; C. Bursian, Geographic von Griechenland
(Leipzig, 1868), ii. 102 ff.; Strabo viii. 5; Pausanias iii. and the
commentary in J. G. Frazer, Pausanias' s Description of Greece
(London, 1898), vol. iii.; W. G. Clark, Peloponnesus (London, 1858),
155 ff-I E- P. Boblaye, Recherches geographiques sur les mines de la
Moree (Paris, 1835), 65 ff.; L. Ross, Reisen im Peloponnes (Berlin,
1841), 158 ff. ; W. Vischer, Erinnerungen u. Eindriicke aus Griechen-
land (Basel, 1857), 360 ff.; J. B. G. M. Bory de Saint- Vincent,
Relation du voyage de I'expedition scientifique de Moree (Paris, 1836),
cc. 9, 10 ; G. A. Blouet, Expedition scientifique de Moree (Paris,
1831-1838), ii. 58 ff.; A. Philippson, Der Peloponnes (Berlin, 1892),
155 ff. ; Annual of British School at Athens, 1907-8.
Inscriptions: Le Bas-Foucart, Voyage archeologique: Inscriptions,
Nos. 160-290; Inscriptions Graecae, v. ; Corpus Inscriptionum
Graecarum (Berlin, 1828), Nos. 1237-1510; Collitz-Bechtel, Samm-
lung der griech. Dialeklinschriften, iii. 2 (Gottingen, 1898), Nos. 4400-
4613. Coins: Catalogue of Greek Coins in the British Museum:
Peloponnesus (London, 1887), xlvi. ff., 121 ff. ; B. V. Head, Historia
Numorum (Oxford, 1887), 363 ff. Cults: S. Wide, Lakonische Kulte
(Leipzig, 1893). Ancient roads: W. Loring, "Some Ancient Routes
in the Peloponnese " in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xv. 25 ff
(M. N. T.)
LACONIA, a city and the county-seat of Belknap county,
New Hampshire, U.S.A., on both sides of the Winnepesaukee
river, 28 m. N.N.E. of Concord. Pop. (1900) 8042 (1770
foreign-born) ; (1910) 10,183. Laconia is served by two divisions
of the Boston & Maine railway, which has a very handsome
granite passenger station (1892) and repair shops here. It is
pleasantly situated in the lake district of central New Hampshire,
and in the summer season Lake Winnisquam on the S. and W.
and Lake Winnepesaukee on the N.E. attract many visitors.
The city covers an area of 24-65 sq. m. (5-47 sq. m. annexed
since 1890). Within the city limits, and about 6 m. from its
centre, are the grounds of the Winnepesaukee Camp-Meeting
Association, and the camping place for the annual reunions
of the New Hampshire Veterans of the Civil War, both at The
Weirs, the northernmost point in the territory claimed by colonial
Massachusetts; about 2 m. from the centre of Laconia is
Lakeport (pop. 1900, 2137), which, like The Weirs, is a summer
resort and a ward in the city of Laconia. Among the public
institutions are the State School for Feeble-minded Children,
a cottage hospital and the Laconia Public Library, lodged in
the Gale Memorial Library building (1903). Another fine
building is the Congregational Church (1906). The New Hamp-
shire State Fish Hatchery is in Laconia. Water-power is
furnished by the river. In 1905 Laconia ranked first among the
cities of the state in the manufacture of hosiery and knit goods,
and the value of these products for the year was 48-4% of the
total value of the city's factory product; among its other
manufactures are yarn, knitting machines, needles, sashes and
blinds, axles, paper boxes, boats, gas and gasolene engines, and
freight, passenger and electric cars. The total value of the
factory products increased from $2,152,379 in 1900 to $3,096,878
in 1905, or 43-9%. The portion of the city N. of the river,
formerly known as Meredith Bridge, was set apart from the town-
ship of Meredith and incorporated as a township under the name
of Laconia in 1855; a section S. of the river was taken from
the township of Gilford in 1874; and Lakeport was added in
1893, when Laconia was chartered as a city. The name Laconia
was first applied in New England to the region granted in 1629
to Mason and Gorges (see MASON, JOHN).
LACONICUM (i.e. Spartan, sc. balneum, bath), the dry sweating
room of the Roman thermae, contiguous to the caldarium or hot
room. The name was given to it as being the only form of warm
bath that the Spartans admitted. The laconicum was usually
a circular room with niches in the axes of the diagonals and was
covered by a conical roof with a circular opening at the top,
LACORDAIRE— LACRETELLE
53
according to Vitruvius (v. 10), "from which a brazen shield is
suspended by chains, capable of being so lowered and raised
as to regulate the temperature." The walls of the laconicum
were plastered with marble stucco and polished, and the conical
roof covered with plaster and painted blue with gold stars.
Sometimes, as in the old baths at Pompeii, the laconicum was
provided in an apse at one end of the caldarium, but as a rule
it was a separate room raised to a higher temperature and had
no bath in it. In addition to the hypocaust under the floor the
wall was lined with flue tiles. The largest laconicum, about
75 ft. in diameter, was that built by Agrippa in his thermae on
the south side of the Pantheon, and is referred to by Cassius
(liii. 23), who states that, in addition to other works, " he con-
structed the hot bath chamber which he called the Laconicum
Gymnasium." All traces of this building are lost; but in the
additions made to the thermae of Agrippa by Septimius Severus
another laconicum was built farther south, portions of which
still exist in the so-called Arco di Giambella.
LACORDAIRE, JEAN BAPTISTE HENRI (1802-1861), French
ecclesiastic and orator, was born at Recey-sur-Ource, Cote d'Or,
on the izth of March 1802. He was the second of a family of
four, the eldest of whom, Jean Theodore (1801-1870), travelled
a great deal in his youth, and was afterwards professor of com-
parative anatomy at Liege. For several years Lacordaire studied
at Dijon, showing a marked talent for rhetoric; this led him
to the pursuit of law, and in the local debates of the advocates
he attained a high celebrity. At Paris he thought of going on-
the stage, but was induced to finish his legal training and began
to practise as an advocate (1817-1824). Meanwhile Lamennais
had published his Essai sur I' Indifference, — a passionate plea
for Christianity and in particular for Roman Catholicism as
necessary for the social progress of mankind. Lacordaire read,
and his ardent and believing nature, weary of the theological
negations of the Encyclopaedists, was convinced. In 1823
he became a theological student at the seminary of Saint
Sulpice; four years later he was ordained and became almoner
of the college Henri IV. He was called from it to co-operate
with Lamennais in the editorship of L'Avenir, a journal estab-
lished to advocate the union of the democratic principle with
ultramontanism. Lacordaire strove to show that Catholicism
was not bound up with the idea of dynasty, and definitely allied
it with a well-defined liberty, equality and fraternity. But the
new propagandism was denounced from Rome in an encyclical.
In the meantime Lacordaire and Montalembert, believing that,
under the charter of 1830, they were entitled to liberty of
instruction, opened an independent free school. It was closed in
two days, and the teachers fined before the court of peers.
These reverses Lacordaire accepted with quiet dignity; but
they brought his relationship with Lamennais to a close. He now
began the course of Christian conferences at the College Stanislas,
which attracted the art and intellect of Paris; thence he went
to N&tre Dame, and for two years his sermons were the delight
of the capital. His presence was dignified, his voice capable of
indefinite modulation, and his gestures animated and attractive.
He still preached the gospel of the people's sovereignty in civil
life and the pope's supremacy in religion, but brought to his
propagandism the full resources of a mind familiar with philo-
sophy, history and literature, and indeed led the reaction against
Voltairean scepticism. He was asked to edit the Univers, and
to take a chair in the university of Louvain, but he declined both
appointments, and in 1838 set out for Rome, revolving a great
scheme for christianizing France by restoring the old order of
St Dominic. At Rome he donned the habit of the preaching
friar and joined the monastery 'of Minerva. His Mtmoire pour
le relaUissement en France de I'ordre des freres prkheurs was then
prepared and dedicated to his country; at the same time he
collected the materials for the life of St Dominic. When he
returned to France in 1841 he resumed his preaching at N6tre
Dame, but he had small success in re-establishing the order of
which he ever afterwards called himself monk. His funeral
orations are the most notable in their kind of any delivered
during his time, those devoted to Marshal Drouet and Daniel
O'Connell being especially marked by point and clearness. He
next thought that his presence in the National Assembly would
be of use to his cause; but being rebuked by his ecclesiastical
superiors for declaring himself a republican, he resigned his seat
ten days after his election. In 1850 he went back to Rome and
was made provincial of the order, and for four years laboured
to make the Dominicans a religious power. In 1854 he retired
to Sorreze to become director of a private lyceum, and remained
there until he died on the 22nd of November 1861. He had been
elected to the Academy in the preceding year.
The best edition of Lacordaire's works is the CEuvres completes
(6vols., Paris, 1872-1873), published by C. Poussielgue, which con-
tains, besides the Conferences, the exquisitely written, but uncritical,
Viede Saint Dominique and the beautiful Lettres d, unjeune homme sur
la vie chretienne. For a complete list of his published correspondence
see L. Petit de Julleville's Histoire de la langue et de la litterature
fran^aise, vii. 598.
The authoritative biography is by Ch. Foisset (2 vols., Paris, 1870).
The religious aspect of his character is best shown in Pere B. Cho-
carne's Vie du Pere Lacordaire (2 vols. , Paris, 1 866 — English translation
by A. Th. Drane, London, 1868) ; see also Count C. F. R. de Montal-
embert's Un Maine au XIXime siecle (Paris, 1862 — English transla-
tion by F. Aylward, London, 1867). There are lives by Mrs H. L.
Lear (London, 1882) ; by A. Ricard (l vol. of L'f.cole menaisienne,
Paris, 1883); by Comte O. d'Haussonville (l vol., Les Grands
ecrivains Frangais series, Paris, 1897); by Gabriel Ledos (Paris,
1901); by Dora Greenwell (1867); and by the due de Broglie
(Paris, 1889). The Correspondance inedite du Pere Lacordaire, edited
by H. Villard (Paris, 1870), may also be consulted. See also Saint-
Beuve in Causeries de Lundi. Several of Lacordaire's Conferences have
been translated into English, among these being, Jesus Christ (1869) ;
God (1870); God and Man (1872); Life (1875). For a theological
study of the Conferences de Notre Dame, see an article by Bishop
J. C. Hedley in Dublin Review (October 1870).
LACQUER, or LACKER, a general term for coloured and
frequently opaque varnishes applied to certain metallic objects
and to wood. The term is derived from the resin lac, which
substance is the basis of lacquers properly so called. Technically,
among Western nations, lacquering is restricted to the coating
of polished metals or metallic surfaces, such as brass, pewter and
tin, with prepared varnishes which will give them a golden,
bronze-like or other lustre as desired. Throughout the East
Indies the lacquering of wooden surfaces is universally practised,
large articles of household furniture, as well as small boxes, trays,
toys and papier-mache objects, being decorated with bright-
coloured and variegated lacquer. The lacquer used in the East
is, in general, variously coloured sealing-wax, applied, smoothed
and polished in a heated condition; and by various devices
intricate marbled, streaked and mottled designs are produced.
Quite distinct from these, and from all other forms of lacquer,
is the lacquer work of Japan, for which see JAPAN, § Art.
LACRETELLE, PIERRE LOUIS DE (1751-1824), French
politician and writer, was born at Metz on the gth of October
1751. He practised as a barrister in Paris; and under the
Revolution was elected as a depute suppliant in the Constituent
Assembly, and later as deputy in the Legislative Assembly.
He belonged to the moderate party known as the " Feuillants,"
but after the loth of August 1792 he ceased to take part in
public life. In 1803 he became a member of the Institute,
taking the place of La Harpe. Under the Restoration he was
one of the chief editors of the M inerve franc,aise; he wrote also
an essay, Sur le 18 Brumaire (1799), some Fragments politiques
et litteraires (1817), and a treatise Des partis politiques et des
factions de la pretendue, aristocratie d'aujourd'hui (1819).
His younger brother, JEAN CHARLES DOMINIQUE DE LACRE-
TELLE, called Lacretelle le jeune (1766-1855), historian and
journalist, was also born at Metz on the 3rd of September 1766.
He was called to Paris by his brother in 1787, and during the
Revolution belonged, like him, to the party of the Feuillants.
He was for some time secretary to the due de la Rochefoucauld-
Liancourt, the celebrated philanthropist, and afterwards joined
the staff of the Journal de Paris, then managed by Suard, and
where he had as colleagues Andre Chenier and Antoine Roucher.
He made no attempt to hide his monarchist sympathies, and
this, together with the way in which he reported the trial and
death of Louis XVI., brought him in peril of his life ; to avoid this
54
LACROIX, A. F. A.— LACROSSE
danger he enlisted in the army, but after Thermidor he returned
to Paris and to his newspaper work. He was involved in the
royalist movement of the i3th Vendemiaire, and condemned to
deportation after the i8th Fructidor; but, thanks to powerful
influence, he was left " forgotten " in prison till after the i8th Bru-
maire, when he was set at liberty by Fouche. Under the Empire
he was appointed a professor of history in the Faculte des lettres
of Paris (1809), and elected as a member of the Academic fran-
caise (1811). In 1827 he was prime mover in the protest made by
the French Academy against the minister Peyronnet's law on the
press, which led to the failure of that measure, but this step cost
him, as it did Villemain, his post as censeur royal. Under Louis
Philippe he devoted himself entirely to his teaching and literary
work. In 1848 he retired to Macon; but there, as in Paris, he
was the centre of a brilliant circle, for he was a wonderful causcur,
and an equally good listener, and had many interesting ex-
periences to recall. He died on the 26th of March 1855.
His son Pierre Henri (1815-1899) was a humorous writer and
politician of purely contemporary interest.
J. C. Lacretelle's chief work is a series of histories of the i8th
century, the Revolution and its sequel: Precis historique de la
Revolution fran^aise, appended to the history of Rabaud St £tienne,
and partly written in the prison of La Force (5 vols., 1801-1806);
Histoire de France pendant le XVIII' siecle (6 vols., 1808); Histoire
de I'Assemblee Constituante (2 vols., 1821); L'Assemblee Legislative
(1822); La Convention Nationale (3 vols., 1824-1825); Histoire de
France depuis la restauration (1829-1835); Histoire du consulat et
de I'empire (4 vols., 1846). The author was a moderate and fair-
minded man, but possessed neither great powers of style, nor striking
historical insight, nor the special historian's power of writing minute
accuracy of detail with breadth of view. Carlyle's sarcastic remark
on Lacretelle's history of the Revolution, that it " exists, but does
not profit much," is partly true of all his books. He had been an eye-
witness of and an actor in the events which he describes, but his
testimony must be accepted with caution.
LACROIX, ANTOINE FRANCOIS ALFRED (1863- ),
French mineralogist and geologist, was born at Macon, Saone et
Loire, on the 4th of February 1863. He took the degree of
D. es Sc. in Paris, 1889. In 1893 he was appointed professor of
mineralogy at the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, and in 1896 director
of the mineralogical laboratory in the £cole des Hautes £tudes.
He paid especial attention to minerals connected with volcanic
phenomena and igneous rocks, to the effects of metamorphism,
and to mineral veins, in various parts of the world, notably in
the Pyrenees. In his numerous contributions to scientific
journals he dealt with the mineralogy and petrology of Mada-
gascar, and published an elaborate and exhaustive volume
on the eruptions in Martinique, La Montague Pelee et ses erup-
tions (1904). He also issued an important work entitled Minera-
logie de la France et de ses Colonies (1893-1898), and other works
in conjunction with A. Michel Levy. He was elected member
of the Academic des sciences in 1904.
LACROIX, PAUL (1806-1884), French author and journalist,
was born in Paris on the 27th of April 1806, the son of a novelist.
He is best known under his pseudonym of P. L. Jacob, bibliophile,
or " Bibliophile Jacob," suggested by the constant interest he
took in public libraries and books generally. Lacroix was an
extremely prolific and varied writer. Over twenty historical
romances alone came from his pen, and he also wrote a variety
of serious historical works, including a history of Napoleon III.,
and the life and times of the Tsar Nicholas I. of Russia. He
was the joint author with Ferdinand Sere of a five- volume work,
Le Moyen Age et La Renaissance (1847), a standard work on the
manners, customs and dress of those times, the chief merit of
which lies in the great number of illustrations it contains. He
also wrote many monographs on phases of the history of culture.
Over the signature Pierre Dufour was published an exhaustive
Histoire de la Prostitution (1851-1852), which has always been
attributed to Lacroix. His works on bibliography were also
extremely numerous. In 1885 he was appointed librarian of the
Arsenal Library, Paris. He died in Paris on the i6th of October
1884.
LACROMA (Serbo-Croatian Lokrum), a small island in the
Adriatic Sea, forming part of the Austrian kingdom of Dalmatia,
and lying less than half a mile south of Ragusa. Though barely
ij m. in length, Lacroma is remarkable for the beauty of its sub-
tropical vegetation. It was a favourite resort of the archduke
Maximilian, afterwards emperor of Mexico (1832-1867), who
restored the chateau and park; and of the Austrian crown prince
Rudolph (1857-1889). It contains an nth-century Benedictine
monastery; and the remains of a church, said by a very doubtful
local tradition to have been founded by Richard I. of England
(1157-1199), form part of the imperial chateau.
See Lacroma, an illustrated descriptive work by the crown princess
St6phanie (afterwards Countess Lonyay ) (Vienna, 1892).
LA CROSSE, a city and the county-seat of La Crosse county,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 180 m. W.N.W. of Milwaukee, and
about 1 20 m. S:E. of St Paul, Minnesota, on the E. bank of the
Mississippi river, at the mouth of the Black and of the La Crosse
rivers. Pop. (1900) 28,895; (191° census) 30,417. Of the
total population in 1900, 7222 were foreign-born, 3130 being
German and 2023 Norwegian, and 17,555 were of foreign-
parentage (both parents foreign-born), including 7853 of German
parentage, 4422 of Norwegian parentage, and 1062 of Bohemian
parentage. La Crosse is served by the Chicago & North Western,
the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago, Burlington &
Quincy, the La Crosse & South Eastern, and the Green Bay &
Western railways, and by river steamboat lines on the Mississippi.
The river is crossed here by a railway bridge (C.M. & St P.) and
wagon bridge. The city is situated on a prairie, extending back
from the river about 25 m. to bluffs, from which fine views may
be obtained. Among the city's buildings and institutions are the
Federal Building (1886-1887), the County Court House (1902-
1903), the Public Library (with more than 20,000 volumes),
the City Hall (1891), the High School Building (1905-1906), the
St Francis, La Crosse and Lutheran hospitals, a Young Men's
Christian Association Building, a Young Women's Christian
Association Building, a U.S. Weather Station (1907), and a
U.S. Fish Station (1905). La Crosse is the seat of a state Normal
School (1909). Among the city's parks are Pettibone (an island
in the Mississippi), Riverside, Burns, Fair Ground and Myrick.
The city is the see of a Roman Catholic bishop. La Crosse is
an important lumber and grain market, and is the principal
wholesale distributing centre for a large territory in S.W. Wis-
consin, N. Iowa and Minnesota. Proximity to both pine and
hardwood forests early made it one of the most important
lumber manufacturing places in the North-west; but this
industry has now been displaced by other manufactures. The
city has grain elevators, flour mills (the value of flour and grist
mill products in 1905 was $2,166,116), and breweries (product
value in 1905, $1,440,659). Other important manufactures are
agricultural implements ($542,425 in 1905), lumber and planing
mill products, leather, woollen, knit and rubber goods, tobacco,
cigars and cigarettes, carriages, foundry and machine-shop
products, copper and iron products, cooperage, pearl buttons,
brooms and brushes. The total value of the factory product
in 1905 was $8,139,432, as against $7,676,581 in 1900. The
city owns and operates its water-works system, the wagon
bridge (1890-1891) across the Mississippi, and a toll road (25 m.
long) to the village of La Crescent, Minn.
Father Hennepin and du Lhut visited or passed the site of
La Crosse as early as 1680, but it is possible that adventurous
coureurs-des-bois preceded them* The first permanent settlement
was made in 1841, and La Crosse was made the county-seat in
1855 and was chartered as a city in 1856.
LACROSSE, the national ball game of Canada. It derives its
name from the resemblance of its chief implement used, the
curved netted stick, to a bishop's crozier. It wa's borrowed
from the Indian tribes of North America. In the old days,
according to Catlin, the warriors of two tribes in their war-paint
would form the sides, often 800 or 1000 strong. The goals were
placed from 500 yds. to ^ m. apart with practically no side
boundaries. A solemn dance preceded the game, after which the
ball was tossed into the air and the two sides rushed to catch
it on ' crosses," similar to those now in use. The medicine-men
acted as umpires, and the squaws urged on the men by beating
LA CRUZ— LACTANTIUS FIRMIANUS
55
them with switches. The game attracted much attention from
the early French settlers in Canada. In 1763, after Canada
had become British, the game was used by the aborigines to
carry out an ingenious piece of treachery. On the 4th of June,
when the garrison of Fort Michilimackinac (now Mackinac) was
celebrating the king's birthday, it was invited by the Ottawas,
under their chief Pontiac, to witness a game of " baggataway "
(lacrosse). The players gradually worked their way close to the
gates, when, throwing aside their crosses and seizing their
tomahawks which the squaws suddenly produced from under
their blankets, they rushed into the fort and massacred all the
inmates except a few Frenchmen.
The game found favour among the British settlers, but it was
not until 1867, the year in which Canada became a Dominion,
that G. W. Beers, a prominent player, suggested that Lacrosse
should be recognized as the national game, and the National
Lacrosse Association of Canada was formed. From that time
the game has flourished vigorously in Canada and to a less
extent in the United States. In 1868 an English Lacrosse
Association was formed, but, although a team of Indians visited
the United Kingdom in 1867, it was not until sometime later
that the game became at all popular in Great Britain. Its
progress was much encouraged by visits of teams representing
the Toronto Lacrosse Club in 1888 and 1902, the methods of the
Canadians and their wonderful " short-passing " exciting much
admiration. In 1907 the Capitals of Ottawa visited England,
playing six matches, all of which were won by the Canadians.
The match North v. South has been played annually in England
since 1882. A county championship was inaugurated in 1905.
A North of England League, embracing ten clubs, began playing
league matches in 1897; and a match between the universities
of Oxford and Cambridge has been played annually since 1903.
A match between England and Ireland was played annually from
1 88 1 to 1904.
Implements of the Game. — The ball is made of indiarubber sponge,
weighs between 4^ and 42 oz., and measures 8 to 8^ in. in circumfer-
ence. The " crosse " is formed of a light staff of hickory wood, the
top being bent to form a kind of hook, from the tip of which a thong
is drawn and made fast to the shaft about 2 ft. from the other end.
The oval triangle thus formed is covered with a network of gut or
rawhide, loose enough to hold the ball but not to form a bag. At no
The Crosse.
part must the crosse measure more than 12 in. in breadth, and no
metal must be used in its manufacture. It may be of any length to
suit the player. The goals are set up not less than 100 nor more than
150 yds. apart, the goal-posts being 6 ft. high and the same distance
apart. They are set up in the middle of the " goal-crease," a space
of 12 ft. square marked with chalk. A net extends from the top rail
and sides of the posts back to a point 6 ft. behind the middle of the
line between the posts. Boundaries are agreed upon by the captains.
Shoes may have indiarubber soles, but must be without spikes.
The Game. — The object of the game is to send the ball, by means of
the crosse, through the enemy's goal-posts as many times as possible
during the two periods of play, precisely as in football and hockey.
There are twelve players on each side. In every position save that
of goal there are two men, one of each side, whose duties are to
mark and neutralize each other's efforts. The game is opened by
the act of " facing," in which the two centres, each with his left
shoulder towards his opponents' goal, hold their crosses, wood down-
wards, on the ground, the ball being placed between them. When
the signal is given the centres draw their crosses sharply inwards in
order to gain possession of the b/ill. The ball may be kicked or
struck with the crosse, as at hockey, but the goal-keeper alone may
handle it, and then only to block and not to throw it. Although the
ball may be thrown with the crosse for a long distance — 220 yds. is
about the limit— long throws are seldom tried, it being generally
more advantageous for a player to run with the ball resting on the
crosse, until he can pass it to a member of his side who proceeds with
the attack, either by running, passing to another, or trying to throw
the ball through the opponents' goal. The crosse, usually held in
both hands, is made to retain the ball by an ingenious rocking motion
only acquired by practice. As there is no " off-side " in Lacrosse, a
player may pass the ball to the front, side or rear. No charging is
allowed, but one player may interfere with another by standing
directly in front of him (" body-check "), though without holding,
tripping or striking with the crosse. No one may interfere with a
player who is not in possession of the ball. Fouls are penalized either
by the suspension of the offender until a goal has been scored or until
the end of the game; or by allowing the side offended against a
" free position." When a ' free position " is awarded each player
must stand in the position where he is, excepting the goal-keeper
who may get back to his goal, and any opponent who may be nearer
the player getting the ball than 5 yds. ; this player must retire to
that distance from the one who has been given the " free position,"
who then proceeds with the game as he likes when the referee says
" play." This penalty may not be carried out nearer than 10 yds.
from the goal. If the ball crosses a boundary the referee calls
" stand," and all players stop where they are, the ball being then
" faced " not less than 4 yds. within the boundary line by the two
nearest players.
See the official publications of the English Lacrosse Union; and
Lacrosse by W. C. Schmeisser, in Spalding's " Athletic Library."
Also Manners, Customs and Condition of the North American Indians,
by George Catlin.
LA CRUZ, RAMON DE (1731-1794), Spanish dramatist, was
born at Madrid on the 28th of March 1731. He was a clerk in the
ministry of finance, and is the author of three hundred saineles,
little farcical sketches of city life, written to be played between
the acts of a longer play. He published a selection in ten volumes
(Madrid, 1786-1791), and died on the 5th of March 1794. The
best of his pieces, such as Las Tertulias de Madrid, are delightful
specimens of satiric observation.
See E. Cotardo y Mori, Don Ramon de la Cruz y sus obras (Madrid,
1899); C. Cambronero, Sainetes inedites existentes en la Biblioteca
Municipal de Madrid (Madrid, 1900).
LACRYMATORY (from Lat. lacrima, a tear), a class of small
vessels of terra-cotta, or, more frequently, of glass, found in
Roman and late Greek tombs, and supposed to have been
bottles into which mourners dropped their tears. They contained
unguents, and to the use of unguents at funeral ceremonies the
finding of so many of these vessels in tombs is due. They are
shaped like a spindle, or a flask with a long small neck and a body
in the form of a bulb.
LACTANTIUS FIRMIANUS (c. 260-0.340), also called Lucius
Caelius (or Caecilius) Lactantius Firmianus, was a Christian
writer who from the beauty of his style has been called the
" Christian Cicero." His history is very obscure. He was born
of heathen parents in Africa about 260, and became a pupil of
Arnobius, whom he far excelled in style though his knowledge
of the Scriptures was equally slight. About 290 he went to
Nicomedia in Bithynia while Diocletian was emperor, to teach
rhetoric, but found little work to do in that Greek-speaking
city. In middle age he became a convert to Christianity, and
about 306 he went to Gaul (Treves) on the invitation of Constan-
tine the Great, and became tutor to his eldest son, Crispus. He
probably died about 340.
Lactantius' chief work, Divinarum Institutionum Libri Septem,
is an " apology " for and an introduction to Christianity,
written in exquisite Latin, but displaying such ignorance as to
have incurred the charge of favouring the Arian and Manichaean
heresies. It seems to have been begun in Nicomedia about
304 and finished in Gaul before 311. Two long eulogistic
addresses and most of the brief apostrophes to the emperor are
from a later hand, which has added some dualistic touches.
The seven books of the institutions have separate titles given to
them either by the author or by a later editor. The first, De
Falsa Religione, and the second, De Origine Erroris, attack the
polytheism of heathendom, show the unity of the God of creation
and providence, and try to explain how men have-been corrupted
by demons. The third book, De Falsa Sapienlia, describes
and criticizes the various systems of prevalent philosophy.
The fourth book, De Vera Sapientia et Religione, insists upon the
inseparable union of true wisdom and true religion, and maintains
that this union is made real in the person of Christ. The fifth
book, De Justitia, maintains that true righteousness is not to be
found apart from Christianity, and that it springs from piety which
consists in the knowledge of God. The sixth book, De Vero
Cultu, describes the true worship of God, which is righteousness,
LACTIC ACID— LACUZON
and consists chiefly in the exercise of Christian love towards
God and man. The seventh book, De Vila Beata, discusses,
among a variety of subjects, the chief good, immortality, the
second advent and the resurrection. Jerome states that
Lactantius wrote an epitome of these Institutions, and such a
work, which may well be authentic, was discovered in MS. in the
royal library at Turin in 1711 by C. M. Pfaff.
Besides the Institutions Lactantius wrote several treatises:
(i) De Ira Dei, addressed to one Donatus and directed against
the Epicurean philosophy. (2) De Opificio Dei sive de Formatione
Hominis, his earliest work, and one which reveals very little
Christian influence. He exhorts a former pupil, Demetrianus,
not to be led astray by wealth from virtue; and he demonstrates
the providence of God from the adaptability and beauty of the
human body. (3) A celebrated incendiary treatise, De Mortibus
Persecutorum, which describes God's judgments on the persecutors
of his church from Nero to Diocletian, and has served as a model
for numberless writings. De Mart. Persecut. is not in the earlier
editions of Lactantius; it was discovered and printed by Baluze
in 1679. Many critics ascribe it to an unknown Lucius Caecilius;
there are certainly serious differences of grammar, style and
temper between it and the writings already mentioned. It was
probably composed in Nicomedia, c. 315. Jerome speaks of
Lactantius as a poet, and several poems have been attributed
to him: — De Aiie Phoenice (which Harnack thinks makes use of
1 Clement), De Passions Domini and De Resurrectione (Domini)
or De Pascha ad Felicem Episcopum. The first of these may
belong to Lactantius's heathen days, the second is a product of
the Renaissance (c. 1500), the third was written by Venantius
Fortunatus in the 6th century.
Editions: O. F. Fritzsche in E. G. Gersdorf's Bill. pair. eccl. x., xi.
(Leipzig, 1842-1844); Mignc, Pair. Lai. vi.,vii.; S. Brandt and G.
Laubmann in the Vienna Corpus Script. Redes. Lat. xix., xxvii. I and
2 (1890-93-97). Translation: W. Fletcher in Ante-Nicene Fathers,
vii. Literature : the German histories of early Christian literature,
by A. Harnack, O. Bardenhewer, A. Ebert, A. Ehrhard, G. Kruger's
Early Chr. Lit. p. 307 and Hauck-Herzog's Realencyk. vol. xi., give
guides to the copious literature on the subject.
LACTIC ACID (hydroxypropionic acid), C3H603. Two lactic
acids are known, differing from each other in the position
occupied by the hydroxyl group in the molecule; they are
known respectively as a-hydroxypropionic acid (fermentation or
inactivelactic acid) , CH3- CH(OH) -COjH, and/3-hydroxypropionic
acid (hydracrylic acid), (q.v.), CH2(OH)-CH2-CO2H. Although
on structural grounds there should be only two hydroxypropionic
acids, as a matter of fact four lactic acids are known. The third
isomer (sarcolactic acid) is found in meat extract (J. v. Liebig),
and may be prepared by the action of Penicillium glaucum on
a solution of ordinary ammonium lactate. It is identical with
a-hydroxypropionic acid in almost every respect, except with
regard to its physical properties. The fourth isomer, formed
by the action of Bacillus laeoo-lacti on cane-sugar, resembles
sarcolactic acid in every respect, except in its action on polarized
light (see STEREOISOMERISM).
Fermentation, or ethylidene lactic acid, was isolated by K. W. Scheele
(Trans. Stockholm Acad. 1780) from sour milk (Lat. lac,lactis, milk,
whence the name). About twenty-four years later Bouillon Lag-
range, and independently A. F. de Fourcroy and L. N. Vauquelin,
maintained that Scheele s new acid was nothing but impure acetic
acid. This notion was combated by J. Berzelius, and finally refuted
(in 1832) by J. v. Liebig and E. Mitscherlich, who, by the elementary
analyses of lactates, proved the existence of this acid as a distinct
compound. It may be prepared by the lactic fermentation of
starches, sugars, gums, &c., the sugar being dissolved in water and
acidified by a s^mall quantity of tartaric acid and then fermented by
the addition of sour milk, with a little putrid cheese. Zinc carbonate
is added to the mixture (to neutralize the acid formed), which is kept
warm for some days and well stirred. On boiling and filtering the
product, zinc lactate crystallizes out of the solution. The acid may
also be synthesized by the decomposition of alanine (a-aminopro-
pionic acid) by nitrous acid (K. Strecker, Ann., 1850, 75, p. 27) ; by
the oxidation of propylene glycol (A. Wurtz); by boiling a-chlor-
propionic acid with caustic alkalis, or with silver oxide and water; by
the reduction of pyruvic acid with sodium amalgam; or from
acetaldehyde by the cyanhydrin reaction (J. Wislicenus, Ann., 1863,
128, p. 13)
CHa-CHO > CH,-CH(OH)-CN > CHa-CH(OH)-CO2H.
It forms a colourless syrup, of specific gravity 1-2485 (i5°/4°), and
decomposes on distillation under ordinary atmospheric pressure;
but at very low pressures (about I mm.) it distils at about 85° C., and
then sets to a crystalline solid, which melts at about 18° C. It
possesses the properties both of an acid and of an alcohol. When
heated with dilute sulphuric acid to 130° C., under pressure, it is
resolved into formic acid and acetaldehyde. Chromic acid oxidizes
it to acetic acid and carbon dioxide; potassium permanganate
oxidizes it to pyruvic acid; nitric acid to oxalic acid, and a mixture
of manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid to acetaldehyde and carbon
dioxide. Hydrobromic acid converts it into o-brompropionic acid,
and hydriodic acid into propionic acid.
Lactide,
ine solid, of melting-point
124° C., is one of the products obtained by the distillation of lactic
acid.
LACTONES, the cyclic esters of hydroxy acids, resulting from
the internal elimination of water between the hydroxyl and
carboxyl groups, this reaction taking place when the hydroxy
acid is liberated from its salts by a mineral acid. The a and /3-
hydroxy acids do not form lactones, the tendency for lactone
formation appearing first with the 7-hydroxy acids, thus 7-
hydroxybutyric acid, CH2OH-CH2-CH2-C02H, yields 7-butyro-
lactone, CH2-CH2-CH2-CO-O. These compounds may also be
prepared by the distillation of the 7-haIogen fatty acids, or by
the action of alkaline carbonates on these acids, or from 07- or
75-unsaturated acids by digestion with hydrobromic acid or
dilute sulphuric acid. The lactones are mostly liquids which
are readily soluble in alcohol, ether and water. On boiling
with water, they are partially reconverted into the hydroxy acids.
They are easily saponified by the caustic alkalis.
On the behaviour of lactones with ammonia, see H. Meyer,
Monatshefte, 1899, 20, p. 717; and with phenylhydrazine and
hydrazine hydrate, see R. Meyer, Ber., 1893, 26, p. 1273; L. Gatter-
mann, Ber., 1899, 32, p. 1133, E. Fischer, Ber., 1889, 22, p. 1889.
y-Butyrolactone is a liquid which boils at 206° C. It is miscible
with water in all proportions and is volatile in steam, y-valero-
I I
lactone, CH3-CH-CH2-CH2-CO-0, is a liquid which boilsat 207-208°
C. 5-lactones are also known, and may be prepared by distilling
the S-chlor acids.
LA CUEVA, JUAN DE (15507-1609?), Spanish dramatist
and poet, was born at Seville, and towards 1579 began writing
for the stage. His plays, fourteen in number, were published
in 1588, and are the earliest manifestations of the dramatic
methods developed by Lope de Vega. Abandoning the Senecan
model hitherto universal in Spain, Cueva took for his themes
matters of national legend, historic tradition, recent victories
and the actualities of contemporary life: this amalgam of epical
and realistic elements, and the introduction of a great variety
of metres, prepared the way for the Spanish romantic drama
of the 1 7 th century. A peculiar interest attaches to El Infamador,
a play in which the character of Leucino anticipates the classic
type of Don Juan. As an initiative force, Cueva is a figure
of great historical importance; his epic poem, La Conquista
de Betica (1603), shows his weakness as an artist. The last
work to which his name is attached is the Ejemplar poitico
(1609), and he is believed to have died shortly after its
publication.
See the editions of Saco de Roma and El Infamador, by E. de Ochoa,
in the Tesoro del teatro espanol (Paris, 1838), vol. i. pp. 251-285;
and of Ejemplar politico, by I. J. Lopez de Sedano, in the Parnaso
espanol, vol. viii. pp. 1-68; also E. Walberg, " Juan de la Cueva et
son Ejemplar poeticc " in the Ada Universitatis Lundensis (Lund,
1904), vol. xxix. ; " Poemes inedits de Juan de la Cueva (Viaje de
Sannio,) " edited by F. A. Wulff, in the Ada Universitatis Lundensis
(Lund, 1886-1887), vol. xxiii.; F. A. Wulff, " De la rimas de Juan
de la Cueva, Primera Parte " in the Homenaje a Mentndez y Pelayo
(Madrid, 1899), vol. ii. pp. 143-148. (J. F.-K.)
LACUNAR, the Latin name in architecture for a panelled
or coffered ceiling or soffit. The word is derived from lacuna,
a cavity or hollow, a blank, hiatus or gap. The panels or coffers
of a ceiling are by Vitruvius called lacunaria.
LACUZON (0. Fr. la cuzon, disturbance), the name given
to the Franc-Comtois leader CLAUDE PROST (1607-1681), who
was born at Longchaumois (department of Jura) on the i7th
of June 1607. He gained his first military experience when
the French invaded Burgundy in 1636, harrying the French
LACY, COUNT— LADAKH AND BALTISTAN
57
troops from the castles of Montaigu and St Laurent-la-Roche,
and devastating the frontier districts of Bresse and Bugey with
fire and sword (1640-1642). In the first invasion of Franche-
Comte by Louis XIV. in 1668 Lacuzon was unable to make any
effective resistance, but he played an important part in Louis's
second invasion. In 1673 he defended Salins for some time;
after the capitulation of the town he took refuge in Italy. He
died at Milan on the 2ist of December 1681.
LACY, FRANZ MORITZ, COUNT (1725-1801), Austrian field
marshal, was born at St Petersburg on the 2ist of October
1725. His father, Peter, Count Lacy, was a distinguished
Russian soldier, who belonged to an Irish family, and had
followed the fortunes of the exiled James II. Franz Moritz was
educated in Germany for a military career, and entered the
Austrian service. He served in Italy, Bohemia, Silesia and the
Netherlands during the War of the Austrian Succession, was
twice wounded, and by the end of the war was a lieut. -colonel.
At the age of twenty-five he became full colonel and chief of an
infantry regiment. In 1756 with the opening of the Seven
Years' War he was again on active service, and in the first
battle (Lobositz) he distinguished himself so much that he was
at once promoted major-general. He received his third wound
on this occasion and his fourth at the battle of Prague in 1757.
Later in 1757 Lacy bore a conspicuous part in the great victory
of Breslau, and at Leuthen, where he received his fifth wound,
he covered the retreat of the defeated army. Soon after this
began his association with Field-Marshal Daun, the new
generalissimo of the empress's forces, and these two commanders,
powerfully assisted later by the genius of Loudon, made head
against Frederick the Great for the remainder of the war. A
general -staff was created, and Lacy, a lieutenant field-marshal
at thirty-two, was made chief of staff (quartermaster-general)
to Daun. That their cautiousness often degenerated into timidity
may be admitted — Leuthen and many other bitter defeats had
taught the Austrians to respect their great opponent — but they
showed at any rate that, having resolved to wear out the enemy
by Fabian methods, they were strong enough to persist in their
resolve to the end. Thus for some years the life of Lacy, as of
Daun and Loudon, is the story of the war against Prussia (see
SEVEN YEARS' WAR). After Hochkirch (October 15, 1758)
Lacy received the grand cross of the Maria Theresa order. In
1759 both Daun and Lacy fell into disfavour for failing to win
victories, and Lacy owed his promotion to Feldzeugmeister only
to the fact that Loudon had just received this rank for the
brilliant conduct of his detachment at Kunersdorf. His responsi-
bilities told heavily on Lacy in the ensuing campaigns, and his
capacity for supreme command was doubted even by Daun,
who refused to give him the command when he himself was
wounded at the battle of Torgau.
After the peace of Hubertusburg a new sphere of activity
was opened, in which Lacy's special gifts had the greatest scope.
Maria Theresa having placed her son, the emperor Joseph II.,
at the head of Austrian military affairs, Lacy was made a field-
marshal, and given the task of reforming and administering
the army (1766). He framed new regulations for each arm, a
new code of military law, a good supply system. As the result
of his work the Austrian army was more numerous, far better
equipped, and cheaper than it had ever been before. Joseph
soon became very intimate with his military adviser, but this did
not prevent his mother, after she became estranged from the
young emperor, from giving Lacy her full confidence. His
activities were not confined to the army. He was in sympathy
with Joseph's innovations, and was regarded by Maria Theresa
as a prime mover in the scheme for the partition of Poland.
But his self-imposed work broke down Lacy's health, and in
1773, in spite of the remonstrances of Maria Theresa and of the
emperor, he laid down all his offices and went to southern France.
On returning he was still unable to resume office, though as
an unofficial adviser in political and military matters he was
far from idle. In the brief and uneventful War of the Bavarian
Succession, Lacy and Loudon were the chief Austrian commanders
against the king of Prussia, and when Joseph II. at Maria
Theresa's death, became the sovereign of the Austrian dominions
as well as emperor, Lacy remained his most trusted friend.
More serious than the War of the Bavarian Succession was the
Turkish war which presently broke out. Lacy was now old and
worn out, and his tenure of command therein was not marked
by any greater measure of success than in the case of the other
Austrian generals. His active career was at an end, although
he continued his effective interest in the affairs of the state
and the army throughout the reign of Joseph's successor,
Leopold I. His last years were spent in retirement at his
castle of Neuwaldegg near Vienna. He died at Vienna on the
24th of November 1801.
See memoir by A. v. Arneth in Allgemeine deutsche Biographic
(Leipzig, 1883).
LACY, HARRIETTE DEBORAH (1807-1874), English actress,
was born in London, the daughter of a tradesman named Taylor.
Her first appearance on the stage was at Bath in 1827 as Julia
in The Rivals, and she was immediately given leading parts
there in both comedy and tragedy. Her first London appearance
was in 1830 as Nina, in Dimond's Carnival of Naples. Her
Rosalind, Aspatia (to Macready's Melantius) in The Bridal, and
Lady Teazle to the Charles Surface of Walter Lacy (1809-1898) —
to whom she was married in 1839 — confirmed her position and
popularity. She was the original Helen in The Hunchback
(1832), and also created Nell Gwynne in Jerrold's play of that
name, and the heroine in his Housekeeper. She was considered
the first Ophelia of her day. She retired in 1848.
LACY, MICHAEL ROPHINO (1795-1867), Irish musician,
son of a merchant, was born at Bilbao and appeared there in
public as a violinist in 1801. He was sent to study in Paris
under Kreutzer, and soon began a successful career, being known
as " Le Petit Espagnol." He played in London for some years
after 1805, and then became an actor, but in 1818 resumed the
musical profession, and in 1820 became leader of the ballet at
the King's theatre, London. He composed or adapted from
other composers a number of operas and an oratorio, The
Israelites in Egypt. He died in London on the 2oth of
September 1867.
LACYDES OF CYRENE, Greek philosopher, was head of the
Academy at Athens in succession to Arcesilaus about 241 B.C.
Though some regard him as the founder of the New Academy,
the testimony of antiquity is that he adhered in general to the
theory of Arcesilaus, and, therefore, that he belonged to the
Middle Academy. He lectured in a garden called the Lacydeum,
which was presented to him by Attalus I. of Pergamum, and for
twenty-six years maintained the traditions of the Academy.
He is said to have written treatises, but nothing survives.
Before his death he voluntarily resigned his position to his pupils,
Euander and Telecles. Apart from a number of anecdotes
distinguished rather for sarcastic humour than for probability,
Lacydes exists for us as a man of refined character, a hard worker
and an accomplished orator. According to Athenaeus (x. 438)
and Diogenes Laertius (iv. 60) he died from excessive drinking,
but the story is discredited by the eulogy of Eusebius (Praep.
Ev. xiv. 7), that he was in all things moderate.
See Cicero, Acad. ii. 6; and Aelian, V.H. ii. 41; also articles
ACADEMY, ARCESILAUS, CARNEADES.
LADAKH AND BALTISTAN, a province of Kashmir, India.
The name Ladak, commonly but less correctly spelt Ladakh,
and sometimes Ladag, belongs primarily to the broad valley of
the upper Indus in West Tibet, but includes several surrounding
districts in political connexion with it; the present limits are
between 75° 40' and 80° 30' E., and between 32° 25' and 36° N.
It is bounded N. by the Kuenlun range and the slopes of the
Karakoram, N.W. and W. by the dependency of Baltistan or
Little Tibet, S.W. by Kashmir proper, S. by British Himalayan
territory, and E. by the Tibetan provinces of Ngari and Rudok.
The whole region lies very high, the valleys of Rupshu in the
south-east being 15,000 ft., and the Indus near Leh 11,000 ft.,
while the average height of the surrounding ranges is 19,000 ft.
The proportion of arable and even possible pasture land to barren
rock and gravel is very small. Pop., including Baltistan (1901)
LADAKH AND BALTISTAN
165,992, of whom 30, 2i6inLadakh proper are Buddhists, whereas
the Baltis have adopted the Shiah form of Islam.
The natural features of the country may be best explained by
reference to two native terms, under one or other of which every
part is included; viz. changtang, i.e. " northern, or high plain,"
where the amount of level ground is considerable, and rang,
i.e. " deep valley," where the contrary condition prevails.
The former predominates in the east, diminishing gradually
westwards. There, although the vast alluvial deposits which
once filled the valley to a remarkably uniform height of about
15,000 ft. have left their traces on the mountain sides, they have
undergone immense denudation, and their debris now forms
secondary deposits, flat bottoms or shelving slopes, the only
spots available for cultivation or pasture. These masses of
alluvium are often either metamorphosed to a subcrystalline
rock still showing the composition of the strata, or simply con-
solidated by lime.
Grand scenery is exceptional, for the valleys are confined,
and from the higher points the view is generally of a confused
mass of brown or yellow hills, absolutely barren, and of no great
apparent height. The parallelism characteristic of the Himalayan
ranges continues here, the direction being north-west and south-
east. A central range divides the Indus valley, here 4 to 8 m.
wide, from that of its north branch the Shyok, which with its
fertile tributary valley of Nubra is again bounded on the north
by the Karakoram. This central ridge is mostly syenitic gneiss,
and north-east from it are found, successively, Silurian slates,
Carboniferous shales and Triassic limestones, the gneiss recurring
at the Turkestan frontier. The Indus lies along the line which
separates the crystalline rocks from the Eocene sandstones and
shales of the lower range of hills on the left bank, the lofty
mountains behind them consisting of parallel bands of rocks
from Silurian to Cretaceous.
Several lakes in the east districts at about 14,000 ft. have been
of much greater extent, and connected with the river systems of
the country, but they are now mostly without outlet, saline,
and in process of desiccation.
Leh is the capital of Ladakh, and the road toLehfrom Srinagar
lies up the lovely Sind valley to the sources of the river at the
Zoji La Pass (11,300 ft.) in the Zaskar range. This is the range
which, skirting the sou them edge of the upland plains of Deosai
in Baltistan, divides them from the valley of Kashmir, and then
continues to Nanga Parbat (26,620 ft.) and beyond that mountain
stretches to the north of Swat and Bajour. To the south-east it
is an unbroken chain till it merges into the line of snowy peaks
seen from Simla and the plains of India — the range which reaches
past Chini to the famous peaks of Gangotri, Nandadevi and |
Nampa. It is the most central and conspicuous range in the
Himalaya. The Zoji La, which curves from the head of the Sind
valley on to the bleak uplands of Dras (where lies the road to the
trough of the Indus and Leh), is, in spite of its altitude, a pass
on which little snow lies; but for local accumulations, it would
be open all the year round. It affords a typical instance of that
cutting-back process by which a river-head may erode a channel
through a watershed into the plateau behind, there being no steep
fall towards the Indus on the northern side of the range. From
the Zoji La the road continues by easy gradients, following the
line of the Dras drainage, to the Indus, when it turns up the
valley to Leh. From Leh there are many routes into Tibet,
the best known being that from the Indus valley to the Tibetan
plateau, by the Chang La, to Lake Pangkong and Rudok (14,000
ft.). Rudok occupies a forward position on the western Tibetan
border analogous to that of Leh in Kashmir. The chief trade
route to Lhasa from Leh, however, follows the line offered by
the valleys of the Indus and the Brahmaputra (or Tsanpo),
crossing the divide between these rivers north of Lake Mana-
sarowar.
The observatory at Leh is the most elevated observatory
in Asia. " The atmosphere of the Indus valley is remarkably
clear and transparent, and the heat of the sun is very great.
There is generally a difference of more than 60° between the read-
ing of the exposed sun thermometer in vacua and the air tempera-
ture in the shade, and this difference has occasionally exceeded
90° .... The mean annual temperature at Leh is 40°, that of
the coldest months (January and February) only 18° and 19°,.
but it rises rapidly from February to July, in which month it
reaches 62° with a mean diurnal maximum of 80° both in that
month and August, and an average difference of 29° or 30°
between the early morning and afternoon. The mean highest
temperature of the year is 90°, varying between 84° and 93°
in the twelve years previous to 1893. On the other hand, in
the winter the minimum thermometer falls occasionally below
o°, and in 1878 reached as low as 17° below zero. The extreme
range of recorded temperature is therefore not less than 110°.
The air is as dry as Quetta, and rather more uniformly so. ...
The amount of rain and snow is insignificant. The average
rain (and snow) fall is only 2-7 in. in the year."1 The winds are
generally light, and depend on the local direction of the valleys.
At Leh, which stands at the entrance of the valley leading to
the Kardang Pass, the most common directions are between
south and west in the daytime and summer, and from north-
east in the night, especially in the later months of the year.
In January and February the air is generally calm, and April
and May are the most windy months of the year.
Vegetation is confided to valleys and sheltered spots, where a
stunted growth of tamarisk and Myricaria, Hippophae and Elaeagnus,
furze, and the roots of burlsi, a salsolaceous plant, supply the traveller
with much-needed firewood. The trees are the pencil cedar (Juniperus
excelsa), the poplar and willow (both extensively planted, the latter
sometimes wild), apple, mulberry, apricot and walnut. Irrigation is
skilfully managed, the principal products being wheat, a beardless
variety of barley called grim, millet, buckwheat, pease, beans and
turnips. Lucerne and prangos (an umbelliferous plant) are used as
fodder.
Among domestic animals are the famous shawl goat, two-kinds of
sheep, of which the larger (huniya) is used for carrying burdens, and
is a principal source of wealth, the yak and the dso, a valuable
hybrid between the yak and common cow Among wild animals are
the kiang or wild ass, ibex, several kinds of wild sheep, antelope
(Pantholops), marmot, hare and other Tibetan fauna.
The present value of the trade between British India and Tibet
passing through Ladakh is inconsiderable Ladakh, however, is im-
proving in its trade prospects apart from Tibet. It is curious that
both Ladakh and Tibet import a considerable amount of treasure,
for on the borders of western Tibet and within a radius of 100
or 200 m. of Leh there centres a gold-mining industry which
apparently only requires scientific development to render it enorm-
ously productive. Here the surface soil has been for many centuries
washed for gold by bands of Tibetan miners, who never work deeper
than 20 to 50 ft., and whose methods of washing are of the crudest
description. They work in winter, chiefly because of the binding
power of frost on the friable soil, suffering great hardships and ob-
taining but a poor return for their labour. But the remoteness of
Ladakh and its extreme altitude still continue to bar the way to
substantial progress, though its central position naturally entitles
it to be a great trade mart.
The adjoining territory of Baltistan forms the west extremity of
Tibet, whose natural limits here are the Indus from its abrupt south-
ward bend in 74° 45' E., and the mountains to the north and west,
separating a comparatively peaceful Tibetan population from the
fiercer Aryan tribes beyond. Mahommedan writers about the i6th
century speak of Baltistan as " Little Tibet," and of Ladakh as
" Great Tibet," thus ignoring the really Great Tibet altogether.
The Balti call Gilgit " a Tibet," and DrLeitner says that the Chilasi
call themselves Bot or Tibetans; but, although these districts may
have been overrun by the Tibetans, or have received rulers of that
race, the ethnological frontier coincides with the geographical one
given. Baltistan is a mass of lofty mountains, the prevailing forma-
tion being gneiss. In the north is the Baltoro glacier, the largest out
of the arctic regions, 35 m. long, contained between two ridges whose
highest peaks to the south are 25,000 and to the north 28,265 ft.
The Indus, as in Lower Ladakh, runs in a narrow gorge, widening for
nearly 20 m. after receiving the Shyok. The capital, Skardu, a scattered
collection of houses, stands here, perched on a rock 7250 ft. above the
sea. The house roofs are flat, occupied only in part by a second
story, the remaining space being devoted to drying apricots, the
chief staple of the main valley, which supports little cultivation.
But the rapid slope westwards is seen generally in the vegetation.
Birch, plane, spruce and Pinus excelsa appear; the fruits are finer,
including pomegranate, pear, peach, vine and melon, and where
irrigation is available, as in the North Shigar, and at the deltas of the
tributary valleys, the crops are more luxuriant and varied.
History. — The earliest notice of Ladakh is by the Chinese
pilgrim Fa-hien, A.D. 400, who, travelling in search of a purer
1 H. F. Blandford, Climate and Weather of India (London, 1889).
LADD— LADISLAUS IV.
59
faith, found Buddhism flourishing there, the only novelty to
him being the prayer-cylinder, the efficacy of which he declares
is incredible. Ladakh formed part of the Tibetan empire until
its disruption in the loth century, and since then has continued
ecclesiastically subject, and sometimes tributary, to Lhasa.
Its inaccessibility saved it from any Mussulman invasion until
1531, when Sultan Said of Kashgar marched an army across
the Karakoram, one division fighting its way into Kashmir
-and wintering there. Next year they invaded eastern Tibet,
where nearly all perished from the effects of the climate.
Early in the iyth century Ladakh was invaded by its Mahom-
medan neighbours of Baltistan, who plundered and destroyed the
temples and monasteries; and again, in 1685-1688, by the Sokpa,
who were expelled only by the aid of the lieutenant of Aurangzeb
in Kashmir, Ladakh thereafter becoming tributary. The gyalpo
•or king then made a nominal profession of Islam, and allowed
a mosque to be founded at Leh, and the Kashmiris have ever
since addressed his successors by a Mahommedan title. When
the Sikhs took Kashmir, Ladakh, dreading their approach, offered
allegiance to Great Britain. It was, however, conquered and
annexed in 1834-1841 by Gulab Singh of Jammu — the unwar-
like Ladakhis, even with nature fighting on their side, and against
indifferent generalship, being no match for the Dogra troops.
These next turned their arms successfully against the Baltis
(who in the i8th century were subject to the Mogul), and were
then tempted to revive the claims of Ladakh to the Chinese
provinces of Rudok and Ngari. This, however, brought down
an army from Lhasa, and after a three days' fight the Indian
force was almost annihilated — chiefly indeed by frostbite and
other sufferings, for the battle was fought in mid-winter, 15,000
ft. above the sea. The Chinese then marched on Leh, but were
soon driven out again, and peace was finally made on the basis
of the old frontier. The widespread prestige of China is illustrated
by the fact that tribute, though disguised as a present, is paid
to her, for Ladakh, by the maharaja of Kashmir.
The principal works to be consulted are F. Drew, The Jummoo and
Kashmir Territories; Cunningham, Ladak; Major J. Biddulph, The
Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh; Ramsay, Western Tibet; Godwin-
Austen, " The Mountain Systems of the Himalaya," vol. vi., Proc.
R.G.S. (1884); W. Lawrence, The Valley of Kashmir (1895); H. F.
Blandford, The Climate and Weather of India (1889). (T. H. H.*)
LADD, GEORGE TRUMBULL (1842- ), American philos-
opher, was born in Painesville, Lake county, Ohio, on the
1 9th of January 1842. He graduated at Western Reserve
College in 1864 and at Andover Theological Seminary in 1869;
preached in Edinburg, Ohio, in 1869-1871, and in the Spring
Street Congregational Church of Milwaukee in 1871-1879;
and was professor of philosophy at Bowdoin College in 1879-
1881, and Clark professor of metaphysics and moral philosophy
.at Yale from 1881 till 1901, when he took charge of the graduate
department of philosophy and psychology; he became professor
emeritus in 1905. In 1879-1882 he lectured on theology at
Andover Theological Seminary, and in 1883 at Harvard, where
in 1895-1896 he conducted a graduate seminary in ethics. He
lectured in Japan in 1892, 1899 (when he also visited the uni-
versities of India) and 1906-1907. He was much influenced by
Lotze, whose Outlines of Philosophy he translated (6 vols., 1877),
and was one of the first to introduce (1879) the study of experi-
mental psychology into America, the Yale psychological
laboratory being founded by him.
PUBLICATIONS.— The Principles of Church Polity (1882); The
Doctrine of Sacred Scripture (1884) ; 'What is the Bible? (1888) ; Essays
on the Higher Education (1899), defending the " old " (Yale) system
against the Harvard or " new " education, as praised by George H.
Palmer; Elements of Physiological Psychology (1889, rewritten as Out-
lines of Physiological Psychology, in 1890); Primer of Psychology
(1894) ; Psychology, Descriptive and Explanatory (1894) ; and Outlines
of Descriptive Psychology (1898); in a "system of philosophy,"
Philosophy of the Mind (1891); Philosophy of Knowledge (1897); A
Theory of Reahty (1899) ; Philosophy of Conduct (1902) ; and Philosophy
of Religion (2 vols., 1905) ; In Korea with Marquis Ito (1908) ; and
Knowledge, Life and Reality (1909).
LADDER, (O. Eng. hlaeder; of Teutonic origin, cf. Dutch leer,
Ger. Letter; the ultimate origin is in the root seen in "lean,"
>Gr. K\i>a£), a set of steps or " rungs " between two supports
to enable one to get up and down; usually made of wood and
sometimes of metal or rope. Ladders are generally movable,
and differ from a staircase also in having only treads and no
" risers." The term " Jacob's ladder," taken from the dream
of Jacob in the Bible, is applied to a rope ladder with wooden
steps used at sea to go aloft, and to a common garden plant of
the genus Polemonium on account of the ladder-like formation
of the leaves. The flower known in England as Solomon's
seal is in some countries called the " ladder of heaven."
LADING (from " to lade," O. Eng. hladan, to put cargo on
board; cf. *' load "), BILL OF, the document given as receipt
by the master of a merchant vessel to the consignor of goods,
as a guarantee for their safe delivery to the consignee. (See
AFFREIGHTMENT.)
LADISLAUS [I.], Saint (1040-1095), king of Hungary, the
son of Bela I., king of Hungary, and the Polish princess Richeza,
was born in Poland, whither his father had sought refuge,
but was recalled by his elder brother Andrew I. to Hungary
(1047) and brought up there. He succeeded to the throne
on the death of his uncle Geza in 1077, as the eldest member of
the royal family, and speedily won for himself a reputation
scarcely inferior to that of Stephen I., by nationalizing Christianity
and laying the foundations of Hungary's political greatness.
Instinctively recognizing that Germany was the natural enemy
of the Magyars, Ladislaus formed a close alliance with the pope
and all the other enemies of the emperor Henry IV., including the
anti-emperor Rudolph of Swabia and his chief supporter Welf,
duke of Bavaria, whose daughter Adelaide he married. She
bore him one son and three daughters, one of whom, Piriska,
married the Byzantine emperor John Comnenus. The collapse
of the German emperor in his struggle with the pope left Ladislaus
free to extend his dominions towards the south, and colonize
and Christianize the wildernesses of Transylvania and the lower
Danube. Hungary was still semi-savage, and her native barba-
rians were being perpetually recruited from the hordes of Peche-
negs, Kumanians and other races which swept over her during
the nth century. Ladislaus himsejf had fought valiantly in
his youth against the Pechenegs, and to defend the land against
the Kumanians, who now occupied Moldavia and Wallachia
as far as the Alt, he built the fortresses of Turnu-Severin and
Gyula Fehervar. He also planted in Transylvania the Szeklers,
the supposed remnant of the ancient Magyars from beyond the
Dnieper, and founded the bishoprics of Nagy-Varad, or Gross-
Wardein, and of Agram, as fresh foci of Catholicism in south
Hungary and the hitherto uncultivated districts between the
Drave and the Save. He subsequently conquered Croatia,
though here his authority was questioned by the pope, the
Venetian republic and the Greek emperor. Ladislaus died
suddenly in 1095 when about to take part in the first Crusade.
No other Hungarian king was so generally beloved. The whole
nation mourned for him for three years, and regarded him as a
saint long before his canonization. A whole cycle of legends
is associated with his name.
See J. Babik, Life of St Ladislaus (Hung.) (Eger, 1892); Gyorgy
Pray, Dissertatio de St Ladislao (Pressburg, 1774); Antal Ganoczy,
Diss. hist. crit. de St Ladislao (Vienna, 1775). _ (R. N. B.)
LADISLAUS IV.f The Kumanian (1262-1290), king of Hungary,
was the son of Stephen V., whom he succeeded in 1272. From
his tenth year, when he was kidnapped from his father's court
by the rebellious vassals, till his assassination eighteen years
later, his whole life, with one bright interval of military glory,
was unrelieved tragedy. His minority, 1272-1277, was an
alternation of palace revolutions and civil wars, in the course
of which his brave Kumanian mother Elizabeth barely contrived
to keep the upper hand. In this terrible school Ladislaus matured
precociously. At fifteen he was a man, resolute, spirited, enter-
prising, with the germs of many talents and virtues, but rough,
reckless and very imperfectly educated. He was married
betimes to Elizabeth of Anjou, who had been brought up at the
Hungarian court. The marriage was a purely political one,
arranged by his father and a section of the Hungarian magnates
to counterpoise hostile German and Czech influences. During
6o
LADISLAUS V.— LADO ENCLAVE
the earlier part of his reign, Ladislaus obsequiously followed the
direction of the Neapolitan court in foreign affairs. In Hungary
itself a large party was in favour of the Germans, but the civil
wars which raged between the two factions from 1276 to 1278
did not prevent Ladislaus, at the head of 20,000 Magyars and
Rumanians, from co-operating with Rudolph of Habsburg in the
great battle of Durnkriit (August 26th, 1278), which destroyed,
once for all, the empire of the Pfemyslidae. A month later
a papal legate arrived in Hungary to inquire into the conduct
of the king, who was accused by his neighbours, and many of
his own subjects, of adopting the ways of his Kumam'an kinsfolk
and thereby undermining Christianity. Ladislaus was not really
a pagan, or he would not have devoted his share of the spoil of
Durnkriit to the building of the Franciscan church at Pressburg,
nor would he have venerated as he did his aunt St Margaret.
Political enmity was largely responsible for the movement against
him, yet the result of a very careful investigation (1279-1281)
by Philip, bishop of Fermo, more than justified many of the
accusations brought against Ladislaus. He clearly preferred
the society of the semi-heathen Rumanians to that of the
Christians; wore, and made his court wear, Rumanian dress;
surrounded himself with Rumanian concubines, and neglected
and ill-used his ill-favoured Neapolitan consort. He was finally
compelled to take up arms against his Rumanian friends, whom
he routed at Hodmezo (May 1282) with fearful loss; but,
previously to this, he had arrested the legate, whom he subse-
quently attempted to starve into submission, and his conduct
generally was regarded as so unsatisfactory that, after repeated
warnings, the Holy See resolved to supersede him by his Angevin
kinsfolk, whom he had also alienated, and on the 8th of August
1288 Pope Nicholas IV. proclaimed a crusade against him. For
the next two years all Hungary was convulsed by a horrible civil
war, during which the unhappy young king, who fought for his
heritage to the last with desperate valour, was driven from one
end of his kingdom to the other like a hunted beast. On the
25th of December 1289 he issued a manifesto to the lesser gentry,
a large portion of whom sided with him, urging them to continue
the struggle against the magnates and their foreign supporters;
but on the loth of July 1290 he was murdered in his camp
at Rorosszeg by the Rumanians, who never forgave him for
deserting them.
See Karoly Szab6, Ladislaus the Cumanian (Hung.), (Budapest,
1886); and Acsady, History of the Hungarian Realm, i. 2 (Budapest,
1903). The latter is, however, too favourable to Ladislaus.
(R. N. B.)
LADISLAUS V. (1440-1457), king of Hungary and Bohemia,
the only son of Albert, king of Hungary, and Elizabeth, daughter
of the emperor Sigismund, was born at Romarom on the 22nd
of February 1440, four months after his father's death, and was
hence called Ladislaus Posthumus. The estates of Hungary
had already elected Wladislaus III. of Poland their king, but
Ladislaus's mother caused the holy crown to be stolen from its
guardians at Visegrad, and compelled the primate to crown the
infant king at Szekesfejervir on the isth of May 1440; where-
upon, for safety's sake, she placed the child beneath the guardian-
ship of his uncle the emperor Frederick III. On the death of
Wladislaus III. (Nov. loth, 1444), Ladislaus V. was elected
king by the Hungarian estates, though not without considerable
opposition, and a deputation was sent to Vienna to induce the
emperor to surrender the child and the holy crown; but it was
not till 1452 that Frederick was compelled to relinquish both.
The child was then transferred to the pernicious guardianship
of his maternal grandfather Ulrich Cillei, who corrupted him
soul and body and inspired him with a jealous hatred of the
Hunyadis. On the 28th of October 1453 he was crowned king
of Bohemia, and henceforth spent most of his time at Prague
and Vienna. He remained supinely indifferent to the Turkish
peril; at the instigation of Cillei did his best to hinder the
defensive preparations of the great Hunyadi, and fled from the
country on the tidings of the siege of Belgrade. On the death
of Hunyadi he made Cillei governor of Hungary at the diet of
Futtak (October 1456), and when that traitor paid with his life
for his murderous attempt on Laszlo Hunyadi at Belgrade,
Ladislaus procured the decapitation of young Hunyadi (i6th of
March 1457), after a mock trial which raised such a storm in
Hungary that the king fled to Prague, where he died suddenly
(Nov. 23rd, 1457), while making preparations for his marriage
with Magdalena, daughter of Charles Vll. of France. He is
supposed to have been poisoned by his political opponents in
Bohemia.
See F. Palacky, Zeugenverhor liber den Tod Konig Ladislaus von
Ungarn u. Bohmen (Prague, 1856); Ignacz Acsady, History of the
Hungarian State (Hung.), vol. i. (Budapest, 1903).
LA DIXMERIE, NICOLAS BRICAIRE DE (c. 1730-1791),
French man of letters, was born at Lamothe (Haute-Marne).
While still young he removed to Paris, where the rest of his
life was spent in literary activity. He died on the 26th of
November 1791. His numerous works include Contes philo-
sophiques et moraux (1765), Les Deux Ages du gout et du genie
sous Louis XI V. et sous Louis X V. (1769), a parallel and contrast,
in which the decision is given in favour of the latter; L'Espagne
litter aire (1774) ; £loge de Voltaire (1779) and Eloge de Montaigne
(1781).
LADO ENCLAVE, a region of the upper Nile formerly ad-
ministered by the Congo Free State, but since 1910 a province
of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. It has an area of about 15,000
sq. m., and a population estimated at 250,000 and consisting
of Bari, Madi, Ruku and other Nilotic Negroes. The enclave is
bounded S.E. by the north-west shores of Albert Nyanza — as
far south as the port of Mahagi — E. by the western bank of the
Nile (Bahr-el-Jebel) to the point where the river is intersected
by 5° 30' N., which parallel forms its northern frontier from the
Nile westward to 30° E. This meridian forms the west frontier
to 4° N., the frontier thence being the Nile-Congo watershed to
the point nearest to Mahagi and from that point direct to Albert
Nyanza.
The country is a moderately elevated plateau sloping north-
ward from the higher ground marking the Congo-Nile watershed.
The plains are mostly covered with bush, with stretches of forest
in the northern districts. Traversing the plateau are two
parallel mountainous chains having a general north to south
direction. One chain, the Ruku Mountains (average height
2000 ft.), approaches close to the Nile and presents, as seen from
the river, several apparently isolated peaks. At other places
these mountains form precipices which stretch in a continuous
line like a huge wall. From Dufile in 3° 34' N. to below the
Bedden Rapids in 4° 40' N. the bed of the Nile is much obstructed
and the river throughout this reach is unnavigable (see NILE).
Below the Bedden Rapids rises the conical hill of Rejaf, and
north of that point the Nile valley becomes flat. Ranges of hill,
however, are visible farther westwards, and a little north of 5° N.
is Jebel Lado, a conspicuous mountain 2500 ft. high and some
1 2 m. distant from the Nile. It has given its name to the district,
being the first hill seen from the Nile in the ascent of some
1000 m. from Rhartum. On the river at Rejaf, at Lado, and at
Riro, 28 m. N. of Lado, are government stations and trading
establishments. The western chain of hills has loftier peaks
than those of Ruku, Jebel Loka being about 3000 ft. high.
This western chain forms a secondary watershed separating
the basin of the Yei, a large river, some 400 m. in length, which
runs almost due north to join the Nile, from the other streams
of the enclave, which have an easterly or north-easterly direction
and join the Nile, after comparatively short courses.
The northern part of the district was first visited by Europeans
in 1841-1842, when the Nile was ascended by an expedition
despatched by Mehemet Ali to the foot of the rapids at Bedden.
The neighbouring posts of Gondokoro, on the east bank of the
Nile, and Lado, soon became stations of the Rhartum ivory
and slave traders. After the discovery of Albert Nyanza by
Sir Samuel Baker in 1864, the whole country was overrun by
Arabs, Levantines, Turks and others, whose chief occupation was
slave raiding. The region was claimed as part of the Egyptian
Sudan, but it was not until the arrival of Sir Samuel Baker at
Gondokoro in 1870 as governor of the equatorial provinces,
LADOGA— LADY
61
that any effective control of the slave traders was attempted.
Baker was succeeded by General C. G. Gordon, who established
a separate administration for the Bahr-el-Ghazal. In 1878
Emin Pasha became governor of the Equatorial Province, a
term henceforth confined to the region adjoining the main
Nile above the Sobat confluence, and the region south of the
Bahr-el-Ghazal province. (The whole of the Lado Enclave
thus formed part of Emin's old province.) Emin made his
headquarters at Lado, whence he was driven in 1885 by the
Mahdists. He then removed to Wadelai, a station farther south,
but in 1889 the pasha, to whose aid H. M. Stanley had conducted
an expedition from the Congo, evacuated the country and with
Stanley made his way to the east coast. While the Mahdists
remained in possession at Rejaf, Great Britain in virtue of her
position in Uganda claimed the upper Nile region as within the
British sphere; a claim admitted by Germany in 1890. In
February 1894 the union jack was hoisted at Wadelai, while in
May of the same year Great Britain granted to Leopold II., as
sovereign of the Congo State, a lease of large areas lying west of
the upper Nile inclusive of the Bahr-el-Ghazal and Fashoda.
Pressed however by France, Leopold II. agreed to occupy only
that part of the leased area east of 30° E. and south of 5° 30' N.,
and in this manner the actual limits of the Lado Enclave, as it
was thereafter called, were fixed. Congo State forces had
penetrated to the Nile valley as early as 1891, but it was not
until 1897, when on the i7th of February Commandant Chaltin
inflicted a decisive defeat on the Mahdists at Rejaf, that their
occupation of the Lado Enclave was assured. After the with-
drawal of the French from Fashoda, Leopold II. revived (1899)
his claim to the whole of the area, leased to him in 1894. In
this claim he was unsuccessful, and the lease, by a new agreement
made with Great Britain in 1906, was annulled (see AFRICA, § 5).
The king however retained the enclave, with the stipulation
that six months after the termination of his reign it should be
handed over to the Anglo-Sudanese government (see Treaty
Series, No. 4, 1906).
See Le Mouvement^ geographique (Brussels) passim, and especially
articles in the 1910 issues.
LADOGA (formerly NEVO), a lake of northern Russia, between
59° 56' and 61° 46' N., and 29° 53' and 32° 50' E., surrounded
by the governments of St Petersburg and Olonets, and of Viborg
in Finland. It has the form of a quadrilateral, elongated from
N.W. to S.E. Its eastern and southern shores are flat and
marshy, the north-western craggy and fringed by numerous
small rocky islands, the largest of which are Valamo and Konne-
vitz, together having an area of 14 sq. m. Ladoga is 7000 sq. m.
in area, that is, thirty-one times as large as the Lake of Geneva;
but, its depth being less, it contains only nineteen times as much
water as the Swiss lake. The greatest depth, 730 ft., is in a
trough in the north-western part, the average depth not exceeding
250 to 350 ft. The level of Lake Ladoga is 55 ft. above the
Gulf of Finland, but it rises and falls about 7 ft., according to
atmospheric conditions, a phenomenon very similar to the
seiches of the Lake of Geneva being observed in connexion with
this.
The western and eastern shores consist of boulder clay, as well as a
narrow strip on the southern shore, south of which runs a ridge of
crags of Silurian sandstones. The hills of the north-western shore
afford a variety of granites and crystalline slates of the Laurentian
system, whilst Valamo island is made up of a rock which Russian
geologists describe as orthoclastic hypersthenite. The granite and
marble of Serdobol, and the sandstone of Putilovo, are much used
for buildings at St Petersburg; copper and tin from the Pitkaranta
mine are exported.
No fewer than seventy rivers enter Ladoga, pouring into it the
waters of numberless smaller lakes which lie at higher levels round it.
The Volkhov, which conveys the waters of Lake Ilmen, is the largest ;
Lake Onega discharges its waters by the Svir; and the Saima
system of lakes of eastern Finland contributes the Vuoxen and
Taipale rivers; the Syas brings the waters from the smaller lakes
and marshes of the Valdai plateau. Ladoga discharges its surplus
water by means of the Neva, which flows from its south-western
corner into the Gulf of Finland, rolling down its broad channel
104,000 cubic ft. of water per second.
The water of Ladoga is very pure and cold ; in May the surface
temperature does not exceed 36° Fahr., and even in August it reaches
only 50° and 53°, the average yearly temperature of the air at
Valamo being 36-8°. The lake begins to freeze in October, but it is
only about the end of December that it is frozen in its deeper parts ;
and it remains ice-bound until the end of March, though broad ice-
fields continue to float in the middle of the lake until broken up by
gales. Only a small part of the Ladoga ice is discharged by the Neva ;
but it is enough to produce in the middle of June a return of cold
in the northern capital. The thickness of the ice does not exceed
3 or 4 ft. ; but during the alternations of cold and warm weather,
with strong gales, in winter, stacks of ice, 70 and 80 ft. high, are
raised on the shores and on the icefields. The water is in continuous
rotatory motion, being carried along the western shore from north
to south, and along the eastern from south to north. The vegetation
on the shores is poor; immense forests, which formerly covered them,
are now mostly destroyed. But the fauna of the lake is somewhat
rich; a species of seal which inhabits its waters, as well as several
species of arctic crustaceans, recall its former connexion with the
Arctic Ocean. The sweet water Diatomaceae which are found in
great variety in the ooze of the deepest parts of the lake also have an
arctic character.
Fishing is very extensively carried on. Navigation, which is
practicable for only one hundred and eighty days in the year, is rather
difficult owing to fogs and gales, which are often accompanied, even
in April and September, with snow-storms. The prevailing winds
blow from N.W. and S.W. ; N.E. winds cause the water to rise in the
south-western part, sometimes 3 to 5 ft. Steamers ply regularly in
two directions from St Petersburg — to the monasteries of Konnevitz
and Valamo, and to the mouth of the Svir, whence they go up that
river to Lake Onega and Petrozavodsk; and small vessels transport
timber, firewood, planks, iron, kaolin, granite, marble, fish, hay and
various small wares from the northern shore to Schlusselburg, and
thence to St Petersburg. Navigation on the lake being too danger-
ous for small craft, canals with an aggregate length of 104 m. were
dug in 1718-1731, and others in 1861-1886 having an aggregate
length of 101 m. along its southern shore, uniting with the Neva at
Schliisselburg the mouths of the rivers Volkhov, Syas and Svir, all
links in the elaborate system of canals which connect the upper
Volga with the Gulf of Finland.
The population (35,000) on the shores of the lake is sparse, and the
towns — Schlusselburg (5285 inhabitants in 1897); New Ladoga
(4144); Kexholm (1325) and Serdobol — are small. The monasteries
of Valamo, founded in 992, on the island of the same name, and
Konnevskiy, on Konnevitz island, founded in 1393, are visited every
year by many thousands of pilgrims. (P. A. K. ; J. T. BE.)
LADY (O. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. Idfdi, Idvedi; the first part
of the word is Mdf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford,
lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-,
to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development from
bread-kneader, bread-maker, to the ordinary meaning, though
not clearly to be traced historically, may be illustrated by that
of " lord "), a term of which the main applications are two,
(i) as the correlative of " lord " (q.v.) in certain of the usages
of that word, (2) as the correlative of " gentleman " (q.v.).
The primary meaning of mistress of a household is, if not obsolete,
in present usage only a vulgarism. The special use of the word
as a title of the Virgin Mary, usually " Our Lady," represents
the Lat. Domina Nostra. In Lady Day and Lady Chapel the
word is properly a genitive, representing the O. Eng. hla/fdigan.
As a title of nobility the uses of " lady " are mainly paralleled by
those of " lord." It is thus a less formal alternative to the full
title giving the specific rank, of marchioness, countess, vis-
countess or baroness, whether as the title of the husband's
rank by right or courtesy, or as the lady's title in her own right.
In the case of the younger sons of a duke or marquess, who by
courtesy have lord prefixed to their Christian and family name,
the wife is known by the husband's Christian and family name
with Lady prefixed, e.g. Lady John B.; the daughters of dukes,
marquesses and earls are by courtesy Ladies; here that title
is prefixed to the Christian and family name of the lady, e.g. Lady
Mary B., and this is preserved if the lady marry a commoner,
e.g. Mr and Lady Mary C. " Lady " is also the customary
title of the wife of a baronet or knight; the proper title, now
only used in legal documents or on sepulchral monuments, is
" dame " (q.v.) ; in the latter case the usage is to prefix Dame
to the Christian name of the wife followed by the surname of the
husband, thus Dame Eleanor B., but in the former, Lady with
the surname of the husband only, Sir A. and Lady B. During
the isth and i6th centuries " princesses " or daughters of the
blood royal were usually known by their Christian names with
"the Lady " prefixed, e.g. the Lady Elizabeth.
62
LADYBANK— LAELIUS
While " lord " has retained its original application as a title
of nobility or rank without extension, an example which has been
followed in Spanish usage by " don," " lady " has been extended
in meaning to be the feminine correlative of " gentleman "
throughout its sense developments, and in this is paralleled by
Dame in German, madame in French, donna in Spanish, &c.
It is the general word for any woman of a certain social position
(see GENTLEMAN).
LADYBANK, a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, 5^ m.
S.W. of Cupar by the North British railway, 5 m. from the left
bank of the Eden. Pop. (1901) 1340. Besides having a station
on the main line to Dundee, it is also connected with Perth and
Kinross and is a railway junction of some importance and
possesses a locomotive depot. It is an industrial centre, linen
weaving, coal mining and malting being the principal industries.
KETTLE, a village i m. S., has prehistoric barrows and a fort.
At COLLESSIE, 2j m. N. by W., a standing stone, a mound and
traces of ancient camps exist, while urns and coins have been
found. Between the parishes of Collessie and Monimail the
boundary line takes the form of a crescent known as the Bow
of Fife. MONIMAIL contains the Mount, the residence of Sir
David Lindsay the poet (1490-1555). Its lofty site is now
marked by a clump of trees. Here, too, is the Doric pillar,
too ft. high, raised to the memory of John Hope, 4th earl of
Hopetoun. Melville House, the seat of the earls of Leven, lies
amidst beautiful woods.
LADYBRAND, a town of the Orange Free State, 80 m. E. of
Bloemfontein by rail. Another railway connects it with Natal
via Harrismith. Pop. (1904) 3862, of whom 2334 were whites.
The town is pleasantly situated at the foot of a flat-topped hill
(the Platberg), about 4 m. W. of the Caledon river, which
separates the province from Basutoland. Ladybrand is the
centre of a rich arable district, has a large wheat market and is
also a health resort, the climate, owing to the proximity of the
Maluti Mountains, being bracing even during the summer
months (November-March). Coal and petroleum are found in
the neighbourhood. It is named after the wife of Sir. J. H. Brand,
president of the Orange Free State.
LADY-CHAPEL, the chapel dedicated to the Blessed Virgin
and attached to churches of large size. Generally the chapel was
built eastward of the high altar and formed a projection from the
main building, as in Winchester, Salisbury, Exeter, Wells, St
Albans, Chichester, Peterborough and Norwich cathedrals, — in
the two latter cases now destroyed. The earliest Lady-chapel
built was that in the Saxon cathedral of Canterbury; this was
transfered in the rebuilding by Archbishop Lanfranc to the
west end of the nave, and again shifted in 1450 to the chapel on
the east side of the north transept. The Lady-chapel at Ely
cathedral is a distinct building attached to the north transept;
at Rochester the Lady-chapel is west of the south transept.
Probably the largest Lady-chapel was that built by Henry III.
in 1220 at Westminster Abbey, which was 30 ft. wide, much in
excess of any foreign example, and extended to the end of the
site now occupied by Henry VII. 's chapel. Among other
notable English examples of Lady-chapels are those at Ottery-
St-Mary, Thetford, Bury St Edmund's, Wimborne, Christ-
church, Hampshire; in Compton Church, Surrey, and Compton
Martin, Somersetshire, and Darenth, Kent, it was built over the
chancel. At Croyland Abbey there were two Lady-chapels.
Lady-chapels exist in most of the French cathedrals and churches,
where they form part of the chevet; in Belgium they were not
introduced before the i4th century; in some cases they are
of the same size as the other chapels of the chevet, but in others,
probably rebuilt at a later period, they became much more
important features, and in Italy and Spain during the Renais-
sance period constitute some of its best examples.
LADY DAY, originally the name for all the days in the church
calendar marking any event in the Virgin Mary's life, but now
restricted to the feast of the Annunciation, held on the 25th of
March in each year. Lady Day was in medieval and later times
the beginning of the legal year in England. In 1752 this was
altered to the ist of January, but the 25th of March remains one
of the Quarter Days; though in some parts old Lady Day,
on the 6th of April, is still the date for rent paying. See
ANNUNCIATION.
LADYSMITH, a town of Natal, 189 m. N.W. of Durban by
rail, on the left bank of the Klip tributary of the Tugela. Pop.
(1904) 5568, of whom 2269 were whites. It lies 3284 ft. above
the sea and is encircled by hills, while the Drakensberg are some
30 m. distant to the N.W. Ladysmith is the trading centre of
northern Natal, and is the chief railway junction in the province,
the main line from the south dividing here. One line crosses Van
Reenen's pass into the Orange Free State, the other runs north-
wards to the Transvaal. There are extensive railway workshops.
Among the public buildings are the Anglican church and the
town hall. The church contains tablets with the names of 3200
men who perished in the defence and relief of the town in the
South African War (see below), while the clock tower of the
town hall, partially destroyed by a Boer shell, is kept in its
damaged condition.
Ladysmith, founded in 1851, is named after Juana, Lady
Smith, wife of Sir Harry Smith, then governor of Cape Colony.
It stands near the site of the camp of the Dutch farmers who in
1848 assembled for the purpose of trekking across the Drakens-
berg. Here they were visited by Sir Harry Smith, who induced
the majority of the farmers to remain in Natal. The growth of
the town, at first slow, increased with the opening of the railway
from Durban in 1886 and the subsequent extension of the line
to Johannesburg.
In the first and most critical stage of the South African War
of 1899-1902 (see TRANSVAAL) Ladysmith was the centre of the
struggle. During the British concentration on the town there
were fought the actions of Talana (or Dundee) on the 2oth,
Elandslaagte on the 2ist and Rietfontein on the 24th of October
1899. On the 3oth of October the British sustained a serious
defeat in the general action of Lombard's Kop or Farquhar's
Farm, and Sir George White decided to hold the town, which had
been fortified, against investment and siege until he was relieved
directly or indirectly by Sir Redvers Buller's advance. The
greater portion of Buller's available troops were despatched to
Natal in November, with a view to the direct relief of Ladysmith,
which meantime the Boers had closely invested. His first attempt
was repelled on the i5th of December in the battle of Colenso,
his second on the 24th of January 1900 by the successful Boer
counterstroke against Spion Kop, and his third was abandoned
without serious fighting (Vaalkranz, Feb. 5). But two or
three days after Vaalkranz, almost simultaneously with Lord
Roberts's advance on Bloemfontein Sir Redvers Buller resumed
the offensive in the hills to the east of Colenso, which he gradually
cleared of the enemy, and although he was checked after reaching
the Tugela below Colenso (Feb. 24) he was finally successful
in carrying the Boer positions (Pieter's Hill) on the 27th and
relieving Ladysmith, which during these long and anxious
months (Nov. i-Feb. 28) had suffered very severely from want
of food, and on one occasion (Caesar's Camp, Jan. 6, 1900) had
only with heavy losses and great difficulty repelled a powerful
Boer assault. The garrison displayed its unbroken resolution
on the last day of the investment by setting on foot a mobile
column, composed of all men who were not too enfeebled to
march out, in order to harass the Boer retreat. This expedition
was however countermanded by Buller.
LAELIUS, the name of a Roman plebeian family, probably
settled at Tibur (Tivoli). The chief members were: —
GAIUS LAELIUS, general and statesman, was a, friend of the
elder Scipio, whom he accompanied on his Spanish campaign
(210-206 B.C.). In Scipio's consulship (205), Laelius went with
him to Sicily, whence he conducted an expedition to Africa.
In 203 he defeated the Massaesylian prince Syphax, who,
breaking his alliance with Scipio, had joined the Carthaginians,
and at Zama (202) rendered considerable service in command of
the cavalry. In 197 he was plebeian aedile and in 1 96 praetor of
Sicily. As consul in 190 he was employed in organizing the
recently conquered territory in Cisalpine Gaul. Placentia and
Cremona were repeopled, and a new colony founded at Bononia.
LAENAS— LAETUS
He is last heard of in 170 as ambassador to Transalpine Gaul.
Though little is known of his personal qualities, his intimacy
with Scipio is proof that he must have been a man of some
importance. Silius Italicus (Punica, xv. 450) describes him as
a man of great endowments, an eloquent orator and a brave
soldier.
See Index to Liyy; Polybius x. 3. 9, 39, xi. 32, xiv. 4. 8, xv. 9.
12, 14; Appian, Hisp. 25-29; Cicero, PIMippica, xi. 7.
His son, GAIUS LAELIUS, is known chiefly as the friend of the
younger Scipio, and as one of the speakers in Cicero's De senectute,
De amicitia (or Laelius) and De Republica. He was surnamed
Sapiens (" the wise"), either from his scholarly tastes or because,
when tribune, he " prudently " withdrew his proposal (151 B.C.)
for the relief of the farmers by distributions of land, when he
saw that it was likely to bring about disturbances. In the third
Punic War (147) he accompanied Scipio to Africa, and dis-
tinguished himself at the capture of the Cothon, the military
harbour of Carthage. In 145 he carried on operations with
moderate success against Viriathus in Spain; in 140 he was
elected consul. During the Gracchan period, as a staunch
supporter of Scipio and the aristocracy, Laelius became obnoxious
to the democrats. He was associated with P. Popillius Laenas
in the prosecution of those who had supported Tiberius Gracchus,
and in 131 opposed the bill brought forward by C. Papirius Carbo
to render legal the election of a tribune to a second year of office.
The attempts of his enemies, however, failed to shake his reputa-
tion. He was a highly accomplished man and belonged to the
so-called " Scipionic circle." He studied philosophy under the
Stoics Diogenes Babylonius and Panaetius of Rhodes; he was
a poet, and the plays of Terence, by reason of their elegance of
diction, were sometimes attributed to him. With Scipio he was
mainly instrumental in introducing the study of the Greek
language and literature into Rome. He was a gifted orator,
though his refined eloquence was perhaps less suited to the
forum than to the senate. He delivered speeches De Collegiis
(145) against the proposal of the tribune C. Licinius Crassus to
deprive the priestly colleges of their right of co-optation and to
transfer the power of election to the people; Pro Publicanis
(139), on behalf of the farmers of the revenue; against the
proposal of Carbo noticed above; Pro Se, a speech in his own
defence, delivered in answer to Carbo and Gracchus; funeral
orations, amongst them two on his friend Scipio. Much informa-
tion is given concerning him in Cicero, who compares him to
Socrates.
See Index to Cicero; Plutarch, Tib. Gracchus, 8; Appian,
Punica, 126; Horace, Sat. ii. I. 72; Quintilian, Instil, xii. 10. 10;
Suetonius, Vita Terentii; Terence, Adelphi, Prol. 15, with the
commentators.
LAENAS, the name of a plebeian family in ancient Rome,
notorious for cruelty and arrogance. The two most famous of
the name1 are: —
GAIUS POPILLIUS LAENAS, consul in 172 B.C. He was sent
to Greece in 174 to allay the general disaffection, but met with
little success. He took part in the war against Perseus, king
of Macedonia (Livy xliii. 17, 22). When Antiochus Epiphanes,
king of Syria, invaded Egypt, Laenas was sent to arrest his
progress. Meeting him near Alexandria, he handed him the
decree of the senate, demanding the evacuation of Egypt.
Antiochus having asked time for consideration, Laenas drew a
circle round him with his staff, and told him he must give an
answer before he stepped out of it. Antiochus thereupon
submitted (Livy xlv. 12; Polybius xxix. n; Cicero, Philippica,
viii. 8; Veil. Pat. i. 10).
PUBLIUS POPILLIUS LAENAS, son of the preceding. When
consul in 132 B.C. he incurred the hatred of the democrats
by his harsh measures as head of a special commission appointed
to take measures against the accomplices of Tiberius Gracchus.
In 123 Gaius Gracchus brought in a bill prohibiting all such
commissions, and declared that, in accordance with the old
laws of appeal, a magistrate who pronounced sentence of death
1 The name is said by Cicero to be derived from laena, the sacer-
dotal cloak carried by Marcus Popillius (consul 359) when he went
to the forum to quell a popular rising.
against a citizen, without the people's assent, should be guilty
of high treason. It is not known whether the bill contained a
retrospective clause against Laenas, but he left Rome and
sentence of banishment from Italy was pronounced against him.
After the restoration of the aristocracy the enactments against
him were cancelled, and he was recalled (121).
See Cicero, Brutus, 25. 34, and De domo sua, 31 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 7;
Plutarch, C. Gracchus, 4.
LAER (or LAAR), PIETER VAN (i6i3-c. 1675), Dutch painter,
was born at Laaren in Holland. The influence of a long stay
in Rome begun at an early age is seen in his landscape and back-
grounds, but in his subjects he remained true to the Dutch
tradition, choosing generally lively scenes from peasant life, as
markets, feasts, bowling scenes, farriers' shops, robbers, hunting
scenes and peasants with cattle. From this taste, or from his
personal deformity, he was nicknamed Bamboccio by the
Italians. On his return to Holland about 1639, he lived chiefly
at Amsterdam and Haarlem, in which latter city he died in 1674
or 1675. His pictures are marked by skilful composition and
good drawing; he was especially careful in perspective. His
colouring, according to Crowe, is " generally of a warm, brownish
tone, sometimes very clear, but oftener heavy, and his execution
broad and spirited." Certain etched plates are also attributed
to him.
LAESTRYGONES, a mythical race of giants and cannibals.
According to the Odyssey (x. 80) they dwelt in the farthest north,
where the nights were so short that the shepherd who was
driving out his flock met another driving it in. This feature of
the tale contains some hint of the long nightless summer in the
Arctic regions, which perhaps reached the Greeks through the
merchants who fetched amber from the Baltic coasts. Odysseus
in his wanderings arrived at the coast inhabited by the Laestry-
gones, and escaped with only one ship, the rest being sunk by
the giants with masses of rock. Their chief city was Telepylus,
founded by a former king Lamus, their ruler at that time being
Antiphates. This is a purely fanciful name, but Lamus takes
us into a religious world where we can trace the origin of the
legend, and observe the god of an older religion becoming the
subject of fairy tales (see LAMIA) in a later period.
The later Greeks placed the country of the Laestrygones in Sicily,
to the south of Aetna, near Leontini; but Horace (Odes, iii. 16. 34)
and other Latin authors speak of them as living in southern Latium,
near Formiae, which was supposed to have been founded by Lamus.
LAETUS, JULIUS POMPONIUS [Giulio Pomponio Leto],
(1425-1498), Italian humanist, was born at Salerno. He studied
at Rome under Laurentius Valla, whom he succeeded (1457)
as professor of eloquence in the Gymnasium Romanum. About
this time he founded an academy, the members of which adopted
Greek and Latin names, met on the Quirinal to discuss classical
questions and celebrated the birthday of Romulus. Its constitu-
tion resembled that of an ancient priestly college, and Laetus
was styled pontifex maximus. The pope (Paul II.) viewed these
proceedings with suspicion, as savouring of paganism, heresy
and republicanism. In 1468 twenty of the academicians were
arrested during the carnival; Laetus, who had taken refuge
in Venice, was sent back to Rome, imprisoned and put to the
torture, but refused to plead guilty to the charges of infidelity
and immorality. For want of evidence, he was acquitted
and allowed to resume his professorial duties; but it was for-
bidden to utter the name of the academy even in jest. Sixtus
IV. permitted the resumption of its meetings, which continued
to be held till the sack of Rome (1527) by Constable Bourbon
during the papacy of Clement VII. Laetus continued to teach
in Rome until his death on the gth of June 1498. As a teacher,
Laetus, who has been called the first head of a philological
school, was extraordinarily successful; in his own words, like
Socrates and Christ, he expected to live on in the person of his
pupils, amongst whom were many of the most famous scholars
of the period. His works, written in pure and simple Latin,
were published in a collected form (Opera Pomponii Laeti
•oaria, 1521). They contain treatises on the Roman magistrates,
priests and lawyers, and a compendium of Roman history from
LAEVIUS— LA FAYETTE, G. M. DE
the death of the younger Gordian to the time of Justin III
Laetus also wrote commentaries on classical authors, and pro-
moted the publication of the editio princeps of Virgil at Rome
in 1469.
See The Life of Leto by Sabellicus (Strassburg, 1510); G. Voigt,
Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Alterthums, ii. ; F. Gregorovius
Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter, vii. (1894), p. 576, for an
account of the academy; Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship
(1908), ii. 92.
LAEVIUS (? c. 80 B.C.), a Latin poet of whom practically
nothing is known. The earliest reference to him is perhaps in
Suetonius (De grammaticis, 3), though it is not certain that the
Laevius Milissus there referred to is the same person. Definite
references do not occur before the 2nd century (Pronto, Ep. ad
M. Caes. i. 3; Aulus Gellius, Noct. Alt. ii. 24, xii. 10, xix. 9 ;
Apuleius, De magia, 30; Porphyrion, Ad Horat. carm. iii. i, 2).
Some sixty miscellaneous lines are preserved (see Bahrens,
Fragm. poet. rom. pp. 287-293), from which it is difficult to see
how ancient critics could have regarded him as the master of
Ovid or Catullus. Gellius and Ausonius state that he composed
an Erotopaegnia, and in other sources he is credited with Adonis,
Alcestis, Cenlauri, Helena, Ino, Protesilaudamia, Sirenocirca,
Phoenix, which may, however, be only the parts of the Eroto-
paegnia. They were not serious poems, but light and often
licentious skits on the heroic myths.
See O. Ribbeck, Geschichte der romischen Dichtung, i.; H. de la
Ville de Mirmont, Etude biographique et litteraire surle poete Laevius
(Paris, 1900), with critical ed. of the fragments, and remarks on
vocabulary and syntax; A. Weichert, Poetarum latinorum reliquiae
(Leipzig, 1830); M. Schanz, Geschichte der romischen Litteratur
(2nd ed.), pt. i. p. 163; W. Teuffel, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng.
tr.), § 150, 4; a convenient summary in F.Plessis, La Poesie latine
(1909), pp. 139-142.
LAEVULINIC ACID (/3-acetopropionic acid), C5H8O3 or
CHsCO-CHi-CHfCOifl, a ketonic acid prepared from laevulose,
inulin, starch, &c., by boiling them with dilute hydrochloric or
sulphuric acids. It may be synthesized by condensing sodium
acetoacetate with monochloracetic ester, the acetosuccinic ester
produced being then hydrolysed with dilute hydrochloric acid
(M. Conrad, Ann., 1877, 188, p. 222).
CHj-CO-CH-Na CH,-COCH-CH2-CO2R
! -> I ->CH3COCH2-CH2-CO2OH.
CO2R CO2R
It may also be prepared by heating the anhydride of 7-methyloxy-
glutaric acid with concentrated sulphuric acid, and by oxidation
of methyl heptenone and of geraniol. It crystallizes in plates,
which melt at 32-5-33° C. and boil at 148-149° (15 mm.) (A.
Michael, Jour. prak. Chem., 1891 [2], 44, p. 114). It is readily
soluble in alcohol, ether and water. The acid, when distilled
slowly, is decomposed and yields a and ^-angelica lactones.
When heated with hydriodic acid and phosphorus, it yields
»-valeric acid; and with iodine and caustic soda solution it
gives iodoform, even in the cold. With hydroxylamine it yields
an oxime, which by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid
rearranges itself to N-methylsuccinimide [CHz-COLN-CHi.
LA FAROE, JOHN (1835-1910), American artist, was born
in New York, on the 3ist of March 1835, of French parentage.
He received instruction in drawing from his grandfather,
Binsse de St Victor, a painter of miniatures; studied law and
architecture; entered the atelier of Thomas Couture in Paris,
where he remained a short time, giving especial attention to the
study and copying of old masters at the Louvre; and began
by making illustrations to the poets (1859). An intimacy with
the artist William M. Hunt had a strong influence on him,
the two working together at Newport, Rhode Island. La Farge
painted landscape, still life and figure alike in the early sixties.
But from 1866 on he was for some time incapacitated for work,
and when he regained strength he did some decorative work
for Trinity church, Boston, in 1876, and turned his attention
to stained glass, becoming president of the Society of Mural
Painters. Some of his important commissions include windows
for St Thomas's church (1877), St Peter's church, the Paulist
church, the Brick church (1882), the churches of the Incarnation
(1885) and the Ascension (1887), New York; Trinity church,
Buffalo, and the " Battle Window " in Memorial Hall at
Harvard; ceilings and windows for the house of Cornelius
Vanderbilt, windows for the houses of W. H. Vanderbilt
and D. O. Mills, and panels for the house of Whitelaw Reid,
New York; panels for the Congressional Library, Washington;
Bowdoin College, the Capitol at St Paul, Minn., besides designs
for many stained glass windows. He was also a prolific painter
in oil and water colour, the latter seen notably in some water-
colour sketches, the result of a voyage in the South Seas, shown
in 1895. His influence on American art was powerfully exhibited
in such men as Augustus St Gaudens, Wilton Lockwood, Francis
Lathrop and John Humphreys Johnston. He became president
of the Society of American Artists, a member of the National
Academy of Design in 1869; an officer of the Legion of Honour
of France; and received many medals and decorations. He
published Considerations on Painting (New York, 1895),
Hokusai: A Talk about Hoksuai (New York, 1897), and An
Artist's Letters from Japan (New York, 1897).
See Cecilia Waern, John La Farge, Artist and Writer (London, 1896,
No. 26 of The Portfolio).
LA FARINA, GIUSEPPE (1815-1863), Italian author and
politician, was born at Messina. On account of the part he took
in the insurrection of 1837 he had to leave Sicily, but returning
in 1839 he conducted various newspapers of liberal tendencies,
until his efforts were completely interdicted, when he removed
to Florence. In 1840 he had published Messina ed i suoi monu-
menti, and after his removal to Florence he brought out La
Germania coi suoi monumenti (1842), L' Italia coi suoi monu-
menti (1842), La Svizzera storica ed artistica (1842-1843),
La China, 4 vols. (1843-1847), and Storia d' Italia, 7 vols.
(1846-1854). In 1847 he established at Florence a democratic
journal, L'Alba, in the interests of Italian freedom and unity,
but on the outbreak of the revolution in Sicily in 1848 he returned
thither and was elected deputy and member of the committee
of war. In August of that year he was appointed minister of
public instruction and later of war and marine. After vigorously
conducting a campaign against the Bourbon troops, he was
forced into exile, and repaired to France in 1849. In 1850 he
published his Storia documentata della Rivoluzione Siciliana
del 1848-1849, and in 1851-1852 his Sloria d' Italia dal 1815
al 1848, in 6 vols. He returned to Italy in 1854 and settled at
Turin, and in 1856 he founded the Piccolo Corriere d' Italia, an
organ which had great influence in propagating the political
sentiments of the Societa Nazionale Italiana, of which he ulti-
mately was chosen president. With Daniele Manin (q.v.), one
of the founders of that society, he advocated the unity of Italy
under Victor Emmanuel even before Cavour, with whom at
one time he had daily interviews, and organized the emigration
of volunteers from all parts of Italy into the Piedmontese army.
He also negotiated an interview between Cavour and Garibaldi,
with the result that the latter was appointed commander of
the Cacciatori delle Alpi in the war of 1859. Later he supported
Garibaldi's expedition to Sicily, where he himself went soon
after the occupation of Palermo, but he failed to bring about
the immediate annexation of the island to Piedmont as Cavour
wished. In 1860 he was chosen a member of the first Italian
parliament and was subsequently made councillor of state.
He died on the sth of September 1863.
See A. Franchi, Epistolario di Giuseppe La Farina (2 vols., 1869)
and L. Carpi, // Risorgimento Italiano, vol. i. (Milan, 1884).
LA FAYETTE, GILBERT MOTIER DE (1380-1462), marshal
of France, was brought up at the court of Louis II., 3rd duke
of Bourbon. He served under Marshal Boucicaut in Italy, and
on his return to France after the evacuation of Genoa in 1409
>ecame seneschal of the Bourbonnais. In the English wars he
was with John L, 4th duke of Bourbon, at the capture of Soubise
"n 1413, and of Compiegne in 1415. The duke then made him
ieutenant-general in Languedoc and Guienne. He failed to
defend Caen and Falaise in the interest of the dauphin (after-
wards Charles VII.) against Henry V. in 1417 and 1418, but in
he latter year he held Lyons for some time against Jean sans
Deur, duke of Burgundy. A series of successes over the English
LA FAYETTE, LOUISE DE— LA FAYETTE, MARQUIS DE 65
and Burgundians on the Loire was rewarded in 1420 with the
government of Dauphiny and the office of marshal of France.
La Fayette commanded the Franco-Scottish troops at the battle
of Bauge (1422), though he did not, as has been sometimes stated,
slay Thomas, duke of Clarence, with his own hand. In 1424
he was taken prisoner by the English at Verneuil, but was
released shortly afterwards, and fought with Joan of Arc at
Orleans and Patay in 1429. The marshal had become a member
of the grand council of Charles VII., and with the exception of a
short disgrace about 1430, due to the ill-will of Georges de la
Tremouille, he retained the royal favour all his life. He took
an active part in the army reform initiated by Charles VII., and
the establishment of military posts for the suppression of brigand-
age. His last campaign was against the English in Normandy
in 1449. He died on the 23rd of February 1462. His line was
continued by Gilbert IV. de La Fayette, son of his second
marriage with Jeanne de Joyeuse.
LA FAYETTE, LOUISE DE (c. 1616-1665), was one of the
fourteen children of John, comte de La Fayette, and Marguerite
de Bourbon-Busset. Louise became maid of honour to Anne of
Austria, and Richelieu sought to attract the attention of Louis
XIII. to her in the hope that she might counterbalance the
influence exercised over him by Marie de Hautefort. The affair
did not turn out as the minister wished. The king did indeed
make her the confidante of his affairs and of his resentment
against the cardinal, but she, far from repeating his confidences
to the minister, set herself to encourage the king in his resistance
to Richelieu's dominion. She refused, nevertheless, to become
Louis's mistress, and after taking leave of the king in Anne of
Austria's presence retired to the convent of the Filles de Sainte-
Marie in 1637. Here she was repeatedly visited by Louis, with
whom she maintained a correspondence. Richelieu intercepted
the letters, and by omissions and falsifications succeeded in
destroying their mutual confidence. The cessation of their
intercourse was regretted by the queen, who had been reconciled
with her husband through the influence of Louise. At the time
of her death in January 1665 Mile de La Fayette was superior
of a convent of her order which she had founded at Chaillot.
See Memoires de Madame de Motteville; Victor Cousin, Madame de
Hautefort (Paris, 1868) ; L'Abbe Sorin, Louise-Angele de La Fayette
(Paris, 1893).
LA FAYETTE, MARIE JOSEPH PAUL YVES ROCH GILBERT
DU MOTIER, MARQUIS DE (1757-1834), was born at the chateau
of Chavaniac in Auvergne, France, on the 6th of September 1757.
His father1 was killed at Minden in 1759, and his mother and his
grandfather died in 1770, and thus at the age of thirteen he was
left an orphan with a princely fortune. He married at sixteen
Marie Adrienne Francoise de Noailles (d. 1807), daughter of the
due d'Ayen and granddaughter of the due de Noailles, then one
of the most influential families in the kingdom. La Fayette
chose to follow the career of his father, and entered the Guards.
La Fayette was nineteen and a captain of dragoons when the
English colonies in America proclaimed their independence.
" At the first news of this quarrel," he afterwards wrote in his
memoirs, " my heart was enrolled in it." The count de Broglie,
whom he consulted, discouraged his zeal for the cause of liberty.
Finding his purpose unchangeable, however, he presented the
young enthusiast to Johann Kalb, who was also seeking service
in America, and through Silas Deane, American agent in Paris,
an arrangement was concluded, on the 7th of December 1776,
by which La Fayette was to enter the American service as major-
general. At this moment the news arrived of grave disasters to
the American arms. La Fayette's friends again advised him to
abandon his purpose. Even the American envoys, Franklin
and Arthur Lee, who had superseded Deane, withheld further
encouragement and the king himself forbade his leaving. At
the instance of the British ambassador at Versailles orders were
issued to seize the ship La Fayette was fitting out at Bordeaux,
and La Fayette himself was arrested. But the ship was sent
1 The family of La Fayette, to the cadet branch of which he be-
longed, received its name from an estate in Aix, Auvergne, which
belonged in the I3th century to the Metier family.
xvi. 3
from Bordeaux to a neighbouring port in Spain, La Fayette
escaped from custody in disguise, and before a second lettre
de cachet could reach him he was afloat with eleven chosen
companions. Though two British cruisers had been sent in
pursuit of him, he landed safely near Georgetown, S.C., after
a tedious voyage of nearly two months, and hastened to Phila-
delphia, then the seat of government of the colonies.
When this lad of nineteen, with the command of only what
little English he had been able to pick up on his voyage, pre-
sented himself to Congress with Deane's authority to demand a
commission of the highest rank after the commander-in-chief,
his reception was a little chilly. Deane's contracts were so
numerous, and for officers of such high rank, that it was impossible
for Congress to ratify them without injustice to Americans who
had become entitled by their service to promotion. La Fayette
appreciated the situation as soon as it was explained to him,
and immediately expressed his desire to serve in the American
army upon two conditions — that he should receive no pay, and
that he should act as a volunteer. These terms were so different
from those made by other foreigners, they had been attended
with such substantial sacrifices, and they promised such import-
ant indirect advantages, that Congress passed a resolution, on
the 3ist of July 1777, " that his services be accepted, and that,
in consideration of his zeal, illustrious family and connexions,
he have the rank and commission of major-general of the United
States." Next day La Fayette met Washington, whose lifelong
friend he became. Congress intended his appointment as purely
honorary, and the question of giving him a command was left
entirely to Washington's discretion. His first battle was Brandy-
wine (q.v.) on the nth of September 1777, where he showed
courage and activity and received a wound. Shortly afterwards
he secured what he most desired, the command of a division —
the immediate result of a communication from Washington to
Congress of November i, 1777, in which he said: —
" The marquis de La Fayette is extremely solicitous of having a
command equal to his rank. I do not know in what light Congress
will view the matter, but it appears to me, from a consideration of
his illustrious and important connexions, the attachment which he
has manifested for our cause, and the consequences which his return
in disgust might produce, that it will be advisable to gratify his
wishes, and the more so as several gentlemen from France who
came over under some assurances have gone back disappointed in
their expectations. His conduct with respect to them stands in a
favourable point of view — having interested himself to remove their
uneasiness and urged the impropriety of their making any unfavour-
able representations upon their arrival at home. Besides, he is
sensible, discreet in his manners, has made great proficiency in our
language, and from the disposition he discovered at the battle of
Brandywine possesses a large share of bravery and military ardour."
Of La Fayette's military career in the United States there
is not much to be said. Though the commander of a division,
he never had many troops in his charge, and whatever military
talents he possessed were not of the kind which appeared to
conspicuous advantage on the theatre to which his wealth and
family influence rather than his soldierly gifts had called him.
In the first months of 1778 he commanded troops detailed
for the projected expedition against Canada. His retreat from
Barren Hill (May 28, 1778) was commended as masterly; and
he fought at the battle of Monmouth (June 28,) and received
from Congress a formal recognition of his services in the Rhode
Island expedition (August 1778).
The treaties of commerce and defensive alliance, signed by the
insurgents and France on the 6th of February 1778, were promptly
followed by a declaration of war by England against the latter,
and La Fayette asked leave to revisit France and to consult his
king as to the further direction of his services. This leave was
readily granted; it was not difficult for Washington to replace
the major-general, but it was impossible to find another equally
competent, influential and devoted champion of the American
cause near the court of Louis XVI. In fact, he went on a mission
rather than a visit. He embarked on the nth of January 1779,
was received with enthusiasm, and was made a colonel in the
French cavalry. On the 4th of March following Franklin wrote
to the president of Congress: " The marquis de La Fayette. . .
is infinitely esteemed and beloved here, and I am persuaded will
66
LA FAYETTE, MARQUIS DE
do everything in his power to merit a continuance of the same
affection from America." He won the confidence of Vergennes.
La Fayette was absent from America about six months, and
his return was the occasion of a complimentary resolution of
Congress. From April until October 1781 he was charged with
the defence of Virginia, in which Washington gave him the
credit of doing all that was possible with the forces at his disposal;
and he showed his zeal by borrowing money on his own account
to provide his soldiers with necessaries. The battle of Yorktown,
in which La Fayette bore an honourable if not a distinguished
part, was the last of the war, and terminated his military career
in the United States. He immediately obtained leave to return
to France,where it was supposed he might be useful in negotiations
for a general peace. He was also occupied in the preparations
for a combined French and Spanish expedition against some of
the British West India Islands, of which he had been appointed
cfiief of staff, and a formidable fleet assembled at Cadiz, but
the armistice signed on the 2oth of January 1783 between the
belligerents put a stop to the expedition. He had been pro-
moted (1781) to the rank of marichal de camp (major-general)
in the French army, and he received every token of regard
from his sovereign and his countrymen. He visited the United
States again in 1784, and remained some five months as the
guest of the nation.
La Fayette did not appear again prominently in public life
until 1787, though he did good service to the French Protestants,
and became actively interested in plans to abolish slavery. In
1787 he took his seat in the Assembly of Notables. He
demanded, and he alone signed the demand, that the king
convoke the states-general, thus becoming a leader in the
French Revolution. He showed Liberal tendencies both in
that assembly and after its dispersal, and in 1788 was de-
prived, in consequence, of his active command. In 1789 La
Fayette was elected to the states-general, and took a prominent
part in its proceedings. He was chosen vice-president of the
National Assembly, and on the nth of July 1789 presented a
declaration of rights, modelled on Jefferson's Declaration of
Independence in 1776. On the isth of July, the second day of
the new regime, La Fayette was chosen by acclamation colonel-
general of the new National Guard of Paris. He also proposed
the combination of the colours of Paris, red and blue, and the
royal white, into the famous tricolour cockade of modern France
(July 17). For the succeeding three years, until the end of the
constitutional monarchy in 1792, his history is largely the history
of France. His life was beset with very great responsibility
and perils, for he was ever the minister of humanity and order
among a frenzied people who had come to regard order and
humanity as phases of treason. He rescued the queen from the
hands of the populace on the 5th and 6th of October 1789,
saved many humbler victims who had been condemned to death,
and he risked his life in many unsuccessful attempts to rescue
others. Before this, disgusted with enormities which he was
powerless to prevent, he had resigned his commission; but so
impossible was it to replace him that he was induced to resume
it. In the Constituent Assembly he pleaded for the abolition of
arbitrary imprisonment, for religious tolerance, for popular
representation, for the establishment of trial by jury, for the
gradual emancipation of slaves, for the freedom of the press,
for the abolition of titles of nobility, and the suppression of
privileged orders. In February 1790 he refused the supreme
command of the National Guard of the kingdom. In May he
founded the " Society of 1789 " which afterwards became the
Feuillants Club. He took a prominent part in the celebration
of July 14, 1790, the first anniversary of the destruction of the
Bastille. After suppressing an imeule in April 1791 he again
resigned his commission, and was again compelled to retain it.
He was the friend of liberty as well as of order, and when Louis
XVI. fled to Varennes he issued orders to stop him. Shortly
afterwards he was made lieutenant-general in the army. He
commanded the troops in the suppression of another Imeute,
on the occasion of the proclamation of the constitution
(September 18, 1791), after which, feeling that his task
was done, he retired into private life. This did not prevent
his friends from proposing him for the mayoralty of Paris in
opposition to Petion.
When, in December 1791, three armies were formed on the
western frontier to attack Austria, La Fayette was placed in
command of one of them. But events moved faster than La
Fayette's moderate and humane republicanism, and seeing that
the lives of the king and queen were each day more and more
in danger, he definitely opposed himself to the further advance
of the Jacobin party, intending eventually to use his army for
the restoration of a limited monarchy. On the igth of August
1792 the Assembly declared him a traitor. He was compelled
to take refuge in the neutral territory of Liege, whence as one
of the prime movers in the Revolution he was taken and held
as a prisoner of state for five years, first in Prussian and
afterwards in Austrian prisons, in spite of the intercession of
America and the pleadings of his wife. Napoleon, however,
though he had a low opinion of his capacities, stipulated in the
treaty of Campo Formio (1797) for La Fayette's release. He
was not allowed to return to France by the Directory. He
returned in 1799; in 1802 voted against the life consulate of
Napoleon; and in 1804 he voted against the imperial title.
He lived in retirement during the First Empire, but returned
to public affairs under the First Restoration and took some
part in the political events of the Hundred Days. From 1818
to 1824 he was deputy for the Sarthe, speaking and voting
always on the Liberal side, and even becoming a carbonaro.
He then revisited America (July i824-September 1825) where
he was overwhelmed with popular applause and voted the sum
of $200,000 and a township of land. From 1825 to his death he
sat in the Chamber of Deputies for Meaux. During the revolution
of 1830 he again took command of the National Guard and
pursued the same line of conduct, with equal want of success,
as in the first revolution. In 1834 he made his last speech —
on behalf of Polish political refugees. He died at Paris on the
2oth of May 1834. In 1876 in the city of New York a monument
was erected to him, and in 1883 another was erected at Puy.
Few men have owed more of their success and usefulness
to their family rank than La Fayette, and still fewer have abused
it less. He never achieved distinction in the field, and his
political career proved him to be incapable of ruling a great
national movement; but he had strong convictions which
always impelled him to study the interests of humanity, and a
pertinacity in maintaining them, which, in all the strange vicissi-
tudes of his eventful life, secured him a very unusual measure of
public respect. No citizen of a foreign country has ever had so
many and such warm admirers in America, nor does any states-
man in France appear to have ever possessed uninterruptedly
for so many years so large a measure of popular influence and
respect. He had what Jefferson called a " canine appetite "
for popularity and fame, but in him the appetite only seemed to
make him more anxious to merit the fame which he enjoyed.
He was brave to rashness; and he never shrank from danger
or responsibility if he saw the way open to spare life or suffering,
to protect the defenceless, to sustain the law and preserve order.
His son, GEORGES WASHINGTON MOTIER DE LA FAYETTE
(1779-1849), entered the army and was aide-de-camp to General
Grouchy through the Austrian, Prussian and Polish (1805-07)
campaigns. Napoleon's distrust of his father rendering promo-
tion improbable, Georges de La Fayette retired into private life
in 1807 until the Restoration, when he entered the Chamber of
Representatives and voted consistently on the Liberal side.
He was away from Paris during the revolution of July 1830,
but he took an active part in the " campaign of the banquets,"
which led up to that of 1848. He died in December of the next
year. His son, OSCAR THOMAS GILBERT MOTIER DE LA FAYETTE
(1815-1881), was educated at the Ecole Polytechnique, and
served as an artillery officer in Algeria. He entered the Chamber
of Representatives in 1846 and voted, like his father, with the
extreme Left. After the revolution of 1848 he received a post
in the provisional government, and as a member of the Con-
stituent Assembly he became secretary of the war committee.
After the dissolution of the Legislative Assembly in 1851, he
retired from public life, but emerged on the establishment of
LA FAYETTE, COMTESSE DE— LA FERTfi
67
the third republic, becoming a life senator in 1875. His brother
EDMOND MOTIER DE LA FAYETTE (1818-1890) shared his political
opinions. He was one of the secretaries of the Constituent
Assembly, and a member of the senate from 1876 to 1888.
See Memoires historiques et pieces authentiques sur M. de La
Fayette pour servir a I'histoire des revolutions (Paris, An II., 1793-
' 1794); B. Sarrans, La Fayette et la Revolution de 1830, histoire des
chases et des hommes de Juillet (Paris, 1834); Memoires, correspond-
ences et manuscrits de La Fayetle, published by his family (6 yols.,
Paris, 1837-1838) ; Regnault Warin, Memoires pour servir a la vie du
general La Fayette (Paris, 1824); A. Bardoux, La jeunesse de La
Fayette (Paris, 1892); Les Dernieres annees de La Fayette (Paris,
1893); E. Charavaray, Le General La Fayette (Paris, 1895); A.
Levasseur, La Fayette en Amerique 1824 (Paris, 1829); J. Cloquet,
Souvenirs de la vie privee du general La Fayette (Paris, 1836); Max
Biidinger, La Fayette in Oesterreich (Vienna, 1898); and M. M.
Crawford, The Wife of Lafayette (1908); Bayard Tuckerman, Life
of Lafayette (New York, 1889) ; Charlemagne Tower, The Marquis
de La Fayette in the American Revolution (Philadelphia, 1895).
LA FAYETTE, MARIE-MADELEINE PIOCHE DE LA
VERGNE, COMTESSE DE (1634-1692), French novelist, was
baptized in Paris, on the i8th of March 1634. Her father, Marc
Pioche de la Vergne, commandant of Havre, died when she was
sixteen, and her mother seems to have been more occupied with
her own than her daughter's interests. Mme de la Vergne
married in 1651 the chevalier de Sevigne, and Marie thus became
connected with Mme de Sevigne, who was destined to be a
lifelong friend. She studied Greek, Latin and Italian, and in-
spired in one of her tutors, Gilles de Menage, an enthusiastic
admiration which he expressed in verse in three or four languages.
Marie married in 1655 Francois Motier, comte de La Fayette.
They lived on the count's estates in Auvergne, according to her
own account (in a letter to Menage) quite happily; but after
the birth of her two sons her husband disappeared so effectually
that it was long supposed that he died about 1660, though
he really lived until 1683. Mme de La Fayette had returned
to Paris, and about 1665 contracted an intimacy with the due
de la Rochefoucauld, then engaged on his Maximes. The con-
stancy and affection that marked this liaison on both sides
justified it in the eyes of society, and when in 1680 La Rochefou-
cauld died Mme de La Fayette received the sincerest sympathy.
Her first novel, La Princesse de Montpensier, was published
anonymously in 1662; Zayde appeared in 1670 under the name
of J. R. de Segrais; and in 1678 her masterpiece, La Princesse
de Cleves, also under the name of Segrais. The history of the
modern novel of sentiment begins with the Princesse de Cleves.
The interminable pages of Mile de Scudery with the Precieuses
and their admirers masquerading as Persians or ancient Romans
had already been discredited by the burlesques of Paul Scarron
and Antoine Furetiere. It remained for Mme de La Fayette
to achieve the more difficult task of substituting something
more satisfactory than the disconnected episodes of the roman
comique. This she accomplished in a story offering in its short-
ness and simplicity a complete contrast to the extravagant
and lengthy romances of the time. The interest of the story
depends not on incident but on the characters of the personages.
They act in a perfectly reasonable wa.y and their motives are
analysed with the finest discrimination. No doubt the semi-
autobiographical character of the material partially explains
Mme de La Fayette's refusal to acknowledge the book. Con-
temporary critics, even Mme de Sevigne amongst them, found
fault with the avowal made by Mme de Cleves to her husband.
In answer to these criticisms, which her anonymity prevented
her from answering directly, Mme de La Fayette wrote her
last novel, the Comtesse de Tende.
The character of her work and her history have combined
to give an impression of melancholy and sweetness that only
represents one side of her character, for a correspondence
brought to light comparatively recently showed her as the acute
diplomatic agent of Jeanne de Nemours, duchess of Savoy, at
the court of Louis XIV. She had from her early days also been
intimate with Henrietta of England, duchess of Orleans, under
whose immediate direction she wrote her Histoire de Madame
Henrielle d' Angleterre, which only appeared in 1720. She wrote
memoirs of the reign of Louis XIV., which, with the exception
of two chapters, for the years 1688 and 1689 (published at
Amsterdam, 1731), were lost through her son's carelessness.
Madame de La Fayette died on the 25th of May 1692.
See Sainte-Beuve, Portraits de femmes; the comte d'Haussonville,
Madame de La Fayette (1891), in the series of Grands ecrivains
franc,ais; M. de Lescure's notice prefixed to an edition of the
Princesse de Cleves (1881); and a critical edition of the historical
memoirs by Eugene Asse (1890). See also L. Rea, Marie Madeleine,
comtesse de La Fayette (1908).
LAFAYETTE, a city and the county-seat of Tippecanoe
county, Indiana, U.S.A., situated at the former head of naviga-
tion on the Wabash river, about 64 m. N.W. of Indianapolis.
Pop. (1900) 18,116, of whom 2266 were foreign-born; (1910
census) 20,081. It is served by the Chicago, Indianapolis
& Louisville, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis,
the Lake Erie & Western, and the Wabash railways, and by
the Terre Haute, Indianapolis & Eastern (electric), and the Fort
Wayne & Wabash Valley (electric) railways. The river is not
now navigable at this point. Lafayette is in the valley of the
Wabash river, which is sunk below the normal level of the plain,
the surrounding heights being the walls of the Wabash basin.
The city has an excellent system of public schools, a good public
library, two hospitals, the Wabash Valley Sanitarium (Seventh
Day Adventist), St Anthony's Home for old people and two
orphan asylums. It is the seat of Purdue University, a co-educa-
tional, technical and agricultural institution, opened in 1874
and named in honour of John Purdue (1802-1876), who gave
it $150,000. This university is under state control, and received
the proceeds of the Federal agricultural college grant of 1862
and of the second Merrill Act of 1890; in connexion with it
there is an agricultural experiment station. It had in 1908-
1909 180 instructors, 1900 students, and a library of 25,000
volumes and pamphlets. Just outside the city is the State
Soldiers' Home, where provision is also made for the wives and
widows of soldiers; in 1908 it contained 553 men and 700
women. The city lies in the heart of a rich agricultural region,
and is an important market for grain, produce and horses.
Among its manufactures are beer, foundry and machine shop
products (the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville railway has
shops here), straw board, telephone apparatus, paper, wagons,
packed meats, canned goods, flour and carpets; the value of
the factory product increased from $3,514,276 in 1900 to
$4,631,415 in 1905, or 31-8%. The municipality owns its water
works.
Lafayette is about 5 m. N.E. of the site of the ancient Wea
(Miami) Indian village known as Ouiatanon, where the French
established a post about 1720. The French garrison gave way
to the English about 1760; the stockade fort was destroyed
during the conspiracy of Pontiac, and was never rebuilt. The
head-quarters of Tecumseh and his brother, the " Prophet,"
were established 7 m. N. of Lafayette near the mouth of the
Tippecanoe river, ana the settlement there was known as the
" Prophet's Town." Near this place, and near the site of the
present village of Battle Ground (where the Indiana Methodists
now have a summer encampment and a camp meeting in August),
was fought on the 7th of November 1811 the battle of Tippecanoe,
in which the Indians were decisively defeated by Governor
William Henry Harrison, the whites losing 188 in killed and
wounded and the Indians about an equal number. The battle
ground is owned by the state; in 1907 the state legislature and
the United States Congress each appropriated $12,500 for a
monument, which took the form of a granite shaft 90 ft. high.
The first American settlers on the site of Lafayette appeared
about 1820, and the town was laid out in 1825, but for many
years its growth was slow. The completion of the Wabash and
Erie canal marked a new era in its development, and in 1854
Lafayette was incorporated.
LA FERT& the name of a number of localities in France,
differentiated by agnomens. La Ferte Imbault (department of
Loir-et-Cher) was in the possession of Jacques d'Etampes
(1590-1668), marshal of France and ambassador in England,
68
LA FERTE-BERNARD— LAFONT
who was known as the marquis of La Ferte Imbault. La
Ferte Nabert (the modern La Ferte Saint Aubin, department
of Loiret) was acquired in the i6th century by the house of Saint
Nectaire (corrupted to Senneterre), and erected into a duchy
in the peerage of France (duche-pairie) in 1665 for Henri de Saint
Nectaire, marshal of France. It was called La Ferte Lowendal
after it had been acquired by Marshal Lowendal in 1748.
LA FERTE-BERNARD, a town of western France, in the
department of Sarthe, on the Huisne, 27 m. N.E. of Le Mans,
on the railway from Paris to that town. Pop. (1906) 4358.
La Ferte carries on cloth manufacture and flour-milling and
has trade in horses and cattle. Its church of Notre Dame has
a choir (i6th century) with graceful apse-chapels of Renaissance
architecture and remarkable windows of the same period; the
remainder of the church is in the Flamboyant Gothic style.
The town hall occupies the superstructure and flanking towers
of a fortified gateway of the i5th century.
La Ferte-Bernard owes its origin and name to a stronghold
(fermetf) built about the nth century and afterwards held by
the family of Bernard. In 1424 it did not succumb to the English
troops till after a four months' siege. It belonged in the i6th
century to the family of Guise and supported the League, but
was captured by the royal forces in 1590.
LA FERTE-MILON, a town of northern France in the depart-
ment of Aisne on the Ourcq, 47 m. W. by S. of Reims by rail.
Pop. (1906) 1563. The town has imposing remains comprising
one side flanked by four towers of an unfinished castle built
about the beginning of the isth century by Louis of Orleans,
brother of Charles VI. The churches of St Nicholas and Notre-
Dame, chiefly of the i6th century, both contain fine old stained
glass. Jean Racine, the poet, was born in the town, and a
statue by David d'Augers has been erected to him.
LAFFITTE, JACQUES (1767-1844), French banker and
politician, was born at Bayonne on the 24th of October 1767,
one of the ten children of a carpenter. He became clerk in
the banking house of Perregaux in Paris, was made a partner
in the business in 1800, and in 1804 succeeded Perregaux as
head of the firm. The house of Perregaux, Laffitte et Cie.
became one of the greatest in Europe, and Laffitte became
regent (1809), then governor (1814) of the Bank of France and
president of the Chamber of Commerce (1814). He raised large
sums of money for the provisional government in 1814 and for
Louis XVIII. during the Hundred Days, and it was with him
that Napoleon deposited five million francs in gold before
leaving France for the last time. Rather than permit the govern-
ment to appropriate the money from the Bank he supplied
two million from his own pocket for the arrears of the imperial
troops after Waterloo. He was returned by the department
of the Seine to the Chamber of Deputies in 1816, and took his seat
on the Left. He spoke chiefly on financial questions; his known
Liberal views did not prevent Louis XVIII. from insisting on
his inclusion on the commission on the public finances. In
1818 he saved Paris from a financial crisis by buying a large
amount of stock, but next year, in consequence of his heated
defence of the liberty of the press and the electoral law of 1867,
the governorship of the Bank was taken from him. One of the
earliest and most determined of the partisans of a constitutional
monarchy under the duke of Orleans, he was deputy for Bayonne
in July 1830, when his house in Paris became the headquarters
of the revolutionary party. When Charles X., after retracting
the hated ordinances, sent the comte d'Argout1 to Laffitte to
negotiate a change of ministry, the banker replied, " It is too late.
There is no longer a Charles X.," and it was he who secured
the nomination of Louis Philippe as lieutenant-general of the
kingdom. On the 3rd of August he became president of the
Chamber of Deputies, and on the gth he received in this capacity
Louis Philippe's oath to the new constitution. The clamour
of the Paris mob for the death of the imprisoned ministers of
Charles X., which in October culminated in riots, induced the
1 Apollinaire Antoine Maurice, comte d'Argout (1782-1858), after-
wards reconciled to the July monarchy, and a member of theLamtte,
Casimir-Perier and Thiers cabinets.
more moderate members of the government — including Guizot,
the due de Broglie and Casimir-Perier — to hand over the
administration to a ministry which, possessing the confidence
of the revolutionary Parisians, should be in a better position
to save the ministers from their fury. On the sth of November,
accordingly, Laffitte became minister-president of a government
pledged to progress (mouvement), holding at the same time the
portfolio of finance. The government was torn between the
necessity for preserving order and the no less pressing necessity
(for the moment) of conciliating the Parisian populace; with the
result that it succeeded in doing neither one nor the other.
The impeached ministers were, indeed, saved by the courage
of the Chamber of Peers and the attitude of the National Guard;
but their safety was bought at the price of Laffitte's- popularity.
His policy of a French intervention in favour of the Italian
revolutionists, by which he might have regained his popularity,
was thwarted by the diplomatic policy of Louis Philippe. The
resignation of Lafayette and Dupont de 1'Eure still further
undermined the government, which, incapable even of keeping
order in the streets of Paris, ended by being discredited with afl
parties. At length Louis Philippe, anxious to free himself
from the hampering control of the agents of his fortune, thought
it safe to parade his want of confidence in the man who had
made him king. Thereupon, in March 1831, Laffitte resigned,
begging pardon of God and man for the part he had played in
raising Louis Philippe to the throne. He left office politically
and financially a ruined man. His affairs were wound up in
1836, and next year he created a credit bank, which prospered
as long as he lived, but failed in 1848. He died in Paris on the
26th of May 1844.
See P. Thureau-Dangin, La Monarchic de Juillet (vol. i. 1884).
LAFFITTE, PIERRE (1823-1903), French Positivist, was
born on the 2ist of February 1823 at Beguey (Gironde). Residing
at Paris as a teacher of mathematics, he became a disciple of
Comte, who appointed him his literary executor. On the
schism of the Positivist body which followed Comte's death,
he was recognized as head of the section which accepted the full
Comtian doctrine; the other section adhering to Littre, who
rejected the religion of humanity as inconsistent with the
materialism of Comte's earlier period. From 1853 Laffitte
delivered Positivist lectures in the room formerly occupied by
Comte in the rue Monsieur le Prince. He published Les Grands
Types de I'humanite (1875) and Cours de philosophic premiere
(1889). In 1893 he was appointed to the new chair founded
at the College de France for the exposition of the general history
of science, and it was largely due to his inspiration that a statue
to Comte was erected in the Place de la Sorbonne in 1902. He
died on the 4th of January 1903.
LA FLECHE, a town of western France, capital of an arrond-
issement in the department of Sarthe on the Loire, 31 m. S.S.W.
of Le Mans by rail. Pop. (1906) town 7800; commune 10,663.
The chief interest of the town lies in the Prytanee, a famous
school for the sons of officers, originally a college founded for
the Jesuits in 1607 by Henry IV. The buildings, including a
fine chapel, were erected.from 1620 to 1653 and are surrounded
by a park. A bronze statue of Henry IV. stands in the market-
place. La Fleche is the seat of a sub-prefect and of a tribunal
of first instance, and carries on tanning, flour-milling, and the
manufacture of paper, starch, wooden shoes and gloves. It is an
agricultural market.
The lords of La Fleche became counts of Maine about noo,
but the lordship became separate from the county and passed
in the i6th century to the family of Bourbon and thus to
Henry IV.
LAFONT, PIERRE CHERI (1797-1873), French actor, was
born at Bordeaux on the isth of May 1797. Abandoning his
profession as assistant ship's doctor in the navy, he went to
Paris to study singing and acting. He had some experience at
a small theatre, and was preparing to appear at the Opera
Comique when the director of the Vaudeville offered him an
engagement. Here he made his debut in 1821 in La Somnambule,
and his good looks and excellent voice soon brought him into
LA FONTAINE
69
public favour. After several years at the Nouveautes and the
Vaudeville, on the burning of the latter in 1838 he went to
England, and married, at Gretna Green, Jenny Colon, from
whom he was soon divorced. On his return to Paris he joined
the Varietes, where he acted for fifteen years in such plays as
Le Chevalier de Saint Georges, Le Lion empailU, Une derniere
conquete, &c. Another engagement at the Vaudeville followed,
and one at the Gaiete, and he ended his brilliant career at the
Gymnase in the part of the noble father in such plays as Les
Vieux Carbons and Nos bans villageois. He died in Paris on the
igth of April 1873.
LA FONTAINE, JEAN DE (1621-1695), French poet, was
born at Chateau Thierry in Champagne, probably on the 8th of
July 1621. His father was Charles de La Fontaine, " maitre
des eaux et forets " — a kind of deputy-ranger — of the duchy of
Chateau Thierry; his mother was Francoise Pidoux. On
both sides his family was of the highest provincial middle
class, but was not noble; his father was also fairly wealthy.
Jean, the eldest child, was educated at the college (grammar-
school) of Reims, and at the end of his school days he entered
the Oratory in May 1641, and the seminary of Saint-Magloire
in October' of the same year; but a very short sojourn proved
to him that he had mistaken his vocation. He then apparently
studied law, and is said to have been admitted as awcat, though
there does not seem to be actual proof of this. He was, however,
settled in life, or at least might have been so, somewhat early.
In 1647 his father resigned his rangership in his favour, and
arranged a marriage for him with Marie Hericart, a girl of sixteen,
who brought him twenty thousand livres, and expectations.
She seems to have been both handsome and intelligent, but the
two did not get on well together. There appears to be absolutely
no ground for the vague scandal as to her conduct, which was,
for the most part long afterwards, raised by gossips or personal
enemies of La Fontaine. All that is positively said against
her is that she was a negligent housewife and an inveterate
novel reader; La Fontaine himself was constantly away from
home, was certainly not strict in point of conjugal fidelity, and
was so bad a man of business that his affairs became involved
in hopeless difficulty, and a separation de biens had to take
place in 1658. This was a perfectly amicable transaction for
the benefit of the family; by degrees, however, the pair, still
without any actual quarrel, ceased to live together, and for the
greater part of the last forty years of La Fontaine's life he lived
in Paris while his wife dwelt at Chateau Thierry, which, however,
he frequently visited. One son was born to them in 1653, and
was educated and taken care of wholly by his mother.
Even in the earlier years of his marriage La Fontaine seems
to have been much at Paris, but it was not till about 1656 that
he became a regular visitor to the capital. The duties of his
office, which were only occasional, were compatible with this
non-residence. It was not till he was past thirty that his literary
career began. The reading of Malherbe, it is said, first awoke
poetical fancies in him, but for some time he attempted nothing
but trifles in the fashion of the time — epigrams, ballades, rondeaux,
&c. His first serious work was a translation or adaptation of
the Eunuchus of Terence (1654). At this time the Maecenas
of French letters was the Superintendant Fouquet, to whom
La Fontaine was introduced by Jacques Jannart, a connexion
of his wife's. Few people who paid their court to Fouquet went
away empty-handed, and La Fontaine soon received a pension
of 1000 livres (1659), on the easy terms of a copy of verses for
each quarter's receipt. He began too a medley of prose and
poetry, entitled Le Songe de Vaux, on Fouquet's famous country
house. It was about this time that his wife's property had to
be separately secured to her, and he seems by degrees to have
had to sell everything of his own; but, as he never lacked
powerful and generous patrons, this was of small importance
to him. In the same year he wrote a ballad, Les Rieurs du
Beau-Richard, and this was followed by many small pieces of
occasional poetry addressed to various personages from the king
downwards. Fouquet soon incurred the royal displeasure, but
La Fontaine, like most of his literary proteges, was not unfaithful
to him, the well-known elegy Pleurez, nymphes de Vaux, being
by no means the only proof of his devotion. Indeed it is thought
not improbable that a journey to Limoges in 1663 in company
with Jannart, and of which we have an account written to his
wife, was not wholly spontaneous, as it certainly was not on
Jannart's part. Just at this time his affairs did not look promis-
ing. His father and himself had assumed the title of esquire,
to which they were not strictly entitled, and, some old edicts
on the subject having been put in force, an informer procured a
sentence against the poet fining him 2000 livres. He found,
however, a new protector in the duke and still more in the
duchess of Bouillon, his feudal superiors at Chateau Thierry,
and nothing more is heard of the fine. Some of La Fontaine's
liveliest verses are addressed to the duchess, Anne Mancini,
the youngest of Mazarin's nieces, and it is even probable that
the taste of the duke and duchess for Ariosto had something
to do with the writing of his first work of real importance, the
first book of the Contes, which appeared in 1664. He was then
forty-three years old, and his previous printed productions
had been comparatively trivial, though much of his work was
handed about in manuscript long before it was regularly published.
It was about this time that the quartette of the Rue du Vieux
Colombier, so famous in French literary history, was formed.
It consisted of La Fontaine, Racine, Boileau and Moliere, the
last of whom was almost of the same age as La Fontaine, the
other two considerably younger. Chapelle was also a kind of
outsider in the coterie. There are many anecdotes, some pretty
obviously apocryphal, about these meetings. The most character-
istic is perhaps that which asserts that a copy of Chapelain's
unlucky Pucelle always lay on the table, a certain number of
lines of which was the appointed punishment for offences against
the company. The coterie furnished under feigned names
the personages of La Fontaine's version of the Cupid and Psyche
story, which, however, with Adonis, was not printed till 1669.
Meanwhile the poet continued to find friends. In 1664 he was
regularly commissioned and sworn in as gentleman to the
duchess dowager of Orleans, and was installed in the Luxembourg.
He still retained his rangership, and in 1666 we have something
like a reprimand from Colbert suggesting that he should look
into some malpractices at Chateau Thierry. In the same year
appeared the second book of the Contes, and in 1668 the first
six books of the Fables, with more of both kinds in 1671. In
this latter year a curious instance of the docility with which the
poet lent himself to any influence was afforded by his officiating,
at the instance of the Port-Royalists, as editor of a volume of
sacred poetry dedicated to the prince de Conti. A year after-
wards his situation, which had for some time been decidedly
flourishing, showed signs of changing very much for the worse.
The duchess of Orleans died, and he apparently had to give up
his rangership, probably selling it to pay debts. But there was
always a providence for La Fontaine. Madame de la Sabliere,
a woman of great beauty, of considerable intellectual power
and of high character, invited him to make his home in her house,
where he lived for some twenty years. He seems to have had
no trouble whatever about his affairs thenceforward; and could
devote himself to his two different lines of poetry, as well as to
that of theatrical composition.
In 1682 he was, at more than sixty years of age, recognized
as one of the first men of letters of France. Madame de Sevigne,
one of the soundest literary critics of the time, and by no means
given to praise mere novelties, had spoken of his second collection
of Fables published in the winter of 1678 as divine; and it is
pretty certain that this was the general opinion. It was not
unreasonable, therefore, that he should present himself to the
Academy, and, though the subjects of his Contes were scarcely
calculated to propitiate that decorous assembly, while his
attachment to Fouquet and to more than one representative
of the old Frondeur party made him suspect to Colbert and the
king, most of the members were his personal friends. He was
first proposed in 1682, but was rejected for Dangeau. The next
year Colbert died and La Fontaine was again nominated. Boileau
was also a candidate, but the first ballot gave the fabulist
7o
LA FONTAINE
sixteen votes against seven only for the critic. The king, whose
assent was necessary, not merely for election but for a second
ballot in case of the failure of an absolute majority, was ill-pleased,
and the election was left pending. Another vacancy occurred,
however, some months later, and to this Boileau was elected.
The king hastened to approve the choice effusively, adding,
" Vous pouvez incessamment recevoir La Fontaine, U a promis
d'etre sage." His admission was indirectly the cause of the
only serious literary quarrel of his life. A dispute took place
between the Academy and one of its members, Antoine Furetiere,
on the subject of the latter's French dictionary, which was
decided to be a breach of the Academy's corporate privileges.
Furetiere, a man of no small ability, bitterly assailed those whom
he considered to be his enemies, and among them La Fontaine,
whose unlucky Contes made him peculiarly vulnerable, his
second collection of these tales having been the subject of a
police condemnation. The death of the author of the Roman
Bourgeois, however, put an end to this quarrel. Shortly after-
wards La Fontaine had a share in a still more famous affair,
the celebrated Ancient-and-Modern squabble in which Boileau
and Perrault were the chiefs, and in which La Fontaine (though
he had been specially singled out by Perrault for favourable
comparison with Aesop and Phaedrus) took the Ancient side.
About the same time (1685-1687) he made the acquaintance
of the last of his many hosts and protectors, Monsieur and
Madame d'Hervart, and fell in love with a certain Madame
Ulrich, a lady of some position but of doubtful character. This
acquaintance was accompanied by a great familiarity with
Vend6me, Chaulieu and the rest of the libertine coterie of the
Temple; but, though Madame de la Sabliere had long given
herself up almost entirely to good works and religious exercises,
La Fontaine continued an inmate of her house until her death
in 1693. What followed is told in one of the best known of
the many stories bearing on his childlike nature. Hervart on
hearing of the death, had set out at once to find La Fontaine.
He met him in the street in great sorrow, and begged him to make
his home at his house. " J'y allais " was La Fontaine's answer.
He had already undergone the process of conversion during
a severe illness the year before. An energetic young priest,
M. Poucet, had brought him, not indeed to understand, but to
acknowledge the impropriety of the Contes, and it is said that
the destruction of a new play of some merit was demanded and
submitted to as a proof of repentance. A pleasant story is told
of the young duke of Burgundy, Fenelon's pupil, who was then
only eleven years old, sending 50 louis to La Fontaine as a
present of his own motion. But, though La Fontaine recovered
for the time, he was broken by age and infirmity, and his new
hosts had to nurse rather than to entertain him, which they
did very carefully and kindly. He did a little more work, com-
pleting his Fables among other things; but he did not survive
Madame de la Sabliere much more than two years, dying on the
i3th of April 1695, at the age of seventy-three. He was buried
in the cemetery of the Holy Innocents. His wife survived him
nearly fifteen years.
The curious personal character of La Fontaine, like that of
some other men of letters, has been enshrined in a kind of legend
by literary tradition. At an early age his absence of mind and
indifference to business gave a subject to Tallemant des Reaux.
His later contemporaries helped to swell the tale, and the i8th
century finally accepted it, including the anecdotes of his meeting
his son, being told who he was, and remarking, "Ah, yes, I
thought I had seen him somewhere! " of his insisting on fighting
a duel with a supposed admirer of his wife, and then imploring
him to visit at his house just as before; of his going into company
with his stockings wrong side out, &c., with, for a contrast,
those of his awkwardness and silence, if not positive rudeness,
in company. It ought to be remembered, as a comment on the
unfavourable description by La Bruyere, that La Fontaine was a
special friend and ally of Benserade, La Bruyere's chief literary
enemy. But after all deductions much will remain, especially
when it is remembered that one of the chief authorities for these
anecdotes is Louis Racine, a man who possessed intelligence
and moral worth, and who received them from his father, La
Fontaine's attached friend for more than thirty years. Perhaps
the best worth recording of all these stories is one of the Vieux
Colombier quartette, which tells how Moliere, while Racine
and Boileau were exercising their wits upon " le bonhomme "
or " le bon " (by both which titles La Fontaine was familiarly
known), remarked to a bystander," Nos beaux esprits ont beau
faire, ils n'effaceront pas le bonhomme." They have not.
The works of La Fontaine, the total bulk of which is considerable,
fall no less naturally than traditionally into three divisions, the
Fables, the Contes and the miscellaneous works. Of these the first
may be said to be known universally, the second to be known to
all lovers of French literature, the third to be with a few exceptions
practically forgotten. This distribution of the judgment of posterity
is as usual just in the main, but not wholly. There are excellent
things in the QLuvres Diverses, but their excellence is only occasional,
and it is not at the best equal to that of the Fables or the Contes.
It was thought by contemporary judges who were both competent
and friendly that La Fontaine attempted too many styles, and there
is something in the criticism. His dramatic efforts are especially
weak. The best pieces usually published under his name — Ragotin,
Le Florentin, La Coupe enchantee, were originally fathered not by
him but by Champmesle, the husband of the famous actress who
captivated Racine and Charles de Sevigne. His avowed work was
chiefly in the form of opera, a form of no great value. at its best.
Psyche has all the advantages of its charming story and of La
Fontaine's style, but it is perhaps principally interesting nowadays
because of the framework of personal conversation already alluded to.
The mingled prose and verse of the Songe de Vaux is not uninterest-
ing, but its best things, such as the description of night —
" Laissant tomber les flours et ne les semant pas,"
which has enchanted French critics, are little more than conceits,
though as in this case sometimes very beautiful conceits. The
elegies, the epistles, the epigrams, the ballades, contain many things
which would be very creditable to a minor poet or a writer of vers de
societe, but even if they be taken according to the wise rule of modern
criticism, each in its kind, and judged simply according to their rank
in that kind, they fall far below the merits of the two great collections
of verse narratives which have assured La Fontaine's immortality.
Between the actual literary merits of the two there is not much
to choose, but the change of manners and the altered standard of
literary decency have thrown the Contes into the shade. These tales
are identical in general character with those which amused Europe
from the days of the early fabliau writers. Light love, the mis-
fortunes of husbands, the cunning of wives, the breach of their vows
by ecclesiastics, constitute the staple of their subject. In some
respects La Fontaine is the best of such tale-tellers, while he is
certainly the latest who deserves such excuse as may be claimed by
a writer who does not choose indecent subjects from a deliberate
knowledge that they are considered indecent, and with a deliberate
desire to pander to a vicious taste. No one who followed him in the
style can claim this excuse; he can, and the way in which contempor-
aries of stainless virtue such as Madame de Sevign£ speak of his work
shows that, though the new public opinion was growing up, it was not
finally accepted. In the Contes La Fontaine for the most part
attempts little originality of theme. He takes his stories (varying
them, it is true, in detail not a little) from Boccaccio, from Marguerite,
from the Cent Nouvelles Nouvettes, &c. He applies to them his
marvellous power of easy sparkling narration, and his hardly less
marvellous faculty of saying more or less outrageous things in the
most polite and gentlemanly manner. These Contes have indeed
certain drawbacks. They are not penetrated by the half pagan
ardour for physical beauty and the delights of sense which animates
and excuses the early Italian Renaissance. They have not the subtle
mixture of passion and sensuality, of poetry and appetite, which
distinguishes the work of Marguerite and of the Pleiade. They are
emphatically conies pour rire, a genuine expression of the esprit
gaulois of the fabliau writers and of Rabelais, destitute of the gross-
ness of envelope which had formerly covered that spirit. A com-
parison of " La Fiancee du roi de Garbe " with its original in
Boccaccio (especially if the reader takes M. Emile Montegut's ad-
mirable essay as a commentary) will illustrate better than anything
else what they have and what they have not. Some writers have
pleaded hard for the admission of actual passion of the poetical sort
in such pieces as " La Courtisane amoureuse," but as a whole it
must be admitted to be absent.
The Fables, with hardly less animation and narrative art than the
Contes, are free from disadvantages (according to modern notions) of
subject, and exhibit the versatility and fecundity of the author's
talent perhaps even more fully. La Fontaine had many predecessors
in the fable and especially in the beast fable. In his first issue,
comprising what are now called the first six books, he adhered to the
path of these predecessors with some closeness; but in the later
collections he allowed himself far more liberty, and it is in these parts
that his genius is most fully manifested. The boldness of the politics
is as much to be considered as the ingenuity of the moralizing, as the
intimate knowledge of human nature displayed in the substance of
LAFONTAINE, SIR L. H.— LAFOSSE
the narratives, or as the artistic mastery shown in their form. It has
sometimes been objected that the view of human character which La
Fontaine expresses is unduly dark, and resembles too much that of
La Rochefoucauld, for whom the poet certainly had a profound
admiration. The discussion of this point would lead us too far here.
It may only be said that satire (and La Fontaine is eminently a
satirist) necessarily concerns itself with the darker rather than with
the lighter shades. Indeed the objection has become pretty nearly
obsolete with the obsolescence of what may be called the sentimental-
ethical school of criticism. Its last overt expression was made by
Lamartine, excellently answered by Sainte-Beuve. Exception has
also been taken to the Fables on more purely literary, but hardly less
purely arbitrary grounds by Lessing. Perhaps the best criticism
ever passed upon La Fontaine's Fables is that of Silvestre de Sacy,
to the effect that they supply three several delights to three several
ages: the child rejoices in the freshness and vividness of the story,
the eager student of literature in the consummate art wifh which it is
told, the experienced man of the world in the subtle reflections on
character and life which it conveys. Nor" has any one, with the ex-
ception of a few paradoxers like Rousseau and a few sentimentalists
like Lamartine, denied that the moral tone of the whole is as fresh
and healthy as its literary interest is vivid. The book has therefore
naturally become the standard reading book of French both at
home and abroad, a position which it shares in verse with the
Telemaque of Fdnelon in prose. It is no small testimony to its merit
that not even this use or misuse has interfered with its popularity.
The general literary character of La Fontaine is, with allowance
made for the difference of subject, visible equally in the Fables and in
the Contes. Perhaps one of the hardest sayings in French literature
for an English student is the dictum of Joubert to the effect that
" II y a dans La Fontaine une plenitude de poesie qu'on ne trouve nulls
part dans les autres auteurs franc,ais." The difficulty arises from the
ambiguity of the terms. For inventiveness of fancy and for diligent
observation of the rules of art La Fontaine deserves, if not the first,
almost the first place among French poets. In his hands the oldest
story becomes novel, the most hackneyed moral piquant, the most
commonplace details fresh and appropriate. As to the second point
there has not been such unanimous agreement. It used to be con-
sidered that La Fontaine's ceaseless diversity of metre, his archaisms,
his licences in rhyme and orthography, were merely ingenious devices
for the sake of easy writing, intended to evade the trammels of the
stately couplet and rimes difficiles enjoined by Boileau. Lamartine
in the attack already mentioned affects contempt of the " vers
boiteux, disloqu6s, inegaux, sans symmetric ni dans 1'oreille ni sur la
page." This opinion may be said to have been finally exploded by
the most accurate metrical critic and one of the most skilful metrical
practitioners that France has ever had, Thdodore de Banville; and
it is only surprising that it should ever have been entertained by any
professional maker of verse. La Fontaine's irregularities are strictly
regulated, his cadences carefully arranged, and the whole effect may
be said to be (though, of course, in a light and tripping measure instead
of a stately one) similar to that of the stanzas of the English pindaric
ode in the hands of Dryden or Collins. There is therefore nothing
against La Fontaine on the score of invention and nothing on the
score of art. But something more, at least according to English
standards, is wanted to make up a " plenitude of poesy," and this
something more La Fontaine seldom or never exhibits. In words
used by Joubert himself elsewhere, he never " transports." The
faculty of transporting is possessed and used in very different manners
by different poets. In some it takes the form of passion, in some of
half mystical enthusiasm for nature, in some of commanding elo-
quence, in some of moral fervour. La Fontaine has none of these
things: he is always amusing, always sensible, always clever, some-
times even affecting, but at the same time always more or less prosaic,
were it not for his admirable versification. He is not a great poet,
perhaps not even a great humorist; but he is the most admirable
teller of light tales in verse that has ever existed in any time or
country; and he has established in his verse-tale a model which is
never likely to be surpassed.
La Fontaine did not during his life issue any complete edition of
his works, nor even of the two greatest and most important divisions
of them. The most remarkable of his separate publications have
already been noticed. Others were the Poeme de la captivile de St
Male (1673), one of the pieces inspired by the Port- Royalists, the
Poeme du Quinquina (1692), a piece of task work also, though of a
very different kind, and a number of pieces published either in small
pamphlets or with the works of other men. Among the latter may
be singled out the pieces published by the poet with the works of
his friend Maucroix (1685). The year after his death some post-
humous works appeared, and some years after his son's death the
scattered poems, letters, &c., with the addition of some unpublished
work bought from the family in manuscript, were carefully edited
and published as (Enures diverse* (1729). During the l8th century
two of the most magnificent illustrated editions ever published of
any poet reproduced the two chief works of La Fontaine. The
Fables were illustrated by Oudry (1755-1759), the Contes by Eisen
(1762). This latter under the title of " Edition des Fermiers-
G6n6raux " fetches a high price. During the first thirty years of
the igth century Walckenaer, a great student of French 17th-century
classics, published for the house of Didot three successive editions of
La Fontaine, the last (1826-1827) being perhaps entitled to the rank
of the standard edition, as his Histoire de la vie et des ouvrages de La
Fontaine is the standard biography and bibliography. The later
editions of M. Marty-Laveaux in the Bibliolheque elzevirienne, A.
Pauly in the Collection des classiques franc,aises of M. Lemerre and
L. Mpland in that of M. Gamier supply in different forms all that can
be wished. The second is the handsomest, the third, which is com-
plete, perhaps the most generally useful. Editions, selections, trans-
lations, &c., of the Fables, especially for school use, are innumerable;
but an illustrated edition published by the Librairie des Bibliophiles
(1874) deserves to be mentioned as not unworthy of its 18th-century
predecessors. The works of M. Grouchy, Documents inedits sur
La Fontaine (1893); of G. Lafenestre, Jean de La Fontaine (1895);
and of Emile Faguet, Jean de La Fontaine (1900), should be
mentioned. (G. SA.)
LAFONTAINE, SIR LOUIS HIPPOLYTE, BART. (1807-1864),
Canadian statesman and judge, third son of Antoine Mdnard
LaFontaine (1772-1813) and Marie-J-Fontaine Bienvenue, was
born at Boucherville in the province of Quebec on the 4th of
October 1807. LaFontaine was educated at the College de
Montreal under the direction of the Sulpicians, and was Called
to the bar of the province of Lower Canada on the i8th of August
1829. He married firstly Adele, daughter of A. Berthelot of
Quebec; and, secondly, Jane, daughter of Charles Morrison,
of Berthier, by whom he had two sons. In 1830 he was elected
a member of the House of Assembly for the county of Terrebonne,
and became an ardent supporter of Louis Joseph Papineau in
opposing the administration of the governor-in-chief, which led
to the rebellion of 1837. LaFontaine, however, did not approve
the violent methods of his leader, and after the hostilities at
Saint Denis he presented a petition to Lord Gosford requesting
him to summon the assembly and to adopt measures to stem
the revolutionary course of events in Lower Canada. The
rebellion broke out afresh in the autumn of 1838; the constitution
of 1791 was suspended; LaFontaine was imprisoned for a
brief period; and Papineau, who favoured annexation by the
United States, was in exile. At this crisis in Lower Canada the
French Canadians turned to LaFontaine as their leader, and
under his direction maintained their opposition to the special
council, composed of nominees of the crown. In 1839 Lord
Sydenham, the governor-general, offered the solicitor generalship
to LaFontaine, which he refused; and after the Union of 1841
LaFontaine was defeated in the county of Terrebonne through
the governor's influence. During the next year he obtained a
seat in the assembly of the province of Canada, and on the death
of Sydenham he was called by Sir Charles Bagot to form an
administration with Robert Baldwin. The ministry resigned
in November 1843, as a protest against the actions of Lord
Metcalfe, who had succeeded Bagot. In 1848 LaFontaine
formed a new administration with Baldwin, and remained in
office until 1851, when he retired from public life. It was during
the ministry of LaFontaine-Baldwin that the Amnesty Bill
was passed, which occasioned grave riots in Montreal, personal
violence to Lord Elgin and the destruction of the parliament
buildings. After the death of Sir James Stuart in 1853 La-
Fontaine was appointed chief justice of Lower Canada and
president of the seigneurial court, which settled the vexed
question of land tenure in Canada; and in 1854 he was created
a baronet. He died at Montreal on the 26th of February 1864.
LaFontaine was well versed in constitutional' history and French
law ; he reasoned closely and presented his conclusions with directness.
He was upright in his conduct, sincerely attached to the traditions of
his race, and laboured conscientiously to establish responsible govern-
ment in Canada. His principal works are : L' Analyse de I'ordonnance
du conseil special sur les bureaux d' hypothkques (Montreal, 1842);
Observations sur les questions seigneuriales (Montreal, 1854); see La-
Fontaine, by A. DeCelles (Toronto, 1906). (A. G. D.)
LAFOSSE, CHARLES DE (1640-1716), French painter, was
born in Paris. He was one of the most noted and least servile
pupils of Le Brun, under whose direction he shared in the chief
of the great decorative works undertaken in the reign of Louis
XIV. Leaving France in 1662, he spent two years in Rome and
three in Venice, and the influence of his prolonged studies of
Veronese is evident in his " Finding of Moses " (Louvre), and
in his " Rape of Proserpine " (Louvre), which he presented
to the Royal Academy as his diploma picture in 1673. H° was
LAGARDE— LAGHMAN
at once named assistant professor, and in 1674 the full responsi-
bilities of the office devolved on him, but his engagements did not
prevent his accepting in 1689 the invitation of Lord Montagu
to decorate Montagu House. He visited London twice, remaining
on the second occasion — together with Rousseau and Monnoyer —
more than two years. William III. vainly strove to detain
him in England by the proposal that he should decorate Hampton
Court, for Le Brun was dead, and Mansart pressed Lafosse to
return to Paris to take in hand the cupola of the Invalides.
The decorations of Montagu House are destroyed, those of
Versailles are restored, and the dome of the Invalides (engraved,
Picart and Cochin) is now the only work existing which gives
a full measure of his talent. During his latter years Lafosse
executed many other important decorations in public buildings
and private houses, notably in that of Crozat, under whose roof
he died on the i3th of December 1716.
LAGARDE, PAUL ANTON DE (1827-1891), German biblical
scholar and orientalist, was born at Berlin on the 2nd of
November 1827. His real name was Botticher, Lagarde being
his mother's name. At Berlin (1844-1846) and Halle (1846-
1847) he studied theology, philosophy and oriental languages.
In 1852 his studies took him to London and Paris. In 1854 he
became a teacher at a Berlin public school, but this did not
interrupt his biblical studies. He edited the Didascalia aposto-
lorum syriace (1854), and other Syriac texts collected in the
British Museum and in Paris. In 1866 he received three years'
leave of absence to collect fresh materials, and in 1869 succeeded
Heinrich Ewald as professor of oriental languages at Gottingen.
Like Ewald, Lagarde was an active worker in a variety of
subjects and languages; but his chief aim, the elucidation of
the Bible, was almost always kept in view. He edited the
Aramaic translation (known as the Targum) of the Prophets
according to the Codex Reuchlinianus preserved at Carlsruhe,
Prophetae chaldaice (1872), the Hagiographa chaldaice (1874),
ah Arabic translation of the Gospels, Die vier Evangelien, arabisch
aus der Wiener Handschrift herausgegeben (1864), a Syriac
translation of the Old Testament Apocrypha, Libri V. T.
apocryphi syriace (1861), a Coptic translation of the Pentateuch,
Der Pentateuch koptisch (1867), and a part of the Lucianic text
of the Septuagint, which he was able to reconstruct from manu-
scripts for nearly half the Old Testament. He devoted himself
ardently to oriental scholarship, and published Zur Urgeschichte
der Armenier (1854) and Armenische Studien (1877). He was
also a student of Persian, publishing Isaias persice (1883) and
Persische Studien (1884). He followed up his Coptic studies
with Aegyptiaca (1883), and published many minor contributions
to the study of oriental languages in Gesammelte Abhandlungen
(1866), Symmicta (i. 1877, ii. 1880), Semitica (i. 1878, ii. 1879),
Orientalia (1879-1880) and Mittheilungen (1884). Mention
should also be made of the valuable Onomastica sacra (1870;
2nd ed., 1887). Lagarde also took some part in politics. He
belonged to the Prussian Conservative party, and was a violent
anti-Semite. The bitterness which he felt appeared in his
writings. He died at Gottingen on the 22nd of December 1891.
See the article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopiidie; and cf. Anna
de Lagarde, Paul de Lagarde (1894).
LAGASH, or SIRPURLA, one of the oldest centres of Sumerian
civilization in Babylonia. It is represented by a rather low,
lojig line of ruin mounds, along the dry bed of an ancient canal,
some 3 m. E. of the Shatt-el-Hal and a little less than 10 m. N.
of the modern Turkish town of Shatra. These ruins were dis-
covered in 1877 by Ernest de Sarzec, at that time French consul
at Basra, who was allowed, by the Montefich chief, Nasir Pasha,
the first Wali-Pasha, or governor-general, of Basra, to excavate
at his pleasure in the territories subject to that official. At
the outset on his own account, and later as a representative of
the French government, under a Turkish firman, de Sarzec
continued excavations at this site, with various intermissions,
until his death in 1901, after which the work was continued under
the supervision of the Commandant Cros. The principal excava-
tions were made in two larger mounds, one of which proved to
be the site of the temple, E-Ninnu, the shrine of the patron god
of Lagash, Nin-girsu or Ninib. This temple had been razed and
a fortress built upon its ruins, in the Greek or Seleucid period,
some of the bricks found bearing the inscription in Aramaic
and Greek of a certain Hadad-nadin-akhe, king of a small
Babylonian kingdom. It was beneath this fortress that the
numerous statues of Gudea were found, which constitute the
gem of the Babylonian collections at the Louvre. These had
been decapitated and otherwise mutilated, and thrown into the
foundations of the new fortress. From this stratum came also
various fragments of bas reliefs of high artistic excellence. The
excavations in the other larger mound resulted in the discovery
of the remains of buildings containing objects of all sorts in
bronze and stone, dating from the earliest Sumerian period
onward, and enabling us to trace the art history of Babylonia
to a date some hundreds of years before the time of Gudea.
Apparently this mound had been occupied largely by store
houses, in which were stored not only grain, figs, &c., but also
vessels, weapons, sculptures and every possible object connected
with the use and administration of palace and temple. In a
small outlying mound de Sarzec discovered the archives of
the temple, about 30,000 inscribed clay tablets, containing
the business records, and revealing with extraordinary minute-
ness the administration of an ancient Babylonian temple, the
character of its property, the method of farming its lands, herding
its flocks, and its commercial and industrial dealings and enter-
prises; for an ancient Babylonian temple was a great industrial,
commercial, agricultural and stock-raising establishment. Un-
fortunately, before these archives could be removed, the galleries
containing them were rifled by the Arabs, and large numbers
of the tablets were sold to antiquity dealers, by whom they have
been scattered all over Europe and America. From the inscrip-
tions found at Tello, it appears that Lagash was a city of great
importance in the Sumerian period, some time probably in the
4th millennium B.C. It was at that time ruled by independent
kings, Ur-Nina and his successors, who were engaged in contests
with the Elamites on the east and the kings of Kengi and Kish
on the north. With the Semitic conquest it lost its independence,
its rulers becoming patesis, dependent rulers, under Sargon and
his successors; but it still remained Sumerian and continued to
be a city of much importance, and, above all, a centre of artistic
development. Indeed, it was in this period and under the
immediately succeeding supremacy of the kings of Ur, Ur-Gur
and Dungi, that it reached its highest artistic development. At
this period, also, under its patesis, Ur-bau and Gudea, Lagash had
extensive commercial communications with distant realms.
According to his own records, Gudea brought cedars from the
Amanus and Lebanon mountains in Syria, diorite or dolorite
from eastern Arabia, copper and gold from central and southern
Arabia and from Sinai, while his armies, presumably under his
over-lord, Ur-Gur, were engaged in battles in Elam on the east.
His was especially the era of artistic development. Some of
the earlier works of Ur-Nina, En-anna-tum, Entemena and
others, before the Semitic conquest, are also extremely interesting,
especially the famous stele of the vultures and a great silver vase
ornamented with what may be called the coat of arms of Lagash,
a lion-headed eagle with wings outspread, grasping a lion in each
talon. After the time of Gudea, Lagash seems to have lost its
importance; at least we know nothing more about it until the
construction of the Seleucid fortress mentioned, when it seems
to have become part of the Greek kingdom of Characene. The
objects found at Tello are the most valuable art treasures up to
this time discovered in Babylonia.
See E. de Sarzec, Decouverles en Chaldfe (1887 foil.).
Q. P. PE.)
LAGHMAN, a district of Afghanistan, in the province of
Jalalabad, between Jalalabad and Kabul, on the northern side
of the Peshawar road, one of the richest and most fertile tracts
in Afghanistan. It is the valley of the Kabul river between the
Tagao and the Kunar and merges on the north into Kafiristan.
The inhabitants, Ghilzais and Tajiks, are supposed to be the
cleverest business people in the country. Sugar, cotton and
rice are exported to Kabul. The Laghman route between Kabul
LAGOON— LAGOS
73
and India crossing the Kunar river into the Mohmand country
is the route followed by Alexander the Great and Baber; but
it has now been supplanted by the Khyber.
LAGOON (Fr. lagune, Lat. lacuna, a pool), a term applied to
(i) a sheet of salt or brackish water near the sea, (2) a sheet of
fresh water of no great depth or extent, (3) the expanse of smooth
water enclosed by an atoll. Sea lagoons are formed only where
the shores are low and protected from wave action. Under these
conditions a bar may be raised above sea-level or a spit may
grow until its end touches the land. The enclosed shallow water
is then isolated in a wide stretch, the seaward banks broaden,
and the lagoon becomes a permanent area of still shallow water
with peculiar faunal features. In the old lake plains of Australia
there are occasional wide and shallow depressions where water
collects permanently. Large numbers of aquatic birds, black
swans, wild duck, teal, migrant spoon-bills or pelicans, resort
to these fresh-water lagoons.
LAGOS, the western province of Southern Nigeria, a British
colony and protectorate in West Africa. The province consists
of three divisions: (i) the coast region, including Lagos Island,
being the former colony of Lagos; (2) small native states
adjacent to the colony; and (3) the Yoruba country, farther
inland. The total area is some 27,000 sq. m., or about the size
of Scotland. The province is bounded S. by the Gulf of Guinea,
(from 2° 46' 55" to 4° 30' E.); W. by the French colony of
Dahomey; N. and E. by other provinces of Nigeria.
Physical Features. — The coast is low, marshy and malarious, and
all along the shore the great Atlantic billows cause a dangerous surf.
Behind the coast-line stretches a series of lagoons, in which are small
islands, that of Lagos having an area of 3! sq. m. Beyond the
lagoons and mangrove swamps is a broad zone of dense primeval
forest — " the bush " — which completely separates the arable lands
from the coast lagoons. The water-parting of the streams flowing
north to the Niger, and south to the Gulf of Guinea, is the main
physical feature. The general level of Yorubaland is under 2000 ft.
But towards the east, about the upper course of the river Oshun, the
elevation is higher. Southward from the divide the land, which is
intersected by the nearly parallel courses of the rivers Ogun, Omi,
Oshun, Oni and Oluwa, falls in continuous undulations to the coast,
the open cultivated ground gradually giving place to forest tracts,
where the most characteristic tree is the oil-palm. Flowering trees,
certain kinds of rubber vines, and shrubs are plentiful. In the
northern regions the shea-butter tree is found. The fauna resembles
that of the other regions of the Guinea coast, but large game is
becoming scarce. Leopards, antelopes and monkeys are common,
and alligators infest the rivers.
The lagoons, lying between the outer surf-beaten beach and the
inner shore line, form a navigable highway of still waters, many miles
in extent. They are almost entirely free from rock, though they are
often shallow, with numerous mud banks. The most extensive are
Lekki in the east, and Ikoradu (Lagos) in the west. At its N.W.
extremity the Lagos lagoon receives the Ogun, the largest river in
Yorubaland, whose current is strong enough to keep the seaward
channel open throughout the year. Hence the importance of the
port of Lagos, which lies in smooth water at the northern end of this
channel. The outer entrance is obstructed by a dangerous sand bar.
Climate and Health. — The climate is unhealthy, especially for
Europeans. The rainfall has not been ascertained in the interior.
In the northern districts it is probably considerably less than at
Lagos, where it is about 70 in. a year. The variation is, however, very
§reat. In 1901 the rainfall was 112 in., in 1902 but 47, these figures
eing respectively the highest and lowest recorded in a period of
seventeen years. The mean temperature at Lagos is 82-5° F., the
range being from 68° to 91 °. At certain seasons sudden heavy squalls
of wind and rain that last for a few hours are common. The hurri-
cane and typhoon are unknown. The principal diseases are malarial
fever, smallpox, rheumatism, peripheral neuritis, dysentery, chest
diseases and guinea-worm. Fever not unfrequently assumes the
dangerous form known as " black-water fever." The frequency
of smallpox is being much diminished outside the larger towns in the
interior, in which vaccination is neglected. The absence of plague,
yellow fever, cholera, typhoid fever and scarlatina is noteworthy.
A mild form of yaws is endemic.
Inhabitants. — The population is estimated at 1,750,000. The
Yoruba people, a Negro race divided into many tribes, form the
majority of the inhabitants. Notwithstanding their political
feuds and their proved capacity as fighting men, the Yoruba
are distinguished above all the surrounding races for their
generally peaceful disposition, industry, friendliness, courtesy
and hospitality towards strangers. They are also intensely
patriotic. Physically they resemble closely their Ewe and
Dahomey neighbours, but are of somewhat lighter complexion,
taller and of less pronounced Negro features. They exhibit
high administrative ability, possess a marked capacity for trade,
and have made remarkable progress in the industrial arts. The
different tribes are distinguished by tattoo markings, usually
some simple pattern of two or more parallel lines, disposed
horizontally or vertically on the cheeks or other parts of the
face. The feeling for religion is deeply implanted among the
Yoruba. The majority are pagans, or dominated by pagan beliefs,
but Islam has made great progress since the cessation of the
Fula wars, while Protestant and Roman Catholic missions have
been at work since 1848 at Abeokuta, Oyo, Ibadan and other
large towns. Samuel Crowther, the first Negro bishop in the
Anglican church, who was distinguished as an explorer, geo-
grapher and linguist, was a native of Yorubaland, rescued
(1822) by the English from slavery and educated at Sierra Leone
(see YORUBAS).
Towns. — Besides Lagos (q.v.), pop. about 50,000, the chief
towns in the colony proper are Epe, pop. 16,000, on the northern
side of the lagoons, and Badagry (a notorious place during the
slave-trade period) and Lekki, both on the coast. Inland the
chief towns are Abeokuta (q.v.), pop. about 60,000, and Ibadan
(q.v.), pop. estimated at 150,000.
Agriculture and Trade. — The chief wealth of the country
consists in forest produce, the staple industries being the collec-
tion of palm-kernels and palm oil. Besides the oil-palm forests
large areas are covered with timber trees, the wood chiefly cut
for commercial purposes being a kind of mahogany. The destruc-
tion of immature trees and the fluctuations in price render this a
very uncertain trade. The rubber industry was started in 1894,
and in 1896 the rubber exported was valued at £347,000. In
1899, owing to reckless methods of tapping the vines, 75% of
the rubber plants died. Precautions were then taken to preserve
the remainder and allow young plants to grow. The collection
of rubber recommenced in 1904 and the industry again became
one of importance. A considerable area is devoted to cocoa
plantations, all owned by native cultivators. Coffee and tobacco
of good quality are cultivated and shea-butter is largely used as
an illuminant. The Yoruba country is the greatest agricultural
centre in West Africa. For home consumption the Yoruba
grow yams, maize and millet, the chief articles of food, cassava,
sweet potatoes, sesame and beans. Model farms have been
established for experimental culture and for the tuition of the
natives. A palatable wine is obtained from the Raphia vinifera
and native beers are also brewed. Imported spirits are largely
consumed. There are no manufactures on a large scale save
the making of " country cloths " (from cotton grown, spun and
woven in the country) and mats. Pottery and agricultural
implements are made, and tanning, dyeing and forging practised
in the towns, and along the rivers and lagoons boats and canoes
are built. Fishing is extensively engaged in, the fish being
dried and sent up country. Except iron there are no valuable
minerals in the country.
The cotton plant from which the " country cloths " are made
is native to the country, the soil of which is capable of producing
the very finest grades of cotton. The Egba branch of the Yoruba
have always grown the plant. In 1869 the cotton exported was
valued at £76,957, but owing to low prices the natives ceased to
grow cotton for export, so that in 1879 the value of exported
cotton was only £526. In 1902 planting for export was recom-
menced by the Egba on scientific lines, and was started in the
Abeokuta district with encouraging results.
The Yoruba profess to be unable to alienate land in per-
petuity, but native custom does not preclude leasing, and land
concessions have been taken up by Europeans on long leases.
Some concessions are only for cutting and removing timber;
others permit of cultivation. The northern parts of the pro-
tectorate are specially suitable for stock raising and poultry
culture.
The chief exports are palm-kernels, palm-oil, timber, rubber
and cocoa. Palm-kernels alone constitute more than a half in
value of the total exports, and with palm-oil over three-fourths.
74
LAGOS
The trade in these products is practically confined to Great
Britain and Germany, the share of the first-named being 25%
to Germany's 75%. Minor exports are coffee, "country
cloths," maize, shea-butter and ivory.
Cotton goods are the most important of the imports, spirits
coming next, followed by building material, haberdashery and
hardware and tobacco. Over 90% of the cotton goods are
imported from Great Britain, whilst nearly the same proportion
of the spirit imports come from Germany. Nearly all the
liquors consist of " Trade Spirits," chiefly gin, rum and a con-
coction called " alcohol," introduced (1901) to meet the growing
taste of the people for stronger liquor. This stuff contained 90 %
of pure alcohol and sometimes over 4% of fusel oil. To hinder
the sale of this noxious compound legislation was passed in 1903
prohibiting the import of liquor containing more than 5%
of fusel oil, whilst the states of Abeokuta and Ibadan prohibited
the importation of liquor stronger than proof. The total trade
of the country in 1905 was valued at £2,224,754, the imports
slightly exceeding the exports. There is a large transit trade
with Dahomey.
Communications. — Lagos is well supplied with means of com-
munication. A 3 ft. 6 in. gauge railway starts from Iddo Island, and
extends past Abeokuta, 64 m. from Lagos, Ibadan (123111.), Oshogbo
(175 m.), to Illorin (247 m.) in Northern Nigeria, whence the line is
continued to Jebba and Zunguru (see NIGERIA). Abeokuta is served
by a branch line, I ^m. long, from Aro on the main line. Railway
bridges connect Iddo Island both with the mainland and with Lagos
Island (see LAGOS, town). This line was begun in 1896 and opened
to Ibadan in 1901. In 1905 the building of the section Ibadan-
Illorin was undertaken. The railway was built by the government
and cost about £7000 per mile. Thelagoonsofferconvenientchannels
for numerous small craft, which, with the exception of steam-
launches, are almost entirely native-built canoes. Branch steamers
run between the Forcados mouth of the Niger and Lagos, and also
between Lagos and Porto Novo, in French territory, and do a large
transit trade. Various roads through the bush have been made by
the government. There is telegraphic communication with Europe,
Northern Nigeria and South Africa, and steamships ply regularly
between Lagos and Liverpool, and Lagos and Hamburg (see LAGOS,
town).
Administration, Justice, Education, &c. — The small part of the
province which constitutes " the colony of Southern Nigeria " is
governed as a crown colony. Elsewhere the native governments are
retained, the chiefs and councils of eldcre receiving the advice and
support of British commissioners. There is also an advisory native
central council which meets at Lagos. The great majority of the
civil servants are natives of the country, some of whom have been
educated in England. The legal status of slavery is not recognized
by the law courts and dealing in slaves is suppressed. As an institu-
tion slavery is dying out, and only exists in a domestic form.
The cost of administration is met, mainly, by customs, largely de-
rived from the duties on imported spirits. From the railways, a
government monopoly, a considerable net profit is earned. Ex-
penditure is mainly under the heads of railway administration, other
public works, military and police, health, and education. The
revenue increased in the ten years 1895-1905 from £142,049 to
£410,250. In the same period the expenditure rose from £144,484
to £354.25.4-
The defence of the province is entrusted to the Lagos battalion of
the West African Frontier Force, a body under the control of the
Colonial Office in London and composed of Hausa (four-fifths) and
Yoruba. It is officered from the British army.
The judicial system in the colony proper is based on that of
England. The colonial supreme court, by agreement with the rulers
of Abeokuta, Ibadan and other states in the protectorate, tries, with
the aid of native assessors, all cases of importance in those countries.
Other cases are tried by mixed courts, or, where Yoruba alone are
concerned, by native courts.
There is a government board of education which maintains a few
schools and supervises those voluntarily established. These are
chiefly those of various missionary societies, who, besides primary
schools, have a few secondary schools. The Mahommedans have
their own schools. Grants from public funds are made to the
voluntary schools. Considerable attention is paid to manual train-
ing, the laws of health and the teaching of English, which is spoken
by about one-fourth of the native population.
History. — Lagos Island was so named by the Portuguese
explorers of the isth century, because of the numerous lagoons
or lakes on this part of the coast. The Portuguese, and after
them the French, had settlements here at various points. In
the 1 8th century Lagos Lagoon became the chief resort of slavers
frequenting the Bight of Benin, this portion of the Gulf of
Guinea becoming known pre-eminently as the Slave Coast.
British traders established themselves at Badagry, 40 m. W.
of Lagos, where in 1851 they were attacked by Kosoko, the
Yoruba king of Lagos Island. As a result a British naval force
seized Lagos after a sharp fight and deposed the king, placing
his cousin, Akitoye, on the throne. A treaty was concluded
under which Akitoye bound himself to put down the slave
trade. This treaty was not adhered to, and in 1861 Akitoye's
son and successor, King Docemo, was induced to give up his
territorial jurisdiction and accept a pension of 1200 bags of
cowries, afterwards commuted to £1000 a year, which pension
he drew until his death in 1885. Immediately after the proclama-
tion of the British annexation, a steady current of immigration
from the mainland set in, and a flourishing town arose on Lagos
Island. Iddo Island was acquired at the same time as Lagos
Island, and from 1862 to 1894 various additions by purchase
or cession were made to the colony. In 1879 the small kingdom
of Kotonu was placed under British protection. Kotonu lies
south and east of the Denham Lagoon (see DAHOMEY). In
1889 it was exchanged with the French for the kingdom of Pokra
which is to the north of Badagry. In the early years of the colony
Sir John Glover, R.N., who was twice governor (1864-1866 and
1871-1872), did much pioneer work and earned the confidence
of the natives to a remarkable degree. Later Sir C. A. Moloney
(governor 1886-1890) opened up relations with the Yoruba
and other tribes in the hinterland. He despatched two com-
missioners whose duty it was to conclude commercial treaties
and use British influence to put a stop to intertribal fighting
and the closing of the trade routes. In 1892 the Jebu, who acted
as middlemen between the colony and the Yoruba, closed several
trade routes. An expedition sent against them resulted in their
subjugation and the annexation of part of their country. An
order in council issued in 1899 extended the protectorate over
Yorubaland. The tribes of the hinterland have largely welcomed
the British protectorate and military expeditions have been
few and unimportant. (For the history of the Yoruba states
see YORUBAS.)
Lagos was made a separate government in 1863; in 1866 it
was placed in political dependence upon Sierra Leone; in 1874
it became (politically) an integral part of the Gold Coast Colony,
whilst in 1886 it was again made a separate government, ad-
ministered as a crown colony. In Sir William Macgregor, M.D.,
formerly administrator of British New Guinea, governor 1899-
1904, the colony found an enlightened ruler. He inaugurated
the railway system, and drew much closer the friendly ties
between the British and the tribes of the protectorate. Mean-
time, since 1884, the whole of the Niger delta, lying immediately
east of Lagos, as well as the Hausa states and Bornu, had been
acquired by Great Britain. Unification of the British possessions
in Nigeria being desirable, the delta regions and Lagos were
formed in 1906 into one government (see NIGERIA).
See C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography of the British Colonies, vol. iii.
West Africa (Oxford, 1896) ; the annual Reports issued by the Colonial
Office, London; A. B. Ellis, The Yoruba-speaking Peoples (London,
1894); Lady Glover, The Life of Sir John Hawley Glover (London,
1897). Consult also the works cited under NIGERIA and DAHOMEY.
LAGOS, a seaport of West Africa, capital of the British colony
and protectorate of Southern Nigeria, in 6° 26' N., 3° 23' E. on
an island in a lagoon named Lagos also. Between Lagos and
the mainland is Iddo Island. An iron bridge for road and rail-
way traffic 2600 ft. long connects Lagos and Iddo Islands, and
another iron bridge, 917 ft. long, joins Iddo Island to the main-
land. The town lies but a foot or two above sea-level. The
principal buildings are a large government house, the law courts,
the memorial hall erected to commemorate the services of Sir
John Glover, used for public meetings and entertainments,
an elaborate club-house provided from public funds, and the
police quarters. There are many substantial villas that serve
as quarters for the officers of the civil service, as well as numerous
solidly-built handsome private buildings. The streets are well
kept; the town is supplied with electric light, and there is a
good water service. The chief stores and dep6ts for goods are
LAGOS— LAGRANGE
75
all on the banks of the lagoon. The swamps of which originally
Lagos Island entirely consisted have been reclaimed. In
connexion with this work a canal, 25 ft. wide, has been cut right
through the island and a sea-wall built round its western half.
There is a commodious public hospital, of the cottage type,
on a good site. There is a racecourse, which also serves as a
general public recreation ground. Shifting banks of sand form
a bar at the sea entrance of the lagoon. Extensive works were
undertaken in 1908 with a view to making Lagos an open port.
A mole has been built at the eastern entrance to the harbour
and dredgers are at work on the bar, which can be crossed by
vessels drawing 13 ft. Large ocean-going steamers anchor
not less than 2 m. from land, and goods and passengers are
there transhipped into smaller steamers for Lagos. Heavy
cargo is carried by the large steamers to Forcados, 200 m. farther
down the coast, transhipped there into branch boats, and taken
via the lagoons to Lagos. The port is 4279 m. from Liverpool,
1203 from Freetown, Sierra Leone (the nearest safe port west-
ward), and 315 from Cape Coast.
The inhabitants, about 50,000, include, besides the native
tribes, Sierra Leonis, Fanti, Krumen and the descendants of
some 6000 Brazilian emancipados who were settled here in the
early days of British rule. The Europeans number about 400.
Rather more than half the populace are Moslems.
LAGOS, a seaport of southern Portugal, in the district of Faro
(formerly the province of Algarve) ; on the Atlantic Ocean, and
on the estuary of the small river Lagos, here spanned by a fine
stone bridge. Pop. (1900) 8291. The city is defended by fortifi-
cations erected in the lyth century. It is supplied with water
by an aqueduct 800 yds. long. The harbour is deep, capacious,
and completely sheltered on the north and west; it is frequently
visited by the British Channel fleet. Vines and figs are extensively
cultivated in the neighbourhood, and Lagos is the centre of
important sardine and tunny fisheries. Its trade is chiefly
carried on by small coasting vessels, as there is no railway.
Lagos is on or near the site of the Roman Lacobriga. Since the
1 5th century it has held the formal rank and title of city. Cape
St Vincent, the ancient Promontorium Sacrum, and the south-
western extremity of the kingdom, is 22 m. W. It is famous
for its connexion with Prince Henry (q.v.), the Navigator, who
here founded the town of Sagres in 1421; and for several
British naval victories, the most celebrated of which was won
in 1797 by Admiral Jervis (afterwards Earl St Vincent) over a
larger Spanish squadron. In 1759 Admiral Boscawen defeated
a French fleet off Lagos. The great earthquake of 1755 destroyed
a large part of the city.
LA GRACE, or LES GRACES, a game invented in France during
the first quarter of the igth century and called there le jcu dcs
Graces. It is played with two light sticks about 16 in. long and
a wicker ring, which is projected into the air by placing it over
the sticks crossed and then separating them rapidly. The ring
is caught upon the stick of another player and thrown back,
the object being to prevent it from falling to the ground.
LA GRAND' COMBE, a town of southern France, in the depart-
ment of Card on the Garden, 39 m. N.N.W. of Nimes by rail.
Pop. (1906) town, 6406; commune, 11,292. There are extensive
coal mines in the vicinity.
LAGRANGE, JOSEPH LOUIS (1736-1813), French mathe-
matician, was born at Turin, on the 25th of January 1736. He
was of French extraction, his great grandfather, a cavalry
captain, having passed from the service of France to that of
Sardinia, and settled in Turin under Emmanuel II. His father,
Joseph Louis Lagrange, married Maria Theresa Gros, only
daughter of a rich physician at Cambiano, and had by her eleven
children, of whom only the eldest (the subject of this notice)
and the youngest survived infancy. His emoluments as treasurer
at war, together with his wife's fortune, provided him with
ample means, which he lost by rash speculations, a circumstance
regarded by his son as the prelude to his own good fortune; for
had he been rich, he used to say, he might never have known
mathematics.
The genius of Lagrange did not at once take its true bent.
His earliest tastes were literary rather than scientific, and he
learned the rudiments of geometry during his first year at the
college of Turin, without difficulty, but without distinction.
The perusal of a tract by Halley (Phil. Trans, xviii. 960)
roused his enthusiasm for the analytical method, of which he
was destined to develop the utmost capabilities. He now entered,
unaided save by his own unerring tact and vivid apprehension,
upon a course of study which, in two years, placed him on a level
with the greatest of his contemporaries. At the age of nineteen
he communicated to Leonhard Euler his idea of a general method
of dealing with " isoperimetrical " problems, known later as
the Calculus of Variations. It was eagerly welcomed by the
Berlin mathematician, who had the generosity to withhold from
publication his own further researches on the subject, until his
youthful correspondent should have had time to complete and
opportunity to claim the invention. This prosperous opening
gave the key-note to Lagrange's career. Appointed, in 1754,
professor of geometry in the royal school of artillery, he formed
with some of his pupils — for the most part his seniors — friend-
ships based on community of scientific ardour. With the aid of
the marquis de Saluces and the anatomist G. F. Cigna, he
founded in 1758 a society which became the Turin Academy of
Sciences. The first volume of its memoirs,' published in the
following year, contained a paper by Lagrange entitled Recherches
sur la nature et la propagation du son, in which the power of his
analysis and his address in its application were equally con-
spicuous. He made his first appearance in public as the critic
of Newton, and the arbiter between d'Alembert and Euler. By
considering only the particles of air found in a right line, he
reduced the problem of the propagation of sound to the solution of
the same partial differential equations that include the motions
of vibrating strings, and demonstrated the insufficiency of the
methods employed by both his great contemporaries in dealing
with the latter subject. He further treated in a masterly manner
of echoes and the mixture of sounds, and explained the pheno-
menon of grave harmonics as due to the occurrence of beats so
rapid as to generate a musical note. This was followed, in the
second volume of the Miscellanea Taurinensia (1762) by his
" Essai d'une nouvelle methode pour determiner les maxima et
les minima des formules integrates indefinies," together with the
application of this important development of analysis to the
solution of several dynamical problems, as well as to the demon-
stration of the mechanical principle of " least action." The
essential point in his advance on Euler's mode of investigating
curves of maximum or minimum consisted in his purely analytical
conception of the subject. He not only freed it from all trammels
of geometrical construction, but by the introduction of the
symbol & gave it the efficacy of a new calculus. He is thus justly
regarded as the inventor of the " method of variations " — a
name supplied by Euler in 1766.
By these performances Lagrange found himself, at the age
of twenty-six, on the summit of European fame. Such a height
had not been reached without cost. Intense application during
early youth had weakened a constitution never robust, and led
to accesses of feverish exaltation culminating, in the spring of
I76r, in an attack of bilious hypochondria, which permanently
lowered the tone of his nervous system. Rest and exercise,
however, temporarily restored his health, and he gave proof
of the undiminished vigour of his powers by carrying off, in
1 764, the prize offered by the Paris Academy of Sciences for the
best essay on the libration of the moon. His treatise was remark-
able, not only as offering a satisfactory explanation of the coin-
cidence between the lunar periods of rotation and revolution,
but as containing the first employment of his radical formula
of mechanics, obtained by combining with the principle of
d'Alembert that of virtual velocities. His success encouraged
the Academy to propose, in 1766, as a theme for competition, the
hitherto unattempted theory of the Jovian system. The prize
was again awarded to Lagrange; and he earned the same dis-
tinction with essays on the problem of three bodies, in 1772, on
the secular equation of the moon in 1774, and in 1778 on the
theory of cometary perturbations.
76
LAGRANGE
He had in the meantime gratified a long felt desire by a visit
to Paris, where he enjoyed the stimulating delight of conversing
with such mathematicians as A. C. Clairault, d'Alembert,
Condorcet and the Abbe Marie. Illness prevented him from
visiting London. The post of director of the mathematical
department of the Berlin Academy (of which he had been a
member since 1759) becoming vacant by the removal of Euler
to St Petersburg, the latter and d'Alembert united to recommend
Lagrange as his successor. Euler's eulogium was enhanced by
his desire to quit Berlin, d'Alembert's by his dread of a royal
command to repair thither; and the result was that an invita-
tion, conveying the wish of the " greatest king in Europe " to
have the " greatest mathematician " at his court, was sent to
Turin. On the 6th of November 1766, Lagrange was installed
in his new position, with a salary of 6000 francs, ample leisure
for scientific research, and royal favour sufficient to secure him
respect without exciting envy. The national jealousy of
foreigners, was at first a source of annoyance to him; but such
prejudices were gradually disarmed by the inoffensiveness of his
demeanour. We are told that the universal example of his
colleagues, rather than any desire for female society, impelled
him to matrimony; his choice being a lady of the Conti family,
who, by his request, joined him at Berlin. Soon after marriage
his wife was attacked by a lingering illness, to which she suc-
cumbed, Lagrange devoting all his time, and a considerable store
of medical knowledge, to her care.
The long series of memoirs — some of them complete treatises
of great moment in the history of science — communicated by
Lagrange to the Berlin Academy between the years 1767 and
1787 were not the only fruits of his exile. His Mecanique
analytique, in which his genius most fully displayed itself, was
produced during the same period. This great work was the
perfect realization of a design conceived by the author almost
in boyhood, and clearly sketched in his first published essay.1
Its scope may be briefly described as the reduction of the theory
of mechanics to certain general formulae, from the simple
development of which should be derived the equations necessary
for the solution of each separate problem.2 From the funda-
mental principle of virtual velocities, which thus acquired a new
significance, Lagrange deduced, with the aid of the calculus
of variations, the whole system of mechanical truths, by pro-
cesses so elegant, lucid and harmonious as to constitute, in Sir
William Hamilton's words, " a kind of scientific poem." This
unification of method was one of matter also. By his mode of
regarding a liquid as a material system characterized by the
unshackled mobility of its minutest parts, the separation between
the mechanics of matter in different forms of aggregation finally
disappeared, and the fundamental equation of forces was for
the first time extended to hydrostatics and hydrodynamics.3
Thus a universal science of matter and motion was derived, by
an unbroken sequence of deduction, from one radical principle;
and analytical mechanics assumed the clear and complete form
of logical perfection which it now wears.
A publisher having with some difficulty been found, the book
appeared at Paris in 1 788 under the supervision of A. M. Legendre.
But before that time Lagrange himself was on the spot. After
the death of Frederick the Great, his presence was competed
for by the courts of France, Spain and Naples, and a residence
in Berlin having ceased to possess any attraction for him, he
removed to Paris in 1787. Marie Antoinette warmly patronized
him. He was lodged in the Louvre, received the grant of an
income equal to that he had hitherto enjoyed, and, with the
title of " veteran pensioner " in lieu of that of " foreign associate "
(conferred in 1772), the right of voting at the deliberations of the
Academy. In the midst of these distinctions, a profound
melancholy seized upon him. His mathematical enthusiasm
was for the time completely quenched, and during two years
the printed volume of his Mfcanique, which he had seen only in
manuscript, lay unopened beside him. He relieved his dejection
1 (Euvres, i. 15. ! Mec. An., Advertisement to 1st ed.
3 E. Duhring, Krilische Gesch. der Mechanik, 220, 367; Lagrange,
Met. An. i. 166-172, 3rd ed.
with miscellaneous studies, especially with that of chemistry,
which, in the new form given to it by Lavoisier, he found " aisee
comme 1'algebre." The Revolution roused him once more to
activity and cheerfulness. Curiosity impelled him to remain
and watch the progress of such a novel phenomenon; but
curiosity was changed into dismay as the terrific character of the
phenomenon unfolded itself. He now bitterly regretted his
temerity in braving the danger. " Tu 1'as voulu " he would
repeat self-reproachfully. Even from revolutionary tribunals,
however, the name of Lagrange uniformly commanded respect.
His pension was continued by the National Assembly, and he
was partially indemnified for the depreciation of the currency
by remunerative appointments. Nominated president of the
Academical commission for the reform of weights and measures,
his services were retained when its " purification " by the
Jacobins removed his most distinguished colleagues. He again
sat on the commission of 1799 for the construction of the metric
system, and by his zealous advocacy of the decimal principle
largely contributed to its adoption.
Meanwhile, on the 3ist of May 1792 he married Mademoiselle
Lemonnier, daughter of the astronomer of that name, a young
and beautiful girl, whose devotion ignored disparity of years,
and formed the one tie with life which Lagrange found it hard to
break. He had no children by either marriage. Although
specially exempted from the operation of the decree of October
1793, imposing banishment on foreign residents, he took alarm
at the fate of J. S. Bailly and A. L. Lavoisier, and prepared
to resume his former situation in Berlin. His design was frus-
trated by the establishment of and his official connexion with
the Ecole Normale, and the Ecole Polytechnique. The former
institution had an ephemeral existence; but amongst the
benefits derived from the foundation of the Ecole Polytechnique
one of the greatest, it has been observed,4 was the restoration
of Lagrange to mathematics. The remembrance of his teachings
was long treasured by such of his auditors — amongst whom
were J. B. J. Delambre and S. F. Lacroix — as were capable of
appreciating them. In expounding the principles of the differ-
ential calculus, he started, as it were, from the level of his pupils,
and ascended with them by almost insensible gradations from
elementary to abstruse conceptions. He seemed, not a professor
amongst students, but a learner amongst learners; pauses for
thought alternated with luminous exposition; invention
accompanied demonstration; and thus originated his Theorie
des f auctions analytiques (Paris, 1797). The leading idea of this
work was contained in a paper published in the Berlin Memoirs
for 1772. 6 Its object was the elimination of the, to some minds,
unsatisfactory conception of the infinite from the metaphysics
of the higher mathematics, and the substitution for the differential
and integral calculus of an analogous method depending wholly
on the serial development of algebraical functions. By means
of this " calculus of derived functions " Lagrange hoped to give
to the solution of all analytical problems the utmost " rigour of
the demonstrations of the ancients";6 but it cannot be said
that the attempt was successful. The validity of his fundamental
position was impaired by the absence of a well-constituted
theory of series; the notation employed was inconvenient,
and was abandoned by its inventor in the second edition of his
Mecanique; while his scruples as to the admission into analytical
investigations of the idea of limits or vanishing ratios have long
since been laid aside as idle. Nowhere, however, were the
keenness and clearness of his intellect more conspicuous than
in this brilh'ant effort, which, if it failed in its immediate object,
was highly effective in secondary results. His purely abstract
mode of regarding functions, apart from any mechanical or
geometrical considerations, led the way to a new and sharply
characterized development of the higher analysis in the hands
of A. Cauchy, C. G. Jacobi, and others.7 The Thtorie des
fonctions is divided into three parts, of which the first explains
the general doctrine of functions, the second deals with its
* Notice by J. Delambre, (Euvres de Lagrange, i. p. xlii.
6 (Euvres, lii. 441. * Theorie des fonctions, p. 6.
7 H. Suter, Geschichte der math. Wiss. ii. 222-223.
LAGRANGE
77
application to geometry, and the third with its bearings on
mechanics.
On the establishment of the Institute, Lagrange was placec
at the head of the section of geometry; he was one of the first
members of the Bureau des Longitudes; and his name appeared
in 1791 on the list of foreign members of the Royal Society.
On the annexation of Piedmont to France in 1796, a touching
compliment was paid to him in the person of his aged father.
By direction of Talleyrand, then minister for foreign affairs,
the French commissary repaired in state to the old man's
residence in Turin, to congratulate him on the merits of his son,
whom they declared " to have done honour to mankind by his
genius, and whom Piedmont was proud to have produced, and
France to possess." Bonaparte, who styled him " la haute
pyramide des sciences mathematiques," loaded him with personal
favours and official distinctions. He "became a senator, a count
of the empire, a grand officer of the legion of honour, and just
before his death received the grand cross of the order of reunion.
The preparation of a new edition of his Mecanique exhausted
his already failing powers. Frequent fainting fits gave presage
of a speedy end, and on the 8th of April 1813 he had a final
interview with his friends B. Lacepede, G. Monge and J. A.
Chaptal. He spoke with the utmost calm of his approaching
death; " c'est une derniere fonction," he said, " qui n'est ni
penible ni desagreable." He nevertheless looked forward to a
future meeting, when he promised to complete the autobio-
graphical details which weakness obliged him to interrupt.
They remained untold, for he died two days later on the loth of
April, and was buried in the Pantheon, the funeral oration being
pronounced by Laplace and Lacepede.
Amongst the brilliant group of mathematicians whose magnani-
mous rivalry contributed to accomplish the task of generalization
and deduction reserved for the l8th century, Lagrange occupies an
eminent place. It is indeed by no means easy to distinguish and
apportion the respective merits of the competitors. This is especially
the case between Lagrange and Euler on the one side, and between
Lagrange and Laplace on the other. The calculus of variations lay
undeveloped in Euler's mode of treating isoperimetrical problems.
The fruitful method, again, of the variation of elements was intro-
duced by Euler, but adopted and perfected by Lagrange, who first
recognized its supreme importance to the analytical investigation of
the planetary movements. Finally, of the grand scries of researches
by which the stability of the solar system was ascertained, the glory
must be almost equally divided between Lagrange and Laplace.
In analytical invention, and mastery over the calculus, the Turin
mathematician was admittedly unrivalled. Laplace owned that he
had despaired of effecting the integration of the differential equations
relative to secular inequalities until Lagrange showed him the way.
But Laplace unquestionably surpassed his rival in practical sagacity
and the intuition of physical truth. Lagrange saw in the problems
of nature so many occasions for analytical triumphs; Laplace re-
garded analytical triumphs as the means of solving the problems of
nature. _ One mind seemed the complement of the other; and both,
united in honourable rivalry, formed an instrument of unexampled
perfection for the investigation of the celestial machinery. What
may be called Lagrange's first period of research into planetary
perturbations extended from 1 774 to 1 784 (see AST RONOMY : History) .
The notable group of treatises communicated, 1781-1784, to the
Berlin Academy was designed, but did not prove to be his final
contribution to the theory of the planets. After an interval of
twenty-four years the subject, re-opened by S. D. Poisson in a paper
read on the aoth of June 1808, was once more attacked by Lagrange
with all his pristine vigour and fertility of invention. Resuming the
inquiry into the invariability of mean motions, Poisson carried the
approximation, with Lagrange's formulae, as far as the squares of
the disturbing forces, hitherto neglected, with the same result as to
the stability of the system. He had not attempted to include in his
calculations the orbital variations of the disturbing bodies; but
Lagrange, by the happy artifice of transferring the origin of co-
ordinates from the centre of the sun to the centre of gravity of the
sun and planets, obtained a simplification of the formulae, by which
the same analysis was rendered equally applicable to each of the
planets severally. It deserves to be recorded as one of the numerous
coincidences of discovery that Laplace, on being made acquainted
by Lagrange with his new method, produced analogous expressions,
to which his independent researches had led him. The final achieve-
ment ot Lagrange in this direction was the extension of the method
oi the variation of arbitrary constants, successfully used by him in
the investigation of periodical as well as of secular inequalities, to
any system whatever of mutually interacting bodies.1 " Not
1 (Euvres, vi. 771.
without astonishment," even to himself, regard being had to the
great generality of the differential equations, he reached a result so
wide as to include, as a particular case, the solution of the planetary
problem recently obtained by him. He proposed to apply the same
principles to the calculation of the disturbances produced in the
rotation of the planets by external action on their equatorial pro-
tuberances, but was anticipated by Poisson, who gave formulae for
the variation of the elements of rotation strictly corresponding with
those found by Lagrange for the variation of the elements of revolu-
tion. The revision of the M6canique analytique was undertaken
mainly for the purpose of embodying in it these new methods and
final results, but was interrupted, when two-thirds completed bv
the death of its author.
In the advancement of almost ever)' branch of pure mathematics
Lagrange took a conspicuous part. The calculus of variations is
indissolubly associated with his name. In the theory of numbers
he furnished solutions of many of P. Fermat's theorems, and added
some of his own. In algebra he discovered the method of approxi-
mating to the real roots of an equation by means of continued frac-
tions, and imagined a general process of solving algebraical equations
of every degree. The method indeed fails for equations of an order
above the fourth, because it then involves the solution of an equa-
tion of higher dimensions than they proposed. Yet it possesses the
great and characteristic merit of generalizing the solutions of his
predecessors, exhibiting them all as modifications of one principle.
To Lagrange, perhaps more than to any other, the theory of differ-
ential equations is indebted for its position as a science, rather than
a collection of ingenious artifices for the solution of particular
problems. To the calculus of finite differences he contributed the
beautiful formula of interpolation which bears his name ; although
substantially the same result seems to have been previously obtained
by Euler. But it was in the application to mechanical questions of
the instrument which he thus helped to form that his singular merit
lay. It was his just boast to have transformed mechanics (defined by
him as a " geometry of four dimensions ") into a branch of analysis,
and to have exhibited the so-called mechanical " principles " as
simple results of the calculus. The method of " generalized co-
ordinates," as it is now called, by which he attained this result, is
the most brilliant achievement of the analytical method. Instead
of following the motion of each individual part of a material system,
he showed that, if we determine its configuration by a sufficient
number of variables, whose number is that of the degrees of freedom
to move (there being as many equations as the system has degrees of
freedom), the kinetic and potential energies of the system can be
expressed in terms of these, and the differential equations of motion
thence deduced by simple differentiation. Besides this most im-
portant contribution to the general fabric of dynamical science, we
owe to Lagrange several minor theorems of great elegance, — among
which may be mentioned his theorem that the kinetic energy im-
parted by given impulses to a material system under given con-
straints is a maximum. To this entire branch of knowledge, in short,
he successfully imparted that character of generality and com-
pleteness towards which his labours invariably tended.
His share in the gigantic task of verifying the Newtonian theory
would alone suffice to immortalize his name. His co-operation was
indeed more indispensable than at first sight appears. Much as
was done by him, what was done through him was still more import-
ant. Some of his brilliant rival's most conspicuous discoveries were
implicitly contained in his writings, and wanted but one step for
completion. But that one step, from the abstract to the concrete,
was precisely that which the character of Lagrange's mind indisposed
him to make. As notable instances may be mentioned Laplace's
discoveries relating to the velocity of sound and the secular accelera-
tion of the moon, both of which were led close up to by Lagrange's
analytical demonstrations. In the Berlin Memoirs for 1778 and 1783
Lagrange gave the first direct and theoretically perfect method of
determining cometary orbits. It has not indeed proved practically
available; but his system of calculating cometary perturbations
by means of " mechanical quadratures " has formed the starting-
point of all subsequent researches on the subject. His determina-
tion2 of maximum and minimum values for the slowly varying
planetary eccentricities was the earliest attempt to deal with the
problem. Without a more accurate knowledge of the masses of the
planets than was then possessed a satisfactory solution was im-
possible; but the upper limits assigned by him agreed closely with
those obtained later by U. J. J. Leverrier.3 As a mathematical
writer Lagrange has perhaps never been surpassed. His treatises
are not only storehouses of ingenious methods, but models of sym-
metrical form. The clearness, elegance and originality of his mode
jf presentation give lucidity to what is obscure, novelty to what is
amiliar, and simplicity to what is abstruse. His genius was one of
jeneralization and abstraction; and the aspirations of the time
:owards unity and perfection received, by his serene labours, an
embodiment denied to them in the troubled world of politics.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Lagrange's numerous scattered memoirs have
jeen collected and published in seven 4to volumes, under the title
2 (Euvres, v. 211 seq.
8 Grant, History of Physical Astronomy, p. 117.
LAGRANGE-CHANCEL— LA GUAIRA
CEuvres de Lagrange, publiees sous les soins de M. J. A. Serret (Paris,
1867-1877). The first, second and third sections of this publication
comprise respectively the papers communicated by him to the
Academies of Sciences of Turin, Berlin and Paris; the fourth in-
cludes his miscellaneous contributions to other scientific collections,
together with his additions to Euler's Algebra, and his Lemons
elementaires at the Ecole Normale in 1795. Delambre's notice of his
life, extracted from the Mem. de I'Instilut, 1812, is prefixed to the
first volume. Besides the separate works already named are Resolu-
tion des equations numeriques (1798, and ed., 1808, 3rd ed., 1826),
and Lemons sur k calcul des'fonctions (1805, 2nd ed., 1806), designed
as a commentary and supplement to the first part of the Theorie des
fonctions. The first volume of the enlarged edition of the Mecanique
appeared in 181 1, the second, of which the revision was completed by
MM Prony and Binet, in 1815. A third edition, in 2 vols., 410, was
issued in 1853-1855, and a second of the Theorie des fonctions in 1813.
See also J. J. Virey and Potel, Precis historique (1813); Th.
Thomson's Annals of Philosophy (1813-1820), vols. ii. and iv. ;
H. Suter, Geschichte der math. Wiss. (1873); E. Diihring, Kritische
Gesch. der allgemeinen Principien der Mechanik (1877, 2nd ed.);
A. Gautier, Essai historique sur le probleme des trois corps (1817);
R. Grant, History of Physical Astronomy, &c.; Pietro Cossali, Eloge
(Padua, 1813); L. Martini, Cenni biogrdfici (1840); Moniteur du 26
Fevrier (1814); W. Whewell, Hist, of the Inductive Sciences, ii.
passim; J. Clerk Maxwell, Electricity and Magnetism, ii. 184; A.
Berry, Short Hist, of Astr., p. 313; J. S. Bailly, Hist.de I'astr.
moderne, iii. 156, 185, 232; J. C. Poggendorff, Biog. Lit. Hand-
worterbuch. (A. M. C.)
LAGRANGE-CHANCEL [CHANCEL], FRANCOIS JOSEPH
(1677-1758), French dramatist and satirist, was born at Perigueux
on the ist of January 1677. He was an extremely precocious
boy, and at Bordeaux, where he was educated, he produced a
play when he was nine years old. Five years later his mother
took him to Paris, where he found a patron in the princesse
de Conti, to whom he dedicated his tragedy of Jugurtha or, as it
was called later, Adherbal (1694). Racine had given him advice
and was present at the first performance, although he had long
lived in complete retirement. Other plays followed: Oreste et
Pylade (1697), Meleagre (1699), Amasis (1701), and Ino et Meli-
cefte (1715). Lagrange hardly realized the high hopes raised by
his precocity, although his only serious rival on the tragic stage
was Campistron, but he obtained high favour at court, becoming
mattre d'hotel to the duchess of Orleans. This prosperity ended
with the publication in 1720 of his Philippiques, odes accusing
the regent, Philip, duke of Orleans, of the most odious crimes.
He might have escaped the consequences of this libel but for
the bitter enmity of a former patron, the due de La Force.
Lagrange found sanctuary at Avignon, but was enticed beyond
the boundary of the papal jurisdiction, when he was arrested
and sent as a prisoner to the isles of Sainte Marguerite. He
contrived, however, to escape to Sardinia and thence to Spain
and Holland, where he produced his fourth and fifth Philippiques.
On the death of the Regent he was able to return to France.
He was part author of a Histoire de Perigord left unfinished, and
made a further contribution to history, or perhaps, more exactly,
to romance, in a letter to filie Freron on the identity of the Man
with the Iron Mask. Lagrange's family life was embittered
by a long lawsuit against his son. He died at Perigueux at the
end of December 1758.
He had collected his own works (5 vols., 1758) some months before
his death. His most famous work, the Philippiques, was edited by
M. de Lescure in 1858, and a sixth philippic by M. Diancourt in 1886.
LA GRANJA, or SAN ILDEFONSO, a summer palace of the kings
of Spain; on the south-eastern border of the province of Segovia,
and on the western slopes of the Sierra de Guadarrama, 7 m.
by road S.E. of the city of Segovia. The royal estate is 3905
ft. above sea-level. The scenery of this region, especially in
the gorge of the river Lozoya, with its granite rocks, its dense
forest of pines, firs and birches, and its red-tiled farms, more
nearly resembles the highlands of northern Europe than any
other part of Spain. La Granja has an almost alpine climate,
with a clear, cool atmosphere and abundant sunshine. Above
the palace rise the wooded summits of the Guadarrama, culminat-
ing in the peak of Penalara (7891 ft.); in front of it the wide
plains of Segovia extend northwards. The village of San
Ildefonso, the oldest part of the estate, was founded in 1450
by Henry IV., who built a hunting lodge and chapel here. In
1477 the chapel was presented by Ferdinand and Isabella to
the monks of the Parral, a neighbouring Hieronymite monastery.
The original granja (i.e. grange or farm), established by the monks,
was purchased in 1719 by Philip V., after the destruction of his
summer palace at Valsain, the ancient Vallis Sapinarum, 2 m.
S. Philip determined to convert the estate into a second
Versailles. The palace was built between 1721 and 1723. Its
facade is fronted by a colonnade in which the pillars reach to the
roof. The state apartments contain some valuable iSth-century
furniture, but the famous collection of sculptures was removed
to Madrid in 1836, and is preserved there in the Museo del Prado.
At La Granja it is represented by facsimiles in plaster. The
collegiate church adjoining the palace dates from 1724, and con-
tains the tombs of Philip V. and his consort Isabella Farnese.
An artificial lake called El Mar, 4095 ft. above sea-level,
irrigates the gardens, which are imitated from those of Versailles,
and supplies water for the fountains. These, despite the anti-
quated and sometimes tasteless style of their ornamentation,
are probably the finest in the world; it is noteworthy that,
owing to the high level of the lake, no pumps or other mechanism
are needed to supply pressure. There are twenty-six fountains
besides lakes and waterfalls. Among the most remarkable
are the group of " Perseus, Andromeda and the Sea-Monster,"
which sends up a jet of water no ft. high, the " Fame," which
reaches 125 ft., and the very elaborate " Baths of Diana." It
is of the last that Philip V. is said to have remarked, " It has
cost me three millions and amused me three minutes." Most
of the fountains were made by order of Queen Isabella in 1727,
during the king's absence. The glass factory of San Ildefonso
was founded by Charles III.
It was in La Granja that Philip V. resigned the crown to his son
in January 1724, to resume it after his son's death seven months
later; that the treaties of 1777, 1778, 1796 and 1800 were signed
(see SPAIN: History) ; that Ferdinand VII. summoned Don Carlos to
the throne in 1832, but was induced to alter the succession in favour
of his own infant daughter Isabella, thus involving Spain in civil
war; and that in 1836 a military revolt compelled the Queen-
regent Christina to restore the constitution of 1812.
LAGRENtE, LOUIS JEAN FRANC.OIS (1724-1805), French
painter, was a pupil of Carle Vanloo. Born at Paris on the
3Oth of December 1724, in 1755 he became a member of the
Royal Academy, presenting as his diploma picture the " Rape of
Deianira " (Louvre). He visited St Petersburg at the call of the
empress Elizabeth, and on his return was named in 1781 director
of the French Academy at Rome; he there painted the " Indian
Widow," one of his best-known works. In 1804 Napoleon
conferred on him the cross of the legion of honour, and on
the 1 9th of June 1805 he died in the Louvre, of which he was
honorary keeper.
LA GUAIRA, or LA GUAYRA (sometimes LAGUAIRA, &c.),
a town and port of Venezuela, in the Federal district, 23 m.
by rail and 6j m. in a direct line N. of Caracas. Pop. (1904,
estimate) 14,000. It is situated between a precipitous mountain
side and a broad, semicircular indentation of the coast line which
forms the roadstead of the port. The anchorage was long con-
sidered one of the most dangerous on the Caribbean coast, and
landing was attended with much danger. The harbour has been
improved by the construction of a concrete breakwater running
out from the eastern shore line 2044 ft., built up from an extreme
depth of 46 ft. or from an average depth of 295 ft., and rising
195 ft. above sea-level. This encloses an area of 765 acres,
having an average depth of nearly 28 ft. The harbour is further
improved by 1870 ft. of concrete quays and 1397 ft. of retaining
sea-wall, with several piers (three covered) projecting into deep
water. These works were executed by a British company,
known as the La Guaira Harbour Corporation, Ltd., and were
completed in 1891 at a cost of about one million sterling. The
concession is for 99 years and the additional charges which the
company is authorized to impose are necessarily heavy. These
improvements and the restrictions placed upon the direct trade
between West Indian ports and the Orinoco have greatly increased
the foreign trade of La Guaira, which in 1903 was 52% of that
of the four puertos habilitados of the republic. The shipping
LA GUERONNIERE— LA HARPE
79
entries of that year numbered 217, of which 203 entered with
general cargo and 14 with coal exclusively. The exports included
152,625 bags coffee, 114,947 bags cacao and 152,891 hides.
For 1905-1906 the imports at La Guaira were valued officially
at £767,365 and the exports at £663,708. The city stands on
sloping ground stretching along the circular coast line with a
varying width of 130 to 330 ft. and having the appearance of
an amphitheatre. The port improvements added 18 acres of
reclaimed land to La Guaira 's area, and the removal of old shore
batteries likewise increased its available breadth. In this narrow
space is built the town, composed in great part of small, roughly-
made cabins, and narrow, badly-paved streets, but with good
business houses on its principal street. From the mountain side,
reddish-brown in colour and bare of vegetation, the solar heat
is reflected with tremendous force, the mean annual temperature
being 84° F. The seaside towns of 'Maiquetia, 2 m. W. and
Macuto, 3 m. E., which have better climatic and sanitary
conditions and are connected by a narrow-gauge railway, are
the residences of many of the wealthier merchants of La Guaira.
La Guaira was founded in 1588, was sacked by filibusters
under Amias Preston in 1595, and by the French under Gram-
mont in 1680, was destroyed by the great earthquake of
the 26th of March 1812, and suffered severely in the war for
independence. In 1903, pending the settlement of claims of
Great Britain, Germany and Italy against Venezuela, La
Guaira was blockaded by a British-German-Italian fleet.
LA GUERONNIERE, LOUIS ETIENNE ARTHUR DUBREUIL
HELION, VICOMTE DE (1816-1875), French politician, was the
scion of a noble Poitevin family. Although by birth and educa-
tion attached to Legitimist principles, he became closely
associated with Lamartine, to whose organ, Le Bien Public, he
was a principal contributor. After the stoppage of this paper
he wrote for La Presse, and in 1850 edited Le Pays. A character
sketch of Louis Napoleon in this journal caused differences with
Lamartine, and La Gueronniere became more and more closely
identified with the policy of the prince president. Under the
Empire he was a member of the council of state (1853), senator
(1861), ambassador at Brussels (1868), and at Constantinople
(1870), and grand officer of the legion of honour (1866). He
died in Paris on the 23rd of December 1875. Besides his Eludes
et portraits politiques contemporains (1856) his most important
works are those on the foreign policy of the Empire: La France,
Rome et Italic (1851), L' Abandon de Rome (1862), De la politique
inter ieure et exterieure de la France (1862).
His elder brother, ALFRED DUBREUIL HELION, Comte de La
Gueronniere (1810-1884), who remained faithful to the Legitimist
party, was also a well-known writer and journalist. He was con-
sistent in his opposition to the July Monarchy and the Empire,
but in a series of books on the crisis of 1870-1871 showed a
more favourable attitude to the Republic.
LAGUERRE, JEAN HENRI GEORGES (1858- ), French
lawyer and politician, was born in Paris on the 24th of June
1858. Called to the bar in 1879, he distinguished himself by
brilliant pleadings in favour of socialist and anarchist leaders,
defending Prince Kropotkine at Lyons in 1883, Louise Michel
in the same year; and in 1886, with A. Millerand as colleague
he defended Ernest Roche and Due Quercy, the instigators of
the Decazeville strike. His strictures on the procureur de la
Republique on this occasion being declared libellous he was sus-
pended for six months and in 1890 he again incurred suspension
for an attack on the attorney-general, Quesnay de Beaurepaire.
He also pleaded in the greatest criminal cases of his time, though
from 1893 onwards exclusively in the provinces, his exclusion
from the Parisian bar having been secured on the pretext of
his connexion with La Presse. He entered the Chamber of
Deputies for Apt in 1883 as a representative of the extreme
revisionist programme, and was one of the leaders of the
Boulangist agitation. He had formerly written for Georges
Clemenceau's organ La Justice, but when Clemenceau refused
to impose any shibboleth on the radical party he became director
of La Presse. He rallied to the republican party in May 1891,
.some months before General Boulanger's suicide. He was not
re-elected to the Chamber in 1893. Laguerre was an excellent
lecturer on the revolutionary period of French history, concerning
which he had collected many valuable and rare documents.
He interested himself in the fate of the " Little Dauphin "
(Louis XVII.) , whose supposed remains, buried at Ste Marguerite,
he proved to be those of a boy of fourteen.
LAGUNA, or LA LACUNA, an episcopal city and formerly the
capital of the island of Teneriffe, in the Spanish archipelago
of the Canary Islands. Pop. (1900) 13,074. Laguna is 4 m. N.
by W. of Santa Cruz, in a plain 1800 ft. above sea-level, sur-
rounded by mountains. Snow is unknown here, and the mean
annual temperature exceeds 63° F.; but the rainfall is very
heavy, and in winter the plain is sometimes flooded. The
humidity of the atmosphere, combined with the warm climate
and rich volcanic soil, renders the district exceptionally fertile;
wheat, wine and tobacco, oranges and other fruits, are produced
in abundance. Laguna is the favourite summer residence of
the wealthier inhabitants of Santa Cruz. Besides the cathedral,
the city contains several picturesque convents, now secularized,
a fine modern town hall, hospitals, a large public library and
some ancient palaces of the Spanish nobility. Even the modern
buildings have often an appearance of antiquity, owing to the
decay caused by damp, and the luxuriant growth of climbing
plants.
LA HARPE, JEAN FRANCOIS DE (1730-1803), French critic,
was born in Paris of poor parents on the 2oth of November
1 739. His father, who signed himself Delharpe, was a descendant
of a noble family originally of Vaud. Left an orphan at the age
of nine, La Harpe was taken care of for six months by the sisters
of charity, and his education was provided for by a schclaiship
at the College d'Harcourt. When nineteen he was imprisoned
for some months on the charge of having written a satire against
his protectors at the college. La Harpe always denied his guilt,
but this culminating misfortune of an early life spent entirely
in the position of a dependent had possibly something to do
with the bitterness he evinced in later life. In 1763 his tragedy
of Warwick was played before the court. This, his first play,
was perhaps the best he ever wrote. The many authors whom he
afterwards offended were always able to observe that the critic's
own plays did not reach the standard of excellence he set up.
Timoleon (1764), Pharamond (1765) and Guslave Wasa (1766) were
failures. Melanie was a better play, but was never represented.
The success of Warwick led to a correspondence with Voltaire,
who conceived a high opinion of La Harpe, even allowing him
to correct his verses. In 1764 La Harpe married the daughter
of a coffee house keeper. This marriage, which proved very
unhappy and was dissolved, did not improve his posi ion.
They were very poor, and for some time were guests of Voltaire
at Ferney. When, after Voltaire's death, La Harpe in his praise
of the philosopher ventured on some reasonable, but rather
ill-timed, criticism of individual works, he was accused of treachery
to one who had been his constant friend. In 1768 he returned
from Ferney to Paris, where he began to write for the Mercure.
He was a born fightei and had small mercy on the authors whcse
work he handled. But he was himself violently attacked, and
suffered under many epigrams, especially those of Lebrun-
Pindare. No more striking proof of the general hostility can be
given than his reception (1776) at the Academy, which Sainte-
Beuve calls his " execution." Marmontel, who received him,
used the occasion to eulogize La Harpe's predecessor, Charles
Pierre Colardeau, especially for his pacific, modest and indulgent
disposition. The speech was punctuated by the applause of the
audience, who chose to regard it as a series of sarcasms on the
new member. Eventually La Harpe was compelled to resign
from the Mercure, which he had edited from 1770. On the
stage he produced Les Barmecides (1778), Philoctete, Jeanne de
Naples (1781), Les Brames (1783), Ccriolan (1784), Virginie
(1786). In 1786 he began a course of literature at the newly-
established Lycee. In these lectures, published as the Cows de
literature ancienne et moderne, La Harpe is at his best, for he
found a standpoint more or less independent of contemporary
polemics. He is said to be inexact in dealing with the ancients,
8o
LAHIRE— LA HOGUE, BATTLE OF
and he had only a superficial knowledge of the middle ages, but he
is excellent in his analysis of 1 7th-century writers. Sainte-Beuve
found in him the best critic of the French school of tragedy, which
reached its perfection in Racine. La Harpe was a disciple of the
" philosophes " ; he supported the extreme party through the
excesses of 179-2 and 1793. In 1793 he edited the Mercure de
France which adhered blindly to the revolutionary leaders.
But in April 1794 he was nevertheless seized as a " suspect."
In prison he underwent a spiritual crisis which he described in
convincing language, and he emerged an ardent Catholic and a
reactionist in politics. When he resumed his chair at the
Lycee, he attacked his former friends in politics and literature.
He was imprudent enough to begin the publication (1801-1807)
of his Correspondence litteraire (1774-1791) with the grand -duke,
afterwards the emperor Paul of Russia. In these letters he
surpassed the brutalities of the Mercure. He contracted a
second marriage, which was dissolved after a few weeks by his
wife. He died on the nth of February 1803 in Paris, leaving
in his will an incongruous exhortation to his fellow countrymen
to maintain peace and concord. Among his posthumous works
was a Prophetic de Cazoite which Sainte-Beuve pronounces his
best work. It is a sombre description of a dinner-party of
notables long before the Revolution, when Jacques Cazotte
is made to prophesy the frightful fates awaiting the various
individuals of the company.
Among his works not already mentioned are: — Commentaire sur
Racine (1795-1796), published in 1807 ; Commentaire sur le theatre de
Voltaire of earlier date (published posthumously in 1814), and an epic
poem La Religion (1814). His Cours de literature has been often
reprinted. To the edition of 1825—1826 is prefixed a notice by
Pierre Daunou. See also Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol. v. ;
G. Peignot, Recherches historiques, bibliographiques et litt&raires . . .
sur La Harpe (1820).
LAHIRE, LAURENT DE (1606-1656), French painter, was
born at Paris on the 27th of February 1606. He became a
pupil of Lallemand, studied the works of Primaticcio at Fontaine-
bleau, but never visited Italy, and belongs wholly to that transi-
tion period which preceded the school of Simon Vouet. His
picture of Nicolas V. opening the crypt in which he discovers
the corpse of St Francis of Assisi standing (Louvre) was executed
in 1630 for the Capuchins of the Marais; it shows a gravity
and sobriety of character which marked Lahire's best work, and
seems not to have been without influence on Le Sueur. The
Louvre contains eight other works, and paintings by Lahire are in
the museums of Strasburg, Rouen and Le Mans. His drawings,
of which the British Museum possesses a fine example, " Pre-
sentation of the Virgin in the Temple," are treated as seriously
as his paintings, and sometimes show simplicity and dignity
of effect. The example of the Capuchins, for whom he executed
several other works in Paris, Rouen and Fecamp, was followed
by the goldsmiths' company, for whom he produced in 1635 " St
Peter healing the Sick " (Louvre) and the " Conversion of St
Paul " in 1637. In 1646, with eleven other artists, he founded
the French Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture. Richelieu
called Lahire to the Palais Royal; Chancellor Seguier, Tallemant
de Reaux and many others entrusted him with important
works of decoration; for the Gobelins he designed a series of
large compositions. Lahire painted also a great number of
portraits, and in 1654 united in one work for the town-hall of
Paris those of the principal dignitaries of the municipality.
He died on the 28th of December 1656.
LAHN, a river of Germany, a right-bank tributary of the
Rhine. Its source is on the Jagdberg, a summit of the Rothaar
Mountains, in the cellar of a house (Lahnhof), at an elevation
of 1975 ft. It flows at first eastward and then southward to
Giessen, then turns south-westward and with a winding course
reaches the Rhine between the towns of Oberlahnstein and
Niederlahnstein. Its valley, the lower part of which divides
the Taunus hills from the Westerwald, is of ten very narrow and
picturesque; among the towns and sites of interest on its banks
are Marburg and Giessen with their universities, Wetzlarwith
its cathedral, Runkel with its castle, Limburg with its cathedral,
the castles of Schaumburg, Balduinstein, Laurenburg, Langenau,
Burgstein and Nassau, and the well-known health resort of Ems.
The Lahn is about 135 m. long; it is navigable from its mouth
to Giessen, and is partly canalized. A railway follows the valley
practically throughout. In 1796 there were here several en-
counters between the French under General Jourdan and the
troops of the archduke Johan, which resulted in the retreat of
the French across the Rhine.
LAHNDA (properly Lahnda or Lahinda, western, or Lahnde-di
boll, the language of the West), an Indo-Aryan language spoken
in the western Punjab. In 1901 the number of speakers was
3,337,91 7. Its eastern boundary is very indefinite as the language
gradually merges into the Panjabi immediately to the east, but
it is conventionally taken as the river Chenab from the Kashmir
frontier to the town of Ramnagar, and thence as a straight line
to the south-west corner of the district of Montgomery. Lahnda
is also spoken in the north of the state of Bahawalpur and of the
province of Sind, in which latter locality it is known as Siraiki.
Its western boundary is, roughly speaking, the river Indus,
across which the language of the Afghan population is Pashto
(Pushtu), while the Hindu settlers still speak Lahnda. In the
Derajat, however, Lahnda is the principal language of all classes
in the plains west of the river.
Lahnda is also known as Western Panjabi and as Jatki, or
the language of the Jats, who form the bulk of the population
whose mother-tongue it is. In the Derajat it is called Hindko
or the language of Hindus. In 1819 the Serampur missionaries
published a Lahnda version of the New Testament. They
called the language Uchchi, from the important town of Uch
near the confluence of the Jhelam and the Chenab. This name
is commonly met with in old writings. It has numerous dialects,
which fall into two main groups, a northern and a southern,
the speakers of which are separated by the Salt Range. The
principal varieties of the northern group are Hindki (the same
in meaning as Hindko) and Pothwarl. In the southern group
the most important are KhetranI, Multani, and the dialect of
Shahpur. The language possesses no literature.
Lahnda belongs to the north-western group of the outer band of
Indo-Aryan languages (q.v.), the other members being Kashmiri
(q.v.) and Sindhi, with both of which it is closely connected. See
SINDHI ; also HINDOSTANI. (G. A. GR.)
LA HOGUE, BATTLE OF, the name now given to a series of
encounters which took place from the igth to the 23rd (O.S.)
of May 1692, between an allied British and Dutch fleet and a
French force, on the northern and eastern sides of the Cotentin
in Normandy. A body of French troops, and a number of
Jacobite exiles, had been collected in the Cotentin. The
government of Louis XIV. prepared a naval armament to cover
their passage across the Channel. This force was to have been
composed of the French ships at Brest commanded by the count
of Tourville, and of a squadron which was to have joined him
from Toulon. But the Toulon ships were scattered by a gale,
and the combination was not effected. The count of Tourville,
who had put to sea to meet them, had with him only 45 or
47 ships of the line. Yet when the reinforcement failed to
join him, he steered up Channel to meet the allies, who were
known to be in strength. On the isth of May the British fleet
of 63 sail of the line, under command of Edward Russell, after-
wards earl of Orford, was joined at St Helens by the Dutch
squadron of 36 sail under Admiral van Allemonde. The apparent
rashness of the French admiral in seeking an encounter with
very superior numbers is explained by the existence of a general
belief that many British captains were discontented, and would
pass over from the service of the government established by
the Revolution of 1688 to their exiled king, James II. It is said
that Tourville had orders from Louis XIV. to attack in any case,
but the story is of doubtful authority. The British government,
aware of the Jacobite intrigues in its fleet, and of the prevalence
of discontent, took the bold course of appealing to the loyalty
and patriotism of its officers. At a meeting of the flag-officers on
board the " Britannia," Russell's flag-ship, on the isth of May,
they protested their loyalty, and the whole allied fleet put to sea
on the i8th. On the igth of May, when Cape Barfleur, the
LAHORE
81
north-eastern point of the Cotentin, was 21 m. S.W. of them,
they sighted Tourville, who was then 20 m. to the north of Cape
La Hague, the north-western extremity of the peninsula, which
must not be confounded with La Houque, or La Hogue, the
place at which the fighting ended. The allies were formed in a
line from S.S.W. to N.N.E. heading towards the English coast,
the Dutch forming the White or van division, while the Red or
centre division under Russell, and the Blue or rear Bunder Sir
John Ashby, were wholly composed of British ships. The wind
was from the S.W. and the weather hazy. Tourville bore down
and attacked about mid-day, directing his main assault on the
centre of the allies, but telling off some ships to watch the van
and rear of his enemy. As this first encounter took place off Cape
Barfleur, the battle was formerly often called by the name. On
the centre, where Tourville was directly opposed to Russell, the
fighting was severe. The British flag-ship the " Britannia "
(100), and the French, the " Soleil Royal " (100), were both
completely crippled. After several hours of conflict, the French
admiral, seeing himself outnumbered, and that the allies could
outflank him and pass through the necessarily wide intervals
in his extended line, drew off without the loss of a ship. The
wind now fell and the haze became a fog. Till the 23rd, the two
fleets remained off the north coast of the Cotentin, drifting
west with the ebb tide or east with the flood, save when they
anchored. During the night of the igth/2oth some British ships
became entangled, in the fog, with the French, and drifted
through them on the tide, with loss. On the 23rd both fleets
were near La Hague. About half the French, under D'Amfreville,
rounded the cape, and fled to St Malo through the dangerous
passage known as the Race of Alderney (le Ras Blanchard).
The others were unable to get round the cape before the flood tide
set in, and were carried to the eastward. Tourville now trans-
ferred his own flag, and left his captains free to save themselves
as they best could. He left the " Soleil Royal," and sent her
with two others to Cherbourg, where they were destroyed by Sir
Ralph Delaval. The others now ran round Cape Barfleur, and
sought refuge on the east side of the Cotentin at the anchorage
of La Houque, called by the English La Hogue, where the troops
destined for the invasion were encamped. Here 13 of them
were burnt by Sir George Rooke, in the presence of the French
generals and of the exiled king James II. From the name of
the place where the last blow was struck, the battle has come
to be known by the name of La Hogue.
Sufficient accounts of the battle may be found in Lediard's Naval
History (London, 1735), and for the French side in Tronde's Batailles
navales de la France (Paris, 1867). The escape of D'Amfreville's
squadron is the subject of Browning's poem " Herv6 Kiel."
(D. H.)
LAHORE, an ancient city of British India, the capital of the
Punjab, which gives it? name to a district and division. It lies
in 31° 35' N. and 74° 20' E. near the left bank of the River Ravi,
1706 ft. above the sea, and 1252 m. by rail from Calcutta.
It is thus in about the same latitude as Cairo, but owing to its
inland position is considerably hotter than that city, being one
of the hottest places in India in the summer time. In the cold
season the climate is pleasantly cool and bright. The native
city'is walled, about i£ m. in length W. to E. and about f m.
in breadth N. to S. Its site has been occupied from early times,
and much of it stands high above the level of the surrounding
country, raised on the remains of a succession of former habita-
tions. Some old buildings, which have been preserved, stand
now below the present surface of the ground. This is well seen
in the mosque now called Masjid Niwin (or sunken) built in
1560, the mosque of Mullah Rahmat, 7 ft. below, and the Shivali,
a very old Hindu temple, about 12 ft. below the surrounding
ground. Hindu tradition traces the origin of Lahore to Loh
or Lava, son of Rama, the hero of the Ramayana. The absence
of mention of Lahore by Alexander's historians, and the fact
that coins of the Graeco-Bactrian kings are not found among
the ruins, lead to the belief that it was not a place of any import-
ance during the earliest period of Indian history. On the other
hand, Hsiian Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist, notices the city in
his Itinerary (A.D. 630); and it seems probable, therefore, that
Lahore first rose into prominence between the ist and 7th
centuries A.D. Governed originally by a family of Chauhan
Rajputs, a branch of the house of Ajmere, Lahore fell successively
under the dominion of the Ghazni and Ghori sultans, who made
it the capital of their Indian conquests, and adorned it with
numerous buildings, almost all now in ruins. But it was under
the Mogul empire that Lahore reached its greatest size and
magnificence. The reigns of Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah
Jahan and Aurangzeb form the golden period in the annals and
architecture of the city. Akbar enlarged and repaired the fort,
and surrounded the town with a wall, portions of which remain,
built into the modern work of Ranjit Singh. Lahore formed the
capital of the Sikh empire of that monarch. At the end of the
second Sikh War, with the rest of the Punjab, it came under
the British dominion.
The architecture of Lahore cannot compare with that of
Delhi. Jahangir in 1622-1627 erected the Khwabgah or " sleep-
ing-place," a fine palace much defaced by the Sikhs but to some
extent restored in modern times; the Moti Masjid or " pearl
mosque " in the fort, used by Ranjit Singh and afterwards by
the British as a treasure-house; and also the tomb of Anarkati,
used formerly as the station church and now as a library. Shah
Jahan erected a palace and other buildings near the Khwabgah,
including the beautiful pavilion called the Naulakha from its
cost of nine lakhs, which was inlaid with precious -stones. The
mosque of Wazir Khan (1634) provides the finest example of
kashi or encaustic tile work. Aurangzeb's Jama Masjid, or
" great mosque," is a huge bare building, stiff in design, and
lacking the detailed ornament typical of buildings at Delhi.
The buildings of Ranjit Singh, especially his mausoleum, are
common and meretricious in style. He was, moreover, responsible
for much of the despoiling of the earlier buildings. The streets
of the native city are narrow and tortuous, and are best seen
from the back of an elephant. Two of the chief features of
Lahore lie outside its walls at Shahdara and Shalamar Gardens
respectively. Shahdara, which contains the tomb of the emperor
Jahangir, lies across the Ravi some 6 m. N. of the city. It
consists of a splendid marble cenotaph surrounded by a grove
of trees and gardens. The Shalamar Gardens, which were laid
out in A.D. 1637 by Shah Jahan, lie 6 m. E. of the city. They
are somewhat neglected except on festive occasions, when the
fountains are playing and the trees are lit up by lamps at
night.
The modern city of Lahore, which contained a population
of 202,964 in 1901, may be divided into four parts: the native
city, already described; the civil station or European quarter,
known as Donald Town; the Anarkali bazaar, a suburb S. of
the city wall; and the cantonment, formerly called Mian Mir.
The main street of the civil station is a portion of the grand
trunk road from Calcutta to Peshawar, locally known as the
Mall. The chief modern buildings along this road, west to east,
are the Lahore museum, containing a fine collection of Graeco-
Buddhist sculptures, found by General Cunningham in the
Yusufzai country, and arranged by Mr Lockwood Kipling, a
former curator of the museum; the cathedral, begun by Bishop
French, in Early English style, and consecrated in 1887; the
Lawrence Gardens and Montgomery Halls, surrounded by a
garden that forms the chief meeting-place of Europeans in the
afternoon; and opposite this government house, the official
residence of the lieutenant-governor of the Punjab; next to
this is the Punjab club for military men and civilians. Three
miles beyond is the Lahore cantonment, where the garrison is
stationed, except a company of British infantry, which occupies
the fort. It is the headquarters of the 3rd division of the northern
army. Lahore is an important junction on the North- Western
railway system, but has little local trade or manufacture. The
chief industries are silk goods, gold and silver lace, metal work
and carpets which are made in the Lahore gaol. There are also
cotton mills, flour mills, an ice-factory, and several factories
for mineral waters, oils, soap, leather goods, &c. Lahore is
an important educational centre. Here are the Punjab University
with five colleges, medical and law colleges, a central training
82
LA HOZ Y MOTA— LAIBACH
college, the Aitchison Chiefs' College for the sons of native
noblemen, and a number of other high schools and technical
and special schools.
The DISTRICT OF LAHORE has an area of 3704 sq. m., and its
population in 1901 was 1,162,109, consisting chiefly of Punjabi
Mahommedans with a large admixture of Hindus and Sikhs.
In the north-west the district includes a large part of the barren
Rechna Doab, while south of the Ravi is a desolate alluvial
tract, liable to floods. The Manjha plateau, however, between
the Ravi and the Beas, has been rendered fertile by the Bari
Doab canal. The principal crops are wheat, pulse, millets,
maize, oil-seeds and cotton. There are numerous factories for
ginning and pressing cotton. Irrigation is provided by the main
line of the Bari Doab canal and its branches, and by inundation-
cuts from the Sutlej. The district is crossed in several directions
by lines of the North- Western railway. Lahore, Kasur, Chunian
and Raiwind are the chief trade centres.
The DIVISION or LAHORE extends along the right bank of
the Sutlej from the Himalayas to Multan. It comprises the six
districts of Sialkot, Gujranwala, Montgomery, Lahore, Amritsar
and Gurdaspur. Totalarea, 17,154 sq.m.;pop. (1901) 5,598,463.
The commissioner for the division also exercises political control
over the hill state of Chamba. The common language of the
rural population and of artisans is Punjabi; while Urdu or
Hindustani is spoken by the educated classes. So far from the
seaboard, the range between extremes of winter and summer
temperature in the sub-tropics is great. The mean temperature
in the shade in June is about 92° F., in January about 50°. In
midsummer the thermometer sometimes rises to 115° in the
shade, and remains on some occasions as high as 105° throughout
the night. In winter the morning temperature is sometimes
as low as 20°. The rainfall is uncertain, ranging from 8 in. to
25, with an average of 15 in. The country as a whole is parched
and arid, and greatly dependent on irrigation.
LA HOZ Y MOTA, JUAN CLAUDIO DE (i63O?-i7io?),
Spanish dramatist, was born in Madrid. He became a knight
of Santiago in 1653, and soon afterwards succeeded his father
as regidor of Burgos. In 1665 he was nominated to an important
post at the Treasury, and in his later years acted as official
censor of the Madrid theatres. On the i3th of August 1709
he signed his play entitled Josef, Salvador de Egiplo, and is pre-
sumed to have died in the following year. Hoz is not remark-
able for originality of conception, but his recasts of plays by
earlier writers are distinguished by an adroitness which accounts
for the esteem in which he was held by his contemporaries.
El Montane.s Juan Pascal and El castigo de la miseria, reprinted
in the Biblioteca de Autores Espanoles, give a just idea of his
adaptable talent.
LAHR, a town in the grand-duchy of Baden, on the Schutter,
about 9 m. S. of Offenburg, and on the railway Dinglingen-Lahr.
Pop. (1900) 13,577. One of the busiest towns in Baden, it
carries on manufactures of tobacco and cigars, woollen goods,
chicory, leather, pasteboard, hats and numerous other articles,
has considerable trade in wine, while among its other industries
are printing and lithography. Lahr first appears as a town in
1278, and after several vicissitudes it passed wholly to Baden
in 1803.
See Stein, Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Lahr (Lahr, 1827) ;
and Siitterlin, Lahr und seine Umgebung (Lahr, 1904).
LAIBACH (Slovenian, Ljubljana), capital of the Austrian
duchy of Carniola, 237 m. S.S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900)
36,547, mostly Slovene. It is situated on the Laibach, near its
influx into the Save, and consists of the town proper and eight
suburbs. Laibach is an episcopal see, and possesses a cathedral
in the Italian style, several beautiful churches, a town hall in
Renaissance style and a castle, built in the i sth century, on the
Schlossberg, an eminence which commands the town. Laibach
is the principal centre of the national Slovenian movement,
and it contains a Slovene theatre and several societies for the
promotion of science and literature in the native tongue. The
Slovenian language is in general official use, and the municipal
administration is purely Slovenian. The industries include
manufactures of pottery, bricks, oil, linen and woollen cloth,
fire-hose and paper.
Laibach is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Emona or
Aemona, founded by the emperor Augustus in 34 B.C. It was
besieged by Alaric in 400, and in 451 it was desolated by the Huns.
In 900 Laibach suffered much from the Magyars, who were, however,
defeated there in 914. In the I2th century the town passed into the
hands of the dukes of Carinthia; in 1270 it was taken by Ottocar of
Bohemia; and in 1277 it came under the Habsburgs. In the early
part of the 1 5th century the town was several times besieged by the
Turks. The bishopric was founded in 1461. On the I7th of March
1797 and again on the 3rd of June 1809 Laibach was taken by the
French, and from 1809 to 1813 it became the seat of their general
government of the Illyrian provinces. From 1816 to 1849 Laibach
was the capital of the kingdom of Illyria. The town is also historic-
ally known from the congress of Laibach, which assembled here in
1821 (see below). Laibach suffered severely on the 1 4th of April
1895 from an earthquake.
Congress or Conference of Laibach. — Before the break-up of
the conference of Troppau (q.v.), it had been decided to adjourn
it till the following January, and to invite the attendance of
the king of Naples, Laibach being chosen as the place of meet-
ing. Castlereagh, in the name of Great Britain, had cordially
approved this invitation, as " implying negotiation " and there-
fore as a retreat from the position taken up in the Troppau
Protocol. Before leaving Troppau, however, the three autocratic
powers, Russia, Austria and Prussia, had issued, on the Sth of
December 1820, a circular letter, in which they reiterated the
principles of the Protocol, i.e. the right and duty of the powers
responsible for the peace of Europe to intervene to suppress
any revolutionary movement by which they might conceive
that peace to be endangered (Hertslet, No. 105). Against this
view Castlereagh once more protested in a circular despatch of
the i gth of January 1821, in which he clearly differentiated
between the objectionable general principles advanced by the
three powers, and the particular case of the unrest in Italy,
the immediate concern not of Europe at large, but of Austria
and of any other Italian powers which might consider themselves
endangered (Hertslet, No. 107).
The conference opened on the 26th of January 1821, and its
constitution emphasized the divergences revealed in the above
circulars. The emperors of Russia and Austria were present
in person, and with them were Counts Nesselrode and Capo
dTstria, Metternich and Baron Vincent; Prussia and France
were represented by plenipotentiaries. But Great Britain, on
the ground that she had no immediate interest in the Italian
question, was represented only by Lord Stewart, the ambassador
at Vienna, who was not armed with full powers, his mission being
to watch the proceedings and to see that nothing was done
beyond or in violation of the treaties. Of the Italian princes,
Ferdinand of Naples and the duke of Modena came in person;
the rest were represented by plenipotentiaries.
It was soon clear that a more or less open breach between
Great Britain and the other powers was inevitable, Metternich
was anxious to secure an apparent unanimity of the powers to
back the Austrian intervention in Naples, and every device
was used to entrap the English representative into subscribing
a formula which would have seemed to commit Great Britain
to the principles of the other allies. When these devices failed,
attempts were made unsuccessfully to exclude Lord Stewart
from the conferences on the ground of defective powers. Finally
he was forced to an open protest, which he caused to be inscribed
on the journals, but the action of Capo d'Istria in reading to the
assembled Italian ministers, who were by no means reconciled
to the large claims implied in the Austrian intervention, a declara-
tion in which as the result of the " intimate union established
by solemn acts between all the European powers " the Russian
emperor offered to the allies " the aid of his arms, should new
revolutions threaten new dangers," an attempt to revive that
idea of a " universal union " based on the Holy Alliance (q.v.)
against which Great Britain had consistently protested.
The objections of Great Britain were, however, not so much
to an Austrian intervention in Naples as to the far-reaching
principles by which it was sought to justify it. King Ferdinand
had been invited to Laibach, according to the circular of the
LAIDLAW— LAING, M.
8th of December, in order that he might be free to act as
" mediator between his erring peoples and the states whose
tranquillity they threatened." The cynical use he made of his
" freedom " to repudiate obligations solemnly contracted is
described elsewhere (see NAPLES, History). The result of this
action was the Neapolitan declaration of war and the occupa-
tion of Naples by Austria, with the sanction of the congress.
This was preceded, on the loth of March, by the revolt of the
garrison of Alessandria and the military revolution in Piedmont,
which in its turn was suppressed, as a result of negotiations at
Laibach, by Austrian troops. It was at Laibach, too, that, on
the 1 9th of March, the emperor Alexander received the news
of Ypsilanti's invasion of the Danubian principalities, which
heralded the outbreak of the War of Greek Independence, and
from Laibach Capo d'Istria addressed to the Greek leader the
tsar's repudiation of his action.
The conference closed on the i2th of May, on which date
Russia, Austria and Prussia issued a declaration (Hertslet,
No. 108) " to proclaim to the world the principles which guided
them " in coming " to the assistance of subdued peoples," a
declaration which once more affirmed the principles of the
Troppau Protocol. In this lay the European significance of the
Laibach conference, of which the activities had been mainly
confined to Italy. The issue of the declaration without the
signatures of the representatives of Great Britain and France
proclaimed the disunion of the alliance, within which — to use
Lord Stewart's words — there existed " a triple understanding
which bound the parties to carry forward their own views in
spite of any difference of opinion between them and the two
great constitutional governments."
No separate history of the congress exists, but innumerable refer-
ences are to be found in general histories and in memoirs, correspond-
ence, &c., of the time. See Sir E. Hertslet, Map of Europe (London,
1875); Castlereagh, Correspondence', Metternich, Memoirs; N.
Bianchi, Storia documentata della diplomazia Europea in Italia (8 vols.,
Turin, 1865-1872); Gentz's correspondence (see GENTZ, F. VON).
Valuable unpublished correspondence is preserved at the Record
Office in the volumes marked F. O., Austria, Lord Stewart, January
to February 1821, and March to September 1821. (W. A. P.)
LAIDLAW, WILLIAM (1780-1845), friend and amanuensis
of Sir Walter Scott, was born at Blackhouse, Selkirkshire, on
the igth of November 1780, the son of a sheep farmer. After
an elementary education in Peebles he returned to work upon
his father's farm. James Hogg, the shepherd poet, who was
employed at Blackhouse for some years, became Laidlaw's
friend and appreciative critic. Together they assisted Scott
by supplying material for his Border Minstrelsy, and Laidlaw,
after two failures as a farmer in Midlothian and Peebleshire,
became Scott's steward at Abbotsford. He also acted as Scott's
amanuensis at different times, taking down a large part of The
Bride of Lammermoor, The Legend of Montrose and Ivanhoe
from the author's dictation. He died at Contin near Dingwall,
Ross-shire, on the i8th of May 1845. Of his poetry, little is
known except Lucy's Flittin' in Hogg's Forest Minstrel.
LAING, ALEXANDER GORDON (1793-1826), Scottish
explorer, the first European to reach Timbuktu, was born at
Edinburgh on the 27th of December 1793. He was educated
by his father, William Laing, a private teacher of classics, and
at Edinburgh University. In 1811 he went to Barbados as
clerk to his maternal uncle Colonel (afterwards General) Gabriel
Gordon. Through General Sir George Beckwith, governor of
Barbados, he obtained an ensigncy in the York Light Infantry.
He was employed in the West Indies, and in 1822 was promoted
to a company in the Royal African Corps. In that year, while
with his regiment at Sierra Leone, he was sent by the governor,
Sir Charles MacCarthy, to the Mandingo country, with the double
object of opening up commerce and endeavouring to abolish the
slave trade in that region. Later in the same year Laing visited
Falaba, the capital of the Sulima country, and ascertained the
source of the Rokell. He endeavoured to reach the source of
the Niger, but was stopped by the natives. He was, however,
enabled to fix it with approximate accuracy. He took an active
part in the Ashanti War of 1823-24, and was sent home frith the
despatches containing the news of the death in action of Sir
Charles MacCarthy. Henry, 3rd Earl Bathurst, then secretary
for the colonies, instructed Captain Laing to undertake a journey,
via Tripoli and Timbuktu, to further elucidate the hydrography
of the Niger basin. Laing left England in February 1825, and at
Tripoli on the i4th of July following he married Emma Warring-
ton, daughter of the British consul. Two days later, leaving his
bride behind, he started to cross the Sahara, being accompanied
by a sheikh who was subsequently accused of planning his
murder. Ghadames was reached, by an indirect route, in
October 1825, and in December Laing was in the Tuat territory,
where he was well received by the- Tuareg. On the zoth of
January 1826 he left Tuat, and made for Timbuktu across the
desert of Tanezroft. Letters from him written in May and
July following told of sufferings from fever and the plundering
of his caravan by Tuareg, Laing being wounded in twenty-four
places in the fighting. Another letter dated from Timbuktu
on the 2ist of September announced his arrival in that city on
the preceding i8th of August, and the insecurity of his position
owing to the hostility of the Fula chieftain Bello, then ruling
the city. He added that he intended leaving Timbuktu in
three days' time. No further news was received from the
traveller. From native information it was ascertained that he
left Timbuktu on the day he had planned and was murdered
on the night. of the 26th of September 1826. His papers were
never recovered, though it is believed that they were secretly
brought to Tripoli in 1828. In 1903 the French government
placed a tablet bearing the name of the explorer and the date of
his visit on the house occupied by him during his thirty-eight
days' stay in Timbuktu.
While in England in 1824 Laing prepared a narrative of his earlier
journeys, which was published in 1825 and entitled Travels in the
Timannee, Kooranko and Soolima Countries, in Western Africa.
LAING, DAVID (1793-1878), Scottish antiquary, the son of
William Laing, a bookseller in Edinburgh, was born in that city
on the 20th of April 1793. Educated at the Canongate Grammar
School, when fourteen he was apprenticed to his father. Shortly
after the death of the latter in 1837, Laing was elected to the
librarianship of the Signet Library, which post he retained till
his death. Apart from an extraordinary general bibliographical
knowledge, Laing was best known as a lifelong student of the
literary and artistic history of Scotland. He published no
original volumes, but contented himself with editing the works
of others. Of these, the chief are — Dunbar's Works (2 vols.,
1834), with a supplement added in 1865; Robert Baillie's
Letters and Journals (3 vols., 1841-1842); John Knox's Works
(6 vols., 1846-1864); Poems and Fables of Robert Henryson
(1865); Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland
(3 vols., 1872-1879); Sir David Lyndsay's Poetical Works
(3 vols., 1879). Laing was for more than fifty years a member
of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, and he contributed
upwards of a hundred separate papers to their Proceedings.
He was also for more than forty years secretary to the Bannatyne
Club, many of the publications of which were edited by him.
He was struck with paralysis in 1878 while in the Signet Library,
and it is related that, on recovering consciousness, he looked
about and asked if a proof of Wyntoun had been sent from the
printers. He died a few days afterwards, on the i8th of October,
in his eighty-sixth year. His library was sold by auction, and
realized £16,137. To the university of Edinburgh he bequeathed
his collection of MSS.
See the Biographical Memoir prefixed to Select Remains of Ancient,
Popular and Romance Poetry of Scotland, edited by John Small
(Edinburgh, 1885); also T. G. Stevenson, Notices of David Laing
with List of his Publications, &fc. (privately printed 1878).
LAING, MALCOLM (1762-1818), Scottish historian, son of
Robert Laing, and elder brother of Samuel Laing the elder,
was born on his paternal estate on the Mainland of Orkney.
Having studied at the grammar school of Kirkwall and at
Edinburgh University, he was called to the Scotch bar in 1785,
but devoted his time mainly to historical studies. In 1793 he
completed the sixth and last volume of Robert Henry's History
of Great Britain, the portion which he wrote being in its strongly
84
LAING, S.— LAISANT
liberal tone at variance with the preceding part of the work;
and in 1802 he published his History of Scotland from the Union of
the Crowns to the Union of the Kingdoms, a work showing consider-
able research. Attached to the History was a dissertation on
the Cowrie conspiracy, and another on the supposed authenticity
of Ossian's poems. In another dissertation, prefixed to a second
and corrected edition of the History published in 1804, Laing
endeavoured to prove that Mary, queen of Scots, wrote the
Casket Letters, and was partly responsible for the murder of
Lord Darnley. In the same year he edited the Life and Historic
of King James VI., and in 1805 brought out in two volumes an
edition of Ossian's poems. . Laing, who was a friend of Charles
James Fox, was member of parliament for Orkney and Shetland
from 1807 to 1812. He died on the 6th of November 1818.
LAING, SAMUEL (1810-1897), British author and railway
administrator, was born at Edinburgh on the i2th of December
1 8 10. He was the nephew of Malcolm Laing, the historian of
Scotland; and his father, Samuel Laing (1780-1868), was also
a well-known author, whose books on Norway and Sweden
attracted much attention. Samuel Laing the younger entered
St John's College, Cambridge, in 1827, and after graduating as
second wrangler and Smith's prizeman, was elected a fellow,
and remained at Cambridge temporarily as a coach. He was
called to the bar in 1837, and became private secretary to Mr
Labouchere (afterwards Lord Taunton), the president of the
Board of Trade. In 1842 he was made secretary to the railway
department, and retained this post till 1847. He had by then
become an authority on railway working, and had been a member
of the Dalhousie Railway Commission; it was at his suggestion
that the " parliamentary " rate of a penny a mile was instituted.
In 1848 he was appointed chairman and managing director of
the London, Brighton & South Coast Railway, and his business
faculty showed itself in the largely increased prosperity of the
line. He also became chairman (1852) of the Crystal Palace
Company, but retired from both posts in 1855. In 1852 he
entered parliament as a Liberal for Wick, and after losing his
seat in 1857, was re-elected in 1859, in which year he was ap-
pointed financial secretary to the Treasury; in 1860 he was
made finance minister in India. On returning from India, he
was re-elected to parliament for Wick in 1865. He was defeated
in 1868, but in 1873 he was returned for Orkney and Shetland,
and retained his seat till 1885. Meanwhile he had been re-
appointed chairman of the Brighton line in 1867, and continued
in that post till 1894, being generally recognized as an admirable
administrator. He was also chairman of the Railway Debenture
Trust and the Railway Share Trust. In later life he became
well known as an author, his Modern Science and Modern
Thought (1885), Problems of the Future (1889) and Human
Origins (1892) being widely read., not only by reason of the
writer's influential position, experience of affairs and clear
style, but also through their popular and at the same time
well-informed treatment of the scientific problems of the day.
Laing died at Sydenham on the 6th of August 1897.
LAING'S [or LANG'S] NEK, a pass through the Drakensberg,
South Africa, immediately north of Majuba (?.».), at an elevation
of 5400 to 6000 ft. It is the lowest part of a ridge which slopes
from Majuba to the Buffalo river,' and before the opening of
the railway in 1891 the road over the nek was the main artery
of communication between Durban and Pretoria. The railway
pierces the nek by a tunnel 2213 ft. long. When the Boers
rose in revolt in December 1880 they occupied Laing's Nek
to oppose the entry of British reinforcements into the Transvaal.
On the 28th of January 1881 a small British force endeavoured
to drive the Boers from the pass, but was forced to retire.
LAIRD, MACGREGOR (1808-1861), Scottish merchant,
pioneer of British trade on the Niger, was born at Greenock in
1808, the younger son of William Laird, founder of the Birken-
head firm of shipbuilders of that name. In 1831 Laird and
certain Liverpool merchants formed a company for the commercial
development of the Niger regions, the lower course of the Niger
having been made known that year by Richard and John Lander.
In 1832 the company despatched two small ships to the Niger,
one, the " Alburkah," a paddle-wheel steamer of 55 tons designed
by Laird, being the first iron vessel to make an ocean voyage.
Macgregor Laird went with the expedition, which was led by
Richard Lander and numbered forty-eight Europeans, of whom
all but nine died from fever or, in the case of Lander, from
wounds. Laird went up the Niger to the confluence of the
Benue (then called the Shary or Tchadda), which he was the
first white man to ascend. He did not go far up the river but
formed an accurate idea as to its source and course. The expedi-
tion returned to Liverpool in 1834, Laird and Surgeon R. A. K.
Oldfield being the only surviving officers besides Captain (then
Lieut.) William Allen, R.N., who accompanied the expedition
by order of the Admiralty to survey the river. Laird and
Oldfield published in 1837 in two volumes the Narrative of an
Expedition into the Interior of Africa by the River Niger . . .in
1832, 1833, 1834. Commercially the expedition had been
unsuccessful, but Laird had gained experience invaluable to
his successors. He never returned to Africa but henceforth
devoted himself largely to the development of trade with West
Africa and especially to the opening up of the countries now
forming the British protectorates of Nigeria. One of-his principal
reasons for so doing was his belief that this method was the best
means of stopping the slave trade and raising the social condition
of the Africans. In 1854 he sent out at his own charges, but with
the support of the British government, a small steamer, the
" Pleiad," which under W. B. Baikie made so successful a voyage
that Laird induced the government to sign contracts for annual
trading trips by steamers specially built for navigation of the
Niger and Benue. Various stations were founded on the Niger,
and though government support was withdrawn after the death
of Laird and Baikie, British traders continued to frequent the
river, which Laird had opened up with little or no personal
advantage. Laird's interests were not, however, wholly African.
In 1837 he was one of the promoters of a company formed to
run steamships between England and New York, and in 1838
the " Sirius," sent out by this company, was the first ship to
cross the Atlantic from Europe entirely under steam. Laird
died in London on the gth of January 1861.
His elder brother, JOHN LAIRD (1805-1874), was one of the first
to use iron in the construction of ships; in 1829 he made an
iron lighter of 60 tons which was used on canals and lakes in
Ireland; in 1834 he built the paddle steamer " John Randolph"
for Savannah, U.S.A., stated to be the first iron ship seen in
America. For the East India Company he built in 1839 the first
iron vessel carrying guns and he was also the designer of the
famous " Birkenhead." A Conservative in politics, he repre-
sented Birkenhead in the House of Commons from 1861 to his
death.
LAIS, the name of two Greek courtesans, generally distin-
guished as follows, (i) The elder, a native of Corinth, born
c. 480 B.C., was famous for her greed and hardheartedness, which
gained her the nickname of Axine (the axe). Among her lovers
were the philosophers Aristippus and Diogenes, and Eubatas
(or Aristoteles) of Cyrene, a famous runner. In her old age
she became a drunkard. Her grave was shown in the Craneion
near Corinth, surmounted by a lioness tearing a ram. (2) The
younger, daughter of Timandra the mistress of Alcibiades, born
at Hyccara in Sicily c. 420 B.C., taken to Corinth during the
Sicilian expedition. The painter Apelles, who saw her drawing
water from the fountain of Peirene, was struck by her beauty,
and took her as a model. Having followed a handsome Thessalian
to his native land, she was slain in the temple of Aphrodite by
women who were jealous of her beauty. Many anecdotes are
told of a Lai's by Athenaeus, Aelian, Pausanias, and she forms
the subject of many epigrams in the Greek Anthology; but,
owing to the similarity of names, there is considerable uncertainty
to whom they refer. The name itself, like Phryne, was used
as a general term for a courtesan.
See F. Jacobs, Vermischte Schriften, iv. (1830).
LAISANT, CHARLES ANNE (1841- ), French politician,
was born at Nantes on the ist of November 1841, and waa
educated at the§ ficole Polytechnique as a military engineer.
LAI- YANG— LAKE, IST VISCOUNT
He defended the fort of Issy at the siege of Paris, and served
in Corsica and in Algeria in 1873. In 1876 he resigned his
commission to enter the Chamber as deputy for Nantes in the
republican interest, and in 1879 he became director of the Petit
Parisien. For alleged libel on General Courtot de Cissey in this
paper he was heavily fined. In the Chamber he spoke chiefly
on army questions; and was chairman of a commission appointed
to consider army legislation, resigning in 1887 on the refusal
of the Chamber to sanction the abolition of exemptions of any
kind. He then became an adherent of the revisionist policy
of General Boulanger and a member of the League of Patriots.
He was elected Boulangist deputy for the i8th Parisian arron-
dissement in 1889. He did not seek re-election in 1893, but
devoted himself thenceforward to mathematics, helping to make
known in France the theories of Giusto Bellavitis. He was
attached to the staff of the Ecole Poly technique, and in 1903-
1904 was president of the French Association for the Advance-
ment of Science.
In addition to his political pamphlets Pourquoi et comment je suis
Boulangiste (1887) and L'Anarchie bourgeoise (1887), he published
mathematical works, among them Introduction a I'etude des quart-
ernions (1881) and Theorie et applications des equipollences (1887).
LAI-YANG, a city in the Chinese province of Shan-tung,
in 37° N., 120° 55' E., about the middle of the eastern peninsula,
on the highway running south from Chi-fu to Kin-Kia or Ting-
tsu harbour. It is surrounded by well-kept walls of great
antiquity, and its main streets are spanned by large pailous
or monumental arches, some dating from the time of the emperor
Tai-ting-ti of the Yuan dynasty (1324). There are extensive
suburbs both to the north and south, and the total population
is estimated at 50,0x20. The so-called Ailanthus silk produced
by Saturnia cynthia is woven at Lai-yang into a strong fabric;
and the manufacture of the peculiar kind of wax obtained from
the la-shu or wax-tree insect is largely carried on in the vicinity.
LAKANAL, JOSEPH (1762-1845), French politician, was born
at Serres (Ariege) on the I4thof July 1762. His name, origin-
ally Lacanal, was altered to distinguish him from his Royalist
brothers. He joined one of the teachihg congregations, and for
fourteen years taught in their schools. When elected by his
native department to the Convention in 1792 he was acting
as vicar to his uncle Bernard Font (1723-1800), the constitutional
bishop of Pamiers. In the Convention he held apart from the
various party sections, although he voted for the death of
Louis XVI. He rendered great service to the Revolution by
his practical knowledge of education. He became a member
of the Committee of Public Instruction early in 1793, and after
carrying many useful decrees on the preservation of national
monuments, on the military schools, on the reorganization
of the Museum of Natural History and other matters, he brought
forward on the 26th of June his Projet d'education nationale
(printed at the Imprimerie Nationale), which proposed to lay
the burden or primary education on the public funds, but to
leave secondary education to private enterprise. Provision was
also made for public festivals, and a central commission was to
be entrusted with educational questions. The scheme, in the
main the work of Sieyes, was refused by the Convention, who
submitted the whole question to a special commission of six,
which under the influence of Robespierre adopted a report
by Michel le Peletier de Saint Fargeau shortly before his tragic
death. Lakanal, who was a member of the commission, now
began to work for the organization of higher education, and
abandoning the principle of his Projet advocated the establish-
ment of state-aided schools for primary, secondary and university
education. In October 1793 he was sent by the Convention to
the south-western departments and did not return to Paris
until after the revolution of Thermidor. He now became
president of the Education Committee and promptly abolished
the system which had had Robespierre's support. He drew up
schemes for departmental normal schools, for primary schools
(reviving in substance the Projet} and central schools. He
presently acquiesced in the supersession of his own system,
but continued his educational reports after his election to the
Council of the Five Hundred. In 1799 he was sent by the
Directory to organize the defence of the four departments on
the left bank of the Rhine threatened by invasion. Under the
Consulate he resumed his professional work, and after Waterloo
retired to America, where he became president of the university
of Louisiana. He returned to France in 1834, and shortly
afterwards, in spite of his advanced age, married a second time.
He died in Paris on the I4th of February 1845; his widow
survived till 1881. Lakanal was an original member of the
Institute of France. He published in 1838 an Expose sommaire
des travaux de Joseph Lakanal.
His eloge at the Academy of Moral and Political Science, of which
he was a member, was pronounced by the comte de Re'musat
(February 16, 1845), and a Notice historique by F. A. M. Mignet was
read on the 2nd of May 1857. See also notices by Emile Darnaud
(Paris, 1874), " Marcus " (Paris, 1879), P. Legendre in Hpmmes de la
revolution (Paris, 1882), E. Guillon, Lakanal et I'instruction publique
(Paris, 1881). For details of the reports submitted by him to the
government see M. Tourneux, " Histoire de I'instruction pubjique,
actes et deliberations de la convention, &c." in Bibliog. de I'hist. de
Paris (vol. iii., 1900) ; also A. Robert and G. Cougny, Dictionnaire
des parlementaires (vol. ii., 1890).
LAKE, GERARD LAKE, IST VISCOUNT (1744-1808), British
general, was born on the 2 7th of July 1744. He entered the
foot guards in 1758, becoming lieutenant (captain in the army)
1762, captain (lieut.-colonel) in 1776, major 1784, and lieut.-
colonel in 1 792, by which time he was a general officer in the army.
He served with his regiment in Germany in 1760-1762 and with
a composite battalion in the Yorktown campaign of 1781.
After this he was equerry to the prince of Wales, afterwards
George IV. In 1790 he became a major-general, and in 1793
was appointed to command the Guards Brigade in the duke of
York's army in Flanders. He was in command at the brilliant
affair of Lincelles, on the i8th of August 1793, and served on the
continent (except for a short time when seriously ill) until April
1 794. He had now sold his lieut.-colonelcy in the guards,- and
had become colonel of the 53rd foot and governor of Limerick.
In 1797 he was promoted lieut.-general. In the following year
the Irish rebellion broke out. Lake, who was then serving in
Ireland, succeeded Sir Ralph Abercromby in command of the
troops in April 1798, issued a proclamation ordering the surrender
of all arms by the civil population of Ulster, and on the 2ist of
June routed the rebels at Vinegar Hill (near Enniscorthy, Co.
Wexford). He exercised great, but perhaps not unjustified,
severity towards all rebels found in arms. Lord Cornwallis
now assumed the chief command in Ireland, and in August sent
Lake to oppose the French expedition which landed at Killala
Bay. On the 2gth of the same month Lake arrived at Castlebar,
but only in time to witness the disgraceful rout of the troops
under General Hely-Hutchinson (afterwards 2nd earl of Donough-
more) ; but he retrieved this disaster by compelling the surrender
of the French at Ballinamuck, near Cloone, on the 8th of
September. In 1799 Lake returned to England, and soon after-
wards obtained the command in chief in India. He took over
his duties at Calcutta in July 1801, and applied himself to the
improvement of the Indian army, especially in the direction
of making all arms, infantry, cavalry and artillery, more mobile
and more manageable. In 1802 he was made a full general.
On the outbreak of war with the Mahratta confederacy in
1803 General Lake took the field against Sindhia, and within
two months defeated the Mahrattas at Coel, stormed Aligahr,
took Delhi and Agra, and won the great victory of Laswari
(November ist, 1803), where the power of Sindhia was completely
broken, with the loss of thirty-one disciplined battah'ons, trained
and officered by Frenchmen, and 426 pieces of ordnance. This
defeat, followed a few days later by Major-General Arthur
Wellesley's victory at Argaum, compelled Sindhia to come to
terms, and a treaty with him was signed in December 1803.
Operations were, however, continued against his confederate,
Holkar, who, on the i7th of November 1804, was defeated by
Lake at Farrukhabad. But the fortress of Bhurtpore held out
against four assaults early in 1805, and Cornwallis, who succeeded
Wellesley as governor-general in July of that year — -superseding
Lake at the same time as commander-in-chief — determined
86
LAKE
to put an end to the war. But after the death of Cornwallis
in October of the same year, Lake pursued Holkar into the
Punjab and compelled him to surrender at Amritsar in December
1805. Wellesley in a despatch attributed much of the success
of the war to Lake's " matchless energy, ability and valour."
For his services Lake received the thanks of parliament, and was
rewarded by a peerage in September 1804. At the conclusion
of the war he returned to England, and in 1807 he was created a
viscount. He represented Aylesbury in the House of Commons
from 1790 to 1802, and he also was brought into the Irish parlia-
ment by the government as member for Armagh in 1799 to
vote for the Union. He died in London on the 2oth of February
1808.
See H. Pearse, Memoir of the Life and Services of Viscount Lake
(London, 1908); G. B. Malleson, Decisive Battles of India (1883);
J. Grant Duff, History of the Mahrattas (1873); short memoir in
From Cromwell to Wellington, ed. Spenser Wilkinson.
LAKE. Professor Forel of Switzerland, the founder of the
science of limnology (Gr. Xi/ucr;, a lake), defines a lake (Lat.
lacus) as a mass of still water situated in a depression of the
ground, without direct communication with the sea. The term
is sometimes applied to widened parts of rivers, and sometimes
to bodies of water which lie along sea-coasts, even at sea-level
and in direct communication with the sea. The terms pond,
tarn, loch and mere are applied to smaller lakes according to size
and position. Some lakes are so large that an observer cannot
see low objects situated on the opposite shore, owing to the
lake-surface assuming the general curvature of the earth's
surface. Lakes are nearly universally distributed, but are more
abundant in high than in low latitudes. They are abundant in
mountainous regions, especially in those which have been
recently glaciated. They are frequent along rivers which have
low gradients and wide flats, where they are clearly connected
with the changing channel of the river. Low lands in proximity
to the sea, especially in wet climates, have numerous lakes, as,
for instance, Florida. Lakes may be either fresh or salt, according
to the nature of the climate, some being much more salt than the
sea itself. They occur in all altitudes; Lake Titicaca in South
America is 12,500 ft. above sea-level, and Yellowstone Lake
in the United States is 7741 ft. above the sea; on the other hand,
the surface of the Caspian Sea is 86 ft., the Sea of Tiberias 682 ft.
and the Dead Sea 1292 ft. below the level of the ocean.
The primary source of lake water is atmospheric precipitation,
which may reach the lakes through rain, melting ice and snow,
springs, rivers and immediate run-off from the land-surfaces.
The surface of the earth, with which we are directly in touch,
is composed of lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere, and
these interpenetrate. Lakes, rivers, the water-vapour of the
atmosphere and the water of hydration of the lithosphere, must
all be regarded as outlying portions of the hydrosphere, which
is chiefly made up of the great oceans. Lakes may be compared
to oceanic islands. Just as an oceanic island presents many
peculiarities in its rocks, soil, fauna and flora, due to its isolation
from the larger terrestrial masses, so does a lake present peculi-
arities and an individuality in its physical, chemical and biological
features, owing to its position and separation from the waters
of the great oceans.
Origin of Lakes. — From the geological point of view, lakes may be
arranged into three groups: (A) Rock- Basins, (B) Barrier- Basins
and (C) Organic Basins.
A. ROCK-BASINS have been formed in several ways: —
1. By slow movements of the earth's crust, during the formation of
mountains; the Lake of Geneva in Switzerland and the Lake of
Annecy in France are due to the subsidence or warping of part of the
Alps; on the other hand, Lakes Stefanie, Rudolf Albert Nyanza,
Tanganyika and Nyasa in Africa, and the Dead Sea in Asia Minor,
are all believed to lie in a great rift or sunken valley.
2. By Volcanic Agencies. — Crater-lakes formed on the sites of
dormant volcanoes may be from a few yards to several miles in
width, have generally a circular form, and are often without visible
outlet. Excellent examples of such lakes are to be seen in the pro-
vince of Rome (Italy) and in the central plateau of France, where
M. Dejebecque found the Lake of Issarles 329 ft. in depth. The most
splendid crater-lake is found on the summit of the Cascade range of
Southern Oregon (U.S.A.). This lake is 2000 ft. in depth.
3. By Subsidence due to Subterranean Channels and Caves in Lime-
stone Rocks. — When the roofs of great limestone caves or underground
lakes fall in, they produce at the surface what are called limestone
sinks. Lakes similar to these are also found in regions abounding in
rock-salt deposits; the Jura range offers many such lakes.
4. By Glacier Erosion. — A. C. Ramsay has shown that innumerable
lakes of the northern hemisphere do not lie in fissures produced by
underground disturbances, nor in areas of subsidence, nor in syn-
clinal folds of strata, but are the results of glacial erosion. Many
flat alluvial plains above gorges in Switzerland, as well as in the
Highlands of Scotland, were, without doubt, what Sir Archibald
Geikie calls glen-lakes, or true rock-basins, which have been filled
up by sand and mud brought into them by their tributary streams.
B. BARRIER-BASINS. — These may be due to the following causes :—
1. A landslip often occurs in mountainous regions, where strata,
dipping towards the valley, rest on soft layers ; the hard rocks slip
into the valley after heavy rains, damming back the drainage, which
then forms a barrier-basin. Many small lakes high up in the Alps
and Pyrenees are formed by a river being dammed back in this way.
2. By a Glacier. — In Alaska, in Scandinavia and in the Alps a
glacier often bars the mouth of a tributary valley, the stream flowing
therein is dammed back, and a lake is thus formed. The best-known
lake of this kind is the Marjelen Lake in the Alps, near the great
Aletsch Glacier. Lake Castain in Alaska is barred by the Malaspina
Glacier; it is 2 or 3 m. long and I m. in width when at its highest
level ; it discharges through a tunnel 9 m. in length beneath the ice-
sheet. The famous parallel roads of Glen Roy in Scotland are suc-
cessive terraces formed along the shores of a glacial lake during the
waning glacial epoch. Lake Agassiz, which during the glacial period
occupied the valley of the Red River, and of which the present Lake
Winnipeg is a remnant, was formed by an ice-dam along the margin
of two great ice-sheets. It is estimated to have been 700 m. in length,
and to have covered an area of 110,000 sq. m., thus exceeding the
total area of the five great North American lakes: Superior (31,200),
Michigan (22,450), Huron with Georgian Bay (23,800), Erie (9960)
and Ontario (7240).
3. By the Lateral Moraine of an Actual Glacier. — These lakes some-
times occur in the Alps of Central Europe and in the Pyrenees
Mountains.
4. By the Frontal Moraine of an Ancient Glacier. — The barrier in
this case consists of the last moraine left by the retreating glacier.
Such lakes are abundant in the northern hemisphere, especially in
Scotland and the Alps.
5. By Irregular Deposition of Glacial Drift.— After the retreat of
continental glaciers great masses of glacial drift are left on the land-
surfaces, but, on account of the manner in which these masses were
deposited, they abound in depressions that become filled with water.
Often these lakes are without visible outlets, the water frequently
percolating through the glacial drift. These lakes are so numerous
in the north-eastern part of North America that one can trace the
southern boundary of the great ice-sheet by following the southern
limit of the lake-strewn region, where lakes may be counted by tens
of thousands, varying from the size of a tarn to that of the great
Laurentian lakes above mentioned.
6. By Sand drifted into Dunes. — It is a well-known fact that sand
may travel across a country for several miles in the direction of the
prevailing winds. When these sand-dunes obstruct a valley a lake
may be formed. A good example of such a lake is found in Moses
Lake in the state of Washington ; but the sand-dunes may also fill up
or submerge river-valleys and lakes, for instance, in the Sahara,
where the Shotts are like vast lakes in the early morning, and in
the afternoon, when much evaporation has taken place, like vast
plains of white salt.
7. By Alluvial Matter deposited by Lateral Streams. — If the current
of a main river be not powerful enough to sweep away detrital matter
brought down by a lateral stream, a dam is formed causing a lake.
These lakes are frequently met with in the narrow valleys of the
Highlands of Scotland.
8. By Flows of Lava. — Lakes of this kind are met with in volcanic
regions.
C. ORGANIC BASINS. — In the vast tundras that skirt the Arctic
Ocean in both the old and the new world, a great number of frozen
ponds and lakes are met with, surrounded by banks of vegetation.
Snow-banks are generally accumulated every season at the same
spots. During summer the growth of the tundra vegetation is
very rapid, and the snow-drifts that last longest are surrounded
by luxuriant vegetation. When such accumulations of snow
finally melt, the vegetation on the place they occupied is much less
than along their borders. Year after year such places become more
and more depressed, comparatively to the general surface, where
vegetable growth is more abundant, and thus give origin to lakes.
It is well known that in coral-reef regions small bays are cut off
from the ocean by the growth of corals, and thus ultimately fresh-
water basins are formed.
Life History of Lakes. — From the time of its formation a lake
is destined to disappear. The historical period has not been
long enough to enable man to have^atched the birth, life and
death of any single lake of considerable size, still by studying the
LAKE
various stages of development a fairly good idea of the course
they run can be obtained.
In humid regions two processes tend to the extinction of a
lake, viz. the deposition of detrital matter in the lake, and the
lowering of the lake by the cutting action of the outlet stream
on the barrier. These outgoing streams, however, being very
pure and clear, all detrital matter having been deposited in the
lake, have less eroding power than inflowing streams. One
of the best examples of the action of the filling-up process is
presented by Lochs Doine, Voil and Lubnaig in the Callander
district of Scotland. In post-glacial times these three lochs
formed, without doubt, one continuous sheet of water, which
subsequently became divided into three different basins by the
deposition of sediment. Loch Doine has been separated from
Loch Voil by alluvial cones laid down by two opposite streams.
At the head of Loch Doine there is an' alluvial flat that stretches
for 15 m., formed by the Lochlarig river and its tributaries.
The long stretch of alluvium that separates Loch Voil from
Loch Lubnaig has been laid down by Calair Burn in Glen Buckie,
by the Kirkton Burn at Balquhidder, and by various streams
on both sides of Strathyre. Loch Lubnaig once extended to a
point £ m. beyond its present outlet, the level of the loch being
lowered about 20 ft. by the denuding action of the river Leny
on its rocky barrier.
In arid regions, where the rainfall is often less than 10 ins.
in the year, the action of winds in the transport of sand and dust
is more in evidence than that of rivers, and the effects of evapora-
change of climate in the direction of aridity reduced the level of
the lake below the level of the outlet, the waters became gradually
salt, and the former great fresh-water lake has been reduced
gradually to the relatively small Great Salt Lake of the present
day. The sites of extinct salt lakes yield salt in commercial
quantities.
The Water of Lakes. — (a) Composition. — It is interesting to com-
pare the quantity of solid matter in, and the chemical composition of,
the water of fresh and salt lakes: —
Tolal SolidsbyEvaporalion
expressed in Grams per Litre.
Great Salt Lake (Russell) . . . . 238-12
Lake of Geneva (Delebecque) . . . 0-1775
The following analysis of a sample of the water of the Great Salt
Lake (Utah, U.S.A.) is given by I. C. Russell:—
Grams per Litre.
Probable Combination.
Na
- 75-825
NaCl .
. 192-860
K
3-925
K2SO4 .
- 8-756
Li
0-021
Li2SO4
0-166
Mg . .
4-844
MgCl2 . .
• I5-044
Ca
2-424
MgSO4
. 5-216
Cl . .
. I28-278
CaSO«
8-240
sqs .
. I2-522
Fe2O3+Al2O
3 . 0-004
O in sulphates
2-494
SiO2 .
0-018
Fe2O3+Al2O3
0-004
Surplus SO3
0-051
SiO2 .
0-018
Bo2O3 .
trace
Br3 . .
faint trace
The following analyses of the waters of other salt lakes are given
by Mr J. Y. Buchanan (Art. " Lake," Ency. Brit., 9th Ed.), an analy-
sis of sea- water from the Suez Canal being added for comparison: —
Caspian Sea.
Suez Canal,
Open.
Karabugas.
Ismailia.
Specific Gravity ....
Percentage of Salt ....
1-00907
I'll
1-09
1-01106
1-30
1-26217
28-5
1-17500
22-28
22-13
i -01800
1-73
1-03898
5-i
Name of Salt.
Grams of Salt per 1000 Grams of Water.
Bicarbonate of Lime .
0-6804
0-2185
0-1123
0-0072
„ Iron ....
0-0053
0-0014
0-0069
„ Magnesia
0-6598
0-4031
Carbonate of Soda
5-3976
Phosphate of Lime
0-0028
0-0021
0-0029
Sulphate of Lime
1-3499
0-9004
0-7570
0-8600
. .
1-8593
Magnesia
0-9324
2-9799
3-0855
61-9350
i3-546o
0-2595
3-2231
Soda
1-7241
2-5673
Potash . .
. .
0-5363
Chlor de of Sodium .
6-9008
6-2356
8-II63
83-2840
192-4100
76-5000
8-0500
40-4336
Potassium
0-2209
0-1145
0-1339
9-9560
23-3000
0-6231
Rubidium
0-0055
0-0034
0-2510
0-0265
Magnesium .
0-0003
0-6II5
129-3770
15-4610
95-6000
4-7632
Calcium .
0-5990
22-4500
Bromide of Magnesium .
0-0045
0-008 I
0-1930
2-3100
0-0779
Silica
0-0098
O-OO24
0-2400
0-0761
0-0027
Total Solid Matter
11-1463
10-8987
12-9773
284-9960
222-7730
221-2600
17-2899
51-0264
tion greater than of precipitation. Salt and bitter lakes prevail
in these regions. Many salt lakes, such as the Dead Sea and the
Great Salt Lake, are descended from fresh-water ancestors,
while others, like the Caspian and Aral Seas, are isolated portions
of the ocean. Lakes of the first group have usually become salt
through a decrease in the rainfall of the region in which they
occur. The water begins to get salt when the evaporation from
the lake exceeds the inflow. The inflowing waters bring in a
small amount of saline and alkaline matter, which becomes
more and more concentrated as the evaporation increases.
In lakes of the second group the waters were salt at the outset.
If inflow exceeds evaporation they become fresher, and may
ultimately become quite fresh. If the evaporation exceeds the
inflow they diminish in size, and their waters become more and
more salt and bitter. The first lake which occupied the basin
of the Great Salt Lake of Utah appears to have been fresh, then
with a change of climate to have become a salt lake. Another
change of climate taking place, the level of the lake rose until it
overflowed, the outlet being by the Snake river; the lake then
became fresh. This expanded lake has been called Lake Bonne-
ville, which covered an area of about 17,000 sq. m. Another
This table embraces examples of several types of salt lakes. In the
Koko-nor, Aral and open Caspian Seas we have examples of the
moderately salt, non-saturated waters. In the Karabugas, a branch
gulf of the Caspian, Urmia and the Dead Seas we have examples of
saturated waters containing principally chlorides. Lake Van is an
example of the alkaline seas which also occur in Egypt, Hungary
and other countries. Their peculiarity consists in the quantity of
carbonate of soda dissolved in their waters, which is collected by the
inhabitants for domestic and commercial purposes.
The following analyses by Dr Bourcart give an idea of the chemical
composition of the water of fresh- water lakes in grams per litre: —
Tanay.
Bleu.
Marjelen.
St Gothard.
SiO2 ....
0-003
0-0042
0-0014
0-0008
Fe2O3-r-Al2O3 .
O-OOI2
0-0006
0-0008
trace
NaCl ....
0-0017
Na2SO4 . . .
O-OOII
0-0038
0-0031
0-00085
Na2CO3 . . .
0-00128
K2SO4 . . .
0-0021
0-0028
0-0044
K2CO, . . .
0-0003
0-00130
MgSO« . . .
0-006
0-0305
MgCO, . . .
0-0046
0-0158
o-oco8
0-00015
CaSO4 . . .
. t
CaCO, . . .
0-107
0-1189
0-006 1
0-00178
M«O ....
O-OOI
88
LAKE
(6) Movements and Temperature of Lake-Waters. — (i) In addition
to the rise and fall of the surface-level of lakes due to rainfall and
evaporation, there is a transference of water due to the action of wind
which results in raising the level at the end to which the wind is
blowing. In addition to the well-known progressive waves there are
also stationary waves or " seiches " which are less apparent. A
seiche is a standing oscillation of a lake, usually in the direction
of the longest diameter, but occasionally transverse. In a motion
of this kind every particle of the water of the lake oscillates syn-
chronously with every other, the periods and phases being the same
for all, and the orbits similar but of different dimensions and
not similarly situated. Seiches were first discovered in 1730 by
Fatio de Duillier, a well-known Swiss engineer, and were first
systematically studied by Professor Forel in the Lake of Geneva.
Large numbers of observations have been made by various observers
in lakes in many parts of the world. Henry observed a fifteen-hour
seiche in Lake Erie, which is 396 kilometres in length, and Endros
recorded a seiche of fourteen seconds in a small pond only in metres
in length. Although these waves cause periodical rising and falling
of the water-level, they are generally inconspicuous, and can only be
recorded by a registering apparatus, a limnograph. Standard work
has been done in the study of seiches by the Lake Survey of Scot-
land under the immediate direction of Professor Chrystal, who has
given much attention to the hydrodynamical theories of the pheno-
menon. Seiches are probably due to several factors acting together
or separately, such as sudden variations of atmospheric pressure,
changes in the strength or direction of the wind. Explanations such
as lunar attraction and earthquakes have been shown to be un-
tenable as a general cause of seiches.
2. The water temperature of lakes may change with the season
from place to place and from layer to layer; these changes are
brought about by insolation, by terrestrial radiation, by contract with
the atmosphere, by rain, by the inflow of rivers and other factors,
but the most important of all these are insolation and terrestrial
radiation. Fresh water has its greatest density at a temperature of
39'2° F., so that water both above and below this temperature floats
to the surface, and this physical fact largely determines the water
stratification in a lake. In salt lakes the maximum density point is
much lower, and does not come into play. In the tropical type of
fresh-water lake the temperature is always higher than 39° F., and the
temperature decreases as the depth increases. In the polar type the
temperature is always lower than 39° F., and the temperature
increases from the surface downwards. In the temperate type the
distribution of temperature in winter resembles the polar type,
and in summer the tropical type. In Loch Ness and other deep
Scottish lochs the temperature in March and April is 41° to 42° F.,
and is then nearly uniform from top to bottom. As the sun comes
north, and the mean air temperature begins to be higher than the
surface temperature, the surface waters gain heat, and this heating
goes on till the month of August. About this time the mean air
temperature falls below the surface temperature, and the loch begins
to part with its heat by radiation and conduction. The temperature
of the deeper layers beyond 300 ft. is only slightly affected throughout
the whole year. In the autumn the waters of the loch are divided
into two compartments, the upper having a temperature from 49° to
55° F., the deeper a temperature from 41 to 45°. Between these lies
the discontinuity-layer (Sprungschicht of the Germans), where there
is a rapid fall of temperature within a very short distance. In
August this discontinuity-layer is well marked, and lies at a depth of
about 150 ft.; as the season advances this layer gradually sinks
deeper, and the layer of uniform temperature above it increases in
depth, and slowly loses heat, until finally the whole loch assumes
a nearly uniform temperature. Many years ago Sir John Murray
showed by means of temperature observations the manner in which
large bodies of water were transferred from the windward to the lee-
ward end of a loch, and subsequent observations seem to show that,
before the discontinuity-layer makes its appearance, the currents
produced by winds are distributed through the whole mass of the
loch. When, however, this layer appears, the loch is divided into
two current-systems, as shown in the following diagram : —
Direction of Wlm!
Current systems in a loch induced by wind at the surface. (After
Wedderburn.)
AB, Discontinuity layer. E, Secondary surface current.
C, Surface current. F, Secondary return current.
D, Primary return current.
Another effect of the separation of the loch into two compartments
by the surface of discontinuity is to render possible the temperature-
seiche. The surface-current produced by the wind transfers a large
quantity of warm water to the lee end of the loch, with the result that
the surface of discontinuity is deeper at the lee than at the wind»ard
end. When the wind ceases, a temperature-seiche is started, just
as an ordinary seiche is started in a basin of water which has been
tilted. This temperature-seiche has been studied experimentally
and rendered visible by superimposing a layer of paraffin on a layer
of water.
Wedderburn estimates the quantity of heat that enters Loch Ness
and is given out again during the year to be approximately sufficient
to raise about 30,000 million gallons of water from freezing-point to
boiling-point. Lakes thus modify the climate of the region in which
they occur, both by increasing its humidity and by decreasing
its range of temperature. They cool and moisten the atmosphere
by evaporation during summer, and when they freeze in winter a
vast amount of latent heat is liberated, and moderates the fall of
temperature.
Lakes act as reservoirs for water, and so tend to restrain floods,
and to promote regularity of flow. They become sources of
mechanical power, and as their waters are purified by allowing the
sediment which enters them to settle, they become valuable sources
of water-supply for towns and cities. In temperate regions small
and shallow lakes are likely to freeze all over in winter, but deep
lakes in similar regions do not generally freeze, owing to the fact that
the low temperature of the air does not continue long enough to cool
down the entire body of water to the maximum density point. Deep
lakes are thus the best sources of water-supply for cities, for in
summer they supply relatively cool water and in winter relatively
warm water. Besides, the number of organisms in deep lakes is
less than in small shallow lakes, in which there is a much higher
temperature in summer, and consequently much greater organic
growth. The deposits, which are formed along the shores and on the
floors of lakes, depend on the geological structure and nature of the
adjacent shores.
Biology. — Compared with the waters of the ocean those of
lakes may safely be said to contain relatively few animals and
plants. Whole groups of organisms — the Echinoderms, for
instance — are unrepresented. In the oceans there is a much
greater uniformity in the physical and chemical conditions
than obtains in lakes. In lakes the temperature varies widely.
To underground lakes light does not penetrate, and in these
some of the organisms may be blind, for example, the blind
crayfish (Cambarus pellucidus) and the blind 'fish (Amblyopsis
spelaeus) of the Kentucky caves. The majority of lakes are
fresh, while some are so salt that no organisms have been found
in them. The peaty matter in other lakes is so abundant that
light does not penetrate to any great depth, and the humic acids
in solution prevent the development of some species. Indeed,
every lake has an individuality of its own, depending upon
climate, size, nature of the bottom, chemical composition
and connexion with other lakes. While the ocean contains
many families and genera not represented in lakes, almost
every genus in lakes is represented in the ocean.
The vertebrates, insects and flowering plants inhabiting lakes vary
much according to latitude, and are comparatively well known to
zoologists and botanists. The micro-fauna and flora have only
recently been studied in detail, and we cannot yet be said to know
much about tropical lakes in this respect. Mr James Murray, who
has studied the Scottish lakes, records in over 400 Scottish lochs 724
species (the fauna including 447 species, all invertebrates, and the
flora comprising 277 species) belonging to the following groups; the
list must not be regarded as in any way complete : —
Fauna.
Mollusca . :
Hydrachnida .
Tardigrada
Insecta
Crustacea
Bryozoa . ...
Worms
Rotifera
Gastrotricha . * .
Coelenterata .
Porifera
Protozoa
Flora.
7 species Phanerogamia .
65 species
17
Equisetaceae
i
3°
Selaginellaceae .
i
7
Characeae .
6
78
Musci
18 .
7
Hepaticae
2
25
Florideae
2
181
Chlorophyceae .
142
2
Bacillariaceae
26
I
I
Myxophyceae .
Peridiniaceae
10
4
91
447
277
These organisms are found along the shores, in the deep waters,
and in the surface waters of the lakes.
The littoral region is the most populous part of lakes; the existence
of a rooted vegetation is only possible there, and this in turn supports
a rich littoral fauna. The greater heat of the water along the margins
also favours growth. The great majority of the species in Scottish
lochs are met with in this region. Insect larvae of many kinds are
found under stones or among weeds. Most of the Cladocera, and the
LAKE
89
Copepoda of the genus Cyclops, and the Harpacticidae are only found
in this region. Water-mites, nearly all the Rotifers, Gastrotricha,
Tardigrada and Molluscs are found here, and Rhizopods are abund-
ant. A large number of the littoral species in Loch Ness extends
down to a depth of about 300 ft.
The abyssal region, in Scottish lochs, lies, as a rule, deeper than
300 ft., and in this deep region a well-marked association of animals
appears in the muds on the bottom, but none of them are peculiar
to it: they all extend ^nto the littoral zone, from which they were
originally derived. In Loch Ness the following sparse population
was recorded : —
i Mollusc: Pisidium pusillum (Gmel).
3 Crustacea: Cyclops viridis, Jurine.
Candona Candida (Mull).
Cypria ophthalmica, Jurine.
3 Worms : Stylodrilus gabreteae, Vejd.
Oligochaete, not determined.
Automolos morgiensis (Du Plessis).
I Insect: Chironomus (larva). '
Infusoria: Several, ectoparasites on Pisidium and Cyclops,
not determined.
In addition, the following were found casually at great depths in
Loch Ness: Hydra, Limnaea peregra, Proales daphnicola and
Lynceus affinis.
The pelagic region of the Scottish lakes is occupied by numerous
microscopic organisms, belonging to the Zooplankton and Phyto-
plankton. Of the former group 30 species belonging to the Crustacea,
Rotifera and Protozoa were recorded in Loch Ness. Belonging to the
second group 150 species were recorded, of which 120 were Desmids.
Some of these species of plankton organisms are almost universal in
the Scottish lochs, while others are quite local. Some of the species
occur all the year through, while others have only been recorded in
summer or in winter. The great development of Algae in the surface
waters, called " flowering of the water " (Wasserbluthe), was observed
in August in Loch Lomond; a distinct " flowering," due to Chloro-
phyceae, has been observed in shallow lochs as early as July. It
is most common in August and September, but has also been
observed in winter.
The plankton animals which are dominant or common, both over
Scotland and the rest of Europe, are : —
Diaptomus gracilis.
Daphnia hyalina.
Diaphanosoma brachyurum.
Leptodora kindtii.
Conochilus unicornis.
Asplanchna priodonta.
Polyarthra platyptera.
Anuraea cochlearis.
Notholca longispina.
Ceratium hirundinella.
Asterionella.
All of these, according to Dr Lund, belong to the general plankton
association of the European plain, or are even cosmopolitan.
The Scottish plankton on the whole differs from the plankton of
the central European plateau, and from the cosmopolitan fresh-
water plankton, in the extraordinary richness of the Phytoplankton
in species of Desmids, in the conspicuous arctic element among the
Crustacea, in the absence or comparative rarity of the species
commonest in the general European plankton. Another peculiarity
is the local distribution of some of the Crustacea and many of the
Desmids.
The derivation of the whole lacustrine population of the Scottish
lochs does not seem to present any difficulty. The abyssal forms
have been traced to the littoral zone without any perceptible modi-
fications. The plankton organisms are a mingling of European and
arctic species. The cosmopolitan species may enter the lochs by
ordinary migration. It is probable that if the whole plankton could
be annihilated, it would be replaced by ordinary migration within a
few years. The eggs and spores of many species can be dried up
without injury, and may be carried through the air as dust from one
lake to another; others, which would not bear desiccation, might
be carried in mud adhering to the feet of aquatic birds and in various
other ways. The arctic species may be survivors from a period when
arctic conditions prevailed over a great part of Europe. What are
known as " relicts " of a marine fauna have not been found in the
Scottish fresh-water lochs.
It is somewhat remarkable that none of the organisms living in
fresh-water lochs has been observed to exhibit the phenomenon of
phosphorescence, although similar organisms in the salt-water lochs
a few miles distant exhibit brilliant phosphorescence. At similar
depths in the sea-lochs there is usually a great abundance of life
when compared with that found in fresh-water lochs.
Length, Depth, Area and Volume of Lakes. — In the following
table will be found the length, depth, area and volume of some
of the principal lakes of the world.1 Sir John Murray estimates
Divergence between certain of these figures and those quoted
elsewhere in this work may be accounted for by the slightly different
results arrived at by various authorities.
the volume of water in the 560 Scottish lochs recently surveyed
at 7 cub. m., and the approximate volume of water in all the
lakes of the world at about 2000 cub. m., so that this last number
is but a small fraction of the volume of the ocean, which he
previously estimated at 324 million cub. m. It may be recalled
that the total rainfall on the land of the globe is estimated at
29,350 cub. m., and the total discharge from the rivers of the
globe at 6524 cub. m.
BRITISH LAKES
Length
Depth
Area
Volume in
in
in
in
million
Miles.
Feet.
sq. m.
cub. ft.
I. England —
Max.
Mean.
Windermere .
10-50
219
78-5
5-69
12,250
Ullswater .
7-35
205
83
3-44
7,870
Wastwater
3-00
258
I34-5
I-I2
4,128
Coniston Water
5-41
184
79
1-89
4,000
Crummock
Water . .
2-50
144
87-5
o-97
2,343
Ennerdale
Water . .
2-40
148
62
I-I2
1-978
Bassenthwaite
Water . .
3-83
7°
18
2-O6
1,023
Derwentwater
2-87
72
18
2-O6
1,010
Haweswater .
2-33
103
39-5
o-54
5«9
Buttermere
1-26
94
54-5
0-36
537
II. Wales—
Llyn Cawlyd .
Llyn Cwellyn .
1-62
1-20
222
122
109-1
74-1
0-18
o-35
941
713
Llyn Padarn .
2-OO
94
52-4
0-43
632
Llyn Llydaw .
I'll
190
77-4
0-19
409
Llyn Peris
I-IO
114
63-9
0-19
344
Llyn Dulyn
0-31
189
104-2
0-05
156
III. Scotland—
Ness
24-23
754
433-02
21-78
263,162
Lomond
22-64
623
121-29
27-45
92,805
Morar .
11-68
1017
284-00
10-30
81,482
Tay
14-55
508
199-08
10-19
56,550
Awe . .
25-47
307
104-95
14-85
43,451
Maree .
13-46
367
125-30
11-03
38,539
Lochy .
9-78
531
228-95
5-91
37-726
Rannoch .
9-70
440
167-46
7-37
34-387
Shiel . . .
17-40
420
I32-73
7-56
27,986
Arkaig
I2-OO
359
152-71
6-24
26,573
Earn .
6-46
287
I37-83
3-9'
14,421
T^'S • • •
5-10
436
207-37
2-41
13-907
Shin
17-22
162
51-04
8-70
12,380
Fannich
6-92
282
108-76
3-60
10,920
Assynt
' 6-36
282
101-10
3-10
8,731
8uoich
6-95
281
104-60
2-86
8-345
lass .
4-03
365
159-07
1-86
8,265
Fionn (Carn-
more)
5-76
144
57-79
3-52
5,667
Laggan
7-04
174
67-68
2-97
5,601
Loyal .
4-46
217
65-21
2-55
4,628
IV. Ireland—
Neagh .
17
1 02
40
153
161,000
Erne (Lower) .
24
226
43
43
62,000
Erne (Upper) .
13
89
10
15
5,000
Corrib .
27
152
30
68
59,000
Mask . . '.
10
191
52
35
55,ooo
Derg . . .
24
119
30
49
47,000
EUROPEAN CONTINENTAL LAKES
Length
Depth
Area
Volume in
in
in
in
million
Miles.
Feet.
sq. m.
cub. ft.
Max.
Mean.
Ladoga .
125
732
300
7000
43,200,000
Onega
145
740
200
3800
2 1 ,000,000
Vener .
93
292
1 08
2149
6,357-000
Geneva
45
1015
506
225
3,175,000
Vetter . . .
68
413
128
733
2,543,000
Mjosen .
57
1483
139
2,882,000
Garda
38
1124
446
143
1,766,000
Constance
42
827
295
208
1,711,000
Ochrida .
19
942
479
105
1,391,000
Maggiore
42
1 220
574
82
1,310,000
Como
30
1345
513
56
794,000
Hornafvan .
7
1391
253
93
777,ooo
9°
LAKE CHARLES— LAKE DISTRICT
AFRICAN LAKES
Length
Depth
in
Area
in
Volume in
million
Miles.
Feet.
sq. m.
cub. ft.
Max.
Mean.
Victoria Nyanza
Nyasa
Tanganyika .
200
35°
420
240
2580
2100
26,200
14,200
12,700
5,800,000
396,000,000
283,000,000
ASIATIC LAKES
Length
in
Miles.
Depth
in
Feet.
Area
in
sq. m.
Volume in
million
cub. ft.
Aral ....
Baikal . . .
Balkash . . .
Urmia
265
330
323
80
Max.
222
5413
33
50
Mean.
52
15
24,400
11,580
7,000
1-750
43,600,000
274,000,000
4,880,000
732,000
AMERICAN LAKES
Length
in
Miles.
Dej
ir
Fe
th
l
et.
Area
in
sq. m.
Volume in
million
cub. ft.
Superior .
Huron
Michigan
Erie .
Ontario .
Titicaca .
412
263
335
240
190
I2O
Max.
1008
730
870
210
738
924
Mean.
475
250
325
70
300
347
31,200
23,800
22,450
9,960
7,240
3,200
413,000,000
166,000,000
203,000,000
19,500,000
61,000,000
30,900,000
NEW ZEALAND LAKES
Length
in
Miles
De
i
Ft
pth
n
et.
Area
in
sq. m.
Volume in
million
cub. ft.
Taupo
Wakatipu
Manapouri .
Rotorua .
Waikarimoana
Wairaumoana
Rotoiti . .
25
49
19
7-5
7-25
5-25
10-7
Max.
534
1242
1458
120
846
375
230
Mean.
367
707
328
39
397
175
69
238-0
112-3
56-0
31-6
14-7
6-1
14-2
2,435,000
2,205,000
512,000
34,000
166,000
30,000
27,000
AUTHORITIES. — F. A. Forel, " Handbuch der Scenkunde: allge-
meine Limnologie," Bibliothek geogr. Handbiicher (Stuttgart, 1901),
Le Leman, monographic limnologique (3 vols., Lausanne, 1892—1901) ;
A. Delebecque, Les Lacs fran$ais, text and plates (Paris, 1898);
H. R. Mill, " Bathymetrical Survey of the English Lakes," Geogr.
Journ. vol. vi. pp. 46 and 135 (1895); Jehu, " Bathymetrical and
Geological Study of the Lakes of Snowdonia," Trans. Roy. Sac.
Edin. vol. xl. p. 419 (1902); Sir John Murray and Laurence Pullar,
" Bathymetrical Survey of the Freshwater Lochs of Scotland," Geogr.
Journ. (1900 to 1908, re-issued in six volumes, Edinburgh, 1910);
W. Halbfass, " Die Mprphometrie der europaischen Seen," Zeitschr.
Gesell. Erdkunde Berlin (Jahrg. 1903, p. 592; 1904, p. 204); I. C.
Russell, Lakes
O. Zacharias,
zu Plon " (Stuttgart) ; F. E. Bourcart, Les Lacs alpins suisses: etude
kes of North America (Boston and London, 1895);
s, " Forschungsberichte aus der biologischen Station
chimique et physique (Geneva, 1906);
(Milan, 1907).
G. P. Magrini, Limnologia
a-
LAKE CHARLES, a city of Louisiana, U.S.A., capital of
Calcasieu Parish, 30 m. from the Gulf of Mexico and about 218 m.
(by rail) W. of New Orleans. Pop. (1889) 838, (1890) 3442,
(1900) 6680 (2407 negroes); (1910) 11,449. It is served by the
Louisiana & Texas (Southern Pacific System), the St Louis,
Watkins & Gulf, the Louisiana & Pacific and the Kansas City
Southern railways. The city is charmingly situated on the shore
of Lake Charles, and on the Calcasieu river, which with some
dredging can be made navigable for large vessels for 132 m.
from the Gulf. It is a winter resort. Among the principal
buildings are a Carnegie library, the city hall, the Government
building, the court house, St Patrick's sanatorium, the masonic
temple and the Elks' club. Lake Charles is in the prairie region of
southern Louisiana, to the N. of which, covering a large part of the
state, are magnificent forests of long-leaf pine, and lesser lowland
| growths of oak, ash, magnolia, cypress and other valuable
timber. The Watkins railway extending to the N.E. and the
Kansas City Southern extending to the N.W. have opened up
the very best of the forest. The country to the S. and W. is
largely given over to rice culture. Lake Charles is the chief
centre of lumber manufacture in the state, and has rice mills,
car shops and an important trade in wool. Ten miles W. are
sulphur mines (product in 1907 about 362,000 tons), which with
those of Sicily produce a large part of the total product of the
world. Jennings, about 34 m. to the E., is the centre of oil
fields, once very productive but now of diminishing importance.
Welsh, 23 m. E., is the centre of a newer field; and others lie
to the N. Lake Charles was settled about 1852, largely by
people from Iowa and neighbouring states, was incorporated
as a town in 1857 under the name of Charleston and again in
1867 under its present name, and was chartered as a city in 1886.
The city suffered severely by fire in April 1910.
LAKE CITY, a town and the county-seat of Columbia county,
Florida, U.S.A., 59 m. by rail W. by S. of Jacksonville. Pop.
(1900) 4013, of whom 2159 were negroes; (1905) 6509; (1910)
5032. Lake City is served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the
Seaboard Air Line and the Georgia Southern & Florida railways.
There are ten small lakes in the neighbourhood, and the town
is a winter and health resort. It is the seat of Columbia College
(Baptist, 1907); the Florida Agricultural College was opened
here in 1883, became the university of Florida in 1903, and in
1905 was abolished by the Buckman Law. Vegetables and fruits
grown for the northern markets, sea-island cotton and tobacco
are important products of the surrounding country, and Lake
City has some trade in cotton, lumber, phosphates and turpentine.
The town was first settled about 1826 as Alligator; it was
incorporated in 1854; adopted the present name in 1859;
and in 1901, with an enlarged area, was re-incorporated.
LAKE DISTRICT, in England, a district containing all the
principal English lakes, and variously termed the Lake Country,
Lakeland and " the Lakes." It falls within the north-western
counties of Cumberland, Westmorland and Lancashire (Furness
district), about one-half being within the first of these. Although
celebrated far outside the confines of Great Britain as a district
of remarkable and strongly individual physical beauty, its area
is only some 700 sq. m., a circle with radius of 15 m. from the
central point covering practically the whole. Within this circle,
besides the largest lake, Windermere, is the highest point in
England, Scafell Pike; yet Windermere is but io| m. in length,
and covers an area of 5-69 sq. m., while Scafell Pike is only
3210 ft. in height. But the lakes show a wonderful variety of
character, from open expanse and steep rock-bound shores to
picturesque island-groups and soft wooded banks; while the
mountains have always a remarkable dignity, less from the
profile of their summits than from the bold sweeping lines of
their flanks, unbroken by vegetation, and often culminating
in sheer cliffs or crags. At their feet, the flat green valley floors
of the higher elevations give place in the lower parts to lovely
woods. The streams are swift and clear, and numerous small
waterfalls are characteristic of the district. To the north, west
and south, a flat coastal belt, bordering the Irish Sea, with its
inlets Morecambe Bay and Solway Firth, and broadest in the
north, marks off the Lake District, while to the east the valleys
of the Eden and the Lune divide it from the Pennine mountain
system. Geologically, too, it is individual. Its centre is of
volcanic rocks, complex in character, while the Coal-measures
and New Red Sandstone appear round the edges. The district
as a whole is grooved by a main depression, running from north
to south along the valleys of St John, Thirlmere, Grasmere and
Windermere, surmounting a pass (Dunmail Raise) of only
783 ft.; while a secondary depression, in the same direction,
runs along Derwentwater, Borrowdale, Wasdale and Wastwater,
but here Sty Head Pass, between Borrowdale and Wasdale,
rises to 1600 ft. The centre of the is-m. radius lies on the
lesser heights between Langstrath and Dunmail Raise, which
may, however, be the crown of an ancient dome of rocks, " the
dissected skeleton of which, worn by the warfare of air and rain
LAKE DWELLINGS
9T
and ice, now alone remains " (Dr H. R. Mill, " Bathymetrical
Survey of the English Lakes," Geographical Journal, vi. 48).
The principal features of the district may be indicated by follow-
ing this circle round from north, by west, south and east.
The river Derwent (q.v.), rising in the tarns and " gills " or
" ghylls " (small streams running in deeply-grooved clefts) north of
Sty Head Pass and the Scafell mass flows north through the wooded
Borrowdale and forms Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite. These
two lakes are in a class apart from all the rest, being broader for their
length, and quite shallow (about 18 ft. average and 70 ft. maximum),
as distinct from the long, narrow and deep troughs occupied by the
other chief lakes, which average from 40 to 135 ft. deep. Derwent-
water (q.v.), studded with many islands, is perhaps the most beautiful
of all. Borrowdale is joined on the east by the bare wild dale of
Langstrath, and the Greta joins the Derwent immediately below
Derwentwater; the town of Keswick lying near the junction.
Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite occupy a single depression, a flat
alluvial plain separating them. From Seatoller in Borrowdale a road
traverses Honister Pass (iioo ft.), whence it descends westward,
beneath the majestic Honister Crags, where green slate is quarried,
into the valley containing Buttermere (94 ft. max. depth) and
Crummock Water (144 ft.), drainetr~by the Cocker. Between this
and the Derwent valley the principal height is Grasmoor (2791 ft.) ;
southward a steep narrow ridge (High Style, 2643) divides it from
Ennerdale, containing Ennerdale Water (148 ft. max. depth), which is
fed by the Liza and drained by the Ehen. A splendid range separates
this dale from Wasdale and its tributary Mosedale, including Great
Gable (2949 ft.), Pillar (2927), with the precipitous Pillar Rock on
the Ennerdale flank and Steeple (2746). Wasdale Head, between
Gable and the Scafell range, is peculiarly grand, with dark grey
screes and black crags frowning above its narrow bottom. On this
side of Gable is the fine detached rock, Napes Needle. Wastwater,
3 m. in length, is the deepest lake of all (258 ft.), its floor, like those
of Windermere and Ullswater, sinking below sea-level. Its east
shore consists of a great range of screes. East of Wasdale lies the
range of Scafell (q.v.), its chief points being Scafell (3162 ft.), Scafell
Pike (3210), Lingmell (2649) and Great End (2984), while the line is
continued over Esk Hause Pass (2490) along a fine line of heights
(Bow Fell, 2960; Crinkle Crags, 2816), to embrace the head of
Eskdale. The line then descends to Wrynose Pass (1270 ft.), from
which the Duddon runs south through a vale of peculiar richness in
its lower parts; while the range continues south to culminate in the
Old Man of Coniston (2633) with the splendid Dow Crags above
Goats Water. The pleasant vale of Yewdale drains south to Coniston
Lake (5! m. long, 184 ft. max. depth), east of which a lower, well-
wooded tract, containing two beautiful lesser lakes, Tarn Hows and
Esthwaite Water, extends to Windermere (q.v.). This lake collects
waters by the Brathay from Langdale, the head of which, between
Bow Fell and Langdale Pikes (2401 ft.), is very fine; and by the
Rothay from Dunmail Raise and the small lakes of Grasmere and
Rydal Water, embowered in woods. East of the Rothay valley and
Thirlmere lies the mountain mass including Helvellyn (3118 ft.),
Fairfield (2863) and other points, with magnificent crags at several
places on the eastern side towards Grisedale and Patterdale. These
dales drain to Ullswater (205 ft. max., second to Windermere in area),
and so north-east to the Eden. To the east and south-east lies the
ridge named High Street (2663 ft.), from the Roman road still trace-
able from south to north along its summit, and sloping east again to
the sequestered Hawes Water (103 ft. max.), a curiously shaped lake
nearly divided by the delta of the Measand Beck. There remains the
Thirlmere valley. Thirlmere itself was raised in level, and adapted
by means of a dam at the north end, as a reservoir for the water:
supply of Manchester in 1890-1894. It drains north by St John's
Vale into the Greta, north of which again rises a mountain-group of
which the chief summits are Saddleback or Blencathra (2847 ft.) and
the graceful peak of Skiddaw (3054). The most noteworthy water-
falls are — Scale Force (Dano-Norwegian/0rs,/0.ss),besidesCrummock,
• Lodore near Derwentwater, Dungeon Gill Force, beside Langdale,
Dalegarth Force in Eskdale, Aira near Ullswater, sung by Words-
worth, Stock Gill Force and Rydal Falls near Ambleside.
The principal centres in the Lake District are Keswick (Derwent-
water), Ambleside, Bowness, Windermere and Lakeside (Winder-
mere), Coniston and Boot (Eskdale), all of which, except Ambleside
and Bowness (which nearly joins Windermere) are accessible by rail.
The considerable village of Grasmere lies beautifully at the head of
the lake of that name ; and above Esthwaite is the small town of
Hawkshead, with an ancient church, and picturesque houses curiously
built on the hill-slope and sometimes spanning the streets. There are
regular steamer services on Windermere and Ullswater. Coaches
and cars traverse the main roads during the summer, but many of
the finest dales and passes are accessible only on foot or by ponies.
All the mountains offer easy routes to pedestrians, but some of them,
as Scafell, Pillar, Gable (Napes Needle), Pavey Ark above Langdale
and Dow Crags near Coniston, also afford ascents for experienced
climbers.
This mountainous district, having the sea to the west, records an
unusually heavy rainfall. Near Scathwaite, below Styhead Pass,
the largest annual rainfall in the British Isles is recorded, the average
(1870-1899) being 133-53 in., while 173-7 was measured in 1903
and 243-98 in. in 1872. At Keswick the annual mean is 60-02, at
Grasmere about 80 ins. The months of maximum rainfall at Seath-
waite are November, December and January and September.
Fish taken in the lakes include perch, pike, char and trout in
Windermere, Ennerdale, Bassenthwaite, Derwentwater, &c., and the
gwyniad or fresh-water herring in Ullswater. The industries of the
Lake District include slate quarrying and some lead and zinc mining,
and weaving, bobbin-making and pencil-making.
Setting aside London and Edinburgh, no locality in the British
Isles is so intimately associated with the history of English literature
as the Lake District. In point of time the poet whose name is first
connected with the region is Gray, who wrote a journal of his tour in
1769. But it was Wordsworth, a native of Cumberland, born on the
outskirts of the Lake District itself, who really made it a Mecca for
lovers of English poetry. Out of his long life of eighty years, sixty
were spent amid its lakes and mountains, first as a schoolboy at
Hawkshead, and afterwards as a resident at Grasmere (1799-1813)
and Rydal Mount (1813-1850). In the churchyard of Grasmere the
poet and his wife lie buried ; and very near to them are the remains
of Hartley Coleridge (son of the poet), who himself lived many years
at Keswick, Ambleside and Grasmere. Southey, the friend of Words-
worth, was a resident of Keswick for forty years (1803-1843), and
was buried in Crosthwaite churchyard. Samuel Taylor Coleridge
lived some time at Keswick, and also with the Wordsworths at
Grasmere. From 1807 to 1815 Christopher North (John Wilson) was
settled at Windermere. De Quincey spent the greater part of the
years 1809 to 1828 at Grasmere, in the first cottage which Words-
worth had inhabited. Ambleside, or its environs, was also the place
of residence of Dr Arnold (of Rugby), who spent there the vacations
of the last ten years of his life; and of Harriet Martineau, who built
herself a house there in 1845. At Keswick Mrs Lynn Linton was
born in 1822. Brantwood, a house beside Coniston Lake, was the
horn; of Ruskin during the last years of his life. In addition to
th^se residents or natives of the locality, Shelley, Scott, Nathaniel
Hawthorne, Clough, Crabb Robinson, Carlyle, Keats, Tennyson,
Matthew Arnold, Mrs Hemans, Gerald Massey and others of less
reputation made longer or shorter visits, or were bound by ties of
friendship with the poets already mentioned. The Vale of St John,
near Keswick, recalls Scott's Bridal of Triermain. But there is a
deeper connexion than this between the Lake District and English
letters. German literature tells of several literary schools, or groups
of writers animated by the same ideas, and working in the spirit of
the same principles and by the same poetic methods. The most
notable instance — indeed it is almost the only instance-j-of the kind
in English literature is the Lake School of Poets. Of this school the
acknowledged head and founder was Wordsworth, and the tenets
it professed are those laid down by the poet himself in the famous
preface to the edition of The Lyrical Ballads which he published in
1800. Wordsworth's theories of poetry — the objects best suited for
poetic treatment, the characteristics of such treatment and the
choice of diction suitable for the purpose — may be said to have
grown out of the soil and substance. of the lakes and mountains, and
out of the homely lives of the people, of Cumberland and Westmore-
land.
See CUMBERLAND, LANCASHIRE, WESTMORLAND. The following
is a selection from the literature of the subject : Harriet Martineau,
The English Lakes (Windermere, 1858) ; Mrs Lynn Linton, The Lake
Country (London, 1864); E. Waugh, Rambles in the Lake Country
(1861) and In the Lake Country (1880); W. Knight, Through the
Wordsworth Country (London, 1890); H. D. Rawnsley, Literary
Associations of the English Lakes (2 vols., Glasgow, 1894) and Life
and Nature of the English Lakes (Glasgow, 1899); Stopford Brooke,
Dove Cottage, Wordsworth's Home from 1800 to 1808; A. G. Bradley,
The Lake District, its Highways and Byeways (London, 1901); Sir
John Harwood, History of the Thirlmere Water Scheme (1895); for
mountain-climbing, Col. J. Brown, Mountain Ascents in Westmor-
land and Cumberland (London, 1888) ; Haskett-Smith, Climbing in
the British Isles, part. i. ; Owen G. Jones, Rock-climbing in the
English Lake District, 2nd ed. by W. M. Crook (Keswick, 1900).
LAKE DWELLINGS, the term employed in archaeology for
habitations constructed, not on the dry land, but within the
margins of lakes or creeks at some distance from the shore.
The villages of the Guajiros in the Gulf of Maracaibo are
described by Goering as composed of houses with low sloping
roofs perched on lofty piles and connected with each other by
bridges of planks. Each house consisted of two apartments;
the floor was formed of split stems of trees set close together
and covered with mats; they were reached from the shore by
dug-out canoes poled over the shallow waters, and a notched
tree trunk served as a ladder. The custom is also common in
the estuaries of the Orinoco and Amazon. A similar system
prevails in New Guinea. Dumont d'Urville describes four such
villages in the Bay of Doreij containing from eight to fifteen
blocks or clusters of houses, each block separately built on piles,
LAKE DWELLINGS
and consisting of a row of distinct dwellings. C. D. Cameron
describes three villages thus built on piles in Lake Mohrya, or
Moria, in Central Africa, the motive here being to prevent surprise
by bands of slave-catchers. Similar constructions have been
described by travellers, among the Dyaks of Borneo, in Celebes,
in the Caroline Islands, on the Gold Coast of Africa, and in other
places.
Hippocrates, writing in the 5th century B.C., says of the people
of the Phasis that their country is hot and marshy and subject
to frequent inundations, and that they live in houses of timber
and reeds constructed in the midst of the waters, and use boats
of a single tree trunk. Herodotus, writing also in the sth
century B.C., describes the people of Lake Prasias as living in
houses constructed on platforms supported on piles in the middle
of the lake, which are approached from the land by a single
narrow bridge. Abulfeda the geographer, writing in the i3th
century, notices the fact that part of the Apamaean Lake was
inhabited by Christian fishermen who lived on the lake in wooden
huts built on piles, and Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury)
mentions that the Rumelian fishermen on Lake Prasias " still
inhabit wooden cottages built over the water, as in the time of
Herodotus."
The records of the wars in Ireland in the i6th century show
that the petty chieftains of that time had their defensive strong-
holds constructed in the " freshwater lochs " of the country,
and there is record evidence of a similar system in the western
parts of Scotland. The archaeological researches of the past
fifty years have shown that such artificial constructions in lakes
were used as defensive dwellings by the Celtic people from an
early period to medieval times (see CRANNOG) . Similar researches
have also established the fact that in prehistoric times nearly
all the lakes of Switzerland, and many in the adjoining countries
— in Savoy and the north of Italy, in Austria and Hungary and
in Mecklenburg and Pomerania — were peopled, so to speak,
by lake-dwelling communities, living in villages constructed on
platforms supported by piles at varying distances from the
shores. The principal groups are those in the Lakes of Bourget,
Geneva, Neuchatel, Bienne, Zurich and Constance lying to the
north of the Alps, and in the Lakes Maggiore, Varese, Iseo and
Garda lying to the south of that mountain range. Many smaller
lakes, however, contain them, and they are also found in peat
moors on the sites of ancient lakes now drained or silted up, as
at Laibach in Carniola. In some of the larger lakes the number
of settlements has been very great. Fifty are enumerated in the
Lake of Neuchatel, thirty-two in the Lake of Constance, twenty-
four in the Lake of Geneva, and twenty in the Lake of Bienne.
The site of the lake dwelling of Wangen, in the Untersee, Lake of
Constance, forms a parallelogram more than 700 paces in length
by about 120 paces in breadth. The settlement at Merges,
one of the largest in the Lake of Geneva, is 1 200 ft. long by 1 50
ft. in breadth. The settlement of Sutz, one of the largest in the
Lake of Bienne, extends over six acres, and was connected with
the shore by a gangway nearly 100 yds. long and about 40 ft.
wide.
The substructure which supported the platforms on which
the dwellings were placed was most frequently of piles driven
into the bottom of the lake. Less frequently it consisted of a
stack of brushwood or fascines built up from the bottom and
strengthened by stakes penetrating the mass so as to keep it
from spreading. When piles were used they were the rough
stems of trees of a length proportioned to the depth of the water,
sharpened sometimes by fire and at other times chopped to a
point by hatchets. On their level tops the beams supporting
the platforms were laid and fastened by wooden pins, or inserted
in mortices cut in the heads of the piles. In some cases the
whole construction was further steadied and strengthened by
cross beams, notched into the piles below the supports of the
platform. The platform itself was usually composed of rough
layers of unbarked stems, but occasionally it was formed of
boards split from larger stems. When the mud was too soft to
afford foothold for the piles they were mortised into a framework
of tree trunks placed horizontally on the bottom of the lake.
On the other hand, when the bottom was rocky so that the piles
could not be driven, they were steadied at their bases by being
enveloped in a mound of loose stones, in the manner in which
the foundations of piers and breakwaters are now constructed.
In cases where piles have not been used, as at Niederwil and
Wauwyl, the substructure is a mass of fascines or faggots laid •
parallel and crosswise upon one another with intervening layers
of brushwood or of clay and gravel, a few piles here and there
being fixed throughout the mass to serve as guides or stays. At
Niederwil the platform was formed of split boards, many of
which were 2 ft. broad and 2 or 3 in. in thickness.
On these substructures were the huts composing the settle-
ment; for the peculiarity of these lake dwellings is that they
were pile villages, or clusters of huts occupying a common
platform. The huts themselves were quadrilateral in form.
The size of each dwelling is in some cases marked by boards
resting edgeways on the platform, like the skirting boards over
the flooring of the rooms in a modern house. The walls, which
were supported by posts, or by piles of greater length, were
formed of wattle-work, coated with clay. The floors were of
clay, and in each floor there was a hearth constructed of flat
slabs of stone. The roofs were thatched with bark, straw, reeds
or rushes. As the superstructures are mostly gone, there is no
evidence as to the position and form of the doorways, or the size,
number and position of the windows, if there were any. In one
case, at Schussenried, the house, which was of an oblong quad-
rangular form, about 33 by 23 ft., was divided into two rooms
by a partition. The outer room, which was the smaller of the
two, was entered by a doorway 3 ft. in width facing the south.
The access to the inner room was by a similar door through the
partition. The walls were formed of split tree-trunks set upright
and plastered with clay; and the flooring of similar timbers
bedded in clay. In other cases the remains of the gangways or
bridges connecting the settlements with the shore have been
discovered, but often the village appears to have been accessible
only by canoes. Several of these single-tree canoes have been
found, one of which is 43 ft. in length and 4 ft. 4 in. in its greatest
width. It is impossible to estimate with any degree of certainty
the number of separate dwellings of which any of these villages
may have consisted, but at Niederwil they stood almost con-
tiguously on the platform, the space between them not exceeding
3 ft. in width. The size of the huts also varied considerably.
At Niederwil they were 20 ft. long and 12 ft. wide, while at
Robenhausen they were about 27 ft. long by about 22 ft. wide.
The character of the relics shows that in some cases the settle-
ments have been the dwellings of a people using no materials
but stone, bone and wood for their implements, ornaments and
weapons; in others, of a people using bronze as well as stone and
bone; and in others again the occasional use of iron is disclosed.
But, though the character of the relics is thus changed, there is no
corresponding change in the construction and arrangements of
the dwellings. The settlement in the Lake of Moosseedorf,
near Bern, affords the most perfect example of a lake dwelling
of the Stone age. It was a parallelogram 70 ft. long by 50 ft.
wide, supported on piles, and having a gangway built on faggots
connecting it with the land. The superstructure had been*
destroyed by fire. The implements found in the relic bed under
it were axe-heads of stone, with their haftings of stag's horn and
wood; a flint saw, set in a handle of fir wood and fastened with
asphalt; flint flakes and arrow-heads; harpoons of stag's horn
with barbs; awls, needles, chisels, fish-hooks and other imple-
ments of bone; a comb of yew wood 5 in. long; and a skate
made out of the leg bone of a horse. The pottery consisted
chiefly of roughly-made vessels, some of which were of large size,
others had holes under the rims for suspension, and many were
covered with soot, the result of their use as culinary vessels.
Burnt wheat, barley and linseed, with many varieties of seeds
and fruits, were plentifully mingled with the bones of the stag,
the ox, the swine, the sheep and the goat, representing the
ordinary food of the inhabitants, while remains of the beaver,
the fox, the hare, the dog, the bear, the horse, the elk and the
bison were also found.
LAKE DWELLINGS
93
The settlement of Robenhausen, in the moor which was
formerly the bed of the ancient Lake of Pfaffikon, seems to have
continued in occupation after the introduction of bronze. The
site covers nearly 3 acres, and is estimated to have contained
100,000 piles. In some parts three distinct successions of
inhabited platforms have been traced. The first had been
destroyed by fire. It is represented at the bottom of the lake
by a layer of charcoal mixed with implements of stone and bone
and other relics highly carbonized. The second is represented
above the bottom by a series of piles with burnt heads, and in
the bottom by a layer of charcoal mixed with corn, apples,
cloth, bones, pottery and implements of stone and bone, separated
from the first layer of charcoal by 3 ft. of peaty sediment inter-
mixed with relics of the occupation of the platform. The piles
of the third settlement do not reach down to the shell marl,
but are fixed in the layers representing the first and second
settlements. They are formed of split oak trunks, while those
of the two first settlements are round stems chiefly of soft wood.
The huts of this last settlement appear to have had cattle stalls
between them, the droppings and litter forming heaps at the lake
bottom. The bones of the animals consumed as food at this
station were found in such numbers that 5 tons were collected
in the construction of a watercourse which crossed the site.
Among the wooden objects recovered from the relic beds were
tubs, plates, ladles and spoons, a flail for threshing corn, a last
for stretching shoes of hide, celt handles, clubs, long-bows of
yew, floats and implements of fishing and a dug-out canoe 12 ft.
long. No spindle-whorls were found, but there were many
varieties of cloth, platted and woven, bundles of yarn and balls
of string. Among the tools of bone and stag's horn were
awls, needles, harpoons, scraping tools and haftings for stone
axe-heads. The implements of stone were chiefly axe-heads
and arrow-heads. Of clay and earthenware there were many
varieties of domestic dishes, cups and pipkins, and crucibles
or melting pots made of clay and horse dung and still retaining
the drossy coating of the melted bronze.
The settlement of Auvernier in the Lake of Neuchatel is one
of the richest and most considerable stations of the Bronze age.
It has yielded four bronze swords, ten socketed spear-heads,
forty celts or axe-heads and sickles, fifty knives, twenty socketed
chisels, four hammers and an anvil, sixty rings for the arms and
legs, several highly ornate torques or twisted neck rings, and
upwards of two hundred hair pins of various sizes up to 16 in.
in length, some having spherical heads in which plates of gold
were set. Moulds for sickles, lance-heads and bracelets were
found cut in stone or made in baked clay. From four to five
hundred vessels of pottery finely made and elegantly shaped are
indicated by the fragments recovered from the relic bed. The Lac
de Bourget, in Savoy, has eight settlements, all of the Bronze
age. These have yielded upwards of 4000 implements, weapons
and ornaments of bronze, among which were a large proportion
of moulds and founders' materials. A few stone implements
suggest the transition from stone to bronze; and the occasional
occurrence of iron weapons and pottery of Gallo-Roman origin
indicates the survival of some of the settlements to Roman times.
•The relative antiquity of the earlier settlements of the Stone
and Bronze ages is not capable of being deduced from existing
evidence. " We may venture to place them," says Dr F. Keller,
" in an age when iron and bronze had been long known, but had
not come into our districts in such plenty as to be used for the
common purposes of household life, at a time when amber had
already taken its place as an ornament and had become an object
of traffic." It is now considered that the people who erected
the lake dwellings of Central Europe were also the people who
were spread over the mainland. The forms and the ornamenta-
tion of the implements and weapons of stone and bronze found
in the lake dwellings are the same as those of the implements
and weapons in these materials found in the soil of the adjacent
regions, and both groups must therefore be ascribed to the
industry of one and the same people. Whether dwelling on the
land or dwelling in the lake, they, have exhibited so many
indications of capacity, intelligence, industry and social organi-
zation that they cannot be considered as presenting, even in
their Stone age, a very low condition of culture or civilization.
Their axes were made of tough stones, sawn from the block
and ground to the fitting shape. They were fixed by the butt in
a socket of stag's horn, mortised into a handle of wood. Their
knives and saws of flint were mounted in wooden handles and
fixed with asphalt. They made and used an endless variety of
bone tools. Their pottery, though roughly finished, is well made,
the vessels often of large size and capable of standing the fire
as cooking utensils. For domestic dishes they also made wooden
tubs, plates, spoons, ladles and the like. The industries of
spinning and weaving were largely practised. They made nets
and fishing lines, and used canoes. They practised agriculture,
cultivating several varieties of wheat and barley, besides millet
and flax. They kept horses, cattle, sheep, goats and swine.
Their clothing was partly of linen and partly of woollen fabrics
and the skins of their beasts. Their food was nutritious and
varied, their dwellings neither unhealthy nor incommodious.
They lived in the security and comfort obtained by social
organization, and were apparently intelligent, industrious and
progressive communities.
There is no indication of an abrupt change from the use of
stone to the use of metal such as might have occurred had the
knowledge of copper and bronze, and the methods of working
them, been introduced through the conquest of the original
inhabitants by an alien race of superior culture and civilization.
The improved cultural conditions become apparent in the
multiplication of the varieties of tools, weapons and ornaments
made possible by the more adaptable qualities of the new
material; and that the development of the Bronze age culture
in the lake dwellings followed the same course as in the surround-
ing regions where the people dwelt on the dry land is evident
from the correspondence of the types of implements, weapons,
ornaments and utensils common to both these conditions of
life.
Other classes of prehistoric pile-structures akin to the lake
dwellings are the Terremare of Italy and the Terpen of Holland.
Both of these are settlements of wooden huts erected on piles,
not over the water, but on flat land subject to inundations.
The terremare (so named from the marly soil of which they
are composed) appear as mounds, sometimes of very considerable
extent, which when dug into disclose the remains and relic beds
of the ancient settlements. They are most abundant in the
plains of northern Italy traversed by the Po and its tributaries,
though similar constructions have been found in Hungary in the
valley of the Theiss. These pile-villages were often surrounded-
by an earthen rampart within which the huts were erected in
more or less regular order. Many of them present evidence of
having been more than once destroyed by fire and reconstructed,
while others show one or more reconstructions at higher levels
on the same site. The contents of the relic beds indicate that
they belong for the most part to the age of bronze, although in
some cases they may be referred to the latter part of the Stone
age. 'Their inhabitants practised agriculture and kept the
common domestic animals, while their tools, weapons and
ornaments were mainly of similar character to those of the
contemporary lake dwellers of the adjoining regions. Some of
the Italian terremare show quadrangular constructions made
like the modern log houses, of undressed tree trunks superposed
longitudinally and overlapping at the ends, as at Castione in the
province of Parma. A similar mode of construction is found in
the pile-village on the banks of the Save, near Donja Dolina
in Bosnia, described in 1904 by Dr Truhelka. Here the larger
houses had platforms in front of them forming terraces at different
levels descending towards the river. There was a cemetery
adjacent to the village in which both unburnt and cremated
interments occurred, the former predominating. From the
general character of the relics this settlement appeared to belong
to the early Iron age. The Terpen of Holland appear as mounds
somewhat similar to those of the terremare, and were also pile
structures, on low or marshy lands subject to inundations from
the sea. Unlike the terremare and the lake dwellings they do
94
LAKE GENEVA— LAKSHMI
not seem to belong to the prehistoric ages, but yield indications
of occupation in post-Roman and medieval times.
AUTHORITIES. — The materials for the investigation of this singular
phase of prehistoric life were first collected and systematized by Dr
Ferdinand Keller (1800-1881), of Zurich, and printed inMittheilungen
der Antiquarischen Gesellschaft in Zurich, vols. ix.-xxii., 410 (1855-
1886). The substance of these reports has been issued as a separate
work in England, The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland and other parts
of Europe, by Dr Ferdinand Keller, translated and arranged by
John Edward Lee, 2nd ed. (2 vols. 8vo, London, 1878). Other works
on the same subject are Fre'de'ric Troyon, Habitations lacustres des
temps anciens el modernes (Lausanne, 1860); E. Desor, Les Palafittes
ou constructions lacustres du lac de Neuchdtel (Paris, 1865) ; E. Desor
and L. Favre, Le Bel Age du bronze lacustre en Suisse (Paris^ 1874) ;
A. Perrin, Etude prehistorique sur la Savoie specialement a I' epoque
lacustre (Les Palafittes du lac de Bourget, Paris, 1870); Ernest
Chantre, Les Palafittes ou constructions lacustres du lac de Paladru
(Chambery, 1871); Bartolomeo Gastaldi, Lake Habitations and
prehistoric Remains in the Turbaries and Marl-beds of Northern and
Central Italy, translated by C. H. Chambers (London, 1865); Sir
John Lubbock (Lord Avebury), Prehistoric Times (4th ed., London,
1878); Robert Munro, The Lake-Dwellings of Europe (London, 1890),
with a bibliography of the subject. (J. AN.)
LAKE GENEVA, a city of Walworth county, Wisconsin,
U.S.A., 65 m. N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) 2585, of whom
468 were foreign-born; (1905) 3449; (1910) 3079. It is served
by the Chicago & Northwestern railway. The city is pictur-
esquely situated on the shores of Lake Geneva (9 m. long and
1 1 to 3 m. wide), a beautiful body of remarkably clear water, fed
by springs, and encircled by rolling hills covered with thick
groves of hardwood trees. The region is famous as a summer
resort, particularly for Chicago people. The city is the seat
of Oakwood Sanitarium, and at Williams Bay, 6 m. distant,
is the Yerkes Observatory of the University of Chicago. Dairying
is the most important industrial interest. The first settlement
on Lake Geneva was made about 1833. The city was chartered
in 1893.
LAKE OF THE WOODS, a lake in the south-west of the
province of Ontario, Canada, bordering west on the province of
Manitoba, and south on the state of Minnesota. It is of
extremely irregular shape, and contains many islands. Its
length is 70 m., breadth 10 to 50 m., area 1500 sq. m. It
lies in the centre of the Laurentian region between Lakes
Winnipeg and Superior, and an area of 36,000 sq. m. drains
to it. It collects the waters of many rivers, the chief being
Rainy river from the east, draining Rainy Lake. By the Winni-
peg river on the north-east it discharges into Lake Winnipeg.
At its source Winnipeg river is 1057 ft. above the sea, and drops
347 ft. in its course of 165 m. The scenery both on and around
the lake is exceedingly beautiful, and the islands are largely
occupied by the summer residences of city merchants. Kenora,
a flourishing town at the source of the Winnipeg river, is the
centre of the numerous lumbering and mining enterprises of
the vicinity.
LAKE PLACID, a village in Essex county, New York, U.S.A.,
on the W. shore of Mirror Lake, near the S. end of Lake Placid,
about 42 m. N.W. of Ticonderoga. Pop. (1905) 1514; (1910)
1682. The village is served by the Delaware & Hudson railway.
The region is one of the most attractive in the Adirondacks,
and is a much frequented summer resort. There are four good
golf courses here, and the village has a well-built club house,
called the " Neighborhood House." The village lies on the
narrow strip of land (about J m.) between Mirror Lake (about
i m. long, N. and S., and $ m. wide), and Lake Placid, about
5 m. long (N.N.E. by S.S.W.), and about ij m. (maximum)
broad; its altitude is 1864 ft. The lake is roughly divided,
from N. to S. by three islands— Moose, the largest, and Hawk,
both privately owned, and Buck — and is a beautiful sheet of
water in a picturesque setting of forests and heavily wooded
hills and mountains. Among the principal peaks in the vicinity
are Whiteface Mountain (4871 ft.), about 3 m. N.W. of the N.
end of the lake; McKenzie Mountain (3872 ft.), about i m.
to the W., and Pulpit Mountain (2658 ft.), on the E. shore.
The summit of Whiteface Mountain commands a fine view,
with Gothic (4738 ft.), Saddleback (4530 ft.), Basin (4825 ft.),
Marcy (5344 ft.), and Mclntyre (5210 ft.) mountains about lom.
to the S. and Lake Champlain to the E., and to the N.E. may be
seen, on clear days, the spires of Montreal. In the valleys E.
and S. are the headwaters of the famous Ausable river. About
2 m. E. of the village, at North Elba, is the grave of the aboli-
tionist, John Brown, with its huge boulder monument, and near
it is another monument which bears the names of the 20 persons
who bought the John Brown farm and gave it to the state.
The railway to the village was completed in 1893. The village
was incorporated in 1900.
LAKEWOOD, a village of Ocean county, New Jersey, U.S.A.,
in the township of Lakewood, 59 m. S. by W. of New York city,
and 8 m. from the coast, on the Central Railroad of New Jersey.
Pop. (1900) of the township, including the village, 3094; (1905)
4265; (1910) 5149. Lakewood is a fashionable health and
winter resort, and is situated in the midst of a pine forest,
with two small lakes, and many charming walks and drives.
In the village there are a number of fine residences, large hotels,
a library and a hospital. The winter temperature is 10-12° F.
warmer than in New York. The township of Lakewood was
incorporated in 1892.
LAKH (from the Sans, laksha, one hundred thousand), a
term used in British India, in a colloquial sense to signify a
lakh of rupees (written 1,00,000), which at the face value of the
rupee would be worth £10,000, but now is worth only £6666.
The term is also largely used in trade returns. A hundred
lakhs make a crore.
LAKHIMPUR, a district of British India in the extreme east
of the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. Area, 4529 sq. m.
It lies along both banks of the Brahmaputra for about 400 m.;
it is bounded N. by the Daphla, Miri, Abor and Mishmi hills,
E. by the Mishmi and Kachin hills, S. by the watershed of the
Patkai range and the Lohit branch of the Brahmaputra, and W.
by the districts of Darrang and Sibsagar. The Brahmaputra
is navigable for steamers in all seasons as far as Dibrugarh, in
the rainy season as far as Sadiya; its navigable tributaries
within the district are the Subansiri, Dibru and Dihing. The
deputy-commissioner in charge exercises political control over
numerous tribes beyond the inner surveyed border. The most
important of these tribes are the Miris, Abors, Mishmis, Khamtis,
Kachins and Nagas. In 1901 the population was 371,396,
an increase of 46 % in the decade. The district has enjoyed
remarkable and continuous prosperity. At each successive
census the percentage of increase has been over 40, the present
population being more than three times as great as that of 1872.
This increase is chiefly due to the numerous tea gardens and to
the coal mines and other enterprises of the Assam Railways
and Trading Company. Lakhimpur was the first district into
which tea cultivation was introduced by the government, and
the Assam Company began operations here in 1840. The
railway, known as the Dibru-Sadiya line, runs from Dibrugarh
to Makum, with two branches to Talap and Margherita, and
has been connected across the hills with the Assam-Bengal
railway. The coal is of excellent quality, and is exported by
river as far as Calcutta. The chief oil-wells are at Digboi. The
oil is refined at Margherita, producing a good quality of kerosene
oil and first-class paraffin, with wax and other by-products.
The company also manufactures bricks and pipes of various
kinds. Another industry is cutting timber, for the manufacture
of tea-chests, &c.
Lakhimpur figures largely in the annals of Assam as the region
where successive invaders from the east first reached the Brahma-
putra. The Bara Bhuiyas, originally from the western provinces of
India, were driven out by the Chutias (a Shan race), and these in
their turn gave place to their more powerful brethren, the Ahoms,
in the I3th century. The Burmese, who had ruined the native
kingdoms, at the end of the 1 8th century, were in 1825 expelled by
the British, who placed the southern part of the country, together
with Sibsagar under the rule of Raja Purandhar Singh; but it was
not till 1838 that the whole was taken under direct British adminis-
tration. The headquarters are at Dibrugarh.
See Lakhimpur District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1905).
LAKSHMI (Sans, for " mark," " sign," generally used in
composition with punya, " prosperous "; hence " good sign,"
"good fortune"), in Hindu mythology, the wife of Vishnu,
LALAING— LALLY-TOLLENDAL
95
worshipped as the goddess of love, beauty and prosperity. She
has many other names, the chief being Loka mala (" mother of
the world "), Padma (" the lotus "), Padma laya (" she who
dwells on a lotus ") and Jaladliija (" the ocean-born "). She
is represented as of a bright golden colour and seated on a lotus.
She is said to have been born from the sea of milk when it was
churned from ambrosia. Many quaint myths surround her
birth. In the Rig Veda her name does not occur as a goddess.
LALAING, JACQUES DE (c. 1420-1453), Flemish knight,
was originally in the service of the duke of Cleves and afterwards
in that of the duke of Burgundy, Philip III., the Good, gaining
great renown by his prowess in the tiltyard. The duke of
Burgundy entrusted him with embassies to the pope and the
king of France (1451), and subsequently sent him to put down
the revolt of the inhabitants of Ghent, in which expedition he
was killed. His biography, Le Lime des Jails de messire Jacques
de Lalaing, which has been published several times, is mainly
the work of the Burgundian herald and chronicler Jean le
Fevre, better known as Toison d'or; the Flemish historiographer
Georges Chastellain and the herald Charolais also took part in
its compilation.
LALANDE, JOSEPH JEROME LEFRANQAIS DE (1732-1807),
French astronomer, was born at Bourg (department of Ain),
on the nth of July 1732. His parents sent him to Paris to
study law; but the accident of lodging in the Hotel Cluny, where
J. N. Delisle had his observatory, drew him to astronomy, and
he became the zealous and favoured pupil of both Delisle and
Pierre Lemonnier. He, however, completed his legal studies,
and was about to return to Bourg to practise there as an advocate,
when Lemonnier obtained permission to send him to Berlin, to
make observations on the lunar parallax in concert with those
of N. L. Lacaille at the Cape of Good Hope. The successful
execution of his task procured for him, before he was twenty-one,
admission to the Academy of Berlin, and the post of adjunct
astronomer to that of Paris. He now devoted himself to the
improvement of the planetary theory, publishing in 1759 a
corrected edition of Halley's tables, with a history of the cele-
brated comet whose return in that year he had aided Clairault
to calculate. In 1762 J. N. Delisle resigned in his favour the
chair of astronomy in the College de France, the duties of which
were discharged by Lalande for forty-six years. His house
became an astronomical seminary, and amongst his pupils
were J. B. J. Delambre, G. Piazzi, P. Mechain, and his own
nephew Michel Lalande. By his publications in connexion
with the transit of 1769 he won great and, in a measure, deserved
fame. But his love of notoriety and impetuous temper com-
promised the respect due to his scientific zeal, though these
faults were partially balanced by his generosity and benevolence.
He died on the 4th of April 1807.
Although his investigations were conducted with diligence rather
than genius, the career of Lalande must be regarded as of eminent
service to astronomy. As a lecturer and writer he gave to the
science unexampled popularity; his planetary tables, into which he
introduced corrections for mutual perturbations, were the best
available up to the end of the l8th century; and the Lalande prize,
instituted by him in 1802 for the chief astronomical performance of
each year, still testifies to his enthusiasm for his favourite pursuit.
Amongst his voluminous works are Traite d'astronomie (2 vols., 1764;
enlarged edition, 4 vols., 1771-1781 ; 3rd ed., 3 vols., 1792); Histoire
celeste fran$aise (1801), giving the places'of 50,000 stars; Biblio-
graphie aslronomique (1803), with a history of astronomy from 1781
to 1802; Astronomic des dames (1785); Abrege de navigation (1793);
Voyage d' un franqois en Italic (1769), a valuable record of his travels
in 1765-1766. He communicated above one hundred and fifty
papers to the Paris Academy of Sciences, edited the Connoissance des
temps (1759-1774), and again (1794-1807), and wrote the concluding
2 vols. of the 2nd edition of Montucla's Hisloire des mathematiques
(1802).
See Memoires de I'lnslilut, t. viii. (1807) (J. B. J. Delambre);
Delambre, Hist, de I' astr. au X VIII" siecle, p. 547 ; Magazin encyclo-
pedique, ii. 288 (1810) (Mme de Salm) ; J. S. Bailly, Hist, de I' astr.
moderne, t. iii. (ed. 1785); J. Madler, Geschichte der Himmelskunde,
ii. 141; R. Wolf, Gesch. der Astronomic; J. J. Lalande, Bibl. astr.
p. 428; J. C. Poggendorff, Biog. Lit. Handworterbuch; M. Marie,
Hist, des sciences, ix. 35.
LALIN, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of
Pontevedra. Pop. (1900) 16,238. Lalin is the centre of the
trade in agricultural products of the fertile highlands between
the Deza and Arnego rivers. The local industries are tanning
and the manufacture of paper. Near Lalin are the ruins of the
Gothic abbey of Carboeiro.
LA LINEA, or LA LINEA DE LA CONCEPCION, a town of Spain,
in the province of Cadiz, between Gibraltar and San Roque.
Pop. (1900) 31,802. La Linea, which derives its name from
the line or boundary dividing Spanish territory from the district
of Gibraltar, is a town of comparatively modern date and was
formerly looked upon as a suburb of San Roque. It is now a
distinct frontier post and headquarters of the Spanish com-
mandant of the lines of Gibraltar. The fortifications erected
here in the i6th century were dismantled by the British in 1810,
to prevent the landing of French invaders, and all the existing
buildings are modern. They include barracks, casinos, a theatre
and a bull-ring, much frequented by the inhabitants and garrison
of Gibraltar. La Linea has some trade in cereals, fruit and
vegetables; it is the residence of large numbers of labourers
employed in Gibraltar.
LALITPUR, a town of British India, in Jhansi district, United
Provinces. Pop. (1901) 11,560. It has a station on the Great
Indian Peninsula railway, and a large trade in oil-seeds, hides and
ghi. It contains several beautiful Hindu and Jain temples.
It was formerly the headquarters of a district of the same name,
which was incorporated with that of Jhansi in 1891. The
Bundela chiefs of Lalitpur were among those who most eagerly
joined the Mutiny, and it was only after a severe struggle that
the district was pacified.
LALLY, THOMAS ARTHUR, COMTE DE, Baron de Tollendal
(1702-1766), French general, was born at Romans, Dauphine,
in January 1702, being the son of Sir Gerard O'Lally, an Irish
Jacobite who married a French lady of noble family, from
whom the son inherited his titles. Entering the French army
in 1721 he served in the war of 1734 against Austria; he was
present at Dettingen (1743), and commanded the regiment de
Lally in the famous Irish brigade at Fontenoy (May 1745). He
was made a brigadier on the field by Louis XV. He had previ-
ously been mixed up in several Jacobite plots, and in 1745
accompanied Charles Edward to Scotland, serving as aide-de-
camp at the battle of Falkirk (January 1746). Escaping to
France, he served with Marshal Saxe in the Low Countries,
and at the capture of Maestricht (1748) was made a marechal
de camp. When war broke out with England in 1756 Lally was
given the command of a French expedition to India. He
reached Pondicherry in April 1758, and at the outset met with
some trifling military success. He was a man of courage and a
capable general; but his pride and ferocity made him disliked
by his officers and hated by his soldiers, while he regarded the
natives as slaves, despised their assistance, and trampled on their
traditions of caste. In consequence everything went wrong with
him. He was unsuccessful in an a.ttack on Tanjore, and had
to retire from the siege of Madras (1758) owing to the timely
arrival of the British fleet. He was defeated by Sir Eyre Coote
at Wandiwash (1760), and besieged in Pondicherry and forced
to capitulate (1761). He was sent as a prisoner of war to England.
While in London, he heard that he was accused in France of
treachery, and insisted, against advice, on returning on parole to
stand his trial. He was kept prisoner for nearly two years
before the trial began; then, after many painful delays, he was
sentenced to death (May 6, 1766), and three days later beheaded.
Louis XV. tried to throw the responsibility for what was un-
doubtedly a judicial murder on his ministers and the public,
but his policy needed a scapegoat, and he was probably well
content not to exercise his authority to save an almost friendless
foreigner.
See G. B. Malleson, The Career of Count Lally (1865); " Z's"
(the marquis de Lally-Tollendal) article in the Biographic Michaud;
and Voltaire's (Euvres completes. The legal documents are pre-
served in the Biblioth^que Nationale.
LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHIME GERARD, MARQUIS DE
(1751-1830), was born at Paris on the 5th of March 1751. He
was the legitimized son of the comte de Lally and only discovered
96
LALO— LAMAISM
the secret of his birth on the day of his father's execution, when
he resolved to devote himself to clearing his father's memory.
He was supported by Voltaire, and in 1778 succeeded in persuad-
ing Louis XVI. to annul the decree which had sentenced the
comte de Lally; but the parlement of Rouen, to which the case
was referred back, in 1784 again decided in favour of Lally's
guilt. The case was retried by other courts, but Lally's innocence
was never fully admitted by the French judges. In 1779 Lally-
Tollendal bought the office of Grand bailli of Etampes, and in
1789 was a deputy to the states-general for the noblesse of Paris.
He played some part in the early stages of the Revolution, but
was too conservative to be in sympathy with all %ven of its
earlier developments. He threw himself into opposition to the
" tyranny " of Mirabeau, and condemned the epidemic of re-
nunciation which in the session of the 4th of August 1789
destroyed the traditional institutions of France. Later in the
year he emigrated to England. During the trial of Louis XVI.
by the National Convention (1793) he offered to defend the
king, but was not allowed to return to France. He did not
return till the time of the Consulate. Louis XVIII. created
him a peer of France, and in 1816 he became a member of the
French Academy. From that time until his death, on the nth
of March 1830, he devoted himself to philanthropic work,
especially identifying himself with prison reform.
See his Plaidoyer pour Louis KVI. (London, 1793); Lally-
Tollendal was also in part responsible for the Memoires, attributed
to Joseph Weber, concerning Marie Antoinette (1804); he further
edited the article on his father in the Biographic Michaud ; see also
Arnault, Discours prononce auxjunerailles de M. le marquis de Lally-
Tollendal le 13 mars 1830 (Paris) ; Gautbier de Brecy, Necrologie de
M. le marquis de Lally-Tollendal (Paris, undated) ; Voltaire, (Euvres
completes (Paris, 1889), in which see the analytical table of contents,
vol. ii.
LALO, EDOUARD (1823-1892), French composer, was born
at Lille, on the 27th of January 1823. He began his musical
studies at the conservatoire at Lille, and in Paris attended the
violin classes of Habeneck. For several years Lalo led a modest
and retired existence, playing the viola in the quartet party
organized by Armingaud and Jacquard, and in composing
chamber music. His early works include two trios, a quartet,
and several pieces for violin and pianoforte. In 1867 he took
part in an operatic competition, an opera from his pen, entitled
Fiesque, obtaining the third place out of forty-three. This
work was accepted for production at the Paris Opera, but delays
occurred, and nothing was done. Fiesque was next offered to the
Theatre de la Monnaie, Brussels, and was about to be produced
there when the manager became bankrupt. Thus, when nearly
fifty years of age, Lalo found himself in difficulties. Fiesque
was never performed, but the composer published the pianoforte
score, and eventually employed some of the music in other works.
After the Franco-German war French composers found their
opportunity in the concert-room. Lalo was one of these, and
during the succeeding ten years several interesting works from
his pen were produced, among them a sonata for violoncello, a
" divertissement " for orchestra, a violin concerto and the
Symphonie Espagnole for violin and orchestra, one of his best-
known compositions. In the meanwhile he had written a second
opera, Le Roi d'Ys, which he hoped would be produced at the
Opera. The administration offered him the " scenario " of a
ballet instead. Lalo was obliged to be content with this, and
set to work with so much energy that he fell ill, the last scenes
of the ballet being orchestrated by Gounod. Namouna, the
ballet in question, was produced at the Opera in 1882. Six
years later, on the 7th of May 1888, Le Roi d'Ys was brought
out at the Opera Comique, and Lalo was at last enabled to taste
the sweets of success. Unfortunately, fame came to him too
late in life. A pianoforte concerto and the music to Neron, a
pantomimic piece played at the Hippodrome in 1891, were his
last two works. He had begun a new opera, but had only
written the first act when, on the 23rd of April 1892, he died.
This opera, La Jacquerie, was finished by Arthur Coquard, and
was produced in 1895 at Monte Carlo, Aix-les-Bains and
finally in Paris. Lalo had distinct originality, discernible in his
employment of curious rhythmic devices. His music is ever
ingenious and brilliantly effective.
LA MADDALENA, an island 2\ m. from the N.E. coast of
Sardinia. Pop. (1901) 8361. Napoleon bombarded it in 1793
without success, and Nelson made it his headquarters for some
time. It is now an important naval station of the Italian fleet,
the anchorage being good, and is strongly fortified. A bridge
and an embankment connect it with Caprera. It appears to
have been inhabited in Roman times.
LAMAISM, a system of doctrine partly religious, partly political.
Religiously it is the corrupt form of Buddhism prevalent in Tibet
and Mongolia. It stands in a relationship to primitive Buddhism
similar to that in which Roman Catholicism, so long as the
temporal power of the pope was still in existence, stood to
primitive Christianity. The ethical and metaphysical ideas
most conspicuous in the doctrines of Lamaism are not confined
to the highlands of central Asia, they are accepted in great
measure also hi Japan and China. It is the union of these ideas
with a hierarchical system, and with the temporal sovereignty
of the head of that system in Tibet, which constitutes what is
distinctively understood by the term Lamaism. Lamaism
has acquired a special interest to the student of comparative
history through the instructive parallel which its history presents
to that of the Church of Rome.
The central point of primitive Buddhism was the doctrine
of " Arahatship " — a system of ethical and mental self -culture,
in which deliverance was found from all the mysteries
and sorrows of life in a change of heart to be reached ™f
here on earth. This doctrine seems to have been vehicle."
held very nearly in its original purity from the time
when it. was propounded by Gotama in the 6th century B.C.
to the period in which northern India was conquered by the
Huns about the commencement of the Christian era. Soon after
that time there arose a school of Buddhist teachers who called
their doctrine the " Great Vehicle." It was not in any contradic-
tion to the older doctrine, which they contemptuously called the
" Little Vehicle," but included it all, and was based upon it.
The distinguishing characteristic of the newer school was the
importance which it attached to " Bodhisatship." The older
school had taught that Gotama, who had propounded the doctrine
of Arahatship, was a Buddha, that only a Buddha is capable
of discovering that doctrine, and that a Buddha is a man who
by self-denying efforts, continued through many hundreds of
different births, has acquired the so-called Ten Paramitas or
cardinal virtues in such perfection that he is able, when sin and
ignorance have gained the upper hand throughout the world,
to save the human race from impending ruin. But until the
process of perfection has been completed, until the moment
when at last the sage, sitting under the Wisdom tree acquires
that particular insight or wisdom which is called Enlightenment
or Buddhahood, he is still only a Bodhisat. The link of connexion
between the various Bodhisats in the future Buddha's successive
births is not a soul which is transferred from body to body,
but the karma, or character, which each successive Bodhisat
inherits from his predecessors in the long chain of existences.
Now the older school also held, in the first place, that, when a
man had, in this life, attained to Arahatship, his karma would
not pass on to any othe'r individual in another life — or in other
words, that after Arahatship there would be no rebirth; and,
secondly, that four thousand years after the Buddha had pro-
claimed the Dhamma or doctrine of Arahatship, his teaching
would have died away, and another Buddha would be required to
bring mankind once more to a knowledge of the truth. The
leaders of the Great Vehicle urged their followers to seek to
attain, not so much to Arahatship, which would involve only
their own salvation, but to Bodhisatship, by the attainment of
which they would be conferring the blessings of the Dhamma
upon countless multitudes in the long ages of the future. By
thus laying stress upon Bodhisatship, rather than upon Arahat-
ship, the new school, though they doubtless merely thought
themselves to be carrying the older orthodox doctrines to their
logical conclusion, were really changing the central point of
LAMAISM
97
Buddhism, and were altering the direction of their mental vision.
It was of no avail that they adhered in other respects in the main
to the older teaching, that they professed to hold to the same
ethical system, that they adhered, except in a few unimportant
details, to the old regulations of the order of the Buddhist mendi-
cant recluses. The ancient books, preserved in the Pali Pitakas,
being mainly occupied with the details of Arahatship, lost their
exclusive value in the eyes of those whose attention was being
directed to the details of Bodhisatship. And the opinion that
every leader in their religious circles, every teacher distinguished
among them for his sanctity of life, or for his extensive learning,
was a Bodhisat, who might have and who probably had inherited
the karma of some great teacher of old, opened the door to a
flood of superstitious fancies.
It is worthy of note that the new school found its earliest
professors and its greatest expounders in a part of India outside
the districts to which the personal influence of Gotama and of his
immediate followers had been confined. The home of early
Buddhism was round about Kosala and Magadha; in the
district, that is to say, north and south of the Ganges between
where Allahabad now lies on the west and Rajgir on the east.
The home of the Great Vehicle was, at first, in the countries
farther to the north and west. Buddhism arose in countries
where Sanskrit was never more than a learned tongue, and where
the exclusive claims of the Brahmins had never been universally
admitted. The Great Vehicle arose in the very stronghold of
Brahminism, and among a people to whom Sanskrit, like Latin
in the middle ages in Europe, was the literary lingua franca.
The new literature therefore, which the new movement called
forth, was written, and has been preserved, in Sanskrit — its
principal books of Dharma, or doctrine, being the following nine:
(i) Prajnd-pdramitd; (2) Ganda-vyuha; (3) Dasa-bhumis-vara;
(4) Samddhi-rdja; (5) Lankdvatdra; (6) Saddharma-pundarika;
(7) Tathdgata-guhyaka; (8) Lalita-vistara; (9) Suvarna-prabhdsa.
The date of none of these works is known with any certainty,
but it is highly improbable that any one of them is older than the
6th century after the death of Gotama. Copies of all of them
were brought to Europe by Mr B. H. Hodgson, and other copies
have been received since then; but only one of them has as
yet been published in Europe (the Lalita Vistara, edited by
Lofmann), and only two have been translated into any European
language. These are the Lalita Vislara, translated into French,
through the Tibetan, by M. Foucaux, and the Saddharma
Pundarika, translated into English by Professor Kern. The
former is legendary work, partly in verse, on the life of Gotama,
the historical Buddha; and the latter, also partly in verse,
is devoted to proving the essential identity of the Great and the
Little Vehicles, and the equal authenticity of both as doctrines
enunciated by the master himself.
Of the authors of these nine works, as of all the older Buddhist
works with one or two exceptions, nothing has been ascertained.
The founder of the system of the Great Vehicle is, however,
often referred to under the name of Nagarjuna, whose probable
date is about A.D. 200.
Together with Nagarjuna, other early teachers of the Great
Vehicle whose names are known are Vasumitra, Vasubandhu,
Aryadeva, Dharmapala and Gunamati — all of whom were
looked upon as Bodhisats. As the newer school did not venture
so far as to claim as Bodhisats the disciples stated in the older
books to have been the contemporaries of Gotama (they being
precisely the persons known as Arahats), they attempted to
give the appearance of age to the Bodhisat theory by representing
the Buddha as being surrounded, not only by his human com-
panions the Arahats, but also by fabulous beings, whom they
represented as the Bodhisats existing at that time. In the
opening words of each Mahayana treatise a list is given of such
Bodhisats, who were beginning, together with the historical
Bodhisats, to occupy a position in the Buddhist church of
those times similar to that occupied by the saints in the corre-
sponding period of the history of Christianity in the Church of
Rome. And these lists of fabulous Bodhisats have now a distinct
historical importance. For they grow in length in the later
xvi. 4
works; and it is often possible by comparing them one with
another to fix, not the date, but the comparative age of the
books in which they occur. Thus it is a fair inference to draw
from the shortness of the list in the opening words of the Lalita
Vistara, as compared with that in the first sections of the Sad-
dharma Putidarlka, that the latter work is much the younger
of the two, a conclusion supported also by other considerations.
Among the Bodhisats mentioned in the Saddharma Puiidarika,
and not mentioned in the Lalita Vislara, as attendant on the
Buddha are Manju-sri and Avalokitesvara. That these saints
were already acknowledged by the followers of the Great Vehicle
at the beginning of the 5th century is clear from the fact that
Fa Hien, who visited India about that time, says that " men
of the Great Vehicle " were then worshipping them at Mathura,
not far from Delhi (F. H., chap. xvi.). These were supposed to
be celestial beings who, inspired by love of the human race,
had taken the so-called Great Resolve to become future Buddhas,
and who therefore descended from heaven when the actual
Buddha was on earth, to pay reverence to him, and to learn
of him. The belief in them probably arose out of the doctrine
of the older school, which did not deny the existence of the
various creations of previous mythology and speculation, but
allowed of their actual existence as spiritual beings, and only
deprived them of all power over the lives of men, and declared
them to be temporary beings liable, like men, to sin and ignor-
ance, and requiring, like men, the salvation of Arahatship.
Among them the later Buddhists seem to have placed their
numerous Bodhisats; and to have paid especial reverence to
Manju-sri as the personification of wisdom, and to Avalokite-
swara as the personification of overruling love. The former
was afterwards identified with the mythical first Buddhist
missionary, who is supposed to have introduced civilization
into Tibet about two hundred and fifty years after the death of
the Buddha.
The way was now open to a rapid fall from the simplicity
of early Buddhism, in which men's attention was directed
to the various parts of the system of self-culture,
to a belief in a whole pantheon of saints or angels, mystic'
which appealed more strongly to the half-civilized trinities.
races among whom the Great Vehicle was now pro-
fessed. A theory sprang up which was supposed to explain
the marvellous powers of the Buddhas by representing them
as only the outward appearance, the reflection, as it were, or
emanation, of ethereal Buddhas dwelling in the skies. These
were called Dhydni Buddhas, and their number was supposed
to be, like that of the Buddhas, innumerable. Only five of
them, however, occupied any space in the speculative world
in which the ideas of the later Buddhists had now begun to
move. But, being Buddhas, they were supposed to have their
Bodhisats; and thus out of the five last Buddhas of the earlier
teaching there grew up five mystic trinities, each group con-
sisting of one of these five Buddhas, his prototype in heaven
the Dhyani Buddha, and his celestial Bodhisat. Among these
hypothetical beings, the creations of a sickly scholasticism,
hollow abstractions without life or reality, the particular trinity
in which the historical Gotama was assigned a subordinate
place naturally occupied the most exalted rank. Amitabha,
the Dhyani-Buddha of this trinity, soon began to fill the largest
place in the minds of the new school; and Avalokiteswara,
his Bodhisat, was looked upon with a reverence somewhat less
than his former glory. It is needless to add that, under the
overpowering influence of these vain imaginations, the earnest
moral teachings of Gotama became more and more hidden from
view. The imaginary saints grew and flourished. Each new
creation, each new step in the theory, demanded another,
until the whole sky was filled with forgeries of the brain, and
the nobler and simpler lessons of the founder of the religion
were hidden beneath the glittering stream of metaphysical
subtleties.
Still worse results followed on the change of the earlier point
of view. The acute minds of the Buddhist pandits, no longer
occupied with the practical lessons of Arahatship, turned their
98
LAMAISM
attention, as far as it was not engaged upon their hierarchy
of mythological beings, to questions of metaphysical speculation,
which, in the earliest Buddhism, are not only discouraged
but forbidden. We find long treatises on the nature of being,
idealistic dreams which have as little to do with the Bodhisatship
that is concerned with the salvation of the world as with the
Arahatship that is concerned with the perfect life. Only one
lower step was possible, and that was not long in being taken.
The animism common alike to the untaught Huns and to their
Hindu conquerors, but condemned in early Buddhism, was
allowed to revive. As the stronger side of Gotama's teaching
was neglected, the debasing belief in rites and ceremonies,
and charms and incantations, which had been the especial object
of his scorn, began to spread like the Birana weed warmed
by a tropical sun in marsh and muddy soil. As in India, after
the expulsion of Buddhism, the degrading worship of Siva
and his dusky bride had been incorporated into Hinduism
from the savage devil worship of Aryan and of non-Aryan
tribes, so, as pure Buddhism died away in the north, the Tantra
system, a mixture of magic and witchcraft and sorcery, was
incorporated into the corrupted Buddhism.
The founder of this system seems to have been Asanga, an
influential monk of Peshawar, who wrote the first text-book of
the creed, the Y ogachchara Bhumi Sdstra, in the 6th
Vantra century A.D. Hsuan Tsang, who travelled in the first
system. half of the 7th, found the monastery where Asanga had
lived in ruins, and says that he had lived one thousand
years after the Buddha.1 Asanga managed with great dexterity
to reconcile the two opposing systems by placing a number of
Saivite gods or devils, both male and female, in the inferior
heavens of the then prevalent Buddhism, and by representing
them as worshippers and supporters of the Buddha and of
Avalokitesvara. He thus made it possible for the half-converted
and rude tribes to remain Buddhists while they brought offerings,
and even bloody offerings, to these more congenial shrines, and
while their practical belief had no relation at all to the Truths
or the Noble Eightfold Path, but busied itself almost wholly
With obtaining magic powers (Siddhi), by means of magic phrases
(Dharani), and magic circles (Maifdala). Asanga's happy idea
bore but too ample fruit. In his own country and Nepal, the
new wine, sweet and luscious to the taste of savages, completely
disqualified them from enjoying any purer drink; and now in
both countries Saivism is supreme, and Buddhism is even nomin-
ally extinct, except in some outlying districts of Nepal. But this
full effect has only been worked out in the lapse of ages; the
Tantra literature has also had its growth and its development,
and some unhappy scholar of a future age may have to trace
its loathsome history. The nauseous taste repelled even the
self-sacrificing industry of Burnouf, when he found the later
Tantra books to be as immoral as they are absurd. " The pen,"
he says, " refuses to transcribe doctrines as miserable in respect
of form as they are odious and degrading in respect of meaning."
Such had been the decline and fall of Buddhism considered
as an ethical system before its introduction into Tibet. The
manner in which its order of mendicant recluses, at first founded
to afford better opportunities to those who wished to carry
out that system in practical life, developed at last into a hier-
archical monarchy will best be understood by a sketch of the
history of Tibet.
Its real history commences with Srong Tsan Gampo, who
was born a little after 600 A.D., and who is said in the Chinese
chronicles to have entered, in 634, into diplomatic
Epomical relationship with Tai Tsung, one of the emperors of
history. the Tang dynasty. He was the founder of the present
capital of Tibet, now known as Lhasa; and in the
year 622 (the same year as that in which Mahomet fled from
Mecca) he began the formal introduction of Buddhism into
Tibet. For this purpose he sent the minister Thumi Sambhota,
afterwards looked upon as an incarnation of Manju-sri, to India,
there to collect the sacred books, and to learn and translate them.
1 Watters's Yuan Chwang, edited by Rhys Davids and Bushell,
i. 210, 356, 271.
Thumi Sambhota accordingly invented an alphabet for the
Tibetan language on the model of the Indian alphabets then in
use. And, aided by the king, who is represented to have been
an industrious student and translator, he wrote the first books
by which Buddhism became known in his native land. The
most famous of the works ascribed to him is the Mani Kambum,
"the Myriad of Precious Words" — a treatise chiefly on religion,
but which also contains an account of the introduction of
Buddhism into Tibet, and of the closing part of the life of Srong
Tsan Gampo. He is also very probably the author of another
very ancient standard work of Tibetan Buddhism, the Samatog,
a short digest of Buddhist morality, on which the civil laws of
Tibet have been founded. It is said in the Mani Kambum to
have fallen from heaven in a casket (Tibetan, samatog), and, like
the last-mentioned work, is only known to us in meagre abstract.
King Srong Tsan Gampo's zeal for Buddhism was shared
and supported by his two queens, Bribsun, a princess from Nepal,
and Wen Ching, a princess from China. They are related *o
have brought with them sacred relics, books and pictures,
for whose better preservation two large monasteries were erected.
These are the cloisters of La Brang (Jokhang) and Ra Moche,
still, though much changed and enlarged, the most sacred abbeys
in Tibet, and the glory of Lhasa. The two queens have become
semi-divine personages, and are worshipped under the name of
the two Dara-Eke, the " glorious mothers," being regarded
as incarnations of the wife of Siva, representing respectively
two of the qualities which she personifies, divine vengeance
and divine love. The former is worshipped by the Mongolians
as Okkin Tengri, " the Virgin Goddess "; but in Tibet and
China the r&le of the divine virgin is filled by Kwan Yin, a
personification of Avalokitesvara as the heavenly word, who is
often represented with a child in her arms. Srong Tsan Gampo
has also become a saint, being looked upon as an incarnation
of Avalokitesvara; and the description in the ecclesiastical
historians of the measures he took for the welfare of his subjects
do great credit to their ideal of the perfect Buddhist king. He is
said to have spent his long reign in the building of reservoirs,
bridges and canals; in the promotion of agriculture, horticulture
and manufactures; in the establishment of schools and colleges;
and in the maintenance of justice and the encouragement of
virtue. But the degree of his success must have been slight.
For after the death of himself and of his wives Buddhism gradu-
ally decayed, and was subjected by succeeding kings to cruel
persecutions; and it was not till more than half a century
afterwards, under King Kir Song de Tsan, who reigned 740-786,
that true religion is acknowledged by the ecclesiastical historians
to have become firmly established in the land.
This monarch again sent to India to replace the sacred books
that had been lost, and to invite Buddhist pandits to translate
them. The most distinguished of those who came j/ye
were Santa Rakshita, Padma Sambhava and Kamala Tibetan
Slla, for whom, and for their companions, the king sacred
built a splendid monastery still existing, at Samje,
about three days' journey south-east of Lhasa. It was to them
that the Tibetans owed the great collection of what are still
regarded as their sacred books — the Kandjur. It consists of
100 volumes containing 689 works, of which there are two or
three complete sets in Europe, one of them in the India Office
library. A detailed analysis of these scriptures has been pub-
lished by the celebrated Hungarian scholar Csoma de Koros,
whose authoritative work has been republished in French with
complete indices and very useful notes by M. Leon Peer. These
volumes contain about a dozen works of the oldest school of
Buddhism, the Hlnayana, and about 300 works, mostly very
short, belonging to the Tantra school. But the great bulk of
the collection consists of Mahayana books, belonging to all
the previously existing varieties of that widely extended Buddhist
sect; and, as the Sanskrit originals of many of these writings
are now lost, the Tibetan translations will be of great value,
not only for the history of Lamaism, but also for the history of
the later forms of Indian Buddhism.
The last king's second son, Lang Darma, concluded in May 822
LAMAISM
99
a treaty with the then emperor of China (the twelfth of the Tang
dynasty), a record of which was engraved on a stone put up in
the above-mentioned great convent of La Brang (Jokhang),
and is still to be seen there.1 He is described in the church
chronicles as an incarnation of the evil spirit, and is said to have
succeeded in suppressing Buddhism throughout the greater part
of the land. The period from Srong Tsan Gampo down to the
death of Lang Darma, who was murdered about A.D. 850, in a
civil war, is called in the Buddhist books " the first introduction
of religion." It was followed by more than a century of civil
disorder and wars, during which the exiled Buddhist monks
attempted unsuccessfully again and again to return. Many
are the stories of martyrs and confessors who are believed tp
have lived in these troublous times, and their efforts were at
last crowned with success, for in the century commencing with
the reign of Bilamgur in 971 there took place " the second
introduction of religion " into Tibet, more especially under the
guidance of the pandit Atlsha, who came to Tibet in 1041, and
of his famous native pupil and follower Brom Ston. The long
period of depression seems not to have been without a beneficial
influence on the persecuted Buddhist church, for these teachers
are reported to have placed the Tantra system more in the
background, and to have adhered more strongly to the purer
forms of the Mahayana development of the ancient faith.
For about three hundred years the Buddhist church of Tibet
was left in peace, subjecting the country more and more com-
The pletely to its control, and growing in power and in
temporal wealth. During this time it achieved its greatest
sove- victory, and underwent the most important change in
reigntyot j^s character and organization. After the reintroduc-
ie Lamas. tion ^ j^^ism into the "kingdom of snow," the
ancient dynasty never recovered its power. Its representatives
continued for some time to claim the sovereignty; but the
country was practically very much in the condition of Germany
at about the same time — chieftains of almost independent power
ruled from their castles on the hill-tops over the adjacent valleys,
engaged in petty wars, and conducted plundering expeditions
against the neighbouring tenants, whilst the great abbeys were
places of refuge for the studious or religious, and their heads were
the only rivals to the barons in social state, and in many respects
the only protectors and friends of the people. Meanwhile
Jenghiz Khan had founded the Mongol empire, and his grandson
Kublai Khan became a convert to the Buddhism of the Tibetan
Lamas. He granted to the abbot of the Sakya monastery in
southern Tibet the title of tributary sovereign of the country,
head of the Buddhist church, and overlord over the numerous
barons and abbots, and in return was officially crowned by the
abbot as ruler over the extensive domain of the Mongol empire.
Thus was the foundation laid at one and the same time of the
temporal sovereignty of the Lamas of Tibet, and of the suzerainty
over Tibet of the emperors of China. One of the first acts of the
" head of the church " was the printing of a carefully revised
edition of the Tibetan Scriptures — an undertaking whidi
occupied altogether nearly thirty years and was not completed
till 1306.
Under Kublai's successors in China the Buddhist cause
flourished greatly, and the Sakya Lamas extended their power
both at home and abroad. The dignity of abbot at Sakya
became hereditary, the abbots breaking so far the Buddhist
rule of celibacy that they remained married until they had
begotten a son and heir. But rather more than half a century
afterwards their power was threatened by a formidable rival
at home, a Buddhist reformer.
Tsongkapa, the Luther of Tibet, was born about 1357 on the
spot where the famous monastery of Kunbum now stands. He
very early entered the order, and studied at Sakya,
Brigung and other monasteries. He then spent eight
years as a hermit in Takpo in southern Tibet, where
the comparatively purer teaching of Atlsha (referred to
above) was still prevalent. About 1390 he appeared as a public
1 Published with facsimile and translation and notes in the Journal
of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1879-1880, vol. xii.
of Tibet.
teacher and reformer in Lhasa, and before his death in 1419
there were three huge monasteries there containing 30,000 of his
disciples, besides others in other parts of the country. His
voluminous works, of which the most famous are the Sumbun
and the Lam Nim Tshenpo, exist in printed Tibetan copies in
Europe, but have not yet been translated or analysed. But
the principal lines on which his reformation proceeded are
sufficiently attested. He insisted in the first place on the
complete carrying out of the ancient rules of the order as to the
celibacy of its members, and as to simplicity in dress. One
result of the second of these two reforms was to make it necessary
for every monk openly to declare himself either in favour of or
against the new views. For Tsongkapa and his followers wore
the yellow or orange-coloured garments which had been the
distinguishing mark of the order in the lifetime of its founder,
and in support of the ancient rules Tsongkapa reinstated the
fortnightly rehearsal of the Patimokkha or " disburdenment "
in regular assemblies of the order at Lhasa — a practice which
had fallen into desuetude. He also restored the custom of the
first disciples to hold the so-called Vassa or yearly retirement,
and the public meeting of the order at its close. In all these
respects he was simply following the directions of the Vinaya,
or regulations of the order, as established probably in the time
of Gotama himself, and as certainly handed down from the
earliest times in the pitakas or sacred books. Further, he set
his face against the Tantra system, and against the animistic
superstitions which had been allowed to creep into life again.
He laid stress on the self-culture involved in the practice of the
paramitas or cardinal virtues, and established an annual national
fast or week of prayer to be held during the first days of each
year. This last institution indeed is not found in the ancient
Vinaya, but was almost certainly modelled on the traditional
account of the similar assemblies convoked by Asoka and other
Buddhist sovereigns in India every fifth year. Laymen as well
as monks take part in the proceedings, the details of which are
unknown to us except from the accounts of the Catholic mission-
aries— Fathers Hue and Gabet — who describe the principal
ceremonial as, in outward appearance, wonderfully like the
high mass. In doctrine the great Tibetan teacher, who had no
access to the Pali Pitakas, adhered in the main to the purer
forms of the Mahayana school; in questions of church govern-
ment he took little part, and did not dispute the titular supremacy
of the Sakya Lamas. But the effects of his teaching weakened
their power. The " orange-hoods," as his followers were called,
rapidly gained in numbers and influence, until they so over-
shadowed the " red-hoods," as the followers of the older sect
were called, that in the middle of the isth century the emperor
of China acknowledged the two leaders of the new sect at that
time as the titular overlords of the church and tributary rulers
over the realm of Tibet. These two leaders were then known
as the Dalai Lama and the Pantshen Lama, and were the abbots
of the great monasteries at Gedun Dubpa, near Lhasa, and at
Tashi Lunpo, in Farther Tibet, respectively. Since that time
the abbots of these monasteries have continued to exercise the
sovereignty over Tibet.
As there has been no further change in the doctrine, and no
further reformation in discipline, we may leave the ecclesiastical
history of Lamaism since that date unnoticed, and
consider some principal points on the constitution of the
Lamaism of to-day. And first as to the mode of
electing successors to the two Great Lamas. It will
have been noticed that it was an old idea of the northern
Buddhists to look upon distinguished members of the order as
incarnations of Avalokitesvara, of Manju-sri, or of Amitabha.
These beings were supposed to possess the power, whilst they
continued to live in heaven, of appearing on earth in a Nirmana-
kdya, or apparitional body. In the same way the Pantshen Lama
is looked upon as an incarnation, the Nirmana-kaya, of Amitabha,
who had previously appeared under the outward form of
Tshonkapa himself; and the Dalai Lama is looked upon as an
incarnation of Avalokitesvara. Theoretically, therefore, the
former, as the spiritual successor of the great teacher and also of
IOO
LAMALOU-LES-BAINS— LAMAR
Amitabha, who occupies the higher place in the mythology of the
Great Vehicle, would be superior to the latter, as the spiritual
representative of Avalokitesvara. But practically the Dalai
Lama, owing to his position in the capital,1 has the political
supremacy, and is actually called the Gyalpo Rinpotshe, " the
glorious king " — his companion being content with the title
Pantshen Rinpotshe, " the glorious teacher." When either of
them dies it is necessary for the other to ascertain in whose body
the celestial being whose outward form has been dissolved has
been pleased again to incarnate himself. For that purpose the
names of all male children born just after the death of the
deceased Great Lama are laid before his survivor. He chooses
three out of the whole number; their names are thrown into a
golden casket provided for that purpose by a former emperor of
China. The Chutuktus, or abbots of the great monasteries, then
assemble, and after a week of prayer, the lots are drawn in their
presence and in presence of the surviving Great Lama and of the
Chinese political resident. The child whose name is first drawn is
the future Great Lama; the other two receive each of them 500
pieces of silver. The Chutuktus just mentioned correspond in
many respects to the Roman cardinals. Like the Great Lamas,
they bear the title of Rinpotshe or Glorious, and are looked ifpon
as incarnations of one or other of the celestial Bodhisats of the
Great Vehicle mythology. Their number varies from ten to a
hundred; and it is uncertain whether the honour is inherent in
the abbacy of certain of the greatest cloisters, or whether the Dalai
Lama exercises the right of choosing them. Under these high
officials of the Tibetan hierarchy there come the Chubil Khans,
who fill the post of abbot to the lesser monasteries, and are also
incarnations. Their number is very large; there are few monas-
teries in Tibet or in Mongolia which do not claim to possess one of
these living Buddhas. Besides these mystical persons there are in
the Tibetan church other ranks and degrees, corresponding to the
deacon, full priest, dean and doctor of divinity in the West. At
the great yearly festival at Lhasa they make in the cathedral an
imposing array, not much less magnificent than that of the clergy
in Rome; for the ancient simplicity of dress has disappeared in
the growing differences of rank, and each division of the spiritual
army is distinguished in Tibet, as in the West, by a special
uniform. The political authority of the Dalai Lama is confined
to Tibet itself, but he is the acknowledged head also of the
Buddhist church throughout Mongolia and China. He has no
supremacy over his co-religionists in Japan, and even in China
there are many Buddhists who are not practically under his
control or influence.
The best work on Lamaism is still Koppen's Die Lamaische Hierarchic
und Kirche (Berlin, 1859). See also Bushell, " The Early History of
Tibet," in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1879-1880, vol.
xu. ; Sanang Setzen's History of the East Mongols (in Mongolian,
translated into German by J. Schmidt, Geschichte der Ost- Mongolen) ;
Analyse du Kandjur," by M. L&m Peer, in Annales du Musee
Gaimet (1881); Schott, Ueber den Buddhismus in Hoch-Asien;
Gutzlaff, Geschichte des Chinesischen Reiches; Hue and Gabet
Souvenirs d'un voyage dans la Tartarie, le Tibet, et la Chine
(Pans, 1858) ; Pallas's Sammlung historischer Nachrichten uber die
Mongohschen Volkerschaften ; Babu Sarat Chunder Das's "Contri-
butions on the Religion and History of Tibet," in the Journal of the
Bengal Asiatic Society, 1881; L. A. Waddell, The Buddhism of
Tibet (London, 1895); A. H. Francke, History of Western Tibet
(London, 1907) ; A. Griinwedel, Mythologie des Buddhismus in Tibet
und der Mongolei (Berlin, 1900). (T. W. R. D.)
LAMALOU-LES-BAINS, a watering-place of southern France
in the department of Herault, 53! m. W. of Montpellier by rail,
in a valley of the southern C6vennes. .Pop. (1906)720. The
waters, which are both hot and cold, are used in cases of rheu-
matism, sciatica, locomotor ataxy and nervous maladies.
LAMA-MIAO, or DOLON-NOR, a city of the province of Chih-li,
China, 150 m. N. of Peking, in a barren sandy plain watered by
the Urtingol, a tributary of the Shang-tu-ko. The town proper,
almost exclusively occupied by Chinese, is about a mile in length
'This statement, representing the substantial and historical
position, is retained, in spite of the crises of March 1910, when the
Dalai L&ma took refuge from the Chinese in India, and of 1904, when
the British expedition occupied Lhasa and the Dalai Lama fled to
China (see TIBET).
by half a mile in breadth, has narrow and dirty streets, and con-
tains a population of about 26,000. Unlike the ordinary Chinese
town of the same rank, it is not walled. A busy trade is carried
on between the Chinese and the Mongolians, who bring in their
cattle, sheep, camels, hides and wool to barter for tea, tobacco,
cotton and silk. At some distance from the Chinese town lies the
Mongolian quarter, with two groups of lama temples and villages
occupied by about 2300 priests. Dr Williamson (Journeys in
North China, 1870) described the chief temple as a huge oblong
building with an interior not unlike a Gothic church. Lama-
miao is the seat of a manufactory of bronze idols and other
articles of ritual, which find their way to all parts of Mongolia
and Tibet. The craftsmen work in their own houses.
LAMAR, LUCIUS QUINTUS CINCINNATUS (1825-1893),
American statesman and judge, was born at the old " Lamar
Homestead," in Putnam county, Georgia, on the I7th of
September 1825. His father, Lucius Q. C. Lamar (1797-1834),
was an able lawyer, a judge of the superior court of Georgia,
and the compiler of the Laws of Georgia from 1810 to 1819
(1821). In 1845 young Lamar graduated from Emory College
(Oxford, Ga.), and in 1847 was admitted to the bar. In
1849 he removed to Oxford, Mississippi, and in 1850-1852
was adjunct professor of mathematics in the state uni-
versity. In 1852 he removed to Covington, Ga., to practise
law, and in 1853 was elected a mejnber of the Georgia House of
Representatives. In 1855 he returned to Mississippi, and two
years later became a member of the National House of Repre-
sentatives, where he served until December 1860, when he with-
drew to become a candidate for election to the " secession "
convention of Mississippi. He was elected to the convention, and
drafted for it the Mississippi ordinance of secession. In the
summer of 1860 he had accepted an appointment to the chair of
ethics and metaphysics in the university of Mississippi, but,
having been appointed a lieutenant-colonel in the Confederate
Army in the spring of 1861, he resigned his professorship. The
colonel of his regiment (Nineteenth Mississippi) was killed early
in the battle of Williamsburg, on the sth of May 1862, and the
command then fell to Lamar, but in October he resigned from
the army. In November 1862 he was appointed by President
Jefferson Davis special commissioner of the Confederacy to
Russia; but he did not proceed farther than Paris, and his
mission was soon terminated by the refusal of the Confederate
Senate to confirm his appointment. In 1866 he was again
appointed to the chair of ethics and metaphysics in the uni-
versity of Mississippi, and in the next year was transferred to the
chair of law, but in 1870, Republicans having become trustees
of the university upon the readmission of the state into the
Union, he resigned. From 1873 to 1877 he was again a Demo-
cratic representative in Congress; from 1877 to 1885 he was a
United States senator; from 1885 to January 1888 he was
secretary of the interior; and from 1888 until his death at
Macon, Ga., on the 23rd of January 1893, he was an associate
justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. In Congress
Lamar fought the silver and greenback craze and argued forcibly
against the protective tariff; in the department of the interior
he introduced various reforms; and on the Supreme Court
bench his dissenting opinion in the Neagle Case (based upon a
denial that certain powers belonging to Congress, but not
exercised, were by implication vested in the department of
justice) is famous. But he is perhaps best known for the part he
took after the Civil War in helping to effect a reconciliation
between the North and the South. During the early secession
movement he strove to arouse the white people of the South
from their indifference, declaring that secession alone could save
them from a doom similar to that of the former whites of San
Domingo. He probably never changed his convictions as to the
righteousness of the " lost cause "; but he accepted the result
of the war as a final settlement of the differences leading to it, and
strove to restore the South in the Union, and to effect the reunion
of the nation in feeling as well as in government. This is in part
seen from such speeches as his eulogy on Charles Sumner (271)1
of April 1874), his leadership in reorganizing the Democratic
LAMARCK
101
party of his own state, and his counsels of peace in the disputed
presidential election of 1876.
See Edward Mayes, Lucius Q. C. Lamar: His Life, Times and
Speeches (Nashville, Tenn., 1896).
LAMARCK, JEAN BAPTISTE PIERRE ANTOINE DE
MONET, CHEVALIER DE (1744-1829), French naturalist, was
born on the ist of August 1744, at Bazantin, a village of Picardy.
He was an eleventh child; and his father, lord of the manor and
of old family, but of limited means, having placed three sons
in the army, destined this one for the church, and sent him to the
Jesuits at Amiens, where he continued till his father's death.
After this he would remain with the Jesuits no longer, and, not
yet seventeen years of age, started for the seat of war at Bergen-
op-Zoom, before which place one of his brothers had already
been killed. Mounted on an old horse, with a boy from the
village as attendant, and furnished by a lady with a letter of
introduction to a colonel, he reached his destination on the
evening before a battle. Next morning the colonel found that
the new and very diminutive volunteer had posted himself in
the front rank of a body of grenadiers, and could not be induced
to quit the position. In the battle, the company which he had
joined became exposed to the fire of the enemy's artillery, and
in the confusion of retreat was forgotten. All the officers and
subalterns were killed, and not more than fourteen men were left,
when the oldest grenadiers seeing there were no more French
in sight proposed to the young volunteer so soon become com-
mandant to withdraw his men. This he refused to do without
orders. These at last arrived; and for his bravery he was made
an officer on the spot, and soon after was named to a lieutenancy.
After the peace, the regiment was sent to Monaco. There
one of his comrades playfully lifted him by the head, and to this
it was imputed that he was seized with disease of the glands of the
neck, so severe as to put a stop to his military career. He went
to Paris and began the study of medicine, supporting himself by
working in a banker's office He early became interested in
meteorology and in physical and chemical speculations of a
chimerical kind, but happily threw his main strength into
botany, and in 1778 published his Flore fran$aise, a work in
which by a dichotomous system of contrasting characters he
enabled the student with facility to determine species. This
work, which went through several editions and long kept the field,
gained for its author immediate popularity as well as admission
to the Academy of Sciences.
In 1781 and 1782, under the title of botanist to the king, an
appointment obtained for him by Buffon, whose son accompanied
him, he travelled through various countries of Europe, extending
his knowledge of natural history; and on his return he began
those elaborate contributions to botany on which his reputation
in that science principally rests, namely, the Dictionnaire de
Botanigue and the Illustrations de Genres, voluminous works
contributed to the Encyclopedic Methodique (1785). In 1793, in
consequence of changes in the organization of the natural history
department at the Jardin du Roi, where he had held a botanical
appointment since 1788, Lamarck was presented to a zoological
chair, and called on to lecture on the Insecta and Vermes of
Linnaeus, the animals for which he introduced the term In-
iiertebrata. Thus driven, comparatively late in life, to devote his
principal attention to zoology instead of botany, he had the
misfortune soon after to suffer from impaired vision; and the
malady resulted subsequently in total blindness. Yet his
greatest zoological work, the Histoirc naturelle des animaux
sans vertebres, was published from 1815 to 1822, with the
assistance, in the last two volumes, of his eldest daughter and
of P. A. Latreille (1762-1833). A volume of plates of the fossil
shells of the neighbourhood of Paris was collected in 1823 from
his memoirs in the Annales des Museums. He died on the i8th
of December 1829.
The character of Lamarck as a naturalist is remarkable alike
for its excellences and its defects. His excellences were width
of scope, fertility of ideas and a pre-eminent faculty of precise
description, arising not only from a singularly terse style, but
from a clear insight into both the distinctive features and the
resemblances of forms. That part of his zoological work which
constitutes his solid claim to the highest honour as a zoologist
is to be found in his extensive and detailed labours in the depart-
ments of living and fossil Invertebrata. His endeavours at
classification of the great groups were necessarily defective on
account of the imperfect knowledge possessed in his time in
regard to many of them, e.g. echinoderms, ascidians and in-
testinal worms; yet they are not without interest, particularly
on account of the comprehensive attempt to unite in one great
division as Articulala all those groups that appeared to present
a segmented construction. Moreover, Lamarck was the first
to distinguish vertebrate from invertebrate animals by the
presence of a vertebral column, and among the Invertebrata
to found the groups Crustacea, Arachnida and Annelida. In
1785 (Hist, del' A cad.} he evinced his appreciation of the necessity
of natural orders in botany by an attempt at the classification
of plants, interesting, though crude and falling immeasurably
short of the system which grew in the hands of his intimate
friend A. L. de Jussieu. The problem of taxonomy has never
been put more philosophically than he subsequently put it in his
Animaux sans vertebres: " What arrangement must be given
to the general distribution of animals to make it conformable to
the order of nature in the production of these beings? "
The most prominent defect in Lamarck must be admitted to
have been want of control in speculation. Doubtless the specula-
tive tendency furnished a powerful incentive to work, but it
outran the legitimate deductions from observation, and led him
into the production of volumes of worthless chemistry without
experimental basis, as well as into spending much time on fruitless
meteorological predictions. His A nnuaires Meteor ologiques were
published yearly from 1800 to 1810, and were not discontinued
until after an unnecessarily public and brutal tirade from
Napoleon, administered on the occasion of being presented
with one of his works on natural history.
To the general reader the name of Lamarck is chiefly interesting
on account of his theory of the origin of life and of the diversities
of animal forms. The idea, which appears to have been favoured
by Buffon before him, that species were not through all time
unalterable, and that the more complex might have been
developed from pre-existent simpler forms, became with Lamarck
a belief or, as he imagined, a demonstration. Spontaneous
generation, he considered, might be easily conceived as resulting
from such agencies as heat and electricity causing in small
gelatinous bodies an utricular structure, and inducing a " singular
tension," a kind of " erethisme " or " orgasme "; and, having
thus accounted for the first appearance of life, he explained
the whole organization of animals and formation of different
organs by four laws (introduction to his Histoire naturelle des
animaux sans vertebres, 1815): —
1. " Life by its proper forces tends continually to increase the
volume of every body possessing it, and to enlarge its parts, up to
a limit which it brings about.
2. " The production of a new organ in an animal body results from
the supervention of a new want (besoin) continuing to make itself
felt, and a new movement which this want gives birth to and en-
courages.
3. " The development of organs and their force of action are con-
stantly in ratio to the employment of these organs.
4. All which has been acquired, laid down, or changed in the
organization of individuals in the course of their .life is conserved
by generation and transmitted to the new individuals which proceed
from those which have undergone those changes.''
The second law is often referred to as Lamarck's hypothesis of
the evolution of organs in animals by appetence or longing,
although he does not teach that the animal's desires affect its
conformation directly, but that altered wants lead to altered
habits, which result in the formation of new organs as well as
in modification, growth or dwindling of those previously existing.
Thus, he suggests that, ruminants being pursued by carnivora,
their legs have grown slender; and, their legs being only fit
for support, while their jaws are weak, they have made attack
with the crown of the head, and the determination of fluids
thither has led to the growth of horns. So also the stretching
of the giraffe's neck to reach the foliage he supposes to have led
102
LA MARGHERITA— LAMARTINE
to its elongation; and the kangaroo, sitting upright to support
the young in its pouch, he imagines to have had its fore-limbs
dwarfed by disuse, and its hind legs and tail exaggerated by
using them in leaping. The fourth law expresses the inheritance
of acquired characters, which is denied by August Weismann
and his followers. For a more detailed account of Lamarck's
place in the history of the doctrine of evolution, see EVOLUTION.
LA MARGHERITA, CLEMENTE SOLARO, COUNT DEL (1792-
1869), Piedmontese statesman, was born at Mondovi. He studied
law at Siena and Turin, but Piedmont was at that time under
French domination, and being devoted to the house of Savoy
he refused to take his degree, as this proceeding would have
obliged him to recognize the authority of the usurper; after the
restoration of the Sardinian kingdom, however, he graduated.
In 1816 he entered the diplomatic service. Later he returned
to Turin, and succeeded in gaining the confidence and esteem
of King Charles Albert, who in 1835 appointed him minister of
foreign affairs. A fervent Roman Catholic, devoted to the pope
and to the Jesuits, friendly to Austria and firmly attached to
the principles of autocracy, he strongly opposed every attempt
at political innovation, and was in consequence bitterly hated
by the liberals. When the popular agitation in favour of con-
stitutional reform first broke out the king felt obliged to dispense
with La Margherita's services, although he had conducted public
affairs with considerable ability and absolute loyalty, even
upholding the dignity of the kingdom in the face of the arrogant
attitude of the cabinet of Vienna. He expounded his political
creed and his policy as minister to Charles Albert (from February
1835 to October 1847) in his Memorandum storico-politico,
published in 1851, a document of great interest for the study of
the conditions of Piedmont and Italy at that time. In 1853 he
was elected deputy for San Quirico, but he persisted in regarding
his mandate as derived from the royal authority rather than
as an emanation of the popular will. As leader of the Clerical
Right in the parliament he strongly opposed Cavour's policy,
which was eventually to lead to Italian unity, and on the estab-
lishment of the kingdom of Italy he retired from public life.
LA MARMORA, ALFONSO FERRERO (1804-1878), Italian
general and statesman, was born at Turin on the i8th of
November 1804. He entered the Sardinian army in 1823, and
was a captain in March 1848, when he gained distinction and
the rank of major at the siege of Peschiera. On the 5th of August
1848 he liberated Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, from the
Milan revolutionaries, and in October was promoted general
and appointed minister of war. After suppressing the revolt of
Genoa in 1849, he again assumed in November 1849 the portfolio
of war, which, save during the period of his command of the
Crimean expedition, he retained until 1859. Having recon-
structed the Piedmontese army, he took part in the war of 1859
against Austria; and in July of that year succeeded Cavour in
the premiership. In 1860 he was sent to Berlin and St Peters-
burg to arrange for the recognition of the kingdom of Italy,
and subsequently he held the offices of governor of Milan and
royal lieutenant at Naples, until, in September 1864, he succeeded
Minghetti as premier. In this capacity he modified the scope
of the September Convention by a note in which he claimed
for Italy full freedom of action in respect of national aspirations
to the possession of Rome, a document of which Viscontf Venosta
afterwards took advantage when justifying the Italian occupation
of Rome in 1870. In April 1866 La Marmora concluded an
alliance with Prussia against Austria, and, on the outbreak of
war in June, took command of an army corps, but was defeated
at Custozza on the 23rd of June. Accused of treason by his fellow-
countrymen, and of duplicity by the Prussians, he eventually
published in defence of his tactics (1873) a series of documents
entitled Un po' piii di luce sugli evenli dell' anno 1866 (More
light on the events of 1866) a step which caused irritation in
Germany, and exposed him to the charge of having violated
state secrets. Meanwhile he had been sent to Paris in 1867 to
oppose the French expedition to Rome, and in 1870, after the
occupation of Rome by the Italians, had been appointed lieu-
tenant-royal of the new capital. He died at Florence on the 5th
of January 1878. La Marmora's writings include Un episodio
del risorgimenlo italiano (Florence, 1875); and / segreti di
stato nel governo constituzionale (Florence, 1877).
See G. Massani, // generate Alfonso La Marmora (Milan, 1880).
LAMARTINE, ALPHONSE MARIE LOUIS DE PRAT DE
(1790-1869), French poet, historian and statesman, was born at
Macon on the 2ist of October 1790. The order of his surnames
is a controversial matter, and they are sometimes reversed.
The family of Lamartine was good, and the title of Prat was
taken from an estate in Franche Comte. His father was im-
prisoned during the Terror, and only released owing to the events
of the gth Thermidor. Lamartine's early education was received
from his mother. He was sent to school at Lyons in 1805, but
not being happy there was transferred to the care of the Peres de
la Foi at Belley, where he remained until 1809. For some time
afterwards he lived at home, reading romantic and poetical
literature, but in 1811 he set out for Italy, where he seems to
have sojourned nearly two years. His family having been steady
royalists, he entered the Gardes du corps at the return of the
Bourbons, and during the Hundred Days he sought refuge first in
Switzerland and then at Aix-en-Savoie, where he fell in love, with
abundant results of the poetical kind. After Waterloo he re-
turned to Paris. In 1818-1819 he revisited Switzerland, Savoy
and Italy, the death of his beloved affording him new subjects
for verse. After some difficulties he had his first book, the
Meditations, poetiques el religieuses, published (1820). It was
exceedingly popular, and helped him to make a position. He
had left the army for some time; he now entered the diplomatic
service and was appointed secretary to the embassy at Naples.
On his way to his post he married, in 1823, at Geneva a young
English lady, Marianne Birch, who had both money and beauty,
and in the same year his Nouvellcs meditations poetiques appeared.
In 1824 he was transferred to Florence, where he remained five
years. His Last Canto of C/tilde Harold appeared in 1825, and
he had to fight a duel (in which he was wounded) with an Italian
officer, Colonel Pepe, in consequence of a phrase in it. Charles X.,
on whose coronation he wrote a poem, gave him the order of the
Legion of Honour. The Harmonies poeliques et religieuses
appeared in 1829, when he had left Florence. Having refused
an appointment in Paris under the Polignac ministry, he went on
a special mission to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg. In the same
year he was elected to the Academy. Lamartine was in Switzer-
land, not in Paris, at the time of the Revolution of July, and,
though he put forth a pamphlet on " Rational Policy," he
did not at that crisis take any active part in politics, refusing,
however, to continue his diplomatic services under the new
government. In 1832 he set out with his wife and daughter for
Palestine, having been unsuccessful in his candidature for a seat
in the chamber. His daughter Julia died at Beirut, and before
long he received the news of his election by a constituency
(Bergues) in the department of the Nord. He returned through
Turkey and Germany, and made his first speech shortly after
the beginning of 1834. Thereafter he spoke constantly, and
acquired considerable reputation as an orator, — bringing out,
moreover, many books in prose and verse. His Eastern travels
(Voyage en Orient) appeared in 1835, his Chute d'un ange and
Jocelyn in 1837, and his Recueillemenls, the last remarkable
volume of his poetry, in 1839. As the reign of Louis Philippe
went on, Lamartine, who had previously been a liberal royalist,
something after the fashion of Chateaubriand, became more and
more democratic in his opinions. He set about his greatest
prose work, the Histoire des Girondins, which at first appeared
periodically, and was published as a whole in 1847. Like many
other French histories, it was a pamphlet as well as a chronicle,
and the subjects of Lamartine's pen became his models in
politics.
At the revolution of February Lamartine was one of the first
to declare for a provisional government, and became a member
of it, with the post of minister for foreign affairs. He was elected
for the new constituent assembly in ten different departments,
and was chosen one of the five members of the Executive Com-
mittee. For a few months indeed Lamartine, from being a.
LAMARTINE
103
distinguished man of letters, an official of inferior rank in diplo-
macy, and an eloquent but unpractical speaker in parliament,
became one of the foremost men in Europe. His inexperience
in the routine work of government, the utterly unpractical
nature of his colleagues, and the turbulence of the Parisian mob,
proved fatal to his chances. He gave some proofs of statesman-
like ability, and his eloquence was repeatedly called into requisi-
tion to pacify the Parisians. But no one can permanently
carry on the government of a great country by speeches from the
balcony of a house in the capital, and Lamartine found himself
in a dilemma. So long as he held aloof from Ledru-Rollin and
the more radical of his colleagues, the disunion resulting
weakened the government; as soon as he effected an approxima-
tion to them the middle classes fell off from him. The quelling
of the insurrection of the i5th of May was his last successful
act. A month later the renewal of active disturbances brought
on the fighting of June, and Lamartine's influence was extin-
guished in favour of Cavaignac. Moreover, his chance of renewed
political pre-eminence was gone. He had been tried and found
wanting, having neither the virtues nor the vices of his situation.
In January 1849, though he was nominated for the presidency,
only a few thousand votes were given to him, and three
months later he was not even elected to the Legislative
Assembly.
The remaining story of Lamartine's life is somewhat melancholy.
He had never been a rich man, nor had he been a saving one, and
during his period of popularity and office he had incurred great
expenses. He now set to work to repair his fortune by un-
remitting literary labour. He brought out in the Presse (1849) a
series of Confidences, and somewhat later a kind of autobiography,
entitled Raphael. He wrote several historical works of more or
less importance, the History of the Revolution of 1848, The
History of the Restoration, The History of Turkey, The History
of Russia, besides a large number of small biographical and
miscellaneous works. In 1858 a subscription was opened for
his benefit. Two years afterwards, following the example of
Chateaubriand, he supervised an elaborate edition of his own
works in forty-one volumes. This occupied five years, and while
he was engaged on it his wife died (1863). He was now over
seventy; his powers had deserted him, and even if they had not
the public taste had entirely changed. His efforts had not
succeeded in placing him in a position of independence; and at
last, in 1867, the government of the Empire (from which he had
perforce stood aloof, though he never considered it necessary to
adopt the active protesting attitude of Edgar Quinet and Victor
Hugo) came to his assistance, a vote of £20,000 being proposed
in April of that year for his benefit by Emile Ollivier. This was
creditable to both parties, for Lamartine, both as a distinguished
man of letters and as a past servant of the state, had every
claim to the bounty of his country. But he was reproached for
accepting it by the extreme republicans and irreconcilables.
He did not enjoy it long, dying on the 28th of February
1869.
As a statesman Lamartine was placed during his brief tenure of
office in a position from which it would have been almost impossible
for any man, who was not prepared and able to play the dictator,
to emerge with credit. At no time in history were unpractical
crotchets so rife in the heads of men as in 1848. But Lamartine
could hardly have guided the ship of state safely even in much
calmer weather. He was amiable and even estimable, the chief fault
of his character being vanity and an incurable tendency towards
theatrical effect, which makes his travels, memoirs and other personal
records as well as his historical works radically untrustworthy. Nor
does it appear that he had any settled political ideas. He did good
by moderating the revolutionary and destructive ardour of the
Parisian populace in 1848 ; but he had been perhaps more responsible
than any other single person for bringing about the events of that
year by the vague and frothy republican declamation of his Histoire
des Girondins.
More must be said of his literary position. Lamartine had the ad-
vantage of coming at a time when the literary field, at least in the
departments of belles lettres, was almost empty. The feeble school
of descriptive writers, epic poets of the extreme decadence, fabulists
and miscellaneous verse-makers, which the Empire had nourished
could satisfy no one. Madame de Stael was dead; Chateaubriand,
though alive, was something of a classic, and had not effected a full
revolution. Lamartine did not himself go the complete length of the
Romantic revival, but he went far in that direction. He availed
himself of the reviving interest in legitimism and Catholicism which
was represented by Bonald and Joseph de Maistre, of the nature
worship of Rousseau and Bernardin de Saint Pierre, of the senti-
mentalism of Madame de Stael, of the medievalism and the romance
of Chateaubriand and Scott, of the maladie du siecle of Chateaubriand
and Byron. Perhaps if his matter be very closely analysed it will be
found that he added hardly anything of his own. But if the parts of
the mixture were like other things the mixture itself was not. It
seemed indeed to the immediate generation so original that tradition
has it that the Meditations were refused by a publisher because they
were in none of the accepted styles. They appeared when Lamartine
was nearly thirty years old. The best of them, and the best thing
that Lamartine ever did, is the famous Lac, describing his return to
the little mountain tarn of Le Bourget after the death of his mistress,
with whom he had visited it in other days. The verse is exquisitely
harmonious, the sentiments conventional but refined and delicate,
the imagery well chosen and gracefully expressed. There is an un-
questionable want of vigour, but to readers of that day the want of
vigour was entirely compensated by the presence of freshness and
grace. Lamartine's chief misfortune in poetry was not only that his
note was a somewhat weak one, but that he could strike but one.
The four volumes of the Meditations, the Harmonies and the Recueille-
ments, which contained the prime of his verse, are perhaps the most
monotonous reading to be found anywhere in work of equal bulk by
a poet of equal talent. They contain nothing but meditative lyrical
pieces, almost any one of which is typical of the whole, though there is
considerable variation of merit. The two narrative poems which
succeeded the early lyrics, Jocelyn and the Chute d'un ange, were,
according to Lamartine's original plan, parts of a vast " Epic of the
Ages," some further fragments of which survive. Jocelyn had at one
time more popularity in England than most French verse. La Chute
d'un ange, in which the Byronic influence is more obvious than in
any other of Lamartine's works, and in which some have also seen
that of Alfred de Vigny, is more ambitious in theme, and less regu-
lated by scrupulous conditions of delicacy in handling, than most of
its author's poetry. It does, however, little more than prove that
such audacities were not for him.
As a prose writer Lamartine was very fertile. His characteristics
in his prose fiction and descriptive work are not very different from
those of his poetry. He is always and everywhere sentimental,
though very frequently, as in his shorter prose tales (The Stone
Mason of Saint-Point, Graziella, &c.), he is graceful as well as
sentimental. In his histories the effect is worse. It has been
hinted that Lamartine's personal narratives are doubtfully trust-
worthy; with ^egard to his Eastern travels some of the episodes
were stigmatized as mere inventions. In his histories proper the
special motive for embellishment disappears, but the habit of in-
accuracy remains. As an historian he belongs exclusively to the
rhetorical school as distinguished from the philosophical on the one
hand and the documentary on the other.
It is not surprising when these characteristics of Lamartine's work
are appreciated to find that his fame declined with singular rapidity
in France. As a poet he had lost his reputation many years before
he died. He was entirely eclipsed by the brilliant and vigorous
school who succeeded him with Victor Hugo at their head. His
power of initiative in poetry was very small, and the range of poetic
ground which he could cover strictly limited. He could only carry
the picturesque sentimentalism of Rousseau, Bernardin de Saint
Pierre and Chateaubriand a little farther, and clothe it in language
and verse a little less antiquated than that of Chgnedolle and Mille-
voye. He has been said to be a French Cowper, and the parallel holds
good in respect of versification and of his relative position to the
more daringly innovating school that followed, though not in respect
of individual peculiarities. Lamartine in short occupied a kind of
half-way house between the i8th century and the Romantic move-
ment, and he never got any farther. When Matthew Arnold
questioned his importance in conversation with Sainte-Beuve, the
answer was, " He is important to us," and it was a true answer; but
the limitation is obvious. In more recent years, however, efforts
have been made by Brunetiere and others to remove it. The usual
revolution of critical as of other taste, the oblivion of personal and
political unpopularity, and above all the reaction against Hugo and
the extreme Romantics, have been the main agents in this. La-
martine has been extolled as a pattern of combined passion and
restraint, as a model of nobility of sentiment, and as a harmonizer of
pure French classicism in taste and expression with much, if not all,
the better part of Romanticism itself. These oscillations of opinion
ar» frequent, if not universal, and it is only after more than one or two
swings that the pendulum remains at the perpendicular. The above
remarks are an attempt to correct extravagance in either direction.
But it is difficult to believe that Lamartine can ever permanently
take rank among the first order of poets.
The edition mentioned is the most complete one of Lamartine, but
there are many issues of his separate works. After his death some
poems and Memoir es inedits of his youth were published, and also
two volumes of correspondence, while in 1893 Mile V. de Lamartine
added a volume of Lettres to him. The change of views above re-
ferred to may be studied in the detached articles of MM. Brunetiere,
*
LAMB
Faguet, Lemaitre, &c., and in the more substantive work of Ch. de
Pomairols, Lamartine (1889); E. Deschanel, Lamartine (1893);
E. Zyrowski, Lamartine (1896); and perhaps best of all in the
Preface to Emile Legouis' Clarendon Press edition of Jocelyn (1906),
where a vigorous effort is made to combat the idea of Lamartine's
sentimentality and femininity as a poet. (G. SA.)
LAMB, CHARLES (1775-1834), English essayist and critic,
was born in Crown Office Row, Inner Temple, London, on the
loth of February 1775. His father, John Lamb, a Lincolnshire
man, who filled the situation of clerk and servant-companion
to Samuel Salt, a member of parliament and one of the benchers
of the Inner Temple, was successful in obtaining for Charles,
the youngest of three surviving children, a presentation to
Christ's Hospital, where the boy remained from his eighth to
his fifteenth year (1782-1789). Here he had for a schoolfellow
Samuel Taylor Coleridge, his senior by rather more than two
years, and a close and tender friendship began which lasted for
the rest of the lives of both. When the time came for leaving
school, where he had learned some Greek and acquired consider-
able facility in Latin composition, Lamb, after a brief stay at
home (probably spent, as his school holidays had often been,
over old English authors in Salt's library) was condemned to the
labours of the desk — " an inconquerable impediment " in his
speech disqualifying him for the clerical profession, which, as
the school exhibitions were usually only given to those preparing
for the church, thus deprived him of the only means by which
he could have obtained a university education. For a short
time he was in the office of Joseph Paice, a London merchant,
and then for twenty-three weeks, until the 8th of February 1792,
he held a small post in the Examiner's Office of the South Sea
House, where his brother John was established, a period which,
although his age was but sixteen, was to provide him nearly
thirty years later with materials for the first of the Essays of
Elia. On the sth of April 1792, he entered the Accountant's
Office in the East India House, where during the next three and
thirty years the hundred official folios of what he used to call
his true " works " were produced.
Of the years 1792-1795 we know little. At the end of 1794
he saw much of Coleridge and joined him in writing sonnets in
the Morning Post, addressed to eminent persons: early in
1795 he met Southey and was much in the company of James
White, whom he probably helped in the composition of the
Original Letters of Sir John Falstaff; and at the end of the year
for a short time he became so unhinged mentally as to necessitate
confinement in an asylum. The cause, it is probable, was an
unsuccessful love affair with Ann Simmons, the Hertfordshire
maiden to whom his first sonnets are addressed, whom he would
have seen when on his visits as a youth to Blakesware House,
near Widford, the country home of the Plumer family, of which
Lamb's grandmother, Mary Field, was for many years, until
her death in 1792, sole custodian.
It was in the late summer of 1796 that a dreadful calamity
came upon the Lambs, which seemed to blight all Lamb's
prospects in the very morning of life. On the 22nd of September
his sister Mary, " worn down to a state of extreme nervous
misery by attention to needlework by day and to her mother
at night," was suddenly seized with acute mania, in which she
stabbed her mother to the heart. The calm self-mastery and
loving self-renunciation which Charles Lamb, by constitution
excitable, nervous and self-mistrustful, displayed at this crisis
in his own history and in that of those nearest him, will ever
give him an imperishable claim to the reverence and affection of
all who are capable of appreciating the heroisms of common
life. With the help of friends he succeeded in obtaining his
sister's release from the life-long restraint to which she would
otherwise have been doomed, on the express condition that he
himself should undertake the responsibility for her safe keeping.
It proved no light charge: for though no one was capable of
affording a more intelligent or affectionate companionship than
Mary Lamb during her periods of health, there was ever present
the apprehension of the recurrence of her malady; and when
from time to time the premonitory symptoms had become
unmistakable, there was no alternative but her removal, which
took place in quietness and tears. How deeply the whole course
of Lamb's domestic life must have been affected by his singular
loyalty as a brother needs not to be pointed out.
Lamb's first appearance as an author was made in the year
of the great tragedy of his life (1796), when there were published
in the volume of Poems on Various Subjects by Coleridge four
sonnets by " Mr Charles Lamb of the India House." In the
following year he contnbuted, with Charles Lloyd, a pupil of
Coleridge, some pieces in blank verse to the second edition of
Coleridge's Poems. In 1797 his short summer holiday was
spent with Coleridge at Nether Stowey, where he met the
Wordsworths, William and Dorothy, and established a friendship
with both which only his own death terminated. In 1798, under
the influence of Henry Mackenzie's novel Julie de Roubigne,
he published a short and pathetic prose tale entitled Rosamund
Gray, in which it is possible to trace beneath disguised conditions
references to the misfortunes of the author's own family, and
many personal touches; and in the same year he joined Lloyd
in a volume of Blank Verse, to which Lamb contributed poems
occasioned by the death of his mother and his aunt Sarah Lamb,
among them being his best-known lyric, " The Old Familiar
Faces." In this year, 1798, he achieved the unexpected publicity
of an attack by the Anti- Jacobin upon him as an associate of
Coleridge and Southey (to whose Annual Anthology he had
contributed) in their Jacobin machinations. In 1799, on the
death of her father, Mary Lamb came to live again with her
brother, their home then being in Pentonville; but it was not
until 1800 that they really settled together, their first independent
joint home being at Mitre Court Buildings in the Temple, where
they lived until 1809. At the end of 1801, or beginning of 1802,
appeared Lamb's first play John Woodvil, on which he set great
store, a slight dramatic piece written in the style of the earlier
Elizabethan period and containing some genuine poetry and
happy delineation of the gentler emotions, but as a whole
deficient in plot, vigour and character; it was held up to ridicule
by the Edinburgh Review as a specimen of the rudest condition
of the drama, a work by " a man of the age of Thespis." The
dramatic spirit, however, was not thus easily quenched in Lamb,
and his next effort was a farce, Mr H , the point of which lay
in the hero's anxiety to conceal his name " Hogsflesh "; but
it did not survive the fifst night of its appearance at Drury
Lane, in December 1806. Its author bore the failure with rare
equanimity and good humour — even to joining in the hissing —
and soon struck into new and more successful fields of literary
exertion. Before, however, passing to these it should be men-
tioned that he made various efforts to earn money by journalism,
partly by humorous articles, partly as dramatic critic, but
chiefly as a contributor of sarcastic or funny paragraphs, " sparing
neither man nor woman," in the Morning Post, principally in
1803.
In 1807 appeared Tales founded on the Plays of Shakespeare,
written by Charles and Mary Lamb^ in which Charles was
responsible for the tragedies and Mary for the comedies; and
in 1808, Specimens of English Dramatic Poets who lived about
the time of Shakespeare, with short but felicitous critical notes.
It was this work which laid the foundation of Lamb's reputation
as a critic, for it was filled with imaginative understanding of
the old playwrights, and a warm, discerning and novel apprecia-
tion of their great merits. In the same year, 1808, Mary Lamb,
assisted by her brother, published Poetry for Children, and a
collection of short school-girl tales under the title Mrs
Leicester's School; and to the same date belongs The Adventures
of Ulysses, designed by Lamb as a companion to The Adventures
of Telemachus. In 1810 began to appear Leigh Hunt's quarterly
periodical, The Reflector, in which Lamb published much (includ-
ing the fine essays on the tragedies of Shakespeare and on
Hogarth) that subsequently appeared in the first collective
edition of his Works, which he put forth in 1818.
Between 1811, when The Reflector ceased, and 1820, he wrote
almost nothing. In these years we may imagine him at 'his
most social period, playing much whist and entertaining his
friends on Wednesday or Thursday nights; meanwhile gathering
LAMB— LAMBALLE, PRINCESSE DE
that reputation as a conversationalist or inspirer of conversation
in others, which Hazlitt, who was at one time one of Lamb's
closest friends, has done so much to celebrate. When in 1818 ap-
peared the Works in two volumes, it may be that Lamb considered
his literary career over. Before coming to 1820, and an event
which was in reality to be the beginning of that career as it is
generally known— the establishment of the London Magazine —
it should be recorded that in the summer of 1819 Lamb, with his
sister's full consent, proposed marriage to Fanny Kelly, the
actress, who was then in her thirtieth year. Miss Kelly could
not accept, giving as one reason her devotion to her mother.
Lamb bore the rebuff with characteristic humour and fortitude.
The establishment of the London Magazine in 1820 stimulated
Lamb to the production of a series of new essays (the Essays
of Elia) which may be said to form the chief corner-stone in
the small but classic temple of his fame. The first of these,
as it fell out, was a description of the old South Sea House,
with which Lamb happened to have associated the name of a
"gay light-hearted foreigner " called Elia, who was a clerk in
the days of his service there. The pseudonym adopted on this
occasion was retained for the subsequent contributions, which
appeared collectively in a volume of essays called Elia, in 1823.
After a career of five years the London Magazine came to an
end; and about the same period Lamb's long connexion with
the India House terminated, a pension of £450 (£441 net) having
been assigned to him. The increased leisure, however, for which
he had long sighed, did not prove favourable to literary pro-
duction, which henceforth was limited to a few trifling contribu-
tions to the New Monthly and other serials, and the excavation
of gems from the mass of dramatic literature bequeathed to the
British Museum by David Garrick, which Lamb laboriously
read through in 1827, an occupation which supplied him for a
time with the regular hours of work he missed so much. The
malady of his sister, which continued to increase with ever
shortening intervals of relief, broke in painfully on his lettered
ease and comfort; and it is unfortunately impossible to ignore
the deteriorating effects of an over-free indulgence in the use
of alcohol, and, in early life, tobacco, on a temperament such as
his. His removal on account of his sister to the quiet of the
country at Enfield, by tending to withdraw him from the
stimulating society of the large circle of literary friends who
had helped to make his weekly or monthly " at homes " so
remarkable, doubtless also tended to intensify his listlessness
and helplessness. One of the brightest elements in the closing
years of his life was the friendship and companionship of Emma
Isola, whom he and his sister had adopted, and whose marriage
in 1833 to Edward Moxon, the publisher, though a source of
unselfish joy to Lamb, left him more than ever alone. While
living at Edmonton, whither he had moved in 1833 so that his
sister might have the continual care of Mr and Mrs Walden,
who were accustomed to patients of weak intellect, Lamb was
overtaken by an attack of erysipelas brought on by an accidental
fall as he was walking on the London road. After a few days'
illness he died on the 27th of December, 1834. The sudden death
of one so widely known, admired and beloved, fell on the public
as well as on his own attached circle with all the poignancy of
a personal calamity and a private grief. His memory wanted
no tribute that affection could bestow, and Wordsworth com-
memorated in simple and solemn verse the genius, virtues and
fraternal devotion of his early friend.
Charles Lamb is entitled to a place as an essayist beside
Montaigne, Sir Thomas Browne, Steele and Addison. He unites
many of the characteristics of each of these writers — refined and
exquisite humour, a genuine and cordial vein of pleasantry and
heart-touching pathos. His fancy is distinguished by great delicacy
and tenderness; and even his conceits are imbued with human
feeling and passion. He had an extreme and almost exclusive
partiality for earlier prose writers, particularly for Fuller,
Browne and Burton, as well as for the dramatists of Shake-
speare's time; and the care with which he studied them is
apparent in all he ever wrote. It shines out conspicuously in
his style, which has an antique air and is redolent of the
peculiarities of the I7th century. Its quaintness has subjected
the author to the charge of affectation, but there is nothing really
affected in his writings. His style is not so much an imitation
as a reflexion of the older writers; for in spirit he made himself
their contemporary. A confirmed habit of studying them in
preference to modern literature had made something of their
style natural to him; and long experience had rendered it not
only easy and familiar but habitual. It was not a masquerade
dress he wore, but the costume which showed the man to most
advantage. With thought and meaning often profound, though
clothed in simple language, every sentence of his essays is
pregnant.
He played a considerable part in reviving the dramatic
writers of the Shakesperian age; for he preceded Gifford and
others in wiping the dust of ages from their works. In his
brief comments on each specimen he displays exquisite powers
of discrimination: his discernment of the true meaning of his
author is almost infallible. His work was a departure in criticism.
Former editors had supplied textual criticism and alternative
readings: Lamb's object was to show how our ancestors felt
when they placed themselves by the power of imagination in
trying situations, in the conflicts of duty or passion or the strife
of contending duties; what sorts of loves and enmities theirs
were.
As a poet Lamb is not entitled to so high a place as that which
can be claimed for him as essayist and critic. His dependence
on Elizabethan models is here also manifest, but in such a way
as to bring into all the greater prominence his native deficiency
in " the accomplishment of verse." Yet it is impossible, once
having read, ever to forget the tenderness and grace of such
poems as " Hester," " The Old Familiar Faces," and the lines
" On an infant dying as soon as born " or the quaint humour of
" A Farewell to Tobacco." As a letter writer Lamb ranks very
high, and when in a nonsensical mood there is none to touch
him.
Editions and memoirs of Lamb are numerous. The Letters, with a
sketch of his life by Sir Thomas Noon Talfourd, appeared in 1837;
the Final Memorials of Charles Lamb by the same hand, after Mary
Lamb's death, in 1848; Barry Cornwall's Charles Lamb: A Memoir,
in 1866. Mr P. Fitzgerald's Charles Lamb: his Friends, his Haunts
and his Books (1866); W. Carew Hazlitt's Mary and Charles Lamb
(1874). Mr Fitzgerald and Mr Hazlitt have also both edited the
Letters, and Mr Fitzgerald brought Talfourd to date with an edition
of Lamb's works in 1870-1876. Later and fuller editions are those
of Canon Ainger in 12 volumes, Mr Macdonald in 12 volumes and
Mr E. V. Lucas in 7 volumes, to which in 1905 was added The Life
of Charles Lamb, in 2 volumes. (E. V. L.)
LAMB (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Lamm),
the young of sheep. The Paschal Lamb or Agnus Dei is used as a
symbol of Jesus Christ, the Lamb of God (John i. 29), and
" lamb," like " flock," is often used figuratively of the members
of a Christian church or community, with an allusion to Jesus'
charge to Peter (John xxi. 15). The "lamb and flag" is an
heraldic emblem, the dexter fore-leg of the lamb supporting a
staff bearing a banner charged with the St George's cross. This
was one of the crests of the Knights Templars, used on seals as
early as 1 241 ; it was adopted as a badge or crest by the Middle
Temple, the Inner Temple using another crest of the Templars,
the winged horse or Pegasus. The old Tangier regiment, now
the Queen's Royal West Surrey Regiment, bore a Paschal Lamb
as its badge. From their colonel, Percy Kirke (<?.».), they were
known as Kirke's Lambs. The exaggerated reputation of the
regiment for brutality, both in Tangier and in England after
Sedgmoor, lent irony to the nickname.
LAMBALLE, MARIE THERESE LOUISE OF SAVOY-
CARIGNANO, PRINCESSE DE (1749-1792), fourth daughter of
Louis Victor of Carignano (d. 1774) (great-grandfather of King
Charles Albert of Sardinia), and of Christine Henriette of Hesse-
Rheinfels-Rothenburg, was born at Turin on the 8th of September
1749. In 1767 she was married to Louis Alexandre Stanislaus de
Bourbon, prince of Lamballe, son of the duke of Penthievre, a
grandson of Louis XIV.'s natural son the count of Toulouse. Her
husband dying the following year, she retired with her father-in-
law to Rambouillet, where she lived until the marriage of the
io6
LAMBALLE— LAMBERT, D.
dauphin, when she returned to court. Marie Antoinette,
charmed by her gentle and naive manners, singled her out for
a companion and confidante. The impetuous character of the
dauphiness found in Madame de Lamballe that submissive
temperament which yields to force of environment, and the two
became fast friends. After her accession Marie Antoinette, in
spite of the king's opposition, had her appointed superintendent
of the royal household. Between 1776 and 1785 the comtesse de
Polignac succeeded in supplanting her; but when the queen
tired of the avarice of the Polignacs, she turned again to Madame
de Lamballe. From 1785 to the Revolution she was Marie
Antoinette's closest friend and the pliant instrument of her
caprices. She came with the queen to the Tuileries and as her
salon served as a meeting-place for the queen and the members
of the Assembly whom she wished to gain over, the people believed
her to be the soul of all the intrigues. After a visit to England in
1791 to appeal for help for the royal family she made her will
and returned to the Tuileries, where she continued her services
to the queen until the loth of August, when she shared her
imprisonment in the Temple. On the igth of August she was
transferred to La Force, and having refused to take the oath
against the monarchy, she was on the 3rd of September delivered
over to the fury of the populace, after which her head was
placed on a pike and carried before the windows of the queen.
See George Berlin, Madame de Lamballe (Paris, 1888); Austin
Dobson, Four Frenchwomen (1890); B. C. Hardy, Princesse de
Lamballe (1908); Comte de Lescure, La Princesse de Lamballe . . .
d'apres des documents inedits (1864); some letters of the princess
published by Ch. Schmidt in La Revolution fran$aise (vol. xxxix.,
1900); L. Lambeau, Essais sur la mart de madame la princesse de
Lamballe (1902) ; Sir F. Montefiore, The Princesse de Lamballe (1896).
Tlie Secret Memoirs of the Royal Family of France . . . now first
published from the Journal, Letters and Conversations of the Princesse
de Lamballe (London, 2 vols., 1826) have since appeared in various
editions in English and in French. They are attributed to Catherine
Hyde, Marchioness Govion-Broglio-Solari, and are apocryphal.
LAMBALLE, a town of north-western France, in the depart-
ment of C6tes-du-Nord, on the Gouessant 13 m. E.S.E. of St
Brieuc by rail. Pop. (1906) 4347. Crowning the eminence on
which the town is built is a beautiful Gothic church (i3th and
1 4th centuries), once the chapel of the castle of the counts of
Penthievre. La Noue, the famous Huguenot leader, was mortally
wounded in 1591 in the siege of the castle, which was dismantled
in 1626 by Richelieu. Of the other buildings, the church of Et
Martin (nth, isth and i6th centuries) is the chief. Lamballe
has an important haras (depot for stallions) and carries on trade
in grain, tanning and leather-dressing; earthenware is manu-
factured in the environs. Lamballe was the capital of the terri-
tory of the counts of Penthievre, who in 1569 were made dukes.
LAMBAYEQUE, a coast department of northern Peru,
bounded N. by Piura, E. and S. by Cajamarca and Libertad.
Area, 4614 sq. m. Pop. (1906 estimate) 93,070. It belongs to the
arid region of the coast, and is settled along the river valleys
where irrigation is possible. It is one of the chief sugar-producing
departments of Peru, and in some valleys, especially near
Ferrenafe, rice is largely produced. Four railways connect its
principal producing centres with the small ports of Eten and
Pimentel, viz.: Eten to Ferrenafe, 27 m.; Eten to Cayalti, 23 m.;
Pimentel to Lambayeque, 15 m.; and Chiclayo to Patapo, ism.
The principal towns are Chiclayo, the departmental capital,
with a population (1906 estimate) of 10,500, Ferrenafe 6000,
and Lambayeque 4500.
LAMBEAUX, JEF (JOSEPH MARIE THOMAS), (1852-1908),
Belgian sculptor, was born at Antwerp. He studied at the
Antwerp Academy of Fine Arts, and was a pupil of Jean Geefs.
His first work, " War," was exhibited in 1871, and was followed
by a long series of humorous groups, including " Children
dancing," " Say ' Good Morning,' " " The Lucky Number " and
" An Accident " (1875). He then went to Paris, where he
executed for the Belgian salons " The Beggar " and " The Blind
Pauper," and produced " The Kiss " (1881), generally regarded
' as his masterpiece. After visiting Italy, where he was much
impressed by the works of Jean Bologne, he showed a strong
predilection for effects of force and motion. Other notable works
are his fountain at Antwerp (1886), " Robbing the Eagle's
Eyrie " (1890), " Drunkenness " (1893), " The Triumph of
Woman," " The Bitten Faun " (which created a great stir at the
Exposition Universelle at Liege in 1905), and " The Human
Passions," a colossal marble bas-relief, elaborated from a sketch
exhibited in 1889. Of his numerous busts may be mentioned
those of Hendrik Conscience, and of Charles Bals, the burgomaster
of Brussels. He died on the 6th of June 1908.
LAMBERMONT, AUGUSTE, BARON (1810-1905), Belgian
statesman, was born at Dion-le-Val in Brabant on the 25th of
March 1819. He came of a family of small farmer proprietors,
who had held land during three centuries. He was intended for
the priesthood and entered the seminary of Floreffe, but his
energies claimed a more active sphere. He left the monastery for
Louvain University. Here he studied law, and also prepared
himself for the military examinations. At that juncture the
first Carlist war broke out, and Lambermont hastened to the
scene of action. His services were accepted (April 1838) and he
was entrusted with the command of two small cannon. He also
acted as A.D.C. to Colonel Durando. He greatly distinguished
himself, and for his intrepidity on one occasion he was decorated
with the Cross of the highest military Order of St Ferdinand.
Returning to Belgium he entered the Ministry for Poreign
Affairs in 1842. He served in this department sixty-three years.
He was closely associated with several of the most important
questions in Belgian history during the last half of the igth
century — notably the freeing of the Scheldt. He was one of the
very first Belgians to see the importance of developing the liade
of their country, and at his own request he was attached to the
commercial branch of the foreign office. The tolls imposed by t he
Dutch on navigation on the Scheldt strangled Belgian trade, for
Antwerp was the only port of the country. The Dutch had the
right to make this levy under treaties going back to the treaty of
Munster in 1648, and they clung to it still more tenaciously after
Belgium separated herself in 1830-1831 from the united kingdom
of the Netherlands — the London conference in 1839 fixing the
toll payable to Holland at i • 50 florins (35.) per ton. From 1 856 to
1863 Lambermont devoted most of his energies to the removal of
this impediment. In 1856 he drew up a plan of action, and he
prosecuted it with untiring perseverance until he saw it embodied
in an international convention seven years later. Twenty-one
powers and states attended a conference held on the question at
Brussels in 1863, and on the 151(1 of July the treaty freeing the
Scheldt was signed. For this achievement Lambermont was
made a baron. Among other important conferences in which
Lambermont took a leading part were those of Brussels (1874)
on the usages of war, Berlin (1884-1885) on Africa and the
Congo region, and Brussels (1890) on Central African Affairs and
the Slave Trade. He was joint reporter with Baron de Courcel
of the Berlin conference in 1884-1885, and on several occasions
he was chosen as arbitrator by one or other of the great European
powers. But his great achievement was the freeing of the Scheldt,
and in token of its gratitude the city of Antwerp erected a fine
monument to his memory. He died on the 7th of March 1005.
LAMBERT, DANIEL (1770-1809), an Englishman farrcus for
his great size, was born near Leicester on the I3th of ft' aich
1770, the son of the keeper of the jail, to which post he succeeded
in 1791. About this time his size and weight increased enor-
mously, and though he had led an active and athletic life he
weighed in 1793 thirty-two stone (448 ft). In 1806 he resolved
to profit by his notoriety, and resigning his office went up to
London and exhibited himself. He died on the 2ist of July
1809, and at the time measured 5 ft. n in. in height and weighed
52} stone (739 Ib). His waistcoat, now in the Kings lynn
Museum, measures 102 in. round the waist. His coffin contained
112 ft. of elm and was built on wheels. His name has been used
as a synonym for immensity. George Meredith describes
London as the " Daniel Lambert of cities," and Herbert Spencer
uses the phrase " a Daniel Lambert of learning." His enormous
proportions were depicted on a number of tavern signs, but the
best portrait of him, a large mezzotint, is preserved at the
British Museum in Lyson's Collectanea.
LAMBERT, F.— LAMBERT, J.
107
LAMBERT, FRANCIS (c 1486-1530), Protestant reformer,
was the son of a papal official at Avignon, where he was born
between 1485 and 1487. At the age of 15 he entered the
Franciscan monastery at Avignon, and after 1517 he was an
itinerant preacher, travelling through France, Italy and Switzer-
land. His study of the Scriptures shook his faith in Roman
Catholic theology, and by 1522 he had abandoned his order,
and became known to the leaders of the Reformation in Switzer-
land and Germany. He did not, however, identify himself
either with Zwinglianism or Lutheranism; he disputed with
Zwingli at Zurich in 1522, and then made his way to Eisenach
and Wittenberg, where he married in 1523. He returned to
Strassburg in 1524, being anxious to spread the doctrines of the
Reformation among the French-speaking population of the
neighbourhood. By the Germans he was distrusted, and in 1526
his activities were prohibited by the city of Strassburg. He was,
however, befriended by Jacob Sturm, who recommended him
to the Landgraf Philip of Hesse, the most liberal of the German
reforming princes. With Philip's encouragement he drafted
that scheme of ecclesiastical reform for which he is famous.
Its basis was essentially democratic and congregational, though
it provided for the government of the whole church by means of
a synod. Pastors were to be elected by the congregation, and the
whole system of canon-law was repudiated. This scheme was
submitted by Philip to a synod at Homburg; but Luther
intervened and persuaded the Landgraf to abandon it. It was
far too democratic to commend itself to the Lutherans, who had
by this time bound the Lutheran cause to the support of princes
rather than to that of the people. Philip continued to favour
Lambert, who was appointed professor and head of the theo-
logical faculty in the Landgraf's new university of Marburg.
Patrick Hamilton (q.v.) , the Scottish martyr, was one of his pupils ;
and it was at Lambert's instigation that Hamilton composed
his Loci communes, or Patrick's Pleas as they were popularly
called in Scotland. Lambert was also one of the divines who
took part in the great conference of Marburg in 1529; he had
long wavered between the Lutheran and the Zwinglian view
of the Lord's Supper, but at this conference he definitely adopted
the Zwinglian view. He died of the plague on the i8th of April
1530, and was buried at Marburg.
A catalogue of Lambert's writings is given in Haag's La France
protestante. See also lives of Lambert by Baum (Strassburg, 1840) ;
F. W. Hessencamp (Elberfeld, 1860), Stieve (Breslau, 1867) and Louis
Ruffet (Paris, 1873); Lorimer, Life of Patrick Hamilton (1857);
A. L. Richter, Die evangelischen Kirchenordnungen des 16. Jahrh.
(Weimar, 1846); Hessencamp, Hessische Kirchenordnungen im
Zeitalter der Reformation; Philip of Hesse's Correspondence with
Bucer, ed. M. Lenz; Lindsay, Hist. Reformation; Allgemeine
deutsche Biographie. (A. F. P.)
LAMBERT, JOHANN HEINRICH (1728-1777), German
physicist, mathematician and astronomer, was born at Mul-
hausen, Alsace, on the 26th of August 1728. He was the son of
a tailor; and the slight elementary instruction he obtained
at the free school of his native town was supplemented by his
own private reading. He became book-keeper at Montbeliard
ironworks, and subsequently (1745) secretary to Professor Iselin,
the editor of a newspaper at Basel, who three years later recom-
mended him as private tutor to the family of Count A. von Salis
of Coire. Coming thus into virtual possession of a good library,
Lambert had peculiar opportunities for improving himself in his
literary and scientific studies. In 1759, after completing with
his pupils a tour of two years' duration through Gottingen,
Utrecht, Paris, Marseilles and Turin, he resigned his tutorship
and settled at Augsburg. Munich, Erlangen, Coire and Leipzig
became for brief successive intervals his home. In 1764 he
removed to Berlin, where he received many favours at the hand
of Frederick the Great and was elected a member of the Royal
Academy of Sciences of Berlin, and in 1774 edited the Berlin
Ephemeris. He died of consumption on the 25th of September
1777. His publications show him to have been a man of original
and active mind with a singular facility in applying mathematics
to practical questions.
His mathematical discoveries were extended and over-
shadowed by his contemporaries. His development of the
equation xm-\-px = q in an infinite series was extended by Leonhard
Euler, and particularly by Joseph Louis Lagrange. In 1761
he proved the irrationality of IT; a simpler proof was given
somewhat later by Legendre. The introduction of hyperbolic
functions into trigonometry was also due to him. His geometri-
cal discoveries are of great value, his Die freie Perspective (1759-
1774) being a work of great merit. Astronomy was also enriched
by his investigations, and he was led to several remarkable
theorems on conies which bear his name. The most important
are: (i) To express the time of describing an elliptic arc under
the Newtonian law of gravitation in terms of the focal distances
of the initial and final points, and the length of the chord joining
them. (2) A theorem relating to the apparent curvature of the
geocentric path of a comet.
Lambert's most important work, Pyrometrie (Berlin, 1779), is a
systematic treatise on heat, containing the records and full discus-
sion of many of his own experiments. Worthy of special notice
also are Photometria (Augsburg, 1/60), Insigniores orbitae come-
tarum proprietates (Augsburg, 1761), and Beitrdge zum Gebrauche
der Mathematik und deren Anwendung (4 vols., Berlin, 1765-1772).
The Memoirs of the Berlin Academy from 1761 to 1784 contain
many of his papers, which treat of such subjects as resistance of
fluids, magnetism, comets, probabilities, the problem of three bodies,
meteorology, &c. In the Acta Helvetica (1752-1760) and in the
Nova acta erudita (1763-1769) several of his contributions appear.
In Bode's Jahrbuch (1776-1780) he discusses nutation, aberration of
light, Saturn's rings and comets; in the Nova acta Helvetica (1787)
he has a long paper " Sur le son des corps elastiques," in Bernoulli
and Hindenburg's Magazin (1787-1788) he treats of the roots of
equation and of parallel lines; and in Hindenburg's Archiv (1798-
1799) he writes on optics and perspective. Many of these pieces
were published posthumously. Recognized as among the first
mathematicians of his day, he was also widely known for the uni-
versality and depth of his philological and philosophical knowledge.
The most valuable of his logical and philosophical memoirs were
published collectively in 2 vols. (1782).
See Huber's Lambert nach seinem Leben und Wirken; M. Chasles,
Geschichte der Geometrie; and Baensch, Lamberts Philosophie und
seine Stellung zu Kant (1902).
LAMBERT [alias NICHOLSON], JOHN (d. 1538), English
Protestant martyr, was born at Norwich and educated at
Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. and was admitted in 1521
a fellow of Queen's College on the nomination of Catherine of
Aragon. After acting for some years as a " mass-priest," his
views were unsettled by the arguments of Bilney and Arthur;
and episcopal persecution compelled him, according to his own
account, to assume the name Lambert instead of Nicholson.
He likewise removed to Antwerp, where he became chaplain to
the English factory, and formed a friendship with Frith and
Tyndale. Returning to England in 1531, he came under the
notice of Archbishop Warham, who questioned him closely on
his religious beliefs. Warham's death in August 1532 relieved
Lambert from immediate danger, and he earned a living for some
years by teaching Latin and Greek near the Stocks Market in
London. The duke of Norfolk and other reactionaries accused
him of heresy in 1536, but reforming tendencies were still in
the ascendant, and Lambert escaped. In 1538, however, the
reaction had begun, and Lambert was its first victim. He
singled himself out for persecution by denying the Real Presence:
and Henry VIII., who had just rejected the Lutheran proposals
for a theological union, was in no mood to tolerate worse heresies.
Lambert had challenged some views expressed by Dr John
Taylor, afterwards bishop of Lincoln; and Cranmer as arch-
bishop condemned Lambert's opinions. He appealed to the king as
supreme head of the Church, and on the 1 6th of November Henry
heard the case in person before a large assembly of spiritual and
temporal peers. For five hours Lambert disputed with the king
and ten bishops; and then, as he boldly denied that the Eucharist
was the body of Christ, he was condemned to death by Cromwell
as vicegerent. Henry's condescension and patience produced
a great impression on his Catholic subjects; but Cromwell is
said by Foxe to have asked Lambert's pardon before his execution,
and Cranmer eventually adopted the views he condemned in
Lambert. Lambert was burnt at Smithfield on the 22nd of
November.
io8
LAMBERT, JOHN
See Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; Foxe's Acts and Monu-
ments; Froude, History; Dixon, Church History; Gairdner,
Lollardy and the Reformation, Diet, of Nat. Biog. and authorities
there cited. (A. F. P.)
LAMBERT, JOHN (1619-1694), English general in the Great
Rebellion, was born at Gallon Hall, Kirkby Malham, in the West
Riding of Yorkshire. His family was of ancient lineage, and long
settled in the county. He studied law, but did not make it his
profession. In 1639 he married Frances, daughter of Sir William
Lister. At the opening of the Civil War he took up arms for
the parliament, and in September 1642 was appointed a captain
of horse in the army commanded by Ferdinando, Lord Fairfax.
A year later he had become colonel of a regiment of horse, and
he distinguished himself at the siege of Hull in October, 1643.
Early in 1644 he did good service at the battles of Nantwich
and Bradford. At Marston Moor Lambert's own regiment was
routed by the charge of Goring's horse; but he cut his way
through with a few troops and joined Cromwell on the other side
of the field. When the New Model army was formed in the
beginning of 1645, Colonel Lambert was appointed to succeed
Fairfax in command of the northern forces. General Poyntz,
however, soon replaced him, and under this officer he served in
the Yorkshire campaign of 1645, receiving a wound before
Pontefract. In 1646 he was given a regiment in the New Model,
serving with Fairfax in the west of England, and he was a
commissioner, with Cromwell and others, for the surrender of
Oxford in the same year. " It is evident," says C. H. Firth
(Diet. Nat. Biog.), " that he was from the first regarded as an
officer of exceptional capacity and specially selected for semi-
political employments."
When the quarrel between the army and the parliament
began, Lambert threw himself warmly into the army's cause.
He assisted Ireton in drawing up the several addresses and
remonstrances issued by the army, both men having had some
experience in the law, anei being " of a subtle and working brain."
Early in August 1647 Lambert was sent by Fairfax as major-
general to take charge of the forces in the northern counties.
His wise and just managing of affairs in those parts is commended
by Whitelocke. He suppressed a mutiny among his troops,
kept strict discipline and hunted down the moss-troopers who
infested the moorland country.
When the Scottish army under the marquis of Hamilton
invaded England in the summer of 1648, Lambert was engaged
in suppressing the Royalist rising in his district. The arrival
of the Scots obliged him to retreat; but Lambert displayed the
greatest energy and did not cease to harass the invaders till
Cromwell came up from Wales and with him destroyed the
Scottish army in the three days' fighting from Preston to Warring-
ton. After the battle Lambert's cavalry headed the chase,
pursuing the defeated army d, entrance, and finally surrounded
it at Uttoxeter, where Hamilton surrendered to Lambert on the
asth of August. He then led the advance of Cromwell's army
into Scotland, where he was left in charge on Cromwell's return.
From December 1648 to March 1649 he was engaged in the siege
of Pontefract Castle; Lambert was thus absent from London at
the time of Pride's Purge and the trial and execution of the king.
When CromWell was appointed to the command of the war
in Scotland (July 1650), Lambert went with him as major-
general and second in command. He was wounded at Mussel-
burgh, but returned to the front in time to take, a conspicuous
share in the victory of Dunbar. He himself defeated the
" Protesters " or " Western Whigs " at Hamilton, on the ist
of December 1650. In July 1651 he was sent into Fife to get
in the rear and flank of the Scottish army near Falkirk, and
force them to decisive action by cutting off their supplies. This
mission, in the course of which Lambert won an important
victory at Inverkeithing, was executed with entire success,
whereupon Charles II., as Lambert had foreseen, made for
England. For the events of the Worcester campaign, which
quickly followed, see GREAT REBELLION. Lambert's part in
the general plan was carried out most brilliantly, and in the
crowning victory of Worcester he commanded the right wing of
the English army, and had his horse shot under him. Parliament
now conferred on him a grant of lands in Scotland worth £1000
per annum.
In October 1651 Lambert was made a commissioner to settle
the affairs of Scotland, and on the death of Ireton he was appointed
lord deputy of Ireland (January 1652). He accepted the
office with pleasure, and made magnificent preparations;
parliament, however, soon afterwards reconstituted the Irish
administration and Lambert refused to accept office on the new
terms. Henceforward he began to oppose the Rump. In the
council of officers he headed the party desiring representative
government, as opposed to Harrison who favoured a selected
oligarchy of " God-fearing " men, but both hated what remained
of the Long parliament, and joined in urging Cromwell to dissolve
it by force. At the same time Lambert was consulted by the
parliamentary leaders as to the possibility of dismissing Cromwell
from his command, and on the isth of March 1653 Cromwell
refused to see him, speaking of him contemptuously as " bottom-
less Lambert." On the 2oth of April, however, Lambert accom-
panied Cromwell when he dismissed the council of state, on the
same day as the forcible expulsion of the parliament. Lambert
now favoured the formation of a small executive council, to be
followed by an elective parliament whose powers should be
limited by a written instrument of government. Being at this
time the ruling spirit in the council of state, and the idol of the
army, there were some who looked on him as a possible rival
of Cromwell for the chief executive power, while the royalists
for a short time had hopes of his support. He was invited,
with Cromwell, Harrison and Desborough, to sit in the nominated
parliament of 1653; and when the unpopularity of that assembly
increased, Cromwell drew nearer to Lambert. In November
1653 Lambert presided over a meeting of officers, when the
question of constitutional settlement was discussed, and a proposal
made for the forcible expulsion of the nominated parliament.
On the ist of December he urged Cromwell to assume the title
of king, which the latter refused. On the izth the parliament
resigned its powers into Cromwell's hands, and on the I3th
Lambert obtained the consent of the officers to the Instrument
of Government (q.v.), in the framing of which he had taken a
leading part. He was one of the seven officers nominated to
seats in the council created by the Instrument. In the foreign
policy of the protectorate he was the most clamorous of those
who called for alliance with Spain and war with France in 1653,
and he firmly withstood Cromwell's design for an expedition
to the West Indies.
In the debates in parliament on the Instrument of Govern-
ment in 1654 Lambert proposed that the office of protector
should be made hereditary, but was defeated by a majority
which included members of Cromwell's family. In the parlia-
ment of this year, and again in 1656, Lord Lambert, as he was
now styled, sat as member for the West Riding. He was one of
the major-generals appointed in August 1655 to command the
militia in the ten districts into which it was proposed to divide
England, and who were to be responsible for the maintenance
of order and the administration of the law in their several districts.
Lambert took a prominent part in the committee of council
which drew up instructions to the major-generals, and he was
probably the originator, and certainly the organizer, of the
system of police which these officers were to control. Gardiner
conjectures that it was through divergence of opinion between
the protector and Lambert in connexion with these " instruc-
tions " that the estrangement between the two men began.
At all events, although Lambert had himself at an earlier date
requested Cromwell to take the royal dignity, when the proposal
to declare Oliver king was started in parliament (February
1657) he at once declared strongly against it. A hundred officers
headed by Fleetwood and Lambert waited on the protector, and
begged him to put a stop to the proceedings. Lambert was not
convinced by Cromwell's arguments, and their complete estrange-
ment, personal as well as political, followed. On his refusal
to take the oath of allegiance to the protector, Lambert was
deprived of his commissions, receiving, however, a pension of
LAMBERT OF HERSFELD— LAMBESSA
109
£2000 a year. He retired to his garden at Wimbledon, and
appeared no more in public during Oliver Cromwell's lifetime;
but shortly before his death Cromwell sought a reconciliation,
and Lambert and his wife visited him at Whitehall.
When Richard Cromwell was proclaimed protector his chief
difficulty lay with the army, over which he exercised no effective
control. Lambert, though holding no military commission, was
the most popular of the old Cromwellian generals with the
rank and file of the army, and it was very generally believed
that he would instal himself in Oliver's seat of power. Richard's
adherents tried to conciliate him, and the royalist leaders made
overtures to him, even proposing that Charles II. should marry
Lambert's daughter. Lambert at first gave a lukewarm support
to Richard Cromwell, and took no part in the intrigues of the
officers at Fleetwood's residence, Wallingford House. He was
a member of the parliament which met in January 1659,
and when it was dissolved in April under compulsion of Fleetwood
and Desborough, he was restored to his commands. He headed
the deputation to Lenthall in May inviting the return of the
Rump, which led to the tame retirement of Richard Cromwell
into obscurity; and he was appointed a member of the com-
mittee of safety and of the council of state. When the parlia-
ment, desirous of controlling the power of the army, withheld
from Fleetwood the right of nominating officers, Lambert was
named one of a council of seven charged with this duty. The
parliament's evident distrust of the soldiers caused much dis-
content in the army; while the entire absence of real authority
encouraged the royalists to make overt attempts to restore
Charles II., the most serious of which, under Sir George Booth
and the earl of Derby, was crushed by Lambert near Chester
on the igth of August. He promoted a petition from his army
that Fleetwood might be made lord-general and himself major-
general. The republican party in the House took offence.
The Commons (October 1 2th, 1659) cashiered Lambert and other
officers, and retained Fleetwood as chief of a military council
under the authority of the speaker. On the next day Lambert
caused the doors of the House to be shut and the members
kept out. On the 26th a " committee of safety " was appointed,
of which he was a member. He was also appointed major-
general of all the forces in England and Scotland, Fleetwood
being general. Lambert was now sent with a large force to
meet Monk, who was in command of the English forces in
Scotland, and either negotiate with him or force him to terms.
Monk, however, set his army in motion southward. Lambert's
army began to melt away, and he was kept in suspense by Monk
till his whole army fell from him and he returned to London
almost alone. Monk marched to London unopposed. The
" excluded " Presbyterian members were recalled. Lambert
was sent to the Tower (March 3rd, 1660), from which he escaped
a month later. He tried to rekindle the civil war in favour of
the Commonwealth, but was speedily recaptured and sent back
to the Tower (April 24th). On the Restoration he was exempted
from danger of life by an address of both Houses to the king,
but the next parliament (1662) charged him with high treason.
Thenceforward for the rest of his life Lambert remained in
custody in Guernsey. He died in 1694.
Lambert would have left a better name in history if he had been a
cavalier. His genial, ardent and excitable nature, easily raised and
easily depressed, was more akin to the royalist than to the puritan
spirit. Vain and sometimes overbearing, as well as ambitious, he
believed that Cromwell could not stand without him; and when
Cromwell was dead, he imagined himself entitled and fitted to succeed
him. Yet his ambition was less selfish than that of Monk. Lambert
is accused of no ill faith, no want of generosity, no cold and calcu-
lating policy. As a soldier he was far more than a fighting general
and possessed many of the qualities of a great general. He was,
moreover, an able writer and speaker, and an accomplished negotiator
and took pleasure in quiet and domestic pursuits. He learnt his love
of gardening from Lord Fairfax, who was also his master in the art of
war. He painted flowers, besides cultivating them, and incurred the
blame of Mrs Hutchinson by " dressing his flowers in his garden and
working at the needle with his wife and his maids." He made no
special profession of religion; but no imputation is cast upon his
moral character by his detractors. It has been said that he became
a Roman Catholic before his death.
LAMBERT OF HERSFELD (d. c. 1088), German chronicler,
was probably a Thuringian by birth and became a monk in the
Benedictine abbey of Hersfeld in 1058. As he was ordained
priest at Aschaffenburg he is sometimes called Lambert of
Aschaffenburg, or Schafnaburg. He made a pilgrimage to the
Holy Land, and visited various monasteries of his order; but
he is famous as the author of some Annales. From the creation
of the world until about 1040 these Annales are a jejune copy
of other annals, but from 1040 to their conclusion in 1077 they
are interesting for the history of Germany and the papacy.
The important events during the earlier part of the reign of
the emperor Henry IV., including the visit to Canossa and the
battle of Hohenburg, are vividly described. Their tone is
hostile to Henry IV. and friendly to the papacy; their Latin
style is excellent. The Annales were first published in 1525
and are printed in the Monumenta Germaniae historica, Bande
iii. and v. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 fol.). Formerly Lambert's
reputation for accuracy and impartiality was very high, but
both qualities have been somewhat discredited.
Lambert is also regarded as the author of the Historia Hersfeld-
ensis, the extant fragments of which are published in Band v. of the
Monumenta of a Vita Lulli, Lullus, archbishop of Mainz, being the
founder of the abbey of Hersfeld ; and of a Carmen de bello Saxonico.
His Opera have been edited with an introduction by O. Holder-
Egger (Hanover, 1894).
See H. Delbriick, Uber die Glaubwilrdigkeit Lamberts von Hersfeld
(Bonn, 1873); A. Eigenbrodt, Lampert von Hersfeld und die neuere
Quellenforschung (Cassel, 1896) ; L. von Ranke, Zur Kritik
frankisch-deutscher Reichsannalisten (Berlin, 1854) ; W. Watten-
bach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen Band ii. (Berlin, 1906) and
A. Potthast, Bibliotheca Historica (Berlin, 1896).
LAMBESSA, the ancient Lambaesa, a village of Algeria, in
the arrondissement of Batna and department of Constantine,
7 m. S.E. of Batna and 17 W. of Timgad. The modern village,
thecentreof an agricultural colony founded in 1848, is noteworthy
for its great convict establishment (built about 1850). The
remains of the Roman town, and more especially of the Roman
camp, in spite of wanton vandalism, are among the most interest-
ing ruins in northern Africa. They are now preserved by the
Service des Monuments historiques and excavations have resulted
in many interesting discoveries. The ruins are situated on the
lower terraces of the Jebel Aures, and consist of triumphal
arches (one to Septimius Severus, another to Commodus),
temples, aqueducts, vestiges of an amphitheatre, baths and
an immense quantity of masonry belonging to private houses.
To the north and east lie extensive cemeteries with the stones
standing in their original alignments; to the west is a similar
area, from which, however, the stones have been largely removed
for building the modern village. Of the temple of Aesculapius
only one column is standing, though in the middle of the igth
century its facade was entire. The capitol or temple dedicated
to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, which has been cleared of debris,
has a portico with eight columns. On level ground about two-
thirds of a mile from the centre of the ancient town stands the
camp, its site now partly occupied by the penitentiary and its
gardens. It measures 1640 ft. N. to S. by 1476 ft. E. to W., and
in the middle rise the ruins of a building commonly called, but
incorrectly, the praetorium. This noble building, which dates
from A.D. 268, is 92 ft. long by 66 ft. broad and 49 ft. high;
its southern facade has a splendid peristyle half the height
of the wall, consisting of a front row of massive Ionic columns
and an engaged row of Corinthian pilasters. Behind this
building (which was roofed), is a large court giving access to
other buildings, one being the arsenal. In it have been found
many thousands of projectiles. To the S.E. are the remains of
the baths. The ruins of both city and camp have yielded many
inscriptions (Renier edited 1500, and there are 4185 in the Corpus
Inscr. Lot. vol. viii.); and, though a very large proportion are
epitaphs of the barest kind, the more important pieces supply
an outline of the history of the place. Over 2500 inscriptions
relating to the camp have been deciphered. In a museum in
the village are objects of antiquity discovered in the vicinity.
Besides inscriptions, statues, &c., are some fine mosaics found
in 1905 near the arch of Septimius Severus. The statues include
no
LAMBETH— LAMBETH CONFERENCES
those of Aesculapius and Hygieia, taken from the temple of
Aesculapius.
Lambaesa was a military foundation. The camp of the third
legion (Legio III. Augusta), to which it owes its origin, appears to
have been established between A.D. 123 and 129, in the time of
Hadrian, whose address to his soldiers was found inscribed on a
pillar in a second camp to the west of the great camp still extant.
By 1 66 mention is made of the decurions of a vicus, 10 curiae of which
are known by name; and the vicus became a municipium probably
at the time when it was made the capital of the newly founded
province of Numidia. The legion was removed by Gordianus, but
restored by Valerianus and Gallienus; and its final departure did
not take place till after 392. The town soon afterwards declined.
It never became the seat of a bishop, and no Christian inscriptions
have been found among the ruins.
About 2 m. S. of Lambessa are the ruins of Markuna, the ancient
Verecunda, including two triumphal arches.
See S. Gsell, Les Monuments antiques de I'Algerie (Paris, 1901) and
LAlgene dans I'antiquite (Algiers, 1903); L. Renier, Inscriptions
romaines de I'Algerie (Paris, 1855); Gustav Wilmann, " Die rom.
Lagerstadt Afrikas," in Commentaliones phil. in honorem Th
Mommseni (Berlin, 1877); Sir L. Playfair, Travels in the Footsteps
of Bruce (London, 1877); A. Graham, Roman Africa (London, 1902).
LAMBETH, a southern metropolitan borough of London,
England, bounded N. W. by the river Thames, N.E. by Southwark,
E. by Camberwell and W. by Wandsworth and Battersea,
and extending S. to the boundary of the county of London.
Pop. (1901) 301,895. The name is commonly confined to the
northern part of the borough, bordering the river; but the
principal districts included are Kennington and Vauxhall (north
central), Brixton (central) and part of Norwood (south). Four
road-bridges cross the Thames within the limits of the borough,
namely Waterloo, Westminster, Lambeth and Vauxhall, of
which the first, a fine stone structure, dates from 1817, and is
the oldest Thames bridge standing within the county of London.
The^main thoroughfare runs S. from Westminster Bridge Road
as Kennington Road, continuing as Brixton Road and Brixton
Hill, Clapham Road branching S.W. from it at Kennington.
Several thoroughfares also converge upon Vauxhall Bridge, and
from a point near this down to Westminster Bridge the river
is bordered by the fine Albert Embankment.
Early records present the name Lamb-hythe in various forms.
The suffix is common along the river in the meaning of a haven,
but the prefix is less clear; a Saxon word signifying mud is
suggested. Brixton and Kennington are mentioned in Domesday;
and in Vauxhall is concealed the name of Falkes de Breaute,
an unscrupulous adventurer of the time of John and Henry III.
exiled in 1225. The manor of North Lambeth was given to the
bishopric of Rochester in the time of Edward the Confessor,
and the bishops had a house here till the i6th century. They did
not, however, retain the manor beyond the close of the i2th
century, when it was acquired by the see of Canterbury. The
palace of the archbishops is still here, and forms, with the parish
church, a picturesque group of buildings, lying close to the river
opposite the majestic Houses of Parliament, and to some extent
joining with them to make of this reach of the Thames one of
the finest prospects in London. The oldest part of the palace
remaining is the Early English chapel. The so-called Lollard's
Tower, which retains evidence of its use as a prison, dates
c. 1440. There is a fine Tudor gatehouse of brick, and the hall
is dated 1663. The portion now inhabited by the archbishops
was erected in 1834 and fronts a spacious quadrangle. Among
the portraits of the archbishops here are examples by Holbein,
Van Dyck, Hogarth and Reynolds. There is a valuable library.
The church of St Mary was rebuilt c. 1850, though the ancient
monuments preserved give it an appearance of antiquity. Here
are tombs of some of the archbishops, including Bancroft (d.
1610), and of the two Tradescants, collectors, and a memorial
to Elias Ashmole, whose name is preserved in the Ashmolean
Museum at Oxford University, to which he presented the collec-
tions of his friend the younger Tradescant (d. 1662). In the
present Westminster Bridge Road was a circus, well known in
the later i8th and early i9th centuries as Astley's, and near
Vauxhall Bridge were the celebrated Vauxhall Gardens.
The principal modern pleasure grounds are Kennington Park (20
acres), and Brockwell Park (127 acres) south of Brixton, and near the
southern end of Kennington Road is Kennington Oval, the ground
of the Surrey County Cricket Club, the scene of its home matches and
ot other important fixtures. Among institutions the principal is
bt Inomas Hospital, the extensive buildings of which front the
Albert Embankment. The original foundation dated from 1213 was
situated in Southwark, and was connected with the priory of
Bermondsey. The existing buildings, subsequently enlarged, were
opened in 1871, are divided into a series of blocks, and include a
medical school. Other hospitals are the Royal, for children and
women, Waterloo Road, the Lying-in Hospital, York Road, and the
South-western fever hospital in Stockwell. There are technical
institutes in Brixton and Norwood ; and on Brixton Hill is Brixton
Prison. In the northern part of the borough are numerous factories
including the great Doulton pottery works. The parliamentary
borough of Lambeth has four divisions, North, Kennington, Brixton
and Norwood, each returning one member. The borough council
consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 60 councillors. Area 4080-4.
acres.
LAMBETH CONFERENCES, the name given to the periodical
assemblies of bishops of the Anglican Communion (Pan-Anglican
synods), which since 1867 have met at Lambeth Palace, the
London residence of the archbishop of Canterbury. The idea
of these meetings was first suggested in a letter to the archbishop
of Canterbury by Bishop Hopkins of Vermont in 1851, but the
immediate impulse came from the colonial Church in Canada.
In 1865 the synod of that province, in an urgent letter to the
archbishop of Canterbury (Dr Longley), represented the unsettle-
ment of members of the Canadian Church caused by recent legal
decisions of the Privy Council, and their alarm lest the revived
action of Convocation " should leave us governed by canons
different from those in force in England and Ireland, and thus
cause us to drift into the status of an independent branch of
the Catholic Church." They therefore requested him to call
a " national synod of the bishops of the Anglican Church at
home and abroad," to meet under his leadership. After consult-
ing both houses of the Convocation of Canterbury, Archbishop
Longley assented, and convened all the bishops of the Anglican
Communion (then 144 in number) to meet at Lambeth in 1867.
Many Anglican bishops (amongst them the archbishop of York
and most of his suffragans) felt so doubtful as to the wisdom of
such an assembly that they refused to attend it, and Dean
Stanley declined to allow Westminster Abbey to be used for
the closing service, giving as his reasons the partial character
of the assembly, uncertainty as to the effect of its measures
and "the presence of prelates not belonging to our Church."
Archbishop Longley said in his opening address, however, that
they had no desire to assume " the functions of a general synod
of all the churches in full communion with the Church of England,"
but merely to " discuss matters of practical interest, and pro-
nounce what we deem expedient in resolutions which may serve
as safe guides to future action." Experience has shown how
valuable and wise this course was. The resolutions of the
Lambeth Conferences have never been regarded as synodical
decrees, but their weight has increased with each conference.
Apprehensions such as those which possessed the mind of Dean
Stanley have long passed away.
Seventy-six bishops accepted the primate's invitation to the
first conference, which met at Lambeth on the 24th of September
1867, and sat for four days, the sessions being in private. The
archbishop opened the conference with an address: deliberation
followed; committees were appointed to report on special
questions; resolutions were adopted, and an encyclical letter
was addressed to the faithful of the Anglican Communion.
Each of the subsequent conferences has been first received in
Canterbury cathedral and addressed by the archbishop from
the chair of St Augustine. It has then met at Lambeth, and
after sitting for five days for deliberation upon the fixed subjects
and appointment of committees, has adjourned, to meet again
at the end of a fortnight and sit for five days more, to receive
reports, adopt resolutions and to put forth the encyclical
letter.
I. First Conference (September 24-28, 1867), convened and pre-
sided over by Archbishop Longley. The proposed order of subjects
was entirely altered in view of the Colenso case, for which urgency
was claimed; and most of the time was spent in discussing it. Of
the thirteen resolutions adopted by the conference, two have direct
LAMBINUS— LAMECH
in
reference to this case ; the rest have to do with the creation of new
sees and missionary jurisdictions, commendatory letters, and a
" voluntary spiritual tribunal " in cases of doctrine and the due
subordination of synods. The reports of the committees were not
ready, and were carried forward to the conference of 1878.
II. Second Conference (July 2-27, 1878), convened and presided
over by Archbishop Tait. On this occasion no hesitation appears
to have been felt; 100 bishops were present, and the opening
sermon was preached by the archbishop of York. The reports of the
five special committees (based in part upon those of the committee
of 1867) were embodied in the encyclical letter, viz. on the best mode
of maintaining union, voluntary boards of arbitration, missionary
bishops and missionaries, continental chaplains and the report of a
committee on difficulties submitted to the conference.
III. Third Conference (July 3-27, 1888), convened and presided
over by Archbishop Benson; 145 bishops present; the chief subject
of consideration being the position of communities which do not
possess the historic episcopate. In addition to the encyclical letter,
nineteen resolutions were put forth,,and the reports of twelve special
committees are appended upon which they are based, the subjects
being intemperance, purity, divorce, polygamy, observance of
Sunday, socialism, care of emigrants, mutual relations of dioceses of
the Anglican Communion, home reunion, Scandinavian Church, Old
Catholics, &c., Eastern Churches, standards of doctrine and worship.
Perhaps the most important of these is the famous " Lambeth
Quadrilateral," which laid down a fourfold basis for home reunion —
the Holy Scriptures, the Apostles' and Nicene creeds, the two
sacraments ordained by Christ himself and the historic episcopate.
IV. Fourth Conference (July 5-31, 1897), convened by Archbishop
Benson, presided over by Archbishop Temple; 194 bishops present.
One of the chief subjects for consideration was the creation of a
" tribunal of reference "; but the resolutions on this subject were
withdrawn, owing, it is said, to the opposition of the American
bishops, and a more general resolution in favour of a " consultative
body " was substituted. The encyclical letter is accompanied by
sixty-three resolutions (which include careful provision for provincial
organization and the extension of the title " archbishop " to all
metropolitans, a " thankful recognition of the revival of brotherhoods
and sisterhoods, and of the office of deaconess," and a desire to pro-
mote friendly relations with the Eastern Churches and the various
Old Catholic bodies), and the reports of the eleven committees are
subjoined.
V. Fifth Conference (July 6-August 5, 1908), convened by Arch-
bishop Randall Davidson, who presided; 241 bishops were present.
The chief subjects of discussion were: the relations of faith and
modern thought, the supply and training of the clergy, education,
foreign missions, revision and " enrichment " of the Prayer-Bopk,
the relation of the Church to " ministries of healing " (Christian
Science, &c.), the questions of marriage and divorce, organization of
the Anglican Church, reunion with other Churches. The results of
the deliberations were embodied in seventy-eight resolutions, which
were appended to the encyclical issued, in the name of the conference,
by the Archbishop of Canterbury on the 8th of August.
The fifth Lambeth conference, following as it did close on the great
Pan-Anglican congress, is remarkable mainly as a proof of the growth
of the influence and many-sided activity of the Anglican Church, and
as a conspicuous manifestation of her characteristic principles. Of
the seventy-eight resolutions none is in any sense epoch-making,
and their spirit is that of the traditional Anglican ma media. In
general they are characterized by a firm adherence to the funda-
mental articles of Catholic orthodoxy, tempered by a tolerant
attitude towards those not of " the household of the faith." The
report of the committee on faith and modern thought is " a faithful
attempt to show how the claim of our Lord Jesus Christ, which the
Church is set to present to each generation, may, under the character-
istic conditions of our time, best command allegiance." On the
question of education (Res. 11-19) the conference reaffirmed strongly
the necessity for definite Christian teaching in schools, " secular
systems " being condemned as " educationally as well as morally
unsound, since they fail to co-ordinate the training of the whole
nature of the child " (Res. n). The resolutions on questions affect-
ing foreign missions (20-26) deal with e.g. the overlapping of episcopal
jurisdictions (22) and the establishment of Churches on lines of race
or colour, which is condemned (20). The resolutions on questions of
marriage and divorce (37-43) reaffirm the traditional attitude of the
Church; it is, however, interesting to note that the resolution (40)
deprecating the remarriage in church of the innocent party to a
divorce was carried only by eighty-seven votes to eighty-four. In
resolutions 44 to 53 the conference deals with the duty of the Church
towards modern democratic ideals and social problems; affirms the
responsibility of investors for the character and conditions of the
concerns in which their money is placed (49) ; " while frankly ac-
knowledging the moral gains sometimes won by war " strongly
supports the extension of international arbitration (52) ; and
emphasizes the duty of a stricter observance of Sunday (53). On the
•question of reunion, the ideal of corporate unity was reaffirmed (58).
It was decided to send a deputation of bishops with a letter of
greeting to the national council of the Russian Church about to be
assembled (60) and certain conditions were laid down for inter-
communion with certain of the Churches of the Orthodox Eastern
Communion (62) and the " ancient separated Churches of the East "
(63-65). Resolution 67 warned Anglicans from contracting marriages,
under actual conditions, with Roman Catholics. By resolution 68
the conference stated its desire to " maintain and strengthen the
friendly relations " between the Churches of the Anglican Com-
munion and " the ancient Church of Holland " (Jansenist, see
UTRECHT) and the old Catholic Churches; and resolutions 70-73
made elaborate provisions for a projected corporate union between
the Anglican Church and the Unitas Fratrum (Moravian Brethren).
As to " home reunion," however, it was made perfectly clear that
this would only be possible " on lines suggested by such precedents
as those of 1610," i.e. by the Presbyterian Churches accepting the
episcopal model. So far as the organization of the Anglican Church
is concerned, the most important outcome of the conference was
the reconstruction of the Central Consultative Body on representative
lines (54-56) ; this body to consist of the archbishop of Canterbury
and seventeen bishops appointed by the various Churches of the
Anglican Communion throughout the world. A notable feature of
the conference was the presence of the Swedish bishop of Kalmar,
who presented a letter from the archbishop of Upsala, as a tentative
advance towards closer relations between the Anglican Church and
the Evangelical Church of Sweden.
See Archbishop R. T. Davidson, The Lambeth Conferences of 1867,
1878 and 1888 (London, 1896) ; Conference of Bishops of the Anglican
Communion, Encyclical Letter, &c. (London, 1897 and 1908).
LAMBINUS, DIONYSIUS, the Latinized name of DENIS
LAMBIN (1520-1572), French classical scholar, born at Montreuil-
sur-mer in Picardy. Having devoted several years to classical
studies during a residence in Italy, he was invited to Paris in
1650 to fill the professorship of Latin in the College de France,
which he soon afterwards exchanged for that of Greek. His
lectures were frequently interrupted by his ill-health and the
religious disturbances of the time. His death (September 1572)
is said to have been caused by his apprehension that he might
share the fate of his friend Peter Ramus (Pierre de la Ramee),
who had been killed in the massacre of St Bartholomew.
Lambinus was one of the greatest scholars of his age, and his
editions of classical authors are still useful. In textual criticism
he was a conservative, but by no means a slavish one; indeed,
his opponents accused him of rashness in emendation. His chief
defect is that he refers vaguely to his MSS. without specifying
the source of his ^readings, so that their relative importance
cannot be estimated. But his commentaries, with their wealth
of illustration and parallel passages, are a mine of information.
In the opinion of the best scholars, he preserved the happy
mean in his annotations, although his own countrymen have
coined the word lambiner to express trifling and diffuseness.
His chief editions are: Horace (1561); Lucretius (1564), on which
see H. A. J. Munro's preface to his edition ; Cicero (1566) ; Cornelius
Nepos (1569); Demosthenes (1570), completing the unfinished work
of Guillaume Morel; Plautus (1576).
See Peter Lazer, De Dionysio Lambino narratio, printed in Orelli's
Cnomasticon Tullianum (i. 1836), and Trium disertissimorurn
virorurn praefationes ac epistolae familiares aliquot: Mureti,
Lambini, Regti (Paris, 1579); also Sandys, Hist, of Classical Scholar-
ship (1908, ii. 188), and A. Horawitz in Ersch and Gruber's Allge-
meine Encyclopadie.
LAMBOURN, a market town in the Newbury parliamentary
division of Berkshire, England, 65 m. W. of London, the terminus
of the Lambourn Valley light railway from Newbury. Pop.
(igoi) 2071. It lies high up the narrow valley of the Lambourn,
a tributary of the Kennet famous for its trout-fishing, among
the Berkshire Downs. The church of St Michael is cruciform
and principally late Norman, but has numerous additions of
later periods and has been considerably altered by modern
restoration. The inmates of an almshouse founded by John
Estbury, c. 1500, by his desire still hold service daily at his
tomb in the church. A Perpendicular market-cross stands
without the church. The town has agricultural trade, but its
chief importance is derived from large training stables in the
neighbourhood. To the north of the town is a large group of
tumuli known as the Seven Barrows, ascertained by excavation
to be a British burial-place.
LAMECH (ip^), the biblical patriarch, appears in each of
the antediluvian genealogies, Gen. iv. 16-24 J., and Gen. v. P.
In the former he is a descendant of Cain, and through his sons
the author of primitive civilization; in the latter he is the father
of Noah. But it is now generally held that these two genealogies
are variant adaptations of the Babylonian list of primitive
112
LAMEGO— LAMELLIBRANCHIA
kings (see ENOCH). It is doubtful whether Lamech is to be
identified with the name of any one of these kings; he may
have been introduced into the genealogy from another tradition.
In the older narrative in Gen. iv. Lamech's family are the
originators of various advances in civilization; he himself
is the first to marry more than one wife, 'Adah (" ornament,"
perhaps specially " dawn ") and Zillah (" shadow "). He has
three sons Jabal, Jubal, and Tubal, the last-named qualified by
the addition of Cain (= "smith"1). The assonance of these
names is probably intentional, cf. the brothers Hasan and Hosein
of early Mahommedan history. Jabal institutes the life of
nomadic shepherds, Jubal is the inventor of music, Tubal-Cain
the first smith. Jabal and Jubal may be forms of a root used in
Hebrew and Phoenician for ram and ram's horn (i.e. trumpet),
and underlying our " jubilee." Tubal may be the eponymous
ancestor of the people of that name mentioned in Ezekiel in
connexion with "vessels of bronze."2 All three names are
sometimes derived from '3< in the sense of offspring, so that
they would be three different words for " son," and there are
numerous other theories as to their etymology. Lamech has
also a daughter Naamah (" gracious," " pleasant," " comely ";
cf. No'man, a name of the deity Adonis). This narrative clearly
intends to account for the origin of these various arts as they
existed in the narrator's time; it is not likely that he thought
of these discoveries as separated from his own age by a universal
flood; nor does the tone of the narrative suggest that the
primitive tradition thought of these pioneers of civilization as
members of an accursed family. Probably the passage was
originally independent of the document which told of Cain and
Abel and of the Flood; Jabal may be a variant of Abel. An
ancient poem is connected with this genealogy:
" Adah and Zillah, hear my voice;
Ye wives of Lamech, give ear unto my speech.
I slay a man for a wound,
A young man for a stroke;
For Cain's vengeance is sevenfold,
But Lamech's seventy-fold and seven."
In view of the connexion, the poem is interpreted as expressing
Lamech's exultation at the advantage he expects to derive
from Tubal-Cain's new inventions; the worker in bronze will
forge for him new and formidable weapons, so that he will be
able to take signal vengeance for the least injury. But the poem
probably had originally nothing to do with the genealogy. It
may have been a piece of folk-song celebrating the prowess
of the tribe of Lamech; or it may have had some relation to
a story of Cain and Abel in which Cain was a hero and not a
villain.
The genealogy in Gen. v. belongs to the Priestly Code, c.
450 B.C., and may be due to a revision of ancient tradition in
the light of Babylonian archaeology. It is noteworthy that
according to the numbers in the Samaritan MSS. Lamech dies
in the year of the Flood.
The origin of the name Lamech and its original meaning are
doubtful. It was probably the name of a tribe or deity, or both.
According to C. J. Ball,8 Lamech is an adaptation of the Babylonian
Lamga, a title of Sin the moon god, and synonymous with Ubara
in the name Ubara-Tutu, the Otiartes of Berossus, who is the ninth
of the ten primitive Babylonian Icings, and the father of the hero of
the Babylonian flood story, just as Lamech is the ninth patriarch,
and the father of Noah. Spurrell 4 states that Lamech cannot be
explained from the Hebrew, but may possibly be connected with the
Arabic yalmakun, " a strong young man."
Outside of Genesis, Lamech is only mentioned in the Bible in I
Chron. i. 3, Luke iii. 36. Later Jewish tradition expanded and inter-
preted the story in its usual fashion. (W. H. BE.)
LAMEGO, a city of northern Portugal, in the district of Vizeu
and formerly included in the province of Beira; 6 m. by road
S. of the river Douro and 42 m. E. of Oporto. Pop. (1900)
1 The 'text of Gen. iv. 22 is partly corrupt ; and it is possible that
the text used by the Septuagint did not contain Cain.
1 Gen. x. 2, Ezek. xxvii. 13.
1 Genesis, in Haupt's Sacred Books of the Old Testament on iv. 19,
cf. also the notes on 20-22, for Lamech's family. The identification
of Lamech with Lamga is also suggested by Sayce, Expository Times,
vii. 367. Cf. also Cheyne, " Cainites " in Encyc. Biblica.
* Notes on the Hebrew Text of Genesis, in loco.
9471. The nearest railway station is Peso da Regoa, on the
opposite side of the Douro and on the Barca d'Alva-Oporto
railway. Lamego is an ancient and picturesque city, in the
midst of a beautiful mountain region. Its principal buildings
are the 14th-century Gothic cathedral, Moorish citadel, Roman
baths and a church which occupies the site of a mosque, and,
though intrinsically commonplace, is celebrated in Portugal
as the seat of the legendary cortes of 1143 or 1144 (see PORTUGAL,
History). The principal industries are viticulture and the
rearing of swine, which furnish the so-called " Lisbon hams."
Lamego was a Moorish frontier fortress of some importance
in the 9th and zoth centuries. It was captured in 1057 by
Ferdinand I. of Castile and Leon.
LAMELLIBRANCHIA (Lat. lamella, a small or thin plate,
and Gr. Ppayxia-, gills), the fourth of the five classes of animals
constituting the phylum Mollusca (q.v.). The Lamellibranchia
are mainly characterized by the rudimentary condition of the
head, and the retention of the primitive bilateral symmetry,
the latter feature being accentuated by the lateral compression
of the body and the development of the shell as two bilaterally
symmetrical plates or valves covering each one side of the
animal. The foot is commonly a simple cylindrical or plough-
share-shaped organ, used for boring in sand and mud, and more
rarely presents a crawling disk similar to that of Gastropoda;
in some forms it is aborted. The paired ctenidia are very greatly
developed right and left of the elongated body, and form the
most prominent organ of the group. Their function is chiefly
not respiratory but nutritive, since it is by the currents produced
by their ciliated surface that food-particles are brought to the
feebly-developed mouth and buccal cavity.
The Lamellibranchia present as a whole a somewhat uniform
structure. The chief points in which they vary are — (i) m the
structure of the ctenidia or branchial plates; (2) in the presence
of one or of two chief muscles, the fibres of which run across the
animal's body from one valve of the shell to the other (adductors) ;
(3) in the greater or less elaboration of the posterior portion of
the mantle-skirt so as to form a pair of tubes, by one of which
water is introduced into the sub-pallial chamber, whilst by the
other it is expelled; (4) in the perfect or deficient symmetry
of the two valves of the shell and the connected soft parts, as
compared with one another; (5) in the development of the foot
as a disk-like crawling organ (Area, Nucida, Peclunculus,
Trigonia, Lepton, Galeomma), as a simple plough-like or tongue-
shaped organ (Unionidae, &c.), as a re-curved saltatory organ
(Cardium, &c.), as a long burrowing cylinder (Solenidae, &c.),
or its partial (Mytilacea) or even complete abortion (Ostraeacea).
The essential Molluscan organs are, with these exceptions,
uniformly well developed. The mantle-skirt is always long,
and hides the rest of the animal from view, its dependent margins
meeting in the middle line below the ventral surface when the
animal is retracted; it is, as it were, slit in the median line
before and behind so as to form two flaps, a right and a left;
on these the right and the left calcareous valves of the shell
are borne respectively, connected by an uncalcified part of the
shell called the ligament. In many embryo Lamellibranchs a
centro-dorsal primitive shell-gland or follicle has been detected.
The mouth lies in the median line anteriorly, the anus in the
median line posteriorly.
Both ctenidia, right and left, are invariably present, the axis
of each taking origin from the side of the body as in the schematic
archi-Mollusc (see fig. 15). A pair of renal tubes opening right
and left, rather far forward on the sides of the body, are always
present. Each opens by its internal extremity into the peri-
cardium. A pair of genital apertures, connected by genital
ducts with the paired gonads, are found right and left near the
nephridial pores, except in a few cases where the genital duct
joins that of the renal organ (Spondylus). The sexes are often,
but not always, distinct. No accessory glands or copulatory
organs are ever present in Lamellibranchs. The ctenidia often
act as brood-pouches.
A dorsal contractile heart, with symmetrical right and left
auricles receiving aerated blood from the ctenidia and mantle-
LAMELLIBRANCHIA
skirt, is present, being unequally developed only in those few
foims which are inequivalve. The typical pericardium is well
developed. It, as in other Mollusca, is not a blood-space but
develops from the coelom, and it communicates with the
exterior by the pair of renal tubes. As in Cephalopoda (and
possibly other Mollusca) water can be introduced through
the nephridia into this space. The alimentary canal keeps very
nearly to the median vertical plane whilst exhibiting a number
of flexures and loopings in this plane. A pair of large glandular
outgrowths, the so-called " liver " or great digestive gland,
exists as in other Molluscs. A pair of pedal otocysts, and a
pair of osphradia at the base of the gills, appear to be always
present. A typical nervous system is present (fig. 19), consisting
of a cerebro-pleural ganglion-pair, united by connectives to a
pedal ganglion-pair and a visceral ganglion-pair (parieto-
splanchnic) .
A pyloric caecum connected with the stomach is commonly
found, containing a tough flexible cylinder of transparent
cartilaginous appearance, called the " crystalline style " (Mactra).
In many Lamellibranchs a gland is found on the hinder surface
of the foot in the mid line, which secretes a substance which
sets into the form of threads — the so-called " byssus " — by
means of which the animal can fix itself. Sometimes this gland
is found in the young and not in the adult (Anodonta, Unio,
Cyclas). In some Lamellibranchs (Pecten, Spondylus, Pholas,
Mactra, Tellina, Pectunculus, Galeomma, &c.), although cephalic
eyes are generally absent, special eyes are developed on the free
margin. of the mantle-skirt, apparently by the modification of
tentacles commonly found there. There are no pores in the foot
or elsewhere in Lamellibranchia by which water can pass into
and out of the vascular system, as formerly asserted.
The Lamellibranchia live chiefly in the sea, some in fresh waters.
A very few have the power of swimming by opening and shutting
the valves of the shell (Pecten, Lima); most can crawl slowly
or burrow rapidly; others are, when adult, permanently fixed
to stones or rocks either by the shell or the byssus.' In develop-
ment some Lamellibranchia pass through a free-swimming
trochosphere stage with preoral ciliated band; other fresh-
(1)
/Ti-n
(3)
FIG. i. — Diagrams of the external form and anatomy of Anodonta
cygnea, the Pond-Mussel ; in figures 1,3,4,5,6 the animal is seen from
the left side, the centro-dorsal region uppermost, (i) Animal removed
from its shell, a probe g passed into the sub-pallial chamber through
the excurrent siphonal notch. (2) View from the ventral surface of
an Anodon with its foot expanded and issuing from between the
gaping shells. (3) The left mantle-flap reflected upwards so as to
expose the sides of the body. (4) Diagrammatic section of Anodon
to show the course of the alimentary canal. (5) The two gill-plates
of the left side reflected upwards so as to expose the fissure between
foot and gill where the probe g passes. (6) Diagram to show the
positions of the nerve-ganglia, heart and nephridia.
Letters in all the figures as follows
Centro-dorsal area.
a,
6, Margin of the left mantle-
flap-
c, Margin of the right mantle-
flap.
d, Excurrent siphonal notch of
the mantle margin.
e, Incurrent siphonal notch of
the mantle margin.
/, Foot.
g, Probe passed into the
superior division of the sub-
pallial chamber through the
excurrent siphonal notch,
and issuing by the side of
the foot into the inferior
division of the sub-pallial
chamber.
h, Anterior (pallial) adductor
muscle of the shells.
i, Anterior retractor muscle of
the foot.
k, Protractor muscle of the foot.
I, Posterior (pedal) adductor
muscle of the shells.
m, Posterior retractor muscle of
the foot.
n. Anterior labial tentacle.
o, Posterior labial tentacle.
p, Base-line of origin of the re-
fleeted mantle-flap from the
side of the body.
q, Left external gill-plate.
r, Left internal gill-plate.
rr, Inner lamella of the right
inner gill-plate.
rg, Right outer gill-plate.
s, Line of concrescence of the
outer lamella of the left
outer gill-plate with the left
mantle-flap.
t, Pallial tentacles.
tt, The thickened muscular
pallial margin which ad-
heres to the shell and forms
the pallial line of the left
side.
v, That of the right side.
w, The mouth.
x, Aperture of the left organ
of Bojanus (nephridium)
exposed by cutting the
attachment of the inner
lamella of the inner gill-
plate.
y. Aperture of the genital duct.
z, Fissure between the free edge
of the inner lamella of the
inner gill-plate and the side
of the foot, through which
the probe g passes into the
upper division of the sub-
pallial space.
aa. Line of concrescence of the
inner lamella of the right
inner gill-plate with the
inner lamella of the left
inner gill-plate.
ab, ac, ad, Three pit-like depres-
sions in the median line
of the foot supposed by
some writers to be pores ad-
mitting water into the
vascular system.
ae, Left shell valve.
a/, Space occupied by liver.
eg, Space occupied by gonad.
ah, Muscular substance of the
foot.
ai, Duct of the liver on the wall
of the stomach.
ak. Stomach.
al, Rectum traversing the ven-
tricle of the heart.
am. Pericardium.
an, Glandular portion of the left
nephridium.
ap, Ventricle of the heart.
aq. Aperture by which the left
auricle joins the ventricle.
ar, Non-glandular portion of the
left nephridium.
as, Anus.
at, Pore leading from the peri-
cardium into the glandular
sac of the left nephridium.
au, Pore leading from the gland-
ular into the non-glandular
portion of the left neph-
ridium.
av, Internal pore leading from
the non-glandular portion
of the left nephridium to the
external pore x.
aw. Left cerebro-pleuro-visceral
ganglion.
ax. Left pedal ganglion.
ay. Left otocyst.
az, Left olfactory ganglion
(parieto-splanchnic).
bb, Floor of the pericardium
separating that space from
the non-glandular portion of
the nephridia.
water forms which carry the young in brood-pouches formed
by the ctenidia have suppressed this larval phase.
As an example of the organization of a Lamellibranch, we
shall review the structure of the common pond-mussel or swan
mussel (Anodonta cygnea), comparing it with other Lamelli-
branchia.
The swan-mussel has superficially a perfectly developed bilateral
symmetry. The left side of the animal is seen as when removed from
its shell in fig. I (i). The valves of the shell have been removed by
severing their adhesions to the muscular areae h, i, k, I, m, u. The
free edge of the left half of the mantle-skirt b is represented as a little
contracted in order to show the exactly similar free edge of the right
half of the mantle-skirt c. These edges are not attached to, although
they touch, one another; each flap (right or left) can be freely thrown
back in the way carried out in fig. I (3) for that of the left side. This
is not always the case with Lamellibranchs; there is in the group
a tendency for the corresponding edges of the mantle-skirt to fuse
together by concrescence, and so to form a more or less completely
closed bag, as in the Scaphopoda (Dentalium). In this way the
notches d, e of the hinder part of the mantle-skirt of Anodonta are in
the siphonate forms converted into two separate holes, the edges of
the mantle being elsewhere fused together along this hinder margin.
Further than this, the part of the mantle-skirt bounding the two
holes is frequently drawn out so as to form a pair of tubes which
project from the shell (figs. 8, 29). In such Lamellibranchs as the
oysters, scallops and many others which have the edges of the mantle-
skirt quite free, there are numerous tentacles upon those edges.
LAMELLIBRANCHIA
.':•- lunule
width
'ligament
In Anodonta these pallial tentacles are confined to a small area sur-
rounding the inferior siphonal notch (fig. I [3], t). When the edges
of the mantle ventral to the inhalant orifice are united, an anterior
aperture is left for the protrusion of the foot, and thus there are three
pallial apertures altogether, and species in this condition are called
Tripora." This is the usual condition in the Eulamellibranchia
and Septibranchia. When the pedal aperture is small and far
forward there may be a fourth aperture in the region of the fusion
behind the pedal aperture. This occurs in Solen, and such forms are
called " Quadrifora."
The centro-dorsal point a of the animal of Anodonta (fig. I [i]) is
called the umbonal area; the great anterior muscular surface h is that
of the anterior adductor muscle, the
posterior similar surface i is that of
the posterior adductor muscle ; the long
line of attachment u is the simple
"pallial muscle," — a thickened ridge
which is seen to run parallel to the
margin of the mantle-skirt in this
Lamellibranch. In siphonate forms the
pallial muscle is not simple, but is in-
dsnted posteriorly by a sinus formed by
the muscles which retract the siphons.
It is the approximate equality in the
size of the anterior and posterior ad-
ductor muscles which led to the name
Isomya for the group to which Anodonta
belongs. The hinder adductor muscle
is always large in Lamellibranchs, but
the anterior adductor may be very
small (Heteromya), or absent altogether
(Mono/nya). The anterior adductor
FIG 2 —View of the two muscle is in front of the m°"th and
Valves of thl Shefl o° alimentary *ract altogether, and must
rl rS „ I. It *T«Jr b2 regarded as a special and peculiar
Cythcrea (one of the Smu- * ^ H
n c? of the mantle-flap. The posterior ad-
ductor is ventral and anterior to the
anus. The former classification based on these differences in the
adductor muscles is now abandoned, having proved to be an un-
natural one. A single family may include isomyarian, anisomyarian
and monomyarian forms, and the latter in development pass through
stages in which they resemble the first two. In fact all Lamellibranchs
begin with a condition in which there is only one adductor, and that
not the posterior but the anterior. This is called the protomono-
myarian stage. Then the posterior adductor develops, and becomes
equal to the anterior, and finally in some cases the anterior becomes
smaller or disappears. The single adductor muscle of the Monomya
is separated by a difference of fibre into two portions, but neither of
these can be regarded as possibly representing the anterior adductor
of the other Lamellibranchs. One of these portions is more liga-
mentous and
serves to keep the
two shells con-
stantly attached
to one another,
whilst the more
fleshy portion
serves to close the
shell rapidly when
it has been gaping.
In removing the
valves of the shell
from an Anodonta,
it is necessary
not only to cut
through the mus-
cular attachments
of the body-wall
to the shell but to
sever also a strong
elastic ligament,
or spring resem-
...lunuts
FIG. 3. — Right Valve of the same Shell from
the Outer Face.
t_1- !• » t ... . w' °F* *"S n-o*-i»*-
bling india-rubber, joining the two shells about the umbonal area.
The shell of Anodontp, does not present these parts in the most
strongly marked condition, and accordingly our figures (figs. 2, 3, 4)
represent the valves of the sinupalliate genus Cytherea. The corre-
sponding parts are recognizable in A nodonta. Referring to the figures
(2, 3) for an explanation of terms applicable to the parts of the valve
and the markings on its inner surface — corresponding to the muscular
areas already noted on the surface of the ani:nal's body — we must
specially note here the position of that denticulated thickening of the
dorsal margin of the valve which is called the hin-je (fig. 4). By this
hinge one valve is closely fitted to the other. Below this hinge each
shell becomes concave, above it each shell rises a little to form the
umbo, and it is into this ridge-like upgrowth of each valve that the
elastic ligament or spring is fixed (fig. 4). As shown in the diagram
(fig- 5) representing a transverse section of the two valves of a
Lamellibranch, the two shells form a double lever, of which the
toothed-hinge is the fulcrum. The adductor muscles placed in the
•
U
I concavity of the shells act upon the long arms of the lever at a
mechanical advantage ; their contraction keeps the shells shut, and
stretches the ligament or spring h. On the other hand, the ligament
h acts upon the short arm formed by the umbonal ridge of the shells;
whenever the adductors relax, the elastic substance of the ligament
contracts, and the shells gape. It is on this account that the valves
of a dead Lamellibranch always gape; the elastic ligament is no
longer counteracted by the effort of the adductors. The state of
closure of the valves of the shell is not, therefore, one of rest; when
it is at rest — that is,
when there is no mus-
cular effort — the valves
of a Lamellibranch are
slightly gaping, and are
closed by the action of
the adductors when the
animal is disturbed. The
ligament is simple in
Anodonta; in many Lam-
ellibranchs it is separated
into two layers, an outer
and an inner (thicker and
denser). That the con-
dition of gaping of the
shell-valves is essential
to the life of the Lamelli-
branch appears from the
fact that food to nourish
it, water to aerate its FIG. 4. — Left Valve of the same Shell
blood, and spermatozoa from the Inner Face. (Figs. 2, 3, 4 from
to fertilize its eggs, are Owen.)
all introduced into this
gaping chamber by currents of water, set going by the highly-
developed ctenidia. The current of water enters into the sub-pallial
space at the spot marked e in fig. I (i), and, after passing as far for-
ward as the mouth w in fig. I (5), takes an outward course and
leaves the sub-pallial space by the upper notch d. These notches are
known in Anodonta as the afferent and efferent siphonal notches
respectively, and correspond to the long tube-like afferent inferior
and efferent superior " siphons " formed by the mantle in many
other Lamellibranchs (fig. 8).
Whilst the valves of the shell are equal in Anodonta we find in
many Lamellibranchs (Ostraea, Chama, Corbula, &c.) one valve
larger, and the other srr.aller and sometimes
flat, whilst th°e larger shell may be fixed to
rock or to stones (Ostrcca, &c.). A further
variation consists in the development of
additional shelly plates upon the dorsal line
between the two large valves (Pholadidae), In
Pholas dactylus we find a pair of umbonal
plates, a dors-umbonal plate and a dorsal
plate. It is to be remembered that the whole ,
of the cuticular hard product produced on
the dorsal surface and on the mantle-flaps
is to be regarded as the " shell," of which a
median band-like area, the ligament, usually
remains uncalcified, so as to result in the pro-
duction of two valves united by the elastic
ligament. But the shelly substance does not
always in boring forms adhere to this form
after its first growth. In Aspergillum the
whole of the tubular mantle area secretes a
continuous shelly tube, although in the young
condition two valves were present. These
are seen (fig. 7) set in the firm substance of
the adult tubular shell, which has even re- FIG. 5. Diagram
placed the ligament, so that the tube is of a section of a
complete. In Teredo a similar tube is formed La m el Tib ranch's
as the animal elongates (boring in wood), shcn'3) ligament and
the original shell-valves not adhering to it adductor muscle,
but remaining movable and provided with a j right and left
a special muscular apparatus in place of a vaiv'es of the sheli;
ligament. In the shell of Lamellibranchs c< £ the umbones or
three distinct layers can be distinguished: short arms of the
an external chitinous, non-calcified layer, the lever' e f the long
periostracum; a middle layer composed of arms 'of' the lever;
calcareous prisms perpendicular to the surface, gi the hinp-e; h, the
the prismatic layer; and an internal layer ligament; i, 'the ad-
composed of laminae parallel to the surface, ductor muscle,
the nacreous layer. The last is secreted by the
whole surface of the mantle except the border, and additions to its
thickness continue to be made through life. The periostracum is
produced by the extreme edge of the mantle border, the prismatic
layer by the part of the border within the edge. These two layers,
therefore, when once formed cannot increase in thickness; as the
mantle grows in extent its border passes beyond the formed parts
of the two outer layers, and the latter are covered internally by a
deposit of nacreous matter. Special deposits of the nacreous matter
around foreign bodies for-n pearh, the foreign nucleus being usually
of parasitic origin (see PEARL).
LAMELLIBRANCHIA
Let us now examine the organs which lie beneath the mantle-skirt
of Anodonta, and are bathed by the current of water which circulates
through it. This can be done by lifting up and throwing back the left
half of the mantle-skirt as is represented in fig. I (3). We thus expose
the plough-like foot (f), the two left labial tentacles, and the two left
gill-plates or left ctemdium. In fig. I (5), one of the labial tentacles n
is also thrown back to show the mouth w, and the two left gill-plates
are reflected to show the gill-plates of the right side (rr, rq) pro-
jecting behind the foot, the inner or median plate of each side being
united by concrescence to its fellow of the opposite side along a
continuous line (aa). The left inner gill-plate is also snipped to show
the subjacent orifices of the left renal organ
x, and of the genital gland (testis or ovary) y.
The foot thus exposed in Anodonta is a simple
muscular tongue-like organ. It can be pro-
truded between the flaps of the mantle (fig. I
[l] [2]) so as to issue from the shell, and by
its action the Anodonta can slowly crawl or
burrow in soft mud or sand. Other Lamelli-
branchs may have a larger foot relatively than
has Anodonta. In Area it has a sole-like
surface. In Area too and many others it
carries a byssus-forming gland and a byssus-
cementing gland. In the cockles, in Cardium
and in Tngpnia, it is capable of a sudden
stroke, which causes the animal to jump when
out of the water, in the latter genus to a
FIG. 6.— Shell of
A sperg ilium vagini-
ferum. (From Owen.)
FIG. 7. — Shell of Aspergillum
vaginiferum to show the original
valves a, now embedded in a con-
tinuous calcification of tubular form.
(From Owen.)
height of four feet. In Mytilus the foot is reduced to little more
than a tubercle carrying the apertures of these glands. In the
oyster it is absent altogether.
The labial tentacles or palps of Anodonta (n, o in fig. I [3], [5]) are
highly vascular flat processes richly supplied with nerves. The left
anterior tentacle (seen in the figure) is joined at its base in front of
the mouth (20) to the right anterior tentacle, and similarly the left (o)
and right posterior tentacles are joined behind the mouth. Those of
Area (i, k in fig. 9) show this relation to the mouth (a). These organs
are characteristic of all Lamellibranchs; they do not vary except in
condition in the ancestors of the whole series of living Lamelli-
branchia. The phenomenon of " concrescence " which we have
already had to note as showing itself so importantly in regard to the
free edges of the mantle-skirt and the formation of the siphons, is
what, above all things, has complicated the structure of the
Lamellibranch ctenidium. Our present knowledge of the interest-
ing series of modifications through which the Lamellibranch gill-
plates have developed to their most complicated form is due to
R. H. Peck, K. Mitsukuri and W. G. Ridewood. The Molluscan
ctenidium is typically a plume-
like structure, consisting of a
vascular axis, on each side of
which is set a row of numerous
lamelliform or filamentous pro-
cesses. These processes are
hollow, and receive the venous
blood from, and return it again
aerated into, the hollow axis,
in which an afferent and an
efferent blood-vessel may be
differentiated. In the genus
Nueula (fig. 10) we have an
example of a Lamellibranch
retaining this plume-like form
of gill. In the Arcacea (e.g.
Area and Pectuneulus) the lateral
processes which are set on the
axis of the ctenidium are not
lamellae, but are slightly flat-
tened, very long tubes or hollow
filaments. These filaments are
so fine and are set so closely
together that they appear to
form a continuous membrane
until examined with a lens.
The microscope shows that the
FIG. 9. — View from the ventral
(pedal) aspect of the animal of
Area none, the mantle-flap and
neighbouring filaments are held gill-filaments having been cut
together by patches of cilia, away. (Lankester.)
a, Mouth.
b, Anus.
c, Free spirally turned extremity
of the gill-axis or ctenidial
called " ciliated junctions,"
which interlock with one another
just as two brushes may be
made to do. In fig. u, A a
portion of four filaments of a
ctenidium of the sea-mussel
d,
axis of the right side.
Do. of the left side.
(Mytilus) is represented, having e, f, Anterior portions of these axes
fused by concrescence to the
wall of the body.
Anterior adductor muscle.
Posterior adductor.
Anterior labial tentacle.
FIG. 8. — Psammobia florida, right side, showing ex-
panded foot e, and g incurrent and g' excurrent siphons.
(From Owen.)
size, being sometimes drawn out to streamer-like dimensions. Their
appearance and position suggest that they are in some way related
morphologically to the gill-plates, the anterior labial tentacle being a
continuation of the outer gill-plate, and the posterior a continuation
of the inner gill-plate. There is no embryological evidence to support
this suggested connexion, and, as will appear immediately, the
history of the gill-plates in various forms of Lamellibranchs does not
directly favour it. The palps are really derived from part of the
velar area of the larva.
The gill-plates have a structure very different from that of the
labial tentacles, and one which in Anodonta is singularly complicated
as compared with the condition presented by these organs in some
other Lamellibranchs, and with what must have been their original
precisely the same structure as
those of Area. The filaments
of the gill (ctenidium) of Mytilus
and Area thus form two closely
set rows which depend from the
axis of the gill like two parallel k, Posterior labial tentacle,
plates. Further, their structure /, Base line of the foot,
is profoundly modified by the m, Sole of the foot,
curious condition of the free n. Callosity,
ends of the depending filaments.
These are actually reflected at a sharp angle — doubled on themselves
in fact — and thus form an additional row of filaments (see fig. n B).
Consequently, each primitive filament has a descending and an ascend-
ing ramus, and instead of each row forming a simple plate, the plate
is double, consisting of a descending and an ascending lamella. As
the axis of the ctenidium lies by the side of the body, and is very
frequently connate with the body, as so often happens in Gastropods
also, we find it convenient to speak of the two plate-like structures
formed on each ctenidial axis as the outer and the inner gill-plate;
each of these is composed of two lamellae, an outer (the
reflected) and an adaxial in the case of the outer gill-
plate, and an adaxial and an inner (the reflected) in the
case of the inner gill-plate. This is the condition seen in
Area and Mytilus, the so-called plates dividing upon the
slightest touch into their constituent filaments, which
are but loosely conjoined by their " ciliated junctions."
Complications follow upon this in other forms. Even in
Mytilus and Area a connexion is here and there formed
between the ascending and descending rami of a filament
by hollow extensible outgrowths called " interlamellar
junctions " (il.j'in B, fig. n). Nevertheless the filament
is a complete tube formed of chitinous substance and
clothed externally by ciliated epithelium, internally by endothelium
and lacunar tissue — a form of connective tissue — as shown in fig. 1 1 , C
Now let us suppose as happens in the genus Dreissensia — a genus not far
removed from Mytilus — that the ciliated inter-filamentar junctions
(fig. 12) give place to solid permanent inter-filamentar junctions, so
that the filaments are converted, as it were, into a trellis-work.
Then let us suppose that the inter-lamellar junctions already noted
in Mytilus become very numerous, large and irregular; by them the
two trellis-works of filaments would be united so as to leave only a
sponge-like set of spaces between them. Within the trabeculae of
the sponge-work blood circulates, and between the trabeculae the
water passes, having entered by the apertures left in the trellis-
work formed by the united gill-filaments (fig. 14). The larger the
n6
LAMELLIBRANCHIA
intralamellar spongy growth becomes, the more do the original gill-
filaments lose the character of blood-holding tubes, and tend to become
dense elastic rods for the simple purpose of supporting the spongy
growth. This is seen both in the section of Dreissensia gill (fig. 12)
and in those of Anodonta (fig. 13, A,B,C). In the drawing of Dreiss-
ensia the individual filaments/,/,/ are cut across in one lamella at the
FIG. 10. — Structure of the Ctenidia of Nucula. (After Mitsukuri.)
See also fig. 2.
A. Section across the axis of a
ctenidium with a pair of
plates — flattened and
shortened filaments — at-
tached.
ij,k,g Are placed on or near the
membrane which attaches
the axis of the ctenidium to
the side of the body.
a,b, Free extremities of the plates
(filaments).
Mid-line of the inferior
border.
Surface of the plate.
Its upper border.
Chitinous lining of the plate.
Dilated blood-space.
Fibrous tract.
Upper blood-vessel of the
axis.
Lower blood-vessel of the
axis.
Chitinous framework of the
axis.
Canal in the same.
, B, Line along which the cross-
section C of the plate is
taken.
B. Animal of a male Nucula
proximo.. Say, as seen when
cp,
A,
the left valve of the shell
and the left half of the
mantle-skirt are removed.
a,a, Anterior adductor muscle.
p.a, Posterior adductor muscle.
v.m, Visceral mass.
/, Foot.
g, Gill.
/, Labial Tentacle.
l.a, Filamentous appendage of
the labial tentacle.
Ib, Hood-like appendage of the
labial tentacle.
m, Membrane suspending the
gill and attached to the
body along the line x, y, z,
w.
p, Posterior end of the gill
(ctenidium).
C. Section across one of the gill-
plates (A, B, in A) com-
parable with fig. ii C.
l.a, Outer border.
d.a, Axial border.
/./, Latero-frontal epithelium.
e, Epithelium of general sur-
face.
r, Dilated blood-space.
h, Chitinous lining (compare
A).
horizon of an inter-filamentar junction, in the other (lower in the
figure) at a point where they are free. The chitinous substance ch is
observed to be greatly thickened as compared with what it is in
fig. ii, C, tending in fact to obliterate altogether the lumen of the
filament. And in Anodonta (fig. 13, C) this obliteration is effected.
In Anodonta, besides being thickened, the skeletal substance of the
filament develops a specially dense, rod-like body on each side of each
filament. Although the structure* of the ctenidium is thus highly
complicated in Anodonta, it is yet more so in some of the siphonate
genera of Lamellibranchs. The filaments take on a secondary
grouping, the surface of the lamella being thrown into a series of half-
cylindrical ridges, each consisting of ten or twenty filaments; a
filament of much greater strength and thickness than the others may
be placed between each pair of groups. In Anodonta, as in many
other Lamellibranchs, the ova and hatched embryos are carried for a
time in the ctenidia or gill apparatus, and in this particular case the
space between the two lamellae of the outer gill-plate is that which
serves to receive the ova (fig. 13, A). The young are nourished by a
substance formed by the cells which cover the spongy inter-lamellar
outgrowths.
Other points in the modification of the typical ctenidium must be
noted in order to understand the ctenidium of Anodonta. The axis
of each ctenidium, right and left, starts from a point well forward
Sate
AJKX
FIG. n. — Filaments of the Ctenidium of Mytilus edulis.
(After R. H. Peck.)
A, Part of four filaments seen
from the outer face in order to
show the ciliated junctions c.i.
B, Diagram of the posterior face
of a single complete filament with
descending ramus and ascending
ramus ending in a hook-like pro-
cess ;ep. ,e/>.,the ciliated junctions ;
il,j., inter-lamellar junction.
C,Transverse section of a fila-
ment taken so as to cut neither
a ciliated junction nor an inter-
lamellar junction, f.e., Frontal
epithelium; l.f.e'., l.f.e"., the two
rows of latero-frpntal epithelial
cells with long cilia ; ch, chitinous
tubular lining of the filament;
lac., blood lacuna traversed by a
few processes of connective tissue
cells; b.c., blood -corpuscle.
near the labial tentacles, but it is at first only a ridge, and does not
project as a free cylindrical axis until the back part of the foot is
reached. This is difficult to see in Anodonta, but if the mantle-skirt
be entirely cleared away, and if the dependent lamellae which spring
from the ctenidial axis be carefully cropped so as to leave the axis
itself intact, we obtain the form shown in fig. 15, where g and h are
respectively the left and the right ctenidial axes projecting freely
beyond the body. In Area this can be seen with far less trouble, for
the filaments are more easily removed than are the consolidated
lamellae formed by the filaments of Anodonta, and in Area the free
axes of the ctenidia are large and firm in texture (fig. 9, c,d).
If we were to make a vertical section across the long axis of a
Lamellibranch which had the axis of its ctenidium free from its origin
onwards, we should find such relations as are shown in the diagram
fig. 16, A. The gill axis d is seen lying in the sub-pallial chamber
between the foot 6 and the mantle c. From it depend the gill-
filaments or lamellae — formed by united filaments — drawn as black
lines/. On the left side these lamellae are represented as having only
a small reflected growth, on the right side the reflected ramus or
lamella is complete (fr and er)v The actual condition in Anodonta at
the region where the gills begin anteriorly is shown in fig. 16, B.
The axis of the ctenidium is seen to be adherent to, or fused by con-
crescence with, the body-wall, and moreover on each side the outer
lamella of the outer gill-plate is fused to the mantle, whilst the inner
lamella of the inner gill-plate is fused to the foot. If we take another
section nearer the hinder margin of the foot, we get the arrangement
LAMELLIBRANCHIA
117
f f f s
FIG. 12. — Transverse Section of the Outer Gill-plate of
Dreissensia polymorpha. (After R. H. Peck.)
nch,
lac,
pig,
Constituent gill-filaments.
Fibroussub-epidermic tissue.
Chitonous substance of the
filaments.
Cells related to the chitonous
substance.
Lacunar tissue.
Pigment-cells.
be, Blood-corpuscles.
fe. Frontal epithelium.
//e',//e",Tworowsoflatero-frontal
epithelial cells with long
cilia.
Irf, Fibrous, possibly muscular,
I substance of the inter-
filamentar junctions.
A,
?;
0.1,
o\l
FIG. 13. — Transverse Sections of Gill-plates of Anodonta.
(After R. H. Peck.)
Outer gill-plate.
Inner gill-plate.
A portion of B more highly
Outer lamella, [magnified.
Inner lamella.
Blood-vessel.
L,
ch,
Constituent filaments.
Lacunar tissue.
Chitonous substance of the
filament.
chr, Chitonous rod embedded in
the softer substance ch,'
shown diagrammatically in fig. 16, C, and more correctly in fig. 17.
In this region the inner lamellae of the inner gill-plates are no longer
f f
FIG. 14.— Gill-lamellae of Anodonta. (After R. H. Peck.)
Diagram of a block cut from
the outer lamella of the outer
gill-plate and seen from the inter-
lamellar surface. /, Constituent
filaments ; trf, fibrous tissue of the
transverse inter-filamentar junc-
tions; v, blood-vessel ilj, Inter-
lamellar junction. The series of
oval holes on the back of the
lamella are the water-pores which
open between the filaments in
irregular rows separated hori-
zontally by the transverse inter-
filmentar junctions.
9 *
affixed to the foot Passing still farther back behind the foot, we
find in Anodonta the condition shown in the section D, fig. 16. The
axes i are now free; the
outer lamellae of the outer a L
gill-plates (er) still adhere
by concrescence to the
mantle-skirt, whilst the
inner lamellae of the inner
gill-plates meet one another
and fuse by concrescence at
g. In the lateral view of
the animal with reflected
mantle-skirt and gill-plates, a
the line of concrescence of
the inner lamellae of the
inner gill-plates is readily
seen; it is marked aa in
%• I (5)- In the same
figure the free part of the _
inner lamella of. the inner , FJG- I5-— Diagram of a view from
gill-plate resting on the foot the left s'de of the animal of Anodonta.
is marked z, whilst the at- cygnaea, from which the mantle-skirt,
tached parjt— the most the labial tentacles and the gill-fila-
anterior— has been snipped raents have been entirely removed so
with scissors so as to show a? to show V16 relations of the axis
the genital and nephridial °£ the gill-plumes or ctemdia g, h.
apertures x and y. The con- (Original.)
crescence, then, of the free ?• Centro-dorsal area.
edge of the reflected lamellae b< Anterior adductor muscle.
of the gill-plates of Anodon <•- P°ste"or adductor muscle.
is very extensive. It is im- "> Mouth.
portant, because such a '• Anus.
concrescence is by no means /> £.°°t.
universal, and does not «- Free portion of the axis of left
occur, for example, in , ctemdium.
Mytilus or in Area; further, *• Axis of right ctemdium.
because when its occurrence *• Portion of the axis of the left
is once appreciated, the re- ctemdium which is fused with the
base of the foot, the two dotted
lines indicating the origins of the
two rows of gill-filaments.
duction of the gill-plates of
Anodonta to the plume- type
of the simplest ctenidium
presents no difficulty; and, w, Line of origin of the anterior labial
lastly, it has importance in ..ten,tac'e •'
reference to its physiological »• Nephridial aperture.
significance. The mechani- °< genital aperture.
cal result of the concrescence r< Line of onPn of the postenor labial
of the outer lamellae to the tentacle.
mantle-flap, and of the inner
lamellae to one another as shown in section D, fig. 16, is that
the sub-pallial space is divided into two spaces by a horizontal
septum. The upper space (i) communicates with the outer world
n8
LAMELLIBRANCHIA
by the excurrent or superior siphonal notch of the mantle
(fig. I, d)', the lower space communicates by the lower siphonal
FIG. 16.— Diagrams of Transverse Sections of a Lamellibranch to
show the Adhesion, by Concrescence, of the Gill-Lamellae to the
Mantle-flaps, to the foot and to one another. (Lankester.)
er, Reflected lamella of outer gill-
plate.
/, Adaxial lamella of inner gill-
plate.
fr. Reflected lamella of inner
gill-plate.
g, Line of concrescence of the
reflected lamellae of the two
inner gill-plates.
h, Rectum.
i, Supra-branchial space of the
sub-pallial chamber.
A, Shows two conditions
free gill-axis.
B, Condition at foremost region
in Anodonta. [donta.
C, Hind region of foot in Ano-
D, Region altogether posterior to
the foot in Anodonta.
a, Visceral mass.
b, Foot.
c, Mantle flap.
d, Axis of gill or ctenidium.
e, Adaxial lamella of outer gill-
plate.
notch (e in fig. i). The only communication between the two
spaces, excepting through the trellis-work of the gill-plates, is by
the slit (z in fig. I (5)) left by
the non-concrescence of a part
of the inner lamella of the
inner gill-plate with the foot.
A probe (g) is introduced
through this slit-like passage,
i— J+4-1— 1 --V/MSIM&V V \\\\ and it is seen to pass out by the
excurrent siphonal notch. It
is through this passage, or in-
directly through the pores of
the gill-plates, that the water
introduced into the lower sub-
pallial space must pass on its
way to the excurrent siphonal
notch. Such a subdivision of
the pallial chamber, and direc-
tionof thecurrentsset up within
it do not exist in a number of
Lamellibranchs which have the
gill-lamellae comparatively free
(Mytilus, Area, Trigonia, &c.),
and it is in these forms that
FIG. 1 7.— Vertical Section through there is Ieast modification by
an Anodonta, about the mid-region Concrescence of the primary
of the Foot filamentous elements of the
m. Mantle-flap. lamellae.
br, Outer, 6V, inner gill-plate— each ,, In *he 2? **">* of ^
composed of two lamellae. Encyclopaedia Professor (Sir)
/, Foot. R- Lankester suggested tha
v. Ventricle of the heart,
a, Auricle.
p,p', Pericardial cavity.
i, Intestine.
„= --
these differences of gill-struc-
ture would furnish characters
of _ classificatory value, and
this suggestion has been
followed out by Dr Paul
Pelseneer in the classification now generally adopted.
The alimentary canal of Anodonta is shown in fig. I (4). The
mouth is placed between the anterior adductor and the foot; the
anus opens on a median papilla overlying the posterior adductor,
and discharges into the superior pallial chamber along which the
excurrent stream passes. The coil of the intestine in Anodonta is.
similar to that of other Lamellibranchs. The rectum traverses the
pericardium, and has the ventricle of the heart wrapped, as it were,
around it. This is not an unusual arrangement in Lamellibranchs,
and a similar disposition occurs in some Gastropoda (Haliotis). A
pair of ducts (ai) lead from the first enlargement of the alimentary
tract called stemach into a pair of large digestive glands, the so-
called liver, the branches of which are closely packed in this region
(a/). The food of the Anodonta, as of other Lamellibranchs, consists
of microscopic animal and vegetable organisms, brought to the mouth
by the stream which sets into the sub-pallial chamber at the lower
siphonal notch (e in fig. i). Probably a straining of water from solid
particles is effected by the lattice-work of the ctenidia or gill-plates.
The heart of Anodonta consists of a median ventricle embracing the
rectum (fig. 18, A), and giving off an anterior and a posterior artery.
FIG. 18. — Diagrams showing the Relations of Pericardium and
Nephridia in a Lamellibranch such as Anodonta.
Pericardium opened dorsally
so as to expose the heart and
the floor of the pericardial
chamber d.
B, Heart removed and floor of
the pericardium cut away on
the left side so as to open the
non-glandular sac of the
nephridium, exposing the
glandular sac 6, which is also
cut into so as to show the
probe /.
C, Ideal pericardium and neph-
ridium viewed laterally.
D, Lateral view showing the
actual relation of the glandu-
lar and non-glandular sacs of
the nephridium. The arrows
indicate the course of fluid
a, Ventricle of the heart.
b, Auricle.
bb, Cut remnant of the auricle.
c, Dorsal wall of the pericardium
cut and reflected.
e, Reno-pericardial orifice.
/, Probe introduced into the left
reno-pericardial orifice.
g, Non-glandular sac of the left
nephridium.
h, Glandular sac of the left
nephridium.
i, Pore leading from the glandu-
lar into the non-glandular
sac of the left nephridium.
k, Pore leading from the non-
glandular sac to the exterior.
ac, Anterior.
ab, Posterior, cut remnants of the
intestine and ventricle.
from the pericardium out-
wards.
and of two auricles which open into the ventricle by orifices pro-
tected by valves.
The blood is colourless, and has colourless amoeboid corpuscles
floating in it. In Ceratisolen legumen, various species of ^4rcaand a
few other species the blood is crimson, owing to the presence of
corpuscles impregnated with haemoglobin. In Anodonta the blood
is driven by the ventricle through the arteries into vessel-like spaces,
which soon become irregular lacunae surrounding the viscera, but
in parts — e.g. the labial tentacles and walls of the gut — very fine
vessels with endothelial cell-lining are found. The blood makes its
way by large veins to a venous sinus which lies in the middle line
below the heart, having the paired renal organs (nephridia) placed
between it and that organ. Hence it passes through the vessels of
the glandular walls of the nephridia right and left into the gill-
lamellae, whence it returns through many openings into the widely-
stretched auricles. In the filaments of the gill of Protobranchia and
many Filibranchia the tubular cavity is divided by a more or less
complete fibrous septum into two channels, for an afferent and
efferent blood-current. The ventricle and auricles of Anodonta lie in a
pericardium which is clothed with a pavement endothelium (d, fig. 18).
LAMELLIBRANCHIA
119
It does not contain blood or communicate directly with the blocd-
system; this isolation of the pericardium we have noted already in
Gastropods and Cephalopods. A good case for the examination of
the question as to whether blood enters the pericardium of Lamelli-
branchs, or escapes from the foot, or by the renal organs when the
animal suddenly contracts, is furnished by the Ceratisolen legumen,
which has red blood-corpuscles. According to observations made by
Penrose on an uninjured Ceratisolen legumen, no red corpuscles are
to be seen in the pericardia!
space, although the heart is
filled with them, and no such
corpuscles are ever discharged
by the animal when it is
irritated.
The pair of renal organs of
Anodonta, called in Lamelli-
branchs the organs of Bojanus,
lie below the membranous floor
of the pericardium, and open
into it by two well-marked
apertures (e and / in fig. 18).
Each nephridium, after being
bent upon itself as shown in
fig. 18, C, D, opens to the
exterior by a pore placed at the
point marked x in fig. I (5) (6).
One half of each nephridium is
of a dark-green colour and
glandular (h in fig. 18). This
opens into the reflected portion
which overlies it as shown in
the diagram fig. 18, D, i; the
19. — Nerve-ganglia and latter has non-glandular walls,
of three Lamellibranchs. and opens by the pore k to the
(From Gegenbaur.)
A, Of Teredo.
B, Of Anodonta.
C, Of Pecten.
a, Cerebral ganglion-pair (=cere-
bro-pleuro-visccral).
b, Pedal ganglion-pair.
c, Olfactory (osphradial) ganglion-
pair.
FIG
Cords
exterior. The renal organs
may be more ramified in other
Lamellibranchs than they are
in Anodonta. In some they
are difficult to discover. That
of the common oyster was de-
scribed by Hoek. Each ne-
pliridium in the oyster is a
pyriform sac, which communi-
cates by a narrow canal with
the urino-genital groove placed to the front of the great ad-
ductor muscle; by a second narrow canal it communicates with the
pericardium. From all parts of the pyriform sac narrow stalk-like
tubes are given off, ending in abundant widely-spread branching
glandular caeca, which form the essential renal secreting apparatus.
The genital duct opens by a pore into the urino-genital groove of the
oyster (the same arrangement being repeated on each side of the body)
close to but distinct from the aperture of the nephridial canal.
Hence, except for the formation of a urino-genital groove, the aper-
tures are placed as they are in Anodonta. Previously to Hoek's
discovery a brown-coloured investment of the auricles of the heart of
the oyster had been supposed to represent the nephridia in a rudi-
mentary state. This investment, which occurs also in many Fili-
branchia, forms the pericardial glands, comparable to the pericardial
accessory glandular growths of Cephalopoda. In Unionidae and
several other forms the pericardial glands are extended into divcrti-
cula of the pericardium which penetrate the
mantle and constitute the organ of Heber.
The glands secrete hippuric acid which passes
from the pericardium into the renal organs.
Nervous System and Sense-Organs. — In
Anodonta there are three well-developed pairs
of nerve ganglia (fig. 19, B, and fig. I (6)).
An anterior pair, lying one on each side of
the mouth (fig. 19, B, a) and connected in
front of it by a commissure, are the repre-
sentatives of the cerebral and pleural ganglia
of the typical Mollusc, which are not here
differentiated as they are in Gastropods. A
pair placed close together in the foot (fig.
19, B, b, and fig. I (6), ax) are the typical
pedal ganglia ; they are joined to the cerebro-
pleural ganglia by connectives.
Posteriorly beneath the posterior adductors, and covered only by
a thin layer of elongated epidermal cells, are the visceral ganglia.
United with these ganglia on the outer sides are the osphradial
ganglia, above which the epithelium is modified to form a pair of
sense-organs, corresponding to the osphradia of other Molluscs. In
some Lamellibranchs the osphradial ganglia receive nerve-fibres, not
from the visceral ganglia, but from the cerebral ganglia along the
visceral commissure. Formerly the posterior pair of ganglia were
identified as simply the osphradial ganglia, and the anterior pair as
the cerebral, pleural and visceral ganglia united into a single pair.
But it has since been discovered that in the Protobranchia the
cerebral ganglia and the pleural are distinct, each giving origin to
its own connective which runs to the pedal ganglion. The cerebro-
e>
FIG. 20. — Otocyst
of Cyclas. (From
Gegenbaur.)
c, Capsule.
e, Ciliated cells lining
the same.
o, Otolith.
pedal and pleuro-pedal connectives, however, in these cases are only
separate in the initial parts of their course, and unite together for the
lower half of their length, or for nearly the whole length. Moreover,
in many forms, in which in the adult condition there is only a single
pair of anterior ganglia and a single pedal connective, a pleural
ganglion distinct from the cerebral has been recognized in the course
of development. There is, however, no evidence of the union of a
visceral pair with the cerebro-pleural.
The sense-organs of Anodonta other than the osphradia consist of
a pair of otocysts attached to the pedal ganglia (fig. I (6), ay). The
otocysts of Cyclas are peculiarly favourable for study on account of
the transparency of the small foot in which they lie, and may be taken
as typical of those of Lamellibranchs generally. The structure of
FIG. 21.— Pallial Eye of Spondylus. (From Hickson.)
a, Prae-corncal epithelium. /, Retinal nerve.
b, Cellular lens. g, Complementary nerve.
c, Retinal body. h, Epithelial cells filled with
d, Tapetum. pigment.
e, Pigment. k, Tentacle.
one is exhibited in fig. 20. A single otolith is present as in the veliger
embryos of Opisthobranchia. In Filibranchia and many Proto-
branchia the otocyst (or statocyst) contains numerous particles
(otocpnia). The organs are developed as invaginations of the epi-
dermis of the foot, and in the majority of the Protobranchia the
orifice of invagination remains open throughout life; this is also the
case in Mytilus including the common mussel.
Anodonta has no eyes of any sort, and the tentacles on the mantle
edge are limited to its posterior border. This deficiency is very usual
in the class; at the same time, many Lamellibranchs nave tentacles
on the edge of the mantle supplied by a pair of large well-developed
nerves, which are given off from the cerebro-pleural ganglion-pair,
A t~ B
FIG. 22. — Two Stages in the Development of Anodonta. (From
Balfour.) both figures represent the glochidium stage.
A, When free swimming, shows by, Byssus.
a.ad.Anterior adductor.
p.ad, Posterior adductor.
mt, Mantle-flap.
/, Foot.
br. Branchial filaments.
au.v, Otocyst.
the two dentigerous valves
widely open.
B, A later stage, after fixture to
the fin of a fish.
sh. Shell.
ad, Adductor muscle.
i, Teeth of the shell.
al, Alimentary canal.
and very frequently some of these tentacles have undergone a special
metamorphosis converting them into highly-organized eyes. Such
eyes on the mantle-edge are found in Pecten, Spondylus, Lima, Pinna,
Pectunculus, Modiola, Cardium, Tellina, Mactra, Venus, Solen,
Pholas and Galeomma. They are totally distinct from the cephalic
eyes of typical Mollusca, and have a different structure and historical
development. They have originated not as pits but as tentacles.
They agree with the dorsal eyes of Onciditim (Pulmonata) in the curi-
ous fact that the optic nerve penetrates the capsule of the eye and
passes in front of the retinal body (fig. 21), so that its fibres join the
anterior faces of the nerve-end cells as in Vertebrates, instead of
their posterior faces as in the cephalic eyes of Mollusca and Arthro-
poda; moreover, the lens is not a cuticular product but a cellular
structure, which, again, is a feature of agreement with the Vertebrate
120
LAMELLIBRANCHIA
eye. It must, however, be distinctly borne in mind that there is a
fundamental difference between the eye of Vertebrates and of all
other groups in the fact that in the Vertebrata the retinal body is
itself a part of the central nervous system, and not a separate
I pigmented epithelial fossa containing a cuticular lens. In the
Arcidae the pallial eyes are compound or faceted somewhat like those
of Arthropods.
Generative Organs. — The gonads of Anodonta are placed in distinct
male and female individuals. In some Lamellibranchs — for in-
stance, the European Oyster and the Pisidium pusillum — the sexes
are united in the same individual ; but here, as in most hermaphro-
dite animals, the two sexual elements are not ripe in the same
individual at the same moment. It has been conclusively shown
that the Ostrea edulis does not fertilize itself. The American Oyster
(O. virginiana) and the Portuguese
Oyster (O. angulata) have the sexes
separate, and fertilization is effected
in the open water after the dis-
charge of the ova and the sperma-
tozoa from the females and males
respectively. In the Ostrea edulis
fertilization of the eggs is effected
at the moment of their escape from
the uro- genital groove, or even
before, by means of spermatozoa
drawn into the sub-pallial chamber
by the incurrent ciliary stream, and
the embryos pass through the early
stages of development whilst en-
tangled between the gill-lamellae of
the female parent (fig. 23). In
Anodonta the eggs pass into the
space between the two lamellae of
the outer gill-plate, and are there
fertilized, and advance whilst still in
this position to the glochidium phase
of development (fig. 22). They may
be found here in thousands in the
summer and autumn months. The
gonads themselves are extremely
simple arborescent glands which
open to the exterior by two simple
ducts, one right and one left, continu-
ous with the tubular branches of the gonads.
Lamellibranchs there
FIG. 23. — Development of the Oyster. Ostrea edulis.
(Modified from Horst.)
A, Blastulastage(one-cell-layered
sac), with commencing in-
vagination of the wall of the
sac at bl, the blastopore.
B, Optical section of a somewhat
later stage, in which a
second invagination has be-
gun— namely, that of the
shell-gland sk.
bl, Blastopore.
en, Invaginatedendoderm(wallof
the future arch-enteron).
ec, Ectoderm.
C, Similar optical section at a
little later stage. The in-
vagination connected with
the blastopore is now more
contracted, d; and cells, me,
forming the mesoblast from
which the ccelom and muscu-
larand skeleto-trophic tissues
develop, are separated.
D, Similar section of a later stage.
The blastopore, bl, has
closed; the anus will sub-
sequently perforate the cor-
responding area. A new
aperture, m, the mouth, has
eaten its way into the in-
vaginated endodermal sac,
and the cells pushed in with
it constitute the stomodae-
um. The shell-gland, sk, is
flattened out, and a delicate
shell, s, appears on its sur-
face. The ciliated velar ring
is cut in the section, as
shown by the two projecting
cilia on the upper part of the
figure. The embryo is now
a Trochosphere.
E, Surface view of an embryo at
a period almost identical with
that of D.
F, Later embryo seen as a trans-
m, Mouth. [parent object.
ft, Foot.
a, Anus.
e, Intestine.
st, Stomach.
tp. Velar area of the prostomium.
The extent of the shell and
commencing upgrowth of the
mantle-skirt is indicated by
a line forming a curve from
a to F.
N.B. — In this development, as in that of Pisidium (fig. 25), no
part of the blastopore persists either as mouth or as anus, but the
aperture closes — the pedicle of invagination, or narrow neck of the
invaginated arch-enteron, becoming the intestine. The mouth and
the anus are formed as independent in-pushings, the mouth with
stomodaeum first, and the short anal proctodaeum much later.
This interpretation of the appearances is contrary to that of Horst,
from whom our drawings of the oyster's development are taken.
The account given by the American William K. Brooks differs greatly
as to matter of fact from that of Horst, and appears to be erroneous in
some respects.
modification of the epidermis — myelonic as opposed to epidermic.
The structure of the reputed eyes of several of the above-named
genera has not been carefully examined. In Pecten and Spondylus,
however, they have been fully studied (see fig. 21, and explanation).
Rudimentary cephalic eyes occur in the Mytilidae and in Avicula at
the base of the first filament of the inner gill, each consisting of a
FIG. 24. — Embryo of Pisid-
ium pusillum in the diblastula
stage, surface view (after Lan-
kester). The embryo has
increased in size by accumula-
tion of liquid between the
outer and the invaginated
cells. The blastopore has
closed.
In the most primitive
is no separate generative aperture but the
gonads discharge into the renal cavity, as in Patella among Gastro-
pods. This is the case in the Protobranchia, e.g. Solenomya, in which
the gonad opens into the reno-pericardial duct. But the generative
products do not pass through the whole length of the renal tube:
there is a direct opening from the pericardial end of the tube to the
distal end, and the ova or sperms pass through this. In Area, in
Anomiidae and in Pectinidae the gonad opens into the external part
of the renal tube. The next stage of modification is seen in Ostraea,
Cyclas and some Lucinidae, in which the generative and renal ducts
FIG. 25. — B, Same embryo as fig. 24, in optical median section,
showing the invaginated cells hy which form the arch-enteron, and
the mesoblastic cells me which are budded off from the surface of the
mass hy, and apply themselves to the inner surface of the epiblastic
cell-layer ep. C, The same embryo focused so as to show the meso-
blastic cells which immediately underlie the outer cell-layer.
open into a cloacal slit on the surface of the body. In Mytilus the
two apertures are on a common papijla, in other cases the two aper-
tures are as in Anodonta. The Anatinacea and Poromya among the
Septibranchia are, however, peculiar in having two genital apertures
on each side, one male and one female. These forms are hermaphro-
dite, with an ovary and testis completely separate from each other
on each side of the body, each having its own duct and aperture.
The development of Anodonta is remarkable for the curious larval
form known as glochidium (fig. 22). The glochidium quits the gill-
pouch of its parent and swims by alternate opening and shutting of
the vajves of its shell, as do adult Pecten and Lima, trailing at the
same time a long byssus thread. This byssus is not homologous with
LAMELLIBRANCHIA
121
that of other Lamellibranchs, but originates from a single glandular
epithelial cell embedded in the tissues on the dorsal anterior side of
the adductor muscle. By this it is brought into contact with the fin
of a fish, such as perch, stickleback or others, and effects a hold
thereon by means of the toothed edge of its shells. Here it becomes
encysted, and is nourished by the exudations of the fish. It remains
in this condition for a period of two to six weeks, and during this time
the permanent organs are developed from the cells of two sym-
metrical cavities behind the adductor muscle. The early larva of
Anodonta is not unlike the trochosphere of other Lamellibranchs, but
the mouth is wanting. The glochidium is formed by the precocious
development of the anterior adductor and the retardation of all the
other organs except the shell. Other Lamellibranchs exhibit either
a trochosphere larva which
becomes a veliger differing only
from the Gastropod's and
Pteropod's veliger in having
bilateral shell-calcifications in-
stead of a single central one;
or, like Anodonta, they may
develop within the gill-plates
of the mother, though without
presenting such a specialized
larva as the glochidium. An
example of the former is seen
in the development of the Euro-
pean oyster, to the figure of
which and its explanation the
reader is specially referred (fig.
23). An example of the latter
is seen in a common little fresh-
water bivalve, the Pisidium
pusillum, which has been studied
by Lankester. The gastrula is
formed in this case by invagina-
tion. The embryonic cells con-
tinue to divide, and form an
B
FlG.26. — Diagram of Embryo of
Pisidium. The unshaded area gives
the position of the shell-valve.
(After Lankester.)
m, Mouth.
Anus.
Foot.
Branchial filaments.
mn, Margin of the mantle-skirt.
B, Organ of Bojanus.
x,
f,
br,
oval vesicle containing liquid
(fig. 24) ; within this, at one
pole, is seen the mass of in-
vaginated cells (fig. 25, hy).
These invaginated cells are the
archenteron ; they proliferate and give off branching cells, which apply
themselves (fig. 25, C) to the inner face of the vesicle, thus forming
the mesoblast. The outer single layer of cells which constitutes the
surface of the vesicle is the ectoderm or epiblast. The little mass of
hypoblast or enteric cell-mass now enlarges, but remains connected
with the cicatrix of the blastopore or orifice of invagination by a
stalk, the rectal peduncle. The enteron itself becomes bilobed and
is joined by a new invagination, that of the mouth and stomodaeum.
The mesoblast multiplies its cells, which become partly muscular and
partly skeleto- trophic. Centro-dorsally now appears the em-
byronic shell-gland. The pharynx or stomodaeum is still small,
the foot not yet prominent. A later stage is seen in fig. 26, where
the pharynx is widely open and the foot prominent. No ciliated
al
An extraordinary modification of the veliger occurs in the de-
velopment of Nucula and Yoldia and probably other members of the
same families. After the formation of the gastrula by epibole the
larva becomes enclosed by an ectodermic test covering the whole of
the original surface of the body, including the shell-gland, and
leaving only a small opening at the posterior end in which the stomo-
daeum and proctodaeum are formed. In Yoldia and Nucula proximo.
the test consists of five rows of flattened cells, the three median rows
bearing circlets of long cilia. At the anterior end of the test is the
apical plate from the centre of which projects a long flagellum as in
many other Lamellibranch larvae. In Nucula delphinodonta the test
is uniformly covered with short cilia, and there is no flagellum.
When the larval development is completed the test is cast off, its
cells breaking apart and falling to pieces leaving the young animal
with a well-developed shell exposed and the internal organs in an
advanced state. The test is really a ciliated velum developed in the
normal position at the apical pole but reflected backwards in such
a way as to cover the original ectoderm except at the posterior end.
In Yoldia and Nucula proximo, the ova are set free in the water and
the test-larvae are free-swimming, but in Nucula delphinodonta
the female forms a thin-walled egg-case of mucus attached to the
posterior end of the shell and in communication with the pallia!
chamber; in this case the eggs develop and the test-larva is en-
closed. A similar modification of the velum occurs in Dentalium and
in Myzomenia among the Amphineura.
CLASSIFICATION OF LAMELLIBRANCHIA
The classification originally based on the structure of the
gills by P. Pelseneer included five orders, viz. : the Protobranchia
in which the gill-filaments are flattened and not reflected; the
Filibranchia in which the filaments are long and reflected, with
non- vascular junctions; the Pseudo-lamellibranchia in which
the gill-lamellae are vertically folded, the interfilamentar and
interlamellar junctions being vascular or non-vascular; the
Eulamellibranchia in which the interfilamentar and inter-
lamellar junctions are vascular; and lastly the Septibranchia
in which the gills are reduced to a horizontal paitition. The
Pseudolamellibranchia included the oyster, scallop and their
allies which formerly constituted the order Monomyaria, having
only a single large adductor muscle or in addition a very small
anterior adductor. The researches of W. G. Ridewood have
shown that in gill-structure the Pectinacea agree with the Fili-
branchia and the Ostraeacea with the Eulamellibranchia, and
accordingly the order Pseudolamellibranchia is now suppressed
and its members divided between the two other orders mentioned.
The four orders now retained exhibit successive stages in the
modification of the ctenidia by reflection and concrescence of
the filament, but other organs, such as the heart, adductors,
renal organs, may not show corresponding stages. On the
contrary considerable differences in these organs may
occur within any single order. The Protobranchia, how-
ever, possess several primitive characters besides that of
the branchiae. In them the foot has a flat ventral sur-
face used for creeping, as in Gastropods, the byssus gland
is but slightly developed, the pleural ganglia are distinct,
_ there is a relic of the pharyngeal cavity, in some forms
with a pair of glandular sacs, the gonads retain their
primitive connexion with the renal cavities, and the
otocysts are open.
After Drew, in Lankester's Treatise on Zoology. (A. & C. Black.) \
FIG. 27. — Surface view of a forty-five hour embryo of Yo{dia limatula.
a.c, Apical cilia, bl, Blastopore. x, Depression where the cells that form the
cerebral ganglia come to the surface.
velum or pre-oral (cephalic) lobe ever develops. The shell-gland
disappears, the mantle-skirt is raised as a ridge, the paired shell-
valves are secreted, the anus opens by a proctodaeal ingrowth into
the rectal peduncle, and the rudiments of the gills (br) and of the
renal organs (B) appear (fig. 26, lateral view), and thus the chief
organs and general form of the adult are acquired. Later changes
consist in the growth of the shell-valves over the whole area of the
mantle-flaps, and in the multiplication of the gill-filaments and their
consolidation to form gill-plates. It is important to note that the
gill-filaments are formed one by one posteriorly. The labial tentacles
are formed late. In the allied genus Cyclas, a byssus gland is formed
in the foot and subsequently disappears, but no such gland occurs in
Pisidium,
Order I. PROTOBRANCHIA
In addition to the characters given above, it may be
noted that the mantle is provided with a hypobranchial
gland on the outer side of each gill, the auricles are
muscular, the kidneys are glandular through their whgle
length, the sexes are separate.
Fam. i. Solenomyidae. — One row of branchial filaments is directed
dorsally, the other ventrally; the mantle has a long postero-
ventral suture and a single posterior aperture; the labial palps
of each side are fused together; shell elongate; hinge without
teeth; periostracum thick. Solenomya.
Fam. 2. Nuculidae. — Labial palps free, very broad, and provided
with a posterior appendage; branchial filaments transverse;
shell has an angular dorsal border; mantle open along its whole
border. Nucula. Acila. Pronucula.
Fam. 3. Ledidae. — Like the Nuculidae, but mantle has two
posterior sutures and two united siphons. Leda. Yoldia.
Malletia.
122
LAMELLIBRANCHIA
Fam. 4. Clenodontidae. — Extinct; Silurian.
The fossil group Palaeoconcha is connected with the Proto-
branchia through the Solenomyidae. It contains the following extinct
families.
Fam. I. Praecardiidae. — Shell equivalve with hinge dentition as in
Area. Praeeardium; Silurian and Devonian.
Fam. 2. Antipleuridae. — Shell inequivalve. Antipleura ; Silurian.
Fam. 3. Cardiolidae. — Shell equivalve and ventricose; hinge
without teeth. Cardiola ; Silurian and Devonian.
Fam. 4. Grammysiidae. — Shell thin, equivalve, oval or elongate;
hinge without teeth. Grammy sia ; Silurian and Devonian.
Protomya; Devonian. Cardiomorpha; Silurian to Carbon-
iferous.
Fam. 5. Vlastidae. — Shell very inequivalve; hinge without teeth.
Vlasta ; Silurian.
Fam. 6. Solenopsidae. — Shell equivalve, greatly elongated, um-
bones very far forward. Solenopsis ; Devonian to Trias.
Order II. FILIBRANCHIA
Gill-filament ventrally directed and reflected, connected by
ciliated junctions. Foot generally provided with a highly
developed byssogenous apparatus.
Sub-order I. — Anomiacea.
Very asymmetrical, with a single large posterior adductor. The
heart is not contained in the pericardium, lies dorsad of the rectum
and gives off a single aorta anteriorly. The reflected borders of the
inner gill-plates of either side are fused together in the middle line.
The gonads open into the kidneys and the right gonad extends into
the mantle. Shell thin; animal fixed.
Fam. I. Anomiidae. — Foot small; inferior (right) valve of adult
perforated to allow passage of the byssus. Anomia; byssus
large and calcified; British. Plncuna; byssus atrophied in
adult. Hypotrema. Carolia. Ephippium. Placunanomia.
Sub-order II. — Arcacea.
Symmetrical; mantle open throughout its extent; generally with
well developed anteiior and posterior adductors. The heart lies in
the pericardium and gives off two aortae. Gills without inter-
lamellar junctions. Renal and genital apertures separate.
Fam. I. Arcidae. — Borders of the mantle bear compound pallial
eyes. The labial palps are direct continuations of the lips.
Hinge pliodont, that is to say, it has numerous teeth on either
side of the umbones and the teeth are perpendicular to the edge.
Area; foot byssiferous; British. Pectunculus ; foot without
byssus; British. Scaphula; freshwater; India. Argina.
Bathyarca. Barbatia. Senilia. Anadara. Adacnarca.
Fam. 2. Parallelodontidae. — Shell as in Area, but the posterior
hinge teeth elongated and parallel to the cardinal border.
Cucullaea; recent and fossil from the Jurassic. All the other
genera are fossil: Parallelodon; Devonian to Tertiary. Car-
bonaria; Carboniferous, &c.
Fam. 3. Limopsidae. — Shell orbicular, hinge curved, ligament
longer transversely than antero-posteriorly ; foot elongate,
pointed anteriorly and posteriorly. Limopsis. Trinaeria;
Tertiary.
Fam. 4. Philobryidae. — Shell thin, vry inequilateral, anterior part
atrophied, umbones projecting. Philobrya.
Fam. 5. Cyrlodontidae. — Extinct; shell equivalve and inequi-
lateral, short, convex. Cyrtodonta; Silurian and Devonian.
Cypricardites, Silurian. Vanuxemia ; Silurian.
Fam. 6. Trigoniidae. — Shell thick; foot elongated, pointed in
front and behind, ventral border sharp; byssus absent. 7>z-
gonia; shell sub-triangular, umbones directed backwards.
This genus was very abundant in the Secondary epoch, especially
in Jurassic seas. There are six living species, all in Australian
seas. Living specimens were first discovered in 1827. Schiz-
odus; Permian. Myophoria; Trias.
Fam. 7. Lyrodesmidae. — Extinct; shell inequilateral, posterior
side shorter; hinge short, teeth in form of a fan. Lyrodesma;
Silurian. •
Sub-order III. — Mylilacea.
Symmetrical, the anterior adductor small or absent. Heart gives
off only an anterior aorta. Surface of gills smooth, gill-filaments all
similar, with interlamellar junctions. Gonads generally extend into
mantle and open at sides of kidneys. Foot linguiform and byssiferous.
Fam. I. Mytilidae. — Shell inequilateral, anterior end short;
hinge without teeth ; ligament external. Mantle has a posterior
suture. Cephalic eyes present. Mylilus; British. Modiola;
British. Lithodomus. Modiolaria; British. Crenella. Stavelia.
Daerydium. Myrina. Idas. Septifer.
Fam. 2. Modiolopsidae. — Extinct; Silurian to Cretaceous; ad-
ductor muscles sub-equal. Modiolopsis. — Modiomorpha. Myo-
concha.
Fam. 3. Pernidae. — Shell very inequilateral; ligament sub-
divided; mantle open throughout; anterior adductor absent.
Perna. Crenatula ; inhabits sponges. Bakewellia. Gervilleia ;
Trias to Eocene. Odontoperna; Trias. Inoceramus; Jurassic
to Cretaceous.
Sub-order IV. — Pectinaeea.
Monomyarian, with open mantle. Gills folded and the filaments
at summits and bases of the folds are different from the others.
Gonads contained in the visceral mass and generally open into renal
cavities. Foot usually rudimentary.
Fam. I. Vulsellidae. — Shell high; hinge toothless; foot without
byssus. Vulsella.
Fam. 2. Aviculidae. — Shell very inequilateral; cardinal border
straight with two auriculae, the posterior the longer. Foot with
a very stout byssus. Gills fused to the mantle. Avicula;
British. Meleagrina. Pearls are obtained from a species of this
genus in the Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean, &c. Malleus. Several
extinct genera.
Fam. 3. Prasinidae. — Shell inequilateral, with anterior umbones
and prominent anterior auricula; cardinal border arched.
Prasina.
Fam. 4. Pterineidae. — Extinct; Palaeozoic.
Fam. 5. Lunulicardiidae. — Extinct ; Silurian and Devonian.
Fam. 6. Conocardiidae. — Extinct ; Silurian to Carboniferous.
Fam. 7. A mbonyehiidae.— Extinct; Silurian and Devonian. The
last two families are dimyarian, with small anterior adductor.
Fam. 8. Myalinidae. — Extinct; Silurian to Cretaceous; ad-
ductors sub-equal.
Fam. 9. Amussiidae. — Shell orbicular, smooth externally with
radiating costae internally. Gills without interlamellar junc-
tions. Amussium.
Fam. 10. Spondylidae. — Shell very inequivalve, fixed by the right
valve which is the larger. No byssus. Spondylus; shell with
spiny ribs, adherent by the spines. Plicatula.
Fam. II. Pectinidae. — Shell with radiating ribs; dorsal border
with two auriculae. Foot byssiferous. Mantle borders with
welj developed eyes. Pecten; shell orbicular, with equal
auriculae; without a byssal sinus; British. Chlamys; an-
terior auricula the larger and with a byssal sinus; British.
Pedum, Hinnites. Pseudamussium. Camptonectes. Hyalo-
pecten; abyssal.
Sub-order V. — Dimyacea.
Dimyarian, with orbicular and almost equilateral sh'll; adherent;
hinge without teeth -and ligament internal. Gills with free non-
reflected filaments.
Fam. Dimyidae. — Characters of the sub-order. Dimya; recent
in abyssal depths and fossil since the Jurassic.
Order III. EULAMELLIBEANCHIA
Edges of the mantle generally united by one or two sutures.
Two adductors usually present. Branchial filaments united
by vascular interfilamentar junctions and vascular interlamellar
junctions; the latter contain the afferent vessels. The gonads
always have their own proper external apertures.
Sub-order I. — Ostraeacea.
Monomyarian or with a very small anterior adductor. Mantle
open ; foot rather small ; branchiae folded ; shell inequivalve.
Fam. I. Limidae. — Shell with auriculae. Foot digitiform, with
byssus. Borders of mantle with long and numerous tentacles.
Gills not united with mantle. Lima; members of this genus
form a nest by means of the byssus, or swim by clapping the
valves of the shell together. Limaea.
Fam. 2. Ostraeidae. — Foot much reduced and without byssus.
Heart usually on the ventral side of the rectum. Gills fused to
the mantle. Shell irregular, fixed in the young by the left and
larger valve. Ostraea: foot absent in the adult; edible and
cultivated ; some species, as the British O. edulis, are hermaphro-
dite.
Fam. 3. Eligmidae. — Extinct; Jurassic.
Fam. 4. Pinnidae. — Shell elongated, truncated and gaping
posteriorly. Dimyarian, with a very small anterior adductor.
Foot with byssus. Pinna; British. Cyrtopinna. Avictilo-
pinna; fossil, Carboniferous and Permian. Pinnigena; Jurassic
and Cretaceous. Atrina; fossil and recent, from Carboniferous
to present day.
Sub-order II. — Submytilacea.
Mantle only slightly closed ; usually there is only a single suture.
Siphons absent or very short. Gills smooth. Nearly always di-
myarian. Shell equivalve, with an external ligament.
Fam. I. Dreissensiidae. — Shell elongated; hinge without teeth;
summits of valves with an internal septum. Siphons short.
Dreissensia; lives in fresh water, but originated from the
Caspian Sea; introduced into England about 1824.
Fam. 2. Modiolareidae. — Foot with a plantar surface; the two
branchial plates serve as incubatory pouches. Modiolarca.
Fam. 3. Astartidae. — Shell concentrically striated; foot elongate,
without byssus. A starts; British. Woodia. Opts; Secondary.
Prosocoelus ; Devonian.
LAMELLIBRANCHIA
123
Fam. 4. Crassatellidae. — Shell thick, with concentric striae, liga-
ment external ; foot short. Crassalella. Cuna.
Fam. 5. Carditidae. — Shell thick, with radiating costae ; foot
carinated, often byssiferous. Cardita. Thecalia. Milneria.
Venericardia.
Fam. 6. Condylocardiidae. — Like Carditidae, but with an external
ligament. Condylocardia, Carditella. Carditopsis.
Fam. 7. Cyprinidae. — Mantle open in front, with two pallia!
sutures; external gill-plates smaller than the internal.
Cyprina; British. Cypricardia. Pleurophorus; Devonian to
Trias. A nisocardia ; Jurassic to Tertiary. Veniella; Cretace-
ous to Tertiary.
Fam. 8. Isocardiidae. — Mantle largely closed, pedal orifice small ;
gill-plates of equal size; shell globular, with prominent and
coiled umbones. Isocardia; British.
Fam. 9. Callocardiidae. — Siphons present ; external gill-plate
smaller than the internal; umbones not prominent. Callo-
cardia; abyssal.
Fam. 10. Lucinidae. — Labial pajps very small; gills without an
external plate. Lucina; British. Montacuta; British.
Cryptodon.
Fam. II. Corbidae. — Shell thick, with denticulated borders; anal
aperture with valve but no siphon; foot elongated and pointed.
Corbis. Gonodon; Trias and Jurassic. Mutiella; Upper
Cretaceous.
Fam. 12. Ungulinidae. — Foot greatly elongated, vermiform, end-
ing in a glandular enlargement. Ungulina. Diplodonta;
British. Axinus; British.
Fam. 13. Cyrenellidae. — Two elongated, united, non-retractile
siphons; freshwater. Cyrenella. Joanisiella.
Fam. 14. Tancrediidae. — Shell elongate, sub-triangular. Extinct.
Tancredia ; Trias to Cretaceous. Meekia ; Cretaceous.
Fam. 15. Unicardiidae. — Shell sub-orbicular, nearly equilateral,
with concentric striae. Extinct, Carboniferous to Cretaceous.
Unicardium. Scaldia. Pseudedmondia.
Fam. 1 6. Leptonidae. — Shell thin; no siphons; foot long and
byssiferous; marine; hermaphrodite and incubatory. Kellya;
British. Lepton; commensal with the Crustacean Gebia;
British. Erycina; Tertiary. Pythina. Scacchia. Sporlella.
Cyamium.
Fam. 17. Galeommidae. — Mantle reflected over shell; shell thin,
gaping; adductors much reduced. Galeomma; British.
Scintilla. Hindsiella. Ephippodonta; commensal with shrimp
Axius. The three following genera with an internal shell prob-
ably belong to this family : — Chlamydoconcha. Scioberetia ; com-
mensal with a Spatangid. Entovalva; parasitic in Synapta.
Fam. 1 8. Kellyellidae. — Shell ovoid; anal aperture with very
short siphon; foot elongated. Kellyella. Turlonia; British.
Allopagus; Eocene. Luletia; Eocene.
Fam. 19. Cyrenidae. — Two siphons, more or less united, with
papillose orifices; pallia! line
with a sinus; freshwater.
Cyrena. Corbicula. Batissa.
Velorita. Galatea. Fischeria.
Fam. 20. Cycladidae. — One siphon
or two free siphons with simple
orifices; pallial line simple; her-
maphrodite, embryos incubated
in external gill-plate; fresh-
water, Cyclas; British. Pisid-
ium ; British.
Fam. 21. Rangiidae. — Two short
siphons; shell with prominent
umbones and internal ligament.
Rangia; brackish water, Florida.
Fam. 22. Cardiniidae. — Shell elon-
gated, inequilateral. Extinct.
Cardinia; Trias and Jurassic.
Anthracosia; Carboniferous and
Permian. Anoplophora; Trias.
Pachycardia; Trias.
Fam. 23. Megalodpntidae. — Shell
inequilateral, thick; posterior
adductor impression on a myo-
phorous apophysis. Extinct.
Megalodon; Devonian to Jur-
assic. Pachyrisma; Trias and
Jurassic. Durga; ] urassic.
Dicerocardium; Jurassic.
Fam. 24. Unionidae. — Shell equi-
lateral; mantle with a single
pallial suture and no siphons;
freshwater; larva a glochidium. Unio; British. Anodonta;
British. Pseudodon. Quadrula. Arconaia. Monocondylea.
Solenaia. Mycetopus.
Fam. 25. Mutelidae. — Differs from Unionidae in having two
pallial sutures; freshwater. Mutela. Pliodon. Spatha.
Iridina. Hyria. Castalia. Aplodon. Plagiodon.
Fam. 26. Aetheriidae. — Shell irregular, generally fixed in the
adult; foot absent; freshwater. Aetheria. Mulleria. Bartlettia.
tr II-
/ f
FIG. 28. — Lateral view of a
Mactra, the right valve of the
shell and right mantle-flap
removed, and the siphons
retracted. (From Gegen-
baur.)
br, br' , Outer and inner gill-
plates.
/, Labial tentacle,
to, tr, Upper and lower
siphons
ms, Siphonal muscle of the
mantle-flap.
ma. Anterior adductor
muscle.
mp. Posterior adductor
muscle.
p, Foot.
Umbo.
Sub-order III. — Tellinacea.
Mantle not extensively closed ; two pallial sutures and two well-
developed siphons. Gills smooth. Foot compressed and elongated.
Labial palps very large. Dimyarian ; pallial line with a deep sinus.
Fam. I. Tellinidae. — External gill-plate directed upwards; siphons
separate and elongated; foot with byssus; palps very large;
ligament external. Tellina; British. Gastrana; British.
Capsa. Macpma.
Fam. 2. Scrobiculariidae. — External gill-plates directed upwards;
siphons separate and excessively long; foot without byssus.
Scrobicularia; estuarine; British. Syndosmya; British.
Cumingia.
Fam. 3. Donacidae. — External gill-plate directed ventrally ;
siphons separate, of moderate length, anal siphon the longer.
Donax; British. Iphigeneia.
Fam. 4. Mesodesmatidae. — External gill-plate directed ventrally ;
siphons separate and equal. Mesodesma. Emilia; British.
FIG. 29. — The same animal as fig. 28, with its foot and siphons
expanded. Letters as in fig. 28. (From Gegenbaur.)
Fam. 5. Cardiliidae. — Shell very high and short ; dimyarian ;
posterior adductor impression on a prominent apophysis.
Cardilia.
Fam. 6. Mactridae. — External gill-plate directed ventrally;
siphons united, invested by a chitinous sheath; foot long, bent
at an angle, without byssus. Mactra; British (figs. 28, 29).
Mulinia. Harvtlla. Raeta. Eastonia. Heterocardia. Van-
ganella.
Sub-order IV. — Veneracea.
Two pallial sutures, siphons somewhat elongated and partially or
wholly united. Gills slightly folded. A bulb on the posterior aorta.
Ligament external.
Fam. I. Veneridae. — Foot well developed; pallial sinus shallow or
absent. Venus; British. • Dosinia; British. Tapes; British.
Cyclina. Lucinopsis; British. Meretrix. Circe; British. Vene-
rupis.
Fam. 2. Petricolidae. — Boring forms with a reduced foot ; shell
elongated, with deep pallial sinus. Petricola. P. pholadiformis,
originally an inhabitant of the coast of the United States, has
been acclimatized for some years in the North Sea.
Fam. 3. Glaucomyidae. — Siphons very long and united; foot
small; shell thin, with deep pallial sinus; fresh or brackish
water. Glaucomya. Tanysiphon.
Sub-order V. — Cardiacea.
Two pallial sutures. Siphons generally short. Foot cylindrical,
more or less elongated, byssogenous. Gills much folded. Shell
equivalve, with radiating costae and external ligament.
Fam. I . Cardiidae. — Mantle slightly closed ; siphons very short,
surrounded by papillae which often bear eyes; foot very long,
geniculated; pallial line without sinus; two adductors, Cardium',
British. Pseudo-kellya. Byssocardium; Eocene. Lithocardium;
Eocene.
Fam. 2. Limnocardiidae. — Siphons very long, united throughout;
shell gaping; two adductors; brackish waters. Limnocardium;
Caspian Sea and fossil from the Tertiary. Archicardium;
Tertiary.
Fam. 3. Tridacnidae. — Mantle closed to a considerable extent;
apertures distant from each other; no siphons; a single ad-
ductor; shell thick. Tridacna. Hippopus.
Sub-order VI. — Chamacea.
Asymmetrical, inequivalve, fixed, with extensive pallial sutures;
no siphons. Two adductors. Foot reduced and without byssus.
Shell thick, without pallial sinus.
Fam. i. Chamidae. — Shell with sub-equal valves and prominent
umbones more or less spirally coiled ; ligament external.
Chama. Diceras; Jurassic. Requienia; Cretaceous. Mather-
onia; Cretaceous.
Fam. 2. Caprinidae. — Shell inequivalve ; fixed valve spiral or
conical; free valve coiled or spiral; Cretaceous. Caprina.
Caprotina. Caprintda, &c.
Fam. 3. Monopleuridae, — Shell very inequivalve; fixed valve
conical or spiral; free valve operculiform ; Cretaceous. Mono-
pleuron. Baylea. The two following families, together known
as Rudistae, are closely allied to the preceding; they are extinct
marine forms from Secondary deposits. They were fixed by the
124
LAMENNAIS
conical elongated right valve; the free left valve is not spiral,
and is furnished with prominent apophyses to which the
adductors were attached.
Fam. 4. Radiolitidae. — Shell conical or biconvex, without canals
in the external layer. Radiolites. Biradiolites.
Fam. 5. Hippurilidae. — Fixed valve long, cylindro-conical, with
three longitudinal furrows which correspond internally to two
pillars for support of the siphons. Hippurites. Arnaudia.
Sub-order VII. — Myacea.
Mantle closed to a considerable extent; siphons well developed;
gills much folded and frequently prolonged into the branchial siphon.
Foot compressed and generally byssiferous. Shell gaping, with a
pallial sinus.
Fam. i. Psammobiidae. — Siphons very long and quite separate;
foot large; shell oval, elongated, ligament external. Psam-
mobia; British. Sanguinolaria. Asaphis. Elizia. Soleno-
tettina.
Fam. 2. Myidae. — Siphons united for the greater part of their
length, and with a circlet of tentacles near their extremities;
foot reduced; shell gaping; ligament internal. Mya; British.
Sphenia; British. Tugonia. Platyodon. Cryptomya.
Fam. 3. Corbulidae. — Shell sub-trigonal, inequivalve; pallial
sinus shallow; siphons short, united, completely retractile;
foot large, pointed, often byssiferous. Corbulomya. Paramya.
Erodona and Himella are fluviatile forms from South America.
Fam. 4. Lutrariidae. — Mantle extensively closed; a fourth pallial
aperture behind the foot; siphons long and united; shell
elongated, a spoon-shaped projection for the ligament on each
valve. Lutraria; British. Tresus. Standella.
Fam. 5. Solenidae. — Elongated burrowing forms; foot cylindrical,
powerful, without byssus; shell long, truncated and gaping at
each end. Solenocurtus ; British. Tagelus; estuarine. Cerati-
solen; British. Cultellus; British. Siliqua. Solen; British.
Ensis; British.
Fam. 6. Saxicavidae. — Mantle extensively closed, with a small
pedal orifice; siphons long, united, covered by a chitinous
sheath; gills prolonged into the branchial siphon; foot small;
shell gaping. Saxicaya; British. Glycimeris. Cyrtodaria.
Fam 7. Gastrochaenidae. — Shell thin, gaping widely at the
posterior end; anterior adductor much reduced; mantle ex-
tensively closed; siphons long, united. Gaslrochaena; British.
Fistulana.
Sub-order VIII. — Adesmacea.
Ligament wanting; shell gaping, with a styloid appphysis in
the umbonal cavities. Gills prolonged into the branchial siphon.
Mantle largely closed, siphons long, united. Foot short, truncated,
discoid, without byssus.
Fam. I. Pholadidae. — Shell containing all the organs; heart
traversed by the rectum; two aortae. Shell with a pallial
sinus; dorsal region protected by accessory plates. Pholas;
British. Pholadidea; British. Jouannetia. Xylophaga;
British. Martesia.
Fam. 2. Teredinidae. — Shell globular, covering only a small
portion of the vermiform body; heart on ventral side of
rectum; a single aorta; siphons long, united and furnished
with two posterior calcareous " pallets." Teredo; British.
Xylotrya.
Sub-order IX. — Anatinacea.
Hermaphrodite, the ovaries and testes distinct, with separate
apertures. Foot rather small. Mantle frequently presents a fourth
orifice. External gill-plate directed dorsally and without reflected
lamella. Hinge without teeth.
Fam. i. Thracidae. — Mantle with a fourth aperture; siphons
long, quite separate, completely retractile and invertible.
Thracia; British. Asthenothaerus.
Fam. 2. Periplomidae. — Siphons separate, naked, completely re-
tractile but not invertible. Periploma. Cochlodesma. Tyleria.
Fam. 3. Anatinidae. — Siphons long, united, covered by a chitinous
sheath, not completely retractile. Anatina. Plectomya;
Jurassic and Cretaceous.
Fam. 4. Pholadomyidae. — Mantle with fourth aperture; siphons
very long, completely united, naked, incompletely retractile;
foot small, with posterior appendage. Pholadomya.
Fam. 5. Arcomyidae. — Extinct; Secondary and Tertiary. Arco-
mya. Goniomya.
Fam. 6. Pholadellidae. — Extinct ; Palaeozoic. Pholadella. Phy-
timya. Allorisma.
Fam. 7. Pkuromyidae. — Extinct; Secondary. Pleuromya. Gres-
slya. Ceromya.
Fam. 8. Pandoridae. — Shell thin, inequivalve, free; ligament
internal; siphons very short. Pandora; British. Coelodon.
Clidiophora.
Fam. p. Myochamidae. — Shell very inequivalve, solid, with a
pallial sinus; siphons short; foot small. Myochama. Myodora.
Fam. 10. Chamostraeidae. — A fourth pallial aperture present;
pedal aperture small; siphons very short and separate; shell
fixed by the right valve, irregular. Chamostraea.
Fam. II. ClavageUidae.— Pedal aperture very small, foot rudi-
mentary; valves continued backwards into a calcareous tube
secreted by the siphons. Clavagella. Brechites (Aspergillum).
Fam. 12. Lyonsiidae. — Foot byssiferous; siphons short, in-
vertible. Lyonsia; British. Entodesma. Mytilimeria.
Fam. 13. Verticordiidae. — Siphons short, gills papillose; foot
small; shell globular. Many species abyssal. Verticordia.
Euciroa. Lyonsiella. Halicardia.
Order IV. SEPTIBRANCHIA
Gills have lost their respiratory function, and are transformed
into a muscular septum on each side between mantle and foot.
All marine, live at considerable depths, and are carnivorous.
Fam. i. Poromyidae. — Siphons short and separate; branchial
siphon with a large valve; branchial septum bears two groups
of orifices on either side; hermaphrodite. Poromya; British.
Dermatomya. Liopistha; Cretaceous.
Fam. 2. Cetoconchidae. — Branchial septum with three groups of
orifices on each side; siphons short, separate, branchial siphon
with a valve. Cetoconcha (Silenia).
Fam. 3. Cuspidariidae. — Branchial septum with four or five pairs
of very narrow symmetrical orifices; siphons long, united, their
extremities surrounded by tentacles; sexes separate. Cuspi-
daria; British.
AUTHORITIES. — T. Barrois, " Le Stylet crystallin des Lamelli-
branches," Revue biol. Nord France, i. (1890); Jameson, "On the
Origin of Pearls," Proc. Zool. Soc. (London, 1902); R. H. Peck,
" The Minute Structure of the Gills of Lamellibranch Mollusca,"
Quart. Journ. Micr. Set. xvii. (1877); W. G. Ridewood, "On the
Structure of the Gills of the Lamellibranchia," Phil. Trans. B. cxcv.
(I9O3); K- Mitsukuri, " On the Structure and Significance of some
aberrant forms of Lamellibranchiate Gills," Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.
xxi. (1881); A. H. Cooke, " Molluscs," Cambridge Natural History,
vol. iii.; Paul Pelseneer, " Mollusca," Treatise on Zoology, edited by
E. Ray Lankester, pt. v. (E. R. L.; J. T. C.)
LAMENNAIS, HUGUES F1JLICIT6 ROBERT DE (1782-1854),
French priest, and philosophical and political writer, was born
at Saint Malo, in Brittany, on the igth of June 1782. He was
the son of a shipowner of Saint Malo ennobled by Louis XVI.
for public services, and was intended by his father to follow
mercantile pursuits. He spent long hours in the library of an
uncle, devouring the writings of Rousseau, Pascal and others.
He thereby acquired a vast and varied, though superficial,
erudition, which determined his subsequent career. Of a sickly
and sensitive nature, and impressed by the horrors of the French
Revolution, his mind was early seized with a morbid view of
life, and this temper characterized him throughout all his changes
of opinion and circumstance. He was at first inclined towards
rationalistic views, but partly through the influence of his .
brother Jean Marie (1775-1861), partly as a result of his philo-
sophical and historical studies, he felt belief to be indispensable
to action and saw in religion the most powerful leaven of the
community. He gave utterance to these convictions in the
Reflexions sur I'etat de I'eglise en France pendant le j8itm' siecle
et sur so, situation actuelle, published anonymously in Paris in
1808. Napoleon's police seized the book as dangerously ideo-
logical, with its eager recommendation of religious revival and
active clerical organization, but it awoke the ultramontane
spirit which has since played so great a part in the politics of
churches and of states.
As a rest from political strife, Lamennais devoted most of
the following year to a translation, in exquisite French, of the
Speculum Monachorum of Ludovicus Blosius (Louis de Blois)
which he entitled Le Guide spirituel (1809). In 1811 he received
the tonsure and shortly afterwards became professor of mathe-
matics in an ecclesiastical college founded by his brother at Saint
Malo. Soon after Napoleon had concluded the Concordat with
Pius VII. he published, in conjunction with his brother, De la
tradition de I'eglise sur I' institution des eveques (1814), a writing
occasioned by the emperor's nomination of Cardinal Maury to
the archbishopric of Paris, in which he strongly condemned
the Gallican principle which allowed bishops to be created
irrespective of the pope's sanction. He was in Paris at the first
Bourbon restoration in 1814, which he hailed with satisfaction,
less as a monarchist than as a strenuous apostle of religious
regeneration. Dreading the Cent Jours, he escaped to London,
where he obtained a meagre livelihood by giving French lessons
in a school founded by the abbe Jules Carron for French 6migres;
LAMENNAIS
125
he also became tutor at the house of Lady Jerningham, whose
first impression of him as an imbecile changed into friendship.
On the final overthrow of Napoleon in 1815 he returned to Paris,
and in the following year, with many misgivings as to his calling,
he yielded to his brother's and Carron's advice, and was ordained
priest by the bishop of Rennes.
The first volume of his great work, Essai sur V indifference
en matiere de religion, appeared in 1817 (Eng. trans, by Lord
Stanley of Alderley, London, i8g8), and affected Europe like
a spell, investing, in the words of Lacordaire, a humble priest
with all the authority once enjoyed by Bossuet. Lamennais
denounced toleration, and advocated a Catholic restoration
to belief. The right of private judgment, introduced by Descartes
and Leibnitz into philosophy and science, by Luther into
religion and by Rousseau and the Encyclopaedists into politics
and society, had, he contended, terminated in practical atheism
and spiritual death. Ecclesiastical authority, founded on the
absolute revelation delivered to the Jewish people, but supported
by the universal tradition of all nations, he proclaimed to be
the sole hope of regenerating the European communities. Three
more volumes (Paris, 1818-1824) followed, and met with a mixed
reception from the Gallican bishops and monarchists, but with
the enthusiastic adhesion of the younger clergy. The work
was examined by three Roman theologians, and received the
formal approval of Leo XII. Lamennais visited Rome at the
pope's request, and was offered a place in the Sacred College,
which he refused. On his return to France he took a prominent
part in political work, and together with Chateaubriand, the
vicomte de Villele, was a regular contributor to the Conservateur,
but when Villele became the chief of the supporters of absolute
monarchy, Lamennais withdrew his support and started two
rival organs, Le Drapeau blanc and Le Memorial catholique.
Various other minor works, together with De la religion considfree
dans ses rapports avec I'ordre civil el polilique (2 vols., 1825-
1826), kept his name before the public.
He retired to La Chfinaie and gathered round him a host of
brilliant disciples, including C. de Montalembert, Lacordaire
and Maurice de Guerin, his object being to form an organized
body of opinion to persuade the French clergy and laity to throw
off the yoke of the state connexion. With Rome at his back,
as he thought, he adopted a frank and bold attitude in denouncing
the liberties of the Gallican church. His health broke down
and he went to the Pyrenees to recruit. On his return to La
Che'naie in 1827 he had another dangerous illness, which power-
fully impressed him with the thought that he had only been
dragged back to life to be the instrument of Providence. Les
Progres de la revolution et de la guerre conlre I'eglise (1828) marked
Lamennais's complete renunciation of royalist principles, and
henceforward he dreamt of the advent of a theocratic democracy.
To give effect to these views he founded L'Avenir, the first number
of which appeared on the i6th of October 1830, with the motto
" God and Liberty." From the first the paper was aggressively
democratic; it demanded rights of local administration, an
enlarged suffrage, universal freedom of conscience, freedom of
instruction, of meeting, and of the press. Methods of worship
were to be criticized, improved or abolished in absolute sub-
mission to the spiritual, not to the temporal authority. With
the help of Montalembert, he founded the Agence generale pour
la defense de la liberte religieuse, which became a far-reaching
organization, it had agents all over the land who noted any
violations of religious freedom and reported them to head-
quarters. As a result, L'Avenir's career was stormy, and the
opposition of the Conservative bishops checked its circulation;
Lamennais, Montalembert and Lacordaire resolved to suspend
it for a while, and they set out to Rome in November 1831
to obtain the approval of Gregory XVI. The " pilgrims of
liberty " were, after much opposition, received in audience by
the pope, but only on the condition that the object which brought
them to Rome should not be mentioned. This was a bitter
disappointment to such earnest ultramontanes, who received,
a few days after the audience, a letter from Cardinal Pacca,
advising their departure from Rome and suggesting that the
Holy See, whilst admitting the justice of their intentions, would
like the matter left open for the present. Lacordaire and Montal-
embert obeyed; Lamennais, however, remained in Rome, but
his last hope vanished with the issue of Gregory's letter to the
Polish bishops, in which the Polish patriots were reproved and
the tsar was affirmed to be their lawful sovereign. He then
" shook the dust of Rome from off his feet." At Munich,
in 1832, he received the encyclical Mirari iios, condemning his
policy; as a result L'Avenir ceased and the Agence was dissolved.
Lamennais, with his two lieutenants, submitted, and deeply
wounded, retired to La Chenaie. His genius and prophetic
insight had turned the entire Catholic church against him, and
those for whom he had fought so long were the fiercest of his
opponents. The famous Paroles d'un croyant, published in 1834
through the intermediary of Sainte-Beuve, marks Lamennais's
severance from the church. " A book, small in size, but immense
in its perversity," was Gregory's criticism in a new encyclical'
letter. A tractate of aphorisms, it has the vigour of a Hebrew
prophecy and contains the choicest gems of poetic feeling lost
in a whirlwind of exaggerations and distorted views of kings and
rulers. The work had an extraordinary circulation and was
translated into many European languages. It is now forgotten
as a whole, but the beautiful appeals to love and human brother-
hood are still reprinted in every hand-book of French literature.
Henceforth Lamennais was the apostle of the people alone.
Les Affaires de Rome, des maux de I'eglise et de la societe (1837)
came from old habit of religious discussions rather than from his
real mind of 1837, or at most it was but a last word. Le Lime
du peuple (1837), De I'esclavage moderne (1839), Politique a
I' usage du peuple (1839), three volumes of articles from the
journal of the extreme democracy, Le Monde, are titles of works
which show that he had arrived among the missionaries of
liberty, equality and fraternity, and he soon got a share of their
martyrdom. Le Pays et le gouvernement (1840) caused him a
year's imprisonment. He struggled through difficulties of lost
friendships, limited means and personal illnesses, faithful to
the last to his hardly won dogma of the sovereignty of the people,
and, to judge by his contribution to Louis Blanc's Revue du
progres was ready for something like communism. He was
named president of the " Societe de la solidarite republicaine,"
which counted half a million adherents in fifteen days. The
Revolution of 1848 had his sympathies, and he started Le
Peuple constiluant; however, he was compelled to stop it on
the loth of July, complaining that silence was for the poor,
but again he was at the head of La Revolution democratique
et sociale, which also succumbed. In the constituent assembly
he sat on the left till the coupe d'ttal of Napoleon III. in 1851
put an end to all hopes of popular freedom. While deputy he
drew up a constitution, but it was rejected as too radical. There-
after a translation of Dante chiefly occupied him till his death,
which took place in Paris on the 27th of February 1854. He
refused to be reconciled to the church, and was buried according
to his own directions at Pere La Chaise without funeral rites,
being mourned by a countless concourse of democratic and
literary admirers.
During the most difficult time of his republican period he
found solace for his intellect in the composition of Une voix
de prison, written during his imprisonment in a similar strain
to Les paroles d'un croyant. This is an interesting contribution
to the literature of captivity; it was published in Paris in 1846.
He also wrote Esquisse de philosophie (1840). Of the four
volumes of this work the third, which is an exposition of art
as a development from the aspirations and necessities of the
temple, stands pre-eminent, and remains the best evidence of
his thinking power and brilliant style.
There are two so-called (Euvres completes de Lamennais, the first in
10 volumes (Paris, 1836-1837), and the other in 10 volumes (Paris,
1844) ; both these are very incomplete and only contain the works
mentioned above. The most noteworthy of his writings subse-
quently published are: Amschaspands et Darvands (1843), Le Deuil
de la Pologne (1846), Melanges philosophiques et politiques (1856),
Les £vangiles (1846) and La Divine Comedie, these latter being trans-
lations of the Gospels and of Dante.
126
LAMENTATIONS
Part of his voluminous correspondence has also appeared. The
most interesting volumes are the following : Correspondance de F. de
Lamennais, edited by E. D. Forgues (2 vols., 1855-1858) , (Euvres
inedites de F. Lamennais, edited by Ange Blaize (2 vols., 1866);
Correspondance inedite entre Lamennais et le baron de Vitrolles, edited
by E. D. Forgues (1819-1853); Confidences de Lamennais, lettres
inedites de 1821 a 1848, edited by A. du Bois de la Villerabel (1886) :
Lamennais d'apres des documents inedits, by Alfred Roussel (Rennes.
2 vols., 1892) ; Lamennais intime, d'apres une Correspondance inedite.
by A. Roussel (Rennes, 1897); Un Lamennais inconnu, edited by A.
Laveille (1898); Lettres de Lamennais a Montalembert, edited by
E. D. Forgues (1898); and many other letters published in the
Revue bleue, Revue britannique. &c.
A list of lives or studies on Lamennais would fill several columns.
The following may be mentioned. A Blaize, Essai biographique sur
M. de Lamennais (1858); E. D. Forgues, Notes et souvenirs (1859);
F. Brunetiere, Nouveaux essais sur la litterature contemporaine (1893) ;
E. Faguet, Poliliques et moralistes, ii. (1898) ; P. Janet, La Philosophie
de Lamennais (1890); P. Mercier, S.J., Lamennais d'apres sa
Correspondance et les travaux les plus recents (1893); A. Mollien et
F. Duine, Lamennais, sa vie et ses idees; Pages choisies (Lyons.
1898) ; The Hon. W. Gibson, The Abbe de Lammenais and the Liberal
Catholic Movement in France (London, l8g6);E. Renan Essais de
morale et de critique (1857) ; E. Scherer, Melanges de critique religieuse
(1859); G. E. Spuller, Lamennais, etude d'histoire et de politique
religieuse (1892); Mgr. Ricard, L'ecole menaisienne (1882), and
Sainte-Beuve, Portraits conter,;porains, tome i. (1832), and Nouveaux
Lundis, tome i. p. 22 ; tome xi. p. 347.
LAMENTATIONS (Lamentations of Jeremiah), a book of the
Old Testament. In Hebrew MSS. and editions this little collec-
tion of liturgical poems is entitled IWK Ah howi, the first
word of ch. i. (and chs. ii., iv.); cf. the books of the Pentateuch,
and the Babylonian Epic of Creation (a far older example).
In the Septuagint it is called Qfrijvoi, " Funeral-songs " or
" Dirges," the usual rendering of Heb. mrp (Am. v. i; Jer.
vii. 29; 2 Sam. i. 17), which is, in fact, the name in the Talmud
(Baba Bathra 150) and other Jewish writings; and it was known
as such to the Fathers (Jerome, Cinoth). The Septuagint (B)
introduces the book thus: " And it came to pass, after Israel
was taken captive and Jerusalem laid waste, Jeremiah sat
weeping, and lamented with this lamentation over Jerusalem,
and said . . .," a notice which may have related originally
to the first poem only. Some Septuagint MSS., and the Syriac
and other versions, have the fuller title Lamentations of Jeremiah.
In the Hebrew Bible Lamentations is placed among the Cetubim
or Hagiographa, usually as the middle book of the five Megilloth
or Ferial Rolls (Canticles, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes,
Esther) according to the order of the days on which they are
read in the Synagogue, Lamentations being read on the pth of
Ab (6th of August), when the destruction of the Temple is
commemorated (Mass. Sopherim 18). But the Septuagint
appends the book to Jeremiah (Baruch intervening), just as
it adds Ruth to Judges \. thus making the number of the books
of the Hebrew Canon the same as that of the letters of the Hebrew
alphabet, viz. twenty-two (so Jos. c. Ap. i. 8), instead of the
Synagogal twenty-four (see Baba Bathra 146).
External features and poetical structure. — These poems exhibit
a peculiar metre, the so-called " limping verse," of which Am.
v. 2 is a good instance:
" She is fallen, to rise no more —
Maid Israel !
Left lorn upon her land —
none raising her ! "
A longer line, with three accented syllables, is followed by a
shorter with two. Chs. i.-iii. consist of stanzas of three such
couplets each; chs. iv. and v. of two like Am. v. 2. This metre
came in time to be distinctive of elegy. The text of Lamenta-
tions, however, so often deviates from it, that we can only
affirm the tendency of the poet to cast his couplets into this
type (Driver). Some anomalies, both of metre and of sense,
may be removed by judicious emendation; and many lines
become smooth enough, if we assume a crasis of open vowels
of the same class, or a diphthongal pronunciation of others, or
contraction or silence of certain suffixes as in Syriac. The oldest
elegiac utterances are not couched in this metre; e.g. David's
(2 Sam. iii. 33 f. Abner; ib. i. 19-27 Saul and Jonathan). Yet the
refrain of the latter, ' Eik naf 'lu gibbortm, " Ah how are heroes
fallen ! " agrees with our longer line. The remote ancestor of
this Hebrew metre may be recognized in the Babylonian epic
of Gilgamesh, written at least a thousand years earlier: —
Ea-bdni ibri kufdni \ Nimru sha c.eri.
" Eabani, my friend, my little brother ! | Leopard of the Wild!"
and again: —
Kiki luskul Kiki luqul-ma
Ibrt shd ardmmu \ Itemi titfish
" How shall I be dumb ? How shall I bewail ?
The friend whom I love | Is turned to clay ! "
Like a few of the Psalms, Lamentations i.-iv. are alphabetical
acrostics. Each poem contains twenty-two stanzas, correspond-
ing to the twenty-two letters of the Hebrew alphabet; and each
stanza begins with its proper letter. (In ch. iii. each of the three
couplets in a stanza begins with the same letter, so that the
alphabet is repeated thrice: cf. Psalm cxix. for an eight-fold
repetition.) The alphabet of Lamentations ii. iii. iv. varies from
the usual order of the letters by placing Pe before Ain. The
same was doubtless the case in ch. i. also until some scribe
altered it. He went no further, because the sen«e forbade it
in the other instances. The variation may have been one of
local use, either in Judea or in Babylonia; or the author may
have had some fanciful reason for the transposition, such as,
for example, that Pe following Samech (BD) might suggest the
word nso, "Wail ye!" (2 Sam. iii. 31). Although the oldest
Hebrew elegies are not alphabetic acrostics, it is a curious fact
that the word IJTH, " Was he a coward? " (Sc. tel? ; Is. vii. 4),
is formed by the initial letters of the four lines on Abner (om.
1, line 3); and the initials of the verses of David's great elegy
are NSK rron K.I, which may be read as a sentence meaning,
perhaps, " Lo, I the Avenger" (cf. Deut. xxxii. 41, 43) "will
go forth! "; or the first two letters (Vn) may stand for "Tin 'in,
" Alas, my brother! " (Jer. xxii. 18; cf. xxxiv. 5). In cryptic
fashion the poet thus registers a vow of vengeance on the
Philistines. Both kinds of acrostic occur side by side in the
Psalms. Psalm ex., an acrostic of the same kind as David's
elegy, is followed by Psalms cxi. cxii., which are alphabetical
acrostics, like the Lamentations. Such artifices are not in them-
selves greater clogs on poetic expression than the excessive
alliteration of old Saxon verse or the strict rhymes of modern
lyrics. (Alliteration, both initial and internal, is common in
Lamentations.)
As the final piece, ch. v. may have suffered more in transmission
than those which precede it — even to the extent of losing the
acrostic form (like some of the Psalms and Nahum i.), besides
half of its stanzas. If we divide the chapter into quatrains,
like ch. iv., we notice several vestiges of an acrostic. The Aleph
stanza (verses 7, 8) still precedes the Beth (verses 9, 10), and the
Ain is still quite clear (verses 17, 18; cf. i. 16). Transposing
verses 5, 6, and correcting their text, we see that the Jod stanza
(verses 3, 4) precedes the Lamed (verses 6, 5), Caph having
disappeared between them. With this clue, we may rearrange
the other quatrains in alphabetical sequence, each according
to its initial letter. We thus get a broken series of eleven stanzas,
beginning with the letters x (verses 7, 8), 3 (9, 10), a (21, 22),
i (19, cf. Psalm cii. 13; and 20),' 1 (i, 2), n (13, cnin; 14),
1 (3, 4), ^ (6, onxS; 5, rrsDn . . . Sir), 3 (ii, 12), y (17, 18),
and a (15, 16), successively. An internal connexion will now
be apparent in all the stanzas.
General subject and outline of contents. — The theme of Lamenta-
tions is the final siege and fall of Jerusalem (586 B.C.), and the
attendant and subsequent miseries of the Jewish people.
In ch. i. we have a vivid picture of the distress of Zion, after
all is over. The poet does not describe the events of the siege,
nor the horrors of the capture, but the painful experience of
subjection and tyranny which followed. Neither this nor ch.
ii. is strictly a " dirge." Zion is not dead. She is personified
as a widowed princess, bereaved and desolate, sitting amid
the ruins of her former joys, and brooding over her calamities.
From verse nc to the end (except verse 17) she herself is the
speaker: —
" O come, ye travellers all !
Behold and see
If grief there be like mine ! "
LAMENTATIONS
127
She images her sorrows under a variety of metaphors (cf. ch.
iii. 1-18); ascribing all her woes to Yahweh's righteous wrath,
provoked by her sins, and crying for vengeance on the malicious
rivals who had rejoiced at her overthrow.
The text has suffered much. Verse $c read: '2^3 (v. 18), " into
captivity," O'l* (v. 7), " adversaries." For verse 7, see Budde, V.
14: ipai, read "»??:, " was bound." Verse igc read: wpa '3
ima S!T\ esi a-BM1? 73N " For they s -ught food to restore
life, and found it not:" cf. Septuagint; and verses u, 16.
Verse 20: the incongruous 'n"io no 'D, " For I grievously re-
belled," should be 'Dm naai, "My inwards burn"; Hos. xi.
8. Verses 21 f. : "All my foes heard, rejoiced That IT" (cf.
Psalm ix. 13), "Thou didst. Bring Thou" (TIN ion), "the
Day Thou hast proclaimed; Let them become like me! Let the
time " (i"iy; see Septuagint) " of their calamity come! "
Chapter ii. — "Ah how in wrath the Lord | Beclouds Bath-
Sion! " The poet laments Yahweh's anger as the true
cause which destroyed city and kingdom, suspended feast
and Sabbath, rejected altar and sanctuary. He mentions
the uproar of the victors in the Temple; the dismantling
of the walls; the exile of king and princes (verses 1-9).
He recalls the mourning in the doomed city; the children
dying of hunger in the streets; the prophets deluding the
people with vain hopes. Passers-by jeered at the fallen city;
and all her enemies triumphed over her (verses 10-17). Sion
is urged to cry to the Lord in protest against His pitiless work
(verses 18-22).
Here too emendation is necessary. Verse 40: urn rx.t, " He
fixed His arrow," sc. on the string (Septuagint, tirtpiiaatv) •
cf. Psalm xi. 2. Add at the end >s« (n.\) ,-^j, " He spent His
anger:" see iv. n; Ezek. vii. 8, xx. 8, 21. Verse 6:
UDB'D -m ps-i, " And He broke down the wall of His dwelling-
place " (Septuagint TO (TKi^Aia aiiTju; cf. PsaLn Ixxxiv. 7/., where
ivo follows, as here). Is. v. 5; Psalms Ixxx. 13, Ixxxix. 41.
Perhaps DI.VI, verses 2, 17. But Septuagint nal &i*ir(Tin(v =
Bnm (i. 13, 17) =013-1 (iv. 4) or even ps i. Verse 9, perhaps:
" He sunk (y?o) her gates in the ground, — He shattered her
bars; He made her king and her princes wander (I?N, Jer. xxiii.
l) — Among the nations without Torah " (cf. Ezek. vii. 26 f.).
Verse 18: " Cry much " (n-n; or bitterly, "c, Zeph. i. 14) " unto
the Lord, O Virgin Daughter of Zion! " Verse 19 is metrically
redundant, and the last clauses do not agree with what follows.
" For the life of thy children " was altered from " for what He
hath done to thee " (iS ^lyj? ^ •) ; and then the rest was added.
The uniform gloom of this, the most dirge-like of all the pieces, is
unrelieved by a single ray of hope, even the hope of vengeance; cf.
chapters i. iii. iv. ad fin.
Chapter iii. — Here the nation is personified as a man (cf.
Hos. xi. i), who laments his own calamities. In view of i.
12-22, ii. 20-22, this is hardly a serious deviation from the
strict form of elegy (Klagclicd). Budde makes much of " the
close external connexion with ch. ii." The truth is that the break
is as great as between any two of these poems. Chapter ii.
ends with a mother's lament over her slaughtered children;
chapter iii. makes an entirely new beginning, with its abruptly
independent " I am the Man! " The suppression of the Divine
Name is intentional. Israel durst not breathe it, until compelled
by ihe climax, verse 18: cf. Am. vi. 10. Contrast its frequency
afterwards, when ground of hope is found in the Divine pity
and purpose (verses 22-40), and when the contrite nation turns
toils God in prayer (verses 55-66). The spiritual aspect of things
is now the main topic. The poet deals less with incident, and
more with the moral significance of the nation's sufferings. It
is the religious culmination of the book. His poem is rather
lyrical than narrative, which may account for some obscurities
in the connexion of thought; but his alphabetic scheme proves
that he designed twenty-two stanzas, not sixty-six detached
couplets. There is something arresting in that bold " I am the
Man " ; and the lyrical intensity, the religious depth and beauty
of the whole, may well blind us to occasional ruggedness of metre
and language, abrupt transitions from figure to figure and
other alleged blemishes, some of which may not have seemed
such to the poet's contemporaries (e.g. the repetition of the
acrostic word, far more frequent in Psalm cxix.); and some
disappear on revision of the text.
Verse 5, perhaps: "He swallowed me up" (Jer. Ii. 34) "and
begirt my head " (Septuagint) " with gloom " (n9sN Is. Iviii. 10, cf.
verse 6, yet cf. also nieSn, Neh. ix. 32). Verse 14: "all my
people," rather all peoples (Heb. MSS. and Syr.). Verse i6b, rd.
'JWWI, " He made me bore " (i.e. grovel) " in the ashes:"
cf. Jer. vi. 26; Ezek. xxvii. 30. Verse 170 should be: ran
•B-D.J cSiy1? " And He cast off my soul for ever:" see verse
31; Psalm Ixxxviii. 15. Verse 26: " It is good to wait" frnn1?)
"in silence " (osn Is. xlvii. 5); or " It is good that he wait and
be silent" (ay}\ V# -3; cf. verse 27). Verse 31, add vrsu, "his
soul." The verse is a reply to 170. Verses 34-36 render: "To
crush under His feet . . . Adonai purposed not " (Gen. xx. 10;
Psalm Ixvi. 18). Verse 39, 'n (Gen. v. 5; or n-n Neh. ix. 29) is
the necessary second verb: " Why doth a mortal complain?" (or
" What . . . lament? "). " Doth a man live by his sins? ": Man
" lives by " righteousness (Ezek. xxxiii. 19). For the wording, cf.
Psalm Ixxxix. 49. Verse 430: " Thou didst encompass with " (rg.
nniao; Hos. xii. i) "anger and pursue us." Syntax as verse
66a. Verse 49, rd. n;?sn (cf. ii. 18 also). Verse 51 : " Mine
eye did hurt to herself " (n<ra;^), " By weeping over my
people:" Verse 48: ch. i. 16; Jer. xxxi. 15. Verse 52: "They
quelled my life in the pit " (Sheol; Psalms xxx. 4, Ixxxviii. 4, 7;
verse 55); "They brought me down to Abaddon" (pan win;
cf. Psalm Ixxxviii. 12). Verse 58: " O plead, Lord, the cause of my
soul! O redeem my life! "; cf. Psalm cxix. 154. If the prayer for
vengeance begins here, Budde's " deep division in the middle of an
acrostic letter-group " vanishes. Verse 59, rd. 'my, " my pervert-
ing; " inf. pi. c. suff. obj.; cf. verse 36. Verse 6ib repeated by
mistake from 606. Perhaps: " Wherewith they dogged my
steps: " Tory is-intr: Psalm Ixxxix. 51 f. Verse 63, rd. ooip, as
usual, and onra, as in verse 14 and Job xxx. 9. Verse 65:
" Thou wilt give them madness " (cf. Arab, gunun; magnun, mad)
" of heart; Thou wilt curse and consume them! " (n^3n inn).
Chapter iv. " Ah, how doth gold grow dim, —
The finest ore change hue! "
The poet shows how famine and the sword desolated Zion
(verses i-io). All was Yahweh's work; a wonder to the heathen
world, but accounted for by the crimes of prophets and priests
(Jer. xxiii. n, 14, xxvi. 8, 20 ff., xxix. 21-23), who, like Cain,
became homeless wanderers and outcasts (verses 11-16). Vainly
did the besieged watch for succours from Egypt (Jer. xxxvii.
5 ff.); and even the last forlorn hope, the flight of " Yahweh's
Anointed," King Zedekiah, was doomed to fail (verses 17-20;
Jer. xxxix. 4 ff). Edom rejoiced in her ruin (Ezek. xxv. 12;
xxxv. 15; Obad.; Psalm cxxxvii. 7); but Zion's sin is now
atoned for (cf. Is. xl. 2), and she may look forward to the judgment
of her foe (verses 21-22).
Verse 6d, perhaps: " And their ruin tarried not " (^>rr R^r
DTB); cf. Pro. xxiv. 22. Verse ?d: "Their body" (rd. ornj)
" was a sapphire: " see Ct. v. 14; Dn. x. 6. Verse 9: "Happier
were the slain of the sword Than the slain of famine! For they "
(Septuagint om.), "they passed away" (ID^I Septuagint; Psalm
xxxix. 14) "with a stab " (Ju. ix. 54; Is. xiii. 15; Jer. Ii. 4),
" Suddenly, in the field " ('ea DNHD; Jer. xiv. 18). Verse 13,
add N-.T after n'tt'iu; cf. Ju. xiv. 4; Jer. xxii. 16. Verse Ijc. :
"While we watched" (Septuagint) "continually:" iss uniBsi.
Verse 18: "Our steps were curbed" (™ MSS.; see Pro. iv. 12;
Job xviii. 7) " from walking In our open places " (before the city
gates: Neh. viii. I, 3); " The completion of our days drew nigh "
(ys- niNto nr mp; cf. Lev. viii. 33; Job xx. 22), "For
our end was come " (Ezek. vii. 2, 6, &c.). Verse 21, Septuagint om.
Uz (dittogr. ?); " Settler in the Land! " (i.e. of Judah; cf. Ezek.
xxxv. 10, xxxvi. 5. Perhaps 'K.I TOTT " Seizer of the Land ").
Chapter v. — A sorrowful supplication, in which the speakers
deplore, not the fall of Jerusalem, but their own state of galling
dependence and hopeless poverty. They are still suffering for
the sins of their fathers, who perished in the catastrophe (verse
7). They are at the mercy of " servants " (verse 8; cf. 2 Kings
xxv. 24; Neh. v. 15: " Yea, even their ' boys ' lorded it over
the people "), under a tyranny of pashas of the worst type
(verses n f.). The soil is owned by aliens; and the Jews have
to buy their water and firewood (verses 2, 4; cf. Neh. ix. 36 f.).
While busy harvesting, they are exposed to the raids of the
Bedouins (verse 9). Jackals prowl among the ruins of Zion
(verse 18; cf. Neh. iv. 3). And this condition of things has
already lasted a very long time (verse 20).
Verses 5 f. transpose and read: "To adversaries" (mx1?)
"we submitted, Saying" (iiCKS), "'We shall be satisfied with
bread ' " (cf. Jer. xlii. 14) ; " The yoke of our neck they made
heavy" (Neh. v. 15: oyn ty rraa.i) ; "We toil, and no rest
is allowed us." Verse 13: " Nobles endured to grind, And princes
staggered under logs " (omn for a'-iin:!, which belongs to verse
14; D'-ii? for D"iy:. Eccl. x. 7; Is. xxxiv. 12; .Neh. iv. 14;
128
LAMENTATIONS
v. 7 ; vi. 17). Verse 19, " But Thou ..." Psalm cii. 13 (i fell out after
precedingi, verse 18). Verse 22, omit DN; dittogr. of following ND.
Authorship and date. — The tradition of Jeremiah's authorship
cannot be traced higher than the Septuagint version. The
prefatory note there may come from a Hebrew MS., but perhaps
refers to chapter i. only ("Jeremiah sang this dirge"). The
idea that Lamentations was originally appended to Jeremiah
in the Hebrew Canon, as it is in the old versions, and was after-
wards separated from it and added to the other Megilloth for
the liturgical convenience of the Synagogue, rests on the fact
that Josephus (Ap. i. I, 8) and, following him, Jerome and
Origen reckon 22 books, taking Ruth with Judges and Lamenta-
tions with Jeremiah; whereas the ordinary Jewish reckoning
gives 24 books, as in our Hebrew Bibles. There is no evidence
that this artificial reckoning according to the number of letters
in the Hebrew alphabet was ever much more than a fanciful
suggestion. Even in the Septuagint the existing order may
not be original. It appears likely that Lamentations was not
translated by the same hand as Jeremiah (Noldeke). Unlike
the latter, the Septuagint Lamentations sticks closely to the
Massoretic text. The two books can hardly have been united
from the first. On the strength of 2 Chron. xxxv. 25, some
ancient writers (e.g. Jerome ad Zech. xii. n) held that Jeremiah
composed Lamentations. When, however, Josephus (Ant. x.
5, i) states that Jeremiah wrote an elegy on Josiah still extant
in his day, he may be merely quoting a little too much of Chron.
loc. cit.; and it is obvious that he need not mean our book (see
Whiston's note) . It is urged, indeed, that the author of Chronicles
could not have imagined a prophet to have sympathized with
such a king as Zedekiah so warmly as is implied by Lamentations
iv. 20; and, therefore, he must have connected the passage
with Josiah, the last of the good kings. However that may
have been, the Chronicler neither says that Jeremiah wrote all
the elegies comprised in The Qinoth, nor does he imply that the
entire collection consisted of only five pieces. Rather, the
contrary; for he implies that The Qinoth contained not only
Jeremiah's single dirge on Josiah, but also the elegies of " all
the singing men and singing women," from the time of Josiah's
death (608) down to his own day (3rd century). The untimely
fate of Josiah became a stock allusion in dirges. It is not meant
that for three centuries the dirge-writers had nothing else to
sing of; much less, that they sang of the fall of Jerusalem (pre-
supposed by our book) before its occurrence. Upon the whole,
it does not seem probable, either that the Chronicler mistook
Lamentations iv. for Jeremiah's dirge on Josiah, or that the
book he calls The Qinoth was identical with our Qinoth. Later
writers misunderstood him, because — on the ground of certain
obtrusive similarities between Jeremiah and Lamentations
(see Driver, L.O.T. p. 433 f.), and the supposed reference in
Lamentations iii. 53 ff. to Jeremiah xxxviii. 6 ff., as well as the
fact that Jeremiah was the one well-known inspired writer who
had lived through the siege of Jerusalem — they naturally enough
ascribed this little book to the prophet. It is certainly true
that the same emotional temperament, dissolving in tears at
the spectacle of the country's woes, and expressing itself to a
great extent in the same or similar language, is noticeable in
the author(s) of Lamentations i.-iv. and in Jeremiah. And both
refer these woes to the same cause, viz. the sins of the nation,
and particularly of its prophets and priests.
This, however, is not enough to prove identity of authorship;
and the following considerations militate strongly against the
tradition, (i.) The language and style of Lamentations are
in general very unlike those of Jeremiah (see the details in
Nagelsbach and Lohr); whatever allowance may be made for
conventional differences in the phraseology of elegiac poetry
and prophetic prose, even of a more or less lyrical cast, (ii.)
Lamentations i.-iv. show a knowledge of Ezekiel (cf . Lamentations
ii. 40; Ez. xx. 8, 21; Lam. ii. 14; Ez. xii. 24; xiii. 10, 14;
Lam. ii. 15; Ez. xxvii. 3; xxviii. 12; Lam. iv. 20; Ez. xix.
4, 8) and of Is. xl.-lxvi. (Lam. i. 10, oriono; Is. Ixiv. 10; Lam.
i. 15; Is. Ixiii. 2; Lam. ii. i; Is. Ixvi. i; Lam. ii. 20; Is.
xliii. 28; Lam. ii. 13 the 3 verbs; Is. xl. 18, 25; Lam. ii. i$c;
Is. Ix. 156; Lam. iii. 26 con; Is. xlvii. 5; Lam. iii. 30; Is.
i. 6; Lam. iv. 14; Is. lix. 3, 10; Lam. iv. 15; Is. Iii. n; Lam.
iv. i"]C; Is. xlv. 20; Lam. iv. 22; Is. xl. 2). Jeremiah does
not quote Ezekiel; and he could hardly have quoted writings
of the age of Cyrus, (iii.) The coincidences of language between
Lamentations and certain late Psalms, such as Psalms Ixix.,
Ixxiv., Ixxx., Ixxxviii., Ixxxix., cxix., are numerous and signifi-
cant, at least as a general indication of date, (iv.) The point of
view of Lamentations sometimes differs from that of the prophet.
This need not be the case in i. 21 f. where the context shows that
the " enemies " are not the Chaldeans, but Judah's ill neighbours,
Edom, Ammon, Moab and the rest (cf. iv. 21 f.; iii. 59-66 may
refer to the same foes). Ch. ii. gc may refer to popular prophecy
(" her prophets "; cf. verse 14), which would naturally be
silenced by the overwhelming falsification of its comfortable
predictions (iv. 14 ff. ; cf. Jer. xiv. 13; Ezek. vii. 26 f. ; Psalm
Ixxiv. 9). But though Jeremiah was by no means disloyal
(Jer. xxxiv. 4 f.), he would hardly have spoken of Zedekiah in
the terms of Lam. iv. 20; and the prophet never looked to
Egypt for help, as the poet of iv. 17 appears to have done. It
must be admitted that Lamentations exhibits, upon the whole,
" a poet (more) in sympathy with the old life of the nation,
whose attitude towards the temple and the king is far more
popular than Jeremiah's" (W. Robertson Smith); cf. i. 4,
10, 19, ii. 6, 7, 2oc. (v.) While we find in Lamentations some
things that we should not have expected from Jeremiah, we
miss other things characteristic of the prophet. There is no
trace of his confident faith in the restoration of both Israel
and Judah (Jer. iii. 14-18, xxiii. 3-8, xxx.-xxxiii.), nor of his
unique doctrine of the New Covenant (Jer. xxxi. 31-34), as a
ground of hope and consolation for Zion. The only hope ex-
pressed in Lamentations i. is the hope of Divine vengeance on
Judah's malicious rivals (i. 21 f.); and even this is wanting from
ch. ii. Chapter iii. finds comfort in the thought of Yahweh's
unfailing mercy; but ends with a louder cry for vengeance.
Chapter iv. suggests neither hope nor consolation, until the end,
where we have an assurance that Zion's punishment is complete,
and she will not again be exiled (iv. 21 f.). The last word is
woe for Edom. In chapter v. we have a prayer for restoration:
" Make us return, O Yahweh, and we shall return!" (i.e. to
our pristine state). Had Jeremiah been the author, we should
have expected something more positive and definitely prophetic
in tone and spirit. (The author of chapter iii. seems to have
felt this. It was apparently written in view of chapter ii. as a
kind of religious counterpoise to its burden of despair, which
it first takes up, verses 1-20. and then dissipates, verses 21 ff.).
(vi.) It seems almost superfluous to add that, in the brief and
troubled story of the prophet's life after the fall of the city
Jer. xxxix.-xliv.), it is difficult to specify an occasion when
he may be supposed to have enjoyed the necessary leisure and
quiet for the composition of these elaborate and carefully con-
structed pieces, in a style so remote from his ordinary freedom
and spontaneity of utterance. And if at the very end of his
stormy career he really found time and inclination to write any-
thing of this nature, we may wonder why it was not included
in the considerable and somewhat miscellaneous volume of his
works, or at least mentioned in the chapters which relate to his
public activity after the catastrophe.
Budde's date, 550 B.C., might not be too early for chapter v.,
if it stood alone. But it was evidently written as the close of
the book, and perhaps to complete the number of five divisions,
after the model of the Pentateuch; which would bring it below
the date of Ezra (457 B.C.). And this date is supported by
internal indications. The Divine forgetfulness has already
lasted a very long time since the catastrophe (" for ever,"
verse 20); which seems to imply the lapse of much more than
thirty-six years (cf. Zech. i. 12). The hill of Zion is still a
deserted site haunted by jackals, as it was when Nehemiah
arrived, 445 B.C. (Neh. i. 3, ii. 3, 13, 17, iv. 3). And the condi-
tions, political and economic, seem to agree with what is told us
by Nehemiah of the state of things which he found, and which pre-
vailed before his coming: cf. esp. Neh. v. 2-5 with Lamentations
LAMETH— LAMETTRIE
129
v. 2, to, and Neh. v. 15 with Lamentations v. 5, 8. There
is nothing in chapter i. which Nehemiah himself might not have
written, had he been a poet (cf. Neh. i. 4). The narrative of
Neh. xiii. throws light on verse 10; and there are many coin-
cidences of language, e.g. "The Province " (of Judea), Neh. i.
3, cf. verse i; "adversaries" (onx), of Judah's hostile neigh-
bours, verse 7, Neh. iv. n; "made my strength stumble,"
verse 14, cf. Neh. iv. 4 (Heb.); the prayers, verses 21 f., Neh.
iv. 4 f. (Heb. iii. 36 f.), are similar. The memory of what is told
in Neh. iv. 5 (i i), Ezra iv. 23 f., v. 5, may perhaps have suggested
the peculiar term roe*, stoppage, arrest, verse 7. With verse 3
" Judah migrated from oppression; From greatness of servitude;
She settled among the nations, Without finding a resting-place,"
cf. Neh. v. 18 end, Jer. xl. n f. The "remnant of the captivity"
(Neh. i. 2 f.) became much attenuated (cf. verse 4), because all
who could escape from the galling tyranny of the foreigner
left the country (cf. verse 6). Verses n, 19 (dearth of food),
20 (danger in the field, starvation in the house) agree curiously
with Neh. v. 6, 9 f.
Chapters ii. and iv. can hardly be dated earlier than the
beginning of the Persian period. They might then have been
written by one who, as a young man of sixteen or twenty, had
witnessed the terrible scenes of fifty years before. If, however,
as is generally recognized, these poems are not the spontaneous
and unstudied outpourings of passionate grief, but compositions
of calculated art and studied effects, written for a purpose, it
is obvious that they need not be contemporary. A poet of a
later generation might have sung of the great drama in this
fashion. The chief incidents and episodes would be deeply
graven in the popular memory; and it is the poet's function
to make the past live again. There is much metaphor (i. 13-
15, ii. 1-4, iii. 1-18, iv. i ff.), and little detail beyond the
horrors usual in long sieges (see Deut. xxviii. 52 ff.; 2 Kings
vi. 28 f.) Acquaintance with the existing literature and the
popular reminiscences of the last days of Jerusalem would supply
an ample foundation for all that we find in these poems.
LITERATURE. — The older literature is fully given by Nagelsbach in
Lange's Bibelwerk A.T. xv. (1868, Eng. trans., 1871, p. 17). Among
commentaries may be noticed those of Kalkar (in Latin) (1836);
O. Thenius in Kurzgefasstes Exeg. Handbuch (1855), who ascribes
chapters ii. and iv. tc Jeremiah (comp. K. Budde in Z.A.T.W., 1882,
p. 45); Vaihinger (1857); Neumann (1858); H. Ewald in his
Dichter, vol. i. pt. ii. (2nd ed., 1866); Engelhardt (1867); Nagels-
bach, op. cit. (1868); E.. Gerlach, Die Klagelied. Jer. (1868); A.
Kamphausen in Bunsen's Bibelwerk iii. (1868) ; C. F. Keil (1872) (Eng.
trans., 1874); Payne Smith in The Speaker's Commentary; Reuss,
La Bible: poesie lyrique (1879) ; T. K. Cheyne, at end of " Jeremiah,"
Pulpit Commentary (1883-1885); E. H. Plumptre, in Ellicott's
O.T. for English Readers (1884); S. Oettli in Strack-Zockler's
Kurzgef. Komm. A.T. vii. (1889); M. Lohr (1891) and again Hand-
kommentar zum A.T. (1893); F. Baethgen ap. Kautzsch, Die
Heilige Schrift d. A.T. (1894); W. F. Adeney, Expositor's Bible
(1895) ; S. Mmocchi, Le Lamentazioni di Geremia (Rome, 1897) ; and
K. Budde, " Fiinf Megillot," in Kurzer Hd.-Comm. zum A.T. (1898).
For textual and literary criticism see also Houbigant, Notae
Criticae, ii. 477-483 (1777); E. H. Rodhe, Num. Jeremias Threnos
scripserit quaestiones (Lundae, 1871); F. Montet, Etude sur le lime
des Lamentations (Geneva, 1875); G. Bickell, Carmina V. T. metrice,
112-120 (1882), and Wiener Zeitschrift fur Kunde des Morgenlandes,
viii. 101 ff. (1894) (cf. also his Dichtungen der Hebrder, i. 87-108,
1882); Merkel, Uber das A.T. Buck der Klagelieder (Halle, 1889);
J. Dyserinck, Theologisch Tijdschrift, xxvi. 359 ff. (1892) ; S. A. Fries,
" Parallele zwischen Thr. iy., v. und der MakkabaerzeuV'.Z./l.r.H'.,
xiii. no ff. (1893) (chaps, iv. v. Maccabean; i.-iii. Jeremiah's); and
on the other side Lohr, Z.A.T.W. xiv. 51 ff. (1894) ; id. ib., p. 31 ff.,
Der Sprachgebrauch des Buches der Klagelieder; and Lohr, " Threni iii.
und die jeremianische Autorschaft des Buches der Klagelieder,"
Z.A.T.W., xxiv. i ff. (1904).
On the prosody, see (besides the works of Bickell and Dyserinck)
K. Budde, " Das hebraische Klagelied," Z.A.T.W., ii. I ff. (1882), iii.
299 ff. (1883), xi. 234 ff. (1891), xii. 31 ff. 261 ff. (1892); Preussische
Jahrbucher, Ixxiii. 461 ff. (1893); and C. J. Ball, "The Metrical
Structure of Qinpth," P.S.B.A. (March 1887). (The writer was then
unacquainted with Budde's previous labours.)
The following may also be consulted, Noldeke, Die A.T. Literatur,
pp. 142-148 (1868) ; Seinecke, Gesch. des Volkes Israel, ii. 29 ff. (1884) ;
Stade, Gesch. p. 701, n. I (1887); Smend in Z.A.T.W. (1888),
p. 62 f . ; Steinthal, "Die Klagelieder Jer." in Bibel und Rel.-philosophie,
'6-33 (1890) ; Driver, L.O.T. (1891), p. 428, "The Lamentations" ; and
Cheyne's article " Lamentations (Book)," in Enc. Bibl. iii. (C. J.B.*)
XVI. 5
LAMETH, ALEXANDRE THEODORE VICTOR, COMTE DE
(1760-1829), French soldier and politician, was born in Paris
on the 2oth of October 1760. He served in the American War
of Independence under Rochambeau, and in 1789 was sent as
deputy to the States General by the nobles of the bailliage of
Peronne. In the Constituent Assembly he formed with Barnave
and Adrien Duport a sort of association called the " Triumvirate,"
which controlled a group of about forty deputies forming the
advanced left of the Assembly. He presented a famous report
in the Constituent Assembly on the organization of the army,
but is better known by his eloquent speech on the 28th of
February 1791, at the Jacobin Club, against Mirabeau, whose
relations with the court were beginning to be suspected, and who
was a personal enemy of Lameth. However, after the flight of
the king to Varennes, Lameth became reconciled with the court.
He served in the army as marechal-de-camp under Luckner and
Lafayette, but was accused of treason on the i5th of August
1792, fled the country, and was imprisoned by the Austrians.
After his release he engaged in commerce at Hamburg with his
brother Charles and the due d'Aiguillon, and did not return to
France until the Consulate. Under the Empire he was made
prefect successively in several departments, and in 1810 was
created a baron. In 1814 he attached himself to the Bourbons,
and under the Restoration was appointed prefect of Somme,
deputy for Seine-Inferieure and finally deputy for Seine-et-Oise,
in which capacity he was a leader of the Liberal opposition.
He died in Paris on the i8th of March 1829. He was the author
of an important History of the Constituent Assembly (Paris.
2 vols., 1828-1829).
Of his two brothers, THEODORE LAMETH (1756-1854) served
in the American war, sat in the Legislative Assembly as deputy
from the department of Jura, and became marechal-de-camp;
and CHARLES MALO FRANCOIS LAMETH (1757-1832), who also
served in America, was deputy to the States General of 1789,
but emigrated early in the Revolution, returned to France
under the Consulate, and was appointed governor of Wurzburg
under the Empire. Like Alexandre, Charles joined the Bourbons,
succeeding Alexandre as deputy in 1829.
See F. A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de I'Assemblee Constituante (Paris,
1905); also M. Tourneux, Bibliog. de I'histoire de Paris (vol. iv.,
1906, s.v. " Lameth ").
LAMETTRIE, JULIEN OFFRAY DE (1700-1751), French
physician and philosopher, the earliest of the materialistic
writers of the Illumination, was born at St Malo on the 25th
of December 1709. After studying theology in the Jansenist
schools for some years, he suddenly decided to adopt the
profession of medicine. In 1 733 he went to Leiden to study under
Boerhaave, and in 1742 returned to Paris, where he obtained
the appointment of surgeon to the guards. During an attack
of fever he made observations on himself with reference to the
action of quickened circulation upon thought, which led him to
the conclusion that psychical phenomena were to be accounted
for as the effects of organic changes in the brain and nervous
system. This conclusion he worked out in his earliest philo-
sophical work, the Histoire naturelle de I'dme, which appeared
about 1745. So great was the outcry caused by its publication
that Lamettrie was forced to take refuge in Leiden, where he
developed his doctrines still more boldly and completely, and
with great originality, in L'Homme machine (Eng. trans.,
London, 1750; ed. with introd. and notes, J. Assezat, 1865),
and L'Homme plante, treatises based upon principles of the
most consistently materialistic character. The ethics of these
principles were worked out in Discours sur le bonheur, La
Volupte, and L' Art de jouir, in which the end of life is found in
the pleasures of the senses, and virtue is reduced to self-love.
Atheism is the only means of ensuring the happiness of the world,
which has been rendered impossible by the wars brought about
by theologians. The soul is only the thinking part of the body,
and with the body it passes away. When death comes, the farce
is over (la farce est joufe), therefore let us take our pleasure
while we can. Lamettrie has been called " the Aristippus of
modern materialism." So strong was the feeling against him
130
LAMIA— LAMMERGEYER
that in 1748 he was compelled to quit Holland for Berlin, where
Frederick the Great not only allowed him to practise as a
physician, but appointed him court reader. He died on the
nth of November 1751. His collected (Euvres philosophiques
appeared after his death in several editions, published in London,
Berlin and Amsterdam respectively.
The chief authority for his life is the £loge written by Frederick the
Great (printed in Ass6zat's ed. of Homme machine). In modern times
Lamettrie has been judged less severely; see F. A. Lange, Geschichle
des Materialismus (Eng. trans, by E. C. Thomas, ii. 1880) ; Neree
Qufipat (i.e. Ren6 Paquet), La Mettrie, sa vie^ et ses ceumes (1873, with
complete history of his works); J. E. Poritzky, /. 0. de Lamettrie,
Sein Leben und seine Werke (1900); F. Picavet, "La Mettrie et la
critique allemande," in Compte rendu des seances de I'Acad. des
Sciences morales et politiques, xxxii. (1889), a reply to German re-
habilitations of Lamettrie.
LAMIA, in Greek mythology, queen of Libya. She was
beloved by Zeus, and when Hera robbed her of her. children out
of jealousy, she killed every child she could get into her power
(Diod. Sic. xx. 41; Schol. Aristophanes, Pax, 757). Hence
Lamia came to mean a female bogey or demon, whose name
was used by Greek mothers to frighten their children; from
the Greek she passed into Roman demonology. She was repre-
sented with a woman's face and a serpent's tail. She was also
known as a sort of fiend, the prototype of the modern vampire,
who in the form of a beautiful woman enticed young men to
her embraces, in order that she might feed on their life and
heart's blood. In this form she appears in Goethe's Die Braut
von Corinth, and Keats's Lamia. The name Lamia is clearly
the feminine form of Lamus, king of the Laestrygones (q.v.).
At some early period, or in some districts, Lamus and Lamia
(both, according to some accounts, children of Poseidon) were
worshipped as gods; but the names did not attain general
currency. Their history is remarkably like that of the malignant
class of demons in Germanic and Celtic folk-lore. Both names
occur in the geographical nomenclature of Greece and Asia
Minor; and it is probable that the deities belong to that religion
which spread from Asia Minor over Thrace into Greece.
LAMMAS (O. Eng. hlammaesse, hlafmaesse, from hlaf, loaf, and
maesse, mass, " loaf -mass "), originally in England the festival
of the wheat harvest celebrated on the ist of August, O.S. It
was one of the old quarter-days, being equivalent to midsummer,
the others being Martinmas, equivalent to Michaelmas, Candle-
mas (Christmas) and Whitsuntide (Easter). Some rents are
still payable in England at Lammastide, and in Scotland it is
generally observed, but on the i2th of August, since the altera-
tion of the calendar in George II. 's reign. Its name was in
allusion to the custom that each worshipper should present in
the church a loaf made of the new wheat as an offering of the
first-fruits.
A relic of the old " open-field " system of agriculture survives
in the so-called " Lammas Lands." These were lands enclosed
and held in severally during the growing of corn and grass and
thrown open to pasturage during the rest of the year for those
who had common rights. These commoners might be the
several owners, the inhabitants of a parish, freemen of a borough,
tenants of a manor, &c. The opening of the fields by throwing
down the fences took place on Lammas Day (i2th of August)
for corn-lands and on Old Midsummer Day (6th of July) for
grass. They remained open until the following Lady Day.
Thus, in law, " lammas lands " belong to the several owners in
fee-simple subject for half the year to the rights of pasturage
of other people (Baylis v. Tyssen-Amherst, 1877, 6 Ch. D., 50).
See further F. Seebohm, The English Village Community ; C. I.
Elton, Commons and Waste Lands; P. Vinogradoff, Villainage in
England.
LAMMERGEYER (Ger. Lammergeier, Lamm, lamb, and Geier,
vulture), or bearded vulture, the Falco barbatus of Linnaeus
and the Gypaetus barbatus of modern ornithologists, one of the
grandest birds-of-prey of the Palaearctic region — inhabiting
lofty mountain chains from Portugal to the borders of China,
though within historic times it has been exterminated in several
of its ancient haunts. Its northern range in Europe does not
seem to have extended farther than the southern frontier of
Bavaria, or the neighbourhood of Salzburg; ' but in Asia it
formerly reached a higher latitude, having been found even so
lately as 1830 in the Amur region where, according to G. F.
Radde (Beitr. Kenntn. Russ. Reichs, xxiii. p. 467), it has now
left but its name. It is not uncommon on many parts of the
Himalayas, where it breeds; and on the mountains of Kumaon
and the Punjab, and is the " golden eagle " of most Anglo-
Indians. It is found also in Persia, Palestine, Crete and Greece,
the Italian Alps, Sicily, Sardinia and Mauritania.
In some external characters the lammergeyer is intermediate
between the families Vulturidae and Falconidae, and the opinion
of systematists has from time to time varied as to its proper
position. It is now generally agreed, however, that it is more
closely allied with the eagles than with the vultures, and the
sub-family Gypaetinae of the Falconidae has been formed to
contain ii,
The whole length of the bird is from 43 to 46 in., of which,
however, about 20 are due to the long cuneiform tail, while
the pointed wings measure more than 30 in. from the carpal
joint to the tip. The top of the head is white, bounded by black,
which, beginning in stiff bristly feathers turned forwards over
the base of the beak, proceeds on either side of the face in a
well-defined band to the eye, where it bifurcates into two narrow
stripes, of which the upper one passes above and beyond that
feature till just in front of the scalp it suddenly turns upwards
across the head and meets the corresponding stripe from the
opposite side, enclosing the white forehead already mentioned,
while the lower stripe extends beneath the eye about as far
backwards and then suddenly stops. A tuft of black, bristly
feathers projects beardlike from the base of the mandible, and
gives the bird one of its commonest epithets in many languages.
The rest of the head, the neck, throat and lower parts generally
are clothed with lanceolate feathers of a pale tawny colour —
sometimes so pale as to be nearly white beneath; while the
scapulars, back and wing-coverts generally, are of a glossy
greyish-black, most of the feathers having a white shaft and a
median tawny line. The quill-feathers, both of the wings and
tail, are of a dark blackish-grey. The irides are of a light orange,
and the sclerotic tunics — equivalent to the " white of the eye "
in most animals— which in few birds are visible, are in this very
conspicuous and of a bright scarlet, giving it an air of great
ferocity. In the young of the year the whole head, neck and
throat are clothed in dull black, and mos.t of the feathers of the
mantle and wing-coverts are broadly tipped and mesially
streaked with tawny or lightish-grey.
The lammergeyer breeds early in the year. The nest is of
large size, built of sticks, lined with soft material and placed
on a ledge of rock — a spot being chosen, and often occupied for
many years, which is nearly always difficult of access. Here
in the month of February a single egg is usually laid. This is
more than 3 in. in length by nearly 25 in breadth, of a pale
but lively brownish-orange. The young when in the nest are
clad in down of a dirty white, varied with grey on the head
and neck, and with ochraceous in the iliac region.
There is much discrepancy as to the ordinary food of the
lammergeyer, some observers maintaining that it lives almost
entirely on carrion, offal and even ordure; but there is no
question of its frequently taking living prey, and it is reasonable
to suppose that this bird, like so many others, is not everywhere
uniform in its habits. Its name shows it to be the reputed
enemy of shepherds, and it is in some measure owing to their
hostility that it has been exterminated in so many parts of its
European range. But the lammergeyer has also a great partiality
for bones, which when small enough it swallows. When they are
too large, it is said to soar with them to a great height and drop
them on a rock or stone that they may be broken into pieces
of convenient size. Hence its name ossifrage,2 by which the
'See a paper by Dr Girtanner on this bird in Switzerland (Ver-
handl. St-Gall. naturw. Gesellschaft, 1869-1870, pp. 147-244).
2 Among other crimes attributed to the species is that, according
to Pliny (Hist. Nat. x. cap. 3), of having caused the death of the
poet Aeschylus, by dropping a tortoise on his bald head! In the
LAMOIGNON— LA MOTTE
Hebrew Peres is rightly translated in the Authorized Version of
the Bible (Lev. xi. 13; Deut. xiv. 12) — a word corrupted into
osprey, and applied to a bird which has no habit of the kind.
The lammergeyer of north-eastern and south Africa is specific-
ally distinct, and is known as Gypaetus meridionalis or G.
nudipes. In habits it resembles the northern bird, from which
it differs in little more than wanting the black stripe below the
eye and having the lower part of the tarsus bare of feathers.
It is the " golden eagle " of Bruce's Travels, and has been
beautifully figured by Joseph Wolf in E. Riippell's Syst. Ubers.
der Vogel Nord-Ost-Afrika's (Taf. i). (A. N.)
LAMOIGNON, a French family, which takes its name from
Lamoignon, a place said to have been in its possession since the
i3th century. One of its several branches is that of Lamoignon
de Malesherbes. Several of the Lamoignons have played
important parts in the history of France and the family has been
specially distinguished in the legal profession. GUILLAUME
DE LAMOIGNON (1617-1677), attained eminence as a lawyer
and became president of the parlement of Paris in 1658. First
on the popular, and later on the royalist side during the Fronde,
he presided at the earlier sittings of the trial of Fouquet, whom
he regarded as innocent, and he was associated with Colbert,
whom he was able more than once to thwart. Lamoignon
tried to simplify the laws of France and sought the society of
men of letters like Boileau and Racine. Having received rich
rewards for his public services, he died in Paris on the loth of
December 1677. Guillaume's second son, NICOLAS DE LAMOIGNON
(1648-1724), took the surname of Basville. Following his
hereditary calling he filled many public offices, serving as intend-
ant of Montauban, of Pau, of Poitiers and of Languedoc before
his retirement in 1718. His administration of Languedoc was
chiefly remarkable for vigorous measures against the Camisards
and other Protestants, but in other directions his work in the
south of France was more beneficent, as, following the example
of Colbert, he encouraged agriculture and industry generally
and did something towards improving the means of communica-
tion. He wrote a Memoire, which contains much interesting
information about his public work. This was published at
Amsterdam in 1724. Lamoignon, who is called by Saint Simon,
" the king and tyrant of Languedoc," died in Paris on the I7th
of May 1724. CHRETIEN FRANCOIS DE LAMOIGNON (1735-1789)
entered public life at an early age and was an actor in the troubles
which heralded the Revolution. First on the side of the parle-
ment and later on that of the king he was one of the assistants of
Lomenie de Brienne, whose unpopularity and fall he shared.
He committed suicide on the i5th of May 1789.
LAMONT, JOHANN VON (1805-1879), Scottish-German
astronomer and magnetician, was born at Braemar, Aberdeen-
shire, on the 1 3th of December 1805. He was sent at the age
of twelve to be educated at the Scottish monastery in Regensburg,
and apparently never afterwards returned to his native country.
His strong bent for scientific studies was recognized by the head
of the monastery, P. Deasson, on whose recommendation he
was admitted in 1827 to the then new observatory of Bogen-
hausen (near Munich), where he worked under J. Soldner.
After the death of his chief in 1835 he was, on H. C. Schumacher's
recommendation, appointed to succeed him as director of the
observatory. In 1852 he became professor of astronomy at
the university of Munich, and held both these posts till his death,
which took place on the 6th of August 1879. Lament was a
member of the academies of Brussels, Upsala and Prague, of
the Royal Society of Edinburgh, of the Cambridge Philosophical
Society and of many other learned corporations. Among his
contributions to astronomy may be noted his eleven zone-
catalogues of 34,674 stars, his measurements, in 1836-1837, of
nebulae and clusters, and his determination of the mass of
Uranus from observations of its satellites (Mem. Astron. Soc.
xi. 51, 1838). A magnetic observatory was equipped at Bogen-
Atlas range the food of this bird is said to consist chiefly of the
Testudo mauritanica, which " it carries to some height in the air, and
lets fall on a stone to break the shell " (Ibis, 1859, p. 177). It was
the SPTTT; and <j>iivri of Greek classical writers.
hausen in 1840 through his initiative; he executed compre-
hensive magnetic surveys 1849-1858; announced the magnetic
decennial period in 1850, and his discovery of earth-currents
in 1862. His Handbuch des Erdmagnetismus (Berlin, 1849) is
a standard work on the subject.
See Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic (S. Giinther); V. J. Schrift,
Astr. Gesellschaft, xv. 60; Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Society, xl. 203;
Nature, xx. 425 ; Quart. Journal Meteor. Society, vi. 72 ; Proceedings
Roy. Society of Edinburgh, x. 358; The Times (12 Aug., 1879);
Sir F. Ronalds's Cat. of Books relating to Electricity and Magnetism,
pp. 281-283; Royal Society's Cat. of Scientific Papers, vols. iii. vii.
LAMORICIERE, CHRISTOPHE LEON LOUIS JUCHAULT
DE (1806-1865), French general, was born at Nantes on the
nth of September 1806, and entered the Engineers in 1828.
He served in the Algerian campaigns from 1830 onwards, and
by 1840 he had risen to the grade of marechal-de-camp (major-
general). Three years later he was made a general of division.
He was one of the most distinguished and efficient of Bugeaud's
generals, rendered special service at Isly (August 14, 1844),
acted temporarily as governor-general of Algeria, and finally
effected the capture of Abd el-Kader in 1847. Lamoriciere
took some part in the political events of 1848, both as a member
of the Chamber of Deputies and as a military commander.
Under the regime of General Cavaignac he was for a time
minister of war. From 1848 to 1851 Lamoriciere was one of
the most conspicuous opponents of the policy of Louis Napoleon,
and at the coup d'etat of the 2nd of December 1851 he was
arrested and exiled. He refused to give in his allegiance to the
emperor Napoleon III., and in 1860 accepted the command
of the papal army, which he led in the Italian campaign of 1860.
On the 1 8th of September of that year he was severely defeated
by the Italian army at Castelfidardo. His last years were spent
in complete retirement in France (he had been allowed to return
in 1857), and he died at Prouzel (Somme) on the nth of
September 1865.
See E. Keller, Le General de Lamoriciere (Paris, 1873).
LA MOTHE LE VAYER, FRANCOIS DE (1588-1672), French
writer, was born in Paris of a noble family of Maine. His
father was an avocat at the parlement of Paris and author of
a curious treatise on the functions of ambassadors, entitled
Legatus, seu De legatorum priiiilegiis, officio et munere libellus
(1579) and illustrated mainly from ancient history. Francois
succeeded his father at the parlement, but gave up his post
about 1647 and devoted himself to travel and belles lettres.
His Considerations sur V eloquence franqaise (1638) procured him
admission to the Academy, and his De I'instruction de Mgr. le
Dauphin (1640) attracted the attention of Richelieu. In 1649
Anne of Austria entrusted him with the education of her second
son and subsequently with the completion of Louis XIV.'s
education, which had been very much neglected. The outcome
of his pedagogic labours was a series of books comprising the
Geographic, Rhetorique, Morale, Economique, Polilique, Logique,
and Physique du prince (1651-1658). The king rewarded his
tutor by appointing him historiographer of France and councillor
of state. La Mothe Le Vayer died in Paris. Modest, sceptical,
and occasionally obscene in his Latin pieces and in his verses,
he made himself a persona grata at the French court, where
libertinism in ideas and morals was hailed with relish. Besides
his educational works, he wrote Jugement sur les anciens el
principaux historiens grecs el latins (1646); a treatise entitled
Du peu de certitude qu'il y a en histoire (1668), which in a sense
marks the beginning of historical criticism in France; and
sceptical Dialogues, published posthumously under the pseudo-
nym of Orosius Tubero. An incomplete edition of his works was
published at Dresden in 1756-1759.
See Bayle, Dictionnaire critique, article " Vayer " ; L. Etienne,
Essai sur La Mothe Le Vayer (Paris, 1849).
LA MOTTE, ANTOINE HOUDAR DE (1672-1731), French
author, was born in Paris on the i8th of January 1672. In
1693 his comedy Les Originaux proved a complete failure, which
so depressed the author that he contemplated joining the
Trappists, but four years later he again began writing operas
and ballets, e.g. L'Europe galanle (1697), and tragedies, one of
132
LAMOUREUX— LAMP
which, Ines de Castro (1723), was produced with immense
success at the Theatre Francais. He was a champion of the
moderns in the revived controversy of the ancients and moderns.
Madame Dacier had published (1699) a translation of the Iliad,
and La Motte, who knew no Greek, made a translation (1714)
in verse founded on her work. The nature of his work may be
judged from his own expression: " I have taken the liberty
to change what I thought disagreeable in it." He defended the
moderns in the Discours sur Homere prefixed to his translation,
and in his Reflexions sur la critique (1716). Apart from the
merits of the controversy, it was conducted on La Motte's side
with a wit and politeness which compared very favourably
with his opponent's methods. He was elected to the Academy
in 1710, and soon after became blind. La Motte carried on a
correspondence with the duchesse du Maine, and was the friend
of Fontenelle. He had the same freedom from prejudice, the
same inquiring mind as the latter, and it is on the excellent prose
in which his views are expressed that his reputation rests. He
died in Paris on the 26th of December 1731.
His (Eumes du theatre (2 vols.) appeared in 1730, and his (Euvres
(10 vols.) in 1754. See A. H. Rigault, Histoire de la querelle des
anciens et des modernes (1859).
LAMOUREUX, CHARLES (1834-1899), French conductor
and violinist, was born at Bordeaux on the 28th of September
1834. He studied at the Pau Conservatoire, was engaged as
violinist at the Opera, and in 1864 organized a series of concerts
devoted to chamber music. Having journeyed to England
and assisted at a Handel festival, he thought he would attempt
something similar in Paris. At his own expense he founded
the " Societe de 1'Harmonie Sacree," and in 1873 conducted
the first performance in Paris of Handel's Messiah. He also
gave performances of Bach's St Matthew Passion, Handel's
Judas Maccabaeus, Gounod's Gallia, and Massenet's Eve. In
1875 he conducted the festival given at Rouen to celebrate the
centenary of Bo'ieldieu. The following year he became chef
d'orchestre at the Opera Comique. In 1881 he founded the
famous concerts associated with his name, which contributed
so much to popularize Wagner's music in Paris. The perform-
ances of detached pieces taken from the German master's works
did not, however, satisfy him, and he matured the project to
produce Lohengrin, which at that time had not been heard in
Paris. For this purpose he took the Eden Theatre, and on the
3rd of May 1887 he conducted the first performance of Wagner's
opera in the French capital. Owing to the opposition of the
Chauvinists, the performance was not repeated; but it doubtless
prepared the. way for the production of the same masterpiece
at the Paris Opera a few years later. Lamoureux was successively
second chef d'orchestre at the Conservatoire, first chef d'orchestre
at the Opera Comique, and twice first chef d'orchestre at the
Opera. He visited London on several occasions, and gave
successful concerts at the Queen's Hall. Lamoureux died at
Paris on the 2ist of December 1899. Tristan und Isolde had
been at last heard in Paris, owing to his initiative and under
his direction. After conducting one of the performances of this
masterpiece he was taken ill and succumbed in a few days;
having had the consolation before his death of witnessing the
triumph of the cause he had so courageously championed.
LAMP (from Gr. Xa/wrdj, a torch, Xo^tTreti', to shine), the general
term for an apparatus in which some combustible substance,
generally for illuminating purposes, is held. Lamps are usually
associated with lighting, though the term is also employed in
connexion with heating (e.g. spirit-lamp); and as now employed
for oil, gas and electric light, they are dealt with in the article
on LIGHTING. From the artistic point of view, in modern times,
their variety precludes detailed reference here; but their archaeo-
logical history deserves a fuller account.
Ancient Lamps. — Though Athenaeus states (xv. 700) that the
lamp (\irxvos) was not an ancient invention in Greece, it had
come into general use there for domestic purposes by the 4th
century B.C., and no doubt had long before been employed
for temples or other places where a permanent light was required
in room of the torch of Homeric times. Herodotus (ii. 62)
sees nothing strange in the " festival of lamps," Lychnokaie,
which was held at Sais in Egypt, except in the vast number of
them. Each was filled with oil so as to burn the whole night.
Again he speaks of evening as the time of lamps (irtpi MXVCW,
vii. 215). Still, the scarcity of lamps in a style anything like
that of an early period, compared with the immense number of
them from the late Greek and Roman age, seems to justify
the remark of Athenaeus. The commonest sort of domestic
lamps were of terra-cotta and of the shape seen in figs, i and 2
with a spout or nozzle (jjMKrrip) in which the wick (0pi;aXXij)
burned, a round hole on the top to pour in oil by, and a handle
to carry the lamp with. A lamp with two or more spouts was
dinv^os, Tpi/j.v!;os, &c., but these terms would not apply
strictly to the large class of lamps with numerous holes for wicks
but without nozzles.
Decoration was con-
fined to the front of
the handle, or more
commonly to the
circular space on the
top of the lamp, and
it consisted almost
always of a design in
relief, taken from
mythology or legend,
from objects of daily
life or scenes such as
displays of gladiators
or chariot races,
from animals and
the chase. A lamp in the British Museum has a view of the
interior of a Roman circus with spectators looking on at a
chariot race. In other cases the lamp is made altogether of a
fantastic shape, as in the form of an animal, a bull's head, or a
human foot. Naturally colour was excluded from the ornamenta-
tion except in the form of a red or black glaze, which would
resist the heat. The typical form of hand lamp (figs, i, 2) is a
combination of the flatness necessary for carrying steady and
remaining steady when set dcwn, with the roundness evolved
from the working in clay and characteristic of vessels in that
material. In the bronze lamps this same type is retained,
though the roundness was less in keeping with metal. Fanciful
shapes are equally common in bronze. The standard form of
handle consists of a ring for the forefinger and above it a kind
FIG. 2.
FIG. 3.
of palmette for the thumb. Instead of the palmette is sometimes
a crescent, no doubt in allusion to the moon. It would only be
with bronze lamps that the cover protecting the flame from
the wind could be used, as was the case out of doors in Athens.
Such a lamp was in fact a lantern. Apparently it was to the
lantern that the Greek word lampas, a torch, was first transferred,
probably from a custom of having guards to protect the torches
also. Afterwards it came to be employed for the lamp itself
(\V\V<K, lucerna). When Juvenal (Sat. iii. 277) speaks of the
aenea lampas, he may mean a torch with a bronze handle, but
more probably either a lamp or a lantern. Lamps used for
suspension were mostly of bronze, and in such cases the decora-
tion was on the under part, so as to be seen from below. Of
this the best example is the lamp at Cortona, found there in
LAMP-BLACK— LAMPEDUSA
133
1840 (engraved, Monumenti d. inst. arch. iii. pis. 41, 42, and in
Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Elruria, 2nd ed. ii. p. 403).
It is set round with sixteen nozzles ornamented alternately
with a siren and a satyr playing on a double flute. Between
each pair of nozzles is a head of a river god, and on the bottom
of the lamp is a large mask of Medusa, surrounded by bands of
animals. These designs are in relief, and the workmanship,
FIG. 4. — Bronze Lamp in British Museum.
which appears to belong to the beginning of the 5th century
B.C., justifies the esteem in which Etruscan lamps were held in
antiquity (Athenaeus xv. 700). Of a later but still excellent
style is a bronze lamp in the British Museum found in the baths
of Julian in Paris (figs. 3,4, 5). The chain is attached by means
of two dolphins very artistically combined. Under the nozzles
are heads of Pan (fig. 3); and from the sides project the fore-
parts of lions (fig. 5). To what
extent lamps may have been used
in temples is unknown. Probably
the Erechtheum on the acropolis
of Athens was an exception in
having a gold one kept burning
day and night, just as this lamp
itself must have been an exception
in its artistic merits. It was the
work of the sculptor Callimachus,
and was made apparently for the
newly rebuilt temple a little before
400 B.C. When once filled with
oil and lit it burned continu-
ously for a whole year. The wick
was of a fine flax called Carpasian (now understood to have been
a kind of cotton), which proved to be the least combustible of all
flax (Pausanias i. 26. 7). Above the lamp a palm tree of bronze
rose to the roof for the purpose of carrying off the fumes. But
how this was managed it is not easy to determine unless the
palm be supposed to have been inverted and to have hung above
the lamp spread out like a reflector, for which purpose the polished
bronze would have served fairly well. The stem if left hollow
would collect the fumes and carry them out through the roof.
FIG. 5.
This kmp was refilled on exactly the same day each year, so
that there seems to have been an idea of measuring time by it,
such as may also have been the case in regard to the lamp stand
(\lrxvaov) capable of holding as many lamps as there were
days of the year, which Dionysius the Sicilian tyrant placed in
the Prytaneum of Tarentum. At Pharae in Achaia there was
in the market-place an oracular statue of Hermes with a marble
altar before it to which bronze lamps were attached by means
of lead. Whoever desired to consult the statue went there in
the evening and first filled the lamps and lit them, placing also
a bronze coin on the altar. A similar custom prevailed at the
oracle of Apis in Egypt (Pausanias vii. 22. 2). At Argos he speaks
of a chasm into which it was a custom continued to his time
to let down burning lamps, with some reference to the goddess
of the lower world, Persephone (ii. 22. 4). At Cnidus a large
number of terra-cotta lamps were found crowded in one place
a little distance below the surface, and it was conjectured that
there must have been there some statue or altar at which it had
been a custom to leave lamps burning at night (Newton, Dis-
coveries at Halicarnassus, &c., ii. 394). These lamps are of
terra-cotta, but with little ornamentation, and so like each other
in workmanship that they must all have come from one pottery,
and may have been all brought to the spot where they were
found on one occasion, probably the funeral of a person with
many friends, or the celebration of a festival in his honour,
such as the parentalia among the Romans, to maintain which
it was a common custom to bequeath property. For example,
a marble slab in the British Museum has a Latin inscription
describing the property which had been left to provide among
other things that a lighted lamp with incense on it should be
placed at the tomb of the deceased on the kalends, nones and
ides of each month (Mus. Marbles, v. pi. 8, fig. 2). For birthday
presents terra-cotta lamps appear to have been frequently
employed, the device generally being that of two figures of
victory holding between them a disk inscribed with a good
wish for the new year: ANNV NOV FAVSTV FELIX. This is
the inscription on a lamp in the British Museum, which besides
the victories has among other symbols a disk with the head of
Janus. As the torch gave way to the lamp in fact, so also it
gave way in mythology. In the earlier myths, as in that of
Demeter, it is a torch with which she goes forth to search for
her daughter, but in the late myth of Cupid and. Psyche it is an
oil lamp which Psyche carries, and from which to her grief a
drop of hot oil falls on Cupid and awakes him. Terra-cotta
lamps have very frequently the name of the maker stamped on
the foot. Clay moulds from which the lamps were made exist
in considerable numbers. (A. S. M.)
LAMP-BLACK, a deep black pigment consisting of carbon
in a very fine state of division, obtained by the imperfect com-
bustion of highly carbonaceous substances. It is manufactured
from scraps of resin and pitch refuse and inferior oils and fats,
and other similar combustible bodies rich in carbon, the finest
lamp-black being procured by the combustion of oils obtained
in coal-tar distillation (see COAL-TAR) . Lamp-black is extensively
used in the manufacture of printing ink, as a pigment for oil
painting and also for " ebonizing " cabinet work, and in the
waxing and lacquering of leather. It is the principal constituent
of China ink.
LAMPEDUSA, a small island in the Mediterranean, belonging
to the province of Girgenti, from which it is about 112 m. S.S.W.
Pop. (1901, with Linosa — see below) 2276. Its greatest length is
about 7 m., its greatest width about 2 m.; the highest point
is 400 ft. above sea-level. Geologically it belongs to Africa,
being situated on the edge of the submarine platform which
extends along the east coast of Tunisia, from which (at Mahadia)
it is 90 m. distant eastwards. The soil is calcareous; it was
covered with scrub (chiefly the wild olive) until comparatively
recent times, but this has been cut, and the rock is now bare.
The valleys are, however, fairly fertile. On the south, near the
only village, is the harbour, which has been dredged to a depth
of 13 ft. and is a good one for torpedo boats and small craft.
The island was, as remains of hut foundations show, inhabited
LAMPERTHEIM— LAMPREY
in prehistoric times. Punic tombs and Roman buildings also
exist near the harbour. The island is the Lopadusa of Strabo,
and the Lipadosa of Ariosto's Orlando Furioso, the scene of the
landing of Roger of Sicily and of his conversion by the hermit.
A thousand slaves were taken from its population in 1553.
In 1436 it was given by Alfonso of Aragon to Don Giovanni
de Caro, baron of Montechiaro. In 1661, Ferdinand Tommasi,
its then owner, received the title of prince from Charles II. of
Spain. In 1737 the earl of Sandwich found only one inhabitant
upon it; in 1760 some French settlers established themselves
there. Catherine II. of Russia proposed to buy it as a Russian
naval station, and the British government thought of doing
the same if Napoleon had succeeded in seizing Malta. In 1800
a part of it was leased to Salvatore Gatt of Malta, who in 1810
sublet part of it to Alessandro Fernandez. In 1843 onwards
Ferdinand II. of Naples established a colony there. There is
now an Italian penal colony for domicilio coatto, with some 400
convicts (see B. Sanvisente, L '1 sola di Lampedusa eretta a
colonia, Naples, 1849). Eight miles W. is the islet of Lampione.
Linosa, some 30 m. to the N.N.E., measures about 2 by 2 m.,
and is entirely volcanic; its highest point is 610 ft. above sea-
level. Pop. (1901) about 200. It has landing-places on the S.
and W., and is more fertile than Lampedusa; but it suffers from
the lack of springs. Sanvisente says the water in Lampedusa
is good. A few fragments of undoubtedly Roman pottery and
some Roman coins have been found there, but the cisterns and
the ruins of houses are probably of later date (P. Calcara,
Descrizione dell' isola di Linosa, Palermo, 1851, 29). (T. As.)
LAMPERTHEIM, a town in the grand-duchy of Hesse-
Darmstadt, 8 m. N. from Mannheim by the railway to Frankfort-
on-Main via Biblis, and at the junction of lines to Worms and
Weinheim. It contains a Roman Catholic church and a fine
Evangelical church, and has chemical and cigar factories. Pop.
(1900) 8020.
LAMPETER (Llanbedr-pont-Stephan), a market town, muni-
cipal borough and assize town of Cardiganshire, Wales, on
the right bank of the Teifi, here crossed by an ancient stone
bridge. Pop. (1901) 1722. Lampeter is a station on the so-
called Manchester-and-Milford branch line of the Great Western
railway. Though of ancient origin, the town is entirely modern
in appearance, its most conspicuous object being the Gothic
buildings of St. David's College, founded in 1822, which cover
a large area and contain a valuable library of English, Welsh
and foreign works (see UNIVERSITIES). The modernized parish
church of St Peter, or Pedr, contains some old monuments of
the Lloyd family. North of the town are the park and mansion
of Falcondale, the seat of the Harford family.
The name of Llanbedr-pont-Stephan goes to prove the early
foundation of the place by St Pedr, a Celtic missionary of the
6th century, while one Stephen was the original builder of the
bridge over the Teifi. As an important outpost in the upper
valley of the Teifi, Lampeter possessed a castle, which was
demolished by Owen Gwynedd in the I2th century. In 1188
the town was visited by Archbishop Baldwin on his way from
Cardigan to Strata-Florida Abbey, and the Crusade was vigor-
ously preached at this spot. Lampeter was first imcorporated
under Edward II., but the earliest known charter dates from
the reign of Henry VI., whereby the principal officer of the town,
a portreeve, was to be appointed annually at the court -leet of
the manor. The town was subsequently governed under a
confirmatory charter of 1814, but in 1884 a new charter was
obtained, whereby the corporation was empowered to consist
of a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Although only a
small agricultural centre, Lampeter has since 1886 become the
assize town of Cardiganshire owing to its convenient position.
Until the Redistribution Act of 1885 Lampeter formed one of
the group of boroughs comprising the Cardigan parliamentary
district.
LAMPOON, a virulent satire either in prose or verse; the
idea of injustice and unscrupulousness seems to be essential
to its definition. Although in its use the word is properly and
almost exclusively English, the derivation appears to be French.
Littre derives it from a term of Parisian argot, lamper, to drink
greedily, in great mouthfuls. This word appears to have begun
to be prevalent in the middle of the I7th century, and Furetiere
has preserved a fragment from a popular song, which says: —
Jacques fuyant de Dublin
Dit 4 Lauzun, son cousin,
" Prenez soin de ma couronne,
J'aurai soin de ma personne,
Lampons! lampons! "
— that is to say, let us drink heavily, and begone dull care.
Scarron speaks of a wild troop, singing leridas and lampons.
There is, also, a rare French verb, lamponner, to attack with
ridicule, used earlier in the i7th century by Brant6me. In its
English form, lampoon, the word is used by Evelyn in 1645,
" Here they still paste up their drolling lampoons and scurrilous
papers," and soon after it is a verb, — " suppose we lampooned
all the pretty women in Town." Both of these forms, the noun
and the verb, have been preserved ever since in English, without
modification, for violent and reckless literary censure. Tom
Brown (1663-1704) was a past master in the art of lampooning,
and some of his attacks on the celebrities of his age have a
certain vigour. When Dryden became a Roman Catholic, Brown
wrote: —
Traitor to God and rebel to thy pen,
Priest-ridden Poet, perjured son of Ben,
If ever thou prove honest, then the nation
May modestly believe in transubstantiation.
Several of the heroes of the Dunciad, and in particular John
Oldmixon (1673-1742), were charged without unfairness with
being professional lampooners. The coarse diatribes which were
published by Richard Savage (1697-1743), mainly against Lady
Macclesfield, were nothing more nor less than lampoons, and
the word may with almost equal justice be employed to describe
the coarser and more personal portions of the satires of Churchill.
As a rule, however, the lampoon possessed no poetical graces,
and in its very nature was usually anonymous. The notorious
Essay on Woman (1764) of John Wilkes was a lampoon, and
was successfully proceeded against as an obscene libel. The
progress of civilization and the discipline of the law made it
more and more impossible for private malice to take the form
of baseless and scurrilous attack, and the lampoon, in its open
shape, died of public decency in the i8th century. Malice,
especially in an anonymous form, and passing in manuscript
from hand to hand, has continued, however, to make use of this
very unlovely form of literature. It has constantly reappeared
at times of political disturbance, and the French have seldom
failed to exercise their wicked wit upon their unpopular rulers.
See also PASQUINADE. (E. G.)
LAMPREY, a fish belonging to the family Pelromyzontidae
(from irerpos and Aiufw, literally, stone-suckers), which with the
hag-fishes or Myxinidae forms a distinct subclass of fishes,
the Cydostomata, distinguished by the low organization of their
skeleton, which is cartilaginous, without vertebral segmentation,
without ribs or real jaws, and without limbs. The lampreys
are readily recognized by their long, eel-like, scaleless body,
terminating anteriorly in the circular, suctorial mouth character-
istic of the whole sub-class. On each side, behind the head,
there is a row of seven branchial openings, through which the
water is conveyed to and from the gills. By means of their
mouth they fasten to stones, boats, &c., as well as to other
fishes, their object being to obtain a resting-place on the former,
whilst they attach themselves to the latter to derive nourishment
from them. The inner surface of their cup-shaped mouth is
armed with pointed teeth, with which they perforate the integu-
ments of the fish attacked, scraping off particles of the flesh
and sucking the blood. Mackerel, cod, pollack and flat-fishes
are the kinds most frequently attacked by them in the sea;
of river-fish the migratory Salmonidae and the shad are some-
times found with the marks of the teeth of the lamprey, or with
the fish actually attached to them. About fifteen species are
known from the coasts and rivers of the temperate regions of
the northern and southern hemispheres. In Great Britain and
Europe generally three species occur, viz. the large spotted
LAMPROPHYRES
sea-lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), the river-lamprey or
lampern (P. fluviatilis) , and the small lampern or " pride "
or " sand-piper " (P. branchialis). The first two are migratory,
entering rivers in the spring to spawn; of the river-lamprey,
however, specimens are met with in fresh water all the year
round. In North America about ten species of lamprey occur,
while in South America and Australasia still others are found.
Lampreys, especially the sea-lamprey, are esteemed as food,
formerly more so than at present; but their flesh is not easy
of digestion. Henry I. of England is said to have fallen a victim
to this, his favourite dish. The species of greatest use is the
river-lamprey, which as bait is preferred to all others in the
cod and turbot fisheries of the North Sea. Yarrell states that
formerly the Thames alone supplied from 1,000,000 to 1,200,000
lamperns annually, but their number has so much fallen off
that, for instance, in 1876 only 40,000 were sold to the cod-
fishers. That year, however, was an unusually bad year; the
lamperns, from their scarcity, fetched £8, 103. a thousand,
whilst in ordinary years £5 is considered a fair price. The season
for catching 'amperns closes in the Thames about the middle
of March. The origin of the name lamprey is obscure; it is an
adaptation of Fr. lamproie, Med. Lat. lampreda; this has been
taken as a variant of another Med. Lat. form Lampetra, which
occurs in ichthyological works of the middle ages; the derivation
from lambere petras, to lick stones, is a specimen of etymological
ingenuity. The development of lampreys has received much
attention on the part of naturalists, since Aug. Miiller discovered
that they undergo a metamorphosis, and that the minute
worm-like lamperns previously known under the name of
Ammocoetes, and abundant in the sand and mud of many streams,
were nothing but the undeveloped young of the river-lampreys
and small lamperns. See CYCLOSTOMATA.
LAMPROPHYRES (from Gr. Xa/nrpos, bright, and the terminal
part of the word porphyry, meaning rocks containing bright
porphyritic crystals), a group of rocks containing phenocrysts,
usually of biotite and hornblende (with bright cleavage surfaces),
often also of olivine and augite, but not of felspar. They are
thus distinguished from the porphyries and porphyrites in which
the felspar has crystallized in two generations. They are essenti-
ally " dike rocks," occurring as dikes and thin sills, and are
also found as marginal facies of plutonic intrusions. They furnish
a good example of the correlation which often exists between
petrographical types and their mode of occurrence, showing
the importance of physical conditions in determining the minera-
logical and structural characters of rocks. They are usually
dark in colour, owing to the abundance of ferro-magnesian
silicates, of relatively high specific gravity and liable to decom-
position. For these reasons they have been defined as a melano-
crale series (rich in the dark minerals); and they are often
accompanied by a complementary leucocrate series (rich in the
white minerals felspar and quartz) such as aplites, porphyries
and felsites. Both have been produced by differentiation of
a parent magma, and if the two complementary sets of rocks
could be mixed in the right proportions, it is presumed that a
mass of similar chemical composition to the parent magma
would be produced.
Both in the hand specimens and in microscopic slides of
lamprophyric rocks biotite and hornblende are usually con-
spicuous. Though black by reflected light they are brown by
transmitted light and highly pleochroic. In some cases they
are yellow-brown, in other cases chestnut-brown and reddish
brown; in the same rock the two minerals have strikingly
similar colour and pleochroism. Augite, when it occurs, is
sometimes green, at other times purple. Felspar is restricted
to the ground mass; quartz occurs sometimes but is scarce.
Although porphyritic structure is almost universal, it is some-
times not very marked. The large biotites and hornblendes
are not sharply distinct from those of intermediate size, which
in turn graduate into the small crystals of the same minerals
in the ground mass. As a rule all the ingredients have rather
perfect crystalline forms (except quartz) , hence these rocks have
been called " panidiomorphic." In many lamprophyres the pale
quartz and felspathic ingredients tend to occur in rounded
spots, or ocelli, in which there has been progressive crystalliza-
tion from the margins towards the centre. These spots may
consist of radiate or brush-like felspars (with some mica and
hornblende) or of quartz and felspar. A central area of quartz
or of analcite probably represents an original miarolitic cavity
infilled at a later period.
There are two great groups of lamprophyres differing in com-
position while retaining the general features of the class. One
of these accompanies intrusions of granite and diorite and
includes the minettes, kersantites, vogesites and spessartites.
The other is found in association with nepheline syenites,
essexites and teschenites, and is exemplified by camptonites,
monchiquites and alnoites. The complementary facies of the
first group is the aplites, porphyrites and felsites; that of the
second group includes bostonites, tinguaites and other rocks.
The granito-dioritic-lamprophyres (the first of these two groups) are
found in many districts where granites and diorites occur, e.g. the
Scottish Highlands and Southern Uplands, the Lake district, Ireland,
the Vosges, Black Forest, Harz, &c. As a rule they do not proceed
directly from the granite, but form separate dikes which may be
later than, and consequently may cut, the granites and diorites.
In other districts where granites are abundant no rocks of this class
are known. It is rare to find only one member of the group present,
but minettes, vogesites, kersantites, &c., all appear and there are
usually transitional forms. For this reason these rock species must
not be regarded as sharply distinct from one another. The group
as a whole is a well-characterized one and shows few transitions to
porphyries, porphyrites and other dike types; its subdivisions,
however, tend to merge into one another and especially when they
are weathered are hard to differentiate. The presence or absence of
the four dominant minerals, orthoclase, plagioclase, biotite and
hornblende, determines the species. Minettes contain biotite and
orthoclase; kersantites, biot'te and plagioclase. Vogesites contain
hornblende and orthoclase; spessartites, hornblende and plagio-
clase. Each variety of lamprophyre may and often does contain
all four minerals but is named according to the two which pre-
ponderate. These rocks contain also iron oxides (usually titanifer-
ous), apatite, sometimes sphene, augite and olivine. The hornblende
and biotite are brown or greenish brown, and as a rule their crystals
even when small are very perfect and give the micro-sections an
easily recognizable character. Green hornblende occurs in some of
these rocks. The augite builds eumorphic crystals of pale green
colour, often zonal and readily weathering. Olivine in the fresh
state is rare; it forms rounded, corroded grains; in many cases it
is decomposed to green or colourless hornblende in radiating nests
(pilite). The plagioclase occurs as small rectangular crystals;
orthoclase may have similar shapes or may be fibrous and grouped in
sheaflike aggregates which are narrow in the middle and spread out
towards both ends. If quartz is present it is the last product of
crystallization and the only mineral devoid of idiomorphism ; it fills
up the spaces between the other ingredients of the rock. As all
lamprophyres are prone to alteration by weathering a great abund-
ance of secondary minerals is usually found in them ; the principal
are calcite and other carbonates, limonite, chlorite, quartz and
kaolin.
Ocellar structure is common; the ocelli consist mainly of ortho-
clase and quartz, and may be a quarter of an inch in diameter.
Another feature of these rocks is the presence of large foreign crystals
or xenocrysts of felspar and of quartz. Their forms are rounded,
indicating partial resorption by the solvent action of the lamprophyric
magma ; and the quartz may be surrounded by corrosion borders of
minerals such as augite and hornblende produced where the magma
is attacking the crystal. These crystals are of doubtful origin ; they
are often of considerable size and may be conspicuous in hand-
specimens of the rocks. It is supposed that they did not crystallize
in the lamprophyre dike but in some way were caught up by it.
Other enclosures, more certainly of foreign origin, are often seen, such
as quartzite, schists, garnetiferous rocks, granite, &c. These may
be baked and altered or in other cases partly dissolved. Cordierite
may be formed either in the enclosure or in the lamprophyre, where
it takes the shape of hexagonal prisms which in polarized light break
up into six sectors, triangular in shape, diverging from the centre of
the crystal.
The second group of lamprophyric dike rocks (the camplonite,
monchiquile, alnoile series) is much less common than those above
described. As a rule they occur together, and there are transitions
between the different sub-groups as in the granito-dioritic lampro-
ghyres. In Sweden, Brazil, Portugal, Norway, the north of Scotland,
ohemia, Arkansas and other places this assemblage of rock types
has been met with, always presenting nearly identical features. In
most cases, though not in all, they have a close association with
nepheline or leucite syenites and similar rocks rich in alkalies. This
indicates a genetic affinity like that which exists between the granites
and the minettes, &c., and further proof of this connexion is furnished
136
LAMPSAC US— LANARKSHIRE
by the occasional occurrence in those lamprophyres of leucite, hauyne
and other felspathoid minerals.
The camptonites (called after Campton, New Hampshire) are dark
brown, nearly black rocks often with large hornblende phenocrysts.
Their essential minerals in thin section are hornblende of a strong
reddish-brown colour; augite purple, pleochroic and rich in titanium,
olivine and plagioclase felspar. They have the porphyritic and
panidiomorphic structures described in the rocks of the previous
group, and like them also have an ocellar character, often very con-
spicuous under the microscope. The accessory minerals are biotite,
apatite, iron oxides and analcite. They decompose readily and are
then filled with carbonates. Many of these rocks prove on analysis
to be exceedingly rich in titanium ; they may contain 4 or 5 % of
titanium dioxide.
The monchiquites (called after the Serra de Monchique, Portugal)
are fine-grained and devoid of felspar. Their essential constituents
are olivine and purplish augite. Brown hornblende, like that of the
camptonites, occurs in many of them. An interstitial substance is
present, which may sometimes be a brown glass, but at other times
is colourless and is believed by some petrographers to be primary
crystalline analcite. They would define the monchiquites as rocks
consisting of olivine, augite and analcite; others regard the analcite
as secondary, and consider the base as essentially glassy. Some
monchiquites contain hauyne; while in others small leucites are
found. Ocellar structure is occasionally present, though less marked
than in the camptonites. A special group of monchiquites rich in
deep brown biotite has been called fourchites (after the Fourche
Mountains, Arkansas).
The alnoites (called after the island of Alno in Norway) are rare
rocks found in Norway, Montreal and other parts of North America
and in the north of Scotland. They contain olivine, augite, brown
biotite and melilite. They are free from felspar, and contain very
low percentages of silica.
The chemical composition of some of these rocks will be indicated
by the analyses of certain well-known examples.
SiO2
TiO2
A1203
Fe2O3
FeO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
KiO
I.I
52-70
1-71
15-07
8-41
7-23
5-33
3-12
4-81
II.
52-12
i -20
13-52
2-56
4-53
6-36
,S-7»
2-34
5-36
111.
45-15
15-39
2-76
5-64
6-38
8-83
2-67
2-77
IV.
54-67
12-68
11-68
2-13
6-n
4-96
3-85
3-65
V.
41-96
4- 15
I5-36
3-27
9-89
5-01
9-47
5-15
0-19
VI.
43-74
2-80
14-82
2-40
7-52
6-98
10-81
3-06
2-90
VII.
29-25
2-54
8-80
3-92
5-42
17-66
17-86
0-77
2-45
In addition to the oxides given these rocks contain small quantities
of water (combined and hygroscopic), CO2, S, MnO, PiQt, Ca2O3, &c.
(J. S. F.)
LAMPSACUS, an ancient Greek colony in Mysia, Asia Minor,
known as Pityusa or Pilyussa before its colonization by Ionian
Greeks from Phocaea and Miletus, was situated on the Hellespont,
opposite Callipolis (Gallipoli) in Thrace. It possessed a good
harbour; and the neighbourhood was famous for its wine, so
that, having fallen into the hands of the Persians during the Ionian
revolt, it was assigned by Artaxerxes I. to Themistocles to provide
him with wine, as Percote did with meat and Magnesia with
bread. After the battle of Mycale (479 B.C.), Lampsacus joined
the Athenians, but, having revolted from them in 411, was
reduced by force. It was defended in 196 B.C. against Antiochus
the Great of Syria, after which its inhabitants were received
as allies of Rome. Lampsacus was the chief seat of the worship
of Priapus, a gross nature-god closely connected with the culture
of the vine. The ancient name is preserved in that of the modern
village of Lapsaki, but the Greek town possibly lay at Chardak
immediately opposite Gallipoli.
See A. L. Castellan, Lettres sur la Moree, V Hellespont, &c. (Paris,
1820); Choiseul Gouffier, Voyage pittoresque dans I' empire ottoman
(1842).
LAMPSTAND, a pillar, tripod or figure extending to the
floor for supporting or holding a lamp. The lampstand (lampa-
dere) is probably of French origin; it appears to have been in
use in France before the end of the I7th century.
LANARK, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and county
town of Lanarkshire, Scotland, standing on high ground about
half a mile from the right bank of the Clyde, 31 m. S.E. of
Glasgow by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 6440. It is
1 1. Minette (Weiler, Alsace). II. Kersantite (Neubrunn, Thur-
ingia). III. Vogesite (Castle Mountain, Montana). IV. Spes-
sartite (Waldmichael, Spessart). V. Camptonite (Campton Falls).
VI. Monchiquite (Ria do Ouro, Serra de Tingua). VII. Alnoite (Alno,
Sweden).
a favourite holiday resort, being the point from which the falls
of the Clyde are usually visited. The principal buildings are
the town hall, the county buildings, the assembly rooms, occupy-
ing the site of an old Franciscan monastery, three hospitals, a
convalescent home, the Smyllum orphanage and the Queen
Victoria Jubilee fountain. The industries include cotton-spin-
ning, weaving, nail-making and oilworks, and there are frequent
markets for cattle and sheep. Lanark is a place of considerable
antiquity. Kenneth II. held a parliament here in 978, and it
was sometimes the residence of the Scottish kings, one of whom,
William the Lion (d. 1214), granted it a charter. Several of
the earlier exploits of William Wallace were achieved in the
neighbourhood. He burned the town and slew the English
sheriff William Hezelrig. About i m. N.W. are Cartland
Craigs, where Mouse Water runs through a precipitous red
sandstone ravine, the sides of which are about 400 ft. high.
The stream is crossed by a bridge of single span, supposed to be
Roman, and by a three-arched bridge, designed by Thomas
Telford and erected in 1823. On the right bank, near this bridge,
is the cave in which Wallace concealed himself after killing
Hezelrig and which still bears his name. Lanark was the centre
of much activity in the days of the Covenanters. William Lithgow
(1582-1645), the traveller, William Smellie (1697-1763), the
obstetrician and Gavin Hamilton (1730-1797), the painter,
were born at Lanark. The town is one of the Falkirk district
group of parliamentary burghs, the other constituents being
Airdrie, Hamilton, Falkirk and Linlithgow.
New Lanark (pop. 795), i m. S., is famous in connexion
with the socialist experiments of Robert Owen. The village
was founded by David Dale (1739-1806) in 1785, with the support
of Sir Richard Arkwright, inventor of the spinning-frame, who
thought the spot might be made the Manchester of Scotland.
In ten years four cotton mills were running, employing nearly
1400 hands. They were sold in 1799 to a Manchester company,
who appointed Owen manager. In the same year he married
Dale's daughter. For many years the mills were successfully
conducted, but friction ultimately arose and Owen retired in
1828. The mills, however, are still carried on.
There are several interesting places near Lanark. Braxfield, on
the Clyde, gave the title of Lord Braxfield to Robert Macqueen ( 1 722-
r799)i who was born in the mansion and acquired on the bench the
character of the Scottish Jeffreys. Robert Baillie, the patriot who
was executed for conscience' sake (1684), belonged to Jerviswood, an
estate on the Mouse. Lee House, the home of the Lockharts, is 3 m.
N.W. The old castle was largely rebuilt in the igth century. It
contains some fine tapestry and portraits, and the Lee Penny —
familiar to readers of Sir Walter Scott's Talisman — which was brought
from Palestine in the mh century by the Crusading knight, Sir
Simon Lockhart. It is described as a cornelian encased in a silver
coin. Craignethan Castle on the Nethan, a left-hand tributary joining
the Clyde at Crossford, is said to be the original of the " Tillietudlem "
of Scott's Old Mortality.
LANARKSHIRE, a south-western county of Scotland,
bounded N. by the shires of Dumbarton and Stirling, E. by
Linlithgowshire, Mid-Lothian and Peeblesshire, S. by Dumfries-
shire and W. by the counties of Ayr, Renfrew and Dumbarton.
Its area is 879 sq. m. (562,821 acres). It may be described as
embracing the valley of the Clyde; and, in addition to the gradual
descent from the high land in the south, it is also characterized
by a gentle slope towards both banks of the river. The shire is
divided into three wards, the Upper, comprising all the southern
section, or more than half the whole area (over 330,000 acres);
the Middle, with Hamilton for its chief town, covering fully
190,000 acres; and the Lower, occupying the northern area
of about 40,000 acres. The surface falls gradually from the
uplands in the south to the Firth of Clyde. The highest hills
are nearly all on or close to the borders of Peeblesshire and
Dumfriesshire, and include Culter Fell (2454 ft.) and Lowther
Hill (2377). The loftiest heights exclusively belonging to
Lanarkshire are Green Lowther (2403), Tinto (2335), Ballen-
cleuch Law (2267), Rodger Law (2257), Dun Law (2216), Shiel
Dod (2190), Dungrain Law (2186) and. Comb Law (2107).
The principal rivers are the Clyde and its head waters and
affluents (on the right, the Medwin, Mouse, South Colder, North
LANARKSHIRE
137
Calder and Kelvin; on the left, the Douglas, Nethan, Avon,
Rotten Calder and Cart). There are no lochs of considerable
size, the few sheets of water in the north— Woodend Reservoir,
Bishop Loch, Hogganfield Loch, Woodend Loch, Lochend
Loch — mainly feeding the Monkland and the Forth and Clyde
Canals. The most famous natural features are the Falls of
Clyde at Bonnington, Corra, Dundaff and Stonebyres.
Geology. — The southern upland portion is built up of Silurian and
Ordovician rocks; the northern lower-lying tracts are formed of
Carboniferous and Old Red Sandstone rocks. Ordovician strata
cross the county from S.W. to N.E. in a belt 5-7 m. in breadth which
is brought up by a fault against the Old Red and the Silurian on
the northern side. This fault runs by Lamington, Roberton and
Crawfordjphn. The Ordovician rocks lie in a synclinal fold with
beds of Caradoc age in the centre flanked by graptolitic shales,
grits and conglomerates, including among the last-named the local
" Haggis-rock "; the well-known lead mines of Leadhills are worked
in these formations. Silurian shales and sandstones, &c., extend
south of the Ordovician belt to the county boundary ; and again, on
the northern side of the Ordovician belt two small tracts appear
through the Old Red Sandstone on the crests of anticlinal folds.
The Old Red Sandstone covers an irregular tract north of the Ordo-
vician belt ; a lower division consisting of sandstone, conglomerates
and mud-stones is the most extensively developed; above this is
found a series of contemporaneous porphyrites and melaphyres, con-
formable upon the lower division in the west of the county but are not
so in the east. An upper series of sandstones and grits is seen for
a short distance west of Lamington. Lanark stands on the Old Red
Sandstone and the Falls of Clyde occur in the same rocks. Economic-
ally the most important geological feature is the coal basin of the
Glasgow district. The axis of this basin lies in a N.E.-S.W. direc-
tion; in the central part, including Glasgow, Airdrie, Motherwell,
Wishaw, Carluke, lie the coal-measures, .consisting of sandstones,
shales, marls and fireclays with seams of coal and ironstone. There
are eleven beds of workable coal, the more important seams being
the Ell, Main, Splint, Pyotshaw and Virtuewell. Underlying the
coal-measures is the Millstone Grit seen on the northern side between
Glenboig and Hogganfield — here the fireclays of Garnkirk, Gartcosh
and Glenboig are worked — and on the south and south-east of the
coal-measures, but not on the western side, because it is there cut out
by a fault. Beneath the last-named formation comes the Carbon-
iferous Limestone series with thin coals and ironstones, and again
beneath this is the Calciferous Sandstone series which in the south-
east consists of sandstones, shales, &c., but in the west the greater
part of the series is composed 9f interbedded volcanic rocks —
porphyrites and melaphyres. It will be observed that in general the
younger formations lie nearer the centre of the basin and the older
ones crop out around them. Besides the volcanic rocks mentioned
there are intrusive basalts in the Carboniferous rocks like that in the
neighbourhood of Shotts, and the smaller masses at Hogganfield near
Glasgow and elsewhere. Volcanic necks are found in the Carluke and
Kilcadzow districts, marking the vents of former volcanoes and
several dikes of Tertiary age traverse the older rocks. An intrusion
of pink felsite in early Old Red times has been the cause of Tinto
Hill. Evidences of the Glacial period are abundant in the form of
kames and other deposits of gravel, sand and boulder clay. The ice
in flowing northward and southward from the higher ground took
an easterly direction when it reached the lower ground. In the lower
reaches of the Clyde the remains of old beaches at 25, 50 and 100 ft.
above the present sea-level are to be observed.
Climate and Agriculture. — The rainfall averages 42 in. annually,
being higher in the hill country and lower towards the north. The
temperature for the year averages 48° F., for January 38° and for
July 59°. The area under grain has shown a downward tendency
since 1880. Oats is the principal crop, but barley and wheat are
also grown. Potatoes and turnips are raised on a large scale. In
the Lower Ward market-gardening has increased considerably, and
the quantity of vegetables, grapes and tomatoes reared under glass
has reached great proportions. An ancient industry in the vale of
the Clyde for many miles below Lanark is the cultivation of fruit,
several of the orchards being said to date from the time of Bede.
The apples and pears are of good repute. There has been a remark-
able extension in the culture of strawberries, hundreds of acres being
laid down in beds. The sheep walks in the upper and middle wards
are heavily stocked and the herds of cattle are extensive, the favoured
breeds being Ayrshire and a cross between this and " improved
Lanark." Dairy-farming flourishes, the cheeses of Carnwath and
Lesmahagow being in steady demand. Clydesdale draught-horses are
of high class. They are supposed to have been bred from Flanders
horses imported early in the l8th century by the 5th duke of
Hamilton. Most of the horses are kept for agricultural work,_bu1
a considerable number of unbroken horses and mares are maintained
for stock. Pigs are numerous, being extensively reared by the
miners. The largest farms are situated in the Upper Ward, but the
general holding runs from 50 to 100 acres. More than 21,000 acres
are under wood.
Other Industries. — The leading industries are those in connexion
with the rich and extensive coal and iron field to the east and south-
east of Glasgow; the shipbuilding at Goyan and Partick and in
Glasgow harbour; the textiles at Airdrie, Blantyre, Hamilton,
^anark, New Lanark, Rutherglen and Glasgow; engineering at
^ambuslang, Carluke, Coatbridge, Kinning Park, Motherwell and
Wishaw, and the varied and flourishing manufactures centred in
and around Glasgow.
Communications. — In the north of the county, where population is
most dense and the mineral field exceptionally rich, railway facilities
are highly developed, there being for IO or 12 m. around Glasgow
quite a network of lines. The Caledonian Railway Company's main
me to the south runs through the whole length of the shire, sending
off branches at several points, especially at Carstairs Junction.
The North British Railway Company serves various towns in the
ower and middle wards and its lines to Edinburgh cross the north-
western corner and the north of the county. Only in the immediate
neighbourhood of Glasgow does the Glasgow and South Western
system compete for Lanarkshire traffic, though it combines with the
Caledonian to work the Mid-Lanarkshire and Ayrshire railway.
The Monkland Canal in the far north and the Forth and Clyde Canal
in the north and north-west carry a considerable amount of goods,
and before the days of railways afforded one of the principal means
of communication between east and west.
Population and Administration. — The population amounted in
1891 to 1,105,899 and in 1901 to 1,339,327. or 1523 persons to the
sq. m. Thus though only tenth in point of extent, it is much the
most populous county in Scotland, containing within its bounds
nearly one-third of the population of the country. In 1901 there
were 104 persons speaking Gaelic only, and 26,905 speaking Gaelic
and English. The chief towns, with populations in 1901, apart from
Glasgow, are Airdrie (22,288), Cambuslang (12,252), Coatbridge
(36,991), Govan (82,174), Hamilton (32,775)- Kinning Park (13,852),
Larkhall (11,879), Motherwell (30,418), Partick (54,298), Rutherglen
(17,220), Shettleston (12,154), Wishaw (20,873). Among smaller
towns are Bellshill, Carluke, Holytown, Lanark, Stonefield, Toll-
cross and Uddingston; and Lesmahagow and East Kilbride arc-
populous villages and mining centres. The county is divided into
six parliamentary divisions: — North-east, North-west, Mid and
South Lanark, Govan and Partick each returning one member.
The royal burghs are Glasgow, Lanark and Rutherglen; the
municipal and police burghs Airdrie, Biggar, Coatbridge, Glasgow,
Govan, Hamilton, Kinning Park, Lanark, Motherwell, Partick,
Rutherglen and Wishaw. Glasgow returns seven members to Parlia-
ment; Airdrie, Hamilton and Lanark belong to the Falkirk group
and Rutherglen to the Kilmarnock group of parliamentary burghs.
Lanarkshire is a sheriffdom, whose sheriff-principal is confined to his
judicial duties in the county, and he has eight substitutes, five of
whom sit constantly in Glasgow, and one each at Airdrie, Hamilton
and Lanark. The shire is under school-board jurisdiction, many
schools earning grants for higher education. For advanced educa-
tion, besides the university and many other institutions in Glasgow
there are a high school in Hamilton, and technical schools at Coat-
bridge and Wishaw. The county council expends the " residue "
grant in supporting lectures and classes in agriculture and agri-
cultural chemistry, mining, dairying, cookery, laundry work, nursery
and poultry-keeping, in paying fees and railway fares and pro-
viding bursaries for technical students, and in subsidizing science
and ait and technical classes in day and evening schools. A director
of technical education is maintained by the council. Lanark,
Motherwell and Biggar entrust their shares of the grant to the
county council, and Coatbridge and Airdrie themselves subsidize
science and art and evening classes and continuation schools.
History. — At an early period Lanarkshire was inhabited by
a Celtic tribe, the Damnonii, whose territory was divided by
the wall of Antoninus between the Forth and Clyde (remains
of which are found in the parish of Cadder) , but who were never
wholly subjugated by the Romans. Traces of their fortifications,
mounds and circles exist, while stone axes, bronze celts, querns
and urns belonging to their age are occasionally unearthed.
Of the Romans there are traces in the camp on Beattock summit
near Elvanfoot, in the fine bridge over the Mouse near Lanark,
in the road to the south of Strathaven, in the wall already
mentioned and in the coins and other relics that have been dug
up. After their departure the country which included Lanark-
shire formed part of the kingdom of Strathclyde, which, in the
7th century, was subdued by Northumbrian Saxons, when great
numbers of the Celts migrated into Wales. The county once
embraced a portion of Renfrewshire, but this was disjoined in
the time of Robert III. The shire was then divided into two
wards, the Over (with Lanark as its chief town) and the Nether
(with Rutherglen as its capital). The present division into three
wards was not effected till the i8th century. Independently
of Glasgow, Lanarkshire has not borne any part continuously
in the general history of Scotland, but has been the scene of
LANCASHIRE
several exciting episodes. Many of Wallace's daring deeds were
performed in the county, Queen Mary met her fate at Langside
(1568) and the Covenanters received constant support from
the people, defeating Claverhouse at Drumclog (1679), but
suffering defeat themselves at Both well Brig ( 1 679) .
See W. Hamilton, Description of the Sherijfdoms of Lanark and
Renfrew, Maitland Club (1831); C. V. Irving and A. Murray, The
Upper Ward of Lanarkshire (Glasgow, 1864); The Clydesdale Stud
Book (Glasgow); W. A. Cowan, History of Lanark (Lanark, 1867);
Extracts from the Records of the Burgh of Lanark (Glasgow, 1893).
LANCASHIRE, a north-western county of England, bounded
N.E. by Westmorland, E. by Yorkshire, S. by Cheshire, W.
by the Irish Sea and N.W. by Cumberland. The area is 1880-2
sq. m., the county being the sixth in size in England. The coast
is generally flat, and broken by great inlets, with wide expanses
of sandy foreshore at low tide. The chief inlets, from N. to S.,
are — the estuary of the river Duddon, which, with the river
itself, separates the county from Cumberland; Morecambe
Bay; and, the estuaries of the Kibble and the Mersey.
Morecambe Bay receives the rivers Crake and Leven in a common
estuary, and the Kent from Westmorland; while the Lune and
the Wyre discharge into Lancaster Bay, which is only partially
separated from Morecambe Bay by the promontory of Red
Nab. Morecambe Bay also detaches from the rest of the county
the district of Furness (q.v.), extending westward to the Duddon,
and having off its coast the island of Walney, 8 m. in length,
and several small isles within the strait between Walney and the
mainland. The principal seaside resorts and watering-places,
from S. to N., are Southport, Lytham, St Anne's-on-the-Sea,
Blackpool, Fleetwood and Morecambe; while at the head of
Morecambe Bay are several pleasant villages frequented by
visitors, such as Arnside and Grange. Of the rivers the Mersey
(q.v.), separating the county from Cheshire, is the principal,
and receives from Lancashire the Irwell, Sankey and other
small streams. The Kibble, which rises in the mountains of
the West Riding of Yorkshire, forms for a few miles the boundary
with that county, and then flows S.W. to Preston, receiving the
Hodder from the N. and the Calder and Darwen from the S.
Lancashire has a share in two of the English districts most
famous for their scenery, but does not include the finest part of
either. Furness, entirely hilly except for a narrow coastal
tract, extends N. to include the southern part of the Lake
District (q.v.); it contains Coniston Lake and borders Winder-
mere, which are drained respectively by the Leven and Crake,
with some smaller lakes and such mountains as the Old Man
and Wetherlam. Another elevated district, forming part of a
mountainous chain stretching from the Scottish border, covered
by the name of Pennine uplands in its broader application, runs
along the whole eastern boundary of the main portion of the
county, and to the south of the Kibble occupies more than half
the area, stretching west nearly to Liverpool. The moorlands
in the southern district are generally bleak and covered with
heather. Towards the north the scenery is frequently beautiful,
the green rounded elevated ridges being separated by pleasant
cultivated valleys variegated by woods and watered by rivers.
None of the summits of the range within Lancashire attains
an elevation of 2000 ft., the highest being Blackstone Edge
(1323 ft.), Pendle Hill (1831 ft.) and Boulsworth Hill (1700 ft.).
Along the sea-coast from the Mersey to Lancaster there is a
continuous plain formerly occupied by peat mosses, many of
which have been reclaimed. The largest is Chat Moss between
Liverpool and Manchester. In some instances these mosses
have exhibited the phenomenon of a moving bog. A large
district in the north belonging to the duchy of Lancaster was
at one time occupied by forests, but these have wholly dis-
appeared, though their existence is recalled in nomenclature,
as in the Forest of Rossendale, near the Yorkshire boundary
somewhat south of the centre.
Geology. — The greater part of Lancashire, the central and eastern
portions, is occupied by Carboniferous rocks ; a broad belt of Triassic
strata fringes the west and south; while most of the detached
northern portion is made up of Silurian and Ordovician formations.
The Carboniferous system includes the great coal-field in which
are gathered all the principal manufacturing towns, Colne, Burnley,
Blackburn, Chorley, Wigan, Bolton, Preston, Oldham, Rochdale
and Manchester. In the centre of the coal-field is an elevated moor-
land tract formed of the grits and shales of the Millstone Grit series.
Part of the small coal-field of Ingleton also lies within the county.
Between these two coal basins there is a moderately hilly district
in which grits and black shales predominate, with a broad tract of
limestone and shales which are well exposed in the quarries at
Clitheroe and at Longridge, Chipping, Whalley and Downham. The
limestone again appears in the north at Bolton-le-Sands, Burton-in-
Kendall, Grange, Diversion and Dalton-in-Furness. Large pockets
of rich iron ore are worked in the limestone in the Furness district.
The belt of Trias includes the Bunter sandstone and conglomerate,
which ranges from Barrow-in-Furness, through Garstang, Preston,
Ormskirk, Liverpool, Warrington and Salford; and Keuper marls,
which underlie the surface between the Bunter outcrop and the sea.
On the coast there is a considerable development of blown sand
between Blackpool and Lytham and between Southport and Sea-
forth. North of Broughton-in-Furness, Ulverston and Cartmel are
the Silurian rocks around Lakes Windermere and Coniston Water,
including the Coniston grits and flags and the Brathay flags. These
rocks are bounded by the Ordovician Coniston limestone, ranging
north-east and south-west, and the volcanic series of Borrowdale.
A good deal of the solid geology is obscured in many places by
glacial drift, boulder clay and sands.
The available coal supply of Lancashire has been estimated at
about five thousand millions of tons. In 1852 the amount raised was
8,225,000 tons; in 1899 it was 24,387,475 tons. In the production
of coal Lancashire vies with Yorkshire, but each is about one-third
below Durham. There are also raised in large quantities — fireclay,
limestone, sandstone, slate and salt, which is also obtained from
brine. The red hematitic iron obtained in the Furness district is
very valuable, but is liable to decrease. The district also produces
a fine blue slate. Metals, excepting iron, are unimportant.
Climate and Agriculture. — The climate in the hilly districts is
frequently cold, but in the more sheltered parts lying to the south
and west it is mild and genial. From its westerly situation and the
attraction of the hills there is a high rainfall in the hilly districts
(e.g. at Bolton the average is 58-71 in.), while the average for the
other districts is about 35. The soil after reclamation and drainage
is fertile; but, as it is for the most part a strong clayey loam it
requires a large amount of labour. In some districts it is more of a
peaty nature, and in the Old Red Sandstone districts of the Mersey
there is a tract of light sandy loam, easily worked, and well adapted
for wheat and potatoes. In many districts the ground has been
rendered unfit for agricultural operations by the rubbish from
coal-pits. A low proportion (about seven-tenths) of the total area is
under cultivation, and of this nearly three-fourths is in permanent
pasture, cows being largely kept for the supply of milk to the towns,
while in the uplands many sheep are reared. In addition to the
cultivated area, about 92,000 acres are under hill pasturage. A
gradual increase is noticeable in the acreage under oats, which
occupy more than seven-tenths of the area under grain crops, and in
that under wheat, to the exclusion of the cultivation of barley. Of
green crops the potato is the chief.
Industries and Trade. — South Lancashire is the principal
seat of the cotton manufacture in the world, the trade centring
upon Manchester, Oldham and the neighbouring densely popu-
lated district. It employs upwards of 400,000 operatives.
The worsted, woollen and silk manufactures, flax, hemp and
jute industries, though of less importance, employ considerable
numbers. Non-textile factories employ about 385,000 hands.
The manufacture of machines, appliances, conveyances, tools,
&c., are very important, especially in supplying the needs of
the immense weaving and spinning industries. For the same
purpose there is a large branch of industry in the manufacture
of bobbins from the wood grown in the northern districts of the
county. Of industries principally confined to certain definite
centres there may be mentioned — the manufacture of iron and
steel at Barrow-in-Furness, a town of remarkably rapid growth
since the middle of the igth century; the great glass works
at St Helens; the watch-making works at Prescot and the
leather works at Warrington. Printing, bleaching and dyeing
works, paper and chemical, works, india-rubber and tobacco
manufactures are among the chief of the other resources of this
great industrial region. Besides the port of Liverpool, of world-
wide importance, the principal ports are Manchester, brought
into communication with the sea by the Manchester Ship
Canal opened in 1894, Barrow-in-Furness and Fleetwood,
while Preston and Lancaster have docks and a considerable
shipping trade by the rivers Lune and Ribble respectively.
The sea fisheries, for which Fleetwood and Liverpool are the
chief ports, are of considerable value.
LANCASHIRE
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Longitude Wesl 3 of Greenwich
Communications. — Apart from the Manchester Ship Canal, canal-
traffic plays an important part in the industrial region. In 1760 the
Sankey canal, 10 m. long, the first canal opened in Britain (apart
from very early works) , was constructed to carry coal from St Helens
to Liverpool. Shortly afterwards the duke of Bridgewater projected
the great canal from Manchester across the Irwell to Worsley, com-
pleted in 1761 and bearing the name of its originator. The Leeds
and Liverpool canal, begun in 1770, connects Liverpool and other
important towns with Leeds by a circuitous route of 130 m. The
other principal canals are the Rochdale, the Manchester (to Hudders-
field) and the Lancaster, connecting Preston and Kendal. A short
carnal connects Ulverston with Morecambe Bay. A network of rail-
ways covers the industrial region. The main line of the London and
North Western railway enters the county at Warrington, and runs
north through Wigan, Preston, Lancaster and Carnforth. It also
serves Liverpool and Manchester, providing the shortest route to
each of these cities from London, and shares with the Lancashire
and Yorkshire company joint lines to Southport, to Blackpool and
to Fleetwood, whence there is regular steamship communication with
Belfast. The Lancashire and Yorkshire line serves practically all
the important centres as far north as Preston and Fleetwood. All
the northern trunk lines from London have services to Manchester
and Liverpool. The Cheshire Lines system, worked by a committee
of the Great Northern, Great Central and Midland companies, links
their systems with the South Lancashire district generally, and
maintains lines between Liverpool and Manchester, both these cities
with Southport, and numerous branches. Branches of the Midland
railway from its main line in Yorkshire serve Lancaster, Morecambe,
and Heysham and Carnforth, where connexion is made with the
Furness railway to Ulverston, Barrow, Lake Side, Coniston, &c.
Population and Administration. — The area of the ancient
county is 1,203,365 acres. Its population in 1801 was 673,486;
in 1891, 3,926,760; and in 1901, 4,406,409. The area' of the
administrative county is 1,196,753 acres. The distribution of
the industrial population may be best appreciated by showing
the parliamentary divisions, parliamentary, county and muni-
cipal boroughs and urban districts as placed among the four
divisions of the ancient county. In the case of urban districts
the name of the great town to which each is near or adjacent
140
LANCASHIRE
follows where necessary. The figures show population in
1901.
NORTHERN DIVISION. — This embraces almost all the county N.
of the Kibble, including Furness, and a small area S. of the Kibble
estuary. It is considerably the largest of the divisions. Parlia-
mentary divisions, from N. to S. — North Lonsdalc, Lancaster,
Blackpool, Chorley. Parliamentary, county and municipal boroughs —
Barrow-in-Furness (57,586; one member); Preston (112,989; two
members). Municipal boroughs — Blackpool (county borough;
47. 348). Chorley (26,852), Lancaster (40,329; county town), More-
cambe (11,798). Urban districts — Adhngton (4523; Chorley),
Bispham-with-Norbreck (Blackpool), Carnforth (3040; Lancaster),
Croston (2102; Chorley), Dalton-in-Furness (13,020), Fleetwood
(12,082), Fulwood (5238; Preston), Grange (1993), Heysham (3381;
Morecambe), Kirkham (3693; Preston), Leyfand (6865; Chorley),
Longridge (4304; Preston), Lytham (7185), Poulon-le-Fylde (2223;
Blackpool), Preesall-with-Hackinsall (1423; Fleetwood), St Anne's-
pn-the-Sea (6838, a watering-place between Blackpool and Lytham),
Thornton (3108 ; Fleetwood), Ulverston (10,064, 'n Furness), Withnell
(3349 ; Chorley).
NORTH-EASTERN-DIVISION. — This lies E. of Preston, and is the
smallest of the four. Parliamentary divisions — Accrington, Clitheroe,
Darwen, Rossendale. Parliamentary, county and municipal boroughs
— Blackburn (127,626; two members); Burnley (97,043; one
member). Municipal boroughs — Accrington (43,122), Bacup (22,505),
Clitheroe (11,414), Colne (23,000), Darwen (38,212), Haslingden
(18,543, extending into South-Eastern division), Nelson (32,816),
Rawtenstall (31,053). Urban districts — Barrowford (4959; Colne),
Brierfield (7288; Burnley), Church (6463; Accrington), Clayton-le-
Moors (8153; Accrington), Great Harwood (12,015; Blackburn),
Oswaldtwistle (14,192; Blackburn), Padiham (12,205; Burnley),
Rishton (7031; Blackburn), Trawden (2641; Colne), Walton-le-
Dale (11,271; Preston).
SOUTH-WESTERN DIVISION. — This division represents roughly a
quadrant with radius of 20 m. drawn from Liverpool. Parliamentary
divisions — Bootle, Ince, Leigh, Newton, Ormskirk, Southport,
Widnes. Parliamentary boroughs — the city iand county and
municipal borough of Liverpool (684,958 ; nine members) ; the county
and municipal boroughs of St Helens (84,410; one member); Wigan
(60,764; one member), Warrington (64,242; a part only of the
parliamentary borough is in this county). Municipal boroughs —
Bootle (58,566), Leigh (40,001), Southport (county borough; 48,083),
Widnes (28,580). Urban districts — Abram (6306; Wigan), Allerton
(i 101 ; Liverpool), Ashton-in-Makerfield (18,687), Atherton (16,211),
Billinge (4232; Wigan), Birkdale (14,197; Southport), Childwall
(219; Liverpool), Formby (6060), Golborne (6789; St Helens),
Great Crosby (7555; Liverpool), Haydock (8575; St Helens),
Hindley (23,504; Wigan), Huyton-with-Roby (4661; St Helens),
Ince-in-Makerfield (21,262), Lathom-and-Burscough (7113; Orms-
kirk), Litherland (10,592; Liverpool), Little Crosby (563; Liver-
pool), Little Woolton (1091; Liverpool), Much Woolton (4731;
Liverpool), Newton-in-Makerfield (16,699), Ormskirk (6857), Orrell
(5436; Wigan), Prescot (7855; St Helens), Rainford (3359; St
Helens), Skelmersdale (5699; Ormskirk), Standish-with-Langtrec
(6303; Wigan), Tyldesley-with-Shakerley (14,843), Upholland
(4773; Wigan), Waterloo-with-Seaforth (23,102; Liverpool).
SOUTH-EASTERN DIVISION.— This is of about the same area as the
South-Western division, and it constitutes the heart of the industrial
region. Parliamentary divisions— Eccles, Gorton, Hey wood, Middle-
ton, Prestwich, Radcliffe-cum-Farnworth, Stretford, Westhoughton.
Parliamentary boroughs — the city and county of a city of Manchester
(543.872; six members); with which should be correlated the ad-
joining county and municipal borough of Salford (220,957; three
members), also the county and municipal boroughs of Bolton
(168,215; two members), Bury (58,029; one member), Rochdale
(83,114; one member), Oldham (137,246; two members), and the
municipal borough of Ashton-under-Lyne (43,890). Part only of
the last parliamentary borough is within the county, and this
division also contains part of the parliamentary boroughs of Staly-
bridge and Stockport. Municipal boroughs — Eccles (34,369), Hey-
wood (25,458), Middleton (25,178), Mossley (13,452). Urban districts
— Aspull (8388; Wigan), Audenshaw (7216; Ashton-under-Lyne),
Blackrod (3875; Wigan), Chadderton (24,892; Oldham), Cromp-
ton (13,427; Oldham), Denton (14,934; Ashton-under-Lyne),
Droylsden (11,087; Manchester), Failsworth (14,152; Manchester),
Farnworth (25,925; Bolton), Gorton (26,564; Manchester), Heaton
Norris (9474! Stockport). Horwich (15,084; Bolton), Hurst (7145;
Ashton-under-Lyne), Irlam (4335; Eccles), Kearsley (9218; Bolton),
Lees (3621; Oldham), Levenshulme (11,485; Manchester), Little-
borough (11,166; Rochda|e), Little Hulton (7294; Bolton), Little
Lever (5119; Bolton), Milnrow (8241; Rochdale), Norden (3907;
Rochdale), Prestwich (12,839; Manchester), Radcliffe (25,368;
Bury), Ramsbottom (15,920; Bury), Royton (14,881; Oldham),
Stretford (30,436; Manchester), Swinton-and-Pendlebury (27,005;
Manchester), Tottington (6118; Bury), Turton (12,355; Bolton),
Urmston (6594; Manchester), Wardle (4427; Rochdale), "
houghton (14,377; Bolton), Whitefield or Stand (6588;
Whitworth (9578; Rochdale), Worsley (12,462; Eccles).
West-
Bury),
Lancashire is one of the counties palatine. It is attached to
the duchy of Lancaster, a crown office, and retains the chancery
court for the county palatine. The chancery of the duchy
of Lancaster was once a court of appeal for the chancery of the
county palatine, but now even its jurisdiction in regard to
the estates of the duchy is merely nominal. The chancery of the
county palatine has concurrent jurisdiction with the High Court
of Chancery in all matters of equity within the county palatine,
and independent jurisdiction in regard to a variety of other
matters. The county palatine comprises six hundreds.
Lancashire is in the northern circuit, and assizes are held at
Lancaster for the north, and at Liverpool and Manchester for the
south of the county. There is one court of quarter sessions, and the
county is divided into 33 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs
of Blackburn, Bolton, Burnley, Liverpool, Manchester, Oldham,
Salford and Wigan have separate commissions of the peace and
courts of quarter sessions; and those of Accrington, Ashton-under-
Lyne, Barrow-in-Furness, Blackpool, Bolton, Bury, Clitheroe, Colne,
Darwen, Eccles, Heywood, Lancaster, Middleton, Mossley, Nelson,
Preston, Rochdale, St Helens, Southport and Warrington have
separate commissions of the peace only. There are 430 civil parishes.
Lancashire is mainly in the diocese of Manchester, but parts are in
those of Liverpool, Carlisle, Ripon, Chester and Wakefield. There
are 787 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within
the county.
Manchester and Liverpool are each scats of a university and of
other important educational institutions. Within the bounds of
the county there are many denominational colleges, and near
Clitheroe is the famous Roman Catholic college of Stonyhurst.
There is a day training college for schoolmasters in connexion with
University College, Liverpool, and a day training college for both
schoolmasters and schoolmistresses in connexion with Owens College,
Manchester. At Edgehill, Liverpool, there is a residential training
college for schoolmistresses which takes day pupils, at Liverpool a
residential Roman Catholic training college for schoolmasters, and
at Warrington a residential training college (Chester, Manchester
and Liverpool diocesan) for schoolmistresses.
History. — The district afterwards known as Lancashire was
after the departure of the Romans for many years apparently
little better than a waste. It was not until the victory of .(Ethel-
frith, king of Deira, near Chester in 613 cut off the Britons
of Wales from those of Lancashire and Cumberland that even
Lancashire south of the Ribble was conquered. The part north
of the Ribble was not absorbed in the Northumbrian kingdom
till the reign of Ecgfrith (670-685). Of the details of this long
struggle we know nothing, but to the stubborn resistance
made by the British leaders are due the legends of Arthur;
and of the twelve great battles he is supposed to have fought
against the English, four are traditionally, though probably
erroneously, said to have taken place on the river Douglas
near Wigan. In the long struggle for supremacy between
Mercia and Northumbria, the country between the Mersey and
Ribble was sometimes under one, sometimes under the other
kingdom. During the gth century Lancashire was constantly
invaded by the Danes, and after the peace of Wedmore (878)
it was included in the Danish kingdom of Northumbria'. The
A.S. Chronicle records the reconquest of the district between
the Ribble and Mersey in 923 by the,English king, when it appears
to have been severed from the kingdom of Northumbria and
united to Mercia, but the districts north of the Ribble now
comprised in the county belonged to Northumbria until its
incorporation with the kingdom of England. The names on
the Lancashire coast ending in by, such as Crosby, Formby,
Roby, Kirkby, Derby, show where the Danish settlements were
thickest. William the Conqueror gave the lands between the
Ribble and Mersey, and Amounderness to Roger de Poictou,
but at the time of Domesday Book these had passed out of his
hand and belonged to the king.
The name Lancashire doe's not appear in Domesday; the lands
between the Ribble and Mersey were included in Cheshire and
those north of the Ribble in Yorkshire. Roger de Poictou
soon regained his lands, and Rufus added to his possessions
the rest of Lonsdale south of the Sands, of which he already
held a part; and as he had the Furness fells as well, he owned
all that is now known as Lancashire. In 1 102 he finally forfeited
all his lands, which Henry I. held till, in 1118, he created the
honour of Lancaster by incorporating with Roger's forfeited
LANCASHIRE
141
lands certain escheated manors in the counties of Nottingham,
Derby and Lincoln, and certain royal manors, and bestowed
it upon his nephew Stephen, afterwards king. During Stephen's
reign the history of the honour presents certain difficulties,
for David of Scotland held the lands north of the Ribble for a
time, and in 1147 the earl of Chester held the district between
the Ribble and Mersey. Henry II. gave the whole honour to
William, Stephen's son, but in 1164 it came again into the king's
hands until 1189, when Richard I. granted it to his brother
John. In 1194, owing to John's rebellion, it was confiscated
and the honour remained with the crown till 1267. In 1229,
however, all the crown demesne between the Ribble and Mersey
was granted to Ranulf, earl of Chester, and on his death in 1232
came to William Ferrers, earl of Derby, in right of his wife
. Agnes, sister and co-heir of Ranulf. The Ferrers held it till
1266, when it was confiscated o'wing to the earl's rebellion.
In 1267 Henry III. granted the honour and county and all the
royal demesne therein to his son Edmund, who was created
earl of Lancaster. His son, Earl Thomas, married the heiress
of Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, and thus obtained the great
estates belonging to the de Lacys in Lancashire. On the death
of Henry, -the first duke of Lancaster, in 1361, the estates,
title and honour fell to John of Gaunt in right of his wife Blanche,
the duke's elder daughter, and by the accession of Henry IV.,
John of Gaunt's only son, to the throne, the duchy and honour
became merged in the crown.
The county of Lancaster is first mentioned in 1 169 as contribut-
ing 100 marks to the Royal Exchequer for defaults and fines.
The creation of the honour decided the boundaries, throwing
into it Furness and Cartmel, which geographically belong to
Westmorland ; Lonsdale and Amounderness, which in Domesday
had been surveyed under Yorkshire; and the land between the
Ribble and Mersey. In Domesday this district south of the
Ribble was divided into the six hundreds of West Derby,
Newton, Warrington, Blackburn, Salford and Leyland, but before
Henry II. 's reign the hundreds of Warrington and Newton
were absorbed in that of West Derby. Neither Amounderness
nor Lonsdale was called a hundred in Domesday, but soon after
that time the former was treated as a hundred. Ecclesiastically
the whole of the county originally belonged to the diocese of
York, but after the reconquest of the district between the Ribble
and Mersey in 923 this part was placed under the bishop of Lich-
field in the archdeaconry of Chester, which was subdivided
into the rural deaneries of Manchester, Warrington and Leyland.
Up to 1541 the district north of the Ribble belonged to the
archdeaconry of Richmond in the diocese of York, and was
subdivided into the rural deaneries of Amounderness, Lonsdale
and Coupland. In 1541 the diocese of Chester was created,
including all Lancashire, which was divided into two arch-
deaconries: Chester, comprising the rural deaneries of Man-
chester, Warrington and Blackburn, and Richmond, comprising
the deaneries of Amounderness, Furness, Lonsdale and Kendal.
In 1847 the diocese of Manchester was created, which included
all Lancashire except parts of West Derby, which still belonged
to the diocese of Chester, and Furness and Cartmel, which were
added to Carlisle in 1856. In 1878 by the creation of the diocese
of Liverpool the south-eastern part of the county was subtracted
from the Manchester diocese.
No shire court was ever held for the county, but as a duchy
and county palatine it has its own special courts. It may have
enjoyed palatine jurisdiction under Earl Morcar before the
Conquest, but these privileges, if ever exercised, remained in.
abeyance till 1351, when Henry, duke of Lancaster, received
power to have a chancery in the county of Lancaster and to issue
writs therefrom under his own seal, as well touching pleas of
the crown as any other relating to the common laws, and to
have all Jura Regalia belonging to a county palatine. In 1377
the county was erected into a palatinate for John of Gaunt's
life, and in 1396 these rights of jurisdiction were extended and
settled in perpetuity on the dukes of Lancaster. The county
palatine courts consist of a chancery which dates back at least
to 1376, a court of common pleas, the jurisdiction of which was
transferred in 1873 by the Judicature Act to the high court ol
justice, and a court of criminal jurisdiction which in no way
differs from the king's ordinary court. In 1407 the duchy court
of Lancaster was created, in which all questions of revenue and
dignities affecting the duchy possessions are settled. The
chancery of the duchy has been for years practically obsolete.
The duchy and county palatine each has its own seal. The
office of chancellor of the duchy and county palatine dates
back to 1351.
Lancashire is famed for the number of old and important county
families living within its borders. The most intimately connected
with the history of the county are the Stanleys, whose chief seat is
Knowsley Hall. Sir John Stanley early in the I5th century married
the heiress of Lathom and thus obtained possession of Lathom and
Knowsley. In 1456 the head of the family was created a peer by
the title of Baron Stanley and in 1485 raised to the earldom of Derby.
The Molyneuxes of Sephton and Croxteth are probably descended
from William de Molines, who came to England with William the
Conqueror, and is on the roll of Battle Abbey. Roger de Poictou
gave him the manor of Sephton, and Richard de Molyneuxwho held
the estate under Henry II. is undoubtedly an ancestor of the family.
In 1628 Sir Richard Molyneux was advanced to the peerage of Ireland
by the title of Viscount Maryborough, and in 1771 Charles, Lord
Maryborough, became earl of Sefton in the peerage of Ireland. His
son was created a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Sefton of
Croxteth. The Bootle Wilbrahams, earls of Lathom, are, it is said,
descended from John Botyll of Melling, who was alive in 1421, and
from the Wilbrahams of Cheshire, who date back at least to
Henry III.'s reign. In 1755 the two families intermarried. In 1828
the title of Baron Skelmcrsdale was bestowed on the head of the
family and in 1880 that of earl of Lathom. The Gerards of Bryn
are said to be descended from an old Tuscan family, one of whom
came to England in Edward the Confessor's time, and whose son is
mentioned in Domesday. Bryn came into this family by marriage
early in the I4th century'. Sir Thomas Gerard was created a baronet
by James I. in l6n,and in 1 876 a peerage was conferred on Sir Robert
Gerard. The Gerards of I nee were a collateral branch. The Lindsays,
earls of Crawford and Balcarres, are representative on the female side
of the Bradshaighs of Haigh Hall, who are said to be of Saxon origin.
Other great Lancashire families are the Hoghtons of Hoghton Tower,
dating back to the I2th century, the Blundells of Ince Blundell, who
are said to have held the manor since the I2th century, now repre-
sented by the Weld-Blundells, the Tyldesleys of Tyldesley, now
extinct, and the Butlers of Bewsey, barons of Warrington, of whom
the last male heir died in 1586.
At the close of the i2th and during the ijth century there
was a considerable advance in the importance of the towns;
in 1199 Lancaster became a borough, in 1207 Liverpool, in 1230
Salford, in 1246 Wigan, and in 1301 Manchester. The Scottish
wars were a great drain to the county, not only because the north
part was subject to frequent invasions, as in 1322, but because
some of the best blood was taken for these wars. In 1297
Lancashire raised 1000 men, and at the battle of Falkirk (1298)
1000 Lancashire soldiers were in the vanguard, led by Henry
de Lacy, earl of Lincoln. In 1349 the county was visited by
the Black Death and a record exists of its ravages in Amounder-
ness. In ten parishes between September 1349 and January
1350, 13,180 persons perished. At Preston 3000 died, at Lancaster
3000, at Garstang 2000 and at Kirkham 3000. From the effects
of this plague Lancashire was apparently slow to recover; its
boroughs ceased to return members early in the i4th century
and trade had not yet made any great advance. The drain of
the Wars of the Roses on the county must also have been heavy,
although none of the battles was fought within its borders;
Lord Stanley's force of 5000 raised in Lancashire and Cheshire
virtually decided the battle of Bosworth Field. The poverty
of the county is shown by the fact that out of £40,000 granted
in 1504 by parliament to the king, Lancashire's share was only
£318. At the battle of Flodden (1513) the Lancashire archers
led by Sir Edward Stanley almost totally destroyed the High-
landers on the right Scottish wing and greatly contributed to
the victory. Under the Tudors the county prospered; the
parliamentary boroughs once more began to return members,
the towns increased in size, many halls were built by the gentry
and trade increased.
In 1617 James I. visited Lancashire, and in consequence of a
petition presented to him at Hoghton, complaining of the restrictions
imposed upon Sunday amusements, he issued in 1618 the famous
Book of Sports. Another of James's works, the Ddemonologie, is
142
LANCASHIRE
closely connected with the gross superstitions concerning witches
which were specially prevalent in Lancashire. The great centre
of this witchcraft was Pendle Forest, in the parish of Whalley, and
in 1612 twelve persons from Pendle and eight from Samlesbury were
tried for witchcraft, nine of whom were hanged. In 1633 another
batch of seventeen witches from Pendle were tried and all sentenced
to be executed, but the king pardoned 'them. This was the last
important case of witchcraft in Lancashire.
In the assessment of ship money in 1636 the county was put
down for £1000, towards which Wigan was to raise £50, Preston
£40, Lancaster £30, and Liverpool £25, and these figures com-
pared with the assessments of £140 on Hull and £200 on Leeds
show the comparative unimportance of the Lancashire boroughs.
On the eve of the Great Rebellion in 1641 parliament resolved
to take command of the militia, and Lord Strange, Lord Derby's
eldest son, was removed from the lord lieutenancy. On the
whole, the county was Royalist, and the moving spirit among
the Royalists was Lord Strange, who became Lord Derby in
1642. Manchester was the headquarters of the Parliamentarians,
and was besieged by Lord Derby in September 1642 for seven
days, but not taken. Lord Derby himself took up his head-
quarters at Warrington and garrisoned Wigan. At the opening
of 1643 Sir Thomas Fairfax made Manchester his headquarters.
Early in February the Parliamentarians from Manchester
successfully assaulted Preston, which was strongly Royalist;
thence the Parliamentarians marched to Hoghton Tower, which
they took, and within a few days captured Lancaster. On the
Royalist side Lord Derby made an unsuccessful attack on
Bolton from Wigan. In March a large Spanish ship, laden with
ammunition for the use of parliament, was driven by a storm
on Rossall Point and seized by the Royalists; Lord Derby
ordered the ship to be burned, but the parliament forces from
Preston succeeded in carrying off some of the guns to Lancaster
castle. In March Lord Derby captured the town of Lancaster
but not the castle, and marching to Preston regained it for the
king, but was repulsed in an attack on Bolton. In April Wigan,
one of the chief Royalist strongholds in the county, was taken
by the parliament forces, who also again captured Lancaster,
and the guns from the Spanish ship were moved for use against
Warrington, which was obliged to surrender in May after a
week's siege. Lord Derby also failed in an attempt on Liverpool,
and the tide of war had clearly turned against the Royalists in
Lancashire. In June Lord Derby went to the Isle of Man,
which was threatened by the king's enemies. Soon after, the
Parliamentarians captured Hornby castle, and only two strong-
holds, Thurland castle and Lathom house, remained in Royalist
hands. In the summer,- after a seven weeks' siege by Colonel
Alexander Rigby, Thurland castle surrendered and was demo-
lished. In February 1644 the Parliamentarians, under Colonel
Rigby, Colonel Ashton and Colonel Moore, besieged Lathom
house, the one refuge left to the Royalists, which was bravely
defended by Lord Derby's heroic wife, Charlotte de la Tremoille.
The siege lasted nearly four months and was raised on the
approach of Prince Rupert, who marched to Bolton and was
joined on his arrival outside the town by Lord Derby. Bolton
was carried by storm; Rupert ordered that no quarter should
be given, and it is usually said at least 1500 of the garrison were
slain. Prince Rupert advanced without delay to Liverpool,
which was defended by Colonel Moore, and took it after a siege
of three weeks. After the battle of Marston Moor Prince Rupert
again appeared in Lancashire and small engagements took place
at Ormskirk, Upholland and Preston; in November Liverpool
surrendered to the Parliamentarians. Lathom house was again
the only strong place in Lancashire left to the Royalists, and
in December 1645 alter a five months' siege it was compelled
to surrender through lack of provisions, and was almost entirely
destroyed. For the moment the war in Lancashire was over.
In 1648, however, the Royalist forces under the duke of Hamilton
and Sir Marmaduke Langdale marched through Lancaster to
Preston, hoping to reach Manchester; but near Preston were
defeated by Cromwell in person. The remnant retreated through
Wigan towards Warrington, and after being again defeated at
Winwick surrendered at Warrington. In 1651 Charles II.
advanced through Lancaster, Preston and Chorley on his south-
ward march, and Lord Derby after gathering forces was on his
way to meet him when he was defeated at Wigan. In 1658, after
Cromwell's death, a Royalist rebellion was raised in which
Lancashire took a prominent part, but it was quickly
suppressed. During the Rebellion of 1715 Manchester was the
chief centre of Roman Catholic and High Church Toryism.
On the 7th of November the Scottish army entered Lancaster,
where the Pretender was proclaimed king, and advanced to
Preston, at which place a considerable body of Roman Catholics
joined it. The rebels remained at Preston a few days, apparently
unaware of the advance of the government troops, until General
Wills from Manchester and General Carpenter from Lancaster
surrounded the town, and on the i3th of November the town
and the rebel garrison surrendered. Several of the rebels were
hanged at Preston, Wigan, Lancaster and other places. In
1745 Prince Charles Edward passed through the county and
was joined by about 200 adherents, called the Manchester
regiment and placed under the command of Colonel Townley,
who was afterwards executed.
The first industry established in Lancashire was that of
wool, and with the founding of Furness abbey in 1127 wool
farming on a large scale began here, but the bulk of the wool
grown was exported, not worked up in England. In 1282,
however, there was a mill for fulling or bleaching wool in Man-
chester, and by the middle of the i6th century there was quite
a flourishing trade in worsted goods. In an act of 1552
Manchester " rugs and frizes " are specially mentioned, and in
1566 another act regulated the fees of the aulnager who was to
have his deputies at Manchester, Rochdale, Bolton, Blackburn
and Bury; the duty of the aulnagers was to prevent " cottons
frizes and rugs " from being sold unsealed, but it must be noted
that by cottons is not meant what we now understand by the
word, but woollen goods. The i7th century saw the birth of the
class of clothiers, who purchased the wool in large quantities
or kept their own sheep, and delivered it to weavers who worked
it up into cloth in their houses and returned it to the employers.
The earliest mention of the manufacture of real cotton goods
is in 1641, when Manchester made fustians, vermilions and
dimities, but the industry did not develop to any extent until
after the invention of the fly shuttle by John Kay in 1733, of
the spinning jenny by James Hargreaves of Blackburn in 1765,
of the water frame throstle by Richard Arkwright of Bolton in
1769, and of the mule by Samuel Crompton of Hall-in-the-Wood
near Bolton in 1779. So rapid was the development of the
cotton manufacture that in 1787 there were over forty cotton
mills in Lancashire, all worked by water power. In 1789,
however, steam was applied to the industry in Manchester,
and in 1790 in Bolton a cotton mill was worked by steam. The
increase in the import of raw cotton from 3,870,000 Ib in 1769
to 1,083, 600,000 in 1860 shows the growth of the industry.
The rapid growth was accompanied with intermittent periods
of depression, which in 1819 in particular led to the formation
of various political societies and to the Blanketeers' Meeting
and the Peterloo Massacre. During the American Civil War
the five years' cotton famine caused untold misery in the county,
but public and private relief mitigated the evils, and one good
result was the introduction of machinery capable of dealing with
the shorter staple of Indian cotton, thus rendering the trade
less dependent for its supplies on America.
During the i8th century the only town where maritime trade
.increased was Liverpool, where in the last decade about 4500
ships arrived annually of a tonnage about one-fifth that of the
London shipping. The prosperity of Liverpool was closely
bound up with the slave trade, and about one-fourth of its
ships were employed in this business. With the increase of
trade the means of communication improved. In 1758 the duke
of Bridgewater began the Bridgewater canal from Worsley to
Salford and across the Irwell to Manchester, and before the end
of the century the county was intersected by canals. In 1830
the first railway in England was opened between Manchester
and Liverpool, and other railways rapidly followed.
LANCASTER, HOUSE OF
The first recorded instance of parliamentary representation in
Lancashire was in 1295, when two knights were returned for the
county and two burgesses each for the boroughs of Lancaster,
Preston, Wigan and Liverpool. The sheriff added to this return
" There is no city in the county of Lancaster." The boroughs were,
however, excused one after another from parliamentary repre-
sentation, which was felt as a burden owing to the compulsory
payment of the members' wages. Lancaster ceased to send members
in 1331 after making nineteen returns, but renewed its privileges in
1529; from 1529 to 1547 there are no parliamentary returns, but
from 1547 to 1867 Lancaster continued to return two members.
Preston similarly was excused after 1331, after making eleven
returns, but in 1529 and from 1547 onwards returned two members.
Liverpool and Wigan sent members in 1295 and 1307, but not again
till 1547. To the writ issued in 1362 the sheriff in his return says:
" There is not any City or Borough in this County from which
citizens or burgesses ought or are accustomed to come as this Writ
requires." In 1559 Clitheroe and Newton-le-Willows first sent
two members. Thus in all Lancashire returned fourteen members,
and, with a brief exception during the' Commonwealth, this continued
to be the parliamentary representation till 1832. By the Reform Act
of 1832 Lancashire was assigned four members, two for the northern
and two for the southern division. Lancaster, Preston, Wigan
and Liverpool continued to send two members, Clitheroe returned
one and Newton was disfranchised. The following new boroughs
were created: Manchester, Bolton, Blackburn, Oldham, returning
two members each; Ashton-under-Lyne, Bury, Rochdale, Salford
and Warrington, one each. In 1861 a third member was given to
South Lancashire and in 1867 the county was divided into four con-
stituencies, to each of which four members were assigned; since 1885
the county returns twenty-three members. The boroughs returned
from 1867 to 1885 twenty-five members, and since 1885 thirty-four.
Antiquities. — The Cistercian abbey of Furness (q.v.) is one of the
finest and most extensive ecclesiastical ruins in England. Whalley
abbey, first founded at Stanlawe in Cheshire in 1178, and removed
in 1296, belonged to the same order. There was a priory of Black
Canons at Burscough, founded in the time of Richard I., one at
Conishead dating from Henry II. 's reign, and one at Lancaster.
A convent of Augustinian friars was founded at Cartmel in 1 1 88,
and one at Warrington about 1280. There are some remains of the
Benedictine priory of Upholland, changed from a college of secular
priests in 1318; and the same order had a priory at Lancaster
founded in 1094, a cell at Lytham, of the reign of Richard I., and a
priory at Penwortham, founded shortly after the time of the Con-
queror. The Prcmonstratensians had Cockersand abbey, changed
in 1190 from a hospital founded in the reign of Henry II., of which
the chapter-house remains. At Kersal, near Manchester, there was
a cell of Cluniac monks founded in the reign of John, while at Lan-
caster there were convents of Dominicans and Franciscans, and at
Preston a priory of Grey Friars built by Edmund, earl of Lancaster,
son of Henry III.
Besides the churches mentioned under the several towns, the
more interesting are those of Aldingham, Norman doorway;
Aughton ; Cartmel priory church (see FURNESS) ; Hawkshead ;
Heysham, Norman with traces of earlier date; Hoole; Huyton;
Kirkby, rebuilt, with very ancient font; Kirkby Ireleth, late
Perpendicular, with Norman doorway; Leyland; Melling (in
Lonsdale), Perpendicular, with stained-glass windows; Middleton,
rebuilt in 1524, but containing part of the Norman church and
several monuments; Ormskirk, Perpendicular with traces of
Norman, having two towers, one of which is detached and surmounted
by a spire; Overton, with Norman doorway; Radcliffe, Norman;
Sefton, Perpendicular, with fine brass and recumbent figures of the
Molyneux family, also a screen exquisitely carved; Stidd, near
Ribchester, Norman arch and old monuments; Tunstall, late
Perpendicular; Upholland priory church, Early English, with low
massy tower; Urswick, Norman, with embattled tower and several
old monuments; Walton-on-the-hill, anciently the parish church
of Liverpool; Walton-le-Dale; Warton, with old font; Whalley
abbey church, Decorated and Perpendicular, with Runic stone
monuments.
The principal old castles are those of Lancaster; Dalton, a small
rude tower occupying the site of an older building; two towers of
Gleaston castle, built by the lords of Aldingham in the I4th century;
the ruins of Greenhalgh castle, built by the first earl of Derby, and
demolished after a siege by order of parliament in 1649; the ruins of
Fouldrey in Piel Island near the entrance to Barrow harbour,
erected in the reign of Edward III., now most dilapidated. There
are many old timber houses and mansions of interest, as well as
numerous modern seats.
See Victoria History of Lancashire (1906-1907); E. Baines, The
History of the County Palatine and Duchy of Lancaster (1888); H.
Fishwick, A History of Lancashire (1894); ™. D. Pink and A. B.
Beavan, The Parliamentary Representation of Lancashire (1889).
LANCASTER, HOUSE OF. The name House of Lancaster is
commonly used to designate the line of English kings immediately
descended from John of Gaunt, the fourth son of Edward III.
But the history of the family and of the title goes back to
the reign of Henry III., who created his second son. Edmund,
earl of Lancaster in 1267. This Edmund received in his own
day the surname of Crouchback, not, as was afterwards supposed,
from a personal deformity, but from having worn a cross upon
his back in token of a crusading vow. He is not a person of
much importance in history except in relation to a strange
theory raised in a later age about his birth, which we shall notice
presently. His son Thomas, who inherited the title, took the
lead among the nobles of Edward II. 's time in opposition to
Piers Gaveston and the Despensers, and was beheaded for treason
at Pontefract. At the commencement of the following reign
his attainder was reversed and his brother Henry restored to
the earldom; and Henry being appointed guardian to the young
king Edward III., assisted him to throw off the yoke of Mortimer.
On this Henry's death in 1345 he was succeeded by a son of the
same name, sometimes known as Henry Tort-Col or Wryneck, a
very valiant commander in the French wars, whom the king
advanced to the dignity of a duke. Only one duke had been
created in England before, and that was fourteen years previously,
when the king's son Edward, the Black Prince, was made duke
of Cornwall. This Henry Wryneck died in 1361 without heir
male. His second daughter, Blanche, became the wife of John
of Gaunt, who thus succeeded to the duke's inheritance in her
right; and on the i3th of November 1362, when King Edward
attained the age of fifty, John was created duke of Lancaster,
his elder brother, Lionel, being at the same time created duke of
Clarence. It was from these two dukes that the rival houses
of Lancaster and York derived their respective claims to the
crown. As Clarence was King Edward's third son, while John
of Gaunt was his fourth, in ordinary course on the failure of the
elder line the issue of Clarence should have taken precedence
of that of Lancaster in the succession. But the rights of Clarence
were conveyed in the first instance to an only daughter, and the
ambition and policy of the house of Lancaster, profiting by
advantageous circumstances, enabled them not only to gain
possession of the throne but to maintain themselves in it for
three generations before they were dispossessed by the repre-
sentatives of the elder brother.
As for John of Gaunt himself, it can hardly be said that this
sort of politic wisdom is very conspicuous in him. His ambition
was generally more manifest than his discretion; but fortune
favoured his ambition, even as to himself, somewhat beyond
expectation, and still more in his posterity. Before the death of
his father he had become the greatest subject in England, his
three elder brothers having all died before him. He had even
added to his other dignities the title of king of Castile, having
married, after his first wife's death, the daughter of Peter the
Cruel. The title, however, was an empty one, the throne of
Castile being actually in the possession of Henry of Trastamara,
whom the English had vainly endeavoured to set aside. His
military and naval enterprises were for the most part disastrous
failures, and in England he was exceedingly unpopular. Never-
theless, during the later years of his father's reign the weakness
of the king and the declining health of the Black Prince threw
the government very much into his hands. He even aimed,
or was suspected of aiming, at the succession to the crown; but
in this hope he was disappointed by the action of the Good
Parliament a year before Edward's death, in which it was settled
that Richard the son of the Black Prince should be king after
his grandfather. Nevertheless the suspicion with which he was
regarded was not altogether quieted when Richard came to the
throne, a boy in the eleventh year of his age. The duke himself
complained in parliament of the way he was spoken of out of
doors, and at the outbreak of Wat Tyler's insurrection the
peasants stopped pilgrims on the road to Canterbury and made
them swear never to accept a king of the name of John. On
gaining possession of London they burnt his magnificent
palace of the Savoy. Richard found a convenient way to get
rid of John of Gaunt by sending him to Castile to make good his
barren title, and on this expedition he was away three years.
He succeeded so far as to make a treaty with his rival, King
John, son of Henry of Trastamara, for the succession, by virtue
144
of which his daughter Catherine became the wife of Henry III.
of Castile some years later. After his return the king seems to
have regarded him with greater favour, created him duke of
Aquitaine, and employed him in repeated embassies to France,
which at length resulted in a treaty of peace, and Richard's
marriage to the French king's daughter.
Another marked incident of his public life was the support
which he gave on one occasion to the Reformer Wycliffe. How
far this was due to religious and how far to political considerations
may be a question; but not only John of Gaunt but his immediate
descendants, the three kings of the house of Lancaster, all took
deep interest in the religious movements of the times. A re-
action against Lollardy, however, had already begun in the
days of Henry IV., and both he and his son felt obliged to dis-
countenance opinions which were believed to be politically and
theologically dangerous.
Accusations had been made against John of Gaunt more than
once during the earlier part of Richard II. 's reign of entertaining
designs to supplant his nephew on the throne. But these Richard
never seems to have wholly credited, and during his three years'
absence his younger brother, Thomas of Woodstock, duke of
Gloucester, showed himself a far more dangerous intriguer.
Five confederate lords with Gloucester at their head took up
arms against the king's favourite ministers, and the Wonderful
Parliament put to death without remorse almost every agent
of his former administration who had not fled the country.
Gloucester even contemplated the dethronement of the king,
but found that in this matter he could not rely on the support
of his associates, one of whom was Henry, earl of Derby, the
duke of Lancaster's son. Richard soon afterwards, by declaring
himself of age, shook off his uncle's control, and within ten years
the acts of the Wonderful Parliament were reversed by a parlia-
ment no less arbitrary. Gloucester and his allies were then
brought to account; but the earl of Derby and Thomas Mowbray,
earl of Nottingham, were taken into favour as having opposed
the more violent proceedings of their associates. As if to show
his entire confidence in both these noblemen, the king created
the former duke of Hereford and the latter duke of Norfolk.
But within three months from this time the one duke accused
the other of treason, and the truth of the charge, after much
consideration, was referred to trial by battle according to the
laws of chivalry. But when the combat was about to commence
it was interrupted by the king, who, to preserve the peace of
the kingdom, decreed by his own mere authority that the duke
of Hereford should be banished for ten years — a term immediately
afterwards reduced to five — and the duke of Norfolk for life.
This arbitrary sentence was obeyed in the first instance by
both parties, and Norfolk never returned. But Henry, duke
of Hereford, whose milder sentence was doubtless owing to the
fact that he was the popular favourite, came back within a year,
having been furnished with a very fair pretext for doing so by
a new act of injustice on the part of Richard. His father, John
of Gaunt, had died in the interval, and the king, troubled with
a rebellion in Ireland, and sorely in want of money, had seized
the duchy of Lancaster as forfeited property. Henry at once
sailed for England, and landing in Yorkshire while King Richard
was in Ireland, gave out that he came only to recover his in-
heritance. He at once received the support of the northern
lords, and as he marched southwards the whole kingdom was
soon practically at his command. Richard, by the time he had
recrossed the channel to Wales, discovered that his cause was
lost. He was conveyed from Chester to London, and forced to
execute a deed by which he resigned his crown. This was recited
in parliament, and he was formally deposed. The duke of
Lancaster then claimed the kingdom as due to himself by virtue
of his descent from Henry III.
The claim which he put forward involved, to all appearance,
a strange falsification of history, for it seemed to rest upon the
supposition that Edmund of Lancaster, and not Edward I.,
was the eldest son of Henry III. A story had gone about,
even in the days of John of Gaunt, who, if we may trust the
rhymer John Hardyng (Chronicle, pp. 290, 291), had got it
LANCASTER, EARL OF
inserted in chronicles deposited in various monasteries, that this
Edmund, surnamed Crouchback, was really hump-backed, and
that he was set aside in favour of his younger brother Edward
on account of his deformity. No chronicle, however, is known
to exist which actually states that Edmund Crouchback was
thus set aside; and in point of fact he had no deformity at all,
while Edward was six years his senior. Hardyng's testimony is,
moreover, suspicious as reflecting the prejudices of the Percys
after they had turned against Henry IV., for Hardyng himself
expressly says that the earl of Northumberland was the source
of his information (see note, p. 353 of his Chronicle). But a
statement in the continuation of the chronicle called the Eulogium
(vol. iii. pp. 369, 370) corroborates Hardyng to some extent ;
for we are told that John of Gaunt had once desired in parlia-
ment that his son should |be recognized on this flimsy plea as
heir to the crown; and when Roger Mortimer, earl of March,
denied the story and insisted on his own claim as descended from
Lionel, duke of Clarence, Richard imposed silence on both parties.
However this may be, it is certain that this story, though not
directly asserted to be true, was indirectly pointed at by Henry
when he put forward his claim, and no one was then bold enough
to challenge it.
This was partly due, no doubt, to the fact that the true
lineal heir after Richard was then a child, Edmund, who had just
succeeded his father as earl of March. Another circumstance
was unfavourable to the house of Mortimer — that it derived its
title through a woman. No case precisely similar had as yet
arisen, and, notwithstanding the precedent of Henry II., it
might be doubted whether succession through a female was
favoured by the constitution. If not, Henry could say with
truth that he was the direct heir of his grandfather, Edward III.
If, on the other hand, succession through females was valid,
he could trace his descent through his mother from Henry III.
by a very illustrious line of ancestors. And, in the words by
which he formally made his claim, he ventured to say no more
than that he was descended from the king last mentioned " by
right line of the blood." In what particular way that " right
line " was to be traced he did not venture to indicate.
A brief epitome of the reigns of the three successive kings
belonging to the house of Lancaster (Henry IV., V. and VI.)
will be found elsewhere. With the death of Henry VI. the
direct male line of John of Gaunt became extinct. But by his
daughters he became the ancestor of more than one line of foreign
kings, while his descendants by his third wife, Catherine Swynford,
conveyed the crown of England to the house of Tudor. It is
true that his children by this lady were born before he married
her; but they were made legitimate by act of parliament, and,
though Henry IV. in confirming the privilege thus granted to
them endeavoured to debar them from the succession to the
crown, it is now ascertained that there was no such reservation
in the original act, and the title claimed by Henry VII. was
probably better than he himself supposed.
We show on the following page a pedigree of the royal and
illustrious houses that traced their descent from John of
Gaunt. (J. GA.)
LANCASTER, HENRY, EARL OF (c. 1281-1345), was the
second son of Edmund, earl of Lancaster (d. 1296), and con-
sequently a grandson of Henry III. During his early days he
took part in campaigns in Flanders, Scotland and Wales, but
was quite overshadowed by his elder brother Thomas (see
below). In 1324, two years after Thomas had lost his life for
opposing the king, Henry was made earl of Leicester by his
cousin, Edward II., but he was not able to secure the titles and
estates of Lancaster to which he was heir, and he showed openly
that his sympathies were with his dead brother. When Queen
Isabella took up arms against her husband in 1326 she was
joined at once by the earl, who took a leading part in the pro-
ceedings against the king and his favourites, th'e Despensers,
being Edward's gaoler at Kenilworth castle. Edward III.
being now on the throne, Leicester secured the earldom of
Lancaster and his brother's lands, becoming also steward of
England; he knighted the young king and was the foremost
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LANCASTER, SIR J.— LANCASTER, DUKE OF
member of the royal council, but he was soon at variance with
Isabella and her paramour, Roger Mortimer, and was practically
deprived of his power. In 1328 his attempt to overthrow
Mortimer failed, and he quietly made his peace with the king;
a second essay against Mortimer was more successful. About
this time Lancaster became blind; he retired from public life
and died on the 22nd of September 1345.
His son and successor, HENRY, ist duke of Lancaster
(c. 1300-1361), was a soldier of unusual distinction. Probably
from his birthplace in Monmouthshire he was called Henry of
Grosmont. He fought in the naval fight off Sluys and in the one
off Winchelsea in 1350; he led armies into Scotland, Gascony
and Normandy, his exploits in Gascony in 1345 and 1346 being
especially successful; he served frequently under Edward III.
himself; and he may be fairly described as one of the most
brilliant and capable of the English warriors during the earlier
part of the Hundred Years' War. During a brief respite from
the king's service he led a force into Prussia and he was often
employed on diplomatic business. In 1354 he was at Avignon
negotiating with Pope Innocent VI., who wished to make peace
between England and France, and one of his last acts was to
assist in arranging the details of the treaty of Bretigny in 1360.
In 1337 he was made earl of Derby; in 1345 he succeeded to
his father's earldoms of Lancaster and Leicester; in 1349 he
was created earl of Lincoln, and in 1351 he was made duke of
Lancaster. He was steward of England and one of the original
knights of the order of the garter. He died at Leicester on the
I3th of March 1361. He left no sons; one of his daughters,
Maud (d. 1362), married William V., count of Holland, a son
of the emperor Louis the Bavarian, and the other, Blanche
(d. 1369), married Edward III.'s son, John of Gaunt, who
obtained his father-in-law's titles and estates.
LANCASTER, SIR JAMES (fl. 1591-1618), English navigator
and statesman, one of the foremost pioneers of the British Indian
trade and empire. In early life he fought and traded in Portugal.
On the loth of April 1591 he started from Plymouth, with
Raymond and Foxcroft, on his first great voyage to the East
Indies; this fleet of three ships is the earliest of English oversea
Indian expeditions. Reaching Table Bay (ist of August 1591),
and losing one ship off Cape Corrientes on the i2th of September,
the squadron rested and refitted at Zanzibar (February 1592),
rounded Cape Comorin in May following, and was off the Malay
Peninsula in June. Crossing later to Ceylon, the crews insisted
on returning home; the voyage back was disastrous; only
twenty-five officers and men reappeared in England in 1594.
Lancaster himself reached Rye on the 24th of May 1594; in the
same year he led a military expedition against Pernambuco,
without much success; but his Indian voyage, like Ralph
Fitch's overland explorations and trading, was an important
factor in the foundation of the East India Company. In 1600
he was given command of the company's first fleet (which
sailed from Torbay towards the end of April 1601); he was
also accredited as Queen Elizabeth's special envoy to various
Eastern potentates. Going by the Cape of Good Hope (ist of
November 1601) Lancaster visited the Nicobars (from the 9th
of April 1602), Achin and other parts of Sumatra (from the
5th of June 1602), and Bantam in Java; an alliance was con-
cluded with Achin, a factory established at Bantam and a
commercial mission despatched to the Moluccas. The return
voyage (2oth of February to nth of September 1603) was
speedy and prosperous, and Lancaster (whose success both in
trade and in diplomacy had been brilliant) was rewarded with
knighthood (October 1603). He continued to be one of the chief
directors of the East India Company till his death in May 1618;
most of the voyages of the early Stuart time both to India and
in search of the North-West passage were undertaken under his
advice and direction; Lancaster Sound, on the north-west ol
Baffin's Bay (in 74°2o'N.), was named by William Baffin after
Sir James (July 1616).
See Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, vol. ii. pt. ii. pp. 102-110
vol. iii. pp. 708-715 (1599); Purchas, Pilgrims, vol. i. pt. ii,
pp. 147-164; also The Voyages of Sir James Lancaster . . . to the
last Indies . . . , ed. Sir Clements Markham, Hakluyt Soc. (1877),
Calendars of State Papers, East Indies. The original journals of
^ancaster's voyage of 1601-1603 have disappeared, and here we
lave only Purchas to go on.
LANCASTER, JOHN OF GAUNT, DUKE OF (1340-1399),
burth son of Edward III. and Queen Philippa, was born in
March 1340 at Ghent, whence his name. On the 29th of
September 1342 he was made earl of Richmond; as a child he
was present at the sea fight with the Spaniards in August 1350,
)ut his first military service was in 1355, when he was knighted.
3n the igth of May 1359 he married his cousin Blanche, daughter
and ultimately sole heiress of Henry, duke of Lancaster. In her
right he became earl of Lancaster in 1361, and next year was
created duke. His marriage made him the greatest lord in
England, but for some time he took no prominent part in public
affairs. In 1366 he joined his eldest brother, Edward the Black
Prince, in Aquitaine, and in the year after led a strong contingent
;o share in the campaign in support of Pedro the Cruel of Castile.
With this began the connexion with Spain, which was to have
so great an influence on his after-life. John fought in the van at
S[ajera on the 3rd of April 1367, when the English victory restored
Pedro to his throne. He returned home at the end of the year.
Pedro proved false to his English allies, and was finally over-
grown and killed by his rival, Henry of Trastamara, in 1369.
The disastrous Spanish enterprise led directly to renewed war
between France and England. In August 1369 John had com-
mand of an army which invaded northern France without
success. In the following year he went again to Aquitaine, and
was present with the Black Prince at the sack of Limoges.
Edward's health was broken down, and he soon after went home,
leaving John as his lieutenant. For a year John maintained the
war at his own cost, but whilst in Aquitaine a greater prospect
was opened to him. The duchess Blanche had died in the autumn
of 1369 and now John married Constance (d. 1394), the elder
daughter of Pedro the Cruel, and in her right assumed the title
of king of Castile and Leon. For sixteen years the pursuit of
his kingdom was the chief object of John's ambition. No
doubt he hoped to achieve his end, when he commanded the
great army which invaded France in 1373. But the French
would not give battle, and though John marched from Calais
right through Champagne, Burgundy and Auvergne, it was
with disastrous results; only a shattered remnant of the host
reached Bordeaux.
The Spanish scheme had to wait, and when John got back to
England he was soon absorbed in domestic politics. The king
was prematurely old, the Black Prince's health was broken.
John, in spite of the unpopularity of his ill-success, was forced
into the foremost place. As head of the court party he had to
bear the brunt of the attack on the administration made by
the Good Parliament in 1376. It was not perhaps altogether
just, and John was embittered by reflections on his loyalty.
As soon as the parliament was dissolved he had its proceedings
reversed, and next year secured a more subservient assembly.
There came, however, a new development. The duke's politics
were opposed by the chief ecclesiastics, and in resisting them
he had made use of Wycliffe. With Wycliffe's religious opinions
he had no sympathy. Nevertheless when the bishops arraigned
the reformer for heresy John would not abandon him. The con-
flict over the trial led to a violent quarrel with the Londoners,
and a riot in the city during which John was in danger of his
life from the angry citizens. The situation was entirely altered
by the death of Edward III. on the zist of June. Though his
enemies had accused him of aiming at the throne, John was
without any taint of disloyalty. In his nephew's interests he
accepted a compromise, disclaimed before parliament the truth
of the malicious rumours against him, and was reconciled form-
ally with his opponents. Though he took his proper place in the
ceremonies at Richard's coronation, he showed a tactful modera-
tion by withdrawing for a time from any share in the govern-
ment. However, in the summer of 1378, he commanded in an
attack on St Malo, which through no fault of his failed. To add
to this misfortune, during. his absence some of, his supporters
LANCASTER, J.
violated the sanctuary at Westminster. He vindicated himself
somewhat bitterly in a parliament at Gloucester, but still avoiding
a prominent part in the government, accepted the command on
the Scottish border. He was there engaged when his palace
of the Savoy in London was burnt during the peasants' revolt
in June 1381. Wild reports that even the government had
declared him a traitor made him seek refuge in Scotland. Richard
had, however, denounced the calumnies, and at once recalled his
uncle.
John's self-restraint had strengthened his position, and he
began again to think of his Spanish scheme. He urged its
undertaking in parliament in 1382, but nearer troubles were
more urgent, and John himself was wanted on the Scottish
border. There he sought to arrange peace, but against his will
was forced into an unfortunate carnpaign in 1384. His ill-success
renewed his unpopularity, and the court favourites of Richard II.
intrigued against him. They were probably responsible for the
allegation, made by a Carmelite, tailed Latemar, that John was
conspiring against his nephew. Though Richard at first believed
it, the matter was disposed of by the friar's death. However,
the court party soon after concocted a fresh plot for the duke's
destruction; John boldly denounced his traducers, and the
quarrel was appeased by the intervention of the king's mother.
The intrigue still continued, and broke out again during the
Scottish campaign in 1385. John was not the man to be forced
into treason to his family, but the impossibility of the position
at home made his foreign ambitions more feasible.
The victory of John of Portugal over the king of Castile at
Aljubarrota, won with English help, offered an opportunity.
In July 1386 John left England with a strong force to win his
Spanish throne. He landed at Corunna, and during the autumn
conquered Galicia. Juan, who had succeeded his father Henry
as king of Castile, offered a compromise by marriage. John of
Gaunt refused, hoping for greater success with the help of the
king of Portugal, who now married the duke's eldest daughter
Philippa. In the spring the allies invaded Castile. They could
achieve no success, and sickness ruined the English army. The
conquests of the previous year were lost, and when Juan renewed
his offers, John of Gaunt agreed to surrender his claims to his
daughter by Constance of Castile, who was to marry Juan's heir.
After some delay the peace was concluded at Bayonne in 1388.
The next eighteen months were spent by John as lieutenant of
Aquitaine, and it was not till November 1389 that he returned
to England. By his absence he had avoided implication in the
troubles at home. Richard, still insecure of his own position,
welcomed his uncle, and early in the following year marked his
favour by creating him duke of Aquitaine. John on his part was
glad to support the king's government; during four years he
exercised his influence in favour of pacification at home, and
abroad was chiefly responsible for the conclusion of a truce with
France. Then in 1395 he went to take up the government of his
duchy; thanks chiefly to his lavish expenditure his administra-
tion was not unsuccessful, but the Gascons had from the first
objected to government except by the crown, and secured his
recall within less than a year. Almost immediately after his
return John married as his third wife Catherine Swynford;
Constance of Castile had died in 1394. Catherine had been his
mistress for many years, and his children by her, who bore the
name of Beaufort, were now legitimated. In this and in other
matters Richard found it politk to conciliate him. But though
John presided at the trial of the earl of Arundel in September
1397, he took no active part in affairs. The exile of his son Henry
in 1398 was a blow from which he did not recover. He died on
the 3rd of February 1399, and was buried at St Paul's near the
high altar.
John was neither a great soldier nor a statesman, but he was a
chivalrous knight and loyal to what he believed were the interests
of his family. In spite of opportunities and provocations he never
lent himself to treason. He deserves credit for his protection of
Wycliffe, though he had no sympathy with his religious or political
opinions. He was also the patron of Chaucer, whose Bake of the
Duchesse was a lament for Blanche of Lancaster.
The chief original sources for John's life are Froissart, the
H7
maliciously hostile Chronicon Angliae (1328-1388), and the eulogistic
Chronicle of Henry Knighton (both the latter in the Rolls Series)
But fuller information is to be found in the excellent biography by
S. Armytage-Smith, published in 1904. For his descendants see the
table under LANCASTER, HOUSE OF. (C. L. K.)
LANCASTER, JOSEPH (1778-1838), English educationist,
was born in Southwark in 1778, the son of a Chelsea pensioner.
He had few opportunities of regular instruction, but he very
early showed unusual seriousness and desire for learning. At
sixteen he looked forward to the dissenting ministry; but soon
after his religious views altered, and he attached himself to the
Society of Friends, with which he remained associated for many
years, until long afterwards he was disowned by that body.
At the age of twenty he began to gather a few poor children under
his father's roof, and to give them the rudiments of instruction,
without a fee, except in cases in which the parent was willing
to pay a trifle. Soon a thousand children were assembled in
the Borough Road; and, the attention of the duke of Bedford,
Mr Whitbread, and others having been directed to his efforts,
he was provided with means for building a schoolroom and
supplying needful materials. The main features of his plan
were the employment of older scholars as monitors, and an
elaborate system of mechanical drill, by means of which these
young teachers were made to impart the rudiments of reading,
writing and arithmetic to large numbers at the same time. The
material appliances for teaching were very scanty — a few leaves
torn out of spelling-books and pasted on boards, some slates and
a desk spread with sand, on which the children wrote with their
fingers. The order and cheerfulness of the school and the
military precision of the children's movements began to attract
much public observation at a time when the education of the
poor was almost entirely neglected. Lancaster inspired his
young monitors with fondness for their work and with pride
in the institution of which they formed a part. As these youths
became more trustworthy, he found himself at leisure to accept
invitations to expound what he called " his system " by lectures
in various towns. In this way many new schools were established,
and placed under the care of young men whom he had trained.
In a memorable interview with George III., Lancaster was
encouraged by the expression of the king's wish that every poor
child in his dominions should be taught to read the Bible.
Royal patronage brought in its train resources, fame and public
responsibility, which proved to be beyond Lancaster's own
powers to sustain or control. He was vain, reckless and im-
provident. In 1808 a few noblemen and gentlemen paid his
debts, became his trustees and founded the society at first called
the Royal Lancasterian Institution, but afterwards more widely
known as the British and Foreign School Society. The trustees
soon found that Lancaster was impatient of control, and that
his wild impulses and heedless extravagance made it impossible
to work with him. He quarrelled with the committee, set up
a private school at Tooting, became bankrupt, and in 1818
emigrated to America. There he met at first a warm recep-
tion, gave several courses of lectures which were well attended,
and wrote to friends at home letters full of enthusiasm. But his
fame was short-lived. The miseries of debt and disappointment
were aggravated by sickness, and he settled for a time in the
warmer climate of Caracas. He afterwards visited St Thomas
and Santa Cruz, and at length returned to New York, the
corporation of which city made him a public grant of 500 dollars
in pity for the misfortunes which had by this time reduced
him to lamentable poverty. He afterwards visited Canada,
where he gave lectures at Montreal, and was encouraged to open
a school which enjoyed an ephemeral success, but was soon
abandoned. A small annuity provided by his friends in England
was his only means of support. He formed a plan for returning
home and giving a new impetus to his " system," by which he
declared it would be possible " to teach ten thousand children
in different schools, not knowing their letters, all to read fluently
in three weeks to three months." But these visions were never
realized. He was run over by a carriage in the streets of New
York on the 24th of October 1838, and died in a few hours.
LANCASTER, T.— LANCASTER
As one of the two rival inventors of what was called the " moni-
torial " or " mutual " method of instruction, Lancaster's name was
prominent for many years in educational controversy. Dr Andrew
Bell (g.f.) had in 1797 published an account of his experiments in
teaching; and Lancaster in his first pamphlet, published in 1803,
frankly acknowledges his debt to Bell for some useful hints. The
two worked independently, but Lancaster was the first to apply
the system of monitorial teaching on a large scale. As an economical
experiment his school at the Borough Road was a signal success.
He had one thousand scholars under discipline, and taught them to
read, write and work simple sums at a yearly cost of less than 55. a
head. His tract Improvements in Education described the gradation
of ranks, the system of signals and orders, the functions of the
monitors, the method of counting and of spelling and the curious
devices he adopted for punishing offenders. Bell's educational aims
were humbler, as he feared to " elevate above their station those
who were doomed to the drudgery of daily labour," and therefore
did not desire to teach even writing and ciphering to the lower
classes. The main difference between them was that the system
of the one was adopted by ecclesiastics and Conservatives, — the
" National Society for the Education of the Poor in the principles
of the Established Church" having been founded in 1811 for its
propagation; while Lancaster's method was patronized by the
Edinburgh Review, by Whig statesmen, by a few liberal Churchmen
and by Nonconformists generally. It was the design of Lancaster
and his friends to make national education Christian, but not
sectarian, — to cause the Scriptures to be read, explained and
reverenced in the schools, without seeking by catechisms or other-
wise to attract the children to any particular church or sect. This
principle was at first vehemently denounced as deistic and mis-
chievous, and as especially hostile to the Established Church. To
do them justice, it must be owned that the rival claims and merits
of Bell and Lancaster were urged with more passion and unfairness
by their friends than by themselves. Yet neither is entitled to
hold a very high place among the world's teachers. Bell was cold,
shrewd and self-seeking. Lancaster had more enthusiasm, a
genuine and abounding love for children, and some ingenuity in
devising plans both for teaching and governing. But he was shift-
less, wayward and unmethodical, and incapable of sustained and
high-principled personal effort. His writings were not numerous.
They consist mainly of short pamphlets descriptive of the successes
he attained at the Borough Road. His last publication, An Epitome
of the Chief Events and Transactions of my Own Life, appeared in
America in 1833, and is characterized, even more strongly than his
former writings, by looseness and incoherency of style, by egotism
and by a curious incapacity for judging fairly the motives either of
his friends or his foes. We nave since come to believe that intelligent
teaching requires skill and previous training, and that even the
humblest rudiments 'are not to be well taught by those who have
only just acquired them for themselves, or to be attained by mere
mechanical drill. But in the early stages of national education the
monitorial method served a valuable purpose. It brought large
numbers of hitherto neglected children under discipline, and gave
them elementary instruction at a very cheap rate. Moreover, the
little monitors were often found to make up in brightness, tracta-
bility and energy for their lack of experience, and to teach the arts
of reading, writing and computing with surprising success. And one
cardinal principle of Bell and Lancaster is of prime importance.
They regarded a school, not merely as a place to which individual
pupils should come for guidance from teachers, but as an organized
community whose members have much to learn from each other.
They sought to place their scholars from the first in helpful mutual
relations, and to make them feel the need of common efforts towards
the attainment of common ends. (J. G. F.)
LANCASTER, THOMAS, EARL OF (c. 1277-1322), was the
eldest son of Edmund, earl of Lancaster and titular king of
Sicily, and a grandson of the English king, Henry III.; while
he was related to the royal house of France both through his
mother, Blanche, a granddaughter of Louis VIII., and his
step-sister, Jeanne, queen of Navarre, the wife of Philip IV.
A minor when Earl Edmund died in 1296, Thomas received his
father's earldoms of Lancaster and Leicester in 1298, but did
not become prominent in English affairs until after the accession
of his cousin, Edward II., in July 1307. Having married Alice
(d. 1348), daughter and heiress of Henry Lacy, earl of Lincoln,
and added the earldom of Derby to those which he already
held, he was marked out both by his wealth and position as the
leader of the barons in their resistance to the new king. With
his associates he produced the banishment of the royal favourite,
Piers Gaveston, in 1308; compelled Edward in 1310 to surrender
his power to a committee of " ordainers," among whom he
himself was numbered; and took up arms when Gaveston
returned to England in January 1312. Lancaster, who had
just obtained the earldoms of Lincoln and Salisbury on the
death of his father-in-law in 13 1 1 , drove the king and his favourite
from Newcastle to Scarborough, and was present at the execu-
tion of Gaveston in June 1312. After lengthy efforts at media-
tion, he made his submission and received a full pardon from
Edward in October 1313; but he refused to accompany the
king on his march into Scotland, which ended at Bannockburn,
and took advantage of the English disaster to wrest the control
of affairs from the hands of Edward. In 1315 he took command
of the forces raised to fight the Scots, and was soon appointed
to the " chief place in the council," while his supporters filled
the great offices of state, but his rule was as feeble as that of the
monarch whom he had superseded. Quarrelling with some of
the barons, he neglected both the government and the defence
of the kingdom, and in 1317 began a private war with John,
Earl Warrenne, who had assisted his countess to escape from
her husband. The capture of Berwick by the Scots, however,
in April 1318 led to a second reconciliation with Edward. A
formal treaty, made in the following August, having been ratified
by parliament, the king and earl opened the siege of Berwick;
but there was no cohesion between their troops, and the under-
taking was quickly abandoned. On several occasions Lancaster
was suspected of intriguing with the Scots, and it is significant
that his lands were spared when Robert Bruce ravaged the north
of England. He refused to attend the councils or to take any
part in the government until 1321, when the Despensers were
banished, and war broke out again between himself and the king.
Having conducted some military operations against Lancaster's
friends on the Welsh marches, Edward led his troops against
the earl, who gradually fell back from Burton-on-Trent to
Pontefract. Continuing this movement, Lancaster reached
Boroughbridge, where he was met by another body of royalists
under Sir Andrew Harclay. After a skirmish he was deserted
by his troops, and was obliged to surrender. Taken to his own
castle at Pontefract, where the king was, he was condemned to
death as a rebel and a traitor, and was beheaded near the town
on the 22nd .of March 1322. He left no children.
Although a coarse, selfish and violent man, without any of
the attributes of a statesman, Lancaster won a great reputation
for patriotism; and his memory was long cherished, especially
in the north of England, as that of a defender of popular liberties.
Over a hundred years after his death miracles were said to have
been worked at his tomb at Pontefract; thousands visited his
effigy in St Paul's Cathedral, London, and it was even proposed
to make him a saint.
See Chronicles of the Reigns of Edward 7. and Edward II., edited
with introduction by W. Stubbs (London, 1882-1883); and W.
Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol. ii. (Oxford, 1896).
LANCASTER, a market town and municipal borough, river
port, and the county town of Lancashire, England, in the
Lancaster parliamentary division, 230 m. N.W. by N. from
London by the London & North-Western railway (Castle Station) ;
served also by a branch of the Midland railway (Green Ayre
station). Pop. (1891) 33,256, (1901) 40,329- It lies at the
head of the estuary of the river Lune, mainly on its south bank,
7 m. from the sea. The site slopes sharply up to an eminence
crowned by the castle and the church of St Mary. Fine views
over the rich valley and Morecambe Bay to the west are com-
manded from the summit. St Mary's church was originally
attached by Roger de Poictou to his Benedictine priory founded
at the close of the nth century. It contains some fine Early
English work in the nave arcade, but is of Perpendicular work-
manship in general appearance, while the tower dates from 1759.
There are some beautiful Decorated oak stalls in the chancel,
brought probably from Cockersand or Furness Abbey.
The castle occupies the site of a Roman castrum. The Saxon
foundations of a yet older structure remain, and the tower at
the south-west corner is supposed to have been erected during
the reign of Hadrian. The Dungeon Tower, also supposed to be
of Roman origin, was taken down in 1818. The greater part of
the old portion of the present structure was built by Roger de
Poictou, who utilized some of the Roman towers and the old
walls. In 1322 much damage was done to the castle by Robert
LANCASTER
149
Bruce, whose attack it successfully resisted, but it was restored
and strengthened by John of Gaunt, who added the greater
part of the Gateway Tower as well as a turret on the keep or
Lungess Tower, which on that account has been named " John
o' Gaunt's Chair." During the Civil War the castle was captured
by Cromwell. Shortly after this it was put to publjc use, and
now, largely modernized, contains the assize courts and gaol.
Its appearance, with massive buildings surrounding a quadrangle,
is picturesque and dignified. Without the walls is a pleasant
terrace walk. Other buildings include several handsome modern
churches and chapels (notably the Roman Catholic church) ; the
Storey Institute with art gallery, technical and art schools,
museum and library, presented to the borough by Sir Thomas
Storey in 1887; Palatine Hall, Ripley hospital (an endowed
school for the children of residents, in Lancaster and the neigh-
bourhood), the asylum, the Royal Lancaster infirmary and an
observatory in the Williamson Park. A new town hall, presented
by Lord Ashton in 1909, is a handsome classical building from
designs of E. W. Mountford. The Ashton Memorial in William-
son Park, commemorating members of the Ashton family, is
a lofty domed structure. The grammar school occupies modern
buildings, but its foundation dates from the close of the isth
century, and in its former Jacobean house near the church
William Whewell and Sir Richard Owen were educated. A
horseshoe inserted in the pavement at Horseshoe Corner in the
town, and renewed from time to time, is said to mark the place
where a shoe was cast by John of Gaunt's horse.
The chief industries are cotton-spinning, cabinet-making,
oil cloth-making, railway wagon-building and engineering.
Glasson Dock, 5 m. down the Lune, with a graving dock, is
accessible to vessels of 600 tons. The Kendal and Lancaster
canal reaches the town by an aqueduct over the Lune, which is
also crossed by a handsome bridge dated 1788. The town has
further connexion by canal with Preston. The corporation
consists of a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area,
3506 acres.
History. — Lancaster (Lone-caster or Lunecastrum) was an
important Roman station, and traces of the Roman fortification
wall remain. The Danes left few memorials of their occupation,
and the Runic Cross found here, once supposed to be Danish, is
now conclusively proved to be Anglo-Saxon. At the Conquest,
the place, reduced in size and with its Roman castrum almost
in ruins, became a possession of Roger de Poictou, who founded
or enlarged the present castle on the old site. The town and
castle had a somewhat chequered ownership till in 1266 they
were granted by Henry III. to his son Edmund, first earl of
Lancaster, and continued to be a part of the duchy of Lancaster
till the present time. A town gathered around the castle, and
in 1193 John, earl of Mertoun, afterwards king, granted it a
charter, and another in 1199 after his accession. Under these
charters the burgesses claimed the right of electing a mayor, of
holding a yearly fair at Michaelmas and a weekly market on
Saturday. Henry III. in 1226 confirmed the charter of 1199;
in 1291 the style of the corporation is first mentioned as Ballivus
et communilas burgi, and Edward III.'s confirmation and exten-
sion (1362) is issued to the mayor, bailiffs and commonalty.
Edward III.'s charter was confirmed by Richard II. (1389),
Henry IV. (1400), Henry V. (1421), Henry VII. (1488) and
Elizabeth (1563). James I. (1604) and Charles II. (1665 and
1685) ratified, with certain additions, all previous charters, and
again in 1819 a similar confirmation was issued. John of Gaunt
. in 1362 obtained a charter for the exclusive right of holding the
sessions of pleas for the county in Lancaster itself, and up to
1873 the duchy appointed a chief justice and a puisne justice
for the court of common pleas at Lancaster. In 1322 the Scots
burnt the town, the castle alone escaping; the town was rebuilt
but removed from its original position on the hill to the slope
and foot. Again in 1389, after the battle of Otterburn, it was
destroyed by the same enemy. At the outbreak of the Great
Rebellion the burgesses sided with the king, and the town and
castle were captured in February 1643 by the Parliamentarians.
In March 1643 Lord Derby assaulted and took the town with
great slaughter, but the castle remained in the hands of the
Parliamentarians. In May and June of the same year the
castle was again besieged in vain, and in 1648 the Royalists
under Sir Thomas Tyldesley once more fruitlessly besieged it.
During the rebellion of 1715 the northern rebels occupied
Lancaster for two days and several of them were later executed
here. During the 1745 rebellion Prince Charles Edward's army
passed through the town in its southward march and again in its
retreat, but the inhabitants stood firm for the Hanoverians.
Two chartered markets are held weekly on Wednesday and
Saturday and three annual fairs in April, July and October. A
merchant gild existed here, which was ratified by Edward III.'s
charter (1362), and in 1688 six trade companies were incorporated.
The chief manufactures used to be sailcloth, cabinet furniture,
candles and cordage. The borough returned two members to
parliament from 1295 to 1331 and again from some time in Henry
VIII. 's reign before 1529 till 1867, when it was merged in the Lan-
caster division of north Lancashire. A church existed here, probably
on the site of the parish church of St Mary's, in Anglo-Saxon times,
but the present church dates from the early 15th century. An act
of parliament was passed in 1792 to make the canal from Kendal
through Lancaster and Preston, which is carried over the Lune about
a mile above Lancaster by a splendid aqueduct.
See Fleury, Time-Honoured Lancaster (1891); E. Baines, History
of Lancashire (1888).
LANCASTER, a city and the county-seat of Fairfield county,
Ohio, U.S.A., on the Hocking river (non-navigable), about 32 m.
S.E. of Columbus. Pop. (1900) 8991, of whom 442 were foreign-
born and 2j2 were negroes; (1910 census) 13,093. Lancaster
is served by the Hocking Valley, the Columbus & Southern
and the Cincinnati & Muskingum Valley (Pennsylvania Lines)
railways, and by the electric line of the Scioto Valley Traction
Company, which connects it with Columbus. Near the centre
of the city is Mt. Pleasant, which rises nearly 200 ft. above the
surrounding plain and about which cluster many Indian legends;
with 70 acres of woodland and fields surrounding it, this has
been given to the city for a park. On another hill is the county
court house. Lancaster has a public library and a children's
home; and 6 m. distant is the State Industrial School for Boys.
The manufactures include boots and shoes, glass and agricultural
implements. The total value of the city's factory product in
1905 was $4,159,410, being an increase of 118-3% over that of
1900. Lancaster is the trade centre of a fertile agricultural
region, has good transportation facilities, and is near the Hocking
Valley and Sunday Creek Valley coal-fields; its commercial
and industrial importance increased greatly, after 1900, through
the development of the neighbouring natural gas fields and, after
1907-1908, through the discovery of petroleum near the city.
Good sandstone is quarried in the vicinity. The municipality
owns and operates its waterworks and natural gas plant.
Lancaster was founded in 1800 by Ebenezer Zane (1747-1811),
who received a section of land here as part compensation for
opening a road, known as " Zane's Trace," from Wheeling,
West Virginia, to Limestone (now Maysville), Kentucky. Some
of the early settlers were from Lancaster, Pennsylvania, whence
the name. Lancaster was incorporated as a village in 1831 and
twenty years later became a city of the third class.
LANCASTER, a city and the county-seat of Lancaster county,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Conestoga river, 68 m. W. of
Philadelphia. Pop. (1900) 41,459, of whom 3492 were foreign-
born and 777 were negroes; (1910 census) 47,227. It is
served by the Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia & Reading and
the Lancaster, Oxford & Southern railways, and by tramways of
the Conestoga Traction Company, which had in 1909 a mileage
of 152 m. Lancaster has a fine county court house, a soldiers'
monument about 43 ft. in height, two fine hospitals, the Thaddeus
Stevens Industrial School (for orphans), a children's home,
the Mechanics' Library, and the Library of the Lancaster
Historical Society. It is the seat of Franklin and Marshall
College (Reformed Church), of the affiliated Franklin and
Marshall Academy, and of the Theological Seminary of the
Reformed Church, conducted in connexion with the college.
The college was founded in 1852 by the consolidation of
Franklin College, founded at Lancaster in 1787, and Marshall
College, founded at Mercersburg in 1836, both of which had
LANCE
earned a high standing among the educational institutions of
Pennsylvania. Franklin College was named in honour of
Benjamin Franklin, an early patron; Marshall College was
founded by the Reformed Church and was named in honour of
John Marshall. The Theological Seminary was opened in 1825
at Carlisle, Pa., and was removed to York, Pa., in 1829, to
Mercersburg, Pa., in 1837 and to Lancaster in 1871; in 1831
it was chartered by the Pennsylvania legislature. Among its
teachers have been John W. Nevin and Philip Schaff, whose
names, and that of the seminary, are associated with the so-
called " Mercersburg Theology." At Millersville, 4 m. S.W. of
Lancaster, is the Second Pennsylvania State Normal School.
At Lancaster are the graves of General John F. Reynolds, who
was born here; Thaddeus Stevens, who lived here after 1842;
and President James Buchanan, who lived for many years on
an estate, " Wheatland," near the city and is buried in the
Woodward Hill Cemetery. The city is in a productive tobacco
and grain region, and has a large tobacco trade and important
manufactures. The value of the city's factory products increased
from $12,750,429 in 1900 to $14,647,681 in 1905, or 14-9 %.
In 1905 the principal products were umbrellas and canes (valued
at $2,782,879), cigars and cigarettes ($1,951,971), and foundry
and machine-shop products ($1,036,526). Lancaster county has
long been one of the richest agricultural counties in the United
States, its annual products being valued at about $10,000,000;
in 1906 the value of the tobacco crop was about $3,225,000,
and there were 824 manufactories of cigars in the county.
Lancaster was settled about 1717 by English Quakers and
Germans, was laid out as a town in 1730, incorporated as a
borough in 1742, and chartered as a city in 1818. An important
treaty with the Iroquois Indians was negotiated here by the
governor of Pennsylvania and by commissioners from Maryland
and Virginia in June 1744. Some of General Burgoyne's troops,
surrendered at Saratoga, were confined here after the autumn
of 1780. The Continental Congress sat here on the 27th of
September 1777 after being driven from Philadelphia by the
British; and subsequently, after the organization of the Federal
government, Lancaster was one of the places seriously considered
when a national capital was to be chosen. From 1799 to 1812
Lancaster was the capital of Pennsylvania.
LANCE, a form of spear used by cavalry (see SPEAR). The
use of the lance, dying away on the decay of chivalry and the
introduction of pistol-armed cavalry, was revived by the Polish
and Cossack cavalry who fought against Charles XII. and
Frederick the Great. It was not until Napoleon's time, how-
ever, that lancer regiments appeared in any great numbers on
European battlefields. The effective use of the weapon — long
before called by Montecucculi the " queen of weapons " — by
Napoleon's lancers at Waterloo led to its introduction into the
British service, and except for a short period after the South
African War, in which it was condemned as an anachronism,
it has shared, or rather contested, with the sword the premier
place amongst cavalry arms. In Great Britain and other
countries lances are carried by the front rank of cavalry, except
light cavalry, regiments, as well as by lancer regiments. In
Germany, since 1889, the whole of the cavalry has been armed
with the lance. In Russia, on the other hand, line cavalry
being, until recently, considered as a sort of mounted infantry
or dragoons, the lance was restricted to the Cossacks, and in
Austria it enjoys less favour than in Germany. Altogether
there are few. questions of armament or military detail more
freely disputed, in the present day as in the past, than this of
sword versus lance.
The lances used in the British service are of two kinds, those
with ash and those with bamboo staves. The latter are much pre-
ferred and are generally used, the " male " bamboo being peculiarly
tough and elastic. The lance is provided with a sling, through
which the trooper passes his right arm when the lance is carried slung,
the point of the steel shoe fitting into a bucket attached to the right
stirrup. A small " dee " loop is also provided, by which the lance
can be attached to the saddle when the trooper dismounts. The
small flag is removed on service. The head is of the best steel.
The Germans, doubtless owing to difficulty in obtaining bamboos, or
ash in large quantity straight enough in the grain over a consider-
able length, for lance staves, have adopted a stave of steel tubing
as well as one of pine (figs. 2, 3 and 4).
As to the question of the relative efficiency of the lance and the
sword as the principal arm for cavalry, it is alleged that the former
is heavy and fatiguing to carry, conspicuous, and much in the way
when reconnoitring in close country, working through woods and
the like; that, when unslung ready for the charge, it is awkward
to handle, and may be positively dangerous if a horse becomes
restive and the rider has to use both hands on the reins; that unless
the thrust be delivered at full speed, it is easily parried ; and, lastly,
that in the melee, when the trooper has not room to use his lance,
he will be helpless until he either throws it away or slings it, and
can draw his sword. While admitting the last-mentioned objection,
those who favour the lance contend that success in the first shock
of contact is all-important, and that this success the lancer will
certainly obtain, owing
Fig.3. fig.4.
to his long reach en-
abling him to deliver a
blow before the swords-
man can retaliate, while,
when the melee com-
mences, the rear rank
will come to the assist-
ance of i.he front rank.
Further, it is claimed
that the power of de-
livering the first blow
gives confidence to the
young soldier; that the
appearance of a lancer
regiment, preceded as it
were by a hedge of steel,
has an immense moral
effect; that in single
combat a lancer, with
room to turn, can
always defeat an oppo-
nent armed with a
sword; and, lastly, that
in pursuit a lancer is
terrible to an enemy,
whether the latter be
mounted or on foot. As
in the case of the peren-
nial argument whether
a sword should be de-
signed mainly for cut-
ting or thrusting, it is
unlikely that the dis-
pute as to the merits of
the lance over the sword
will ever be definitely
settled, since so many
other factors — horse-
manship, the training of
the horse, the skill and
courage of the adver-
sary— determine the
trooper's success quite
as much as the weapon
he
Fig. I.
Fig.2.
l5l.no
\J
happens to wield. n8s- 2 a"d 3 the German steel tubular
The following passage lance, and fig. 4 the German pine-wood
TYPES OF BRITISH AND GERMAN LANCES.
FIG. I is the British bamboo lance;
fi3 *'
from Cavalry": itTlJis- lance. The full length of the German
lory and\ Tactics (Lon- lance is 11 ft. 9 in., that of the Cossacks
don, 1853), by Captain 9 ft- 10 in., that of the Austrian lancers
Nolan, explains how the 8 ft. 8 in and the French lance II ft.
lance gained popularity The British lance is 9 ft. long. The weight
in Austria: — " In the °' a lance varies but slightly. The steel-
last Hungarian war staved lance weighs 4 Ib, the bamboo 4J.
(1848-49) the Hungarian
Hussars were . . . generally successful against the Austrian heavy
cavalry — cuirassiers and uragoons; but when they met the Polish
Lancers, the finest regiments of light horse in the Austrian service,
distinguished for their discipline, good riding, and, above all, for their
esprit de corps and gallantry in action, against those the Hungarians
were not successful, and at once attributed this to the lances of
their opponents. The Austrians then extolled the lance above the
sword, and armed all their light cavalry regiments with it."
The lancer regiments in the British service are the 5th, the gth,
the I2th, the l6th, the I7th and the 2lst. All these were converted
at different dates from hussars and light dragoons, the last-named
in 1896. The typical lancer uniform is a light-fitting short-skirted
tunic with a double-breasted front, called the plastron, of a different
colour, a girdle, and a flat-topped lancer " cap," adapted from the
Polish czapka (see UNIFORMS: Naval and Military). The British
lancers, with the exception of the i6th, who wear scarlet with blue
facings, are clad in blue, the 5th, gth and 1 2th having scarlet facings
and green, black and red plumes respectively, the 1 7th (famous as the
" death or glory boys " and wearing a skull and crossbones badge) white
facings and white plume, and the 2 1st light-blue facings and plume.
LANCELOT
LANCELOT (Lancelot du Lac, or Lancelot of the Lake), a
famous figure in the Arthurian cycle of romances. To the great
majority of English readers the name of no knight of King
Arthur's court is so familiar as is that of Sir Lancelot. The
mention of Arthur and the Round Table at once brings him to
mind as the most valiant member of that brotherhood and
the secret lover of the Queen. Lancelot, however, is not an
original member of the cycle, and the development of his story
is still a source of considerable perplexity to the critic.
Briefly summarized, the outline of his career, as given in the
German Lanzelet and the French prose Lancelot, is as follows:
Lancelot was the only child of King Ban of Benoic and his
queen Helaine. While yet an infant, his father was driven
from his kingdom, either by a revolt of his subjects, caused by his
own harshness (Lanzelet), or by the action of his enemy Claudas
de la Deserte (Lancelot). King and queen fly, carrying the
child with them, and while the wife is tending her husband,
who dies of a broken heart on his flight, the infant is carried off
by a friendly water-fairy, the Lady of the Lake, who brings the
boy up in her mysterious kingdom. In the German poem this
is a veritable " Isle of Maidens," where no man ever enters, and
where it is perpetual spring. In the prose Lancelot, on the other
hand, the Lake is but a mirage, and the Lady's court does not
lack its complement of gallant knights; moreover the boy has
the companionship of his cousins, Lionel and Bohort, who,
like himself, have been driven from their kingdom by Claudas.
When he reaches the customary age (which appears to be fifteen),
the young Lancelot, suitably equipped, is sent out into the world.
In both versions his name and parentage are concealed, in the
Lanzelet he is genuinely ignorant of both; here too his lack of
all knightly accomplishments (not unnatural when we remember
he has here been brought up entirely by women) and his in-
ability to handle a steed are insisted upon. Here he rides
forth in search of what adventure may bring. In the prose
Lancelot his education is complete, he knows his name and
parentage, though for some unexplained reason he keeps both
secret, and he goes with a fitting escort and equipment to
Arthur's court to demand knighthood. The subsequent
adventures differ widely: in the Lanzelel he ultimately re-
conquers his kingdom, and, with his wife Iblis, reigns over it
in peace, both living to see their children's children, and dying
on the same day, in good old fairy-tale fashion. In fact, the
whole of the Lanzelet has much more the character of a fairy
or folk-tale than that of a knightly romance.
In the prose version, Lancelot, from his first appearance at
court, conceives a passion for the queen, who is very considerably
his senior, his birth taking place some time after her marriage
to Arthur. This infatuation colours all his later career. He
frees her from imprisonment in the castle of Meleagant, who
has carried her off against her will — (a similar adventure is
related in Lanzelet, where the abductor is Valerin, and Lanzelet
is not the rescuer) — and, although he recovers his kingdom from
Claudas, he prefers to remain a simple knight of Arthur's court,
bestowing the lands on his cousins and half-brother Hector.
Tricked into a liaison with the Fisher King's daughter Elaine,
he becomes the father of Galahad, the Grail winner, and, as a
result of the queen's jealous anger at his relations with the lady,
goes mad, and remains an exile from the court for some years.
He takes part, fruitlessly, in the Grail quest, only being vouch-
safed a fleeting glimpse of the sacred Vessel, which, however,
is sufficient to cast him into unconsciousness, in which he remains
for as many days as he has spent years in sin. Finally, his
relations with Guenevere are revealed to Arthur by the sons
of King Lot, Gawain, however, taking no part in the disclosure.
Surprised together, Lancelot escapes, and the queen is condemned
to be burnt alive. As the sentence is about to be carried into
execution Lancelot and his kinsmen come to her rescue, but in
the fight that ensues many of Arthur's knights, including three
of Gawain's brothers, are slain. Thus converted into an enemy,
Gawain urges his uncle to make war on Lancelot, and there
follows a desperate struggle between Arthur and the race of
Ban. This is interrupted by the tidings of Mordred's treachery,
and Lancelot, taking no part in the last fatal conflict, outlives
both king and queen, and th& downfall of the Round Table.
Finally, retiring to a hermitage, he ends his days in the odour
of sanctity.
The process whereby the independent hero of the Lanzelet
(who, though his mother is Arthur's sister, has but the slightest
connexion with the British king), the faithful husband of Iblis,
became converted into the principal ornament of Arthur's
court, and the devoted lover of the queen, is by no means easy
to follow, nor do other works of the cycle explain the trans-
formation. In the pseudo-chronicles, the Historia of Geoffrey
and the translations by Wace and Layamon, Lancelot does not
appear at all; the queen's lover, whose guilty passion is fully
returned, is Mordred. Chretien de Troves' treatment of him is
contradictory; in the Erec, his earliest extant poem, Lancelot's
name appears as third on the list of the knights of Arthur's
court. (It is well, however, to bear in mind the possibility of
later addition on alteration in such lists.) In Cliges he again
ranks as third, being overthrown by the hero of the poem. In
Le Chevalier de la Charrette, however, which followed Cligis, we
find Lancelot alike as leading knight of the court and lover of
the queen, in fact, precisely in the position he occupies in the
prose romance, where, indeed, the section dealing with this
adventure is, as Gaston Paris clearly proved, an almost literal
adaptation of Chretien's poem. The subject of the poem is the
rescue of the queen from her abductor Meleagant; and what
makes the matter more perplexing is that Chretien handles
the situation as one with which his hearers are already familiar;
it is Lancelot, and not Arthur or another, to whom the office of
rescuer naturally belongs. After this it is surprising to find
that in his next poem, Le Chevalier au Lion, Lancelot is once,
and only once, casually referred to, and that in a passing refer-
ence to his rescue of the queen. In the Perceval, Chretien's
last work, he does not appear at all, and yet much of the action
passes at Arthur's court.
In the continuations added at various times to Chretien's
unfinished work the r61e assigned to Lancelot is equally modest.
Among the fifteen knights selected by Arthur to accompany
him to Chastel Orguellous he only ranks ninth. In the version
of the Luite Trislran inserted by Gerbert in his Perceval, he is
publicly overthrown and shamed by Tristan. Nowhere is he
treated with anything approaching the importance assigned to
him in the prose versions. Welsh tradition does not know him;
early Italian records, which have preserved the names of Arthur
and Gawain, have no reference to Lancelot; among the group
of Arthurian knights figured on the architrave of the north
doorway of Modena cathedral (a work of the izth century) he
finds no place; the real cause for his apparently sudden and
triumphant rise to popularity is extremely difficult to determine.
What appears the most probable solution is that which regards
Lancelot as the hero of an independent and widely diffused
folk-tale, which, owing to certain special circumstances, was
brought into contact with, and incorporated in, the Arthurian
tradition. This much has been proved certain of the adventures
recounted in the Lanzelet; the theft of an infant by a water-fairy;
the appearance of the hero three consecutive days, in three
different disguises, at a tournament; the rescue of a queen, or
princess, from an Other-World prison, all belong to one well-
known and widely-spread folk-tale, variants of which are found
in almost every land, and of which numerous examples have been
collected alike by M. Cosquin in his Conies Lorrains, and by
Mr J. F. Campbell in his Tales of the West Highlands.
The story of the loves of Lancelot and Guenevere, as related
by Chretien, has about it nothing spontaneous and genuine; in
no way can it be compared with the story of Tristan and Iseult.
It is the exposition of a relation governed by artificial and
arbitrary rules, to which the principal actors in the drama
must perforce conform. Chretien states that he composed the
poem (which he left to be completed by Godefroi de Leigni)
at the request of the countess Marie of Champagne, who provided
him with matiere et san. Marie was the daughter of Louis VII.
of France and of Eleanor of Aquitaine, subsequently wife of
152
LANCET— LANCIANO
Henry II. of Anjou and England. It is a matter of history that
both mother and daughter were, active agents in fostering that
view of the social relations of the sexes which found its most
famous expression in the "Courts of Love," and which was
responsible for the dictum that love between husband and wife
was impossible. The logical conclusion appears to be that the
Charrette poem is a " Tendenz-Schrifl," composed under certain
special conditions, in response to a special demand. The story
of Tristan and Iseull, immensely popular as it was, was too
genuine — (shall we say too crude?) — to satisfy the taste of the
court for which Chretien was writing. Moreover, the Arthurian
story was the popular story of the day, and Tristan did not
belong to the magic circle, though he was ultimately introduced,
somewhat clumsily, it must be admitted, within its bounds.
The Arthurian cycle must have its own love-tale; Guenevere,
the leading lady of that cycle, could not be behind the courtly
ladies of the day and lack a lover; one had to be found for her.
Lancelot, already popular hero of a tale in which an adventure
parallel to that of the Charrette figured prominently, was pressed
into the service, Modred, Guenevere's earlier lover, being too
unsympathetic a character; moreover, Modred was required for
the final r61e of traitor.
But to whom is the story to be assigned? Here we must
distinguish between the Lancelot proper and the Lancelot-
Guenevere versions; so far as the latter are concerned, we cannot
get behind the version of Chretien, — nowhere, prior to the
composition of the Chevalier de la Charrette is there any evidence
of the existence of such a story. Yet Chretien does not claim to
have invented the situation. Did it spring from the fertile
brain of some court lady, Marie, or another? The authorship
of the Lancelot proper, on the other hand, is invariably ascribed
to Walter Map (see MAP), the chancellor of Henry II., but so
also are the majority of the Arthurian prose Romances. The
trend of modern critical opinion is towards accepting Map as the
author of a Lancelot romance, which formed the basis for later
developments, and there is a growing tendency to identify
this hypothetical original Lancelot with the source of the German
Lanzelet. The author, Ulrich von Zatzikhoven, tells us that he
translated his poem from a French (welsches) book in the posses-
sion of Hugo de Morville, one of the English hostages, who, in
1194, replaced Richard Cceur de Lion in the prison of Leopold
of Austria. Further evidence on the point is, unfortunately,
not at present forthcoming. To the student of the original texts
Lancelot is an infinitely less interesting hero than Gawain,
Perceval or Tristan, each of whom possesses a well-marked
personality, and is the centre of what we may call individual
adventures. Saving and excepting the incident of his being
stolen and brought up by a water-fairy (from a Lai relating
which adventure the whole story probably started), there is
absolutely nothing in Lancelot's character or career to distin-
guish him from any other romantic hero of the period. The
language of the prose Lancelot is good, easy and graceful, but
the adventures lack originality and interest, and the situations
repeat themselves in a most wearisome manner. English readers,
who know the story only through the medium of Malory's noble
prose and Tennyson's melodious verse, carry away an impression
entirely foreign to that produced by a study of the original
literature. The Lancelot story, in its rise and development,
belongs exclusively to the later stage of Arthurian romance;
it was a story for the court, not for the folk, and it lacks alike
the dramatic force and human appeal of the genuine "popular"
tale.
The prose Lancelot was frequently printed ; J. C. Brunet chronicles
editions of 1488, 1494, 1513, 1520 and 1533 — of this last date there
are two, one published by Jehan Petit, the other by Philippe Lenoire,
this last by far the better, being printed from a much fuller manu-
script. There is no critical edition, and the only version available
for the general reader is the modernized and abridged text published
by Paulin Paris in vols. iii. to v. of Romans de la Table Ronde.
A Dutch verse translation of the I3th century was published by
M. W.J. A. Jonckbloet in 1850, under the title of Roman van Lance-
loet. This only begins with what Paulin Paris terms the Aeravain
section, all the part previous to Guenevere's rescue from Meleagant
having been lost ; but the text is an excellent one, agreeing closely
with the Lenoire edition of 1533. The Books devoted by Malory to
Lancelot are also drawn from this latter section of the romance;
there is no sign that the English translator had any of the earlier
part before him. Malory's version of the Charrette adventure differs
in many respects from any other extant form, and the source of this
special section of his work is still a question of debate among scholars.
The text at his disposal, especially in the Queste section, must have
been closely akin to that used by the Dutch translator and the
compiler of Lenoire, 1533. Unfortunately, Dr Sommer, in his study
on the Sources of Malory, omitted to consult these texts, with the
result that the sections dealing with Lancelot and Queste urgently
require revision.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Lanzelet (ed. Hahn, 1845, out of print and
extremely difficult to obtain). Chretien's poem has been published by
Professor Wendelin Foerster, in his edition of the works of that poet,
Der Karrenritter (1899). A Dutch version of a short episodic poem,
Lancelot et le cerf au pied blanc will be found in M. Jonckbloet's
volume, and a discussion of this and other Lancelot poems, by
Gaston Paris, is contained in vol. xxx. of Histoire litteraire de la
France. For critical studies on the subject cf . Gaston Paris's articles
in Romania, vols. x. and xii. ; Wechssler, Die verschiedenen Redak-
tionen des Craal-Lancelot Cycklus; J. L. Weston, The Legend of Sir
Lancelot du Lac (Grimm Library, vol. xii.); and The Three Days'
Tournament (Grimm Library, vol. xv.) an appendix to the
previous vol. (J. L. W.)
LANCET (from Fr. lancelte, dim. of lance, lance), the name
given to a surgical instrument, with a narrow two-edged blade
and a lance-shaped point, used for opening abscesses, &c. The
term is applied, in architecture, to a form of the pointed arch,
and to a window of which the head is a lancet-arch.
LANCEWOOD, a straight-grained, tough, light elastic wood
obtained from the West Indies and Guiana. It is brought into
commerce in the form of taper poles of about 20 ft. in length
and from 6 to 8 in. in diameter at the thickest end. Lancewood
is used by carriage-builders for shafts; but since the practice of
employing curved shafts has come largely into use it is not in
so great demand as formerly. The smaller wood is used for
whip-handles, for the tops of fishing-rods, and for various minor
purposes where even-grained elastic wood is a desideratum.
The wood is obtained from two members of the natural order
Anonaceae. The black lancewood or carisiri of Guiana (Guatteria
virgata) grows to a height of 50 ft., is of remarkably slender
form, and seldom yields wood more than 8 in. diameter. The
yellow lancewood tree (Duguetia quitarensis, yari-yari, of Guiana)
is of similar dimensions, found in tolerable abundance throughout
Guiana, and used by the Indians for arrow-points, as well as
for spars, beams, &c.
LAN-CHOW-FU, the chief town of the Chinese province of
Kan-suh, and one of the most important cities of the interior
part of the empire, on the right bank of the Hwang-ho. The
population is estimated at 175,000. The houses, with very few
exceptions, are built of wood, but the streets are paved with
blocks of granite and marble. Silks, wood-carvings, silver and
jade ornaments, tin and copper wares, fruits and tobacco are
the chief articles of the local trade. Tobacco is very extensively
cultivated in the vicinity.
LANCIANO (anc. Anxanum), a town and episcopal see of the
Abruzzi, Italy, in the province of Chieti, situated on three
hills, 984 ft. above sea-level, about 8 m. from the Adriatic coast
and 12 m. S.E. of Chieti. Pop. (1901) 7642 (town), 18,316
(commune). It has a railway station on the coast railway, 19 m.
S.E. of Castellammare Adriatico. It has broad, regular streets,
and several fine buildings. The cathedral, an imposing structure
with a fine clock-tower of 1619, is built upon bridges of brickwork,
dating perhaps from the Roman period (though the inscription
attributing the work to Diocletian is a forgery), that span the
gorge of the Feltrino, and is dedicated to S. Maria del Ponte,
Our Lady of the Bridge. The Gothic church of S. Maria Maggiore
dates from 1227 and has a fine facade, with a portal of 1317
by a local sculptor. The processional cross by the silversmith
Nicola di Guardiagrele (1422) is very beautiful. In S. Nicola
is a fine reliquary of 1445 by Nicola di Francavilla. The church
of the Annunziata has a good rose window of 1362. The
industries of the town, famous in the middle ages, have declined.
Anxanum belonged originally to the tribe of the Frentani and
later became a municipium. It lay on the ancient highroad,
LANCRET— LANDEN
'53
which abandoned the coast at Ortona 10 m. to the N. and
returned to it at Histonium (Vasto). Remains of a Roman
theatre exist under the bishop's palace.
SeeV. Bindi, Monumenti degli Abruzzi (Naples, 1889, 690 sqq.),
and for discoveries in the neighbourhood see A. de Nino in Notizie
degli scam (1884), 431. (T. As.)
LANCRET, NICOLAS (1660-1743), French painter, was born
in Paris on the 22nd of January 1660, and became a brilliant
depicter of light comedy which reflected the tastes and manners
of French society under the regent Orleans. His first master
was Pierre d'Ulin, but his acquaintance with and admiration
for Watteau induced him to leave d'Ulin for Gillot, whose pupil
Watteau had been. Two pictures painted by Lancret and
exhibited on the Place Dauphine had a great success, which
laid the foundation of his fortune, and, it is said, estranged
Watteau, who had been complimented as their author. Lancret's
work cannot now, however, be taken for that of Watteau, for
both in drawing and in painting his touch, although intelligent,
is dry, hard and wanting in that quality which distinguished his
great model; these characteristics are due possibly in part to
the fact that he had been for some time in training under an
engraver. The number of his paintings (of which over eighty
have been engraved) is immense; he executed a few portraits
and attempted historical composition, but his favourite subjects
were balls, fairs, village weddings, &c. The British Museum
possesses an admirable series of studies by Lancret in red chalk,
and the National Gallery, London, shows four paintings — the
" Four Ages of Man " (engraved by Desplaces and 1'Armessin),
cited by d'Argenville amongst the principal works of Lancret.
In 1719 he was received as Academician, and became councillor
in 1735; in I74r he married a grandchild of Boursault, author
of Aesop at Court. He died on the i4th of September 1743.
See d'Argenville, Vies des peintres; and Ballot de Sovot, £loge
de M. Lancret (1743, new ed. 1874).
LAND, the general term for that part of the earth's surface
which is solid and dry as opposed to sea or water. The word
is common to Teutonic languages, mainly in the same form and
with essentially the same meaning. The Celtic cognate forms
are Irish lann, Welsh llan, an enclosure, also in the sense of
" church," and so of constant occurrence in Welsh place-names,
Cornish Ian and Breton lann, health, which has given the French
lande, an expanse or tract of sandy waste ground. The ultimate
root is unknown. From its primary meaning have developed
naturally the various uses of the word, for a tract of ground or
country viewed either as a political, geographical or ethno-
graphical division of the earth, as property owned by the public
or state or by a private individual, or as the rural as opposed to
the urban or the cultivated as opposed to the built on part of
the country; of particular meanings may be mentioned that of
a building divided into tenements or flats, the divisions being
known as " houses," a Scottish usage, and also that of a division
of a ploughed field marked by the irrigating channels, hence
transferred to the smooth parts of the bore of a rifle between the
grooves of the rifling.
For the physical geography of the land, as the solid portion of
the earth's surface, see GEOGRAPHY. For land as the subject of
cultivation see AGRICULTURE and SOIL, also.RECLAMATiONOF LAND.
For the history of the holding or tenure of land see VILLAGE COM-
MUNITIES and FEUDALISM; a particular form of land tenure is
dealt with under METAYAGE. The article AGRARIAN LAWS deals
with the disposal of the public land (Ager publicus) in Ancient Rome,
and further information with regard to the part played by the land
question in Roman history will be found under ROME: § History.
The legal side of the private ownership of land is treated under
REAL PROPERTY and CONVEYANCING (see also LANDLORD AND
TENANT, and LAND REGISTRATION).
LANDAU, a town in the Bavarian Palatinate, on the Queich,
lying under the eastern slope of the Hardt Mountains, 32 m.
by rail S.W. from Mannheim, at the junction of lines to Neustadt
an der Hardt, Weissenburg and Saarbrucken. Pop. (1905)
17,165. Among its buildings are the Gothic Evangelical church
dating from 1285; the chapel of St Catherine built in 1344
the church of the former Augustinian monastery, dating from
1405; and the Augustinian monastery itself, founded in 1276
and now converted into a brewery. There are manufactures of
rigars, beer, hats, watches, furniture and machines, and a trade
n wine, fruit and cereals. Large cattle-markets are held here.
Landau was founded in 1224, becoming an imperial city fifty
years later. This dignity was soon lost, as in 1317 it passed to
.he bishopric of Spires and in 1331 to the Palatinate, recovering
ts former position in 1511. Captured eight times during the
Thirty Years' War the town was ceded to France by the treaty
of Westphalia in 1648, although with certain ill-defined reserva-
tions. In 1679 Louis XIV. definitely took possession of Landau.
[ts fortifications were greatly strengthened; nevertheless it
was twice taken by the Imperialists and twice recovered by the
French during the Spanish Succession War. In 1815 it was
given to Austria and in the following year to Bavaria. The
'ortifications were finally dismantled in 1 8 7 1 .
The town is commonly supposed to have given its name to
;he four-wheeled carriage, with an adjustable divided top for
use either open or closed, known as a " landau " (Ger.
Landauer). But this derivation is doubtful, the origin of the
name being also ascribed to that of an English carriage-builder,
Landow, who introduced this form of equipage.
See E. Heuser, Die Belagerungen von Landau in den Jahren 1702
und i/oj (Landau, 1894); Lehmann, Geschichte der ehemaligen
freien Reichsstadt Landau (1851); and Jost, Interessante Daten aus
der 6oojahrigen Geschichte der Stadt Landau (Landau, 1879).
LANDECK, a town and spa in the Prussian province of Silesia,
on the Biele, 73 m. by rail S. of Breslau and close to the Austrian
frontier. Pop. (1905) 3,481. It is situated at an altitude of
1400 ft. It has manufactures of gloves. Landeck is visited by
nearly 10,000 people annually on account of its warm sulphur
baths, which have been known since the I3th century. In the
neighbourhood are the ruins of the castle of Karpenstein.
See Langner, Bad Landeck (Glatz, 1872); Schiitze, Die Thermen
von Landeck (Berlin, 1895); Wehse, Bad Landeck (Breslau, 1886);
Joseph, Die Thermen von Landeck (Berlin, 1887), and Patschovsky,
Fuhrer durch Bad Landeck und Umgebung (Schweidnitz, 1902).
LANDEN, JOHN (1719-1790), English mathematician, was
born at Peakirk near Peterborough in Northamptonshire on
the 23rd of January 1719, and died on the isth of January
1790 at Milton in the same county. He lived a very retired
life, and saw little or nothing of society; when he did mingle
in it, his dogmatism and pugnacity caused him to be generally
shunned. In 1762 he was appointed agent to the Earl Fitz-
william, and held that office to within two years of his death.
He was first known as a mathematician by his essays in the
Ladies' Diary for 1744. In 1766 he was elected a fellow of the
Royal Society. He was well acquainted with the works of the
mathematicians of his own time, and has been called the
" English d'Alembert." In his Discourse on the " Residual
Analysis," he proposes to avoid the metaphysical difficulties
of the method of fluxions by a purely algebraical method. The
idea may be compared with that of Joseph Louis Lagrange's
Calcul des Fonctions. His memoir (1775) on the rotatory
motion of a body contains (as the author was aware) conclusions
at variance with those arrived at by Jean le Rond, d'Alembert
and Leonhard Euler in their researches on the same subject.
He reproduces and further develops and defends his own views
in his Mathematical Memoirs, and in his paper in the Philosophical
Transactions for 1785. But Landen's capital discovery is that
of the theorem known by his name (obtained in its complete
form in the memoir of 1775, and reproduced in the first volume
of the Mathematical Memoirs) for the expression of the arc of
an hyperbola in terms of two elliptic arcs. His researches on
elliptic functions are of considerable elegance, but their great
merit lies in the stimulating effect which they had on later
mathematicians. He also showed that the roots of a cubic
equation can be derived by means of the infinitesimal calculus.
The list of his writings is as follows -.—Ladies' Diary, various com-
munications (1744-1760); papers in the Phil. Trans. (i754. !76°'
1768, 1771, 1775, 1777, 1785); Mathematical Lucubrations U755);
A Discourse concerning the Residual Analysis (1758); The Re"d" a(
Analysis, book i. (1764); Animadversions on Dr Stewarts Method,
of computing the Sun's Distance from the Earth (1771); Mathematical
Memoirs (1780, 1789).
LANDEN— LANDES
LANDEN, a town in the province of Liege, Belgium, an im-
portant junction for lines of railway from Limburg, Liege and
Louvain. Pop. (1904) 2874. It is the birthplace of the first
Pippin, distinguished as Pippin of Landen from his grandson
Pippin of Herstal. In 1603 the French under Marshal Luxemburg
defeated here the Anglo-Dutch army under William III. This
battle is also called Neerwinden from a village 3 m. W. of Landen.
Here in 1793 the Austrians under Frederick of Saxe-Coburg
and Clerfayt defeated the French under Dumouriez.
LANDER, RICHARD LEMON (1804-1834) and JOHN (1807-
1839), English explorers of the Niger, were natives of Cornwall,
sons of an innkeeper at Truro. At the age of eleven Richard
went to the West Indies in the service of a merchant. Returning
to England after an absence of three years he took service with
various wealthy families, with whom he travelled on the continent.
In 1823-1824 he accompanied Major (afterwards General Sir)
W. M. Colebrooke, on a tour through Cape Colony. In 1825
Richard offered his services to Hugh Clapperton, then preparing
for his second expedition to West Africa. He was Clapperton's
devoted servant and companion in this expedition, and on
Clapperton's death near Sokoto in April 1827 Richard Lander,
after visiting Kano and other parts of the Hausa states, returned
to the Guinea coast through Yoruba bringing with him Clapper-
ton's journal. To this on its publication (1829) was added
The Journal of Richard Lander from Kano to the Coast, and in
the next year Lander published another account of the expedi-
tion entitled Records of Captain Clapperton's Last Expedition
to Africa ... with the subsequent Adventures of the Author.
To this narrative he prefixed an autobiographical note. Richard
Lander, though without any scientific attainments, had ex-
hibited such capacity for exploration that the British government
decided to send him out to determine the course of the lower
Niger. In the expedition he was accompanied by his brother
John, by trade a printer, and better educated than Richard, who
went as an unsalaried volunteer. Leaving England in January
1830, the brothers landed at Badagry on the Guinea coast on
the 22nd of March. They then travelled by the route previously
taken by Clapperton to Bussa on the right bank of the Niger,
reached on the i7th of June. Thence they ascended the river
for about 100 m. Going back to Bussa the travellers began,
on the 20th of September, the descent of the river, not knowing
whither it would lead them. They journeyed in canoes accom-
panied by a few negroes, their only scientific instrument a common
compass. They discovered the Benue river, ascertaining when
passing its confluence, by paddling against its stream, that their
course was not in that direction. At the beginning of the delta
they were captured by the Ibos, from whom they were ransomed
by "King Boy" of Brass Town; by him they were taken to
the Nun mouth of the river, whence a passage was obtained to
Fernando Po, reached on the ist of December. The Landers
were thus able to lay down with approximate correctness the
lower course of the Niger — a matter till then as much in dispute
as was the question of the Nile sources. In the attack by the
Ibos the Landers lost many of their records, but they published
a narrative of their discoveries in 1832, in three small volumes —
Journal of an Expedition to Explore the Course and Termination
of the Niger. In recognition of his services the Royal Geographical
Society — formed two years previously — granted Richard Lander
in 1832 the royal medal, he being the first recipient of such an
award. In the same year Richard went to Africa again as
leader of an expedition organized by Macgregor Laird and other
Liverpool merchants to open up trade on the Niger and to found
a commercial settlement at the junction of the Benue with the
main stream. The expedition encountered many difficulties,
suffered great mortality from fever, and was not able to reach
Bussa. Lander made several journeys up and down stream,
and while going up the river in a canoe was attacked by the
natives on the 2oth of January 1834 at a spot about 84 m.
above the Nun mouth, and wounded by a musket ball in the
thigh. He was removed to Fernando Po, where he died on the
6th of February. John Lander, who on his return to England
in 1831 obtained a situation at the London customs house,
died on the i6th of November 1839 of a disease contracted
in Africa.
See, besides the books mentioned, the Narrative of the Niger
expedition of 1832-1834, published in 1837 by Macgregor Laird and
R. A. K. Oldfield.
LANDES, a department in the south-west of France, formed
in 1790 of portions of the ancient provinces of Guyenne (Landes,
Condomios Chalosse), Gascony and Beam, and bounded N. by
Gironde, E. by Lot-et-Garonne and Gers, S. by Basses Pyrenees,
and W. (for 68 m.) by the Bay of Biscay. Pop. (1906) 293,397.
Its area, 3615 sq. m., is second only to that of the department of
Gironde. The department takes its name from the Landes,
which occupy three-quarters of its surface, or practically the
whole region north of the Adour, the chief river of the depart-
ment. They are separated from the sea by a belt of dunes
fringed on the east by a chain of lakes. South of the Adour lies
the Chalosse — a hilly region, intersected by the Gabas, Luy and
Gave de Pau, left-hand tributaries of the Adour, which descend
from the Pyrenees. On the right the Adour is joined by the
Midouze, formed by the junction of the Douze and the Midou.
The climate of Landes is the Girondine, which prevails from
the Loire to the Pyrenees. Snow is almost unknown, the spring is
rainy, the summer warm and stormy. The prevailing wind is the
south-west, and the mean temperature of the year is 53° F., the
thermometer hardly ever rising above 82° or falling below 14°.
The annual rainfall in the south of the department in the neigh-
bourhood of the sea reaches 55 in., but diminishes by more than
half towards the north-east.
The fertility of La Chalosse is counterbalanced by the com-
parative poorness of the soil of the Landes, and small though the
population is, the department does not produce wheat enough
for its own consumption. The chief cereal is maize; next in
importance are rye, wheat and millet. Of vegetables, the bean
is most cultivated. The vine is grown in the Chalosse, sheep are
numerous, and the " Landes " breed of horses is well known.
Forests, chiefly composed of pines, occupy more than half the
department, and their exploitation forms the chief industry.
The resin of the maritime pine furnishes by distillation essence
of turpentine, and from the residue are obtained various qualities
of resin, which serve to make varnish, tapers, sealing-wax
and lubricants. Tar, and an excellent charcoal for smelting
purposes, are also obtained from the pine-wood. The depart-
ment has several mineral springs, the most important being those
of Dax, which were frequented in the time of the Romans, and
of Eugenie-les-Bains and Prechacq. The cultivation of the cork
tree is also important. There are salt-workings and stone
quarries. There are several iron-works in the department;
those at Le Boucau, at the mouth of the Adour, are the most
important. There are also saw-mills, distilleries, flour-mills,
brick and tile works and potteries. Exports include resinous
products, pine-timber, metal, brandy; leading imports are grain,
coal, iron, millinery and furniture. In its long extent of coast
the department has no considerable port. Opposite Cape Breton,
however, where the Adour formerly entered the sea, there is,
close to land, a deep channel where there is safe anchorage. It
was from this once important harbour of Capbreton that the
discoverers of the Canadian island of that name set out. Landes
includes three arrondissements (Mont-de-Marsan, Dax and St
Sever), 28 cantons and 334 communes.
Mont-de-Marsan is the capital of the department, which comes
within the circumscription of the appeal court of Pau, the academic
(educational division) of Bordeaux and the archbishopric of Auch,
and forms part of the region of the i8th army corps. It is served
by the Southern railway; there is some navigation on the
Adour, but that upon the other rivers is of little importance.
Mont-de-Marsan, Dax, St Sever and Aire-sur-1'Adour, the most
noteworthy towns, receive separate notice. Hagetmau has a
church built over a Romanesque crypt, the roof of which is
supported on columns with elaborately-carved capitals. Sorde
has an interesting abbey-church of the I3th and i4th centuries.
LANDES, an extensive natural region of south-western France,
known more strictly as the Landes de Gascogne. It has an area
LANDESHUT— LANDLORD AND TENANT
IS5
of 5400 sq. m., and occupies three-quarters of the department of
Landes, half of that of Gironde, and some 175,000 acres of Lot-et-
Garonne. The Landes, formerly a vast tract of moorland and
marsh, now consist chiefly of fields and forests of pines. They
form a plateau, shaped like a triangle, the base of which is the
Atlantic coast while the apex is situated slightly west of Nerac
(Lot-et-Garonne). Its limits are, on the S. the river Adour;
on the E. the hills of Armagnac, Eauzan, Condomois, Agenais
and Bazadais; and on the N.E. the Garonne, the hills of Medoc
and the Gironde. The height of the plateau ranges in general
from 130 to 260 ft.; the highest altitude (498 ft.) is found in the
east near Baudignan (department of Landes), from which point
there is a gradual slope towards north, south, east and west.
The soil is naturally sterile. It is composed of fine sand resting
on a subsoil of tufa (alias) impermeable by water; for three-
quarters of the year, consequently, the waters, settling on the
almost level surface and unable to filter through, used to trans-
form the country into unwholesome swamps, which the Landesats
could only traverse on stilts. About the middle of the i8th
century an engineer, Francois Chambrelent, instituted a scheme
of draining and planting to remedy these evils. As a result
about 1600 m. of ditches have been dug which carry off superficial
water either to streams or to the lakes which fringe the landes on
the west, and over 1,600,000 acres have been planted with
maritime pines and oaks. The coast, for a breadth of about
4 m., and over an area of about 225,000 acres, is bordered by
dunes, in ranges parallel to the shore, and from 100 to 300 ft.
in height. Driven by the west wind, which is most frequent in
these parts, the dunes were slowly advancing year by year
towards the east, burying the cultivated lands and even the
houses. Nicolas Thomas Bremontier, towards the end of the
i8th century, devised the plan of arresting this scourge by plant-
ing the dunes with maritime pines. Upwards of 210,000 acres
have been thus treated. In the south-west, cork trees take the
place of the pines. To prevent the formation of fresh dunes, a
"dune littorale" has been formed by means of a palisade.
This barrier, from 20 to 30 ft. high, presents an obstacle which
the sand cannot cross. On the eastern side of the dunes is a
series of lakes (Hourtin et Carcans, Lacanau, Cazau or Sanguinet,
Biscarrosse, Aureilhan, St Julien, Leon and Soustons) separated
from the sea by the heaping up of the sand. The salt water has
escaped by defiltration, and they are now quite fresh. The
Basin of Arcachon, which lies midway between the lakes of
Lacanau and Cazau, still communicates with the ocean, the
current of the Leyre which flows into it having sufficient force
to keep a passage open.
LANDESHUT, a town in the Prussian province of Silesia, at
the north foot of the Riesengebirge, and on the river Bober,
65 m. S.W. of Breslau by rail. Pop. (1905) 9000. Its main
industries are flax-spinning, linen-weaving and manufactures
of cloth, shoes and beer. The town dates from the i3th century,
being originally a fortress built for protection against the
Bohemians. There the Prussians defeated the Austrians in
May 1745, and in June 1760 the Prussians were routed by a
greatly superior force of Austrians.
See Perschke, Beschreibung und Geschichte der Stadt Landeshut
(Breslau, 1829).
LANDGRAVE (Ger. Landgraf, from Land , " a country " and
Graf, "count" ), a German title of nobility surviving from the
times of the Holy Roman Empire. It originally signified a
count of more than usual power or dignity, and in some cases
implied sovereignty. The title is now rare; it is borne by the
former sovereign of Hesse-Homburg, now incorporated in Prussia,
the heads of the various branches of the house of Hesse, and by a
branch of the family of Fiirstenberg. In other cases the title of
landgrave is borne by German sovereigns as a subsidiary title;
e.g. the grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar is landgrave of Thuringia.
LANDLORD AND TENANT. In Roman Law, the relationship
of landlord and tenant arose from the contract of letting and
hiring (locatio conductio), and existed also with special incidents,
under the forms of tenure known as emphyteusis — the long lease of
Roman law — and precarium, or tenancy at will (see ROMAN LAW).
Law of England. — The law of England — and the laws of
Scotland and Ireland agree with it on this point — recognizes
no absolute private ownership of land. The absolute and
ultimate owner of all land is the crown, and the highest interest
that a subject can hold therein — viz. an estate in fee simple —
is only a tenancy. But this aspect of the law, under which the
landlord, other than the crown, is himself always a tenant,
falls beyond the scope of the present article, which is restricted
to those holdings that arise from the hiring and leasing of land.
The legal relationship of landlord and tenant is constituted
by a lease, or an agreement for a lease, by assignment, by attorn-
ment and by estoppel. And first of a lease and an ieases
agreement for a lease. All kinds of interests and
property, whether corporeal, such as lands or buildings, or
incorporeal, such as rights of common or of way, may be let.
The Benefices Act 1898, however, now prohibits the grant of a
lease of an advowson. Titles of honour, offices of trust or relating
to the administration of justice, and pensions granted by the
crown for military services are also inalienable. Generally
speaking, any person may grant or take a lease. But there
are a number of common-law and statutory qualifications and
exceptions. A lease by or to an infant is voidable at his option.
But extensive powers of leasing the property of infants have been
created by the Settled 'Estates Act 1877 and the Settled Land
Act 1882. A person of unsound mind can grant or take a lease
if he is capable of contracting. Leases may be made on behalf
of lunatics subject to the jurisdiction in lunacy under the pro-
visions of the Lunacy Act 1890 and the Settled Land Act 1882.
A married woman can lease her "separate property" apart
from or under the Married Women's Property Acts, as if she
were a single woman (feme sole). As regards other property,
the concurrence of her husband is generally necessary. An
alien was, at common law, incapable of being either a lessor or
a lessee. But this disqualification is removed by the Naturaliza-
tion Act 1870. The right to deal with the property of a convict
while he is undergoing sentence (but not while he is out of prison
on leave) is, by the Forfeiture Act 1870, vested in his admini-
strator. Leases by or to corporations must be by deed under
their common seal, and the leasing powers of ecclesiastical
corporations in particular are subject to complicated statutory
restrictions which cannot here be examined (see Phillimcre,
Eccl. Law, 2nd ed., p. 1281). Powers of granting building and
other leases have been conferred by modern legislation on muni-
cipal corporations and other local authorites.
A person having an interest in land can, in general, create a
valid interest only to the extent of that interest. Thus a tenant
for years, or even from year to year only, may stand in his
turn as landlord to another tenant. If he profess, however, to
create a tenancy for a period longer than that to which his own
interest extends, he does not thereby give to his tenant an
interest available against the reversioner or remainder man.
The subtenant's interest will expire with the interest of the
person who created it. But as between the subtenant and his
immediate lessor the subtenancy will be good, and should the
interest of the lessor become greater than it was when the
subtenancy was created the subtenant will have the benefit of it.
On his side, again, the subtenant, by accepting that position, is
estopped from denying that his lessor's title (whatever it be) is
good. There are also special rules of law with reference to leases
by persons having only a limited interest in the property leased,
e.g. a tenant for life under the Settled Land Acts, or a mortgagor
or mortgagee.
The Letting. — To constitute the relationship of landlord and
tenant in the mode under consideration, it is necessary not
only that there should be parties capable of entering into the
contract, but that there should be a letting, as distinct from a
mere agreement to let, and that the right conveyed should be a
right to the exclusive possession of the subject of the letting
and not a simple licence to use it. Whether a particular instru-
ment is a lease, or an agreement for a lease, or a bare licence, is a
question the answer to which depends to a large extent on the
circumstances of individual cases; and the only general rule
i56
LANDLORD AND TENANT
is that in a lease there must be an expression of intention on the
part of the lessor to convey, and of the lessee to accept, the
exclusive possession of the thing let for the prescribed term and
on the prescribed conditions. The landlord must not part with
the whole of his interest, since, if he does so, the instrument is
not a lease but an assignment. Where a tenant enters under an
agreement for a lease and pays rent, the agreement will be
regarded as a lease from year to year; and if the agreement is
. one of which specific performance would be decreed (i.e. if it
contains a complete contract between the parties and satisfies
the provisions — to be noted immediately — of the Statute of
Frauds, and if, in all the circumstances, its enforcement is just
and equitable), the lessee is treated as having a lease for the term
fixed in the agreement from the time that he took possession
under it, just as if a valid lease had been executed. At common
la w a lease for a term of years (other than a lease by a corporation)
might be made by parol. But under the Statute of Frauds (1677),
ss., i, 2) leases, except those the term of which does not exceed
three years, and in which the reserved rent is equal to two-thirds
at least of the improved value of the premises, were required to be
in writing signed by the parties or their lawfully authorized
agents; and, under the Real Property Act 1845, a lease required
by law to be in writing is void unless made by deed. The
Statute of Frauds also prohibits an action from being brought
upon any agreement for a lease, for any term, unless such
agreement is in writing and signed by the party to be charged
therewith or by some agent lawfully authorized by him.
Forms of Tenancy. — The following are the principal forms of
tenancy : (i.) Tenancy for Life. — A lease for life must be made by
deed, and the term may be the life of the lessee and the life or lives
of some other person or persons, and in the latter case either for their
joint lives or for the life of the survivor; also for the lives of the
lessee himself and of some pther person or persons, and this consti-
tutes a single estate. A tenant for life under a settlement has
extensive powers of leasing under the Settled Land Act 1882. He
may lease the settled land, or any part of it, for any time not ex-
ceeding (a) in the case of a building lease, 99 years; (6) in the case
of a mining lease, 60 years, (c) in the case of any other lease, 21 years.
He may also grant either a lease of the surface of settled land, re-
serving the mines and minerals, or a lease of the minerals without the
surface. A lease under the Settled Land Act 1882 must be by deed
and must be made to take effect in possession not later than 12
months after its date; the best rent that can reasonably be obtained
must be reserved and the lease must contain a covenant by the
lessee for payment of the rent, and a condition of re-entry on non-
payment within a specified time not exceeding 30 days, (ii.) Tenancy
for Years, i.e. for a term of years. — This tenancy is created by an
express contract between the parties and never by implication, as
in the case of tenancy from year to year and tenancy at will. Here
the tenancy ends on the expiry of the prescribed term, without notice
to quit or any other formality, (iii.) Tenancy from Year to Year. —
This tenancy may be created by express agreement between the
parties, or by implication as, e.g. where a person enters and pays
rent under a lease for years, void either by law or by statute, or
without any actual lease or agreement, or holds over after the
determination of a lease whether for years or otherwise. In the
absence of express agreement or custom or statutory provision (such
as is made by the Agricultural Holdings Act 1883), a tenancy from
year to year is determinable on half a year's notice expiring at the
end of some current year of the tenancy. Where there is no express
stipulation creating a yearly tenancy, if the parties have contracted
that the tenant may be dispossessed by a notice given at any time,
effect will be given to this provision. The common law doctrine of a
six months' notice being required to terminate a tenancy from year
to year of a corporeal hereditament, does not apply to an incorporeal
hereditament such as a right to shoot, (iv.) Tenancies for Shorter
Periods. — Closely associated with tenancies from year to year are
various other tenancies for shorter periods than a year — weekly,
monthly or quarterly. Questions of considerable importance
frequently arise as to the notice necessary to terminate tenancies
of this character. The issue is one of fact; the date at which the
rent is payable is a material circumstance, but it may be said generally
that a week's notice should be given to determine a weekly tenancy, a
month's to determine a monthly tenancy, and a quarter's to deter-
mine a quarterly tenancy. It is chiefly in connexion with the letting
of lodgings, flats, &c., that tenancies of this class arise (see FLATS,
LODGER AND LODGINGS), (v.) Tenancy at Will. — A tenancy at will
is one which endures at the will of the parties only, i.e. at the will
of both, for if a demise be made to hold at the will of the lessor, the
law implies that it is at the will of the lessee also and vice versa.
Any signification of a desire to terminate the tenancy, whether
expressed as " notice " or not, will bring it to an end. This form of
tenancy, like tenancy from year to year, may be treated either by
express contract or by implication, as where premises are occupied
with the consent of the owner, but without Any express or implied
agreement as to the duration of the tenancy, or where a house is lent
rent free by one person to another. A tenancy at will is determined
by either party alienating his interest as soon as such alienation
comes to the knowledge of the other, (vi.) Tenancy at Sufferance. —
A tenant who comes into possession by a lawful demise, but " holds
over " or continues in possession after his estate is ended, is said to be
a " tenant at sufferance." Properly speaking, tenancy at sufferance
is not a tenancy at all, inasmuch as if the landlord acquiesces in it,
it becomes a tenancy at will ; and it is to be regarded merely as a
legal fiction which prevented the rightful owner from treating the
tenant as a trespasser until he had himself made an actual entry on
or had brought an action to recover the land. The Distress for
Rent Act 1737, however, enables a landlord to recover double rent
from a tenant who holds over after having himself given notice to
quit; while another statute in the reign of George II. — the Land-
lord and Tenant Act 1730 — makes a tenant who holds over after
receiving a notice from his landlord liable to the extent of double the
value of the premises. There is no tenancy by sufferance against
the crown.
Form of a Lease. — The component parts of a lease are the
parties, the recitals (when necessary) setting out such matters
as the title of the lessor; the demise or actual letting (the word
" demise " is ordinarily used, but any term indicating an express
intention to make a present letting is sufficient); the parcels
in which the extent of the premises demised is stated; the
habendum (which defines the commencement and the term of the
lease), the reddendum or reservation of rent, and the covenants
and conditions. The Conveyancing Act 1881 provides that,
as regards conveyances subsequent to 1881, unless a contrary
intention is expressed, a lease of " land " is to be deemed to
include all buildings, fixtures, easements, &c., appertaining to it;
and, if there are houses or other buildings on the land demised,
all out-houses, erections, &c., are to pass with the lease of the
land. Rights which the landlord desires to retain over the lands
let are excepted or reserved. Sporting rights will pass to the
lessee unless reserved (see GAME LAWS). A grant or reservation
of mines in general terms confers, or reserves, a right to work
the mines, subject to the obligation of leaving a reasonable
support to the surface as it exists at the time of the grant or
reservation. It is not necessary that a lease should be dated.
In the absence of a date, it will take effect from the day of
delivery.
Covenants in Leases. — These may be roughly divided into four
groups: (i.) Implied Covenants. — A covenant is said to be implied
when it is raised by implication of law without any express provision
being made for it in the lease. Thus a lessee is under an implied
obligation to treat the premises demised in a tenant-like or
" husband-like " manner, and again, where in a lease by deed the
word " demise " is used, the lessor probably covenants impliedly for
his own title and for the quiet enjoyment of the premises by the
lessee, (ii.) " Usual " Covenants. — Where an agreement for a lease
specifies only such essential conditions as the payment of rent, and
either mentions no other terms, or provides that the lease shall
contain the " usual " covenants, the parties are entitled to have
inserted in the lease made in pursuance of the agreement such other
provisions as are " usual " in leases of property of the same character,
and in the same district, not being provisions tending to abridge or
qualify the legal incidents of the estate intended to be granted to the
lessee. The question what covenants are " usual " is a question of
fact. A covenant by the lessor, limited to his own acts and those of
persons claiming under or through him, for the "quiet enjoyment"
by the lessee of the demised premises, and covenants by the lessee
to pay rent, to pay taxes, except such as fall upon the landlord, to
keep the premises in repair, and to allow the landlord to enter and
view the condition of the premises may be taken as typical instances
of " usual " covenants. Covenants by the lessee to build and repair,
not to assign or underlet without license, or to insure, or not to carry
on a particular trade on the premises leased, have been held not to be
" usual." Where the agreement provides for the insertion in the
lease of " proper " covenants, such covenants only are pointed at as
are calculated to secure the full effect of the contract, and a covenant
against assignment or under-letting would not ordinarily be included,
(iii.) The Covenants running with the Land. — A covenant is said to
" run with the land " when the rights and duties which it creates are
not merely personal to the immediate parties (in which case a
covenant is said to be " collateral "), but pass also to their assignees.
At common law, it was said that covenants " ran with the land " but
not with the reversion, the assignee of the reversion not having the
rights of the original lessor. But the assignees of both parties were
placed on the same footing by a statute of Henry VIII. (1540). A
covenant " runs with the land " if it relates either to a thing in esse.
LANDLORD AND TENANT
157
which is part and parcel of the demise, e.g. the payment of rent, the
repair of houses or fixtures or machinery already built or set up, or
to a thing not in esse at the time of the demise, but touching the land,
provided that the word " assigns " is used in the covenant. All
implied covenants run with the land. As instances of " collateral "
covenants, we may take a covenant by a lessor to give the lessee a
right of pre-emption over a piece of land adjoining the subject of the
demise, or in the case of a lease of a beer-shop, not to keep any similar
shop within a prescribed distance from the premises demised, or a
covenant by a lessee to pay rates on premises not demised. A
covenant not to assign without the lessor's assent runs with the land
and applies to a re-assignment to the original lessee, (iv.) Restrictive
Covenants. — -These may be subdivided into two classes — covenants
not to assign or underlet without the lessor's consent (it may be noted
that such consent must be applied for even if, under the covenant, it
cannot be withheld) ; and covenants in restraint of trade, e.g. not to
use the demised premises for certain trading purposes, and in the case
of " tied houses " a covenant by the lessees to purchase all beer
required from the lessors.
In addition a lease frequently contains covenants for renewal of the
lease at the option of the lessee, and for repairs or insurance against
damage by fire by the lessee. Leases frequently contain a covenant
by the lessee to bear and pay rates, taxes, assessments and other
" impositions " or " charges," or " duties " or " outgoings," or
" burdens " (except property tax) imposed upon the demised premises
during the term. Considerable difficulty has arisen as to the scope
of the terms " impositions," " charges," " duties," " outgoings,"
" burdens." The words, " rates, taxes, assessments " point to
payments of a periodical or recurring character. Are the latter
words in such covenants limited to payments of this kind, or do they
include single and definite payments demanded, for example, by a
local authority, acting under statutory powers, for improvements of
a permanent kind affecting the premises demised? The decisions on
the point are numerous and difficult to reconcile, but the main test
is whether, on the true construction of the particular covenant, the
lessee has undertaken to indemnify the landlord against payments of
all kinds. The stronger current of modern authority is in favour of
the landlords and not in favour of restricting the meaning of cove-
nants of this class. It may be added that, if a lessee covenants to
pay rates and taxes, no demand by the collector apparently is
necessary to constitute a breach of the covenant; where a rate is
duly made and published it is the duty of the parties assessed to seek
out the collector and pay it.
Mutual Rights and Liabilities of Landlord and Tenant. — These
are to a large extent regulated by the covenants of the lease,
(i.) The landlord generally covenants — and, in the absence of
such a proviso, a covenant will be implied from the fact of letting
— that the tenant shall have quiet enjoyment of the premises
for the time agreed upon. This obligation makes the landlord
responsible for any lawful eviction of the tenant during the term,
but not for wrongful eviction unless he is himself the wrong-
doer or has expressly made himself responsible for evictions of
all kinds. It may be noted here that at common law no lease
for years is complete till actual entry has been made by the
lessee. Till then, he has only a right of entry or interesse
termini, (ii.) The tenant, on his part, is presumed to under-
take to use the property in a reasonable manner, according to
the purposes for which it was let, and to do reasonable repairs.
Repairs ^ landlord is not presumed to have undertaken to
put the premises in repair, nor to execute repairs.
But the respective obligations of parties where repairs are, as
they always are in leases for years, the subject of express covenant,
may vary indefinitely. The obligation is generally imposed
upon the tenant to keep the premises in " good condition "
or " tenantable repair." The amount and quality of the repairs
necessary to fulfil the covenant are always relative to the age,
class and condition of the premises at the time of the lease. A
tenant is not responsible, under such a covenant, for deterioration
due to diminution in value caused by lapse of time or by the
elements. Where there is an unqualified covenant to repair,
and the premises during the tenancy are burnt down, or destroyed
by some other inevitable calamity, the tenant is bound to rebuild
and restore them at his own expense, even although the landlord
has taken out a policy on his own account and been paid by the
insurance company in respect of it. A covenant to keep in repair
requires the tenant to put the premises in repair if they are out
of it, and to maintain them in that condition up to and at the
end of the tenancy. A breach of the covenant to repair gives
the landlord an action for damages which will be measured by
the estimated injury to the reversion if the action be brought
during the tenancy, and by the sum necessary to execute the
repairs, if the action be brought later, (iii.) The improper user
of the premises to the injury of the reversioner is waste (q.v.).
(iv.) Covenants by the tenants to insure the premises and keep
them insured are also common; and if the premises are left
uninsured for the smallest portion of the term, though there is
no damage by fire, the covenant is broken, (v.) Covenants to
bear and pay rates and taxes have been discussed above, (vi.)
As to the tenant's obligation to pay rent, see RENT.
Assignment, Attornment, Estoppel. — The relationship of land-
lord and tenant may be altered either voluntarily, by the act
of the parties, or involuntarily, by the operation of law, and
may also be dissolved. The principal mode of voluntary altera-
tion is an assignment either by the tenant of his term or by the
landlord of his reversion. An assignment which creates the
relationship of landlord and tenant between the lessor or lessee
and the assignee, must be by deed, but the acceptance by a
landlord of rent from a tenant under an invalid assignment
may create an implied tenancy from year to year; and similarly
payment of rent by a tenant may amount to an acknowledgment
of his landlord's title. This is one form of tenancy by estoppel.
The principle of all tenancies of this kind is that something has
been done by the party estopped, amounting to an admission
which he cannot be allowed to contradict. " Attornment,"
or the agreement by a tenant to become tenant to a new land-
lord, is a term now often used to indicate an acknowledgment of
the existence of the relationship of landlord and tenant. It
may be noted that it is still common to insert in mortgage deeds
what is called an " attornment clause," by which the mortgagor
"attorns" tenant to the mortgagee, and the latter thereupon
acquires a power of distress as an additional security. If the
lands assigned are situated in Middlesex or Yorkshire, the assign-
ment should be registered under the Middlesex Registry or
Yorkshire Registries Acts, as the case may be; and similar
provision is now made for the registration by an assignee of his
title under the Land Transfer Acts 1875 and 1897.
Underlease. — Another form of alteration in a contract of
tenancy is an under-lease, which differs from assignment in this —
that the lessor parts with a portion of his. estate instead of, as in
assignment, with the whole of it. There is no privity of contract
between an underlessee and the superior landlord, but the
latter can enforce against the former restrictive covenants of
which he had notice; it is the duty of the underlessee to inform
himself as to the covenants of the original lease, and, if he
enters and takes possession, he will be considered to have had
full notice of, and will be bound by, these covenants.
Bankruptcy, Death. — The contract of tenancy may also be
altered by operation of law. If a tenant become bankrupt,
his interest passes to his trustee in bankruptcy — unless, as is
frequently the case, the lease makes the occurrence of that .
contingency determine the lease. So, on the death of a tenant,
his interest passes to his legal representatives.
Dissolution oj Tenancy. — Tenancy is dissolved by the expiry
of the term for which it was created, or by forfeiture of the tenant's
interest on the ground of the breach of some condition by the
tenant and re-entry by the landlord. A breach of condition
may, however, be waived by the landlord, and the legislature
has made provision for the relief of the tenant from the conse-
quences of such breaches in certain cases. Relief from forfeiture
and rights of re-entry are now regulated chiefly by the Convey-
ancing Acts 1881 and 1882. Under these acts a right of re-
entry or forfeiture is not to be enforceable unless and until the
lessor has served on the lessee a written notice specifying the
breach of covenant or condition complained of, and requiring
him to remedy it or make compensation, and this demand has
not within a reasonable time been complied with; and when a
lessor is proceeding to enforce such a right the court may, if it
think fit, grant relief to the lessee. A forfeiture is also waived
if the landlord elects not to take advantage of it — and shows
his election either expressly or impliedly by some act, which
acknowledges the continuance of the tenancy, e.g. by the accept-
ance of, or even by an absolute and unqualified demand for,
iS8
LANDLORD AND TENANT
rent, which has accrued due since the forfeiture, by bringing
an action for such rent, or by distraining for rent whether due
before or after the forfeiture.
A tenancy may also be determined by merger, i.e. where a
greater and a less estate coincide and meet in one and the same
person, without any intermediate estate, as, for instance, when
a tenant for years obtains the fee simple. There may also be a
surrender, either voluntary or by operation of law, which will
determine a tenancy, as, for example, when a tenant is party
to some act, the validity of which he is legally estopped from
denying and which would not have been valid had the tenancy
continued to exist.
The land, on the expiration of the tenancy, becomes at common
law the absolute property of the landlord, no matter how it
may have been altered or improved during the occupation. In
certain cases, however, the law has discriminated between the
contending claims of landlord and tenant, (i) In respect of
fixtures (which may be shortly denned as movables so affixed
to the soil as to become part thereof), the tenant may sometimes
remove them, e.g. when they have been brought on the premises
for the purpose of being used in business (see FIXTURES). (2)
In respect of emblements, i.e. the profits of sown land, a tenant
may be entitled to these whose term comes to an end by the
happening of an uncertain contingency (see EMBLEMENTS).
(3) A similar right is very generally recognized by custom in
tenants whose term expires in the crdinary way. The custom
of the district, in the absence of stipulations between the parties,
would be imported into their contract — the tenant going out
on the same conditions as he came in. Such customary tenant
right only arises at the expiration of the lease, and on the sub-
stantial performance of the covenants; and is forfeited if the
tenant abandons his tenancy during the term. Tenant right is
assignable, and will pass under an assignment of "all the estate
and interest" of the outgoing tenant in the farm. But, with
the exceptions noted, the land in its improved condition passes
over at common law to the landlord. The tenant may have
added to its value by buildings, by labour applied to the land,
or by the use of fertilizing manures, but, whatever be the amount
of the additional value, he is not entitled to any compensation
whatever. This again is a matter which the parties may, if
they please, regulate for themselves.
The law as to Ejectment is dealt with under that heading.
Statutory Provisions. — Reference may bo made, in conclusion, to
a few modern statutes which have affected the law of landlord and
tenant. The Agricultural Holdings Act 1008 (which repeals the
Agricultural Holdings Acts of 1883, 1900 and 1906) gives to the agri-
cultural tenant a right to compensation for (i.) certain specified
improvements made by him with the landlord's previous consent in
writing; and (ii.) certain other classes of improvements although the
landlord's consent has not been obtained. As examples of class (i.)
may be mentioned — erection or enlargement of buildings, laying
down of permanent pasture, making of gardens or fences, planting
of hops, embankments and sluices; as examples of (ii.) — chalking of
land, clay burning, application to land of purchased artificial or
purchased manure, except they have been made for the purpose of
making provision to protect the holding from injury or deterioration.
In the case of proposed drainage improvements, notice in writing
must be given to the landlord, who may then execute the improve-
ments himself and charge the tenant with interest not exceeding
5 % per annum on the outlay, or such annual instalments, payable
for a period of twenty-five years, and recoverable as rent, as will
repay the outlay, with interest at the rate of 3 % a year. Under s. 1 1
of the act a tenant is entitled to compensation for disturbance,
when he is compelled to quit without good and sufficient cause, and
for reasons inconsistent with good estate management. An agri-
cultural tenant may not contract himself out of his statutory right
to compensation, but " contracting out " is apparently not pro-
hibited with regard to the right given him by the acts of 1883 and
1900 to remove fixtures which he has erected and for which he is not
otherwise entitled to compensation, after reasonable notice to the
landlord, unless the latter elects to purchase such fixtures at a
valuation. The Agricultural Holdings Act 1906 conferred upon
every tenant (with slight exceptions) entire freedom of cropping and
of disposal of produce, notwithstanding any custom of the county
or explicit agreement to the contrary. (See further the articles
EJECTMENT, FIXTURES, RENT.) The Small Holdings and Allotments
Act 1908, which repealed previous acts of 1887, 1890 and 1907, deals,
on terms similar to those of the Agricultural Holdings Act 1908,
with small holdings and allotments (the expression " small holding "
meaning an agricultural holding which exceeds one acre, and
either does not exceed fifty acres, or, if exceeding fifty acres, is at
the date of sale or letting of an annual value for the purposes of
income tax not exceeding fifty pounds; the expression " allotment "
includes a field garden). Section 47 of the act gives the tenant the
same rights to compensation as if his holding had been a holding
under the Agricultural Holdings Act 1908 (vide supra). Compensa-
tion was given to market gardeners for unexhausted improvements
by the Market Gardeners' Compensation Act 1895 and by the
Agricultural Holdings Act 1906 for improvements effected before
the commencement of that act on a holding cultivated to the know-
ledge of the landlord as a market garden, if the landlord had not
dissented in writing to the improvements. The important sections
of these acts were incorporated in the Agricultural Holdings Act
1908, s. 42.
Scots Law. — The original lease in Scots law took the form of
a grant by the proprietor or lessor. But, with advancing civiliza-
tion and the consequent increase in the number of the conditions
to be imposed on both parties, leases became mutual contracts,
bilateral in form. The law of Scotland as to landlord and tenant
may be considered under two main heads: — I. Ordinary Leases,
Common Law and Statutory; II. Building or Long Leases.
I. Ordinary Leases, Common Law ana Statutory. — A verbal lease
for a year is good. Such a lease for more than a year is not effectual
even for a year, except where the lessee has taken possession. At
common law, while a lease was binding on the grantor and his heirs,
it was not good against " singular successors," i.e. persons acquiring
by purchase or adjudication, and the lessee was liable to be ejected
by such persons, unless (a precaution usua .'v taken) sasine of the
subjects demised was expressly conferred on h'm by the lease. To
obviate this difficulty, the Scots Act 1449, c. 18. made possession of
the subjects of the lease equivalent to sasine. This enactment
applies to leases of agricultural subjects, houses, mills, fisheries and
whatever is fundo annexum ; provided that (a) the lease, when for
more than one year, must be in writing, (6) it must be definite as to
subject, rent (which may consist of money, grain or services, if the
reddendum is not illusory) and term of duration, (c) possession must
follow on the lease. Special powers of granting leases are conferred
by statute on trustees. (Trusts [Scotland] Act 1867, s. 2), curatores
bonis (Judicial Factors [Scotland] Act 1889) and heirs of entail (cf.
Entail Act 1882, ss. 5, 6, 8, 9). The requisites of the statutory leases,
last mentioned, are similar to those imposed in England upon tenants
for life by the Settled Land Acts (v. sup. p. 3). The rent stipulated
for must not be illusory, and must fairly represent the value of the
subjects leased, and the term of the lease must not be excessive
(as to rent generally, see RENT). A life-renter can only grant a lease
that is effectual during the subsistence of the life-rent. There is
practically no limitation, but the will of the parties, as to the persons
to whom a lease may be granted. A lease granted to a tenant by
name will pass, on his death during the subsistence of the term to his
heir-at-law, even if the lease contains no destination to heirs. The
rights and obligations of the lessor and the tenant (e.g. as to the use
of the produce, the payment of rent, the quiet possession of the
subjects demised, and as to the payment of rates and taxes) rre
similar to those existing under English law. An agricultural lease
does not, apart from stipulation, confer any right to kill game, other
than hares and rabbits (as to which, see the Ground Game Act 1880,
and GAME LAWS) or any right of fishing. A tenant is not entitled,
without the landlord's consent, to change the character of the
subjects demised, and, except under an agricultural lease, he is
bound to quit the premises on the expiration of the lease. In the case
of urban leases, however, ejectment (q.v.) — called in Scots Law
" removing " — will not be authorized unless the tenant received
40 days' warning before the term of removal. In the absence of such
notice, the parties are held, if there be nothing in their conduct or in
the lease inconsistent with this presumption, to renew their agree-
ment in all its terms, and so on from year to year till due notice is
given. This is called " tacit relocation." A lease may be trans-
mitted (i.) by " assignation," intimated to the landlord, and followed
by possession on the part of the assignee; (ii.) by sub-lease — the
effect of which is equivalent to that of under-lease in English law ;
(iii.) by succession, as of the heir of a tenant; (iv.) in the case of
agricultural holdings, by bequest (Agricultural Holdings [Scotland]
Act 1883, s. 29). A lease terminates (i.) by the expiration of its term
or by advantage being taken by the party in whose favour it is
stipulated, of a " break " in the term; (ii.) by the occurrence of an
" irritancy " of ground of forfeiture, either conventional, or statutory,
e.g. where a tenant's rent is in arrear, or he fails to remove on the
expiry of his lease (Act of Sederunt, I4th of Dec. 1756: Agricultural
Holdings Act 1883, s. 27); (iii.) by the bankruptcy or insolvency of
the tenant, at the landlord's option, if it is so stipulated in the lease;
(iv.) by the destruction, e.g. by fire, of the subject leased, unless the
landlord is bound to restore it. Complete destruction of the subject
leased, e.g. where a house is burnt down, or a farm is reduced to
" sterility " by flood or hurricane, discharges the tenant from the
obligation to pay rent. The effect of partial destruction has given
rise to some uncertainty. " The distinction seems to be that if the
LANDLORD AND TENANT
destruction be permanent, though partial, the failure of the subject
let will give relief by entitling the tenant to renounce the lease, unless
a deduction shall be allowed, but that if it be merely temporary or
occasional, it will not entitle the tenant to relief ' (Bell's Prin.
s. 1208). Agricultural leases usually contain special provisions as
to the order of cropping, the proper stocking of the farm, and the
rights of the incoming and outgoing tenant with regard to the way-
going crop. Where the rent is in money, it is generally payable at
Whitsunday and Martinmas — the two " legal terms." Sometimes
the term of payment is before the crop is reaped, sometimes after.
" The terms thus stipulated are called ' the conventional terms ' ;
the rent payable by anticipation being called ' forehand rent,' that
which is payable after the crop is reaped, ' back rent.' Where the
rent is in grain, or otherwise payable in produce, it is to be satisfied
from the produce of the farm, if there be any. If there be none the
tenant is bound and entitled to deliver fair marketable grain of the
same kind." (Bell's Principles, ss. 1204, 1205). The general rule
with regard to " waygoing crops " on arable farms is that the tenant
is entitled to reap the crop sown before the term of removal (whether
or not that be the natural termination of the lease), the right of
exclusive possession being his during seed time. But he is not en-
titled to the use of the barns in threshing, &c., the corn.
The Agricultural Holdings (Scotland) Acts 1883 and 1900, already
referred to incidentally, contain provisions — similar to those of the
English acts — as to a tenant's right to compensation for unexhausted
improvements, removal for non-payment of rent, notice to quit at
the termination of a tenancy, and a tenant's property in fixtures.
The Crofters' Holdings (Scotland) Acts 1886, 1887 and 1888, confer
on " crofters " special rights. A crofter is defined as " a tenant of a
holding " — being arable or pasture land, or partly arable and partly
pasture land — " from year to year who resides on his holding, the
annual rent of which does not exceed £30 in money, and which is
situated in a ' crofting parish.' ": Nearly all the parishes in Argyll,
Inverness, Ross, Cromarty, Sutherland, Caithness and Orkney and
Shetland answer to this description. The crofter enjoys a perpetual
tenure subject to the fulfilment of certain conditions as to payment
of rent, non-assignment of tenancy, &c., and to defeasance at his
own option on giving one year's notice to the landlord. A Crofters'
Commission constituted under the acts has power to fix fair rents,
and the crofter on renunciation of his tenancy or removal from his
holding is entitled to compensation for permanent improvements.
The Small Holdings Act 1892 applies to Scotland.
Under the law of Scotland down to 1880, a landlord had as security
for rent due on an agricultural lease a " hypothec "—^i.e. a prefer-
ential right over ordinary creditors, and extending, subject to certain
limitations, over the whole stock and crop of the tenant. This right
was enforceable by sequestration and sale. It was abolished in 1880
as regards all leases entered into after the nth of November 1881,
where the land demised exceeded two acres in extent, and the land-
lord was left to remedies akin to ejectment (Hypothec Abolition,
Scotland, Act 1880).
II. Building or Long Leases. — Under these leases, the term of which
is usually 99 and sometimes 999 years, the tenant is to a certain
extent in the position of a fee simple proprietor, except that his right
is terminable, and that he can only exercise such rights of ownership
as are conferred on him either by statute or by the terms of his lease.
Extensive powers of entering into such leases have been given by
statute to trustees subject to the authority of the Court (Trusts
[Scotland] Act 1867, s. 3) and to heirs of entail (Entail Acts 1840,
1849, 1882). Where long leases are " probative," i.e. holograph or
duly tested, do not exceed 31 years, or, except as regards leases of
mines and minerals, and of lands held by burgage tenure, relate to
an extent of land exceeding 50 acres, and contain provisions for
renewal, they may be recorded for publication in the Register of
Sasines, and such publication has the effect of possession (Registra-
tion of Leases [Scotland] Act 1857).
Ireland. — The law of landlord and tenant was originally substanti-
ally the same as that described for England is. But the modern
Land Acts have readjusted the relation between landlords and
tenants, while the Land Purchase Acts have aimed at abolishing those
relations by enabling the tenant to become the owner of his holding.
The way was paved for these changes by the existence in Ulster of a
local custom having virtually the fcrce of law, which had two main
features — fixity of tenure, and free right of sale by the tenant of his
interest. These principles, with the addition of that of fair rents
settled by judicial means, were gradually established by the Land
Acts of 1870 and subsequent years, and the whole system was re-
modelled by the Land Purchase Acts (see IRELAND).
United States. — The law of landlord and tenant in the United
States is in its principles similar to those of English law. It is
only possible to indicate, by way of example, some of the points
of similarity. The relationship of landlord and tenant is
created, altered and dissolved in the same way, and the rights
and duties of parties are substantially identical. A lease must
contain, either in itself or by clear reference, all the terms of a
complete contract — the names of the parties, description of the
property let, the rent (see RENT) and the conditions. The date
is not essential. That is a matter of identification as to time
only. In Pennsylvania, parol evidence of the date is allowed.
The general American doctrine is that where the contract is
contained in separate writings they must connect themselves by
reference, and that parol evidence is not admissible to connect
them. The English doctrine that a verbal lease may be specific-
ally enforced if there has been part performance by the person
seeking the remedy has been fully adopted in nearly all the
American states. The law as to the rights and obligations of
assignees and sub-lessees and as to surrender is the same as in
England. Forfeiture only renders a lease void as regards the
lessee; it may be waived by the lessor, and acceptance by the
landlord of rent due after forfeiture, with notice of such forfeiture,
amounts to waiver. Where there is a lease for a certain period,
no notice to quit is necessary. In uncertain tenancies there must
be reasonable notice — i.e. at common law six months generally.
The notice necessary to determine a monthly or weekly tenancy
is generally a month or a week (see further under LODGER;
LODGINGS). In the United States, as in England, the covenant
for quiet enjoyment only extends, so far as relates to the acts
of third parties, to lawful acts of disturbance in the enjoyment
of the subject agreed to be let.
Laws of other Countries. — It is impossible here to deal with the
systems of land tenure in force in other countries. Only the
question of the legal relations between landlord and tenant can
be touched upon. In France, the Code Civil recognizes two
such relationships, the letting to hire of houses (bail a layer)
and the letting to farm of rural properties (bail aferme). To a
certain extent, both forms of tenancy are governed by the same
rules. The letting may be either written or verbal. But a
verbal lease presents this disadvantage that, if it is unperformed
and one of the parties denies its existence, it cannot be proved
by witnesses. The party who denies the letting can only be put
to his oath (Arts. 1714-1715). It may further be noted that in
the case of a verbal lease, notice to quit is regulated by the
custom of the place (Art. 1736). The tenant or farmer has the
right of underletting or assigning his lease, in the absence of
prohibiting stipulation (Art. 1717). The lessor is bound by the
nature of his contract and without the need ol any particular
stipulation (i.) to deliver to the lessee the thing hired in a good
state of repair; (ii.) to maintain it in a state to serve the purpose
for which it has been hired; (iii.) to secure to the lessee peaceable
enjoyment during the continuance of the lease (Arts. 1719-1720).
He is bound to warrant the lessee against, and to indemnify
him for, any loss arising from any faults or defects in the thing
hired which prevent its use, even though he was not aware
of them at the time of the lease (Art. 1721). If during the
continuance of the letting, the thing hired is entirely destroyed
by accident, the lease is cancelled. In case of partial destruction,
the lessee may, according to circumstances, demand either a
diminution of the price, or the cancellation of the lease. In
neither case is there ground for damages (Art. 1722). The
lessor cannot, during the lease, change the form of the thing
hired (Art. 1723). The lessee is bound, on his side (i.) to use
the thing hired like a good head of a household (ban pere de
famille), in accordance with the express or presumed purpose
of the hiring; (ii.) to pay the price of the hiring at the times
agreed (Art. 1728). On breach of the former obligation, the
lease may be judicially cancelled (Art. 1729). As to the con-
sequences of breach of the latter, see RENT. If a statement of
the condition of the property (etat des lieux) has been prepared,
the lessee must give it up such as he received it according to the
statement, except what has perished or decayed by age or by
means of force majeure (Art. 1730). In the absence of an etat
des lieux, the lessee is presumed to have received the thing hired
in a good state of tenantable repair, and must so yield it up,
saving proof to the contrary (Art. 1731). He is liable for injuries
or losses happening during his enjoyment, unless he prove that
they have taken place without his fault (Art. 1732) ; in particular,
for loss by fire unless he show that the fire happened by accident,
force majeure, or defect of construction, or through communica-
tion from a neighbouring house (Art. 1733). The lessee is
i6o
LANDON, C. P.— LANDON, L. E.
liable for injuries and losses happening by the act of persons
belonging to his house or of his sub-tenants (Art. 1735). A lease
terminates (i.) at the expiration of the prescribed term (Art.
1737) — if at that period the lessee remains and is left in posses-
sion, there is, in the case of written leases, a tacit renewal (tacite
reconductior) of the lease as a verbal lease (Arts. 1738-1739);
(ii.) by the loss of the thing hired and by the default of the lessor
or lessee in the fulfilment of their respective obligations (Art.
1741), but (iii.) not by the death either of the lessor or of the
lessee (1742). The conditions of EJECTMENT are stated under
that heading. The special rules (Arts. 1752-1762) relative
to the hire of houses are touched upon in LODGER AND LODGINGS.
It only remains here to refer to those applicable to leases to
farm. The lessee is bound to stock the farm with the cattle
and implements necessary for its husbandry (Art. 1766), and to
stack in the places appointed for the purpose in the lease (Art.
1 767). A lessee, who farms on condition of dividing the produce
with the lessor, can only underlet or assign if he is expressly
empowered to do so by the lease (Art. 1763). The lessee must
give notice to the lessor of any acts of usurpation committed
on the property (Art. 1768). If at least half of the harvest in
any year is destroyed by accident, the lessee (a) in the case of a
lease for several years, obtains, at the end of his lease, a refund
of rent, by way of indemnity, unless he has been indemnified
by preceding harvests; (b) in the case of a lease for a year only,
may secure a proportional abatement of the current rent. No
refund is payable if the produce was severed before the accident,
unless the lessor was entitled to a portion of it, when he must
bear his share of the loss, provided the lessee was not in mord
as regards the delivery of the lessor's portion. The lessee has
no right to a refund when the cause of damage was existing
and known at the date of the lease (Arts. 1769-1771). Liability
for loss by " accidents " may be thrown on the lessee by express
stipulation (Art. 1772). "Accidents" here mean ordinary
accidents only, such as hail, lightning or frost, and the lessee
will not be answerable for loss caused by extraordinary accidents
such as war or floods, unless he has been made liable for all
accidents, foreseen or unforeseen (Art. 1773). A verbal lease
is deemed to be for the term necessary to enable the lessee to
gather in all the produce, thus for a year in the case of a meadow
or vineyard; in the case of lands leased in tillage, where they
are divided into shifts or seasons, for as many years as there are
shifts (Art. 1774). The outgoing must leave for the incoming
tenant convenient housing and other facilities for the labours
of the year following; the incoming must procure for the
outgoing tenant conveniences for the consumption of his fodder
and for the harvests remaining to be got in. In either case the
custom of the place is to be followed (Art. 1777). The outgoing
tenant must leave the straw and manure of the year, if he received
them at the beginning of his lease, and even where he has not
so received them, the owner may retain them according to
valuation (Art. 1778). A word must be added as to letting by
cheptel (bail A cheptel) — a contract by which one of the parties
gives to the other a stock of cattle to keep under conditions
agreed on between them (Art. 1800). There are several varieties
of the contract, (i.) simple cheptel (cheptel simple) in which the
whole stock is supplied by the lessor — the lessee taking half
the profit and bearing half the loss (Art. 1804); (ii.) cheptel
by moiety (cheptel & moietie) — here each of the contracting
parties furnishes half of the stock, which remains common for
profit or loss (Art. 1818) ; (iii.) cheptel giyen to a farmer (fermier)
or participating cultivator (colon partiaire) — in the cheptel
given to the farmer (also called cheptel de fer) stock of a value
equal to the estimated price of the stock given must be left at
the expiry of the lease (Art. 1821); cheptel given to the partici-
pating cultivator resembles simple cheptel, except in points
of detail (Arts. 1827-1830); (iv.) the term "cheptel" is also
improperly applied to a contract by which cattle are given to be
housed and fed — here the lessor retains the ownership, but has
only the profit of the calves (Art. 1831).
The French system just described is in force in its entirety
in Belgium (Code Civil, Arts. 1713 et seq.) and has been followed
to some extent in Italy (Civil Code, Arts. 1568 et seq.), Spain
(Civil Code, Arts 1542 et seq.), and Portugal (Civil Code, Arts.
1298 et seq., 1595 et seq.). In all these countries there are
varieties of emphyteutic tenure; and in Italy the mezzadria
or metayer system (see Civil Code, Arts. 1647 et seq.) exists.
The German Civil Code adopts the distinction between bail d layer
(Miehl, Arts. 535 et seq.) and bail a ferme (Pacht, Arts. 581
et seq.). Dutch law also (Civil Code, Arts. 1583 et seq.) is similar
to the French.
The Indian law of landlord and tenant is described in the
article INDIAN LAW. The laws of the various British colonies
on the subject are too numerous and too different to be dealt
with here. In Mauritius, the provisions of the Code Civil are
in force without modification. In Quebec (Civil Code, Arts.
1605 et seq.) and St Lucia (Civil Code, Arts. 1512 et seq.) they
have been reproduced by the local law. In many of the colonies,
parts of the English law of landlord and tenant, common law
and statutory, have been introduced by local enactments (cf.
British Guiana, Ord. 4 of 1846; Jamaica, i Viet. c. 26). In
others (e.g. Victoria, Landlord and Tenant Act 1890, No. 1108;
Ontario, Rev. Stats. 1897, c. 170) consolidating statutes have
been passed.
AUTHORITIES. — English Law : Wolstenholme, Brinton and Cherry,
Conveyancing and Settled Land Acts (London, gth ed., 1905); Hood
and Challis, Conveyancing and Settled Land Acts (London, 7th ed.,
1909) ; Foi, on Landlord and Tenant (London, 4th ed., 1907) ;
Woodfall, on Landlord and Tenant (London, i8th ed., 1907) ; Fawcett,
Landlord and Tenant (London, 3rd ed., 1905). Scots Law: Hunter,
on Landlord and Tenant (Edinburgh, 4th ed., 1876); Rankine, on
Land Ownership (Edinburgh, 3rd ed., 1891); Rankine, on Leases
(Edinburgh, 2nd ed., 1893); Hunter, Landlord and Tenant (4th ed.
G. Guthne, Edinburgh, 1876). Irish Law: Kelly's Statute Law of
Landlord and Tenant in Ireland (Dublin, 1898) ; Barton and Cherry's
Land Act 1896 (Dublin, 1896); Quill, Hamilton and Lpngworth,
Irish Land Acts of 1903 and 1904 (Dublin, 1904). American Law:
Bpuvier, Law Dictionary (ed. Rawle) (London, 1897); McAdam,
Rights, Remedies and Liabilities of Landlord and Tenant (New York,
1900) ; Wood, Law of Landlord and Tenant (New York, 1888).
Foreign and Colonial Laws: Field, Landholding and the relation of
Landlord and Tenant in various Countries ; Ruling Cases (American
Notes), (London and Boston, 1894-1901). (A. W. R.)
LANDON, CHARLES PAUL (1760-1826), French painter and
art-author, was born at Nonant in 1760. He entered the studio of
Regnault, and won the first prize of the Academy in 1792.
After his return from Italy, disturbed by the Revolution, he
seems to have abandoned painting for letters, but he began to
exhibit in 1795, and continued to do so at various intervals up
to 1814. His " Leda " obtained an award of merit in 1801, and is
now in the Louvre. His " Mother's Lesson," " Paul and Virginia
Bathing," and " Daedalus and Icarus " have been engraved; but
his works on painting and painters, which reach nearly one
hundred volumes, .form his chief title to be remembered. In
spite of a complete want of critical accuracy, an extreme care-
lessness in the biographical details, and the feebleness of the line
engravings by which they are illustrated, Landon's Annales
du Musee, in 33 vols., form a vast repertory of compositions by
masters of every age and school of permanent value. Landon
also published Lives of Celebrated Painters, in 22 vols.; An
Historical Description of Paris, 2 vols. ; a Description of London,
with 42 plates; and descriptions of the Luxembourg, of the
Giustiniani collection, and of the gallery of the duchesse de
Berry. He died at Paris in 1826.
LANDON, LETITIA ELIZABETH (1802-1838), English poet
and novelist, better known by her initials L. E. L. than as Miss
Landon or Mrs Maclean, was descended from an old Hereford-
shire family, and was born at Chelsea on the I4th of August
1802. She went to a school in Chelsea where Miss Mitford also
received her education. Her father, an army agent, amassed a
large property, which he lost by speculation shortly before his
death. About 1815 the Landons made the acquaintance of
William Jerdan, and Letitia began her contributions to the
Literary Gazette and to various Christmas annuals. She also
published some volumes of verse, which soon won for her a wide
literary fame. The gentle melancholy and romantic sentiment
her writings embodied suited the taste of the period, and would
LANDOR, W. S.
161
in any case have secured her the sympathy and approval of a
wide class of readers. She displays richness of fancy and aptness
of language, but her work suffered from hasty production, and
has not stood the test of time. The large sums she earned by her
literary labours were expended on the support of her family.
An engagement to John Forster, it is said, was broken off through
the intervention of scandalmongers. In June 1838 she married
George Maclean, governor of the Gold Coast, but she only sur-
vived her marriage, which proved to be very unhappy, by a few
months. She died on the 1 5th of October 1 838 at Cape Coast from
an overdose of prussic acid, which, it is supposed, was taken
accidentally.
For some time L. E. L. was joint editor of the Literary Gazette.
Her first volume of poetry appeared in 1820 under the title The
Fate of Adelaide, and was followed by other collections of verses
with similar titles. She also wrote several novels, of which the best
is Ethel Churchill (1837). Various editions of her Poetical Works
have been published since her death, one in 1880 with an intro-
ductory memoir by W. B. Scott. The Life and Literary Remains of
Letitia Elizabeth Landon, by Laman Blanchard, appeared in 1841,
and a second edition in 1855.
LANDOR, WALTER SAVAGE (1775-1864), English writer,
eldest son of Walter Landor and his wife Elizabeth Savage, was
born at Warwick on the 3oth of January 1775. [He was sent to
Rugby school, but was removed at the headmaster's request
and studied privately with Mr Langley, vicar of Ashbourne.
In 1793 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge. He adopted
republican principles and in 1794 fired a gun at the windows of
a Tory for whom he had an aversion. He was rusticated for a
year, and, although the authorities were willing to condone the
offence, he refused to return. The affair led to a quarrel with
his father in which Landor expressed his intention of leaving
home for ever. He was, however, reconciled with his family
through the efforts of his friend Dorothea Lyttelton. He entered
no profession, but his father allowed him £150 a year, and he
was free to live at home or not as he pleased.]
In 1795 appeared in a small volume, divided into three books,
The Poems of Waller Savage Landor, and, in pamphlet form of
nineteen pages, an anonymous Moral Epistle, respectfully
dedicated to Earl Stanhope. No poet at the age of twenty ever
had more vigour of style and fluency of verse; nor perhaps has
any ever shown such masterly command of epigram and satire,
made vivid and vital by the purest enthusiasm and most generous
indignation. Three years later appeared the first edition of the
first great work which was to inscribe his name for ever among
the great names in English poetry. The second edition of Gebir
appeared in 1803, with a text corrected of grave errors and
improved by magnificent additions. About the same time the
whole poem was also published in a Latin form, which for
might and melody of line, for power and perfection of language,
must always dispute the palm of precedence with the English
version. [His father's death in 1805 put him in possession of an
independent fortune. Landor settled in Bath. Here in 1808
he met Southey, and the mutual appreciation of the two poets
led to a warm friendship.] In 1808, under an impulse not less
heroic than that which was afterwards to lead Byron to a
glorious death in redemption of Greece and his own good fame,
Landor, then aged thirty-three, left England for Spain as a
volunteer to serve in the national army against Napoleon at the
head of a regiment raised and supported at his sole expense.
After some three months' campaigning came the affair of Cintra
and its disasters; " his troop," in the words of his biographer,
" dispersed or melted away, and he came back to England in as
great a hurry as he had left it," but bringing with him the
honourable recollection of a brave design unselfishly attempted,
and the material in his memory for the sublimest poem published
in our language, between the last masterpiece of Milton and the
first masterpiece of Shelley — one equally worthy to stand
unchallenged beside either for poetic perfection as well as moral
majesty — the lofty tragedy of Count Julian, which appeared in
1812, without the name of its author. No comparable work is
to be found in English poetry between the date of Samson
Agoniste? and the date of Prometheus Unbound; and with both
xvi. 6
these great works it has some points of greatness in common.
The superhuman isolation of agony and endurance which en-
circles and exalts the hero is in each case expressed with equally
appropriate magnificence of effect. The style of Count Julian,
if somewhat deficient in dramatic ease and the fluency of natural
dialogue, has such might and purity and majesty of speech as
elsewhere we find only in Milton so long and so steadily sustained.
In May 1811 Landorhad suddenly married Miss Julia Thuillier,
with whose looks he had fallen in love at first sight in a ball-room
at Bath; and in June they settled for a while at Llanthony Abbey
in Monmouthshire, from whence he was worried in three years'
time by the combined vexation of neighbours and tenants,
lawyers and lords-lieutenant; not before much toil and money
had been nobly wasted on attempts to improve the sterility of
the land, to relieve the wretchedness and raise the condition of
the peasantry. He left England for France at first, but after
a brief residence at Tours took up his abode for three years at
Como; " and three more wandering years he passed," says his
biographer, " between Pisa and Pistoja, before he pitched his
tent in Florence in 1821."
I In 1835 he had an unfortunate difference with his wife which
ended in a complete separation. In 1824 appeared the first
series of his Imaginary Conversations, in 1826 " the second
edition, corrected and enlarged "; a supplementary third volume
was added in 1828; and in 1829 the second series was given to
the world. Not until 1846 was a fresh instalment added, in the
second volume of his collected and selected works. During the
interval he had published his three other most famous and greatest
books in prose: The Citation and Examination of William
Shakespeare (1834), Pericles and Aspasia (1836), The Pentameron
(1837). To the last of these was originally appended The
Penlalogia, containing five of the very finest among his shorter
studies in dramatic poetry. In 1847 he published his most
important Latin work, Poemata el inscriptiones, comprising,
with large additions, the main contents of two former volumes
of idyllic, satiric, elegiac and lyric verse; and in the same golden
year of his poetic life appeared the very crown and flower of
its manifold labours, the Hellenics of Walter Savage Landor,
enlarged and completed. Twelve years later this book was
re-issued, with additions of more or less value, with alterations
generally to be regretted, and with omissions invariably to be
deplored. In 1853 he put forth The Last Fruit off an Old Tree,
containing fresh conversations, critical and controversial essays,
miscellaneous epigrams, lyrics and occasional poems of various
kind and merit, closing with Five Scenes on the martyrdom
of Beatrice Cenci, unsurpassed even by their author himself
for noble and heroic pathos, for subtle and genial, tragic and
profound, ardent and compassionate insight into character,
with consummate mastery of dramatic and spiritual truth.
In 1856 he published Antony and Octavius — Scenes for the
Study, twelve consecutive poems in dialogue which alone would
suffice to place him high among the few great masters of historic
drama.
In 1858 appeared a metrical miscellany bearing the title of
Dry Sticks Fagoted by W. S. Landor, and containing among
other things graver and lighter certain epigrammatic and satirical
attacks which reinvolved him in the troubles of an action for
libel; and in July of the same year he returned for the last
six years of his life to Italy, which he had left for England in
1835. [He was advised to make over his property to his family,
on whom he was now dependent. They appear to have refused
to make him an allowance unless he returned to England. By
the exertions of Robert Browning an allowance was secured.
Browning settled him first at Siena and then at Florence.]
Embittered and distracted by domestic dissensions, if brightened
and relieved by the affection and veneration of friends and
strangers, this final period of his troubled and splendid career
came at last to a quiet end on the I7th of September 1864. In
the preceding year he had published a last volume of Heroic
Idyls, with Additional Poems, English and Latin, — the better
part of them well worthy to be indeed the " last fruit " of a
genius which after a life of eighty-eight years had lost nothing
5
162
LANDOUR— LAND REGISTRATION
of its majestic and pathetic power, its exquisite and exalted
loveliness.
A complete list of Lander's writings, published or privately
printed, in English, Latin and Italian, including pamphlets,
fly-sheets and occasional newspaper correspondence on political
or literary questions, it would be difficult to give anywhere and
impossible to give here. From nineteen almost to ninety his
intellectual and literary activity was indefatigably incessant;
but, herein at least like Charles Lamb, whose cordial admiration
he so cordially returned, he could not write a note of three lines
which did not bear the mark of his " Roman hand " in its
matchless and inimitable command of a style at once the most
powerful and the purest of his age. The one charge which can
ever seriously be brought and maintained against it is that of
such occasional obscurity or difficulty as may arise from excessive
strictness in condensation of phrase and expurgation of matter
not always superfluous, and sometimes almost indispensable.
His English prose and his Latin verse are perhaps more frequently
and more gravely liable to this charge than either his English
verse or his Latin prose. At times it is well-nigh impossible for
an eye less keen and swift, a scholarship less exquisite and ready
than his own, to catch the precise direction and follow the perfect
course of his napid thought and radiant ut terance. This apparently
studious pursuit and preference of the most terse and elliptic
expression which could be found for anything he might have to
say could not but occasionally make even so sovereign a master
of two great languages appear " dark with excess of light ";
but from no former master of either tongue in prose or verse
was ever the quality of real obscurity, of loose and nebulous
incertitude, more utterly alien or more naturally remote. There
is nothing of cloud or fog about the path on which he leads us;
but we feel now and then the want of a bridge or a handrail;
we have to leap from point to point of narrative or argument
without the usual help of a connecting plank. Even in his
dramatic works, where least of all it should have been found,
this lack of visible connexion or sequence in details of thought
or action is too often a source of sensible perplexity. In his
noble trilogy on the history of Giovanna queen of Naples it is
sometimes actually difficult to realize on a first reading what
has happened or is happening, or how, or why, or by what
agency — a defect alone sufficient, but unhappily sufficient in
itself, to explain the too general ignorance of a work so rich in
subtle and noble treatment of character, so sure and strong in
its grasp and rendering of " high actions and high passions,"
so rich in humour and in pathos, so royally serene in its command-
ing power upon the tragic mainsprings of terror and of pity.
As a poet, he may be said on the whole to stand midway between
Byron and Shelley — about as far above the former as below the
latter. If we except Catullus and Simonides, it might be hard
to match and it would be impossible to overmatch the flawless
and blameless yet living and breathing beauty of his most perfect
elegies, epigrams or epitaphs. As truly as prettily was he
likened by Leigh Hunt " to a stormy mountain pine which
should produce lilies." His passionate compassion, his bitter
and burning pity for all wrongs endured in all the world, found
only their natural and inevitable outlet in his lifelong defence
or advocacy of tyrannicide as the last resource of baffled justice,
the last discharge of heroic duty. His tender and ardent love
of children, of animals and of flowers makes fragrant alike
the pages of his writing and the records of his life. He was as
surely the most gentle and generous as the most headstrong and
hot-headed of heroes or of men. Nor ever was any man's best
work more thoroughly imbued and informed with evidence of
his noblest qualities. His loyalty and liberality of heart were
as inexhaustible as his bounty and beneficence of hand. Praise
and encouragement, deserved or undeserved, came yet more
readily to his lips than challenge or defiance. Reviled and
ridiculed by Lord Byron, he retorted on the offender living less
readily and less warmly than he lamented and extolled him dead.
On the noble dramatic works of his brother Robert he lavished
a magnificence of sympathetic praise which his utmost self-
estimate would never have exacted for his own. Age and the
lapse of time could neither heighten nor lessen the fulness of
this rich and ready generosity. To the poets of his own and
of the next generation he was not readier to do honour than to
those of a later growth, and not seldom of deserts far lower and
far lesser claims than theirs. That he was not unconscious of
his own, and avowed it with the frank simplicity of nobler
times, is not more evident or more certain than that in com-
parison with his friends and fellows he was liable rather to
undervalue than to overrate himself. He was a classic, and no
formalist; the wide range of his just and loyal admiration had
room for a genius so far from classical as Blake's. Nor in his
own highest mood or method of creative as of critical work was
he a classic only, in any narrow or exclusive sense of the term.
On either side, immediately or hardly below his mighty master-
piece of Pericles and Aspasia, stand the two scarcely less beautiful
and vivid studies of medieval Italy and Shakespearean England.
The very finest flower of his immortal dialogues is probably to
be found in the single volume comprising only " Imaginary
Conversations of Greeks and Romans"; his utmost command
of passion and pathos may be tested by its transcendent
success in the distilled and concentrated tragedy of Tiberius
and Vipsania, where for once he shows a quality more proper
to romantic than classical imagination — the subtle and sublime
and terrible power to enter the dark vestibule of distraction,
to throw the whole force of his fancy, the whole fire of his
spirit, into the " shadowing passion " (as Shakespeare calls it)
of gradually imminent insanity. Yet, if this and all other
studies from ancient history or legend could be subtracted from
the volume of his work, enough would be left whereon to rest
the foundation of a fame which time could not sensibly impair.
(A. C. S.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See The Works and Life of Walter Savage Landor
(8 vols., 1846), the life being the work of John Forster. Another
edition of his works (1891—1893), edited by C. G. Crump, comprises
Imaginary Conversations, Poems, Dialogues in Verse and Epigrams
and The Longer Prose Works. His Letters and other Unpublished
Writings were edited by Mr Stephen Wheeler (1897). There are
many volumes of selections from his works, notably one (1882) for
the ' Golden Treasury " series, edited by Sidney Colvin, who also con-
tributed the monograph on Landor (1881) in the " English Men of
Letters " series. A bibliography of his works, many of which are
very rare, is included in Sir Leslie Stephen's article on Landor in the
Dictionary of National Biography (vol. xxxii., 1892). (M. BR.)
LANDOUR, a hill station and sanatorium in India, in Dehra
Dun district of the United Provinces, adjoining Mussoorie.
Pop. (1901) 1720, rising to 3700 in the hot season. Since 1827
it has been a convalescent station for European troops, with
a school for their children.
LAND REGISTRATION, a legal process connected with the
transfer of landed property, comprising two forms — registration
of deeds and registration of title, which may be best described
as a species of machinery for assisting a purchaser or mortgagee
in his inquiries as to his vendor's or mortgagor's title previously
to completing his dealing, and for securing his own position
afterwards. The expediency of making inquiry into the vendor's
title before completing a purchase of land (and the case of a
mortgage is precisely similar) is obvious. In the case of goods
possession may ordinarily be relied on as proof of full ownership;
in the case of land, the person in ostensible possession is very
seldom the owner, being usually only a tenant, paying rent to
someone else. Even the person to whom the rent is paid is
in many cases — probably, in England, in most cases — not the
full owner, but only a life owner, or a trustee, whose powers of
disposing of the property are of a strictly limited nature. Again,
goods are very seldom the subject of a mortgage, whereas land
has from time immemorial been the frequent subject of this
class of transaction. Evidently, therefore, some sort of inquiry
is necessary to enable a purchaser to obtain certainty that the
land for which he pays full price is not subject to an unknown
mortgage or charge which, if left undiscovered, might afterwards
deprive him of a large part or even the whole of its value. Again,
the probability of serious consequences to the purchaser ensuing
from a mistake as to title is infinite!}' greater in the case of land
than in the case of goods. Before the rightful owner can recover
LAND REGISTRATION
163
misappropriated goods, he has to find out where they are. This
is usually a matter of considerable difficulty. By the time they
have reached the hands of a bond fide purchaser all chance of
their recovery by the true owner is practically at an end. But
with land the case is far otherwise. A dispossessed rightful
owner never has any difficulty in tracing his property, for it
is immovable. All he has to do is to bring an action for ejectment
against the person in possession. For these reasons, among others,
any attempt to deal with land on the simple and unsuspecting
principles which obtain in regard to goods would be fraught
with grave risks.
Apart from very early and primitive social conditions, there
appear to be only two ways in which the required certainty as
to title to land can be obtained. Either the purchaser must
satisfy himself, by an exhaustive scrutiny and review of all the
deeds, wills, marriages, heirships and other documents and events
by which the property has been conveyed, mortgaged, leased,
devised or transmitted during a considerable period of time,
that no loophole exists whereby an adverse claim can enter or
be made good — this is called the system of private investigation
of title — or the government must keep an authoritative list
or register of the properties within its jurisdiction, together
with the names of the owners and particulars of the encumbrances
in each case, and must protect purchasers and others dealing
with land, on the faith of this register, from all adverse claims.
This second system is called Registration of Title. To these
two alternatives may perhaps be added a third, of very recent
growth — Insurance of Title. This is largely used in the United
States. But it is in reality only a phase of the system of private
investigation. The insurance company investigates the title,
and charges the purchaser a premium to cover the expense and
the risk of error. Registration of deeds is an adjunct of the
system of private investigation, and, except in England, is a
practically invariable feature of it. It consists in the establish-
ment of public offices in which all documents affecting land are
to be recorded — partly to preserve them in a readily accessible
place, partly to prevent the possibility of any material deed
or document being dishonestly concealed by a vendor. Where
registration is effected by depositing a full copy of the deed, it
also renders the subsequent falsification of the original document
dangerous. Registration of deeds does not (except perhaps to
a certain extent indirectly) cheapen or simplify the process of
investigation — the formalities at the registry add something
to the trouble and cost incurred — but it prevents the particular
classes of fraud mentioned.
The history of land registration follows, as a general rule, a
fairly uniform course of development. In very early times, and
in small and simple communities, the difficulty afterwards found
in establishing title to land does not arise, owing to the primitive
habit of attaching ceremony and publicity to all dealings. The
parties meet on the land, with witnesses; symbolical acts (such
as handing over a piece of earth, or the bough of a tree) are
performed; and a set form of words is spoken, expressive of
the intention to convey. By this means the ownership of each
estate in the community becomes to a certain extent a matter
of common knowledge, rendering fraud and mistake difficult.
But this method leaves a good deal to be desired in point of
security. Witnesses die, and memory is uncertain; and one of
the earliest improvements consists in the establishment of a sort
of public record kept by the magistrate, lord or other local
authority, containing a series of contemporary notes of the
effect of the various transactions that take' place. This book
becomes the general title-deed of the whole community, and as
long as transactions remain simple, and not too numerous,
the results appear to be satisfactory. Of this character are the
Manorial Court Rolls, which were in the middle ages the great
authorities on title, both in England and on the continent.
The entries in them in early times were made in a very few words.
The date, the names of the parties, the name or short verbal
description of the land, the nature of the transaction, are all that
appear. In the land registry at Vienna there is a continuous
series of registers of this kind going back to 1368, in Prague
to 1377, in Munich to 1440. No doubt there are extant (though
in a less easily accessible form) manorial records in England of
equal or greater antiquity. This may be considered the first
stage in the history of Land Registration. It can hardly be said
to be in active operation at the present day in any civilized
country — in the sense in which that term is usually understood.
Where dealings become more numerous and complicated,
written instruments are required to express the intentions of the
parties, and afterwards to supply evidence of the landowner's
title. It appears, too, that as a general rule the public books
already described continue to be used, notwithstanding this
change; only (as would be expected) the entries in them, once
plain and simple, either grow into full copies of the long and
intricate deeds, or consist of mere notes stating that such and
such deeds have been executed, leaving the persons interested
to inquire for the originals, in whose custody soever they may
be found. This system, which may be regarded as the second
stage in the history of land registration, is called Registration
of Deeds. It prevails in France, Belgium, parts of Switzerland,
in Italy, Spain, India, in almost all the British colonies (except
Australasia and Canada), in most of the states of the American
Union, in the South American republics, in Scotland and Ireland,
and in the English counties of Yorkshire and Middlesex. Where
it exists, there is generally a law to the effect that in case of
dispute a registered deed shall prevail over an unregistered one.
The practical effect is that a purchaser can, by searching the
register, find out exactly what deeds he ought to inquire for,
and receives an assurance that if, after completion, he registers
his own conveyance, no other deeds — even if they exist — will
prevail against him.
The expenses and delays, not to mention the occasional actual
losses of property through fraud or mistake, attendant on the
system of making every purchaser responsible for the due
examination of his vendor's title — whether or not assisted by
registration of deeds — have induced several governments to
establish the more perfect system of Registration of Title, which
consists in collecting the transactions affecting each separate
estate under a separate head, keeping an accurate account of the
parcels of which each such estate is composed, and summarizing
authoritatively, as each fresh transaction occurs, the subsisting
rights of all parties in relation to the land itself. This system
prevails in Germany, Austria, Hungary, parts of Switzerland,
the Australasian colonies, nearly the whole of Canada, some of
the states of the American Union, to a certain extent in Ireland,
and is in course of establishment in England and Wales. The
Register consists of three portions: — (i) The description of the
land, usually, but not necessarily, accompanied by a reference
to a map; (2) the ownership, giving the name and address of
the person who can sell and dispose of the land; and (3) the
encumbrances, in their order of priority, and the names of the
persons for the time being entitled to them. When any fresh
transaction takes place the instrument effecting it is produced,
and the proper alterations in, or additions to, the register are
made: if it be a sale, the name of the vendor is cancelled from
the register, and that of the purchaser is entered instead; if
it be a mortgage, it is added to the list of encumbrances; if a
discharge, the encumbrance discharged is cancelled; if it is a
sale of part of the land, the original description is modified or the
plan is marked to show the piece conveyed, while a new descrip-
tion or plan is made and a new register is opened for the detached
parcel. In the English and Australian registries a " land
certificate " is also issued to the landowner containing copies
of the register and of the plan. This certificate takes the place
more or less of the old documents of title. On a sale, the process
is as follows: The vendor first of all produces to the purchaser
his land certificate, or gives him the number of his title and an
authority to inspect the register. In Austria and in some colonial
registries this is not necessary, the register being open to public
inspection, which in England is not the case. The purchaser, on
inspecting this, can easily see for himself whether the land he
wishes to buy is comprised in the registered description or plan,
whether the vendor's name appears on the register as the owner
164
LAND REGISTRATION
of the land, and whether there are any encumbrances or other
burdens registered as affecting it. If there are encumbrances,
the register states their amount and who are entitled to them.
The purchaser then usually1 prepares a conveyance or transfer
of the land (generally in a short printed form issued by the
registry), and the vendor executes it in exchange for the purchase
money. If there are mortgages, he pays them off to the persons
named in the register as their owners, and they concur in a
discharge. He then presents the executed instruments at the
registry, and is entered as owner of the land instead of the vendor,
the mortgages, if any, being cancelled. Where " land certificates "
are used (as in England and Australia), a new land certificate is
issued to the purchaser showing the existing state of the register
and containing a copy of the registered plan of the land. The
above is only a brief outline of the processes employed. For
further information as to practical details reference may be
made to the treatises mentioned at the end of this article.
England and Wales.— The first attempt to introduce general regis-
tration of conveyances appears to have been made by the Statute of
Enrolments, passed in the 27th year of Henry VIII. But this was
soon found to be capable of evasion, and it became a dead letter.
A Registration Act applying to the counties of Lancaster, Chester
and Durham was passed in Queen Elizabeth's reign, but failed for
want of providing the necessary machinery for its observance.
The subject reappeared in several bills during the Commonwealth,
but these failed to pass, owing, it would seem, to the objection of
landowners to publicity. In 1669 a committee of the House of Lords
reported that one cause of the depreciation of landed property was
the uncertainty of titles, and proposed registration of deeds as a
remedy, but nothing was done.
During the next thirty years numerous pamphlets for and against
a general registry were published. In 1704 the first Deed Registry
Act was passed, applying to the West Riding of Yorkshire. In 1707
the system was extended to the East Riding, and in 1 708 to Middlesex.
These Middlesex and Yorkshire registries (modified considerably in
practice, but not seriously in principle, by the Yorkshire Registries
Acts 1884, 1885, and Land Registry [Middlesex Deeds] Act 1891)
remain in 'operation, and are greatly valued by the smaller pro-
prietors and mortgagees, owing to the security against fraud which
they provide at a trifling cost. The selection of these counties seems
capricious: its probable explanation is that in them trade was
flourishing, and the fortunes made were frequently invested in land,
and a protection against secret encumbrances was most in demand.
In 1728 and 1732 Surrey and Derby petitioned, unsuccessfully, for
local registries. In 1735 the North Riding Deed Registry Act was
passed. In 1739 a General Registry bill passed the Commons, but
did not reach the Lords. Next year the Lords passed a similar bill,
but it did not reach the Commons. In 1759 a General Registry bill
was thrown out by a majority of one. In 1784 Northumberland un-
successfully petitioned for a local registry. After this the subject
went almost out of sight till the Real Property Commission of 1828.
They reported in 1830 in favour of a general register of deeds, but
though several bills were introduced, none were passed. In 1846 a
committee of the House of Lords reported that the marketable value
of real property was seriously diminished by the tedious and ex-
pensive process of the transfer of land, and that a registry of title to
all real property was essential to the success of any attempt to
simplify the system of conveyancing. In 1850 a Royal Commission
reported in favour of a general register of deeds, and in 1851 Lord
Campbell introduced a bill accordingly, but it was opposed, and was
dropped. In 1853 Lord Cranworth introduced a bill, which passed
the Lords but not the Commons.
Hitherto only registration of deeds had been considered, but in
1854 a new Royal Commission was appointed, which reported in
1857 in favour of a register of title. The scheme they recommended
was substantially embodied in a bill introduced in 1859 by Lord
Cairns — then Solicitor-General— but a dissolution stopped its pro-
gress. In 1862 Lord Westbury had the satisfaction of carrying the
first act for registration of title. This act enabled any landowner
to register an indefeasible title on production of strict proof. The
proof required was to be such as the court of chancery would force
an unwilling purchaser to accept. Only a few hundred titles were
registered under this act, and in 1868 a Royal Commission was ap-
pointed to inquire into the causes of its failure. They reported in
1870, making various suggestions of detail, and especially adverting
to the great expense caused by the strictness of the official investiga-
tion of title before a property could be admitted to the register.
In the same year Lord Hatherley introduced a Transfer of Land Bill,
but it was not proceeded with. In 1875 Lord Selborne introduced a
Land Titles and Transfer Bill, following more or less the recom-
mendations of the report of 1870, proposing for the first time com-
pulsory registration of title upon every next sale after a prescribed
1 In Prussia all conveyances are verbal, made in person or by
attorney before the registrar, who forthwith notes them in his books.
date. Lord Cairns again introduced this bill (with some mpdifica-
:ions) in 1874, but it had to be dropped. In 1875 Lord Cairns's Land
Transfer Act of that year was passed, which was much the same as
the former bill, but without compulsion. This act had no better
success in the way of voluntary general adoption than the act of
1862, but as its adoption has since been made compulsory, its pro-
visions are important. Its most noticeable feature, from a practical
point of view, is the additional prominence given to an expedient
:alled " Possessory " registration (which also existed under another
name in Lord Westbury s Act), whereby is removed the great initial
difficulty of placing titles on the register in the ^rst instance. Two
sortsof registration were established, " Absolute "and " Possessory."
The effect of an absolute registration was immediately to destroy all
claims adverse to the registered title. But this was only to be granted
on a regular investigation of title, which, though not so strict as under
the former act, yet necessarily involved time and cost. Possessory
registration, however, was to be granted to any one who could
show a prima facie title — a quick and cheap process. But the effect
of such registration would not be immediately felt. It would not
destroy existing adverse claims. It would only prevent new diffi-
culties from arising. In course of time such a title would be practic-
ally as good as an absolute one. In 1885 the duke of Marlborough
introduced a bill for a registry of titles, and in the following vacation
Lord Davey wrote three letters to The Times advocating the same
thing on the general lines afterwards adopted.^ In 1887 Lord
Halsbury, by introducing his Land Transfer Bill, commenced a
struggle with the opponents of reform, which, after ten years of
almost continuous effort, resulted in the passing of his act of 1897,
establishing compulsory registration of title. Lord Halsbury intro-
duced bills in 1887, 1888 and 1889. Lord Herschell, who succeeded
him after the change of government, introduced bills in 1893, 1894
and 1895, these last three being unanimously passed by the House of
Lords on every occasion. The bill of 1895 reached committee in the
Commons, but was stopped by the dissolution of parliament. In
1897 Lord Halsbury (who had returned to the woolsack) again intro-
duced the same bill with certain modifications which caused the
Incorporated Law Society to withdraw its opposition in the House
of Commons, and the act was finally passed on the last day of the
session. Under it the Privy Council has power to issue orders
declaring that on a certain date registration of title is to be com-
pulsory on sale in a given district. The effect of such an order is
to oblige every purchaser of land in the district after that date to
register a " possessory title," immediately after his purchase. The
compulsory provisions of the act extend to freeholds and (by a rule
afterwards made) to leaseholds having forty years to run. No order
except the first can be made, save on the request of a county council.
The first order was made in July 1898. It embraced the whole
administrative county of London (including the City of London),
proceeding gradually by groups of parishes. Under this order
upwards of 122,000 titles had been registered by 1908, representing
a value exceeding one hundred millions sterling.
Under the operation of this act, at the expense of a slightly
increased cost on all transactions during a few years, persons dealing
with land in the county will ultimately experience great relief in the
matter both of cost and of delay. The costs of a sale (including
professional assistance, if required) will ultimately be for the vendor
about one-fifth, and for the purchaser (at the most usual values) less
than half, of the present expenses. The delay will be no more than
in dealings with stock. Mortgagees will also be protected from risks
of fraud, which at present are very appreciable, and of which the
Redgrave and Richards cases are recent examples. Further par-
ticulars of the practical operation of the acts will be found in the
Registrar's Reports of 1902 and 1906, embracing the period from
1899 to 1905 inclusive, with comments on the general position,
suggestions for future legislation, &c. In the autumn of 1908
a Royal Commission under the chairmanship of Lord St Aldwyn,
was appointed to inquire into the working of the Land Transfer
Acts. The evidence given before them in October, November and
December 1908 comprised a general exposition by the registrar of the
origin and history of the acts, and the principles of their working,
and suggestions for amendments in certain details. It also com-
prised tne experience of several landowners and others, who had
found the acts highly beneficial, and who had carried through a
large number of dealings under absolute titles, without professional
help, very quickly, and at a greatly reduced cost.
Scotland. — In Scotland registration of deeds was established by
an act of 1617, which remained unaltered till 1845. There are also
acts of 1868 and 1874. The registry is in Edinburgh. Deeds are
registered almost invariably by full copy. The deeds are indexed
according to properties — each property having a separate number
and folio called a " search sheet," on which all deeds affecting it are
referred to. About 40,000 deeds are registered annually,
consequence of the existence of this register is to render fraud in title
absolutely unknown. Forty years is the usual period investigated.
The investigation can, if desired, be made from the records in the
1 This summary is an abridgement (with permission) of pp. 7
to 26 of Mr R. Burnet Morris's book referred to at the end of this
article.
LAND REGISTRATION
165
registry alone. The fees are trifling, but suffice to pay the expenses
of the office, which employs between 70 and 80 permanent officers
in addition to temporary assistants. The total costs of conveyancing
amount, roughly speaking, to between I and 2 % on the purchase
money, and are equally shared between vendor and purchaser.
In 1906 a royal commission was appointed, with Lord Dunedin as
chairman, to inquire into the expediency of instituting in Scotland a
system of registration of title.
Australia and New Zealand. — These states now furnish the most
conspicuous examples in the British empire of the success of registra-
tion of title. But prior to the year 1857 they had only registration of
deeds, and the expense, delay and confusion resulting from the
frequent dealings appear to have been a crying evil. Sir Robert
Torrens, then registrar of deeds in South Australia, drew up and
carried an act establishing a register of title similar to the shipping
register. The act rapidly became popular, and was adopted (with
variations) in all the other Australasian states in the years 1861, 1862,
1870 and 1874. Consolidating and amending acts have since been
passed in most of these states. Only absolute title is registered. All
land granted by government, after the passing of the several acts,
is placed on the register compulsorily. But voluntary applications
are also made in very large numbers. It is said ordinary purchasers
will not buy land unless the vendor first registers the title. The fees
are very low — £l to £3 is a usual maximum — though in some states,
e.g. Victoria, the fees rise indefinitely, ad valorem, at a rate of about
IDS. per £1000. Insurance funds are established to provide com-
pensation for errors. At a recent date they amounted to over
£400,000, while only £14,600 odd had been paid in claims. All the
registries pay their own expenses. Bankers and men of business
generally are warm in their appreciation of the acts, which are
popularly called Torrens Acts, after their originator, who, though
not a lawyer, originated and carried through this important and
difficult legal work.
Canada. — Registration of title was introduced in Vancouver Island
in 1861, was extended to the rest of British Columbia in 1870, and
was in 1885 adopted by Ontario, Manitoba and the North- West
Territories. Only Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince
Edward Island retain the old English system, plus registration of
deeds. The three provinces which have adopted registration of title
have adopted it in somewhat different forms. In British Columbia
it is similar to Lord Westbury's Act of 1862. The North-West
Territories follow closely the Torrens Acts. The Ontario Act is
almost a transcript of Lord Cairns's Act of 1875. The fees
are very low, seldom exceeding a few shillings, but all expenses
of the office are paid from this source. The Ontario registry
has five district offices, as well as the central one at Toronto.
This is apparently the only colonial registry not open to public
inspection.
Other British Colonies. — In the other British colonies private
investigation of title, plus registration of deeds, is the prevailing
system, but registration of title has been introduced in one or two
instances.
Germany and Austria-Hungary. — By far the most important
examples of registration of title at present existing — because they
show how the system works when applied to large European com-
munities, with all the intricacies and complications of modern civilized
life— are to be found in Germany and Austria-Hungary. In some
parts of these countries registration of title has been established for
several centuries — notably in Bohemia ; in most parts it has existed
for the greater part of the igth century; in some districts, again,
notably Tirol and the Rhine Provinces, it is still in course of intro-
duction. In all cases it appears to have been preceded by a system
of deed registration, which materially facilitated its introduction.
In some cases, Prussia, for instance, the former registers were kept
in such a way as to amount in themselves to little short of a registry
of title. Very low scales of fees suffice to pay all official expenses.
In Prussia the fees for registering sales begin at 5d. for a value of £l ;
at £20 the fee is 2s 7d.; at £100 it is 75. 3d.; at £1000 it is £i, ios.;
at £5000, £4, 53., and so on. In case of error, the officials are personally
liable; failing these, the state.' Other states are very similar. In
1894, 1,159,995 transactions were registered in Prussia. In 1893,
938,708 were registered in Austria. Some idea of the extent to
which small holdings prevail in these countries may be gathered from
the fact that 36 % of the sales and mortgages in Austria were for
under £8, 6s. 8d. value — 74% were for under £50. Owing to the
ease and simplicity of the registers, it is not always necessary to
employ professional help. When such help is required, the fees are
low. In Vienna £i is a very usual fee for the purchaser's lawyer.
£10 is seldom reached. In Germany the register is private. In
Austria it is open to public inspection. In these registers may be
found examples of large estates in the country with numerous
charges and encumbrances and dealings therewith; peasants'
properties, in numerous scattered parcels, acquired and disposed of
at different times, and variously mortgaged; town and suburban
properties, fiats, small farms, rights to light and air, rights of way,
family settlements, and dealings of all sorts — inheritances and wills,
partitions, bankruptcies, mortgages, and a great variety of dealings
therewith. The Continental systems are usually administered locally
in districts, about_2O to 30 m. across, attached to the local law courts.
In Baden and Wiirttemberg every parish (commune) has its own
registry. All ordinary dealings are transacted with me greatest
expedition. Security is absolute.1
The United States. — Up to a late date the ordinary English system,
with registration of deeds, was universal in the United States. The
registries appear to go back practically to the original settlement of
the country. Registration is by full copy. It is said that in the
large towns the name indexes were often much overgrown owing to
the want of subdivision into smaller areas corresponding to the
parishes into which the Middlesex and Yorkshire indexes are divided.
In the New York registry not many years ago 25,000 deeds were
registered annually. At the same time 35,000 were registered in
Middlesex. Complaints are made by American lawyers of want of
accuracy in the indexes also. In 1890 an act was passed in New
York for splitting the indexes into " blocks," which is believed to
have given much relief. The average time and cost of an examina-
tion of title, as estimated by a committee of the Bar Association of
New York in 1887, was about thirty days and 150 dollars (about
£30). A later State Commission in Illinois estimates the law costs of
a sale there at about 25 dollars (£5) ; the time may run into many
months. Allusion has already been made to the insurance of title
companies. The rates of insurance are substantial, e.g. 65 dollars
(£13) on the first 3000 dollars (£600), and 5 dollars (£i) on each
additional 1000 dollars (£200). This would amount to £20 on £2000
value, £110 on £20,000, £510 on £100,000. The guarantee given is
very ample, and may be renewed to subsequent owners at one-third
of the fee. Registration of title has lately been introduced, on a
voluntary basis, into the states of California, Oregon, Illinois,
Massachusetts, Minnesota and Colorado, and also into Hawaii and
the Philippines.
France. — In France registration of deeds is universal. Sales,
mortgages, gifts and successions; easements, leases of over eighteen
years, and transactions affecting the land to the extent of three years'
rent may lose priority if not registered. Wills need not be registered.
Mortgages must be re-registered every ten years. Purchase deeds
are registered by filing full copies. Registries are established in all
the considerable towns. The duty on sales amounts to the high
figure of about 6|% on the value. Part of this is allocated to
registration, in addition to which a fixed fee of one franc, and
stationers' charges averaging 6 francs are also chargeable. The title
can usually be fully investigated from the documents in the registry.
Official searches for mortgages are commonly resorted to, at a cost
of about 5 francs. Under the monarchy the land system was prac-
tically copyhold tenure, but greater validity was attached to the Court
Rolls than was the case in England. The present system was
established by a law of 1790 after the abolition of seigniorial institu-
tions in 1789. This was modified by the Code Napoleon, and further
perfected by a law of 1855. The average value of transactions in
France is very small. Probably at the present time four-fifths of the
properties are of under £25 value. The costs of a sale for 200 francs
(£8) would be about as follows: Duty, 13 fr. ; Notary (l %), 2 fr.;
expenses, 12 fr. — -total 27 fr. A sale for 1000 fr. (£40) would cost
about no fr. Taking all values, the cost of conveyance and duty
reaches the high figure of 10% in the general run of transactions.
The vendor as a rule has no costs. Indefeasible title is not obtainable,
but frauds are almost unknown. A day or two usually suffices for all
formalities. On large sales a further process known as the " purge "
is undergone, which requires a few weeks and more expense, in order
to guard against possible claims against which the deed registries
afford no protection, such as dowries of wives, claims under guardian-
ships, &c. A commission (Commission Extraparlementaire du
Cadastre), appointed in 1891 to consider the revision of the govern-
ment cadastral maps (which are in very serious arrear) and the
establishment of registration of title, collected, in nine volumes of
Comptes Rendus, a great mass of most interesting particulars relat-
ing to land questions in France, and in 1905 reported in favour of
the general establishment of a register of title, with a draft of the
necessary enactment.
AUTHORITIES. — A very complete list of some 114 English publica-
tions from 1653 to 1895 will be found in R. Burnet Morris, Land
Registration (1895); Parliamentary Publications: Second Report of
the Real Property Commissioners (1831); Report of the Registration
and Conveyancing Commission (1850); Report of the Registration of
Title Commission (1857); Report of the Land Transfer Commission
(1870); Reports on Registration of Title in Australasian Colonies
(1871 and 1881); Report on Registration of Title in Germany and
Austria-Hungary (1896) ; The Registrar's Reports of 1902 and 1906 on
the Formation of a Register in London ; Royal Commission on the Land
Transfer Acts, Minutes of Evidence (1909). General reviews of land
registration in the British Isles, the Colonies, and in foreign countries:
R. Burnet Morris, as above, and C. F. Brickdale, Land Transfer in
Various Countries (1894). Books on practice: England — Brick-
dale and Sheldon, The Land Transfer Acts (2nd ed., 1905) ; Cherry
and Marigold, The Land Tranfer Acts (1898); Hay, Land Registra-
tion under the Land Transfer Acts (1904); Land Transfer, &c. (1901);
C. F. Brickdale, Registration in Middlesex (1892). Australia— The
Australian Torrens System; Hogg, The Transfer of Land Act 1890
1 Full information as to the German and Austrian systems is to
be found in a Parliamentary Report of 1896 (C.— 8139) on the
subject.
i66
LANDSBERG AM LECH— LANDSEER
(Melbourne). Prussia-^Oberneck, Die Preussischen Grundbuch-
geselze (Berlin). Austria — Das allgemeine Grundbuchsgesetz, &c.
(Vienna) ; Bartsch, Das Oesterreichische allgemeine Grundbuchsgesetz
in seiner practischen Anwendung (Vienna). Saxony — Siegmann,
Sdchsische Hypothekenrecht (Leipzig). Statistics — Oesterreichische
Statistik (Grundbuchs-dmter) (Vienna, annually). (C. F.-BR.)
LANDSBERG AM LECH, a town in the kingdom of Bavaria,
on the river Lech, 38 m. by rail W. by S. of Munich. Pop. (1905)
6505. It has eight Roman Catholic churches, among them the
Liebfrauen Kirche dating from 1498, several monasteries, and a
fine medieval town-hall, with frescoes by Karl von Piloty and
a painting by Hubert von Herkomer. Here also are a fine
gateway, the Bayer-Tor, an agricultural and other schools.
Brewing, tanning and the manufacture of agricultural machinery
are among the principal industries.
See Schober, Landsberg am Lech und Umgebung (1902); and
Zwerger, Geschichte Landsbergs (1889).
LANDSBERG-AN-DER-WARTHE, a town in the Prussian
province of Brandenburg, at the confluence of the Warthe and
the Kladow, 80 m. N.E. of Berlin by rail. Pop. (1905) 36,934.
It has important engine and boiler works and iron-foundries;
there are also manufactures of tobacco, cloth, carriages, wools,
spirits, jute products and leather. An active trade is carried on
in wood, cattle and the produce of the surrounding country.
Landsberg obtained civic privileges in 1257, and later was
besieged by the Poles and then by the Hussites.
See R. Eckert, Geschichte von Landsberg-Warthe (1890).
LANDSBERG BEI HALLE, a town in Prussia on the Streng-
bach, on the railway from Berlin to Weissenfels. Pop. (1905)
1770. Its industries include quarrying and malting, and the
manufacture of sugar and machinery. Landsberg was the
capital of a small margraviate of this name, ruled in the I2th
century by a certain Dietrich, who built the town. Later it
belonged to Meissen and to Saxony, passing to Prussia in 1814.
LANDSEER, SIR EDWIN HENRY (1802-1873), English
painter, third son of John Landseer, A.R.A., a well-known
engraver and writer on art, was born at 71 Queen Anne Street
East (afterwards 33 Foley Street), London, on March 7th 1802.
His mother was Miss Potts, who sat to Sir Joshua Reynolds
as the reaper with a sheaf of corn on her head, in " Macklin's
Family Picture," or " The Gleaners."1 Edwin Henry Landseer
began his artistic education under his father so successfully
that in his fifth year he drew fairly well, and was familiar with
animal character and passion. Drawings of his, at South
Kensington, dated by his father, attest that he drew excellently
at eight years of age; at ten he was an admirable draughtsman
and his work shows considerable sense of humour. At thirteen
he drew a majestic St Bernard dog so finely that his brother
Thomas engraved and published the work. At this date (1815)
he sent two pictures to the Royal Academy, and was described
in the catalogue as "Master E. Landseer, 33 Foley Street."
Youth forbade his being reckoned among practising artists,
and caused him to be considered as the " Honorary Exhibitor "
of " No. 443, Portrait of a Mule," and " No. 584, Portraits
of a Pointer Bitch and Puppy." Adopting the advice of B. R.
Haydon, he studied the Elgin Marbles, the animals in the Tower
of London and Exeter 'Change, and dissected every animal
whose carcass he could obtain. In 1816 Landseer was admitted
a student of the Royal Academy schools. In 1817 he sent to the
Academy a portrait of "Old Brutus," a . much-favoured dog,
which, as well as its son, another Brutus, often appeared in his
later pictures. Even at this date Landseer enjoyed considerable
reputation, and had more work than he could readily perform,
his renown having been zealously fostered by his father in James
Elmes's Annals of the Fine Arts. At the Academy he was a
diligent student and a favourite of Henry Fuseli's, who would
'John Landseer died February 29, 1852, aged ninety-one (or
eighty-three, according to Cosmo Monkhouse). Sir Edwin's eldest
brother Thomas, an A.R.A. and a famous engraver, whose interpre-
tations of his junior's pictures have made them known throughout
the world, was born in 1795, and died January 20, 1880. Charles
Landseer, R.A., and Keeper of the Royal Academy, the second
brother, was born in 1799, and died July 22, 1879. John Landseer's
brother Henry was a painter of some reputation, who emigrated to
Australia.
look about the crowded antique school and ask, " Where is my
curly-headed dog-boy ? " Although his pictures sold easily
from the first, the prices he received at this time were compara-
tively small. In 1818 Landseer sent to the Society of Painters
in Oil and Water Colours, which then held its exhibitions in
Spring Gardens, his picture of " Fighting Dogs getting Wind."
The sale of this work to Sir George Beaumont vastly enhanced
the fame of the painter, who soon became " the fashion." This
picture illustrates the prime strength of Landseer's earlier style.
Unlike the productions of his later life, it displays not an iota
of sentiment. Perfectly drawn, solidly and minutely finished,
and carefully composed, its execution attested the skill acquired
during ten years' studies from nature. Between 1818 and 1825
Landseer did a great deal of work, but on the whole gained
little besides facility of technical expression, a greater zest for
humour and a larger style. The work of this stage ended with
the production of the painting called " The Cat's Paw," which
was sent to the British Institution in 1824, and made an enormous
sensation. The price obtained for this picture, £100, enabled
Landseer to set up for himself in the house No. i St John's Wood
Road, where he lived nearly fifty years and in which he died.
During this period Landseer's principal pictures were " The Cat
Disturbed"; "Alpine Mastiffs reanimating a Distressed
Traveller," a famous work engraved by his father; " The
Ratcatchers " ; " Pointers to be " ; " The Larder Invaded " ;
and " Neptune," the head and shoulders of a Newfoundland dog.
In 1824 Landseer and C. R. Leslie made a journey to the High-
lands— a momentous visit for the former, who thenceforward
rarely failed annually to repeat it in search of studies and subjects.
In 1826 Landseer was elected an A.R.A. In 1827 appeared
" The Monkey who has seen the World," a picture which marked
the growth of a taste for humorous subjects in the mind of the
painter that had been evoked by the success of the " Cat's Paw."
" Taking a Buck " (1825) was the painter's first Scottish picture.
Its execution marked a change in his style which, in increase
of largeness, was a great improvement. In other respects,
however, there was a decrease of solid qualities; indeed, finish,
searching modelling, and elaborate draughtsmanship rarely
appeared in Landseer's work after 1823. The subject, as such,
soon after this time became a very distinct element in his pictures;
ultimately it dominated, and in effect the artist enjoyed a greater
degree of popularity than technical judgment justified, so that
later criticism has put Landseer's position in art much lower
than the place he once occupied. Sentiment gave new charm
to his works, which had previously depended on the expression
of animal passion and character, and the exhibition of noble
qualities of draughtsmanship. Sentimentality ruled in not a
few pictures of later dates, and <?M<m-human humour, or pathos,
superseded that masculine animalism which rioted in its energy,
and enabled the artist to rival Snyders, if not Velazquez, as a
painter of beasts. After " High Life " and " Low Life," now in
the Tate Gallery, London, Landseer's dogs, and even his lions
and birds, were sometimes more than half civilized. It was not
that these later pictures were less true to nature than their
forerunners, but the models were chosen from different grades
of animal society. As Landseer prospered he kept finer company,
and his new patrons did not care about rat-catching and dog- (
fighting, however vigorously and learnedly those subjects
might be depicted. It cannot be said that the world lost much
when, in exchange for the " Cat Disturbed " and " Fighting
Dogs getting Wind," came " Jack in Office," " The Old Shepherd's
Chief Mourner," and " The Swannery invaded by Eagles,"
three pictures which are types of as many diverse moods of
Landseer's art, and each a noble one.
Landseer was elected a Royal Academician in 1831. " Chevy
Chase " (1826), which is at Woburn, " The Highland Whisky
Still" (1829), "High Life" (1829) and "Low Life" (1829),
besides other important works, had appeared in the interval.
Landseer had by this time attained such amazing mastery that
he painted " Spaniel and Rabbit " in two hours and a half,
and " Rabbits," which was at the British Institution, in three-
quarters of an hour; and the fine dog-picture " Odin " (1836)
LAND'S END— LANDSKNECHT
167
was the work of one sitting, i.e. painted within twelve hours.
But perhaps the most wonderful instance of his rapid but sure
and dexterous brush-handling was " The Cavalier's Pets "
(1845), the picture of two King Charles's spaniels in the National
Gallery, which was executed in two days. Another remarkable
feat consisted in drawing, simultaneously, a stag's head with
one hand and a head of a horse with the other. " Harvest in
the Highlands," and that masterpiece of humour, " Jack in
Office," were exhibited in 1833. In 1834 a noble work of senti-
ment was given to the world in " Suspense," which is now at
South Kensington, and shows a dog watching at the closed door
of his wounded master. Many think this to be Landseer's
finest work, others prefer "The Old Shepherd's Chief Mourner"
(1837). The over-praised and unfortunate " Bolton Abbey in
the Olden Time," a group of portraits in character, was also
shown in 1834, and was the first picture for which the painter
received £400. A few years later he sold " Peace " and " War "
for £1500, and for tjte copyrights alone obtained £6000. In
1881 " Man proposes, God Disposes " (1864) was resold for 6300
guineas, and a cartoon of " The Chase " (1866) fetched 5000
guineas. " A Distinguished Member of the Humane Society,"
a dog reclining on a quay wall (1838), was succeeded by " Dignity
and Impudence " (1839). The " Lion Dog of Malta," and
" Laying down the Law " appeared in 1840. In 1842 was
finished the capital " Highland Shepherd's Home " (Sheep-
shanks Gift), together with the beautiful " Eos," a portrait of
Prince Albert's most graceful of greyhounds, to which Thomas
Landseer added an ineffable charm and solidity not in the paint-
ing. The " Rout of Comus " was painted in the summerhouse
of Buckingham Palace garden in 1843. The " Challenge "
was accompanied (1844) by " Shoeing the Bay Mare " (Bell
Gift), and followed by " Peace " and " War," and the " Stag
at Bay " (1846). " Alexander and Diogenes," and a " Random
Shot," a d^ad kid lying in the snow, came forth in 1848. In
1850 Landseer received a national commission to paint in the
Houses of Parliament three subjects connected with the chase.
Although they would have been worth three times as much
money, the House of Commons refused to grant £1500 for these
pictures, and the matter fell through, more to the artist's profit
than the nation's gain. The famous " Monarch of the Glen "
(1851) was one of these subjects. " Night " and " Morning,"
romantic and pathetic deer subjects, came in due order (1853).
For " The Sanctuary " (1842) the Fine Arts jury of experts
awarded to the artist the great gold medal of the Exposition
Universelle, Paris, 1855.
The " Dialogue at Waterloo " (1850), which he afterwards
regarded with strong disapproval, showed how Landseer, like
nearly all English artists of original power and considerable
fertility, owed nothing to French or Italian training. In the
same year he received the honour of knighthood. Next came
" Geneva " (1851), " Titania and Bottom " (1851), which com-
prises a charming queen of the fairies, and the " Deer Pass "
(1852), followed by " The Children of the Mist " (1853), " Saved "
(1856), " Braemar," a noble stag, " Rough and Ready," and
" Uncle Tom and his Wife for Sale " (18.57). " The Maid and
the Magpie " (1858), the extraordinarily large cartoon called
" Deer Browsing " (1857), " The Twa Dogs " (1858), and one
or two minor paintings were equal to any previously produced
by the artist. Nevertheless, signs of failing health were remarked
in " Doubtful Crumbs " and a " Kind Star " (1859). The
immense and profoundly dramatic picture called " A Flood in
the Highlands " (1860) more than reinstated the painter before
the public, but friends still saw ground for uneasiness. Extreme
nervous excitability manifested itself in many ways, and in
the choice (1864) of the dreadful subject of " Man Proposes,
God Disposes," bears clumsily clambering among relics of Sir
John Franklin's party, there was occult pathos, which some of
the artist's intimates suspected, but did not avow. In 1862
and 1863 Landseer produced nothing; but " A Piper and a Pair
of Nutcrackers " (1864) revealed his old power. He declined
the presidentship of the Royal Academy, in 1865, in succession
to Sir Charles Eastlake. In 1867 the four lions which he had
modelled for the base of the Nelson Monument in Trafalgar
Square, London, were unveiled, and with " The Swannery invaded
by Eagles " (1869) he achieved his last triumph. After four
years more, full of suffering, mainly of broken art and shattered
mental powers, Sir Edwin Landseer died on the ist of October
1873, and was buried, ten days later, in St Paul's Cathedral.
Those who would see the full strength of Landseer's brush should
examine his sketches and the like in the Victoria and Albert
Museum and similar works. In these he shows himself endowed
with the strength of Paul Potter.
See Algernon Graves's Catalogue of the Works of the late Sir Edwin
Landseer, R.A. (London, n.d.); Frederic G. Stephens's Sir Edwin
Landseer (1880) ; W. Cosmo Monkhouse's The Studies of Sir Edwin
Landseer, R.A., with a History of his Art-Life (London, n.d.) ; W. P.
Frith's My Autobiography and Reminiscences (1887) ; Vernon Heath's
Recollections (1892) ; and James A. Manson's '.' Sir Edwin Landseer,
R.A.,'' The Makers of British Art (London, 1902).
LAND'S END, a promontory of Cornwall, forming the western-
most point of England. It is a fine headland of granite, pierced
by a natural arch, on a coast renowned for its cliff scenery.
Dangerous reefs lie off the point, and one group a mile from the
mainland is marked by the Longships Lighthouse, in 50° 4' N.
5° 43' W. The Land's End is the westernmost of the granite
masses which rise at intervals through Cornwall from Dartmoor.
The phenomenon of a raised beach may be seen here, but indica-
tions of a submerged forest have also been discovered in the
neighbourhood.
LANDSHUT, a town in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the right
bank of the Isar, 40 m. N.E. of Munich on the main line of rail-
way to Regensburg. Pop. (1905) 24,217. Landshut is still a
quaint, picturesque place; it consists of an old and a new town
and of four suburbs, one part of it lying on an island in the Isar.
It contains a fine street, the Altstadt, and several interesting
medieval buildings. Among its eleven churches the most note-
worthy are those of St Martin, with a tower 432 ft. high, of St
Jodocus, and of the Holy Ghost, or the Hospital church, all three
begun before 1410. The former Dominican convent, founded
in 1271, once the seat of the university, is now used as public
offices. The post-office, formerly the meeting-house of the
Estates, a building adorned with old frescoes; the royal palace,
which contains some very fine Renaissance work; and the town-
hall, built in 1446 and restored in 1860, are also noteworthy.
The town has monuments to the Bavarian king, Maximilian II.,
and to other famous men; it contains a botanical garden and
a public park. On a hill overlooking Landshut is the castle
of Trausnitz, called also Burg Landshut, formerly a stronghold
of the dukes of Lower Bavaria, whose burial-place was at
Seligenthal also near the town. The original building was erected
early in the I3th century, but the chapel, the oldest part now
existing, dates from the i4th century. The upper part of the
castle has been made habitable. The industries of Landshut
are not important; they include brewing, tanning and spinning,
and the manufacture of tobacco and cloth. Market gardening
and an extensive trade in grain are also carried on.
Landshut was founded about 1204, and from 1255 to 1503
it was the principal residence of the dukes of Lower Bavaria
and of their successors, the dukes of Bavaria-Landshut. During
the Thirty Years' War it was captured several times -by the
Swedes and in the i8th century by the Austrians. In April
1809 Napoleon defeated the Austrians here and the town was
stormed by his troops. From 1800 to 1826 the university,
formerly at Ingolstadt and now at Munich, was located at Lands-
hut. Owing to the three helmets which form its arms the town
is sometimes called " Dreihelm Stadt."
See Staudenraus, Cnronik der Stadt Landshut, (Landshut 1832);
Wiesend, Topographische Geschichte von Landshut (Landshut, 1858);
Rosenthal, Zur Rechtsgeschichte der Stadte Landshut und Straubing
(Wurzberg, 1883); Kalcher, Fiihrer durch Landshut (Landshut,
1887) ; Haack, Die gotische Architektur und Plastik der Stadt Lands-
hut (Munich, 1894); and Geschichte der Stadt Landshut (Landshut,
1835).
LANDSKNECHT, a German mercenary foot-soldier of the
i6th century. The name (German for " man of the plains ")
was given to mark the contrast between the force of these
i68
LANDSKRONA— LANE, E. W.
soldiers, formed by the emperor Maximilian I. about the end
of the i sth century, and the Swiss, the " men of the mountains,"
at that time the typical mercenary infantry of Europe. After
the battles of Marignan and Pavia, where the military reputa-
tion of the Swiss had been broken, the Swabian landsknechte
came to be considered the best fighting troops in Europe. Though
primarily a German force and always the mainstay of imperial
armies, they served in organized bodies as mercenaries elsewhere
in Europe; in France they fought for the League and for the
Protestants indiscriminately. In fact landsknecht, and more
particularly its French corruption lansquenet, became in western
Europe a general term for mercenary foot-soldiers. It is owing
to the lange Spiesse (long pike or lance), the typical weapon
with which they were armed, that the corrupted French form,
as well as a German form, lanzknecht, and an English "lance-
knight " came into use.
The landsknechts were raised by colonels (Oberst), to whom
the emperor issued recruiting commissions corresponding to the
English " indents "; they were organized in regiments made up
of a colonel, lieut.-colonel and regimental staff, with a varying
number of companies, " colours " (Fdhnlein), commanded by
captains (Hauptmann); subaltern officers were lieutenants
and ensigns (FdhnricK). In thus defining the titles and duties
of each rank, and in almost every detail of regimental customs
and organization, discipline and interior economy, the lands-
knechts may be considered as the founders of the modern
military system on a regimental basis (see further ARMY).
LANDSKRONA, a seaport of Sweden, on the east side of the
Sound, 15 m. N.E. of Copenhagen. Pop. (1900) 14,399. The
harbour is excellent, giving a depth of 35 ft., with 15 ft. beside
the quays. The town is among the first twelve manufacturing
centres of Sweden in value of output, the principal industries
being tanning and sugar manufacture and refining from beetroot.
On the little island of Hven, immediately opposite the town, Tycho
Brahe built his famous subterranean observatory of Uranien-
borg in the second half of the i6th century. Landskrona,
originally called Landora or Landor, owed its first importance
to King Erik XIII., who introduced a body of Carmelite monks
from Germany in 1410, and bestowed on the place the privileges
of a town. During the wars of the i6th and i7th centuries it
played too conspicuous a part for its own prosperity. On the
24th of July 1677 a great naval battle was fought in the neigh-
bourhood in which the Swedes defeated the Danes.
LANDSTURM, the German equivalent of the levee en masse,
or general levy of all men capable of bearing arms and not
included in the other regularly organized forces, standing army
or its second line formations, of Continental nations.
LANDWEHR, a German word meaning " defence of the
country"; but the term as applied to an insurrectional militia
is very ancient, and " lantveri " are mentioned in Baluzii
Capilularia, as quoted in Hallam's Middle Ages, i. 262, loth ed.
The landwehr in Prussia was first formed by a royal edict of
the I7th of March 1813, which called up all men capable of
bearing arms between the ages of eighteen and forty-five, and
not serving in the regular army, for the defence of the country.
After the peace of 1815 this force was made an integral part of
the Prussian army, each brigade being composed of one line and
one landwehr regiment. This, however, retarded the mobiliza-
tion and diminished the value of the first line, and by the
re-organization of 1859 the landwehr troops were relegated to
the second line. In Austria the landwehr is a totally different
organization. It is in reality a cadre force existing alongside
the regular army, and to it are handed over such recruits as,
for want of vacancies, cannot be placed in the latter. In Switzer-
land the landwehr is a second line force, in which all citizens
serve for twelve years, after passing twelve in the " Auszug " or
field army.
LANE, EDWARD WILLIAM (1801-1876), English Arabic
scholar, son of Dr Theophilus Lane, prebendary of Hereford,
was born on the I7th of September 1801. He was educated at
Bath and Hereford grammar schools, where he showed marked
mathematical ability, and was designed for Cambridge and the
church, but this purpose was abandoned, and for some time he
studied the art of engraving. Failure of health compelled him
to throw aside the burin, and in 1825 he started for Egypt, where
he spent three years, twice ascended the Nile, proceeding as far
as the second cataract, and composed a complete description of
Egypt, with a portfolio of one hundred and one drawings. This
work was never published, but the account of the modern
Egyptians, which formed a part of it, was accepted for separate
publication by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.
To perfect this work Lane again visited Egypt in 1833-1835,
residing mainly in Cairo, but retiring to Luxor during the plague
of 1835. Lane took up his residence in the Mahommedan
quarter, and under the name of Mansur Effendi lived the life
of an Egyptian scholar. He was fortunate in the time when he
took up his work, for Cairo had not then become a modern city,
and he was thus able to describe aspects of Arabian life that no
longer exist there. Perfected by the additional observations
collected during these years, the Modern Egyptians appeared in
1836, and at once took the place which it has never lost as the
best description of Eastern life and an Eastern country ever
written. It was followed from 1838 to 1840 by a translation of
the Arabian Nights, with notes and illustrations, designed to
make the book a sort of encyclopaedia of Eastern manners.
The translation itself is an admirable proof of scholarship, but
is characterized by a somewhat stilted mannerism, which is
not equally appropriate to all parts of the motley-coloured
original. The character of some of the tales and the tedious
repetitions of the same theme in the Arabic collection induced
Lane to leave considerable parts of the work untranslated.
The value of his version is increased by the exhaustive notes on
Mahommedan life and customs. In 1840 Lane married a Greek
lady. A useful volume of Selections from the Kur-an was published
in 1843, but before it passed through the press Lane was again
in Egypt, where he spent seven years (1842-1849) collecting
materials for a great Arabic lexicon, which the munificence of
Lord Prudhoe (afterwards duke of Northumberland) enabled
him to undertake. The most important of the materials amassed
during this sojourn (in which he was accompanied by his wife
and by his sister, Mrs Poole, authoress of the Englishwoman in
Egypt, with her two sons, afterwards well known in Eastern
letters) was a copy in 24 thick quarto volumes of Sheikh Mur-
tada's great lexicon, the Taj el 'Arus, which, though itself a
compilation, is so extensive and exact that it formed the main
basis of Lane's subsequent work. The author, who lived in
Egypt in the i8th century, used more than a hundred sources,
interweaving what he learned from them with the al-Qamus of
Fairuzabadl in the form of a commentary. By far the larger
part of this commentary was derived from the Lisan el 'Arab of
Ibn Mokarram, a work of the i3th century, which Lane was also
able to use while in Cairo.
Returning to England in 1849, Lane devoted the remaining
twenty-seven years of his life to digesting and translating his
Arabic material in the form of a great thesaurus of the lexico-
graphical knowledge of the Arabs. In spite of weak health he
continued this arduous task with unflagging diligence till a few
days before his death at Worthing on the loth of August 1876.
Five parts appeared during his lifetime (1863-1874), and three
posthumous parts were afterwards edited from his papers by
S. Lane-Poole. Even in its imperfect state the Lexicon is an
enduring monument, the completeness and finished scholarship
with which it is executed making each article an exhaustive
monograph. Two essays, the one on Arabic lexicography and
the other on Arabic pronunciation, contributed to the magazine
of the German Oriental Society, complete the record of Lane's
publications. His scholarship was recognized by many learned
European societies. He was a member of the German Oriental
Society, a correspondent of the French Institute, &c. In 1863
he was awarded a small civil list pension, which was after his^.
death continued to his widow. Lane was not an original mind;
his powers were those of observation, industry and sound
judgment. His personal character was elevated and pure, his
strong sense of religious and moral duty being of the type that
LANE, G. M.— LANFRANC
169
characterized the best circles of English evangelicalism in the
early part of the ipth century.
A Memoir, by his grand-nephew, S. Lane-Poole, was prefixed to
part vi. of the Lexicon. It was published separately in 1 877.
LANE, GEORGE MARTIN (1823-1897), American scholar,
was born at Charlestown, Massachusetts, on the 24th of December
1823. He graduated in 1846 at Harvard, and in 1847-1851
studied at the universities of Berlin, Bonn, Heidelberg and
Gottingen. In 1851 he received his doctor's degree at Gb'ttingen
for his dissertation Smyrnaeorum Res Gestae et Anliquilales,
and on his return to America he was appointed University
Professor of Latin in Harvard College. From 1869 until 1894,
when he resigned and became professor emeritus, he was Pope
Professor of Latin in the same institution. His Latin Pro-
nunciation, which led to the rejection of the English method of
Latin pronunciation in the United States, was published in 1871.
He died on the 3Oth of June 1897. His Latin Grammar, com-
pleted and published by Professor M. H. Morgan in the following
year, is of high value. Lane's assistance in the preparation of
Harper's Latin lexicons was also invaluable. English light
verse he wrote with humour and fluency, and his song Jonah
and the Ballad of the Lone Fishball were famous.
LANE, JAMES HENRY (1814-1866), American soldier and
politician, was born at Lawrenceburg, Indiana, on the 22nd of
June 1814. He was the son of Amos Lane (1778-1849), a
political leader in Indiana, a member of the Indiana House of
Representatives in 1816-1818 (speaker in 1817-1818), in 1821-
1822 and in 1839-1840, and from 1833 to 1837 a Democratic
representative in Congress. The son received a common school
education, studied law and in 1840 was admitted to the bar.
In the Mexican War he served as a colonel under General Taylor,
and then commanded the Fifth Indiana regiment (which he had
raised) in the Southern Campaign under General Scott. Lane
was lieutenant-governor of Indiana from 1849 to 1853, and from
1853 to 1855 was a Democratic representative in Congress. His
vote in favour of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill ruined his political
future in his own state, and he emigrated in 1855 to the Territory
of Kansas, probably as an agent of Stephen A.Douglas to organize
the Democratic party there. He soon joined the Free State
forces, however, was a member of the first general Free State
convention at Big Springs in September 1855, and wrote its
" platform," which deprecated abolitionism and urged the
exclusion of negroes from the Territory; and he presided over
the Topeka Constitutional Convention, composed of Free State
men, in the autumn of 1855. Lane was second in command of
the forces in Lawrence during the " Wakarusa War "; and in the
spring of 1856 was elected a United States senator under the
Topeka Constitution, the validity of which, however, and
therefore the validity of his election, Congress refused to recognize.
In May 1856, with George Washington Deitzler (1826-1884),
Dr Charles Robinson, and other Free State leaders, he was
indicted for treason; but he escaped from Kansas, made a tour
of the northern cities, and by his fiery oratory aroused great
enthusiasm in behalf of the Free State movement in Kansas.
Returning to the Territory with John Brown in August 1856,
he took an active part in the domestic feuds of 1856-1857.
After Kansas became a state, Lane was elected in 1861 to the
United States Senate as a Republican. Immediately on reaching
Washington he organized a company to guard the President;
and in August 1861, having gained the ear of the Federal author-
ities and become intimate with President Lincoln, he went to
Kansas with vague military powers, and exercised them in spite
of the protests of the governor and the regular departmental com-
manders. During the autumn, with a brigade of 1500 men, he
conducted a devastating campaign on the Missouri border, and
in July 1862 he was appointed commissioner of recruiting for
Kansas, a position in which he rendered faithful service, though
he frequently came into conflict with the state authorities. At
this time he planned a chimerical " great Southern expedition "
against New Mexico, but this came to nothing. In 1864 he
laboured earnestly for the re-election of Lincoln. When President
Johnson quarrelled with the Radical Republicans, Lane deserted
the latter and defended the Executive. Angered by his defection,
certain senators accused him of being implicated in Indian
contracts of a fraudulent character; and in a fit of depression
following this accusation he took his own life, dying near Fort
Leavenworth, Kansas, on the nth of July 1866, ten days after
he had shot himself in the head. Ambitious, unscrupulous, rash
and impulsive, and generally regarded by his contemporaries
as an unsafe leader, Lane was a man of great energy and personal
magnetism, and possessed oratorical powers of a high order.
See the article by L. W. Spring entitled " The Career of a Kansas
Politician," in vol. iv. (October 1898) of the American Historical
Review, and for the commoner view, which makes him not a coward
as does Spring, but a " grim chieftain " and a hero, see John Speer,
Life of Gen. James H. Lane, " The Saviour of Kansas," (Garden City,
Kansas, 1896).
Senator Lane should not be confused with James Henry Lane
(1833-1907), who served on the Confederate side during the Civil
War, attaining the rank of brigadier-general in 1862, and after the
war was professor of natural philosophy and military tactics in the
Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College from 1872 to 1880, and
professor of civil engineering and drawing in the Alabama Poly-
technic Institute from 1882 until his death.
LANESSAN, JEAN MARIE ANTOINE DE (1843- ),
French statesman and naturalist, was born at Sainte-Andre de
Cubzac (Gironde) on the I3th of July 1843. He entered the
navy in 1862, serving on the East African and Cochin-China
stations in the medical department until the Franco-German
War, when he resigned and volunteered for the army medical
service. He now completed his studies, taking his doctorate
in 1872. Elected to the Municipal Council of Paris in 1879, he
declared in favour of communal autonomy and joined with Henri
Rochefort in demanding the erection of a monument to the
Communards; but after his election to the Chamber of Deputies
for the sth arrondissement of Paris in 1881 he gradually veered
from the extreme Radical party to the Republican Union, and
identified himself with the cause of colonial expansion. A
government mission to the French colonies in 1886-1887, in
connexion with the approaching Paris exhibition, gave him the
opportunity of studying colonial questions, on which, after his
return, he published three works: La Tunisie (Paris, 1887);
L'Expansion coloniale de la France (ib., 1888), L'Indo-Chine
fran$aise (ib., 1889). In 1891 he was made civil and military
governor of French Indo-China, where his administration, which
involved him in open rupture with Admiral Fournier, was
severely criticized. Nevertheless he consolidated French influ-
ence in Annam and Cambodia, and secured a large accession
of territory on the Mekong river from the kingdom of Siam.
He was recalled in 1894, and published an apology for his
administration (La Colonisation franfaise en Indo-Chine) in the
following year. In the Waldeck-Rousseau cabinet of 1899 to
1902 he was minister of marine, and in 1901 he secured the
passage of a naval programme intended to raise the French
navy during the next six years to a level befitting the place
of France among the great powers. At the general election of
1906 he was not re-elected. He was political director of the
Siecle, and president of the French Colonization Society, and
wrote, besides the books already mentioned, various works on
political and biological questions.
LANFRANC (d. 1089), archbishop of Canterbury, was a
Lombard by extraction. He was born in the early years of
the nth century at Pa via, where his father, Hanbald, held the
rank of a magistrate. Lanfranc was trained in the legal studies
for which northern Italy was then becoming famous, and
acquired such proficiency that tradition links him with Irnerius
of Bologna as a pioneer in the renaissance of Roman law. Though
designed for a public career Lanfranc had the tastes of a student.
After his father's death he crossed the Alps to found a school
in France; but in a short while he decided that Normandy
would afford him a better field. About 1039 he became the
master of the cathedral school at Avranches, where tie taught
for three years with conspicuous success. But in 1142 he
embraced the monastic profession in the newly founded house
of Bee. Until 1145 he lived at Bee in absolute seclusion. He
was then persuaded by Abbot Herluin to open a school in the
170
LANFREY
monastery. From the first he was celebrated (loliua Latinilatis
magister). His pupils were drawn not only from France and
Normandy, but also from Gascony, Flanders, Germany and
Italy. Many of them afterwards attained high positions in the
Church; one, Anselm of Badagio, became pope under the title
of Alexander II. In this way Lanfranc set the seal of intellectual
activity on the reform movement of which Bee was the centre.
The favourite subjects of his lectures were logic and dogmatic
theology. He was therefore naturally invited to defend the
doctrine of transubstantiation against the attacks of Berengar
of Tours. He took up the task with the greatest zeal, although
Berengar had been his personal friend; he was the protagonist of
orthodoxy at the councils of Vercelli (1050), Tours (1054) and
Rome (1059). To his influence we may attribute the desertion
of Berengar's cause by Hildebrand and the more broad-minded
of the cardinals. Our knowledge of Lanfranc's polemics is
chiefly derived from the tract De corpora et sanguine Domini
which he wrote many years later (after 1079) when Berengar
had been finally condemned. Though betraying no signs of
metaphysical ability, his work was regarded as conclusive and '
became a text-book in the schools. It is the most important
of the works attributed to Lanfranc; which, considering his
reputation, are slight and disappointing.
In the midst of his scholastic and controversial activities
Lanfranc became a political force. While merely a prior of
Bee he led the opposition to the uncanonical marriage of Duke
William with Matilda of Flanders (1053) and carried matters
so far that he incurred a sentence of exile. But the quarrel
was settled when he was on the point of departure, and he
undertook the difficult task of obtaining the pope's approval
of the marriage. In this he was successful at the same council
which witnessed his third victory over Berengar (1059), and
he thus acquired a lasting claim on William's gratitude. In
1066 he became the first abbot of St Stephen's at Caen, a house
which the duke had been enjoined to found, as a penance for
his disobedience to the Holy See. Henceforward Lanfranc
exercised a perceptible influence on his master's policy. William
adopted the Cluniac programme of ecclesiastical reform, and
obtained the support of Rome for his English expedition by
assuming the attitude of a crusader against schism and corrup-
tion. It was Alexander II., the former pupil of Lanfranc, who
gave the Norman Conquest the papal benediction — a notable
advantage to William at the moment, but subsequently the
cause of serious embarrassments.
Naturally, when the see of Rouen next fell vacant (1067),
the thoughts of the electors turned to Lanfranc. But he declined
the honour, and he was nominated to the English primacy as
soon as Stigand had been canonically deposed (1070). The new
archbishop at once began a policy of reorganization and reform.
His first difficulties were with Thomas of Bayeux, archbishop-
elect of York, who asserted that his see was independent of
Canterbury and claimed jurisdiction over the greater part of
midland England. Lanfranc, during a visit which he paid the
pope for the purpose of receiving his pallium, obtained an order
from Alexander that the disputed points should be settled by a
council of the English Church. This was held at Winchester
in 1072. Thanks to a skilful use of forged documents, the primate
carried the council's verdict upon every point. Even if he were
not the author of the forgeries he can scarcely have been the
dupe of his own partisans. But the political dangers to be
apprehended from the disruption of the English Church were
sufficiently serious to palliate the fraud. This was not the only
occasion on which Lanfranc allowed his judgment to be warped
by considerations of expediency. Although the school of Bee
was firmly attached to the doctrine of papal sovereignty, he
still assisted William in maintaining the independence of the
English Church; and appears at one time to have favoured
the idea of maintaining a neutral attitude on the subject of the
quarrels between papacy and empire. In the domestic affairs
of England the archbishop showed more spiritual zeal. His
grand aim was to extricate the Church from the fetters of the
state and of secular interests. He was a generous patron of
monasticism. He endeavoured to enforce celibacy upon the
secular clergy. He obtained the king's permission to deal with
the affairs of the Church in synods which met apart from the
Great Council, and were exclusively composed of ecclesiastics.
Nor can we doubt that it was his influence which shaped the
famous ordinance separating the ecclesiastical from the secular
courts (c. 1076). But even in such questions he allowed some
weight to political considerations and the wishes of his sovereign.
He acknowledged the royal right to veto the legislation of national
synods. In the cases of Odo of Bayeux (1082) and of William
of St Calais, bishop of Durham (1088), he used his legal ingenuity
to justify the trial of bishops before a lay tribunal. He acceler-
ated the process of substituting Normans for Englishmen in
all preferments of importance; and although his nominees were
usually respectable, it cannot be said that all of them were
better than the men whom they superseded. For this admixture
of secular with spiritual aims there was considerable excuse.
By long tradition the primate was entitled to a leading position
in the king's councils; and the interests of the Church demanded
that Lanfranc should use his power in a manner not displeasing
to the king. On several occasions when William I. was absent
from England Lanfranc acted as his vicegerent; he then had
opportunities of realizing the close connexion between religious
and secular affairs.
Lanfranc's greatest political service to the Conqueror was
rendered in 1075, when he detected and foiled the conspiracy
which had been formed by the earls of Norfolk and Hereford.
But this was not the only occasion on which he turned to good
account his influence with the native English. Although he
regarded them as an inferior race he was just and honourable
towards their leaders. He interceded for Waltheof's life and to
the last spoke of the earl as an innocent sufferer for the crimes
of others; he lived on terms of friendship with Bishop Wulfstan.
On the death of the Conqueror (1087) he secured the succession
for William Rufus, in spite of the discontent of the Anglo-Norman
baronage; and in 1088 his exhortations induced the English
militia to fight on the side of the new sovereign against Odo of
Bayeux and the other partisans of Duke Robert. He exacted
promises of just government from Rufus, and was not afraid
to remonstrate when the promises were disregarded. So long
as he lived he was a check upon the worst propensities of the
king's administration. But his restraining hand was too soon
removed. In 1089 he was stricken with fever and he died on
the 24th of May amidst universal lamentations. Notwithstand-
ing some obvious moral and intellectual defects, he was the most
eminent and the most disinterested of those who had co-operated
with William I. in riveting Norman rule upon the English
Church and people. As a statesman he did something to uphold
the traditional ideal of his office; as a primate he elevated the
standards of clerical discipline and education. Conceived in the
Hildebrandine spirit, his reforms led by a natural sequence to
strained relations between Church and State; the equilibrium
which he established was unstable, and depended too much upon
his personal influence with the Conqueror. But of all the
Hildebrandine statesmen who applied their teacher's ideas
within the sphere of a particular national church he was the
most successful.
The chief authority is the Vita Lanfranci by Milo. Crispin,
who was precentor at Bee and died in 1149. Milo drew largely
upon the Vita Herluini, composed by Gilbert Crispin, abbot of
Westminster. The Chronicon Beccensis abbatiae, a 14th-century
compilation, should also be consulted. The first edition of these two
sources, and of Lanfranc's writings, is that of L. d'Achery, Beati
Lanfranci opera omnia (Paris, 1648). Another edition, slightly
enlarged, is that of J. A. Giles, Lanfranci opera (2 vols., Oxford,
1844). The correspondence between Lanfranc and Gregory VII. is
given in the Monumenta Cregoriana (ed. P. Jafi6, Berlin, 1865). Of
modern works A. Charma's Lanfranc (Paris, 1849), H. Boehmer's Die
Fdlschungen Erzbischof Lanfranks von Canterbury (Leipzig, 1902),
and the same author s Kirche una Staat in England und in der
Normandie (Leipzig, 1899) are useful. See also the authorities cited
in the articles on WILLIAM I. and WILLIAM II. (H. W. C. D.)
LANFREY, PIERRE (1828-1877), French historian and
politician, was born at Chambery (Savoie) on the 26th of October
LANG, A.— LANG, K. H. VON
171
1828. His father had been one of Napoleon's officers. The son
studied philosophy and history in Paris and wrote historical
works of an anti-clerical and rationalizing tendency. These
included L'Eglise et les philosophes ou XVIII'siede (1855; new
edition, with a notice of the author by E. de Pressense, 1879);
Essai sur la revolution franfaise (1858); Histoire politique des
popes (1860); Lettres d'Everard (1860), a novel in the form of
letters; Le Retablissementdela Pologne (1863). His magnum opus
was his Histoire de Napoleon I" (5 vols., 1867-1875 and 1886;
Eng. trans., 4 vols., 1871-1879), which ceased unfortunately at
the end of 1811 with the preparations for the Russian campaign
of 1812. This book, based on the emperor's correspondence
published in 1858-1870, attempted the destruction of the legends
which had grown up around his subject, and sought by a critical
examination of the documents -to explain the motives of his
policy. In his desire to controvert current misconceptions
and exaggerations of Napoleon's abilities Lanfrey unduly
minimized his military and administrative genius. A stanch
republican, he was elected to the National Assembly in 1871,
became ambassador at Bern (1871-1873), and life senator in
1875. He died at Pau on, the isth of November 1877.
HisCEuvres completes were published in 12 vols. (1879 seq.), and
his Correspondance in 2 vols. (1885).
LANG, ANDREW (1844- ), British man of letters, was
born on the 3ist of March 1844, at Selkirk, Scotland. He was
educated at the Edinburgh Academy, St Andrews University
and at Balliol College, Oxford, where he took a first class in the
final classical schools in 1868, becoming a fellow and subse-
quently honorary fellow of Merton College. As a journalist,
poet, critic and historian, he soon made a reputation as one of
the ablest and most versatile writers of the day. His first
publication was a volume of metrical experiments, The Ballads
and Lyrics of Old France (1872), and this was followed at intervals
by other volumes of dainty verse, xxii. Ballades in Blue China
(1880, enlarged edition, 1888), Ballads and Verses Vain (1884),
selected by Mr Austin Dobson; Rhymes a la Mode (1884), Grass
of Parnassus (1888), Ban and Arriere Ban (1894), New Collected
Rhymes (1905). He collaborated with S. H. Butcher in a prose
translation (1879) of the Odyssey, and with E. Myers and Walter
Leaf in a prose version (1883) of the Iliad, both of them remark-
able for accurate scholarship and excellence of style. As a
Homeric scholar, of conservative views, he took a high rank. His
Homer and the Epic appeared in 1893; anew prose translation of
The Homeric Hymns in 1899, with essays literary and mytho-
logical, in which parallels to the Greek myths are given from the
traditions of savage races; and his Homer and his Age in 1906.
His purely journalistic activity was from the first of a varied
description, ranging from sparkling " leaders " for the Daily
News to miscellaneous articles for the Morning Post, and for
many years he was literary editor of Longman's Magazine;
no critic was in more request, whether for occasional articles
and introductions to new editions or as editor of dainty reprints.
To the study of Scottish history Mr Lang brought a scholarly
care for detail, a piquant literary style, and a gift for disentangl-
ing complicated questions. The Mystery of Mary Stuart (1901,
new and revised ed., 1904) was a consideration of the fresh light
thrown on Mary's history by the Lennox MSS. in the University
library, Cambridge, strengthening her case by restating the
perfidy of her accusers. He also wrote monographs on The
Portraits and Jewels of Mary Stuart (1906) and James VI. and
the Cowrie Mystery (1902). The somewhat unfavourable view of
John Knox presented in his book John Knox and the Reformation
(1905) aroused considerable controversy. He gave new informa-
tion about the continental career of the Young Pretender in
Pickle the Spy (1897), an account of Alastair Ruadh Macdonell,
whom he identified with Pickle, a notorious Hanoverian spy.
This was followed in 1898 by The Companions of Pickle, and in
1900 by a monograph on Prince Charles Edward. In 1900 he
began a History of Scotland from the Roman Occupation, the
fourth volume of which (1907) brought Scottish history down
to 1746. The Valet's Tragedy (1903), which takes its title from an
essay on the" Man with the Iron Mask," (see IRON MASK), collects
twelve papers on historical mysteries, and A Monk of Fife
(1896) is a fictitious narrative purporting to be written by
a young Scot in France in 1420-1431. Mr Lang's versatility
was also shown in his valuable works on folk-lore and on primitive
religion. The earliest of these works was Custom and Myth
(1884); in Myth, Literature and Religion (2 vols., 1887, French
trans., 1896) he explained the irrational elements of mythology
as survivals from earlier savagery; in The Making of Religion
(an idealization of savage animism) he maintained the existence
of high spiritual ideas among savage races, and instituted
comparisons between savage practices and the occult phenomena
among civilized races; he dealt with the origins of totemism (q.v.)
in Social Origins, printed (1903) together with J. J. Atkinson's
Primal Law. He was one of the founders of the study of
" Psychical Research," and his other writings on anthropology
include The Book of Dreams and Ghosts ( 1 897) , Magic and Religion
(1901) and The Secret of the Totem (1905). He carried the
humour and sub-acidity of discrimination which marked his
criticism of fellow folk-lorists into the discussion of purely
literary subjects in his Books and Bookmen (1886), Letters to
Dead Authors (1886), Letters on Literature (1889), &c. His Blue
Fairy Tale Book (1889), beautifully produced and illustrated,
was followed annually at Christmas by a book of fairy tales and
romances drawn from many sources. He edited The Poems and
Songs of Robert Burns (1896), and was responsible for the Life
and Letters (1897) of J. G. Lockhart, and The Life, Letters and
Diaries (1890) of Sir Stafford Northcote, first earl of Iddesleigh.
LANG, KARL HEINRICH, RITTER VON (1764-1835), German
historian, was born on the 7th of June 1764 at Balgheim, near
Nordlingen. From the first he was greatly attracted towards
historical studies, and this was shown when he began to attend
the gymnasium of Oettingen, and in 1782, when he went to the
university of Altdorf, near Nuremberg. At the same time he
studied jurisprudence, and in 1782 became a government clerk
at Oettingen. About the same period began his activities as a
journalist and publicist. But Lang did not long remain an
official. He was of a restless, changeable character, which
constantly involved him in personal quarrels, though he was
equally quick to retire from them. In 1788 he obtained a
position as private tutor in Hungary, and in 1789 became private
secretary to Baron von Buhler, the envoy of Wurttemberg at
Vienna. This led to further travels and to his entering the
service of the prince of Oettingen- Wallerstein. In 1792 Lang
again betook himself to a university, this time to Gottingen.
Here he came under the influence of the historian, Ludwig
Timotheus Spittler, from whom, as also from Johannes von
Miiller and Friedrich Schlegel, his historical studies received a
fresh impulse. At intervals from 1793 to 1801 Lang was closely
connected with the .Prussian statesman Hardenberg, who
employed him as his private secretary and archivist, and in
1797 he was present with Hardenberg at the congress of Rastadt
as secretary to the legation. He was occupied chiefly with
affairs of the principalities of Anspach and Bayreuth, newly
acquired by Prussia, and especially in the settlement of disputes
with Bavaria as to their boundaries.
When in 1805 the principalities became part of Bavaria,
Lang entered the Bavarian service (1806), was ennobled in
1808 and from 1810 to 1817 held the office of archivist in Munich.
He again devoted himself with great enthusiasm to historical
studies, which naturally dealt chiefly with Bavarian history.
He evolved the theory, among other things, that the boundaries
of the old counties or pagi (Gaue) were identical with those of the
dioceses. This theory was combated in later days, and caused
great confusion in the province of historical geography. For
the rest, Lang did great service to the study of the history of
Bavaria, especially by bringing fresh material from the archives
to bear upon it. He also kept up his activity as a publicist, in
1814 defending in a detailed and somewhat biassed pamphlet
the policy of the minister Montgelas, and he undertook critical
studies in the history of the Jesuits. In 1817 Lang retired from
active life, and until his death, which took place on the 26th
of March 1835, lived chiefly in Ansbach.
172
LANGDELL— LANGE, F. A.
Lang is best known through his Memoiren, which appeared at
Brunswick in two parts in 1842, and were republished in 1881
in a second edition. They contain much of interest for the
history of the period, but have to be used with the greatest
caution on account of their pronounced tendency to satire.
Lang's character, as can be gathered especially from a considera-
tion of his behaviour at Munich, is darkened by many shadows.
He did 'not scruple, for instance, to strike out of the lists of
witnesses to medieval charters, before publishing them, the
names of families which he disliked.
Of his very numerous literary productions the following may be
mentioned: Beitrdge zur Kenntnis der nalurlichen und politischen
Verfassung des oettingischen Vaterlandes (1786) ; Ein Votum liber den
Wucher von einem Manne sine volo (1791); Historische Entwicklung
der deutschen Steuerverfassungen (1793); Historische Priifung des
vermeintlichen Alters der deutschen Landstande (1796); Neuere
Geschichte des Furstentums Bayreuth (1486-1603) (1798-1811);
Tabellen iiber Flacheninhalt &c. und bevorstehende Verluste de*
deutschen Reichsstande. (On the occasion of the congress of Rastadt,
1798); Der Minister Graf von Montgelas (1814); Geschichte der
Jesuilen in Bayern (1819) ; and Bayerns Gauen (Nuremberg, 1830).
See K. Th. v. Heigel, Augsburger allgemeine Zeitung for 1878, p.
1969 et seq., 1986 et seq. (Beilage of the I4th and I5th of May) ;
F. Muncker, in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, vol. xvii. (1883);
F. X. v. Wegele, Geschichte der deutschen Historiographie (1885).
(J- HN.)
LANGDELL, CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS (1826-1906),
American jurist, was born in New Boston, Hillsborough county,
New Hampshire, on the 22nd of May 1826, of English and
Scotch-Irish ancestry. He studied at Phillips Exeter Academy
in 1845-1848, at Harvard College in 1848-1850 and in the
Harvard Law School in 1851-1854. He practised law in 1854-
1870 in New York City, but he was almost unknown when, in
January 1870, he was appointed Dane professor of law (and soon
afterwards Dean of the Law Faculty) of Harvard University,
to succeed Theophilus Parsons, to whose Treatise on the Law of
Contracts (1853) he had contributed as a student. He resigned
the deanship in 1895, in 1900 became Dane professor emeritus,
and on the 6th of July 1906 died in Cambridge. He received
the degree of LL.D. in 1875; in 1903 a chair in the law school
was named in his honour; and after his death one of the school's
buildings was named Langdell Hall. He made the Harvard
Law School a success by remodelling its administration and by
introducing the " case " system of instruction.
Langdell wrote Selection of Cases on the Law of Contracts (1870, the
first book used in the "case " system; enlarged, 1877); Cases on
Sales (1872); Summary of Equity Pleading (1877, 2nd ed., 1883);
Cases in Equity Pleading (1883) ; and Brief Survey of Equity Juris-
diction (1905).
LANGDON, JOHN (1741-1819), American statesman, was
born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on the 25th of June 1741.
After an apprenticeship in a counting-house, he led a seafaring
life for several years, and became a shipowner and merchant.
In December 1774, as a militia captain he assisted in the capture
of Fort William and Mary at New Castle, New Hampshire, one
of the first overt acts of the American colonists against the
property of the crown. He was elected to the House of Repre-
sentatives of the last Royal Assembly of New Hampshire and
then to the second Continental Congress in 1775, and was a
member of the first Naval Committee of the latter, but he
resigned in 1776, and in June 1776 became Congress's agent of
prizes in New Hampshire and in 1778 continental (naval) agent
of Congress in this state, where he supervised the building of
John Paul Jones's "Ranger" (completed in June 1777), the
" America," launched in 1782, and other vessels. He was a
judge of the New Hampshire Court of Common Pleas in 1776-
1777, a member (and speaker) of the New Hampshire House of
Representatives from 1776 until 1782, a member of the state
Constitutional Convention of 1778 and of the state Senate
in 1784-1785, and in 1783-1784 was again a member of Congress.
He contributed largely to raise troops in 1777 to meet Burgoyne;
and he served as a captain at Bennington and at Saratoga. He
was president of New Hampshire in 1785-1786 andin 1788-1789;
a member of the Federal Constitutional Convention in 1787,
where he voted against granting to Congress the power of
issuing paper money; a member of the state convention which
ratified the Federal Constitution for New Hampshire; a member
of the United States Senate in 1789-1801, and its president pro
tern, during the first Congress and the second session of the
second Congress; a member of the New Hampshire House of
Representatives in 1801-1805 an(l its speaker in 1803-1805;
and governor of the state in 1805-1809 and in 1810-1812. He
received nine electoral votes for the vice-presidency in 1808,
and in 1812 was an elector on the Madison ticket. He died in
Portsmouth on the i8th of September 1819. He was an able
leader during the Revolutionary period, when his wealth and
social position were of great assistance to the patriot party.
In the later years of his life in New Hampshire he was the most
prominent of the local Republican leaders and built up his party
by partisan appointments. He refused the naval portfolio in
Jefferson's cabinet.
His elder brother, WOODBURY LANGDON (1739-1805), was a
delegate to the Continental Congress in 1770-1780, a member of
the executive council of New Hampshire in 1781-1784, judge
of the Supreme Court of the state in 1782 and in 1786-1790
(although he had had no legal training), and a state senator in
1784-1785.
Alfred Langdon Elwyn has edited Letters by Washington, Adams,
Jefferson and Others, Written During and After the Revolution, to John
Langdon of New Hampshire (Philadelphia, 1880), a book of great
interest and value. See a biographical sketch of John Langdon by
Charles R. Corning in the New England Magazine, vol. xxii. (Boston,
1897).
LANGE, ANNE FRANCHISE ELIZABETH (1772-1816),
French actress, was born in Genoa on the I7th of September
1772, the daughter of a musician and an actress at the Comedie
Italienne. She made her first appearance on the stage at Tours
in 1 787 and a successful debut at the Comedie Francaise in 1 788
in L'Ecossaise and L'Oracle. She followed Talma and the others
in 1791 to the Rue Richelieu, but returned after a few months
to the Cojnedie Franchise. Here her talent and beauty gave
her an enormous success in Francois de Neuchateau's Pamela,
the performance of which brought upon the theatre the vials
of wrath of the Committee of Safety. With the author and the
other members of the caste, she was arrested and imprisoned.
After the gth Thermidor she rejoined her comrades at the
Feydeau, but retired on the i6th of December 1797, reappear-
ing only for a few performances in 1807. She had, meantime,
married the son of a rich Belgian named Simons. She died on
the 25th of May 1816.
LANGE, ERNST PHILIPP KARL (1813-1899), German
novelist, who wrote under the pseudonym Philipp Galen, was
born at Potsdam on the 2ist of December 1813. He studied
medicine at Berlin (1835-1840), and on taking his degree, in
1840, entered the Prussian army as surgeon. In this capacity
he saw service in the Schleswig-Holstein campaign of 1849.
He settled at Bielefeld as medical practitioner and here issued
his first novel, Der Inselkonig (1852. 3rd ed., 1858), which enjoyed
considerable popularity. In Bielefeld he continued to work at
his profession and to write, until his retirement, with the rank
of Oberstabsarzt (surgeon-general) to Potsdam in 1878; there
he died on the 2oth of February 1899. Lange's novels are
distinguished by local colouring and pretty, though not powerful,
descriptions of manners and customs. He particularly favoured
scenes of English life, though he had never been in that country,
and on the whole he succeeded well in his descriptions. Chief
among his novels are, Der Irre von Si James (1853, sth ed.,
1871), and Emery Glandon (3rd ed., Leip., 1865), while of those
dealing with the Schleswig-Holstein campaign Andreas Burns
(1856) and Die Tochter des Diplomaten (1865) commanded
considerable attention.
His Gesammelte Schriften appeared in 36 vols. (1857-1866).
LANGE, FRIEDRICH ALBERT (1828-1875), German phil-
osopher and sociologist, was born on the 28th of September
1828, at Wald, near Solingen, the son of the theologian, J. P.
Lange (q.v.). He was educated at Duisburg, Zurich and Bonn,
where he distinguished himself by gymnastics as much as by
study. In 1852 he became schoolmaster at Cologne; in 1855
privatdozent in philosophy at Bonn; in 1858 schoolmaster
LANGE, J. P.— LANGENBECK
at Duisburg, resigning when the government forbade school-
masters to take part in political agitation. Lange then entered
on a career of militant journalism in the cause of political and
social reform. He was also prominent in the affairs of his town,
yet found leisure to write most of his best-known books, Die
Leibesiibungen (1863), Die Arbeiterfrage (1865, 5th ed. 1894),
Geschichte des Materialismus und Kritik seiner Bedeutung in
der Gegenwart (1866; 7th ed. with biographical sketch by H.
Cohen, 1902; Eng. trans., E. C. Thomas, 1877), and /. 5.
Mill's Ansichten iiber die sociale Frage (1866). In 1866, dis-
couraged by affairs in Germany, he moved to Winterthur,
near Zurich, to become connected with the democratic newspaper,
Winterthurer Landbote. In 1869 he was Privatdozent at Zurich,
and next year professor. The strong French sympathies of the
Swiss in the Franco-German War led to his speedy resignation.
Thenceforward he gave up politics. In 1872 he accepted a
professorship at Marburg. Unhappily, his vigorous frame was
already stricken with disease, and, after a lingering illness, he
died at Marburg, on the 23rd of November 1875, diligent to the
end. His Logische Studien was published by H. Cohen in 1877
(2nd ed., 1894). His main work, the Geschichte des Materialismus,
which is brilliantly written, with wide scientific knowledge and
more sympathy with English thought than is usual in Germany,
is rather a didactic exposition of principles than a history in
the proper sense. Adopting the Kantian standpoint that we
can know nothing but phenomena, Lange maintains that neither
materialism nor any other metaphysical system has a valid
claim to ultimate truth. For empirical phenomenal knowledge,
however, which is all that man can look for, materialism with
its exact scientific methods has done most valuable service.
Ideal metaphysics, though they fail of the inner truth of things,
have a value as the embodiment of high aspirations, in the same
way as poetry and religion. In Lange's Logische Studien, which
attempts a reconstruction of formal logic, the leading idea is
that reasoning has validity in so far as it can be represented in
terms of space. His Arbeiterfrage advocates an ill-defined form
of socialism. It protests against contemporary industrial
selfishness, and against the organization of industry on the
Darwinian principle of struggle for existence.
See O. A. Ellissen, F. A. Lange (Leipzig, 1891), and in Monatsch. d.
Comeniusgesell. iii., 1894, 210 ft. ; H. Cohen in Preuss. Jahrb. xxvii.,
'876, 353 ff. ; Vaihinger, Hartmann, Duhring und Lange (Iserlohn,
1876); J. M. Bosch, F. A. Lange und sein Standpunkt d. Ideals
{Frauenfeld, 1890); H. Braun, F. A. Lange, als Socialokonom (Halle,
1881). (H. ST.)
LANGE, JOHANN PETER (1802-1884), German Protestant
theologian, was of peasant origin and was born at Sonneborn
near Elberfeld on the loth of April 1802. He studied theology
at Bonn (from 1822) under K. I. Nitzsch and G. C. F. Liicke,
held several pastorates, and eventually (1854) settled at Bonn
as professor of theology in succession to Isaac A. Dorner,
becoming also in 1860 counsellor to the consistory. He died on
the gth of July 1884. Lange has been called the poetical
theologian par excellence: " It has been said of him that his
thoughts succeed each other in such rapid and agitated waves
that all calm reflection and all rational distinction become,
in a manner, drowned " (F. Lichtenberger). As a dogmatic
writer he belonged to the school of Schleiermacher. His Chrisl-
liche Dogmatik (3 vols., 1849-1852, new edition, 1870) " contains
many fruitful and suggestive thoughts, which, however, are
hidden under such a mass of bold figures and strange fancies,
and suffer so much from want of clearness of presentation,
that they did not produce any lasting effect " (Otto Pfleiderer).
His other works include Das Leben Jesu (3 vols., 1844-1847), Das
apostolische Zeilalter (2 vols., 1853-1854), Grundriss der theologischen
Enzyklopadie (1877), Grundriss der christlichen Ethik (1878), and
Grundriss der Bibelkunde (1881). In 1857 he undertook with other
scholars a Theologisch-homiletisches Bibelwerk, to which he contributed
commentaries on the first four books of the Pentateuch, Haggai,
Zechariah, Malachi, Matthew, Mark, Revelation. The Bibelwerk
has been translated, enlarged and revised under the general
editorship of Dr Philip Schaff.
LANGEAIS, a town of west-central France in the department
of Indre-et-Loire, on the right bank of the Loire, 16 m. W.S.W.
of Tours by rail. Pop. (1906). town, 1755; commune, 3550.
173
Langeais has a church of the nth, izth and isth centuries but
is chiefly interesting for the possession of a large chateau built
soon after the middle of the 15th century by Jean Bourre,
minister of Louis XI. Here the marriage of Charles VIII. and
Anne of Brittany took place in 1491. In the park are the ruins
of a keep of late loth-century architecture, built by Fulk Nerra,
count of Anjou.
LAN6EN, JOSEPH (1837-1901), German theologian, was bom
at Cologne on the 3rd of June 1837. He studied at Bonn, was
ordained priest in 1859, was nominated professor extraordinary
at the university of Bonn in 1864, and a professor in ordinary
of the exegesis of the New Testament in 1867 — an office which
he held till his death. He was one of the able band of professors
who in 1870 supported Dollinger in his resistance to the Vatican
decrees, and was excommunicated with Ignaz v. Dollinger,
Johann Huber, Johann Friedrich, Franz Heinrich Reusch,
Joseph Hubert Reinkens and others, for refusing to accept them.
In 1878, in consequence of the permission given to priests to
marry, he ceased to identify himself with the Old Catholic
movement, although he was not reconciled with the Roman
Catholic Church. Langen was more celebrated as a writer than
as a speaker. His first work was an inquiry into the authorship
of the Commentary on St Paul's Epistles and the Treatise
on Biblical Questions, ascribed to Ambrose and Augustine re-
spectively. In 1868 he published an Introduction to the New
Testament, a work of which a second edition was called for in
1873. He also published works on the Last Days of the Life
of Jesus, on Judaism in the Time of Christ, on John of Damascus
(1879) and an Examination of the Vatican Dogma in the Light
of Patristic Exegesis of the New Testament. But he is chiefly
famous for his History of the Church of Rome to the Pontificate
of Innocent III. (4 vols., 1881-1893), a work of sound scholarship,
based directly upon the authorities, the most important sources
being woven carefully into the text. He also contributed largely
to the Internationale theologische Zeitschrift, a review started
in 1893 by the Old Catholics to promote the union of National
Churches on the basis of the councils of the Undivided Church,
and admitting articles in German, French and English. Among
other subjects, he wrote on the School of Hierotheus, on Romish
falsifications of the Greek Fathers, on Leo XIII., on Liberal
Ultramontanism, on the Papal Teaching in regard to Morals,
on Vincentius pf Lerins and he carried on a controversy with
Professor Willibald Beyschlag, of the German Evangelical
Church, on the respective merits of Protestantism and Old
Catholicism regarded as a basis for teaching the Christian faith.
An attack of apoplexy put an end to his activity as a teacher and
hastened his death, which occurred in July 1901. (J. J. L.*)
LANGENBECK, BERNHARD RUDOLF KONRAD VON (1810-
1887), German surgeon, was born at Horneburg on the gth of
November 1810, and received his medical education at Gottingen,
where he took his doctor's degree in 1835 with a thesis on the
structure of the retina. After a visit to France and England, he
returned to Gottingen as Privatdozent, and in 1842 became
professor of surgery and director of the Friedrichs Hospital at
Kiel. Six years later he succeeded J. F. Dieffenbach (1794-1847)
as director of the Clinical Institute for Surgery and Ophthal-
mology at Berlin, and remained there till 1882, when failing
health obliged him to retire. He died at Wiesbaden on the 3Oth
of September 1887. Langenbeck was a bold and skilful operator,
but was disinclined to resort to operation while other means
afforded a prospect of success. He devoted particular attention
to military surgery, and was a great authority in the treatment
of gunshot wounds. Besides acting as general field-surgeon of
the army in the war with Denmark in 1848, he saw active service
in 1864, 1866, and again in the Franco-German campaign of
1870-71. He was in Orleans at the end of 1870, after the city
had been taken by the Prussians, and was unwearied in his
attentions, whether as operator or consultant, to wounded men
with whom every public building was packed. He also utilized
the opportunities for instruction that thus arose, and the
" Militar-Aerztliche Gesellschaft," which met twice a week for
some months, and in the discussions of which every surgeon
LANGENSALZA— LANGLAND
in the city was invited to take part, irrespective of nationality,
was mainly formed by his energy and enthusiasm. He was
ennobled for his services in the Danish War of 1864.
LANGENSALZA, a town in the Prussian province of Saxony,
on the Salza, about 20 m. N. W. from Erfurt. Pop. (1905) 12,545.
Near it are the remains of the old Benedictine monastery of
Homburg or Hohenburg, where the emperor Henry IV. defeated
the Saxons in 1075. The manufacture of cloth is the chief
industry; lace, starch, machines, cigars and chemicals are also
produced, while spinning, dyeing, brewing and printing are
carried on. There is a sulphur bath in the neighbourhood,
situated in a pleasant park, in which there are monuments to
those who fell in the war of 1866. Langensalza became a town
in 1 21 1 and was afterwards part of the electorate of Saxony.
In 1815 it came into the possession of Prussia. It is remarkable
in history as the scene of three battles: (i) the victory of the
Prussians and English over the imperial army on the isth of
February 1761; (2) that of the Prussians over the Bavarians
on the i7th of April 1813; and (3) the engagement on the 27th
of June 1866 between the Prussians and the Hanoverians, in
which the latter, though victorious in the field, were compelled
to lay down their arms on the arrival of overwhelming Prussian
reinforcements.
See Goschel, Chronik der Stadt Langensalza (Langensalza, 1818-
1842) ; G. and H. Schiitz, Chronik der Stadt Langensalza (Langensalza,
1901); and Gutbier, Schwejelbad Langensalza (Langensalza, 1900).
LAN6HAM, SIMON (d. 1376), archbishop of Canterbury and
cardinal, was born at Langham in Rutland, becoming a monk
in the abbey of St Peter at Westminster, and later prior and then
abbot of this house. In 1360 he was made treasurer of England
and in 1361 he became bishop of Ely; he was appointed chan-
cellor of England in 1363 and was chosen archbishop of Canter-
bury in 1366. Perhaps the most interesting incident in his
primacy was when he drove the secular clergy from their college
of Canterbury Hall, Oxford, and filled their places with monks.
The expelled head of the seculars was a certain John de Wiclif,
who has been identified with the great reformer Wycliffe. Not-
withstanding the part Langham as chancellor had taken in the
anti-papal measures of 1365 and 1366 he was made a cardinal
by Pope Urban V. in 1368. This step lost him the favour of
Edward III., and two months later he resigned his archbishopric
and went to Avignon. He was soon allowed to hold other
although less exalted positions in England, and in 1374 he was
elected archbishop of Canterbury for the second time; but he
withdrew his claim and died at Avignon on the 22nd of July
1376. Langham's tomb is the oldest monument to an ecclesiastic
in Westminster Abbey; he left the residue of his estate — a large
sum of money — to the abbey, and has been called its second
founder.
LANGHOLM, a burgh of barony and police burgh of Dumfries-
shire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 3142. It is situated on both sides
of the Esk, 16 m. N.E. of Annan, the terminus of a branch line
connecting with the North British railway system at Riddings
Junction. The Esk is .crossed by a three-arched stone bridge,
uniting the old town on the left bank with the new on the right,
and a suspension bridge. Ewes Water, which falls into the river,
is spanned by a two-arched bridge, i m. N. of the town. The
public buildings include the town hall — a substantial edifice
with a tower rising in three tiers from the body of the structure,
the Telford library, and the Hope hospital for aged poor. Already
famous for its plaids and blankets, the prosperity of the burgh
advanced when it took up the manufacture of tweeds. Distilling,
brewing, dyeing and tanning are also important industries. The
Esk and Liddel being favourite fishing streams, Langholm is the
headquarters of the association which protects the rights of
anglers. About im. to the N.W. stands Langholm Lodge, a seat
of the duke of Buccleuch, and some 4 m. S.E. is Gilnockie Tower,
the peel-house that belonged to Johnny Armstrong, the free-
booter, who was executed by order of James V. in 1 530.
LANGHORNE, JOHN (1735-1779), English poet and translator
of Plutarch, was born at Kirkby Stephen, Westmorland. He
at first supported himself as a private tutor and schoolmaster,
and, having taken orders, was appointed (1766) to the rectory
of Blagdon, Somerset, where he died on the ist of April 1779.
His poems (original and translations), and sentimental tales, are
now forgotten, but his translation of Plutarch's Lives (1770), in
which he had the co-operation of his elder brother William
(1721-1772), is not yet superseded. It is far less vigorous than
Sir Thomas North's version (translated from Amyot) but is free
from its inaccuracies. His poems were published in 1804 by his
son, J. T. Langhorne, with a memoir of the author; they will
also be found in R. Anderson's Poets of Great Britain, xi. (1794)
and A. Chalmers's English Poets, xvi. (1810), with memoir.
Of his poems, The Country Justice, a plea for the neglected poor,
and The Fables of Flora, were the most successful ; of his prose
writings, The Correspondence between Theodosius and Constanlia,
founded on a well-known story in the Spectator (No. 164).
LANGIEWICZ, MARYAN (1827-1887), Polish patriot, was
born at Krotoszyn, in the province of Posen,on the 5th of August
1827, his father being the local doctor. Langiewicz was educated
at Posen, Breslau and Prague, and was compelled to earn his
daily bread by giving lectures. He subsequently entered the
Prussian Landwehr and served for a year in the royal guard.
In 1860 he migrated to Paris and was for a time professor in the
high school founded there by Mieroslawski. The same year he
took part in Garibaldi's Neapolitan campaign, and was then a
professor in the military school at Cuneo till the establishment
was closed. In 1862 he entered into communication with the
central Polish committee at Warsaw, and on the outbreak of the
insurrection of the 22nd of January 1863, took the command of
the armed bands. He defeated the Russians at Wachock and
Slupia (February), capturing 1000 muskets and 8 cannon. This
victory drew hundreds of young recruits to his standard, till
at last he had 12,000 men at his disposal. On the 23rd of
February he again defeated the Russians, at Malogoszcza, and
captured 500 muskets and 2 cannon. On the loth of March
he proclaimed himself dictator and attempted to form a regular
government; but either he had insufficient organizing talent,
or had not time enough to carry out his plans, and after a fresh
series of engagements his army was almost annihilated at Zagosc
(i8th of March), whereupon he took refuge in Austrian territory
and was interned at Tarnow. He was subsequently transferred
to the fortress of Josephstadt, from which he was released in
1865. He then lived at Solothurn as a citizen of the Swiss
Republic, and subsequently entered the Turkish service as Langie
Bey. He died at Constantinople on the nth of May 1887.
See Boleslaw Limanowski, The National Insurrection of 1863-64
(Pol.) (Lemberg, 1900) ; Paolo Mazzolcni, / Bergamaschi in Polonia
nel 1863 (Bergamo, 1893); W. H. Bavink, De Poolsche opstand 1863,
&c. (Haarlem, 1864).
LANGLAND, WILLIAM (c. 1332-c. 1400), the supposed
English poet, generally regarded until recently as the single
author of the remarkable 14th-century poem Piers the Plowman.
Its full title is — The Vision of William concerning Piers the
Plowman, together with Vita de Do-wel, Do-bet, et Do-best, secundum
Wit et Rcsoun; usually given in Latin as Visio Willelmi de
Petro Plowman, &c.; the whole work being sometimes briefly
described as Liber de Petro Plowman. We know nothing of
William Langland except from the supposed evidence of the MSS.
of the poem and the text itself, and it will be convenient first
to give a brief general description of them.
J 'The poem exists in three forms. If we denote these by the
names of A-text (or Vernon), B-text (or Crowley), and C-text
(or Whitaker), we find, of the first, ten MSS., of the second
fourteen, and of the third seventeen, besides seven others of a
mixed type. It will be seen that we thus have abundance of
material, a circumstance which proves the great popularity of the
poem in former times. Owing to the frequent expressions which
indicate a desire for reformation in religion, it was, in the time of
Edward VI., considered worthy of being printed. Three impres-
sions of the B-text were printed by Robert Crowley in 1550;
and one of these was badly reprinted by Owen Rogers in 1561.
In 1813 the best MS. of the C-text was printed by Dr E. Whitaker.
In 1842 Mr Thomas Wright printed an edition from an excellent
LANGLAND
'75
MS. of the B-text in the library of Trinity College, Cambridge
(2nd ed., 1856, new ed., 1895). A complete edition of all
three texts was printed for the Early English Text Society as
edited by the Rev. W. W. Skeat, with the addition of Richard
the Redelcss, and containing full notes to all three texts, with a
glossary and indexes, in 1867-1885. The Clarendon Press
edition, by the same editor, appeared in 1886.
The A-text contains a prologue and 12 passus or cantos (i.-iv.,
the vision of the Lady Meed; v.-viii., the vision of Piers the
Plowman; ix.-xii., the vision of Do-wel, Do-bet and Do-best),
with 2567 lines. The B-text is much longer, containing 7242
lines, with additional passus following after xi. of A, the earlier
passus being altered in various respects. The C-text, with 7357
lines, is a revision of B.
The general contents of the poem may be gathered from a
brief description of the C-text. This is divided into twenty-three
passus, nominally comprising four parts, called respectively
Visio de Petro Plowman, Visio de Do-wel, Visio de Do-bet and
Visio de Do-best. Here Do-bet signifies " do better " in modern
English; the explanation of the names being that he who does
a kind action does well, he who teaches others to act kindly does
belter, whilst he who combines both practice and theory, both
doing good himself and teaching others to do the same, does best.
But the visions by no means closely correspond to these descrip-
tions; and Skeat divides the whole into a set of eleven visions,
which may be thus enumerated: (i) Vision of the Field Full of
Folk, of Holy Church, and of the Lady Meed (passus i.-v.) ;
(2) Vision of the Seven Deadly Sins, and of Piers the Plowman
(pass, vi.-x.); (3) Wit, Study, Clergy and Scripture (pass, xi.,
xii.); (4) Fortune, Nature, Recklessness and Reason (pass,
xiii., xiv.); (5) Vision of Imaginative (pass, xv.); (6) Conscience,
Patience and Activa-Vita (pass, xvi., xvii.); (7) Free-will and
the Tree of Charity (pass, xviii., xix.); (8) Faith, Hope and
Charity (pass, xx.); (9) The Triumph of Piers the Plowman,
i.e. the Crucifixion, Burial and Resurrection of Jesus Christ
(pass, xxi.); (10) The Vision of Grace (pass, xxii.); (n) The
Vision of Antichrist (pass, xxiii.).
,oy/-The bare outline of the C-text gives little idea of the real
nature of the poem. The author's object, as Skeat describes it,
was to " afford himself opportunities (of which he has amply
availed himself) for describing the life and manners of the poorer
classes; for inveighing against clerical abuses and the rapacity
of the friars; for representing the miseries caused by the great
1 pestilences then prevalent and by the hasty and ill-advised
I marriages consequent thereupon; and for denouncing lazy
workmen and sham beggars, the corruption and bribery then
too common in the law courts, and all the numerous forms of
falsehood which are at all time the fit subjects for satire and
indignant exposure. In describing, for example, the seven
deadly sins, he gives so exact a description of Glutton and Sloth
that the reader feels them to be no mere abstractions, but drawn
from the life; and it becomes hardly more difficult to realize
Glutton than it is to realize Sir John Falstaff. The numerous
allegorical personages so frequently introduced, such as Scripture,
Clergy, Conscience, Patience and the like, are all mouthpieces
of the author himself, uttering for the most part his own senti-
ments, but sometimes speaking in accordance with the character
which each is supposed to represent. The theological disquisi-
tions which are occasionally introduced are somewhat dull and
tedious, but the earnestness of the author's purpose and his
energy of language tend to relieve them, and there are not many
passages which might have been omitted without loss. The
poem is essentially one of those which improve on a second
reading, and as a linguistic monument it is of very high value.
Mere extracts from the poem, even if rather numerous and of
some length, fail to give a fair idea of it. The whole deserves,
and will repay, a careful study; indeed, there are not many
single works from which a student of English literature and of
f the-English language may derive more substantial benefit
" The metre is alliterative, and destitute of final rhyme. It is
not very regular, as the author's earnestness led him to use the
fittest words rather than those which merely served the purpose
of rhythm. The chief rule is that, in general, the same letter
or combination of letters should begin three stressed syllables
in the same line, as, for example, in the line which may be
modernized thus: ' Of all wanner of wen, the wean and the
rich.' Sometimes there are but two such rhyme-letters, as:
' .Might of the commons wade him to reign.' Sometimes there
are jour, as: ' In a summer season, when soft was the sun. '
There is invariably a pause, more or less distinct, in the middle
of each line " (Ency. Brit., pth ed., art. LANGLAND).
The traditional view, accepted by such great authorities as
Skeat and Jusserand, that a single author — and that author
Langland — was responsible for the whole poem, in all its
versions, has been so recently disputed that it seems best to
state it in Skeat's own words, before giving briefly the alternative
view, which propounds a theory of composite authorship, denying
any real existence to " William Langland." The account of the
single-author theory is repeated from Professor Skeat's article
in the gth edition of this work, slightly revised by him in 1905
for this edition. _^
" The author's name is not quite certain, and the facts concern-
ing his life are few and scanty. As to his Christian name we are
sure, from various allusions in the poem itself, and the title
Visio Willelmi, &c., in many MSS.; so that we may at once
reject the suggestion that his name may have been Robert.
In no less than three MSS. [of the C-text; one not later than
1427] occurs the following colophon: ' Explicit visio Willelmi
W. de Petro le Plowman.' What is here meant by W. it is
difficult to conjecture; but it is just possible that it may repre-
sent Wychwood (of which more presently), or Wigornensis, i.e.
of Wofcester. As to the surname, we find the note that ' Robert
or William Langland made pers ploughman,' in a handwriting
of the isth century, on the fly-leaf of a MS. copy [of the B-text]
formerly belonging to Lord Ashburnham, and now in the British
Museum; and in a Dublin MS. [of the C-text] is the note [in a
15th-century hand] : ' Memorandum, quod Stacy de Rokayle,
pater Willielmi de Langlond, qui Stacius fuit generosus et
morabatur in Schiptone-under-Whicwode, tenens domini le
Spenser in comitatu Oxon., qui predictus Willielmus fecit librum
qui vocatur Perys Ploughman.' There is no trace of any
Langland family in the midland counties, while the Langley
family were wardens of Wychwood forest in Oxfordshire between
the years 1278 and 1362; but this consideration can hardly
set aside the above statement. According to Bale, our author
was born at Cleobury Mortimer, which is quite consistent with
the supposition that his father may have removed from that
place to Shipton in Oxfordshire, as there seems to have been a
real connexion between the families in those places.
" The internal evidence concerning the author is fuller and
more satisfactory. By piecing together the various hints
concerning himself which the poet gives us, we may compile
the following account. His name was William (and probably
Langland), and he was born about 1332, perhaps at Cleobury
Mortimer in Shropshire. His father, who was doubtless a franklin
or farmer, and his other friends put him to school, made a
' clerk ' or scholar of him, and taught him what Holy Writ
meant. In 1362, at the age of about thirty, he found himself
wandering upon the Malvern hills, and fell asleep beside a stream,
and saw in a vision a field full of folk, i.e. this present world,
and many other remarkable sights which he duly records. From
this supposed circumstance he named his poem The Vision
oj William, though it is really a succession of visions, since
he mentions several occasions on which he awoke, and afterwards
again fell asleep; and he even tells us of some adventures which
befel him in his waking moments. In some of these visions there
is no mention of Piers the Plowman, but in others he describes
him as being the coming reformer who was to remedy all abuses,
and restore the world to a right condition. It is remarkable that
his conception of this reformer changes from time to time, and
becomes more exalted as the poem advances. At first he is no
more than a ploughman, one of the true and honest labourers
who are the salt of the earth; but at last he is identified with
the great reformer who has come already, the regenerator of the
LANGLEY
world in the person of Jesus Christ; in the author's own phrase—
'Petrus est Christus.' If this be borne in mind, it will not be
possible to make the mistake into which so many have fallen,
of speaking of Piers the Plowman as being the author, not the
subject, of the poem. The author once alludes to the nickname
of Long Will bestowed upon him from his tallness of stature —
just as the poet Gascoigne was familiarly called Long George.
Though there is mention of the Malvern hills more than once near
the beginning of the poem, it is abundantly clear that the poet
lived for ' many years in Cornhill (London), with his wife Kitte
and his daughter Calote.' He seems to have come to London
soon after the date of the first commencement of his work, and
to have long continued there. He describes himself as being
a tall man, one who was loath to reverence lords or ladies or
persons in gay apparel, and not deigning to say ' God save you '
to the sergeants whom he met in the street, insomuch that many
people took him to be a fool. He was very poor, wore long robes,
and had a shaven crown, having received the clerical tonsure.
But he seems only to have taken minor orders, and earned a
precarious living by singing the placebo, dirige and seven psalms
for the good of men's souls. The fact that he was married may
explain why he never rose in the church. But he had another
source of livelihood in his ability to write out legal documents,
and he was extremely familiar with the law courts at Westminster.
His leisure time must have been entirely occupied with his
poem, which was essentially the work of his lifetime. He was
not satisfied with rewriting it once, but he actually re-wrote it
twice; and from the abundance of the MSS. which still exist
we can see its development from the earliest draught (A-text),
written about 1362, to its latest form (C-text), written about
I393-1
" In 1399, just before the deposition of Richard II., appeared
a poem addressed to the king, who is designated as ' Richard the
Redeless,' i.e. devoid of counsel. This poem, occurring in only
one MS. [of the B-text] in which it is incomplete, breaking off
abruptly in the middle of a page, may safely be attributed to
Langland, who was then in Bristol. As he was at that time
about sixty-seven years of age, we may be sure that he did not
long survive the accession of Henry IV. It may here be observed
that the well-known poem entitled Pierce Ploughman's Crede,
though excellently written, is certainly an imitation by another
hand; for the Pierce Ploughman of the Crede is very different
in conception from the subject of ' William's Vision.' "
On the other hand, the view taken by Professor J. M. Manly,
of Chicago, which has recently obtained increasing acceptance
among scholars, is that the early popularity of the Piers Plowman
poems has resulted in " the confusion of what is really the work
of five different men," and that Langland himself is " a mythical
author." The argument for the distinction in authorship rests
on internal evidence, and on analysis of the style, diction and
" visualizing " quality within the different texts. Whereas
Skeat, regarding the three texts as due to the same author,
gives most attention to the later versions, and considers B
the intermediate form, as on the whole the best, Manly recognizes
in A the real poet, and lays special stress on the importance
of attention to the A-text, and particularly pass, i.-viii. In
this A-text the two first visions are regarded as by a single
author of genius, but the third is assigned to a continuator
who tried to imitate him, the whole conclusion of the I2th
passus being, moreover, by a third author, whose name, John
But, is in fact given towards the end, but in a way leading Skeat
only to credit him with a few lines. The same process of analysis
leads to crediting the B-text and the C-text to separate and
different authors, B working over the three visions of the A-
text and making additions of his own, while C again worked
over the B-text. The supposed references to the original author
A, introduced by B and C, are then to be taken as part of the
fiction. Who were the five authors ? That question is left
unsolved. John But, according to Professor Manly, was " doubt-
less a scribe " or " a minstrel." B, C and the continuator
of A " seem to have been clerics, and, from their criticisms
1 According to Jusserand, 1398.
of monks and friars, to have been of the secular clergy," C
being "a better scholar than either the continuator of A or B."
A, who " exempts from his satire no order of society except
monks," may have been himself a monk, but " as he exhibits
no special technical knowledge or interests " he " may have
been a layman." As regards Richard the Redeless, Professor
Manly attributes this to another imitator; he regards identity
of authorship as out of the question, in consequences of differences
in style and thought, apart altogether from the conclusion as
to the authorship of Piers the Plowman.
See the editions already referred to: The Deposition of Richard II.,
ed. T. Wright (Camden Society), which is the same poem as Richard
the Redeless; Warton, Hist, of Eng, Poetry; Rev. H. H. Milman,
Hist, of Latin Christianity; G. P. Marsh, Lectures on English;
H. Morley, English Writers; B. ten Brink, Early English Literature;
J. J. Jusserand, Observations sur la vision de P. P. (Paris, 1879);
Les Anglais au moyen age: L' Epopee mystique de William Langland
(1893, Eng. trans. Piers Plowman, revised and enlarged by another
1894); J. M. Manly in Cambridge Hist, of English Lit., vol. ii. and
bibliography. A long and careful summary of the whole poem is
given in Morley's English Writers, and is repeated in his Illustrations
of English Religion, ch. iii.
LANGLEY, SAMUEL PIERPONT (1834-1906), American
physicist and astronomer, was born at Roxbury, Boston,
Massachusetts, on the 22nd of August 1834. After acting
for a short time as assistant in Harvard College Observatory,
he was appointed assistant professor of mathematics in the U.S.
Naval Academy in 1 866, and in the following year became director
of the Allegheny Observatory at Pittsburg, a position which he
held until his selection in 1887 as secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution at Washington. His name is especially associated
with two main branches of investigation — aeronautics, and the
exploration of the infra-red portions of the solar spectrum.
The study of the latter he took up as a result of the publication
in 1871 of an energy-curve of the spectrum by S. I. Lamansky.
The imperfections of the thermopile, with which he began his
work, led him, about 1880, to the invention of the bolometer,
an instrument of extraordinary delicacy, which in its most
refined form is believed to be capable of detecting a change of
temperature amounting to less than one-hundred-millionth of
a degree Centigrade. Depending on the fact that the electrical
conductivity of a metallic conductor is decreased by heat, it
consists of two strips of platinum, arranged to form the two arms
of a Wheatstone bridge; one strip being exposed to a source
of radiation from which the other is shielded, the heat causes
a change in the resistance of one arm, the balance of the bridge
is destroyed, and a deflection is marked on the galvanometer.
The platinum strips are exceedingly minute, being in some
cases only -j-J-j in. in width, and less than one-tenth of that
amount in thickness. By the aid of this instrument, Langley,
working on Mount Whitney, 1 2,000 ft. above sea-level, discovered
in 1881 an entirely unsuspected extension of the invisible
infra-red rays, which he called the " new spectrum." The
importance of his achievement may be judged from the fact
that, while the visible spectrum includes rays having wave-lengths
of from about 0-4 fj, to 0-76 fj,, and no invisible heat-rays were
known before 1881 having a wave-length greater than 1-8 ju,
he detected rays having a wave-length of 5-3 in. In addition,
taking advantage of the accuracy with which the bolometer
can determine the position of a source of heat by which it is
affected, he mapped out in this infra-red spectrum over 700
dark lines or bands resembling the Fraunhofer lines of the visible
spectrum, with a probable accuracy equal to that of refined
astronomical observations. In aeronautics he succeeded in
demonstrating the practicability of mechanical flight. He first
undertook a preliminary inquiry into the principles upon which
flight depends, and established at Allegheny a huge " whirling
table," the revolving arm of which could be driven by a steam-
engine at any circumferential speed up to 70 m. an hour. The
construction of a flying machine was next attempted. The
first difficulty was to make it sufficiently light in relation to
the power its machinery could develop; and several machines
were built in which trials were made of steam, and of compressed
air and carbonic acid gas as motive agents. About 1893 *.
LANGLOIS— LANGRES
177
satisfactory machine was ready, and a new series of troubles had
to be faced, for it had to be launched at a certain initial speed,
and in the face of any wind that might be blowing. To enable
these conditions to be fulfilled, as well as to ensure that the
machine, when it fell, should fall on water, the experiments
were carried out on thePofomac river, some 30 m. below Washing-
ton. It was not till the autumn of 1894 that an efficient launching
apparatus was devised, and then the wings were found not to be
strong enough to bear the pressures to which they were subjected.
Various other delays and mishaps followed, but ultimately, on
the 6th of May 1896, a successful flight was made. On that
day an aerodrome, weighing about 30 Ib and about 16 ft. in
length, with wings measuring between 12 and 13 ft. from tip
to tip, twice sustained itself in the air for 15 minutes (the full
time for which it was supplied with fuel and water), and traversed
on each occasion a distance of over half a mile, falling gently
into the water when the engines stopped. Later in the same
year, on the 28th of November, a similar aerodrome flew about
three-quarters of a mile, attaining a speed of 30 m. an hour.
In 1903 he experimented with an aerodrome capable of carrying
a man, but repeated accidents prevented it from being launched,
and finally through lack of funds the experiments had to be
abandoned without the machine ever having been free in the
air (see also FLIGHT AND FLYING). Langley died on the 27th of
February 1906.
LANGLOIS, HIPPOLYTE (1839- ), French general, was
born at Besancon in 1839, and, after passing through the Ecole
Polytechnique, was appointed to the artillery as sub-lieutenant
in 1858, attaining the rank of captain in 1866. He served in the
army of Metz in the war of 1870. Eight years later he became
major, in 1887 lieutenant-colonel and in 1888 colonel. At this
time he was appointed professor of artillery at the Ecole de Guerre,
and in this post he devoted himself to working out the tactical
principles of the employment of field artillery under the new
conditions of armament of which he foresaw the advent. The
public result of his work was the great treatise L'Artillerie de
campagne (1891-1892), which may still be regarded as the classic
of the arm. In 1894 he became general of brigade, and in 1898
general of division. For two years after this he was the com-
mandant of the Ecole de Guerre at the time that the modern
French strategical and tactical " doctrine " was being developed
and taught. He was, however, regarded as a leader as well as a
theorist, and in 1901 he was selected to command the XX. Army
Corps on the German frontier, popularly called the " iron "
corps. In 1902 he became a member of the Conseil superieur de
la Guerre, consisting of senior generals marked out for the higher
commands in war. He retired from the active list in 1904 on
reaching the age limit, and devoted himself with the greatest
energy to critical military literature. In 1907 he began the
publication of a monthly journal of military art and history,
the Revue militaire generate. The most important of his other
works are Enseignements de deux guerres recentes and Consequences
tactiques du progres de I'armement.
LANGPORT, a market town in the eastern parliamentary
division of Somersetshire, England, 13^ m. E. of Taunton by
the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 890. It lies on the
right (east) bank of the river Parret, near the point where that
river debouches from the hills on to the plain through which it
flows to the Bristol Channel. The main street leads up a slope
from the river to the fine Perpendicular church of All Saints.
Close to this an archway crosses the road, bearing a Perpendicular
building known as the hanging chapel. After serving this
purpose it housed first the grammar-school (founded 1675),
then the Quekett museum, named after John Thomas Quekett
(1815-1861) the histologist, a native of the town, whose father
was master of the school. The hanging chapel afterwards became
a masonic hall. Not far distant is the church of Huish Episcopi,
with one of the finest of the Perpendicular towers for which
Somersetshire is noted. Langport has a considerable general and
agricultural trade.
Langport (Llongborlh, Langeberga, Langeport] owed its origin to its
defensible position on a hill, and its growth to its facilities for trade
on the chief river of Somerset. It occupies the site of the British town
of Llongborth, and was important during the Roman occupation.
It was a royal borough in Saxon times, and in 1086 had 34 resident
burgesses. The first charter, given by Elizabeth in 1562, recognized
that Langport was a borough of great antiquity, which had enjoyed
considerable privileges, being governed by a portreve. It was in-
corporated by James I. in 1617, but the corporation was abolished in
1883. Langport was represented in parliament in 1304 and 1306.
The charter of 1562 granted three annual fairs to Langport, on the
28th of June, the I ith of November and the second Monday in Lent.
One fair only is now held, on the 3rd of September, which is a horse
and cattle fair. A Saturday market was held under the grant of
1562, but in the igth century the market day was changed to
Tuesday.
LANGREO, a town of northern Spain, in the province of
Oviedo, in very hilly country, on the left bank of the river Nalon,
and on a branch railway from Oviedo to Labiana. Pop. (1900)
18,714. In the neighbourhood large quantities of wheat, hemp,
fruit and cider are produced; and there are important coal
and iron mines, foundries, and factories for the manufacture of
coarse cloth.
LANGRES, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Haute-Marne, 22 m. S.S.E. of Chau-
mont on the eastern railway to Belfort. Pop. (1906) town,
6663; commune, 9803. Langres stands at a height of some
1550 ft. on a jutting promontory of the tableland known as the
plateau de Langres, and overlooks eastward and westward
respectively the valleys of the Marne and its tributary the
Bonnelle. From the cathedral tower and the ramparts which
surround the town there is an extensive view over the valley
of the Marne, the Vosges and the C6te d'Or, and in clear weather
Mt Blanc ( 160 m. distant) is visible. The cathedral of St Mammes,
for the most part in the Transitional style of the I2th century,
has a west front in the Graeco-Roman style of the i8th century
and a fine Renaissance chapel. The church of St Martin (i3th,
iSth and i8th centuries) possesses a figure of Christ of the i6th
century, one of the finest wood carvings known. The ramparts
are protected by several towers, most of which date from the
1 6th century. The Gallo- Roman gate, one of four entrances
in the Roman period, is preserved, but is walled up. The
Porte des Moulins (i7th century) is the most interesting of the
other gates. The town possesses a museum rich in Gallo- Roman
antiquities, a picture gallery and an important library. The
birth of Denis Diderot here is commemorated by a statue.
Langres is the seat of a bishop and a sub-prefect, and has tribunals
of first instance and of commerce, a higher ecclesiastical seminary
and communal colleges for both sexes. It manufactures
well-known cutlery and grind-stones. Trade is in grain and
other farm-produce, live stock, wine, &c.
Langres, the ancient Andematunum, was capital of the Lingones.
Under Roman rule it was at first to some extent autonomous,
but was reduced to the rank of colony after the revolt of the
chief Sabinus in A.D. 71. The bishopric was founded about 200
and in the middle ages its holders became peers of the realm and
enjoyed the temporal power in the town. In 301 the Alemanni
were defeated at Langres by the Romans, but in the next century
it was burnt by the Vandals and by Attila.
The "plateau of Langres" appears frequently in the military
history of the i8th and igth centuries as a dominant strategic point,
though its importance as such has appealed chiefly to the advocates
of wars of positions and passive defence. The modern fortifications
of Langres, which serves as a second line fortress, consist of (a) Fort
St Menge or Ligniville on high ground above the confluence of the
Marne and the Neuilly brook, about 5 m. N. by W. of the town;
(6) the west front, comprising Humes battery (2j m. N.W. of
Langres), Fort de la Pointe de Diamant, and the redoubts of
Perrancey, Le Fays and Noidant (the last 4 m. S.W. of the town),
overlooking the deep valley of the Mouche brook (this front was
attacked in the mock siege of August 1907) ; (c) the south front,
comprising Fort de la Bonnelle or Decrfes (2 m. S.S.W. of the town), a
small work commanding the Chalon-Langres road, Le Mont and Le
Pailly batteries, Fort Vercingetorix, the last, 5 m. S.W. of the place,
standing on a steep and narrow spur of the main plateau, and in
second line the old fort de la Marnotte, and the large bastioned
:itadel (the town enceinte is "declassee ") ; (d) the east front, maiked
Dy Forts Montlandon and Plesnoy at the north and south ends re-
spectively of a long steep ridge, 6 m. E. of Langres, the bridges over
the Marne leading to these works being commanded by Fort Peigney,
i78
LANGTOFT— LANGTON, S.
a work about half a mile east of the town ; (e) Fort Dampierre, 8 m.
N.E. of the town, which commands all the main approaches from
the north, and completes the circle by crossing its fire with that of
Fort St Menge.
LANGTOFT, PETER (d. c. 1307), English chronicler, took
his name from the village of Langtoft in Yorkshire, and was
a canon of the Augustinian priory in Bridlington. His name
is also given as Langetoft and Langetost. He wrote in French
verse a Chronicle dealing with the history of England from the
earliest times to the death of Edward I. in 1307. It consists of
three parts and contains about 9000 rhyming verses. The
earlier part of the Chronicle is taken from Geoffrey of Monmouth
and other writers; for the period dealing with the reign of
Edward I. Langtoft is a contemporary and valuable authority,
especially for affairs in the north of England and in Scotland.
Langtoft 's Chronicle seems to have enjoyed considerable popu-
larity in the north, and the latter part of it was translated into
English by Robert Mannyng, sometimes called Robert of Brunne,
about 1330. It has been edited for the Rolls Series by T. Wright
(1866-1868).
See Wright's preface, and also O. Preussner, Robert Mannyng of
Brunne's (}bersetzung von Pierre de Langtofts Chronicle und ihr
Verhdltniss zum Originate (Breslau, 1891).
LANGTON, JOHN (d. 1337), chancellor of England and bishop
of Chichester, was a clerk in the royal chancery, and became
chancellor in 1292. He obtained several ecclesiastical appoint-
ments, but owing to the resistance of Pope Boniface VIII. he
failed to secure the bishopric of Ely in 1298, although he was
supported by Edward I. and visited Rome to attain his end.
Resigning his office as chancellor in 1302, he was chosen bishop
of Chichester in 1305, and again became chancellor shortly after
the accession of Edward II. in 1307. Langton was one of the
" ordainers " elected in 1310, and it was probably his connexion
with this body that led to his losing the office of chancellor about
this time. He continued, however, to take part in public affairs;
mediating between the king and Earl Thomas of Lancaster in
1318, and attempting to do so between Edward and his rebellious
barons in 1321. He died in June or July 1337. Langton built
the chapterhouse at Chichester, and was a benefactor of the
university of Oxford.
LANGTON, STEPHEN (d. 1228), cardinal and archbishop of
Canterbury, was the son of English parents; but the date and
place of his birth are unknown. Since he became early in his
career a prebendary of York, and since his brother Simon
(d. 1248) was elected1 to that see in 1215, we may suppose the
family to have been of northern extraction. Stephen, however,
migrated to Paris, and having graduated in that university
became one of its most celebrated theologians. This was
probably the time when he composed his voluminous com-
mentaries (many of which still exist in manuscript) and divided
the Bible into chapters. At Paris also he contracted the friend-
ship with Lothar of Segni, the future Innocent III., which played
so important a part in shaping his career. Upon becoming pope,
Innocent summoned Langton to Rome, and in 1206 designated
him as cardinal-priest of S. Chrysogonus. Immediately after-
wards Langton was drawn into the vortex of English politics.
Archbishop Hubert Walter had died in 1205, and the
election of his successor had raised thorny questions. The
suffragans of Canterbury claimed a share in choosing the new
primate, although that right had been exclusively reserved to
the monks of Canterbury by a papal privilege; and John
supported the bishops since they were prepared to give their
votes for his candidate, John de Gray, bishop of Norwich. A
party of the younger monks, to evade the double pressure of
the king and bishops, secretly elected their sub-prior Reginald
and sent him to Rome for confirmation. The plot leaked out;
the rest of the monks were induced to elect John de Gray, and
he too was despatched to Rome. After hearing the case Innocent
1 Pope Innocent, however, would not confirm this election, and the
-disappointed candidate threw himself into the contest between the
English barons on the one side and King John and the pope on the
other. Later Simon made peace with Henry III. and was appointed
archdeacon of Canterbury; he was consulted by Pope Gregory IX.
and was sent to France on diplomatic business by Henry III.
declared both elections void; and with John's consent ordered
that a new election should be made in his presence by the
representatives of the monks. The latter, having confessed
that they had given John a secret pledge to elect none but the
bishop of Norwich, were released from the promise by Innocent;
and at his suggestion elected Stephen Langton, who was con-
secrated by the pope on the I7th of June 1207. On hearing the
news the king banished the monks of Canterbury and lodged
a protest with the pope, in which he threatened to prevent any
English appeals from being brought to Rome. Innocent replied
by laying England under an interdict (March 1208), and ex-
communicating the king (November 1209). As John still
remained obstinate, the pope at length invited the French king
Philip Augustus to enter England and depose him. It was
this threat which forced John to sue for a reconciliation; and
the first condition exacted was that he should acknowledge
Langton as archbishop. During these years Langton had been
residing at Pontigny, formerly the refuge of Becket. He had
addressed to the English people a dignified protest against the
king's conduct, and had at last pressed the pope to take extreme
measures. But he had consistently adopted towards John
as conciliatory an attitude as his duty to the church would
allow, and had more than once entered upon negotiations for
a peaceful compromise. Immediately after entering England
(July 1213) he showed his desire for peace by absolving the king.
But, unlike the pope, he gave ear to the popular cry for redress
of political grievances; and persisted in associating with the
baronial opposition, even after he was ordered by Innocent
to excommunicate them as disturbers of the peace. Langton
encouraged the barons to formulate their demands, and is said
to have suggested that they should take their stand upon the
charter of Henry I. It is uncertain what further share he took
in drafting Magna Carta. At Runnymede he appeared as a
commissioner on the king's side, and his influence must therefore
be sought in those clauses of the Charter which differ from the
original petitions of the barons. Of these the most striking is
that which confirms the " liberties " of the church; and this
is chiefly remarkable for its moderation.
Soon after the issue of the charter the archbishop left England
to attend the Fourth Lateran Council. At the moment of his
departure he was suspended by the representatives of Innocent
for not enforcing the papal censures against the barons. Innocent
confirmed the sentence, which remained in force for two years.
During this time the archbishop resided at Rome. He was
allowed to return in 1218, after the deaths of Innocent and John.
From that date till his death he was a tower of strength to the
royal party. Through his influence Pandulf was recalled to
Rome (1221) and Honorius III. promised that no legate should
be sent to reside in England during the archbishop's lifetime.
In 1222, in a synod held at Oseney, he promulgated a set of
Constitutions still recognized as forming a part of the law of the
English Church. Beyond this little is recorded of his latter
years. He died- on the gth of July 1228, and was buried in
Canterbury Cathedral, where his tomb, unless tradition errs,
may still be seen.
The authorities are mainly those for the reign of John. No con-
temporary biography has come down to us. Some letters, by Langton
and others, relating to the quarrel over his election are preserved in a
Canterbury Chronicle (ed. W. Stubbs in the " Rolls " edition of Gervase
of Canterbury, vol. ii.). There are many references to him in the
correspondence of Innocent III. (Migne's Patrologia Latino,, vols.
ccxiv.-ccxvii.). Of modern works see F. Hurter, Geschichte Papst
Innocenz III. (Hamburg, 1841-1844) ; W. F. Hook, Lives of the Arch-
bishops of Canterbury (London, 1860-1876), and W. Stubbs's preface
to the second volume of Walter of Coventry (" Rolls " ed.), which de-
votes special attention to Langton. The MSS. of Langton's writings
are noticed in J. Bale's Index Britanniae scriptorum (ed. R. L. Poole,
1902) ; his Constitutions are printed in D. Wilkin's Concilia, vol. ii.
(London, 1737). (H. W. C. D.)
Another English prelate who bore the name of Langton was
THOMAS LANGTON, bishop of Winchester, chaplain to Edward IV.
In 1483 he was chosen bishop of St Davids; in 1485 he was made
bishop of Salisbury and provost of Queen's College, Oxford, and he
became bishop of Winchester in 1493. In 1501 he was elected arch-
bishop of Canterbury, but he died on the 27th of January 1501,
before his election had been confirmed.
LANGTON, W.— LANGUEDOC
179
LANGTON, WALTER (d. 1321), bishop of Lichfield and
treasurer of England, was probably a native of Langton West
in Leicestershire. Appointed a clerk in the royal chancery,
he became a favourite servant of Edward L, taking part in the
suit over the succession to the Scottish throne in 1292, and
visiting France more than once on diplomatic business. He
obtained several ecclesiastical preferments, became treasurer
in 1295, and in 1296 bishop of Lichfield. Having become
unpopular, the barons in 1301 vainly asked Edward to dismiss
him; about the same time he was accused of murder, adultery
and simony. Suspended from his office, he went to Rome to
be tried before Pope Boniface VIII., who referred the case to
Winchelsea, archbishop of Canterbury; the archbishop, although
Langton's lifelong enemy, found him innocent, and this sentence
was confirmed by Boniface in 1303. Throughout these diffi-
culties, and also during a quarrel with the prince of Wales,
afterwards Edward II., the treasurer was loyally supported by
the king. Visiting Pope Clement V. on royal business in 1305,
Langton appears to have persuaded Clement to suspend Winchel-
sea; after his return to England he was the chief adviser cf
Edward I., who had already appointed him the principal executor
of his will. His position, however, was changed by the king's
death in July 1307. The accession of Edward II. and the return
of Langton's enemy, Piers Gaveston, were quickly followed by
the arrest of the bishop and his removal from office. His lands,
together with a great hoard of movable wealth, were seized,
and he was accused of misappropriation and venality. In spite
of the intercession of Clement V. and even of the restored arch-
bishop, Winchelsea, who was anxious to uphold the privileges
of his order, Langton, accused again by the barons in 1309,
remained in prison after Edward's surrender to the " ordainers "
in 1310. He was released in January 1312 and again became
treasurer; but he was disliked by the " ordainers," who forbade
him to discharge the duties of his office. Excommunicated
by Winchelsea, he appealed to the pope, visited him at Avignon,
and returned to England after the archbishop's death in May
1313. He was a member of the royal council from this time
until his dismissal at the request of parliament in 1315. He
died in November 1321, and was buried in Lichfield cathedral,
which was improved and enriched at his expense. Langton
appears to have been no relation of his contemporary, John
Langton, bishop of Chichester.
LANGTRY, LILLIE (1852- ), English actress, was the
daughter of the Rev. W. C. le Breton, dean of Jersey, and
married in 1874 Edward Langtry (d. 1897). For many years
she was fanums as one of the most beautiful women in England.
It was not till 1881 that she definitely went on the stage,
appearing from that time under her own management both
in London and in America. In 1899 she married Sir Hugo de
Bathe, Bart.
LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue,
tongue, Lat. lingua), the whole body of words and combina-
tions of words as used in common by a nation, people or
race, for the purpose of expressing or communicating their
thoughts; also, more widely, the power of expressing thought by
verbal utterance. See generally undei PHILOLOGY, PHONETICS,
VOICE, WRITING, GRAMMAR, &c.; and the articles on the
various languages, or under headings of countries and races.
LANGUEDOC, one of the old provinces of France, the name
of which dates from the end of the I3th century. In 1290 it
was used to refer to the country in whose tongue (langue) the
word for " yes " was oc, as opposed to the centre and north of
France, the langue d'oil (the oui of to-day). Territorially
Languedoc varied considerably in extent, but in general from
1360 until the French Revolution it included the territory of
the following departments of modern France: part of Tarn
et Garonne, Tarn, most of Haute-Garonne, Ariege, Aude,
Pyrenees-Orientales, Herault, Card, Lozere, part of Ardeche
and Haute-Loire. The country had no natural geographical
unity. Stretching over the Cevennes into the valleys of the
upper Loire on the north and into that of the upper Garonne
on the west, it reached the Pyrenees on the south and the rolling
hills along the Rhone on the east. Its unity was entirely a
political creation, but none the less real, as it was the great state
of the Midi, the representative of its culture and, to some degree,
the defence of its peculiar civilization. Its climate, especially
in Herault (Montpellier), is especially delightful in spring and
early summer, and the scenery still holds enough ruined remains
of Roman and feudal times to recall the romance and the tragedy
of its history.
Although the name is of comparatively late medieval origin,
the history of Languedoc, which had little in common with that
of northern France, begins with the Roman occupation. Toulouse
was an important place as early as 119 B.C.; the next year
Narbonne, the seaport, became a Roman colony. By the time
of Julius Caesar the country was sufficiently Romanized to
furnish him with men and money, and though at first involved
in the civil wars which followed, it prospered under Roman rule
as perhaps no other part of the empire did. While it corresponded
exactly to no administrative division of the Roman empire,
it was approximately the territory included in Gallia Narbonensis,
one of the seventeen provinces into which the empire was divided
at the death of Augustus. It was rich and flourishing, crowded
with great and densely populated towns, Nimes, Narbonne,
Beziers, Toulouse; with schools of rhetoric and poetry still
vigorous in the 5th century; theatres, amphitheatres and
splendid temples. In the 5th century this high culture was an
open prize for the barbarians; and after the passing of the
Vandals, Suebi and Visigoths into Spain, the Visigoths returned
under Wallia, who made his capital at Toulouse in 419. This
was the foundation of the Visigothic kingdom which Clovis dis-
membered in 507, leaving the Visigoths only Septimania — the
country of seven cities, Narbonne, Carcassonne, Elne, Beziers,
Maguelonne, Lodeve and Agde — that is, very nearly the area
occupied later by the province of Languedoc. At the council
of Narbonne in 589 five races are mentioned as living in the
province, Visigoths, Romans, Jews — of whom there were a
great many — Syrians and Greeks. The repulse of the Arabs by
Charles Martel in 732 opened up the country for the Prankish
conquest, which was completed by 768. Under the Carolingians
Septimania became part of the kingdom of Aquitaine, but
became a separate duchy in 817.
Until the opening of the I3th century there is no unity in the
history of Languedoc, the great houses of Toulouse and Car-
cassonne and the swarm of warlike counts and barons practically
ignoring the distant king of France, and maintaining a chronic
state of civil war. The feudal regime did not become at all
universal in the district, as it tended to become in the north of
France. Allodial tenures survived in sufficient numbers to con-
stitute a considerable class of non-vassal subjects of the king,
with whose authority they were little troubled. By the
end of the nth century the house of the counts of Toulouse
began to play the predominant role; but their court had been
famous almost a century before for its love of art and literature
and its extravagance in dress and fashions, all of which denoted
its wealth. Constance, wife of King Robert II. and daughter
of the count of Toulouse, gave great offence to the monks by
her following of gallant gentlemen. They owed their tastes, not
only to their Roman blood, and the survival of their old love
for rhetoric and poetry, but also to their intercourse with the
Mahommedans, their neighbours and enemies, and their friends
when they were not fighting. Under Raymond of Saint Gilles,
at the end of the nth century, the county of Toulouse began its
great career, but Raymond's ambition to become an Oriental
prince, which led him — and the hundred thousand men who,
according to the chroniclers, followed him — away on the first
crusade, left a troubled heritage to his sons Bert rand and Alphonse
Jourdain. The latter successfully beat off William IX., duke
of Aquitaine, and won from the count of Barcelona that part of
Provence between the Dr&me and the Durance. The reign of
Alphonse lasted from 1109 to 1148. By the opening of the
i3th century the sovereignty of the counts of Toulouse was
recognized through about half of Provence, and they held the
rich cities of the most cultured and wealthiest portion of France,
i8o
LANGUEDOC
cities which had a high degree of local independence. Their
local governments, with their consuls at the head, show, at least
in name, the influence of Roman ideas. It is still an open
question how much of their autonomy had remained untouched
by the barbarian invasions from the Roman period. The citizens
of these free cities were in continual intercourse with Saracens
of Palestine and Moors of Spain; they had never entirely
abandoned pagan customs; their poetry — the poetry of the
troubadours — taught them the joys of life rather than the fear
of death, the licence of their chivalry with its courts of love
led to the other extreme of asceticism in such as were of religious
temperament; all things combined to make Languedoc the
proper soil for heresy. The Church never had the hold upon
the country that it had in the north, the people of the Midi were
always lukewarm in the faith; there was no noteworthy ecclesi-
astical literature in Languedoc from the end of the Carolingian
period until after the Albigensian crusade, no theological centre
like Paris, Bee or Laon. Yet Languedoc furnished the most
heroic martyrs for the ascetic Manichaean creed. The era of
heresy began with the preaching of Peter de Brueys and his
follower, Henry of Lausanne, who emptied the churches and
taught contempt for the clergy. Saint Bernard himself was able
to make but temporary headway against this rebellion from
a sacramental and institutionalized Christianity. In the first
decade of the i"3th century came the inevitable conflict. The
whole county of Toulouse, with its fiefs of Narbonne, Beziers,
Foix, Montpellier and Quercy, was in open and scornful secession
from the Catholic Church, and the suppression of this Manichaean
or Cathar religion was the end of the brilliant culture of
Languedoc. (See ALBIGENSES, CATHARS, INQUISITION.) The
crusade against the Albigenses, as the Cathars were locally termed,
in 1209, resulted in the union to the crown of France in 1229
of all the country from Carcassonne to the Rhone, thus dividing
Languedoc into two. The western part left to Raymond VII.,
by the treaty of 1229, included the Agenais, Quercy, Rouergue,
the Toulousain and southern Albigeois. He had as well the
Venaissin across the Rhone. From 1229 to his death in 1249
Raymond VII. worked tirelessly to bring back prosperity to
his ruined country, encouraging the foundation of new cities,
and attempting to gain reconciliation with the Church. He
left only a daughter, Jeanne, who was married to Alphonse
of Poitiers. Alphonse, a sincere Catholic, upheld the Inquisition,
but, although ruling the country from Paris, maintained peace.
Jeanne died without heirs four days after her husband, upon
their return from the crusade in Africa, in 1271, and although
she attempted by will to prevent the reversion of her lands to
the crown, they were promptly seized by King Philip III., who
used the opposition of Roger Bernard, count of Foix, as an
excuse to appear with a formidable army, which had little to
do to secure entire submission. Thus the county of Toulouse
passed to the crown, though Philip III. turned over the Agenais
to Edward I. of England in 1279. In 1274 he ceded the county
of Venaissin to Pope Gregory X., the papacy having claimed
it, without legal grounds, since the Albigensian crusade (see
AVIGNON).
Such was the fate of the reduced county of Toulouse. At the
division of Languedoc in 1229 Louis IX. was given all the
country from Carcassonne to the Rhone. This royal Languedoc
was at first subject to much trickery on the part of northern
speculators and government officials. In 1248 Louis IX. sent
royal enqutteurs, much like Charlemagne's missi dominici, to
correct all abuses, especially to inquire concerning peculation
by royal agents. On the basis of their investigations the king
issued royal edicts in 1254 and 1259 which organized the admini-
stration of the province. Two senechaussees were created —
one at Nlmes, the other at Carcassonne — each with its lesser
divisions of vigueries and bailliages. During the reign of Philip
III. the enqulteurs were busily employed securing justice for
the conquered, preventing the seizure of lands, and in 1279
a supreme court of justice was established at Toulouse. In
1302 Philip IV. convoked the estates of Languedoc, but in the
century which followed they were less an instrument for self-
government than one for securing money, thus aiding the
enqueteurs, who during the Hundred Years' War became mere
revenue hunters for the king. In 1355 the Black Prince led
a savage plundering raid across the country to Narbonne.
After the battle of Poitiers, Languedoc supported the count
of Armagnac, but there was no enthusiasm for a national cause.
Under Charles V., Louis of Anjou, the king's brother, was governor
of Languedoc, and while an active opponent of the English, he
drained the country of money. But his extortions were surpassed
by those of another brother, the due de Berry, after the death
of Charles V. In 1382 and 1383 the infuriated peasantry, abetted
by some nobles, rose in a rebellion — known as the Tuchins —
which was put down with frightful butchery, while still greater
sums were demanded from the impoverished country. In the
anarchy which followed brigandage increased. Redress did
not come until 1420, when the dauphin, afterwards Charles VII.,
came to Languedoc and reformed the administration. Then the
country he saved furnished him with the means for driving out
the English in the north. For the first time, in the climax of
its miseries, Languedoc was genuinely united to France. But
Charles VII. was not able to drive out the brigands, and it
was not until after the English were expelled in 1453 that
Languedoc had even comparative peace. Charles VII. united
Comminges to the crown; Louis XL Roussillon and Cerdagne,
both of which were ceded to Aragon by Charles VIII. as the
price of its neutrality during his expedition into Italy. From
the reign of Louis XI. until 1523 the governorship of Languedoc
was held by the house of Bourbon. After the treason of the
constable Bourbon it was held by the Montmorency family
with but slight interruption until 1632.
The Reformation found Languedoc orthodox. Persecution
had succeeded. The Inquisition had had no victims since 1340,
and the cities which had been centres of heresy were now strongly
orthodox. Toulouse was one of the most fanatically orthodox
cities in Europe, and remained so in Voltaire's day. But Calvin-
ism gained ground rapidly in the other parts of Languedoc, and
by 1560 the majority cf the population was Protestant. It was,
however, partly a political protest against the misrule of the
Guises. The open conflict came in 1561, and from that until
the edict of Nantes (1598) there was intermittent civil war,
accompanied with iconoclasm on the one hand, massacres on
the other and ravages on both.
The main figure in this period is that of Henri de Montmorency,
seigneur de Damville, later due de Montmorency, governor of the
province from 1563, who was, at first, hostile to the Protestants,
then from 1574 to 1577, as leader of the " Politiques," an advocate
of compromise. But peace was hardly ever established, although
there was a yearly truce for the ploughing. By the edict of
Nantes, the Protestants were given ten places of safety in
Languedoc; but civil strife did not come to an end, even under
Henry IV. In 1620 the Protestants in Languedoc rose under
Henri, due de Rohan (1579-1638), who for two years defied
the power of Louis XIII. When Louis took Montpellier in 1622,
he attempted to reconcile the Calvinists by bribes of money and
office, and left Montauban as a city of refuge. Richelieu's
extinction of Huguenotism is less the history of Languedoc
than of the Huguenots (q.v.). By 1629 Protestantism was
crushed in the Midi as a political force. Then followed the
tragic episode of the rebellion of Henri II., due de Montmorency,
son of the old governor of Languedoc. As a result, Languedoc
lost its old provincial privilege of self-assessment until 1649,
and was placed under the governorship of Marshal Schomberg.
During Louis XIV. 's reign Languedoc prospered until the
revocation of the edict of Nantes. Industries and agriculture
were encouraged, roads and bridges were built, and the great
canal giving a water route from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean
increased the trade of its cities. Colbert especially encouraged
its manufactures. The religious persecutions which accompanied
the revocation of the edict of Nantes bore hardest on Languedoc,
and resulted in a guerilla warfare known as the rebellion of the
Camisards (q.v.). On the eve of the Revolution some of the
brightest scenes of contentment and prosperity which surprised
LANGUET— LANIER
181
Arthur Young, the English traveller in France, were those of the
grape harvests in Languedoc vineyards.
In 1790 Languedoc disappeared from the map of France,
with the other old provinces; and the departments mentioned
took its place. But the peculiar characteristics of the men
of the Midi remain as clearly distinct from those of the north
as the Scottish type is distinct from the English. The " peaceful
insurrection " of the Languedoc vine-growers in the summer
of 1907 revealed to the astonished Parisians the same spirit of
independence as had underlain the resistance to Simon de
Montfort and Richelieu.
The one monumental history of Languedoc is that of the Bene-
dictines, Dom Claude Devic and Dom J. J. Vaissete, Histoire generale
de la province de Languedoc (5 yols., Paris, 1730-1745). This has been
re-edited, and continued and increased by the addition of important
monographs, to 15 volumes (Toulouse, 1872—1892). It is the great
library of sources, critical apparatus and bibliographies concerning
Languedoc, and carries the history up to 1790. The fine article
" Languedoc " in La Grande Encyclopedic is by A. Molinier, perhaps
the greatest modern authority on Languedoc. (J. T. S.*)
LANGUET, HUBERT (1518-1381), French Huguenot writer
and diplomat, was born at Vitteaux in Burgundy, of which
town his father was governor. He received his early education
from a distinguished Hellenist, Jean Perelle, and displayed
remarkable ability in Greek and Latin. He studied law, theology
and science at the university of Poitiers from 1536 to 1539;
then, after some travel, attended the universities of Bologna
and Padua, receiving the doctorate from the latter in 1548.
At Bologna he read Melanchthon's Loci communes Iheologiae
and was so impressed by it that in 1549 he went to Wittenberg
to see the author, and shortly afterwards became a Protestant.
He made his headquarters at Wittenberg until the death of
Melanchthon in 1560, although during that period, as well as
throughout the rest of his life, he travelled extensively in France,
Italy, Spain, Germany, Sweden, and even Finland and Lapland.
In 1557 he declined the invitation of Gustavus I. to enter the
service of Sweden, but two years later accepted a similar invita-
tion of Augustus I., elector of Saxony. He showed great
ability in diplomacy, particularly in organizing the Protestants.
He represented the elector at the French court from 1561 to
1572 except when the religious and political troubles in France
occasionally compelled him temporarily to withdraw. He
performed many minor diplomatic missions for the elector,
and in 1567 accompanied him to the siege of Gotha. He delivered
a violent harangue before Charles IX. of France in 1570 on
behalf of the Protestant princes, and escaped death on St
Bartholomew's Day (1572) only through the intervention of
Jean de Morvilliers, the moderate and influential bishop of
Orleans. He represented the elector of Saxony at the imperial
court from 1573 to 1577. Financial embarrassment and disgust
at the Protestant controversies in which he was forced to partici-
pate caused him to seek recall from the imperial court. His
request being granted, Languet spent the last years of his life
mainly in the Low Countries, and though nominally still in the
service of the elector, he undertook a mission to England for
John Casimir of Bavaria and was a valuable adviser to William
the Silent, prince of Orange. Languet died at Antwerp on the
30th of September 1581.
His correspondence is important, for the history of the i6th
century. Three hundred and twenty-nine letters to Augustus of
Saxony dating from the I7th of November 1565 to the 8th of
September 1581 , and one hundred and eleven letters to the chancellor
Mordeisen dating from November 1559 to the summer of 1565, are
preserved in MS. in the Saxon archives, and were published by
Ludovicus at Halle in 1699 under the title Arcana seculi decimi sexti.
One hundred and eight letters to Camerarius were published at
Groningen in 1646 under the title Langueti Epistolae ad Joach.
Camerarium, patrem el filium ; and ninety-six to his great friend Sir
Philip Sidney, dating from the 22nd of April 1573 to the 28th of
October 1580, appeared at Frankfort in 1633 and have been trans-
lated into English by S. A. Pears (London, 1845). The Historica
Descriptio of the siege and capture of Gotha appeared in 1568 and has
been translated into French and German. The authorship of the
work by which Languet is best known has been disputed. It is
entitled Vindiciae contra tyrannos, sive de principis in populum
populique in principem legitima potestate, Stephana Junio Bruto Celta
auctore, and is thought to have been published at Basel (1579)
although it bears the imprint of Edinburgh. It has been attributed
to Beza, Hotman, Casaubon and Duplessis-Mornay, by divers writers
on various grounds — to the last-named on the very respectable
authority of Grotius. The authorship of Languet was supported by
Peter Bayle (for reasons stated in the form of a supplement to the
Dictionnaire) and confirmed by practically all later writers. The work
has been frequently reprinted, the Leipzig edition (1846) containing
a life of Languet by Treitschke. A French translation appeared in
1581 and an English translation in 1689. The work upholds the
doctrine of resistance, but affirms that resistance must come from
properly constituted authorities and objects to anything which
savours of anabaptism or other extreme views. The Apologie ou
defence du trbs illustre Prince Guillaume centre le ban et Vedit du roi
d'Espagne (Leiden, 1581) is sometimes attributed to Languet.
There seems little doubt, however, that it was really the work of the
prince himself, with the help either of Languet (Groen van Prinsterer,
Archives) or of Pierre de Villiers (Motley, Rise of the Dutch Republic;
and Blok, History of the People of the Netherlands').
See Ph. de la Mare, Vie d'Hubert Languet (Halle, 1700); E. and
E. Haag, La France protestante; H. Chevreul, Hubert Languet (Paris,
1852); J. Blasel, Hubert Languet (Breslau, 1872); O. Scholz, Hubert
Languet als kursiichsischer Berichterstatter u. Gesandter in Frankreich
wahrend 1560-1572 (Halle, 1875); G. Touchard, De politico Huberti
Langueti (Paris, 1898). There is a good article on Languet by P.
Tschackert in Hauck's Real-Encyklopddie, yd ed., xi. 274-280.
LANGUR, one of the two Hindu names (the other being
hanuman) of the sacred Indian monkey scientifically known as
Semnopithecus enlellus, and hence sometimes called the entellus
monkey. A prodigiously long tail, beetling eyebrows with long
black hairs, black ears, face, feet and hands, and a general
greyish-brown colour of the fur are the distinctive characteristics
of the langur. These monkeys roam at will in the bazaars of
Hindu cities, where they help themselves freely from the stores
of the grain-dealers, and they are kept in numbers at the great
temple in Benares. In a zoological sense the term is extended
to embrace all the monkeys of the Asiatic genus Semnopithecus,
which includes a large number of species, ranging from Ceylon,
India and Kashmir to southern China and the Malay countries
as far east as Borneo and Sumatra. These monkeys are character-
ized by their lank bodies, long slender limbs and tail, well-
developed thumbs, absence of cheek-pouches, and complex
stomachs. They feed on leaves and young shoots. (R. L.*)
LANG VON WELLENBURG, MATTHAUS (1460-1540),
German statesman and ecclesiastic, was the son of a burgher of
Augsburg. He afterwards assumed the name of Wellen'ourg
from a castle that came into his possession. After studying at
Ingolstadt, Vienna and Tubingen he entered the service of the
emperor Frederick III. and quickly made his way to the front.
He was also one of the most trusted advisers of Frederick's son
and successor Maximilian I., and his services were rewarded in
1500 with the provostship of the cathedral at Augsburg and in
the following year with the bishopric of Gurk. In 1511 he was
made a cardinal by Pope Julius II., and in 1514 he became
coadjutor to the archbishop of Salzburg, whom he succeeded in
1519. He also received the bishopric of Cartagena in Murcia in
1521, and that of Albano in 1535. Lang's adherence to theolder
faith, together with his pride and arrogance, made him very
unpopular in his diocese of Salzburg; in 1523 he was involved
in a serious struggle with his subjects, and in 1525, during the
Peasants' War, he had again to fight hard to hold his own. He
was one of the chief ministers of Charles V.; he played an
important part in the tangled international negotiations of his
time; and he was always loyal to his imperial masters. Not
without reason has he been compared with Cardinal Wolsey. He
died on the 30th of March 1540.
LANIER, SIDNEY (1842-1881), American poet, was born at
Macon, Georgia, on the 3rd of February 1842. He was of
Huguenot descent on his father's side, and of Scottish and
Virginian on his mother's. From childhood he was passionately
fond of music. His subsequent mastery of the flute helped to
support him and greatly increased his reputation. At the age of
fourteen he entered Oglethorpe College, where, after graduating
with distinction, he held a tutorship. He enlisted in the Con-
federate army in April 1861, serving first in Virginia, and finding
opportunities to continue his studies. After the Seven Days'
battles around Richmond, he was transferred to the signal service.
LANJUINAIS— LANNES
About this time the first symptoms of consumption appeared.
He subsequently served in a blockade-runner, but his vessel was
captured, and he was confined for five months in a Federal
prison, his flute proving the best of companions. Exchanged
early in 1865, he started home on foot, arriving in a state of
exhaustion that led to a severe illness. In 1867 he visited New
York in connexion with his novel Tiger Lilies — an immature
work, dealing in part with his war experiences, and now difficult
to obtain. Later in the same year he took charge of a country
school in Alabama, and was married to Miss Mary Day of his
native town. The next year he returned to Macon in low health,
and began to study and practise law with his father. In 1872
he went to Texas for his health, but was forced to return, and he
secured an engagement as first flute in the Peabody concerts at
Baltimore (December 1873). He wrote a guide-book to Florida
(1876), and tales for boys from Froissart, Malory, the Mabinogion
and Percy's Reliques (1878-1882). He now made congenial
friends, such as Bayard Taylor, his reputation gradually in-
creased, and he was enabled to study music and literature,
especially Anglo-Saxon poetry. In 1876 he wrote his ambitious
cantata for the Centennial Exhibition, and brought his family
north. A small volume of verse appeared in the next year. In
1879 he was made lecturer on English literature at Johns Hopkins
University. His lectures became the basis of his Science of
English Verse (1880) — his most important prose work, and an
admirable discussion of the relations of music and poetry — and
also of his English Novel (New York, 1883), which, devoted
largely to George Eliot, is suggestive, but one-sided. Work had
to be abandoned on account of growing feebleness, and in the
spring of 1881 he was carried to Lynn, North Carolina, to try
camp life, and died there on the 7th of September. Since his
death his fame has grown steadily and greatly, an enlarged and
final edition (1884) of his poems, prepared by his wife, his Letters,
1866-1881 (1899), and several volumes of miscellaneous prose
having assisted in keeping his name before the public. A
posthumous work on Shakspere and his Forerunners (London,
2 vols., 1902) was edited by H. W. Lanier. Among his more
noteworthy poems are " Corn, " " The Revenge of Hamish,"
" Song of the Chattahoochee " and " The Marshes of Glynn."
By some his genius is regarded as musical rather than poetic, and
his style is considered hectic; by others he is held to be one of
the most original and most talented of modern American poets.
He is considered the leading writer of the New South, the greatest
Southern poet since Poe, and a man of heroic and exquisite
character.
See a " Memorial," by William Hayes Ward, prefixed to the
Poems (1884); Letters of Sidney Lanier 1866-1881 (1899), edited by
H. W. Lanier and Mrs Sidney Lanier; E. Mims, Sidney Lanier (1905).
There is a bibliography of Lanier's scattered writings in Select Poems
(New York, 1896; Toronto, 1900) edited by Morgan Callaway.
(W. P. T.)
LANJUINAIS, JEAN DENIS, COMTE (1753-1827), French
politician, was born at Rennes (Ille-et-Vilaine) on the i2th of
March 1753. After a brilliant college career, which made him
doctor of laws and a qualified barrister at nineteen, he was
appointed counsel to the Breton estates and in 1775 professor of
ecclesiastical law at Rennes. At this period he wrote two
important works which, owing to the distracted state of public
affairs, remained unpublished, Inslitutiones juris ecclesiastici
and Praelectiones juris ecclesiastici. He had begun his career at
the bar by pleading against the feudal droit du colombier, and
when he was sent by his fellow-citizens to the states-general of
1 789 he demanded the abolition of nobility and the substitution of
the title of king of the French and the Navarrese for king of
France and Navarre, and helped to establish the civil constitution
of the clergy. Returned to the Convention in September 1792
he developed moderate, even reactionary views, becoming one
of the fiercest opponents of the Mountain, though he never
wavered in his support of republican principles. He refused to
vote for the death of Louis XVI., alleging that the nation had no
right to despatch a vanquished prisoner. His daily attacks on
the Mountain resulted, on the I5th of April 1793, in a demand
by the commune for his exclusion from the assembly, but, un-
daunted, when the Parisian populace invaded the Chamber on
the 2nd of June, Lanjuinais renewed his defiance of the victorious
party. Placed under arrest with the Girondins, he escaped to
Rennes where he drew up a pamphlet denouncing the constitution
of 1793 under the curious title Le Dernier Crime de Lanjuinais
(Rennes, 1793). Pursued by J. B. Carrier, who was sent to
stamp out resistance in the west, he lay hidden until some time
after the revolution of Thermidor (July 1794), but he was re-
admitted to the Convention on the 8th of March 1795. He
maintained his liberal and independent attitude in the Conseil
des Anciens, the Senate and the Chamber of Peers, being president
of the upper house during the Hundred Days. Together with
G. J. B. Target, J. E. M. Portalis and others he founded under the
empire an academy of legislation in Paris, himself lecturing on
Roman law. Closely associated with oriental scholars, and a
keen student of oriental religions, he entered the Academy of
Inscriptions in 1808. After the Bourbon restoration Lanjuinais
consistently defended the principles of constitutional monarchy,
but most of his time was given to religious and political subjects.
Besides many contributions to periodical literature he wrote,
among other works, Constitutions de la nation franc.aise(i&i<));
Appreciation du projet de loi relalif aux trois concordats (1806,
6th ed. 1827), in defence of Gallicanism; and Etudes bio-
graphiques et litltraires sur Antoine Arnauld, P. Nicole et Jacques
Necker (1823). He died in Paris on the i3th of January 1827.
His son, VICTOR AMBROISE, VICOMTE DE LANJUINAIS (1802-
1869), was also a politician, becoming a deputy in 1838. His
interests lay chiefly in financial questions and in 1849 he became
minister of commerce and agriculture in the cabinet of Odilon
Barrot. He wrote a Notice historique sur la vie et les ouvrages du
comte de Lanjuinais, which was prefixed to an edition of his
father's (Euvres (4 vols., 1832).
For the life of the comte de Lanjuinais see also A. Robert and G.
Cougny, Dictionnaire des parlementaires, vol. ii. (1890); and F. A.
Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention (Paris, 1885—
1886). For a bibliography of his works see J. M. QueVard, La France
litteraire, vol. iii. (1829).
LANMAN, CHARLES ROCKWELL (1850- ), American
Sanskrit scholar, was born in Norwich, Connecticut, on the 8th of
July 1850. He graduated at Yale in 1871, was a graduate student
there (1871-1873) under James Hadley and W. D. Whitney, and
in Germany (1873-1876) studied Sanskrit under Weber and Roth
and philology under Georg Curtius and Leskien. He was pro-
fessor of Sanskrit at Johns Hopkins University in 1876-1880
and subsequently at Harvard University. In 1889 he travelled
in India and bought for Harvard University Sanskrit and
Prakrit books and manuscripts, which, with those subsequently
bequeathed to the university by Fitzedward Hall, make the
most valuable collection of its kind in America, and made
possible the Harvard Oriental Series, edited by Professor Lanman.
In 1879-1884 he was secretary and editor of the Transactions,
and in 1889-1890 president of the American Philological Associa-
tion, and in 1884-1894 he was corresponding secretary of the
American Oriental Society, in 1897-1907 vice-president, and in
1907-1908 president. In the Harvard Oriental Series he trans-
lated (vol. iv.) into English Rajafekhara's Karpura-Manjarl
(1900), a Prakrit drama, and (Vols. vii. and viii.) revised and edited
Whitney's translation of, and notes on, the Atharva-V eda Samhita
(2 vols., 1905); he published A Sanskrit Reader, with Vocabulary
and Notes (2 vols., 1884-1888); and he wrote on early Hindu
pantheism and contributed the section on Brahmanism to
Messages of the World's Religions.
LANNES, JEAN, duke of Montebello (1769-1809), marshal
of France, was born at Lectoure (Gers) on the nth of April
1769. He was the son of a livery stables keeper, and was
apprenticed to a dyer. He had had little education, but his great
strength and proficiency in all manly sports caused him in 1792
to be elected sergeant-major of the battalion of volunteers of
Gers, which he had joined on the breaking out of war between
Spain and the French republic. He served through the cam-
paigns in the Pyrenees in 1793 and 1794, and rose by distinguished
LANNION— LA NOUE
183
conduct to the rank of chef de brigade. However, in 1795, on
the reform of the army introduced by the Thermidorians, he
was dismissed from his rank. He re-enlisted as a simple volunteer
in the army of Italy, and in the famous campaign of 1796 he again
fought his way up to high rank, being eventually made a general
of brigade by Bonaparte. He was distinguished in every
battle, and was wounded at Arcola. He was chosen by Bona-
parte to accompany him to Egypt as commander of one of
Kleber's brigades, in which capacity he greatly distinguished
himself, especially on the retreat from Syria. He went with
Bonaparte to France, assisted at the i8th Brumaire, and was
appointed general of division, and commandant of the consular
guard. He commanded the advanced guard in the crossing of
the Alps in 1800, was instrumental in winning the battle of
Montebello, from which he afterwards took his title, and bore
the brunt of the battle of Marengo. In 1801 Napoleon sent him
as ambassador to Portugal. Opinions differ as to his merits in
this capacity; Napoleon never made such use of him again.
On the establishment of the empire he was created a marshal
of France, and commanded once more the advanced guard of a
great French army in the campaign of Austerlitz. At Austerlitz
he had the left of the Grand Army. In the 1806-07 campaign
he was at his best, commanding his corps with the greatest credit
in the march through the Thuringian Forest, the action of Saalfeld
(which is studied as a model to-day at the French Staff College)
and the battle of Jena. His leadership of the advanced guard
at Friedland was even more conspicuous. He was now to be
tried as a commander-in-chief, for Napoleon took him to Spain
in 1808, and gave him a detached wing of the army, with which
he won a victory over Castanos at Tudela on November 22.
In January 1809 he was sent to attempt the capture of Saragossa,
and by February 21, after one of the most stubborn defences
in history, was in possession of the place. Napoleon then created
him due de Montebello, and in 1809, for the last time, gave him
command of the advanced guard. He took part in the engage-
ments around Eckmuhl and the advance on Vienna. With his
corps he led the French army across the Danube, and bore the
brunt, with Massena, of the terrible battle of Aspern-Essling
(q.v.). On the 22nd of May he had to retreat. During the retreat
Lannes exposed himself as usual to the hottest fire, and received
a mortal wound, to which he succumbed at Vienna on the 3ist
of May. As he was being carried from the field to Vienna he
met the emperor hurrying to the front. It was reported that
the dying man reproached Napoleon for his ambition, but this
rests on little evidence save the fact that Lannes was the most
blunt and outspoken of all Napoleon's marshals. He was one
of the few men for whom the emperor felt a real and deep
affection, and at this their last meeting Napoleon gave way to
a passionate burst of grief, even in the midst of the battle. His
eldest son was made a peer of France by Louis XVIII.
Lannes ranks with Davout and Massena as the ablest of all
Napoleon's marshals, and consciously or unconsciously was the best
exponent of the emperor's method of making war. Hence his
constant employment in tasks requiring the utmost resolution and
daring, and more especially when the emperor's combinations de-
pended upon the vigour and self-sacrifice of a detachment or fraction
of the army. It was thus with Lannes at Friedland and at Aspern
as it was with Davout at Austerlitz and Auerstadt, and Napoleon's
estimate of his subordinates' capacities can almost exactly be judged
by the frequency with which he used them to prepare the way for his
own shattering blow. Routine generals with the usual military
virtue, or careful and exact troop leaders like Soult and Macdpnald,
Napoleon kept under his own hand for the final assault which he
himself launched, but the long hours of preparatory fighting against
odds of two to one, which alone made the final blow possible, he en-
trusted only to men of extraordinary courage and high capacity for
command. In his own words, he found Lannes a pigmy, and lost
him a giant. Lannes's place in'his affections was never filled.
See R. P6rin, Vie militaire de Jean Lannes (Paris, 1809).
LANNION, a town of north-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of C6tes-du-Nord, on the right
bank of the Leguer, 45 m. W.N.W. of St Brieuc by rail. Pop.
(1906) 5336. Lannion is 5 m. in direct line from the mouth of
the Leguer; its port does a small trade (exports of agricultural
produce, imports of wine, salt, timber, &c.), and there is an
active fishing industry. The town contains many houses of
the 1 5th and i6th centuries and other old buildings, the chief
of which is the church of St Jean-du-Baly (i6th and i7th cen-
turies). On an eminence close to Lannion is the church of
Brelevenez of the i2th century, restored in the isth or i6th
century; it has an interesting 16th-century Holy Sepulchre.
Some 6 m. S.E. of the town are the imposing ruins of the
chateau of Tonquedec (c. 1400) styled the " Pierrefonds of
Brittany," and there are other buildings of antiquarian interest
in the vicinity. The coast north of Lannion at Tregastel and
Ploumanac presents curious rock formations.
Lannion is the seat of a subprefect and has a tribunal of
first instance and a communal college. Its industries include
saw-milling, tanning and the manufacture of farm implements.
The town was taken in 1346 by the English; it was defended
against them by Geoffroy de Pontblanc whose valour is com-
memorated by a cross close to the spot where he was slain.
LANNOY, GUILLEBERT DE (1386-1462), Flemish diplomatist,
was chamberlain to the duke of Burgundy, governor of the fort
of Sluys, and a knight of the Golden Fleece. He discharged
several diplomatic missions in France, England, Prussia, Poland
and Lithuania, and was one of the negotiators of the treaty of
Troyes (1420). In 1421 he was sent by Henry V. of England
to Palestine to inquire into the possibility of reviving the kingdom
of Jerusalem, and wrote an account of his travels, Les Pelerinages
de Surye et de Egipte, which was published in 1826 and again in
1842.
LANOLIN (Lat. lana, wool, and oleum, oil), the commercial
name of the preparation styled adeps lanae hydrosus in the British
Pharmacopoeia, and which consists of 7 oz. of neutral wool-fat
(adeps lanae) mixed with 3 fluid oz. of water. The wool-fat
is obtained by purification of the " brown grease," " recovered
grease " or degras extracted from raw sheep's wool in the process
of preparing it for the spinner. It is a translucent unctuous
substance which has the property of taking up large quantities
of water and forming emulsions which are very slow to separate
into their constituents. Owing to the ease with which it pene-
trates the skin, wool-fat both in the anhydrous form and as
lanolin, sometimes mixed with such substances as vaseline or
fatty oils, is largely employed as a basis for ointments. It is
slightly antiseptic and does not become rancid.
LA NOUE, FRANCOIS DE (1531-1591), called Bras-de-Fer,
one of the Huguenot captains of the i6th century, was born
near Nantes in 1531, of an ancient Breton family. He served
in Italy under Marshal Brissac, and in the first Huguenot war,
but his first great exploit was the capture of Orleans at the head
of only fifteen cavaliers in 1567, during the second war. At the
battle of Jarnac in March 1569 he commanded the rearguard,
and at Moncontour in the following October he was taken
prisoner; but he was exchanged in time to resume the governor-
ship of Poitou, and to inflict a signal defeat on the royalist
troops before Rochefort. At the siege of Fontenay (1570) his
left arm was shattered by a bullet; but a mechanic of Rochelle
made him an iron arm (hence his sobriquet) with a hook for
holding his reins. When peace was made in France in the same
year, La Noue carried his sword against the Spaniards in the
Netherlands, but was taken at the recapture of Mons by the
Spanish in 1572. Permitted to return to France, he was com-
missioned by Charles IX., after the massacre of St Bartholomew,
to reconcile the inhabitants of La Rochelle, the great stronghold
of the Huguenots, to the king. But the Rochellois were too
much alarmed to come to terms; and La Noue, perceiving
that war was imminent, and knowing that his post was on the
Huguenot side, gave up his royal commission, and from 1574
till 1578 acted as general of La Rochelle. When peace was again
concluded La Noue once more went to aid the Protestants of
the Low Countries. He took several towns and captured Count
Egmont in 1580; but a few weeks afterwards he fell into the
hands of the Spaniards. Thrust into a loathsome prison at Lim-
burg, La Noue, the admiration of all, of whatever faith, for his
gallantry, honour and purity of character, was kept confined
for five years by a powerful nation, whose reluctance to set him
184
LANSDOWNE, MARQUESSES OF
free is one of the sincerest tributes to his reputation. It was in
captivity that he wrote his celebrated Discours politigues et
militaires, a work which was published at Basel in 1587 [re-
published at La Rochelle 1590, Frankfurt on Main (in German)
1592 and 1612, and London (in English) 159 7] and had an immense
influence on the soldiers of all nations. The abiding value of
La Noue's " Discourses " lies in the fact that he wrote of war
as a human drama, before it had been elaborated and codified.
At length, in June 1585, La Noue was exchanged for Egmont
and other prisoners of consideration, while a heavy ransom and
a pledge not to bear arms against his Catholic majesty were
also exacted from him. Till 1 589 La Noue took no part in public
matters, but in that year he joined Henry of Navarre against
the Leaguers. He was present at both sieges of Paris, at Ivry
and other battles. At the siege of Lamballe in Brittany he
received a wound of which he died at Moncontour on the 4th
of August 1591.
He wrote, besides the Discourses, Declaration pour prise d'armes et
la defense de Sedan et Jamets (1588); Observations sur I'histoire de
Guicciardini (2 vols., 1592); and notes on Plutarch's Lives. His
Correspondence was published in 1854. See La Vie de Francois,
seigneur de La Noue, by Moyse Amirault (Leiden, 1661); Bran-
t&me's Vies des Capitaines franfais; C. Vincen's Les Heros de la
Reforme: Fr. de La Noue (1875); and Hauser, Francois de La Noue
(Paris, 1892).
LANSDOWNE, WILLIAM PETTY FITZMAURICE, IST
MARQUESS OF (1737-1805), British statesman, better known under
his earlier title of earl of Shelburne, was born at Dublin on the
2oth of May 1737. He was a descendant of the lords of Kerry
(dating from 1181), and his grandfather Thomas Fitzmaurice,
who was created earl of Kerry (1723), married the daughter of
Sir William Petty (q.v.). On the death without issue of Sir
William Petty's sons, the first earls of Shelburne, the estates
passed to his nephew John Fitzmaurice (advanced in 1753 to the
earldom of Shelburne), who in 1751 took the additional name of
Petty. His son William spent his childhood " in the remotest
parts of the south of Ireland," and, according to his own account,
when he entered Christ Church, Oxford, in 1755, he had both
" everything to learn and everything to unlearn." From a
tutor whom he describes as " narrow-minded " he received
advantageous guidance in his studies, but he attributes his
improvement in manners and in knowledge of the world chiefly
to the fact that, as was his " fate through life," he fell in " with
clever but unpopular connexions." Shortly after leaving the
university he served in Wolfe's regiment during the Seven Years'
War, and so distinguished himself at Minden and Kloster-Kampen
that he was raised to the rank of colonel and appointed aide-de-
camp to the king (1760). Being thus brought into near com-
munication with Lord Bute, he was in 1761 employed by that
nobleman to negotiate for the support of Henry Fox, Lord
Holland. He was returned to the House of Commons as member
for Wycombe, but in 1761 he succeeded his father as earl of
Shelburne in the Irish peerage, and Baron Wycombe in the
peerage of Great Britain (created 1760). Though he declined
to take office under Bute he undertook negotiations to induce
C. J. Fox to gain the consent of the Commons to the peace of
1763. Fox affirmed that he had been duped, and, although
Shelburne always asserted that he had acted in thorough good
faith, Bute spoke of the affair as a " pious fraud." Shelburne
joined the Grenville ministry in 1763 as president of the Board
of Trade, but, failing in his efforts to replace Pitt in the cabinet,
he in a few months resigned office. Having moreover on account
of his support of Pitt on the question of Wilkes's expulsion from
the House of Commons incurred the displeasure of the king, he
retired for a time to his estate. After Pitt's return to power
in 1766 he became secretary of state, but during Pitt's illness
his conciliatory policy towards America was completely thwarted
by his colleagues and the king, and in 1768 he was dismissed
from office. In 1782 he consented to take office under the
marquess of Rockingham on condition that the king would
recognize the United States. On the death of Lord Rockingham
in the same year he became premier; but the secession of
Fox and his supporters led to the famous coalition of Fox with
North, which caused his resignation in the following February,
his tail being perhaps hastened by his plans for the reform of
the public service. He had also in contemplation a bill to pro-
mote free commercial intercourse between England and the
United States. When Pitt acceded to office in 1784, Shelburne,
instead of receiving a place in the cabinet, was created marquess
of Lansdowne. Though giving a general support to the policy
of Pitt, he from this time ceased to take an active part in public
affairs. He died on the 7th of May 1805. Duriag his lifetime
he was blamed for insincerity and duplicity, and he incurred
the deepest unpopularity, but the accusations came chiefly from
those who were dissatisfied with his preference of principles to
party, and if he had had a more unscrupulous regard to his
personal ambition, his career as a statesman would have had
more outward success. He was cynical in his estimates of
character, but no statesman of his time possessed more en-
lightened political views, while his friendship with those of his
contemporaries eminent in science and literature must be
allowed considerable weight in qualifying our estimate of the
moral defects with which he has been credited. He was twice
married, first to Lady Sophia (1745-1771), daughter of John
Carteret, Earl Granville, through whom he obtained the Lans-
downe estates near Bath, and secondly to Lady Louisa (1755-
1789), daughter of John Fitzpatrick, ist earl of Upper Ossory
John Henry Petty Fitzmaurice (1765-1809), his son by the
first marriage, succeeded as 2nd marquess, after having sat in
the House of Commons for twenty years as member for Chipping
Wycombe.
HENRY PETTY FITZMAURICE, 3rd marquess of Lansdowne
(1780-1863), son of the ist marquess by his second marriage,
was born on the 2nd of July 1780 and educated at Edinburgh
University and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He entered the
House of Commons in 1802 as member for the family borough
of Calne and quickly showed his mettle as a politician. In
February 1806, as Lord Henry Petty, he became chancellor of
the exchequer in the ministry of " All the Talents," being at
this time member for the university of Cambridge, but he lost
both his seat and his office in 1807. In 1809 he became marquess
of Lansdowne; and in the House of Lords and in society he
continued to play an active part as one of the Whig leaders. His
chief interest was perhaps in the question of Roman Catholic
emancipation, a cause which he consistently championed, but
he sympathized also with the advocates of the abolition of the
slave-trade and with the cause of popular education. Lansdowne,
who had succeeded his cousin, Francis Thomas Fitzmaurice,
as 4th earl of Kerry in 1818, took office with Canning in May
1827 and was secretary for home affairs from July of that year
until January 1828; he was lord president of the council under
Earl Grey and then under Lord Melbourne from November 1830
to August 1841, with the exception of the few months in 1835
when Sir Robert Peel was prime minister. He held the same
office during the whole of Lord John Russell's ministry (1846-
1852), and, having declined to become prime minister, sat in the
cabinets of Lord Aberdeen and of Lftrd Palmerston, but without
office. In 1857 he refused the offer of a dukedom, and he died
on the 3 ist of January 1863. Lansdowne's social influence and
political moderation made him one of the most powerful Whig
statesmen of the time; he was frequently consulted by Queen
Victoria on matters of moment, and his long official experience
made his counsel invaluable to his party. He married Louisa
(1785-1851), daughter of the 2nd earl of Ilchester, and was
succeeded by his son Henry, the 4th marquess (1816-1866).
The latter, who was member of parliament for Calne for twenty
years and chairman of the Great Western railway, married for
his second wife Emily (1819-1895), daughter of the comte de
Flahaut de la Billarderie, a lady who became Baroness Nairne
in her own right in 1867. By her he had two sons, the 5th
marquess and Lord Edmond Fitzmaurice (Baron Fitzmaurice
of Leigh).
HENRY CHARLES KEITH PETTY FITZMAURICE, sth marquess of
Lansdowne (b. 1845), was educated at Balliol, Oxford, where
he became one of Jowett's favourite pupils. In 1869 he married
LANSDOWNE— LANTERN
185
the daughter of the ist duke of Abercorn. As a member of the
Liberal party he was a lord of the treasury (1869-1872), under-
secretary of war (1872-1874), and under-secretary of India
(1880); in 1883 he was appointed governor-general of Canada,
and from 1888 to 1893 he was viceroy of India. He joined the
Liberal Unionist party when Mr Gladstone proposed home rule
for Ireland, and on returning to England became one of its most
influential leaders. He was secretary of "state for war from
1895 to 1900, and foreign secretary from 1900101906, becoming
leader of the Unionist party in the House of Lords on Lord
Salisbury's death.
His brother EDMOND GEORGE FITZMAURICE, Baron Fitz-
maurice (b. 1846), was educated at Trinity, Cambridge, where
he took a first class in classics. Unlike Lord Lansdowne, he
remained a Liberal in politics and, followed Mr Gladstone in his
home rule policy. As Lord Edmond Fitzmaurice he entered
the House of Commons in 1868, and was under-secretary for
foreign affairs from 1882 to 1885. He then had no seat in parlia-
ment till 1898, when he was elected for the Cricklade division of
Wilts, and retiring in 1905, he was created Baron Fitzmaurice
of Leigh in 1906, and made under-secretary for foreign affairs
in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's ministry. In 1908 he
became chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster and a member of
the Liberal cabinet, but resigned his post in 1909. He devoted
much time to literary work, and was the author of excellent
biographies of the ist marquess, of Sir William Petty (1895),
and of Lord Granville (1905), under whom he had served at the
foreign office.
For the ist marquess, see Lord Fitzmaurice, Life of William, Earl
of Shelburne (3 vols., London, 1875-1876).
LANSDOWNE, a hill cantonment in India, in Garhwal dis-
trict of the United Provinces, about 6000 ft. above the sea,
19 m. by cart road from the station of Kotdwara on the Oudh
and Rohilkhand railway. Pop. (1901) 3943. The cantonment,
founded in 1887, extends for more than 3 m. through pine and
oak forests, and can accommodate three Gurkha battalions.
LANSING, the capital of Michigan, U.S.A., in Ingham county,
at the confluence of the Grand and Cedar rivers, about 85 m.
W.N.W. of Detroit and about 64 m. E.S.E. of Grand Rapids.
Pop. (1900) 16,485, of whom 2397 were foreign-born; (1910
census) 31,229. It is served by the Michigan Central, the
Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Grand Trunk and the
Pere Marquette railways, and by interurban electric lines. The
Grand river on its way through the city makes a horse-shoe bend
round a moderately elevated plateau; this is the commercial
centre of the city, and here, in a square covering 10 acres, is the
State Capitol, erected in 1873-1878 and containing the State
library. On the opposite side of the river, farther N., and also
extending across the southern portion of the city, are districts
devoted largely to manufacturing. Lansing has a public library
and a city hospital. About 3 m. E. of the city, at East Lansing,
is the State Agricultural College (coeducational), the oldest
agricultural college in the United States, which was provided
for by the state constitution of 1850, was organized in 1855
and opened in 1857. Its engineering course was begun in 1885;
a course in home economics for women was established in 1896;
and a forestry course was opened in 1902. In connexion with
the college there is an agricultural experiment station. Lamsing
is the seat of the Michigan School for the Blind, and of the State
Industrial School for Boys, formerly the Reform School. The
city has abundant water-power and is an important manu-
facturing centre. The value of the factory products increased
from $2,942,306 in 1900 to $6,887,415 in 1904, or 134-1%. The
municipality owns and operates the water-works and the electric-
lighting plant. The place was selected as the site for the
capital in 1847, when it was still covered with forests, and
growth was slow until 1862, when the railways began to reach
it. Lansing was chartered as a city in 1859 and rechartered in
1893.
LANSING MAN, the term applied by American ethnologists to
certain human remains discovered in 1902 during the digging of
a cellar near Lansing, Kansas, and by some authorities believed
to represent a prehistoric type of man. They include a skull
and several large adult bones and a child's jaw. They were
found beneath 20 ft. of undisturbed silt, in a position indicat-
ing intentional burial. The skull is preserved in the U. S.
National Museum at Washington. It is similar in shape to
those of historic Indians of the region. Its ethnological value
as indicating the existence of man on the Missouri in the
glacial period is very doubtful, it being impossible accurately
to determine the age of the deposits.
See Handbook of American Indians (Washington, 1907).
LANSQUENET, the French corrupted form of the German
Landsknecht (q.v.), a mercenary foot-soldier of the i6th century.
It is also the name of a card game said to have been introduced
into France by the Landsknechte. The pack of 52 cards is cut
by the player at the dealer's right. The dealer lays the two first
cards face upwards on the table to his left; the third he places
in front of him and the fourth, or rejouissance card, in the middle
of the table. The players, usually called (except in the case of
the dealer) punters, stake any sum within the agreed limit upon
this rejouissance card; the dealer, who is also the banker,
covers the bets and then turns up the next card. If this fails to
match any of the cards already exposed, it is laid beside the
rejouissance card and then punters may stake upon it. Other
cards not matching are treated in the same manner. When a
card is turned which matches the rejouissance card, the banker
wins everything staked on it, and in like manner he wins what
is staked on any card (save his own) that is matched by the
card turned The banker pays all stakes, and the deal is over
as soon as a card appears that matches his own; excepting
that should the two cards originally placed at his left both be
matched before his own, he is then entitled to a second deal.
In France matching means winning, not losing, as in Great
Britain. There are other variations of play on the continent of
Europe.
LANTARA, SIMON MATHURIN (1720-1778), French land-
scape painter, was born at Oncy on the 24th of March 1729.
His father was a weaver, and he himself began life as a herdboy;
but, having attracted the notice of Gille de Reumont, a son of his
master, he was placed under a painter at Versailles. Endowed
with great facility and real talent, his powers found ready
recognition; but he found the constraint of a regular life and
the society of educated people unbearably tiresome; and as long
as the proceeds of the last sale lasted he lived careless of the
future in the company of obscure workmen. Rich amateurs
more than once attracted him to their houses, only to find that
in ease and high living Lantara could produce nothing. He died
in Paris on the 22nd of December 1778. His works, now
much prized, are not numerous; the Louvre has one land-
scape, " Morning," signed and dated 1761. Bernard, Joseph
Vernet, and others are said to have added figures to his land-
scapes and sea-pieces. Engravings after Lantara will be
found in the works of Lebas, Piquenot, Duret, Mouchy and
others. In 1809 a comedy called Lantara, or the Painter
in the Pothouse, was brought out at the Vaudeville with great
success.
See E. Bellier de la Chavignerie, Recherches sur le peintre Lantara
(Paris, 1852).
LANTERN (an adaptation of the Fr. lanterne from Lat.
lanterna or laterna, supposed to be from Gr. Aa/wnfc, a torch or
lamp, \bfiTreiv, to shine, cf. " lamp "; the i6th- and 17th-century
form " lanthorn " is due to a mistaken derivation from " horn,"
as a material frequently used in the making of lanterns), a metal
case filled in with some transparent material, and used for holding
a light and protecting it from rain or wind. The appliance is of
two kinds — the hanging lantern and the hand lantern — both of
which are ancient. At Pompeii and Herculaneum have been
discovered two cylindrical bronze lanterns, with ornamented
pillars, to which chains are attached for carrying or hanging the
lantern. Plates of horn surrounded the bronze lamp within, and
the cover at the top can be removed for lighting and for the escape
of smoke. The hanging lantern for lighting rooms was composed
of ornamental metal work, of which iron and brass were perhaps
i86
LANTERN
most frequently used. Silver, and even gold, were, however,
sometimes employed, and the artificers in metal of the i7th and
1 8th centuries produced much exceedingly artistic work of this
kind. Oriental lanterns in open-work bronze were often very
beautiful. The early lantern had sides of horn, talc, bladder or
oiled paper, and the primitive shape remains in the common
square stable lantern with straight glass sides, to carry a candle.
The hand lantern was usually a much more modest appliance
than the hanging lantern, although in great houses it was some-
times richly worked and decorated. As glass grew cheaper it
gradually ousted all other materials, but the horn lantern which
was already ancient hi the i3th century was still being used in
the early part of the ipth. By the end of the i8th century
lanterns in rooms had been superseded by the candlestick.
The collapsible paper lanterns of China and Japan, usually known
as Chinese lanterns, are globular or cylindrical in shape, and the
paper is pleated and when not in use folds flat. For illuminative
and decorative purposes they are coloured with patterns of
flowers, &c. The lanterns carried by the ordinary foot passenger
are made of oiled paper. In China the " Feast of Lanterns"
takes place early in the New Year and lasts for four days. In
Japan the festival of Bon is sometimes known as the " feast of
lanterns." It is then that the spirits of the dead ancestors return
to the household altar. The festival takes place in July. The
" bull's-eye " lantern has a convex lens which concentrates the
light and allows it to be thrown in the shape of a diverging cone.
The " dark lantern " has a shutter or slide arrangement by which
the light can be shut off at will. Ships' lanterns are used as
masthead or other signal lights. On Trajan's column is a repre-
sentation of a heavy poop-lantern on a ship. The ships' lanterns
of the i6th and I7th centuries were highly ornamental, especially
when placed on the poop. At the Armeria Real in Madrid is a
collection of these loth-century ships' lanterns. The protected
cages which contain the lights used in lighthouses are also known
as " lanterns " (see LIGHTHOUSES).
In architecture a lantern is primarily a framework of timber,
with windows all round, to admit ample light, placed on the top
of a roof. In a broader sense, it is applied to those portions of
buildings which are largely perforated with windows, and more
especially to the upper part of the towers of cathedrals and
churches, as in the octagon of Ely cathedral, or the tower of
Boston church, Lincolnshire. The term is also applied to the
entire church, as in the case of Bath Abbey church, which was
called the " lantern of England," from the number of its windows,
and St John's Priory at Kilkenny, the " lantern of Ireland," on
account of the window on the south side of the choir which was
54 ft. long. In the Renaissance style the lantern was looked upon
as a decorative feature surmounting the dome, as in St Peter's,
Rome, the Invalides, Paris, and St Paul's, London.
Magic or Optical Lantern.
The magic or optical lantern is an instrument for projecting
on a white wall or screen largely magnified representations of
transparent pictures painted or photographed on glass, or of
objects — crystals, animals, &c. — carried on glass slides or in
glass vessels. If the light traverses the object, the projection
is said to be diascopic, if by reflected light, episcopic.
The invention of the magic lantern is usually attributed to
Athanasius Kircher, who described it in the first edition (1646)
of his Ars magna lucis et umbrae, but it is very probably of earlier
discovery. For a long period the magic lantern was used chiefly
to exhibit comic pictures, or in the hands of so-called wizards
to summon up ghosts and perform other tricks, astonishing to
those ignorant of the simple optical principles employed. Within
recent years, however, the optical lantern has' been greatly
improved in construction, and its use widely extended. By
its means finely executed photographs on glass can be shown
greatly magnified to large audiences, thus saving the trouble
and expense of preparing large diagrams. When suitably
constructed, it can be used in the form of a microscope to exhibit
on a screen the forms and movements of minute living organisms,
or to show to an audience delicate physical and chemical experi-
ments which could otherwise be seen only by a few at a time
Another application of the optical lantern is found in the
cinematograph (q.v.~).
The optical lantern, in its simpler forms, consists of the following
parts: (i) the lantern body, (2) a source of light, (3) an optical
system for projecting the images. The lantern body is a rectangular
casing usually made of Russian iron, but sometimes covered with
wood (which must be protected by asbestos at parts liable to damage
by heat), provided with the openings necessary to the insertion of the
source of light, windows for viewing the same, a chimney for con-
veying away the products of combustion, fittings to carry the slides
and the optical system. In the earlier and simpler lanterns, oil lamps
were commonly used, and in the toy forms either an oil flame or an
ordinary gas jet is still employed. Natural petroleum burnt in a
specially constructed lamp by means of two or three parallel wicks
set edgeways to the lenses was employed in the sciopticon, an im-
proved lantern invented in America which gave well-defined pictures
6 to loft, in diameter. The Argand gas burner also found application.
A great improvement attended the introduction of lime-light, i.e.
the light emitted by a block of lirne made incandescent by an im-
pinging pxyhydrogen or oxygen-coal-gas flame, and the readiness
with which hydrogen and oxygen can be prepared and rendered
available by compression in steel cylinders and the increased com-
mercial supply of coal-gas greatly popularized these illuminants.
Many improvements have been made on the original apparatus.
The lime-cylinders are specially prepared to withstand better the
disintegrating effects of the flame, and are mounted on a rotating pin
in order that fresh surfaces may be brought into play. Cones of
zircpnia are also used in the same way; or a thorium mantle in
conjunction with alcohol vapour may be employed. Two types of
burner are in use: (l) the " blow-through jet, ' in which the oxygen
is forced through the jet of the burning gas (this is the safest type),
and (2) where the gases are mixed before combustion (this is the more
dangerous but also the more powerful type). Ether burners are also
in use. In one type the oxygen supply is divided into two streams,
one of which passes through a chamber containing cotton wool
soaked with ether, and then rejoins the undiverted stream at the jet.
The application of the incandescent gas mantle is limited by the
intensity of the heat emitted and the large area of the source. Of
electrical illuminants the platinum and carbon filament lamps are
not much used, the Nernst lamp (in which the preliminary heating is
effected by a spirit lamp and not by an auxiliary coil) being preferred.
But the arc light is undoubtedly the best illuminant for use in the
projecting lantern. The actual size of the source is comparatively
small, and hence it is necessary to mount the carbons so that the
arc remains at one point on the axis of the optical system. It is also
advisable to set back the carbons relatively to one another and to tilt
them, so that the brightest part of the " crater " faces the lens.
Optical System. — In the ordinary (or vertically) projecting lantern
the rays are transmitted through a lens termed the " condenser,"
then through the object, and finally through another lens termed the
" objective." In the horizontally projecting types the light, after
passing through the condenser, is reflected vertically by a plane
mirror inclined at 45° to the direction of the light; it then traverses
another lens, then the object, then the objective, and is finally
projected horizontally by a plane mirror inclined at 45°, or by a
right angled glass prism, the nypothenuse face of which is silvered.
In episcopic projection, the light, having traversed the condenser,
is reflected on to the object, placed horizontally, by an inclined
mirror. The rays reflecting the object then traverse the objective,
and are'then projected horizontally by a mirror or prism. This device
inverts the object ; a convenient remedy is to place an erecting prism
before the lens. The object of the condenser is to collect as much
light as possible from the source, and pass it through the object in a
uniform beam. For this purpose the condenser should subtend as
large an angle as possible at the source of light. To secure this, it
should be tolerably large, and its distance from the light, that is, its
focal length, small. Since effective single lenses of large diameter are
necessarily of long focus, a really good condenser of considerable
diameter and yet of short focus must be a combination of two or
more lenses. It is essential that the condenser be white and limpid
and free from defects or striae.
In the earlier lanterns, as still in the cheaper forms, only a single
plano-convex lens or bull's-eye was employed as a condenser. A
good compound condenser for ordinary work is that proposed by
Herschel, consisting of a biconvex lens and a meniscus mounted
together with the concave side of the meniscus next the light.
Other types employ two plano-convex lenses, the curved surfaces
nearly in contact; or a concavo-convex and a plano-convex lens.
Or it may be a triple combination, the object always being to increase
the aperture. The focus must not be so short as to bring the lens too
near the light, and render it liable to crack from the intense heat.
In some lanterns this is guarded against by placing a plate of thin
glass between the condenser and the light. If the source of light be
broad, an iris diaphragm may be introduced so as to eliminate
inequalities in illumination.
The function of the objective is to produce a magnified inverted
image of the picture on the screen. In toy lanterns it is a simple
double-convex lens of short focus. This, however, can only produce
LANTERN-FLY—LANTHANUM
187
a small picture, and that not very distinct at the edges. The best
objective is the portrait combination lens usually of the Petzval
type as used in ordinary photographic cameras. These are carefully
corrected both for spherical and chromatic aberration, which is
absolutely essential in the objective, although not so necessary in the
condenser.
Objects. — The commonest objects used for exhibiting with the
optical lantern are named" slides " and consist of pictures printed on
transparent surfaces. Solid objects mounted on glass after the
ordinary manner of mounting microscopic objects are also possible
of exhibition, and hollow glass tanks containing organisms or
substances undergoing some alteration are also available for use with
the lantern. If it be necessary to eliminate the heat rays, which may
act deleteriously on the object, a vessel is introduced containing
either water or a 5% solution of ferric chloride. In the ordinary
slide the pictures are painted with transparent water or oil colours,
or photographed on pieces of glass. If parts of the picture are to be
movable, two disks of glass are employed, the one movable in front
of the other, the fixed part of the picture being painted on the fixed
disk and the movable part on the other. By means of a lever the
latter disk is moved in its own plane; and in this way a cow, for
instance, can be represented drinking, or a donkey cutting amusing
capers. In the chromatrope slide two circular disks of glass are
placed face to face, each containing a design radiating from the
centre, and painted with brilliant transparent colours. By a small
pinion gearing in toothed wheels or endless bands the disks are made
to move in opposite directions in their own plane. The effect pro-
duced is a singularly beautiful change of design and colour. In
astronomical slides trie motions of the heavenly bodies, eclipses, the
phases of the moon or the like are similarly represented by mechanical
means.
Dissolving Views. — For this purpose two magic lanterns are
necessary, arranged either side by side or the one on the top of the
other. The fronts of the lanterns are slightly inclined to each other
so as to make the illuminated disks on the screen due to each lantern
coincide. By means of a pair of thin metallic shutters terminating
in comb-like teeth, and movable by a rack or lever, the light from
either lantern can be gradually cut off at the same time that the light
from the other is allowed gradually to fall on the screen. In this way
one view appears to melt or dissolve into another. This arrange-
ment was first adopted by Childe in 1811.
Phantasmagoria. — In this arrangement the pictures on the screen
appear gradually to increase or diminish in size and brightness. To
effect this a semi-transparent screen of cotton or other material is
used, the lantern being behind and the audience in front. The
lantern is mounted on wheels so that it can be rapidly moved up
to or withdrawn from the screen; and an automatic arrangement
is provided whereby simultaneously with this the objective is made
to approach or recede from the slide so as to focus the picture on
the screen in any position of the lantern. In this way a very small
picture appears gradually to grow to enormous dimensions.
See L. Wright, Optical Projection (1891); E. Trutat, Traite des
Projections (Paris, 1897 and 1901); P. E. Liesegang, Die Projektions-
Kunst (Leipzig, 1909).
LANTERN-FLY, the name given to insects belonging to the
homopterous division of the Hemiptera, and referable to the
genus Fulgora and allied forms. They are mostly of large size,
with a superficial resemblance to lepidoptera due to their brilliant
and varied coloration. Characteristic of the group is the presence
on the front of the head of a hollow process, simulating a snout,
which is sometimes inflated and as large as the rest of the insect,
sometimes elongated, narrow and apically upturned. It was
believed, mainly on the authority of Marie Sibylle de Merian,
that this process, the so-called " lantern," was luminous at
night. Linnaeus adopted the statement without question and
made use of a number of specific names, such as lanternaria,
phosphorca, candclaria, &c., to illustrate the supposed fact, and
thus aided in disseminating a belief which subsequent observa-
tions have failed to establish and which is now generally
rejected.
LANTERNS OF THE DEAD, the architectural name for the
small towers in stone, found chiefly in the centre and west of
France, pierced with small openings at the top, where a light
was exhibited at night to indicate the position of a cemetery.
These towers were usually circular, with a small entrance in the
lower part giving access to the interior, so as to raise the lamps
by a pulley to the required height. One of the most perfect
in France is that at Cellefrouin (Charente), which consists of a
series of eight attached semicircular shafts, raised on a pedestal,
and is crowned with a conical roof decorated with fir cones;
it has only one aperture, towards the main road. Other examples
exist at Ciron (Indre) and Antigny (Vienne).
Lantern of the Dead at Cellefrouin (Charente).
LANTHANUM [symbol La, atomic weight 139-0 (O=i6j] one
of the metals of the cerium group of rare earths. Its name is
derived from the Gr. \avdavav, to lie hidden. It was first isolated
in 1839 by C. G. Mosander from the " cerium " of J. Berzelius.
It is found in the minerals gadolinite, cerite, samarskite and
fergusonite, and is usually obtained from cerite. For details
of the complex process for the separation of the lanthanum
salts from cerite, see R. Bunsen (Pogg. Ann., 1875, 155, p. 377);
P. T. Cleve (Bull, de la soc. chim., 1874, 21, p. 196); and A.
v. Welsbach (Monats. f. Chem., 1884, 5, p. 508). The metal
was obtained by Mosander on heating its chloride with potassium,
and by W. F. Hillebrand and T. Norton (Pogg. Ann., 1875,
156, p. 466) on electrolysis of the fused chloride, while C.
Winkler (Ber., 1890, 23, p. 78) prepared it by heating the oxide
with a mixture of magnesium and magnesia. Muthmann and
Weiss (Ann., 1904, 331, p. i) obtained it by electrolysing the
anhydrous chloride. It may be readily hammered, but cannot
be drawn. Its specific gravity is 6-1545, and it melts at 810°.
It decomposes cold water slowly, but hot water violently. It
burns in air, and also in chlorine and bromine, and is readily
oxidized by nitric acid.
Lanthanum oxide, La2O3, is a white powder obtained by burning
the metal in oxygen, or by ignition of the carbonate, nitrate or
sulphate. It combines with water with evolution of heat, and on
heating with magnesium powder in an atmosphere of hydrogen forms
a hydride of probable composition La2H3 (C. Winkler, Ber. 1891, 24,
p. 890). Lanthanum hydroxide, La(OH)3, is a white amorphous
powder formed by precipitating lanthanum salts by potassium
hydroxide. It decomposes ammonium salts. Lanthanum chloride,
LaCl3, is obtained in the anhydrous condition by heating lanthanum
ammonium chloride or, according to C. Matignon (Compt. rend.,
1905, 40, p. 1181), by the action of chlorine or hydrochloric acid on
the residue obtained by evaporating the oxide with hydrochloric
acid. It forms a deliquescent crystalline mass. £y evaporation of a
solution of lanthanum oxide in hydrochloric acid to the consistency
of a syrup, and allowing the solution to stand, large colourless
crystals of a hydrated chloride of the composition 2LaCl3-15H2Q are
obtained. Lanthanum sulphide, La2S3, is a yellow powder, obtained
when the oxide is heated in the vapour of carbon bisulphide. It is
decomposed by water, with evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen.
Lanthanum sulphate, La2(SO4)3-9H2O, forms six-sided prisms,
isomorphous with those of the corresponding cerium salt. By careful
i88
L ANU VI U M— L AOCOON
heating it may be made to yield the anhydrous salt. Lanthanum
nitrate, LatNOaVGHjO, is obtained by dissolving the oxide in nitric
acid. It crystallizes in plates, and is soluble in water and alcohol.
Lanthanum carbide, LaC2, is prepared by heating the oxide with
carbon in the electric furnace (H. Moissan, Compt. rend., 1896, 123,
p. 148). It is decomposed by water with the formation of acetylene,
methane, ethylene, &c. Lanthanum carbonate, LazCOa-Sr^O, occurs
as the rare mineral lanthanite, forming greyish-white, pink or
yellowish rhombic prisms. The atomic weight of lanthanum has
been determined by B. Brauner (Proc. Chem. Soc., 1901, 17, p. 63)
by ignition of lanthanum sulphate at 500° C., the value obtained
being 139 (O = i6).
LANUVIUM (more frequently Lanivium in imperial times,
mod. Civita Laiiinia), an ancient city of Latium, some 19 m.
S.E. of Rome, a little S.W. of the Via Appia. It was situated
on an isolated hill projecting S. from the main mass of the Alban
Hills, and commanding an extensive view over the low country
between it and the sea. It was one of the members of the Latin
League, and remained independent until conquered by Rome
in 338 B.C. At first it did not enjoy the right of Roman citizen-
ship, but acquired it later; and even in imperial times its chief
magistrate and municipal council kept the titles of dictator
and senatus respectively. It was especially famous for its
rich and much venerated temple of Juno Sospes, from which
Octavian borrowed money in 31 B.C., and the possessions of
which extended as far as the sea-coast (T. Ashby in Melanges
de 1'ecolefranc.aise, 1905, 203). It possessed many other temples,
repaired by Antoninus Pius, who was born close by, as was also
Commodus. Remains of the ancient theatre and of the city
walls exist in the modern village, and above it is an area sur-
rounded by a portico, in opus reticulatum, upon the north side
of which is a rectangular building in opus quadratum, probably
connected with the temple of Juno. Here archaic decorative
terra-cottas were discovered in excavations carried on by Lord
Savile. The acropolis of the primitive city was probably on
the highest point above the temple to the north. The neighbour-
hood, which is now covered with vineyards, contains remains
of many Roman villas, one of which is traditionally attributed to
Antoninus Pius.
See Notizie degli Scavi, passim. (T. As.)
LANZA, DOMENICO GIOVANNI GIUSEPPE MARIA (1810-
1882), Italian politician, was born at Casale, Piedmont, on
the isth of February 1810. He studied medicine at Turin, and
practised for some years in his native place. He was one of the
promoters of the agrarian association in Turin, and took an
active part in the rising of 1848. He was elected to the Pied-
montese parliament in that year, and attached himself to the
party of Cavour, devoting his attention chiefly to questions of
economy and finance. He became minister of public instruction
in 1855 in the cabinet of Cavour, and in 1858 minister of finance.
He followed Cavour into his temporary retirement in July 1859
after the peace of Villafranca, and for a year (1860-1861) was
president of the Chamber. He was minister of the interior
(1864-1865) in the La Marmora cabinet, and arranged the trans-
ference of the capital to Florence. He maintained a resolute
opposition to the financial policy of Menabrea, who resigned
when Lanza was a second time elected, in 1869, president of
the Chamber. Lanza formed a new cabinet in which he was
himself minister of the interior. With Quintino Sella as minister
of finance he sought to reorganize Italian finance, and resigned
office when Sella's projects were rejected in 1873. His cabinet
had seen the accomplishment of Italian unity and the installa-
tion of an Italian government in Rome. He died in Rome on
the gth of March 1882.
See Enrico Tavallini, La Vita ed i tempi di Giovanni Lanza (2 vols.,
Turin and Naples, 1887).
LANZAROTE, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming part
of the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands (q.v.). Pop.
(1900) 17,546; area, 326 sq. m. Lanzarote, the most easterly
of the Canaries, has a length of 31 m. and a breadth varying
from 5 to 10 m. It is naked and mountainous, bearing every-
where marks of its volcanic origin. Montana Blanca, the highest
point (2000 ft.), is cultivated to the summit. In 17 30 the appear-
ance of half the island was altered by a volcanic outburst. A
violent eart-hquake preceded the catastrophe, by which nine
villages were destroyed. In 1825 another volcanic eruption
took place accompanied by earthquakes, and two hills were
thrown up. The port of Naos on the south-east of the island
affords safe anchorage. It is protected by two forts. A short
distance inland is the town of Arrecife (pop. 3082). The climate
is hot and dry. There is only a single spring of fresh water on
the island, and that in a position difficult of access. From the
total failure of water the inhabitants were once compelled to
abandon the island. Dromedaries are used as beasts of burden.
Teguise (pop. 3786), on the north-west coast, is the residence of
the local authorities. A strait about 6 m. in width separates
Lanzarote from Fuerteventura.
Graciosa, a small uninhabited island, is divided from the
north-eastern extremity of Lanzarote by a channel i m. in
width, which affords a capacious and safe harbour for large
ships; but basaltic cliffs, 1500 ft. high, prevent intercourse with
the inhabited part of Lanzarote. A few persons reside on the
little island Allegranza, a mass of lava and cinders ejected at
various times from a now extinct volcano, the crater of which
has still a well-defined edge.
LANZI, LUIGI (1732-1810), Italian archaeologist, was born
in 1732 and educated as a priest. In 1773 he was appointed
keeper of the galleries of Florence, and thereafter studied
Italian painting and Etruscan antiquities and language. In
the one field his labours are represented by his Storia Pittorica
della Italia, the first portion of which, containing the Florentine,
Sienese, Roman and Neapolitan schools, appeared in 1792,
the rest in 1796. The work is translated by Roscoe. In archae-
ology his great achievement was Saggio di lingua Etrusca (1789),
followed by Saggio delle lingue Ital. antiche (1806). In his
memoir on the so-called Etruscan vases (Dei vasi antichi dipinti
volgarmente chiamali Etruschi, 1806) Lanzi rightly perceived
their Greek origin and characters. What was true of the anti-
quities would be true also, he argued, of the Etruscan language,
and the object of the Saggio di lingua Etrusca was to prove that
this language must be related to that of the neighbouring
peoples — Romans, Umbrians, Oscans and Greeks. He was
allied with E. Q. Visconti in his great but never accomplished
plan of illustrating antiquity altogether from existing literature
and monuments. His notices of ancient sculpture and its various
styles appeared as an appendix to the Saggio di lingua Etrusca,
and arose out of his minute study of the treasures then added
to the Florentine collection from the Villa Medici. The abuse he
met with from later writers on the Etruscan language led
Corssen (Sprache der Etrusker, i. p. vi.) to protest in the name
of his real services to philology and archaeology. Among his
other productions was an edition of Hesiod's Works and Days,
with valuable notes, and a translation in terza rima. Begun in
1785, it was recast and completed in 1808. The list of his works
closes with his Opere sacre, a series of treatises on spiritual
subjects. Lanzi died on the 3oth of March 1810. He was
buried in the church of the Santa Croce at Florence by the side
of Michelangelo. '
LAOAG, a town, port for coasting vessels, and capital of the
province of Ilocos Norte, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the
Laoag river, about 5 m. from its mouth, and in the N.W. part
of the island. Pop. (1903) 34,454; in 1903, after the census
had been taken, the municipality of San Nicolas (pop. 1903,
10,880) was added to Laoag. Laoag is on an extensive coast
plain, behind which is a picturesque range of hills; it is well built
and is noted for its fine climate, the name " Laoag " signifying
" clear." It is especially well equipped for handling rice, which
is shipped in large quantities; Indian corn, tobacco and sugar
are also shipped. Cotton is grown in the vicinity, and is woven
by the women into fabrics, which find a ready sale among the
pagan tribes of the mountains. The language is Ilocano.
LAOCOON, in Greek legend a brother of Anchises, who had
been a priest of Apollo, but having profaned the temple of the
god he and his two sons were attacked by serpents while preparing
to sacrifice a bull at the altar of Poseidon, in whose service
Laocoon was then acting as priest. An additional motive for
LAODICEA— LAON
189
his punishment consisted in his having warned the Trojans
against the wooden horse left by the Greeks. But, whatever
his crime may have been, the punishment stands out even
among the tragedies of Greek legend as marked by its horror —
particularly so as it comes to ug in Virgil (Aeneid, ii. 199 sq.),
and as it is represented in the marble group, the Laocoon, in
the Vatican. In the oldest existing version of the legend — that
of Arctinus of Miletus, which has so far been preserved in the
excerpts of Proclus — the calamity is lessened by the fact that
only one of the two sons is killed; and this, as has been pointed
out (Arch. Zeitung, 1879, p. 167), agrees with the interpretation
which Goethe in his Propylaea had put on the marble group
without reference to the literary tradition. He says: " The
younger son struggles and is powerless, and is alarmed; the
father struggles ineffectively, indeed his efforts only increase
the opposition; the elder son is least of all injured, he feels
neither anguish nor pain, but he is horrified at what he sees
happening to his father, and he screams while he pushes the coils
of the serpent off from his legs. He is thus an observer, witness,
and participant in the incident, and the work is then complete."
Again, " the gradation of the incident is this: the father has
become powerless among the coils of the serpent; the younger
son has still strength for resistance but is wounded; the elder
has a prospect of escape." Lessing, on the other hand, main-
tained the view that the marble group illustrated the version
of the legend given by Virgil, with such differences as were
necessary from the different limits of representation imposed
on the arts of sculpture and of poetry. These limits required a
new definition, and this he undertook in his still famous work,
Laokoon (see the edition of Hugo Blumner, Berlin, 1876, in
which the subsequent criticism is collected). The date of the
Laocoon being now fixed (see AGESANDER) to 40-20 B.C., there
can be no question of copying Virgil. The group represents
the extreme of a pathetic tendency in sculpture (see GREEK ART,
Plate I. fig. 52).
LAODICEA, the name of at least eight cities, founded or
renovated in the later Hellenic period. Most of them were
founded by the Seleucid kings of Syria. Seleucus, founder of
the dynasty, is said by Appian to have named five cities after his
mother Laodice. Thus in the immense realm of the Seleucidae
from the Aegean Sea to the borders of India we find cities called
Laodicea, as also Seleucia (q.v.). So long as Greek civilization
held its ground, these were the commercial and social centres.
The chief are Laodicea ad Lycum (see below); Combusta on
the borders of Phrygia, Lycaonia and Pisidia; a third in Pontus;
a fourth, ad mare, on the coast of Syria; a fifth, ad Libanum,
beside the Lebanon mountains; and three others in the far east —
Media, Persia and the lower Tigris valley. In the latter countries
Greek civilization was short-lived, and the last three cities dis-
appeared; the other five continued great throughout the Greek
and Roman period, and the second, third and fourth retain to
the present day the ancient name under the pronunciation Ladik,
Ladikiyeh or Latakia (q.v.).
LAODICEA AD LYCUM (mod. Denizli, q.v.) was founded
probably by Antiochus II. Theos (261-46 B.C.), and named after
his wife Laodice. Its site is close to the station of Gonjeli on the
Anatolian railway. Here was one of the oldest homes of Christ-
ianity and the seat of one of the seven churches of the Apocalypse.
Pliny states (v. 29) that the town was called in older times
Diospolis and Rhoas; but at an early period Colossae, a few
miles to the east, and Hierapolis, 6 m. to the north, were the
great cities of the neighbourhood, and Laodicea was of no import-
ance till the Seleucid foundation (Strabo, p. 578). A favourable site
was found on some low hills of alluvial formation, about 2 m. S.
oftheriverLycus(ChurukSu)and9m.E.of the confluence of the
Lycus and Maeander. The great trade route from the Euphrates
and the interior passed to it through Apamea. There it forked,
one branch going down the Maeander valley to Magnesia and
thence north to Ephesus, a distance of about 90 m., and the other
branch crossing the mountains by an easy pass to Philadelphia
and the Hermus valley, Sardis, Thyatira and at last Pergamum.
St Paul (Col. iv. 15) alludes to the situation of Laodicea beside
Colossae and Hierapolis; and the order in which the last five
churches of the Apocalypse are enumerated (Rev. i. n) is
explained by their position on the road just described. Placed
in this situation, in the centre of a very fertile district, Laodicea
became a rich city. It was famous for its money transactions
(Cic. Ad Fam. ii. 17, iii. 5), and for the beautiful soft wool
grown by the sheep of the country (Strabo 578). Both points are
referred to in the message to the church (Rev. iii. 17, 18).
Little is known of the history of the town. It suffered greatly
from a siege in the Mithradatic war, but soon recovered its pro-
sperity under the Roman empire. The Zeus of Laodicea, with the
curious epithet Azeus or Azeis, is a frequent symbol on the city coins.
He is represented standing, holding in the extended right hand an
eagle, in the left a spear, the hasta pura. Not far from the city was
the temple of Men Karou, witfy a great medical school; while
Laodicea itself produced some famous Sceptic philosophers, and
gave origin to the royal family of Polemon and Zenon, whose curious
history has been illustrated in recent times (W. H. Waddington,
Melanges de Numism. ser. ii.; Th. Mommsen, Ephem. Epigraph, i.
and ii. ; M. G. Rayet, Milet et le Golfe Latmique, chap. v.). The city
fell finally into decay in the frontier wars with the Turkish invaders.
Its ruins are of wide extent, but not of great beauty or interest;
there is no doubt, however, that much has been buried beneath the
surface by the frequent earthquakes to which the district is exposed
(Strabo 580; Tac. Ann. xiy. 27).
See W. M. Ramsay, Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia, i.-ii. (1895);
Letters to the Seven Churches (1904) ; and the beautiful drawings of
Cockerell in the Antiquities of Ionia, vol. iii. pi. 47-51. (A. H. S.)
LAODICEA, SYNOD OF, held at Laodicea ad Lycum in
Phrygia, some time between 343 and 381 (so Hefele; but
Baronius argues for 314, and others for a date as late as 399),
adopted sixty canons, chiefly disciplinary, which were declared
ecumenical by the council of Chalcedon, 451. The most signifi-
cant canons are those directly affecting the clergy, wherein the
clergy appear as a privileged class, far above the laity, but with
sharply differentiated and carefully graded orders within itself.
For example, the priests are not to be chosen by the people;
penitents are not to be present at ordinations (lest they should
hear the failings of candidates discussed); bishops are to be
appointed by the metropolitan and his suffragan; sub-deacons
may not distribute the elements of the Eucharist; clerics are
forbidden to leave a diocese without the bishop's permission.
Other canons treat of intercourse with heretics, admission of
penitent heretics, baptism, fasts, Lent, angel-worship (for-
bidden as idolatrous) and the canonical books, from which the
Apocrypha and Revelation are wanting.
See Mansi ii. 563-614; Hardouin i. 777-792; Hefele, 2nd ed., i.
746-777 (Eng. trans, ii. 295-325). (T. F. C.)
LAOMEDON, in Greek legend, son of Ilus, king of Troy and
father of Podarces (Priam). The gods Apollo and Poseidon
served him for hire, Apollo tending his herds, while Poseidon
built the walls of Troy. When Laomedon refused to pay the
reward agreed upon, Apollo visited the land with a pestilence,
and Poseidon sent up a monster from the sea, which ravaged
the land. According to the oracle, the wrath of Poseidon could
only be appeased by the sacrifice of one of the king's daughters.
The lot fell upon Hesione, who was chained to a rock to await
the monster's coming. Heracles, on his way back from the
land of the Amazons, offered to slay the monster and release
Hesione, on condition that he should receive the wonderful
horses presented by Zeus to Tros, the father of Ganymede, to
console him for the loss of his son. Again Laomedon broke his
word; whereupon Heracles returned with a band of warriors,
attacked Troy, and slew Laomedon and all his sons except
Priam. According to Diodorus Siculus, Laomedon aggravated
his offence by imprisoning Iphiclus and Telamon, who had been
sent by Heracles to demand the surrender of the horses. Lao-
medon was buried near the Scaean gate, and it was said that
so long as his grave remained undisturbed, so long would the
walls of Troy remain impregnable.
See Homer, Iliad, v. 265, 640, vii. 452, xxi. 443; Apollodorus
ii. 5. 9 and 6. 4; Diod. Sic. iv. 32, 42, 49; Hyginus, Fab. 89;
Horace, Odes iii. 3, 22; Ovid, Metam. xi. 194.
LAON, a town of northern France, capital of the department
of Aisne, 87 m. N.E. of Paris on the Northern railway. Pop.
(1906), town, 9787, commune (including troops) 15,288. It is
LAOS
situated on an isolated ridge, forming two sides of a triangle,
which rises some 330 ft. above the surrounding plain and the
little river of Ardon. The suburbs of St Marcel and Vaux extend
along the foot of the ridge to the north. From the railway
station, situated in the plain to the north, a straight staircase of
several hundred steps leads to the gate of the town, and all the
roads connecting Laon with the surrounding district are cut in
zigzags on the steep slopes, which are crowned by promenades
on the site of the old ramparts. The 13th-century gates of Ardon,
Chenizelles and Soissons, the latter in a state of ruin, have been
preserved. At the eastern extremity of the ridge rises the
citadel; at its apex is the parade-ground of St Martin, and at
the southern end stands the ancient abbey of St Vincent. The
deep depression between the arms of the ridge, known as the
Cuve St Vincent, has its slopes covered with trees, vegetable
gardens and vineyards. From the promenade along the line of
the ramparts there is an extensive view northward beyond St
Quentin, westward to the forest of St Gobain, and southward
over the wooded hills of the Laonnais and Soissonnais.
The cathedral of Laon (see ARCHITECTURE, Romanesque
and Gothic Architecture in France) is one of the most important
creations of the art of the i2th and i3th centuries. It took the
place of the old cathedral, burned at the beginning of the com-
munal struggles mentioned below. The building is cruciform,
and the choir terminates in a straight wall instead of in an apse.
Of the six towers flanking the facades, only four are complete
to the height of the base of the spires, two at the west front
with hugh figures of oxen beneath the arcades of their upper
portion, and one at each end of the transept. A square central
tower forms a lantern within the church. The west front, with
three porches, the centre one surmounted by a fine rose window,
ranks next to that of Notre-Dame at Paris in purity. The
cathedral has stained glass of the I3th century and a choir grille
of the 1 8th century. The chapter-house and the cloister contain
beautiful specimens of the architecture of the beginning of the
I3th century. The old episcopal palace, contiguous to the
cathedral, is now used as a court-house. The front, flanked by
turrets, is pierced by great pointed windows. There is also a
Gothic cloister and an old chapel of two storeys, of a date anterior
to the cathedral. The church of St Martin dates from the middle
of the 1 2th century. The old abbey buildings of the same
foundation are now used as the hospital. The museum of Laon
had collections of sculpture and painting. In its garden there
is a chapel of the Templars belonging to the 1 2th century. The
church of the suburb of Vaux near the railway station dates from
the nth and I2th centuries. Numerous cellars of two or three
storeys have taken the place of the old quarries in the hill-side.
Laon forms with La Fere and Reims a triangle of important
fortresses. Its fortifications consist of an inner line of works on
the eminence of Laon itself, and two groups of detached forts,
one some 25 m. S.E. about the village of Bruyeres, the other
about 3 m. W.S.W., near Laniscourt. To the S.S.W. forts
Malmaison and Conde connect Laon with the Aisne and with
Reims.
Laon is the seat of a prefect and a court of assizes, and possesses
a tribunal of first instance, a lycee for boys, a college for girls,
a school of agriculture and training colleges. Sugar-making
and metal-founding are carried on, but neither industry nor trade,
which is in grain and wine, are of much importance.
The hilly district of Laon (Laudunum) has always had some
strategic importance. In the time of Caesar there was a Gallic
village where the Remi (inhabitants of the country round Reims)
had to meet the onset of the confederated Belgae. Whatever may
have been the precise locality of that battlefield, Laon was fortified
by the Romans, and successively checked the invasions of the Franks,
Burgundians, Vandals, Alani and Huns. St Remigius, the arch-
bishop of Reims who baptized Clovis, was born in the Laonnais, and
it was he who, at the end of the 5th century, instituted the bishopric
of the town. Thenceforward Laon was one of the principal towns of
the kingdom of the Franks, and the possession of it was often dis-
puted. Charles the Bald had enriched its church with the gift of very
numerous domains. After the fall of the Carolingians Laon took the
part of Charles of Lorraine, their heir, and Hugh Capet only succeeded
in making himself master of the town by the connivance of the bishop,
who, in return for this service, was made second ecclesiastical peer
of the kingdom. Early in the I2th century the communes of France
set about emancipating themselves, and the history of the commune
of Laon is one of the richest and most varied. The citizens had
profited by a temporary absence of Bishop Gaudry to secure from his
representatives a communal charter, but he, on his return, purchased
from the king of France the revocation of this document, and re-
commenced his oppressions. The consequence was a revolt, in which
the episcopal palace was burnt and the bishop and several of his
partisans were put to death. The fire spread to the cathedral, and
reduced it to ashes. Uneasy at the result of their victory, the rioters
went into hiding outside the town, which was anew pillaged by the
people of the neighbourhood, eager to avenge the death of their
bishop. The king alternately interfered in favour of the bishop and
of the inhabitants till 1239. After that date the liberties of Laon
were no more contested till 1331, when the commune was abolished.
During the Hundred Years' War it was attacked and taken by the
Burgundians, who gave it up to the English, to be retaken by the
French after the consecration of Charles VII. Under the League
Laon took the part of the Leaguers, and was taken by Henry IV.
During the campaign of 1814 Napoleon tried in vain to dislodge
Bliicher from it. In 1 870 an engineer blew up the powder magazine of
the citadel at the moment when the German troops were entering
the town. Many lives were lost; and the cathedral and the old
episcopal palace were damaged. At the Revolution Laon per-
manently lost its rank as a bishopric.
LAOS, a territory of French Indo-China, bounded N. by the
Chinese province of Yun-nan, W. by the British Shan states and
Siam, S. by Cambodia and Annam, E. by Annam and N.E. by
Tongking. Northern Laos is traversed by the Mekong (g.v.)
which from Chieng-Khan to a point below Stung-Treng forms the
boundary between Laos (on the left bank) and Siam and Cam-
bodia (on the right). French Laos constitutes a strip of territory
between 700 and 800 m. in length with an average breadth of
155 m., an approximate area of 88,780 sq. m., and a population
of about 550,000. Its northern region between the Mekong and
Tongking is covered by a tangle of mountain chains clothed with
dense forests and traversed by the Nam-Hou, the Nam-Ta and
other tributaries of the Mekong. The culminating point exceeds
6500 ft. in height. South of this is the extensive wooded plateau
of Tran-Ninh with an average altitude of between 3000 and 5000
ft. Towards the i8th degree of latitude this mountain system
narrows into a range running parallel to and closely approaching
the coast of the China Sea as it descends south. The boundary
between Laos and Annam follows the crest-line of this range,
several peaks of which exceed 6500 ft. (Pu-Atwat, over 8000 ft.).
On the west its ramifications extend to the Mekong enclosing
wide plains watered by the affluents of that river.
Laos is inhabited by a mixed population falling into three
main groups — the Thais (including the Laotions (see below));
various aboriginal peoples classed as Khas; and the inhabitants
of neighbouring countries, e.g. China, Annam, Cambodia, Siam,
Burma, &c.
Laos has a rainy season lasting from June to October and
corresponding to the S.W. monsoon and a dry season coinciding
with the N.E. monsoon and lasting from November to May.
Both in northern and southern Laos the heat during April and
May is excessive, the thermometer reaching 104° F. and averaging
95° F. With the beginning of the rains the heat becomes more
tolerable. December, January and February are cool months,
the temperature in south Laos (south of 19°) averaging 77°, in
north Laos from 50° to 53°. The plateau of Tran-Ninh and, in
the south, that of the Bolovens are distinguished by the whole-
someness of their climate.
The forests contain bamboo and many valuable woods amongst
which only the teak of north Laos and rattan are exploited to
any extent; other forest products are rubber, stick lac, gum,
benjamin, cardamoms, &c. Rice and maize, and cotton, indigo,
tobacco, sugar-cane and cardamoms are among the cultivated
plants. Elephants are numerous and the forests are inhabited
by tigers, panthers, bears, deer and buffalo. Hunting and fishing
are leading occupations of the inhabitants. Many species of
monkeys, as well as peacocks, pheasants and woodcock are
found, and the reptiles include crocodiles, turtles, pythons and
cobras.
Scarcity of labour and difficulty of communication hinder
LAOS— LAO-TSZE
191
the working of the gold, tin, copper, argentiferous lead, precious
stones and other minerals of the country and the industries in
general are of a primitive kind and satisfy only local needs.
The buffalo, the ox, the horse and the elephant are domesti-
cated, and these together with cardamoms, rice, tobacco and the
products of the forests form the bulk of the exports. Swine are
reared, their flesh forming an important article of diet. Imports
are inconsiderable, comprising chiefly cotton fabrics, garments
and articles for domestic use. Trade is chiefly in the hands of
the Chinese and is carried on for the most part with Siam. The
Mekong is the chief artery of transit; elsewhere communication
is afforded by tracks sometimes passable only for pedestrians.
Luang-Prabang (q.v.) is the principal commercial town. Before
the French occupation of Laos, it was split up into small princi-
palities (muongs) of which the chief was that of Vien-Tiane.
Vien-Tiane was destroyed in 1828 "by the Siamese who annexed
the territory. In 1893 they made it over to the French, who
grouped the muongs into provinces. Of these there are twelve
each administered by a French commissioner and, under his
surveillance, by native officials elected by the people from
amongst the members of an hereditary nobility. At the head
of the administration there is a resident-superior stationed at
Savannaket. Up till 1896 Laos had no special budget, but was
administered by Cochin-China, Annam and Tongking. The
budget for 1899 showed receipts £78,988 and expenditure
£77,417. For 1904 the budget figures were, receipts £82,942,
expenditure £76,344. The chief sources of revenue are the direct
taxes (£15,606 in 1904), especially the poll-tax, and the contribu-
tion from the general budget of Indo-China (£54,090 in 1904).
The chief items of expenditure in 1904 were Government house,
&c., £22,558, transport, £19,191, native guard, £i7,327-
See M. J. F. Gamier, Voyage d 'exploration en Indo-Chine (Paris,
1873); C. Gossclin, Le Laos el le protectorat franqais (Paris, 1900);
L. de Reinach, Le Laos (Paris, 1902) and Notes sur le Laos (Paris,
1906) ; and bibliography under INDO-CHINA, FRENCH.
LAOS, or LAOTIONS, an important division of the widespread
Thai or Shan race found throughout Indo-China from 28° N.
and the sources of the Irrawaddy as far as Cambodia and 7° N.
in the Malay Peninsula. This Thai family includes the Shans
proper, and the Siamese. The name Lao, which appears to
mean simply " man," is the collective Siamese term for all the
Thai peoples subject to Siam, while Shan, said to be of Chinese
origin, is the collective Burmese term for those subject to Burma.
Lao is therefore rather a political than an ethnical title, and the
people cordially dislike the name, insisting on their right to be
called Thai. Owing to the different circumstances which have
attended their migrations, the Thai peoples have attained to
varying degrees of civilization. The Lao, who descended from
the mountain districts of Yunnan, Szechuen and Kweichow to
the highland plains of upper Indo-China, and drove the wilder
Kha peoples whom they found in possession into the hills,
mostly adopted Buddhism, and formed small settled communities
or states in which laws were easy, taxes light and a very fair
degree of comfort was attained. There are two main divisions,
the Lao Pong Dam (" Black Paunch Laos "), so-called from their
habit of tattooing the body from the waist to the knees, and the
Lao Pong Kao (" White Paunch Laos ") who do not tattoo.
Lao tattooing is of a most elaborate kind. The Lao Pong Dam
now form the western branch of the Lao family, inhabiting the
Siamese Lao states of Chieng Mai Lapaun, 'Tern Pre and Nan,
and reaching as far south as 17° N. Various influences have
contributed to making the Lao the pleasant, easy-going, idle
fellow that he is. The result is that practically all the trade of
these states is in the hands of Bangkok Chinese firms, of a certain
number of European houses and others, while most of the manual
labour connected with the teak industry is done by Ka Mus,
who migrate in large numbers from the left bank of the Mekong.
The Lao Pong Kao, or eastern branch, appear to have migrated
southwards by the more easterly route of the Nam-u and the
Mekong valley. In contradistinction to the Lao Pong Dam, who
have derived their written language from the Burmese character,
the eastern race has retained what appears to be the early form of
the present Siamese writing, from which it differs little. They
formed important settlements at various points on the Mekong,
notably Luang Prabang, Wieng Chan (Vien-Tiane) Ubon and
Bassac; and, heading inland as far as Korat on the one side
and the Annamite watershed in the east, they drove out the
less civilized Kha peoples, and even the Cambodians, as the Lao
Pong Dam did on the west. Vien-Tiane during the i8th century
was the most powerful of the Lao principalities, and was feared
and respected throughout Indo-China. It was destroyed by the
Siamese in 1828. The inhabitants, in accordance with the Indo-
Chinese custom of the day, were transported to Lower Siam. The
Lao Pong Kao below 18° N. are a less merry and less vivacious
people, and are for the most part shorter and more thick-set
than those of Luang Prabang and the north. If possible, they
are as a race lazier than the western Lao, as they are certainly
more musical. The " khen," or mouth organ, which is universal
among them, is the sweetest-toned of eastern instruments.
After 1828 the Laos became entirely subject to Siam, and were
governed partly by khiao, or native hereditary princes, partly
by mandarins directly nominated by the Bangkok authorities.
The khiao were invested by a gold dish, betel-box, spittoon and
teapot, which were sent from Bangkok and returned at their
death or deposition. Of all the khiao the most powerful was the
prince of Ubon (15° N., 105° E.), whose jurisdiction extended
nearly from Bassac on the Mekong northwards to the great
southern bend of that river. Nearly all the Laos country is now
divided between France and Siam, and only a few tribes retain
a nominal independence.
The many contradictory accounts of the Laos are due to the
fact that the race has become much mixed with the aboriginal
inhabitants. The half-castes sprung from alliances with the wild
tribes of Caucasic stock present every variety between that type
and the Mongolian. But the pure Laos are still distinguished
by the high cheek-bones, small flat nose, oblique eyes, wide
mouth, black lank hair, sparse beard, and yellow complexion of
the Thai and other branches of the Mongol family. In dis-
position the Laos are an apathetic, peace-loving, pleasant-
mannered race. Though the women have to work, they are
free and well treated, and polygamy is rare. The Laos are very
superstitious, believe in wer-wolves, and that all diseases are
caused by evil spirits. Their chief food is rice and fish. Men,
women and children all smoke tobacco. The civilized Laos were
long addicted to slave-hunting, not only with the sanction but
even with the co-operation of their rulers, the Lao mandarins
heading regular expeditions against the wilder tribes.
Closely allied with the Lao are a number of tribes found throughout
the hill regions of the upper Mekong, between Yunnan and Kwangsi
in China and the upper waters of the Menam in Siam. They have all
within recent times been partakers in the general movement towards
the south-west from the highland districts of southern China, which
has produced so many recruits for the peopling of the Indo-Chinese
peninsula. Of this group of people, among whom may be named the
Yao, Yao Yin.Lanten, Meo, Musur (orMuhso)and Kaw, perhaps the
best known and most like the Lao are the Lu — both names meaning
originally " man " — who have in many cases adopted a form of
Buddhism (flavoured strongly by their natural respect for local
spirits as well as tattooing) and other relatively civilized customs,
and have forsaken their wandering life among the hills for a more
settled village existence. Hardy, simple ana industrious, fond of
music, kind-hearted, and with a strangely artistic taste in dress,
these people possess in a wonderful degree the secret of cheerful
contentment.
AUTHORITIES. — M. J. F. Garnier, Voyage d' exploration en Indo-
Chine; A. H. Mouhot, Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China,
Cambodia and Laos (1864) ; Holt S. Hallett, A Thousand Miles on an
Elephant in the Shan States (1890); A. R. Colquhoun, Amongst the
Shdns (1885); Lord Lamington, Proc. R.G.S. vol. xiii. No. 12;
Archer, Report on a Journey in the Mekong Valley; Prince Henri
d'Orldans, Around Tonkin and Siam (1894); M'Carthy, Report on a
Survey in Siam (1894); Bulletins, Paris Geographical Society:
H. Warington Smyth, Notes of a Journey on the Upper Mekong
(1895) ; Five Years in Siam (1898) ; Harmand, Le Laos et les popu-
lations sauvages de I'Indo-Chine (1880). See also bibliography to
preceding article.
LAO-TSZE, or LAOU-TszE, the designation of the Chinese
author of the celebrated treatise called Tdo Teh King, and the
reputed founder of the religion called T&oism. The Chinese
192
LAO-TSZE
characters composing the designation may mean either " the
Old Son," which commonly assumes with foreigners the form of
" the Old Boy," or " the Old Philosopher." The latter signifi-
cance is attached to them by Dr Chalmers in his translation of
the treatise published in 1868 under the title of The Speculations
on Metaphysics, Polity and Morality of " the Old Philosopher,"
Ldo-tsze. The former is derived from a fabulous account of
Lao-tsze in the Shdn Hsien Chwan, " The Account of Spirits
and Immortals," of Ko Hung in the 4th century A.D. According
to this, his mother, after a supernatural conception, carried him
in her womb sixty-two years (or seventy-two, or eighty-one — ten
years more or fewer are of little importance in such a case), so
that, when he was born at last, his hair was white as with age,
and people might well call him " the old boy." The other
meaning of the designation rests on better authority. We
find it in the Kid Yil, or " Narratives of the Confucian School,"
compiled in the 3rd century A.D. from documents said to have
been preserved among the descendants of Confucius, and also in
the brief history of Lao-tsze given in the historical records of
Sze-ma Ch'ien (about too B.C.). In the latter instance the
designation is used by Confucius, and possibly it originated with
him. It should be regarded more as an epithet of respect than
of years, and is equivalent to " the Venerable Philosopher."
All that Ch'ien tells us about Lao-tsze goes into small compass.
His surname was Li, and his name Urh. He was a native of the state
of Ch'Q, and was born in a hamlet not far from the present prefectural
city of Kwei-te in Ho-nan province. He was one of the recorders or
historiographers at the court of Chow, his special department being
the charge of the whole or a portion of the royal library. He must
thus have been able to make himself acquainted with the history of
his country. Ch'ien does not mention the year of his birth, which is
often said, though on what Chinese authority does not appear, to
have taken place in the third year of King Phing, corresponding to
604 B.C. That date cannot be far from the truth. That he was
contemporary with Confucius is established by the concurrent
testimony of the Lt Ki and the Kid Yii on the Confucian side, and of
Chwang-tsze and Sze-ma Ch'ien on the Taoist. The two men whose
influence has been so great on all the subsequent generations of the
Chinese people^— Kung-tsze (Confucius) and Lao-tsze — had at least
one interview, in 517 B.C., when the former was in his thirty-fifth
year. The conversation between them was interesting. L&o was in
a mocking mood ; Kung appears to the greater advantage. If it be
true that Confucius, when he was fifty-one years old, visited Lao-tsze
as Chwang-tsze says (in the Thien Yun, the fourteenth of his treatises),
to ask about the Tdo, they must have had more than one interview.
Dr Chalmers, however, has pointed out that both Chwang-tsze and
Lieh-tsze (a still earlier Tioist writer) produce Confucius in their
writings, as the lords of the Philistines did the captive Samson on
their festive occasions, " to make sport for them." Their testimony
is valueless as to any matter of fact. There may have been several
meetings between the two in 517 B.C., but we have no evidence that
they were together in the same place after that time. Ch'ien adds : —
" Lao-tsze cultivated the Tdo and virtue, his chief aim in his studies
being how to keep himself concealed and unknown. He resided at
(the capital of) Chow; but after a long time, seeing the decay of the
dynasty, he left it, and went away to the Gate (leading from the
royal domain into the regions beyond — at the entrance of the pass
of Han-ku, in the north-west of Ho-nan). Yin Hsi, the warden of
the Gate, said to him, ' You are about to withdraw yourself out of
sight; I pray you to compose for me a book (before you go).' On
this Lao-tsze made a writing, setting forth his views on the tdo
and virtue, in two sections, containing more than 5000 characters.
He then went away, and it is not known where he died." The
historian then mentions the names of two other men whom some
regarded as the true Lao-tsze. One of them was a Lao Lai, a con-
temporary of Confucius, who wrote fifteen treatises (or sections) on
the practices of the school of Tdo. Subjoined to the notice of him is
the remark that Lao-tsze was more than one hundred and sixty
years old, or, as some say, more than two hundred, because by the
cultivation of the Tdo he nourished his longevity. The other was " a
grand historiographer " of Chow, called Tan, one hundred and
twenty-nine (? one hundred and nineteen) years after the death of
Confucius. The introduction of these disjointed notices detracts
from the verisimilitude of the whole narrative in which they occur.
Finally, Ch'ien states that " Lao-tsze was a superior man, who liked
to keep in obscurity," traces the line of his posterity down to the
2nd century B.C., and concludes with this important statement'—
Those who attach themselves to the doctrine of Lao-tsze condemn
that of the literati, and the literati on their part condemn Lao-tsze,
thus verifying the saying, ' Parties whose principles are different
cannot take counsel together.' L! Urh taught that transformation
follows, as a matter of course, the doing nothing (to bring it about)
and rectification ensues in the same way from being pure and still."
Accepting the Tdo Teh King as the veritable work of Lao-tsze,
we may now examine its contents. Consisting of not more than
between five and six thousand characters, it is but a short
treatise — not half the size of the Gospel of St Mark. The nature
of the subject, however, the want of any progress of thought or
of logical connexion between its different parts, and the condensed
style, with the mystic tendencies and poetical temperament of
the author, make its meaning extraordinarily obscure. Divided
at first into two parts, it has subsequently and conveniently
been subdivided into chapters. One of the oldest, and the most
common, of these arrangements makes the chapters eighty-two.
Some Roman Catholic missionaries, two centuries ago, fancied
that they found a wonderful harmony between many passages
and the teaching of the Bible. Montucci of Berlin „
ventured to say in 1808: " Many things about a hfr^ony
Triune God are so clearly expressed that no one who with
has read this book can doubt that the mystery of the Biblical
Holy Trinity was revealed to the Chinese five centuries ieacMa*
before the coming of Jesus Christ." Even Remusat, the first
occupant of a Chinese chair in Europe, published at Paris in
1823 his Memoir e sur la vie et les opinions de Ldo-tsze, to
vindicate the view that the Hebrew name Yahweh was phonetic-
ally represented in the fourteenth chapter by Chinese characters.
These fancies were exploded by Stanislas Julien, when he issued
in 1842 his translation of the whole treatise as Le Li-ore de la
voie el de la vertu.
The most important thing is to determine what we are to
understand by the Tdo, for Teh is merely its outcome, especially
in man, and is rightly translated by " virtue." Julien translated
Tdo by " la voie." Chalmers leaves it untranslated. " No
English word," he says (p. xi.), " is its exact equivalent. Three
terms suggest themselves — the way, reason and the word;
but they are all liable to objection. Were we guided by ety-
mology, ' the way ' would come nearest the original, and in one
or two passages the idea of a way seems to be in the term; but
this is too materialistic to serve the purpose of a translation.
' Reason,' again, seems to be more like a quality or attribute of
some conscious being than Tdo is. I would translate it by
' the Word,' in the sense of 'the Logos, but this would be like
settling the question which I wish to leave open, viz. what
resemblance there is between the Logos of the New Testament
and this Chinese Tao." Later Sinologues in China have employed
" nature " as our best analogue of the term. Thus Walters
(Ldo-tsze, A Study in Chinese Philosophy, p. 45) says: — " In
the Tdo Teh King the originator of the universe is referred to
under the names Non-Existence, Existence, Nature (Tdo) and
various designations — all which, however, represent one idea
in various manifestations. It is in all cases Nature (Tdo) which
is meant." This view has been skilfully worked out; but it only
hides the scope of " the Venerable Philosopher." " Nature "
cannot be accepted as a translation of Tdo. That character was,
primarily, the symbol of a way, road or path; and then, figura-
tively, it was used, as we also use way, in the senses of means and
method — the course that we pursue in passing from one thing
or concept to another as its end or result. It is the name of a
quality. Sir Robert Douglas has well said (Confucianism and
Taoism, p. 189): "If we were compelled to adopt a single
word to represent the Tdo of Lao-tsze, we should prefer the sense
in which it is used by Confucius, ' the way,' that is, fieOodos."
What, then, was the quality which Lao-tsze had in view, and
which he thought of as the Tdo — there in the library of Chow,
at the pass of the valley of Han, and where he met The
the end of his life beyond the limits of the civilized doctrine
state? It was the simplicity of spontaneity, action of "the
(which might be called non-action) without motive, *'*'•"
free from all selfish purpose, resting in nothing but its own
accomplishment. This is found in the phenomena of the material
world. " All things spring;up without a word spoken, and grow
without a claim for their production. They go through their
processes without any display of pride in them; and the results
are realized without any assumption of ownership. It is owing
to the absence of such assumption that the results and their
LAO-TSZE
193
processes do not disappear " (chap. ii.). It only needs the same
quality in the arrangements and measures of- government to
make society beautiful and happy. " A government conducted
by sages would free the hearts of the people from inordinate
desires, fill their bellies, keep their ambitions feeble and strengthen
their bones. They would constantly keep the people without
knowledge and free from desires; and, where there were those
who had knowledge, they would have them so that they would
not dare to put it in practice " (chap. iii.). A corresponding
course observed by individual man in his government of himself
becoming again " as a little child " (chaps, x. and xxviii.) will
have corresponding results. " His constant virtue will be
complete, and he will return to the primitive simplicity "
(chap, xxviii.).
Such is the subject matter of the Tdo Teh King — the operation
of this method or Tdo, " without striving or crying," in nature,
in society and in the individual. Much that is very beautiful
and practical is inculcated in connexion with its working in the
individual character. The writer seems to feel that he cannot
say enough on the virtue of humility (chap, viii., &c.). There
were three things which he prized and held fast — gentle com-
passion, economy and the not presuming to take precedence
in the world (chap. Ixvii.). His teaching rises to its highest
point in chap. Ixiii.: — " It is the way of Tdo not to act from
any personal motive, to conduct affairs without feeling the
trouble of them, to taste without being aware of the flavour, to
account the great as small and the small as great, to recompense
injury with kindness." This last and noblest characteristic
of the Tdo, the requiting " good for evil," is not touched on again
in the treatise; but we know that it excited general attention
at the time, and was the subject of conversation between
Confucius and his disciples (Confucian Analects, xiv. 36).
What is said in the Tdo on government is not, all of it, so
satisfactory. The writer shows, indeed, the benevolence of
his heart. He seems to condemn the infliction of capital punish-
ment (chaps. Ixxiii. and Ixxiv.), and he deplores the practice
of war (chap. Ixix.) ; but he had no sympathy with the progress
of society or with the culture and arts of life. He says (chap.
Ixv.) : — " Those who anciently were skilful in practising the Tdo
did not use it to enlighten the people; their object rather was
to keep them simple. The difficulty in governing the people
arises from their having too much knowledge, and therefore he
who tries to govern a state by wisdom is a scourge to it, while
he who does not try to govern thereby is a blessing." The last
chapter but one is the following: — " In a small state with a few
inhabitants, I would so order it that the people, though supplied
with all kinds of implements, would not (care to) use them;
I would give them cause to look on death as a most grievous
thing, while yet they would not go away to a distance to escape
from it. Though they had boats and carriages, they should
have no occasion to ride in them. Though they had buff-coats
and sharp weapons, they should not don or use them. I would
make them return to the use of knotted cords (instead of written
characters). They should think their coarse food sweet, their
plain clothing beautiful, their poor houses places of rest and their
common simple ways sources of enjoyment. There should be
a neighbouring state within sight, and the sound of the fowls
and dogs should be heard from it to us without interruption,
but I would make the people to old age, even to death, have no
intercourse with it."
On reading these sentiments, we must judge of Lao-tsze
that, with all his power of thought, he was only a dreamer.
But thus far there is no difficulty arising from his language
in regard to the Tdo. It is simply a quality, descriptive of the
style of character and action, which the individual should seek
to attain in himself, and the ruler to impress on his administration.
The language about the Tdo in nature is by no means so clear.
While Sir Robert Douglas says that " the way " would be the
best translation of Tdo, he immediately adds: — " But Tdo is
more than the way. It is the way and the way-goer. It is an
eternal road; along it all beings and things walk; but no being
made it, for it is being itself; it is everything, and nothing
xvi. 7
and the cause and effect of all. All things originate from Tdo>
conform to Tdo and to Tdo at last they return."
Some of these representations require modification; but no
thoughtful reader of the treatise can fail to be often puzzled
by what is said on the point in hand. Julien, indeed,
says with truth (p. xiii.) that " it is impossible to take
Tdo for the primordial Reason, for the sublime In- Deity.
telligence, which has created and governs the world ";
but many of Lao-tsze's statements are unthinkable if there
be not behind the Tdo the unexpressed recognition of a personal
creator and ruler. Granted that he does not affirm positively
the existence of such a Being, yet certainly he does not deny
it, and his language even implies it. It has been said, indeed,
that he denies it, and we are referred in proof to the fourth
chapter: — " Tdo is like the emptiness of a vessel; and the use
of it, we may say, must be free from all self-sufficiency. How
deep and mysterious it is, as if it were the author of all things!
We should make our sharpness blunt, and unravel the com-
plications of tilings; we should attemper our brightness, and
assimilate ourselves to the obscurity caused by dust. How still
and clear is Tdo, a phantasm with the semblance of permanence!
I do not know whose son it is. It might appear to have been
before God (Ti)."
The reader will not overlook the cautious and dubious manner
in which the predicates of Tdo are stated in this remarkable
passage. The author does not say that it was before God,
but that " it might appear " to have been so. Nowhere else
in his treatise does the nature of Tdo as a method or style of
action come out more clearly. It has no positive existence of
itself; it is but like the emptiness of a vessel, and the manifesta-
tion of it by men requires that they endeavour to free themselves
from all self-sufficiency. Whence came it? It does not shock
L&o-tsze to suppose that it had a father, but he cannot tell
whose son it is. And, as the feeling of its mysteriousness grows
on him, he ventures to say that " it might appear to have been
before God."
There is here no denial but express recognition of the existence
of God, so far as it is implied in the name Ti, which is the personal
name for the concept of heaven as the ruling power, by means
of which the fathers of the Chinese people rose in prehistoric
time to the idea of God. Again and again L£o-tsze speaks of
heaven just as " we do when we mean thereby the Deity who
presides over heaven and earth." These last words are taken
from Walters (p. 81) ; and, though he adds, " We must not forget
that this heaven is inferior and subsequent to the mysterious
Tdo, and was in fact produced by it," it has been shown how
rash and unwarranted is the ascription of such a sentiment to
" the Venerable Philosopher." He makes the Tdo prior to heaven
and earth, which is a phrase denoting what we often call " nature,"
but he does not make it prior to heaven in the higher and im-
material usage of that name. The last sentence of his treatise
is: — " It is the Tdo— the way — of Heaven to benefit and not
injure; it is the Tdo — the way — of the sage to do and not
strive."
Since Julien laid the Tdo Teh King fairly open to Western readers
in 1842, there has been a tendency to overestimate rather than to
underestimate its value as a scheme of thought and a discipline for
the individual and society. There are in it lessons of unsurpassed
value, such as the inculcation of simplicity, humility and self-
abnegation, and especially the brief enunciation of the divine duty
of returning good for ill; but there are also the regretful repre-
sentations of a primitive society when men were ignorant of the rudi-
ments of culture, and the longings for its return.
When it was thought that the treatise made known the doctrine
of the Trinity, and even gave a phonetic representation of the
Hebrew name for God, it was natural, even necessary, to believe
that its author had had communication with more western parts of
Asia, and there was much speculation about visits to India and
Judaea, and even to Greece. The necessity for assuming such
travels has passed away. If we can receive Sze-m& Ch'ien's histories
as trustworthy, LSo-tsze might have heard, in the states of Chow
and among the wild tribes adjacent to them, views about society
and government very like his own. Ch'ien relates how an envoy
came in 624 B.C. — twenty years before the date assigned to the birth
of LSo-tsze — to the court of Duke Mfl of Ch'in, sent by the king_ of
some rude hordes on the west. The duke told him of the histories,
LA PAZ
poems, codes of rites, music and laws which they had in the middle
states, while yet rebellion and disorder were of frequent occurrence,
and asked how good order was secured among the wild people, who
had none of those appliances. The envoy smiled, and replied that
the troubles of China were occasioned by those very things of which
the duke vaunted, and that there had been a gradual degenera-
tion in the condition of its states, as their professed civilization had
increased, ever since the days of the ancient sage, Hwang Ti, whereas
in the land he came from,'where there was nothing but the primitive
simplicity, their princes showed a pure virtue in their treatment of
the people, who responded to them with loyalty and good faith.
" The government of a state," said he in conclusion, " is like a man's
ruling his own single person. He rules it, and does not know how
he does so; and this was indeed the method of the sages." Lao-tsze
did not need to go further afield to find all that he has said about
government.
We have confined ourselves to the Taoism of the Tdo Teh King
without touching on the religion Taoism now existing in China, but
The which did not take shape until more than five hundred
Taoism years after the death of Lao-tsze, though he now occupies
of to-day. tne second place in its trinity of "The three Pure or Holy
Ones." There is hardly a word in his treatise that savours
either of superstition or religion. In the works of Lieh-tsze and
Chwang-tsze, his earliest followers of note, we find abundance of
grotesque superstitions; but their beliefs (if indeed we can say that
they had beliefs) had not become embodied in any religious institu-
tions. When we come to the Ch'in dynasty (221-206 B.C.), we meet
with a Taoism in the shape of a search for the fairy islands of the
eastern sea, where the herb of immortality might be gathered. In
the 1st century A.D. a magician, called Chang Tao-ling, comes before
us as the chief professor and controller of this Taoism, preparing in
retirement " the pill " which renewed his youth, supreme over all
spirits, and destroying millions of demons by a stroke of his pencil.
He left his books, talismans and charms, with his sword and seal,
to his descendants, and one of them, professing to be animated by his
soul, dwells on the Lung-hu mountain in Kiang-si, the acknowledged
head or pope of Taoism. But even then the system was not yet a
religion, with temples or monasteries, liturgies and forms of public
worship. It borrowed all these from Buddhism, which first obtained
public recognition in China between A.D. 65 and 70, though at least a
couple of centuries passed before it could be said to have free course
in the country.
Even still, with the form of a religion, Taoism is in reality a
conglomeration of base and dangerous superstitions. Alchemy,
geomancy and spiritualism have dwelt and dwell under its shadow.
Each of its " three Holy Ones " has the title of Thien Tsun, " the
Heavenly and Honoured," taken from Buddhism, and also of Shang
Ti or God, taken from the old religion of the country. The most
popular deity, however, is not one of them, but has the title of Yii
Wang Shang Ti, " God, the Perfect King." But it would take long
to tell of all its "celestial gods," "great gods," " divine rulers "and
others. It has been doubted whether Lao-tsze acknowledged the
existence of God at all, but modern T&oism is a system of the
wildest polytheism. The science and religion of thesWest meet from
it a most determined opposition. The " Venerable Philosopher "
himself would not have welcomed them; but he ought not to bear
the obloquy of being the founder of the Taoist religion. (J. LE.)
LA PAZ, a western department of Bolivia, bounded N. by
the national territories of Caupolican and El Beni, E. by El
Beni and Cochabamba, S. by Cochabamba and Oruro and W.
by Chile and Peru. Pop. (1900) 445,616, the majority of whom
are Indians. Area 53,777 sq. m. The department belongs to
the great Bolivian plateau, and its greater part to the cold,
bleak, puna climatic region. The Cordillera Real crosses it
N.W. to S.E. and culminates in the snow-crowned summits of
Sorata and Illimani. The west of the department includes
a part of the Titicaca basin with about half of the lake. This
elevated plateau region is partially barren and inhospitable,
its short, cold summers permitting the production of little besides
potatoes, quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) and barley, with a
little Indian corn and wheat in favoured localities. Some atten-
tion is given to the rearing of llamas, , and a few cattle, sheep
and mules are to be seen south of Lake Titicaca. There is a
considerable Indian population in this region, living chiefly in
small hamlets on the products of their own industry. In the
lower valleys of the eastern slopes, where climatic conditions
range from temperate to tropical, wheat, Indian corn, oats and
the fruits and vegetables of the temperate zone are cultivated.
Farther down, coffee, cacao, coca, rice, sugar cane, tobacco,
oranges, bananas and other tropical fruits are grown, and the
forests yield cinchona bark and rubber. The mineral wealth
of La Paz includes gold, silver, tin, copper and bismuth. Tin
and copper are the most important of these, the principal tin
mines being in the vicinity of the capital and known under the
names of Huayna-Potosi, Milluni and Chocoltaga. The chief
copper mines are the famous Corocoro group, about 75 m.
S.S.E. of Lake Titicaca by the Desaguadero river, the principal
means of transport. The output of the Corocoro mines, which
also includes gold and silver, finds its way to market by boat and
rail to Mollendo, and by pack animals to Tacna and rail to Arica.
There are no roads in La Paz worthy of the name except the
5 m. between the capital and the " Alto," though stage-
coach communication with Oruro and Chililaya has been main-
tained by the national government. The railway opened in
1905 between Guaqui and La Paz (54 m.) superseded the latter
of these stage lines, and a railway is planned from Viacha to
Oruro to supersede the other. The capital of the department is
the national capital La Paz. Corocoro, near the Desaguadero
river, about 75 m. S.S.E. of Lake Titicaca and 13,353 ft. above
sea-level, has an estimated population (1906) of 15,000, chiefly
Aymara Indians.
LA PAZ (officially LA PAZ DE AYACUCHO), the capital of
Bolivia since 1898, the see of a bishopric created in 1605 and
capital of the department of La Paz, on the Rio de la Paz or
Rio Chuquiapo, 42 m. S.E. of Lake Titicaca (port of Chililaya)
in 16° 30' S., 68° W. Pop. (1900) 54,713, (1906, estimate)
67,235. The city is built in a deeply-eroded valley of the
Cordillera Real which is believed to have formed an outlet of
Lake Titicaca, and at this point descends sharply to the S.E.,
the river making a great bend southward and then flowing
northward to the Beni. The valley is about lorn, long and 3 m.
wide, and is singularly barren and forbidding. Its precipitous
sides, deeply gullied by torrential rains and diversely coloured
by mineral ores, rise 1500 ft. above the city to the margin of
the great plateau surrounding Lake Titicaca, and above these
are the snow-capped summits of Illimani and other giants of
the Bolivian Cordillera. Below, the valley is fertile and covered
with vegetation, first of the temperate and then of the tropical
zone. The elevation of La Paz is 12,120 ft. above sea-level,
which places it within the puna climatic region, in which the
summers are short and cold. The mean annual temperature
is a little above the puna average, which is 54° F., the extremes
ranging from 19° to 75°. Pneumonia and bronchial complaints
are common, but consumption is said to be rare. The surface
of the valley is very uneven, rising sharply from the river on
both sides, and the transverse streets of the city are steep and
irregular. At its south-eastern extremity is the Alameda, a
handsome public promenade with parallel rows of exotic trees,
shrubs and flowers, which are maintained with no small effort
in so inhospitable a climate. The trees which seem to thrive
best are the willow and eucalyptus. The streets are generally
narrow and roughly paved, and there are numerous bridges across
the river and its many small tributaries. The dwellings of the
poorer classes are commonly built with mud walls and covered
with tiles, but stone and brick are used for the better structures.
The cathedral, which was begun in the i7th century when the
mines of Potosi were at the height of their productiveness, was
never finished because of the revolutions and the comparative
poverty of the city under the republic. It faces the Plaza
Mayor and is distinguished for the finely-carved stonework of
its facade. Facing the same plaza are the government offices
and legislative chambers. Other notable edifices and institutions
are the old university of San Andres, the San Francisco church,
a national college, a seminary, a good public library and a
museum rich in relics of the Inca and colonial periods. La
Paz is an important commercial centre, being connected with
the Pacific coast by the Peruvian railway from Mollendo to
Puno (via Arequipa), and a Bolivian extension from Gvaqui to
the Alto de La Paz (Heights of La Paz)— the two lines being
connected by a steamship service across Lake Titicaca. An
electric railway 5 m. long connects the Alto de La Paz with the
city, 1493 ft. below. This route is 496 m. long, and is expensive
because of trans-shipments and the cost of handling cargo at
Mollendo. The vicinity of La Paz abounds with mineral wealth;
most important are the tin deposits of Huayna-Potosi, Milluni
LA PEROUSE— LAPIDARY, AND GEM CUTTING
and Chocoltaga. The La Paz valley is auriferous, and since the
foundation of the city gold has been taken from the soil washed
down from the mountain sides.
La Paz was founded in 1548 by Alonzo de Mendoza on the site
of an Indian village called Chuquiapu. It was called the Pueblo
Nuevo de Nuestra Senora de la Paz in commemoration of the recon-
ciliation between Pizarro and Almagro, and soon became an im-
portant colony. At the close of the war of independence (1825) it
was rechristened La Paz de Ayacucho, in honour of the last decisive
battle of that protracted struggle. It was made one of the four
capitals of the republic, but the revolution of 1898 permanently
established the seat of government here because of its accessibility,
wealth, trade and political influence.
LA PEROUSE, JEAN-FRANCOIS DE GALAUP, COMTE DE
(i74i-c. 1788), French navigator, was born near Albi, on the
22nd of August 1741. His family name was Galaup, and La
Perouse or La Peyrouse was an addition adopted by himself
from a small family estate near Albi. As a lad of eighteen he was
wounded and made prisoner on board the " Formidable " when
it was captured by Admiral Hawke in 1759; and during the
war with England between 1778 and 1783 he served with dis-
tinction in various parts of the world, more particularly on the
eastern coasts of Canada and in Hudson's Bay, where he captured
Forts Prince of Wales and York (August 8th and 2ist, 1782).
In 1785 (August ist) he sailed from Brest in command of the
French government expedition of two vessels (" La Boussole "
under La Perouse himself, and " L'Astrolabe," under de Langle)
for the discovery of the North- West Passage, vainly essayed by
Cook on his last voyage, from the Pacific side. He was also
charged with the further exploration of the north-west coasts of
America, and the north-east coasts of Asia, of the China and Japan
seas, the Solomon Islands and Australia; and he was ordered
to collect information as to the whale fishery in the southern
oceans and as to the fur trade in North America. He reached
Mount St Elias, on the coast of Alaska, on the 23rd of June
1786. After six weeks, marked by various small discoveries,
he was driven from these regions by bad weather; and after
visiting the Hawaiian Islands, and discovering Necker Island
(November 5th, 1786), he crossed over to Asia (Macao, January
3rd, 1787). Thence he passed to the Philippines, and so to the
coasts of Japan, Korea and " Chinese Tartary," where his best
results were gained. Touching at Quelpart, he reached De
Castries Bay, near the modern Vladivostok, on the 28th of July
1787; and on the 2nd of August following discovered the
strait, still named after him, between Sakhalin and the Northern
Island of Japan. On the 7th of September he put in at Petro-
pavlovsk in Kamchatka, where he was well received by special
order of the Russian empress, Catherine II. ; thence he sent
home Lesseps, overland, with the journals, notes, plans and maps
recording the work of the expedition. He left Avacha Bay on
the 2oth of September, and arrived at Mauna in the Samoan
group on the 8th of December; here de Langle and ten of the
crew of the " Astrolabe " were murdered. He quitted Samoa
on the 1 4th of December, touched at the Friendly Islands and
Norfolk Island and arrived in Botany Bay on the 26th of January
1788. From this place, where he interchanged courtesies with
some of the English pioneers in Australia, he wrote his last letter
to the French Ministry of Marine (February 7th). After this
no more was heard of him and his squadron till in 1826 Captain
Peter Dillon found the wreckage of what must have been the
"Boussole" and the "Astrolabe" on the reefs of Vanikoro,
an island to the north of the New Hebrides. In 1828 Dumont
d'Urville visited the scene of the disaster and erected a monu-
ment (March i4th).
See Milet Mureau, Voyage de la Perouse autour du monde (Paris,
'797) 4 vols. ; G6rard, Vies . . . des . . . marins franfais (Paris,
1825), 197-200; Peter Dillon, Narrative . . . of a Voyage in the
South Seas for the Discovery of the Fate of La Perouse (London, 1829),
2 vols.; Dumont d'Urville, Voyage pittoresque autour du monde;
Quoy and Paul Gaimard, Voyage de . . . I Astrolabe; Domeny de
Rienzi, Oceanic; Van Tenac, Histoire general de la marine, iv. 258-
264 ; Moniteur universel, I3th of February 1847.
LAPIDARY, and GEM CUTTING (Lat. lapidarius, lapis, a
stone). The earliest examples of gem cutting and carving
known (see also GEM) are the ancient engraved seals, which are
of two principal types, the cylindrical or " rolling " seals of
Babylonia and Assyria, suggested by a joint of the bamboo or
the central whorl of a conch-like shell, and the peculiar scara-
baeoid seals of Egypt. Recent researches make it appear that
both these types were in use as far back as 4500 B.C., though with
some variations. The jewels of Queen Zer, and other jewels
consisting of cut turquoise, lapis lazuli and amethyst, found by
the French mission, date from 4777 B.C. to 4515 B.C. Until
about 2500 B.C., the cylinder seals bore almost wholly animal
designs; then cuneiform inscriptions were added. In the 6th
century B.C., the scarabaeoid type was introduced from Egypt,
while the rolling seals began to give place to a new form, that
of a tall cone. These, in a century or two, were gradually
shortened; the hole by which they were suspended was enlarged
until it could admit the ringer, and in time they passed into the
familiar form of seal-rings. This later type, which prevailed
for a long period, usually bore Persian or Sassanian inscriptions.
The scarabaeoid seals were worn as rings in Egypt apparently
from the earliest times.
The most ancient of the cylinder seals were cut at first from
shell, then largely from opaque stones such as diorite and
serpentine. After 2500 B.C., varieties of chalcedony and milky
quartz were employed, translucent and richly coloured; some-
times even rock crystal, and also frequently a beautiful compact
haematite. Amazone stone, amethyst and fossil coral were used,
but no specimen is believed to be known of ruby, sapphire,
emerald, diamond, tourmaline or spinel.
The date of about 500 B.C. marks the beginning of a period
of great artistic taste and skill in gem carving, which extended
throughout the ancient civilized world, and lasted until the 3rd
or 4th century A.D. Prior to this period, all the work appears
to have been done by hand with a sapphire point, or else with a
bow-drill ; thenceforward the wheel came to be largely employed.
The Greek cutters, in their best period, the 5th and 6th centuries
B.C., knew the use of disks and drills, but preferred the sapphire
point for their finest work, and continued to use it for two or
three hundred years. Engraving by the bow-drill was introduced
in Assyrian and Babylonian work as early as perhaps 3000 B.C.,
the earlier carving being all done with the sapphire point, which
was secured in a handle for convenient application. This hand-
work demanded the utmost skill and delicacy of touch in the
artist. The bow-drill consisted of a similar point fastened in the
end of a stick, which could be rotated by means of a horizontal
cross-bar attached at each end to a string wound around the
stick; as the cross-bar was moved up and down, the stick was
made to rotate alternately in opposite directions. This has been
a frequent device for such purposes among many peoples, both
ancient and modern, civilized and uncivilized. The point used
by hand, and the bow-drill, were afterwards variously combined
in executing such work. Another modification was the sub-
stitution for the point, in either process, of a hollow tube or drill,
probably in most cases the joint of a hollow reed, whereby very
accurate circles could be made, as also crescent figures and the
like. This process, used with fine hard sand, has also been
widely employed among many peoples. It may perhaps have
been suggested by the boring of other shells by carnivorous
molluscs of the Murex type, examples of which may be picked
up on any sea-beach. It is possible that the cylinder seals were
drilled in this way out of larger pieces by means of a hollow reed
or bamboo, the cylinder being left as the core.
The Egyptian scarabs were an early and very characteristic
type of seal cutting. The Greek gem cutters modified them by
adding Greek and Etruscan symbols and talismanic signs; many
of them also worked in Egypt and for Egyptians. Phoenician
work shows a mixture of Assyrian and Egyptian designs; and
Cypriote seals, principally on the agate gems, are known that
are referred to the gth century B.C.
Scarabs are sometimes found that have been sliced in two, and
the new flat faces thus produced carved with later inscriptions
and set in rings. This secondary work is of many kinds. An
Assyrian cylinder in the Metropolitan Museum, New York,
referred to 3000 B.C., bears such a cutting of Mediterranean
196
LAPIDARY, AND GEM CUTTING
character, of the 2nd or 3rd century B.C. In the early Christian
era, also, many Greek and Roman gems were recut with Gnostic
and other peculiar and obscure devices.
In the later Roman period, the 3rd and 4th centuries, a great
decline in the art is seen — so great that Castellani terms it " the
idiotic age." Numbers of gems of this kind have been found
together, as though they were the product of a single manu-
facturer, carved in the crudest manner, both in design and
execution. Yet remarkable results are sometimes produced in
these by a few touches of the drill, which under the glass appear
very crude but nevertheless yield strong effects. The same
thing may be seen now in many of the Japanese sketches and
lacquer designs, where a whole landscape is depicted, or rather
suggested, by a few simple but powerful strokes. It is now
thought that some of these seals may be of earlier origin than has
been supposed, and also that they may have been worn by the
poorer classes, who could not afford the more finished work.
They must have been made by the hundred thousand. The
decline of the art went on until in the Byzantine period, especially
the 6th century, it had reached a very low point. Most of the
gems of this period show drill- work of poor quality, although
hand-work is occasionally seen.
With the Renaissance, the art of gem carving revived, and the
engravers from that time and onward have produced results
that equal the best Greek and Roman work; copies of ancient
gem carvings made by some of the 18th-century masters are
only distinguishable from true antiques by experts of great
proficiency. It is in fact extremely difficult to judge positively
as to the age of engraved gems. The materials of which they are
made are hard and resistant to any change through time,
and there are many ingenious devices for producing the appear-
ances usually believed to indicate great age, such as slightly
dulled or scratched surfaces and the like. There are also the
gems with secondary carving, already alluded to, and the ancient
gems that, have been partially recut by modern engravers for
the purpose of fraudulently enhancing their price. All these
elements enter into the problem and make it an almost hopeless
one for any but a person of great experience in the study of such
objects; and even he may not be able in all cases to decide.
Until the I4th century, almost all the gems were cut en
cabochon — that is, smoothly rounded, as carbuncles and opals
are still — or else in the form of beads drilled from both sides for
suspension or attachment, the two perforations often meeting
but imperfectly. These latter may be of Asiatic origin, brought
into Europe by commerce during the Crusades. Some of the
finest gems in the Austrian, Russian and German crowns are
stones of this perforated or bead type. An approach, or transi-
tion, to the modern facetting is seen in a style of cutting often
used for rock-crystal in the loth and nth centuries: an oval
cabochon was polished flat, and the sides of the dome were also
trimmed flat, with a rounded back, and the upper side with a
ridge in the centre, tapering off to the girdle of the stone below.
The plane facetted cutting is altogether modern; and hence
the pictures which represent the breastplate of the ancient
Jewish high-priest as set with facetted stones are wholly imaginary
and probably incorrect, as we have no exact knowledge of the
forms of the gems. The Orientals polish gems in all sorts of
irregular, rounded shapes, according to the form of the piece as
found, and with the one object of preserving as much of its
original size and colour as possible. The greatest ingenuity is
used to make a speck of colour, as in a sapphire, tone up an entire
gem, by cutting it so that there is a point of high colour at the
lower side of the gem.
In later times a few facets are sometimes cut upon a generally
rounded stone. The cabochon method is still used for opaque
or translucent stones, as opal, moonstone, turquoise, carbuncle,
&c.; but for transparent gems the facetted cutting is almost
always employed, on account of its fine effect in producing
brilliancy, by reflection or refraction of light from the under
side of the gem. Occasionally the ancients used natural crystals
with polished faces, or perhaps at times polished these to some
extent artificially. This use of crystals was frequent with prisms
of emerald, which were drilled and suspended as drops. Those
the French call " primes d'emeraudes." These were often
natural crystals from Zaborah, Egypt or the Tirol Mountains,
drilled through the height of the prism, and with little or no
polishing. In rare instances perfect and brilliant crystals may
now be seen mounted as gems.
The modern method is that of numerous facets, geometrically
disposed to bring out the beauty of light and colour to the best
advantage. This is done at the sacrifice of material, often to
the extent of half the stone or even more — the opposite of the
Oriental idea. There are various forms of such cutting, but
three are specially employed, known as the brilliant, the rose
and the table-cut. The last, generally made from cleavage pieces,
usually square or oblong, with a single facet or edge on each
side, and occasionally four or more facets on the lower side of the
stone, is used chiefly for emeralds, rubies and sapphires; the two
former for diamonds in particular. The brilliant is essentially
a low, double cone, its top truncated to form a large flat eight-
sided face called the table, and its basal apex also truncated
by a very small face known as the culctte or cullet. The upper
and lower slopes are cut into a series of triangular facets, 32
above the girdle, in four rows of eight, and 24 below, in three
rows, making 56 facets in all. The rose form is used for diamonds
not thick enough to cut as brilliants; it is flat below and has
12 to 24, or sometimes 32, triangular facets above, in three rows,
meeting in a point. Stones thus cut are also known as " roses
couronnees "; others with fewer facets, twelve or even six,
are called " roses d'Anvers," and are a specialty, as their name
implies, at Antwerp. These, however, are only cut from very
thin or shallow stones. None of the rose-cut diamonds is equal
in beauty to the brilliants. There are several other forms,
among which are the " briolette," " marquise," oval and pear-
shaped stones, &c., but they are of minor importance. The pear-
shaped brilliant is a facetted ball or drop, being a brilliant in
style of cutting, although the form of the gem is elongated
or drop-shaped. The " marquise " or " navette " form is an
elliptical brilliant of varying width in proportion to its length.
The " rondelle " form consists of flat, circular gems with smooth
sides pierced, like shallow beads, with facetted edges, and is
sometimes used between pearls, or gem beads, and in the coloured
gems, such as rubies, sapphires, emeralds, &c. The mitred gems
fitted to a gauge are much used and are closely set together,
forming a continuous line of colour.
Modern gem cutting and engraving are done by means of
the lathe, which can be made to revolve with extreme rapidity,
carrying a point or small disk of soft iron, with diamond-dust
and oil. The disks vary in diameter from that of a pin-head
to a quarter of an inch. Better than the lathe, also, is the S. S.
White dental engine, which the present writer was the first to
suggest for this use. The flexibility and sensitiveness of this
machine enables it to respond to the touch of the artist and to
impart a personal quality to his work not possible with the
mechanical action of the lathe, and more like the hand-work
with the sapphire point. The diamond-dust and oil, thus applied,
will carve any stone softer than the diamond itself with com-
parative ease.
We may now review some of the special forms of cutting and
working gems and ornamental stones that have been developed
in Europe since the period of the Renaissance.
Garnets (q.v.) have been used and worked from remote antiquity;
but in modern times the cutting of them has been carried on chiefly
in Bohemia, in the region around Merowitz and Dlaskowitch. The
stones occur in a trap rock, and are weathered out by its decom-
position and gathered from gravels and beds of streams. They are
of the rich red variety known as pyrope (q.v.), or Bohemian garnet;
it is generally valued as a gem-stone. Such are the so-called ' Cape
rubies," of South Africa, found in considerable quantity in German
East Africa, and the beautiful garnets known as the "Arizona
rubies." Garnets are so abundant in Bohemia as to constitute an
important industry, employing some five hundred miners, an equal
number of cutters and as many as three thousand dealers. Extensive
garnet cutting is also done in India, especially at Jeypore, where
there are large works employing natives who have been taught by
Europeans. The Indian garnets, however, are mostly of another
variety, the almandine (q.v.); it is equally rich in colour, though
LAPIDARY, AND GEM CUTTING
197
inclining more to a violet cast than the pyrope, and can be obtained
in larger pieces. The ancient garnets, from Etruscan and Byzantine
remains, some of which are flat plates set in gold, or carved with
mythological designs, were probably obtained from India or perhaps
from the remarkable locality for large masses of garnet in German
East Africa. Many are cut with the portraits of Sassanian kings with
their characteristic pearl earrings. The East Indians carve small
dishes out of a single garnet.
The carving of elegant objects from transparent quartz, or rock
crystal, has been carried on since the i6th century, first in Italy, by
the greatest masters of the time, and afterwards in Prague, under
Rudolph II., until the Thirty Years' War, when the industry was
wiped out. Splendid examples of this work are in the important
museums of Europe. Many of these are reproduced now in Vienna,
and fine examples are included in some American museums. Among
them are rock-crystal dishes several inches across, beautifully en-
graved in intaglio and mounted in silver with gems. Other varieties
of quartz minerals, such as agate, jasper, &c., and other ornamental
stones of similar hardness, are likewise wrought into all manner of
art objects. Caskets, vases, ewers, coupes and animal and other
fanciful forms, are familiar in these opaque and semi-transparent
stones, either carved out of single masses or made of separate pieces
united with gold, silver or enamel in the most artistic manner.
Cellini, and other masters in the l6th and I7th centuries, vied with
each other in such work.
The greatest development of agate (q.v.), however, has been seen
in Germany, at Waldkirch in Breisgau, and especially at Idar and
Oberstein on the Nahe, in Oldenburg. The industry began in the
I4th century, at the neighbouring town of Freiburg, but was trans-
ferred to Waldkirch, where it is still carried on, employing about 120
men and women, the number of workmen having increased nearly
threefold since the middle of the igth century. The Idar and
Oberstein industry was founded somewhat later, but is much more
extensive. Mills run by water-power line the Nahe river for over
30 m., from above Kreuznach to below Idar, and gave employment in
1908 to some 5000 people — 162 5 lapidaries, 160 drillers, looengravers,
2900 cutters, &c. , besides 300 jewellers and 300 dealers. The industry
began here in consequence of the abundance of agates in the amygda-
loid rocks of the vicinity ; and it is probable that many of the Cinque
Cento gems, and perhaps even some of the Roman ones, were ob-
tained in this region. By the middle of the 1 8th century the best
material was about exhausted, but the industry had become so
firmly established that it has been kept up and increased by import-
ing agates. In 1540 there were only three mills; in 1740, twenty-
five; in 1840, fifty; in 1870, one hundred and eighty-four. Agents
and prospectors are sent all over the world to procure agates and
other ornamental stones, and enormous quantities are brought there
and stored. The chief source of agate supply has been in Uruguay,
but much has been brought from other distant lands. It was esti-
mated that fifty thousand tons were stored at Salto in Uruguay at
one time.
The grinding is done on large, horizontal wheels like grindstones,
some 6 ft. in diameter and one-fourth as thick, run by water-wheels.
The faces of some of these grindstones are made with grooves of
different sizes so that round objects or convex surfaces can be ground
very easily and rapidly. An agate ball or marble, for instance, is
made from a piece broken to about the right size and held in one of
these semicircular grooves until one-half of it is shaped, and then
turned over and the other half ground in the same way. The
polishing is done on wooden wheels, with tripoli found in the vicinity ;
any carving or ornamentation is then put on with a wheel-edge or a
drill by skilled workmen.
In the United States the Drake Company at Sioux Falls, South
Dakota, has done cutting and polishing in hard materials on a grand
scale. It is here, and here only, that the agatized wood from Chalce-
dony Park, Arizona, has been cut and polished, large sections of
tree-trunks having been made into table-tops and columns of
wonderful beauty, with a polish like that of a mirror.
Much of the finest lapidary work, both on a large and a small scale,
is done in Russia. Catherine II. sought to develop the precious
stone resources of the Ural region, and sent thither two Italian
lapidaries. This led to the founding of an industry which now em-
ploys at least a thousand people. The work is done either at the
great imperial lapidary establishment at Ekaterinburg, or in the
vicinity of the mines by lapidary masters, as they are called, each
of whom has his peculiar style. The products are sold to dealers
at the great Russian fairs at Nizhmy Novgorod, Moscow and
Ekaterinburg. The imperial works at the last-named place have
command of an immense water-power, and are on such a scale that
great masses of hard stones can be worked as marble is in other
countries. Much of the machinery is primitive, but the applications
are ingenious and the results unsurpassed anywhere. The work
done is of several classes, ranging from the largest and most massive
to the smallest and most delicate. There is (l ) the cutting of facetted
gems, as topaz, aquamarine, amethyst, &c., from the mines of the
Ural, and of other gem-stones also ; this is largely done by means of
the cadrans, a small machine held in the hand, by which the angle
of the facets can be adjusted readily when once the stone has been
set, and which produces work of great beauty and accuracy. Then
there is (2) a vast variety of ornamental objects, large and small,
some weighing 2000 Ib and over, and requiring years to complete;
they are made from the opaque minerals of the Ural and Siberia —
malachite, rhodonite, lapis-lazuli, aventurine and jasper. A peculiar
type of work is (3) the production of beautiful groups of fruit, flowers
and leaves, in stones selected to match exactly the colour of each
object represented. These are chosen with great care and skill,
somewhat as in the Florentine mosaics, not to produce a flat inlaid
picture, however, but a perfect reproduction of form, size and colour.
These groups are carved and polished from hard stones, whereas the
Florentine mosaic work includes many substances that are much
softer, as glass, shell, &c.
Enormous masses of material are brought to these works; the
supply of rhodonite, jade, jaspers of various colours, &c., sometimes
amounting to hundreds of tons. One mass of Kalkansky jasper
weighed nearly 9 tons, and a mass of rhodonite above 50 tons;
the latter required a week of sledging, with ninety horses, to bring it
from the quarry, only 14 m. from the works. About seventy-five
men are employed, at twenty-five roubles a month (£2, us. 6d.),
and ten boys, who earn from two to ten roubles (43. to £i). A
training school is connected with the works, where over fifty boys are
pupils; on graduating they may remain as government lapidaries
or set up on their own account.
There are two other great Russian imperial establishments of the
same kind. One of these, founded by Catherine II., is at Peterhof,
a short distance from the capital; it is a large building fitted up
with imperial elegance. Here are made all the designs and models
for the work done at Ekaterinburg; these are returned and strictly
preserved. In the Peterhof works are to be seen the largest and most
remarkable achieyements of the lapidarian art, vases and pedestals
and columns of immense size, made from the hardest and most
elegant stones, often requiring the labour of years for their com-
pletion. The third great establishment is at Kolyvan, in Siberia,
bearing a like relation to the minerals and gem-stones of the Altai
region that the works of Ekaterinburg do to the Ural. The three
establishments are conducted at large expense, from the private
revenue of the tsar. The Russian emperors have always taken
special interest in lapidary work, and the products of these establish-
ments have made that country famous throughout the world. The
immense monolithic columns of the Hermitage and of St Isaac's
Cathedral, of polished granite and other hard and elegant stones,
are among the triumphs of modern architectural work; and the
Alexander column at St Petersburg is a single polished shaft, 13 ft.
in diameter and 82 ft. in height, of the red Finland granite.
The finest lapidary work of modern France is done at Moulin la
Vacherie Saint Simon, Seine-et-Marne, where some seventy-five of
the most skilful artisans are engaged. The products are all manner
of ornamental objects of every variety of beautiful stone, all finished
with absolute perfection of detail. Columns and other ornaments of
porphyry and the like, of ancient workmanship, are brought hither
from Egypt and elsewhere, and recut into smaller objects for modern
artistic tastes. Here, too, are made spheres of transparent quartz —
" crystal balls " — up to 6 in. in diameter, the material for which is
obtained in Madagascar.
A few words may be said, by way of comparison and contrast,
about the lapidary art of Japan and China, especially in relation to
the crystal balls, now reproduced in France and elsewhere. The tools
are the simplest, and there is no machinery; but the lack of it is
made u|jby time and patience, and by hereditary pride, as a Japanese
artisan can often trace back his art through many generations
continuously. To make a quartz ball, a large crystal or mass is
chipped or broken into available shape, and then the piece is trimmed
into a spherical form with a small steel hammer. The polishing is
effected by grinding with emery and garnet-powder and plenty of
water, in semi-cylindrical pieces of cast iron, of sizes varying with
that of the ball to be ground, which is kept constantly turning as it
is rubbed. Small balls are fixed in the end of a bamboo tube, which
the worker continually revolves. The final brilliant polish is given
by the hand, with rouge-powder (haematite). This process is
evidently very slow, and only the cheapness of labour prevents the
cost from being too great.
The spheres are now made quite freely but very differently in
France, Germany and the United States. They are ground in semi-
circular grooves in a large horizontal wheel of hard stone, such as is
used for grinding garnets at Oberstein and Idar, or else by gradually
revolving them on a lathe and fitting them into hollow cylinders.
Plenty of water must be used, to prevent heating and cracking.
The polishing is effected on a wooden wheel with tripoli. Work of
this kind is now done in the United States, in the production of the
spheres and carved ornaments of rock-crystal, that is equal to any
in the world. But most of the material for these supposed Japanese
balls now comes from Brazil or Madagascar, and the work is done in
Germany or France.
The cutting of amber is a special branch of lapidary work developed
along the Baltic coast of Germany, where amber is chiefly obtained.
The amber traffic dates back to prehistoric times; but the cutting
industry in northern Europe cannot be definitely traced further back
than the idth century, when gilds of amber- workers were known at
Bruges and Liibeck. Fine carving was also done at Konigsberg as
early as 1399. The latter city and Danzig have become the chief
seats of the amber industry, and the business has increased immensely
i98
LAPIDARY, AND GEM CUTTING
within a recent period. Articles are made there, not only for all the
civilized world, but for exportation to half-civilized and even
barbarous nations, in great variety of shapes, styles and colours
DIAMOND CUTTING. — On account of its extreme hardness,
the treatment of the diamond in preparation for use in jewelry
constitutes a separate and special branch of the lapidary's art.
Any valuable gem must first be trimmed, cleaved or sawed
into suitable shape and size, then cut into the desired form, and
finally polished upon the faces which have been cut. The stages
in diamond working are, therefore, (i) cleavage or division;
(2) cutting; (3) polishing; but in point of fact there are four
processes, as the setting of the stone for cutting is a somewhat
distinct branch, and the workers are classed in four groups —
cleavers, setters, cutters and polishers.
i. Cleaving or Dividing. — Diamonds are always found as
crystals, usually octahedral in form, though often irregular or
distorted. The problem involved in each case is twofold:
(i) to obtain the largest perfect stone possible, and (2) to remove
any portions containing flaws or defects. These ends are generally
met by cleaving the crystal, i.e. causing it to split along certain
natural planes of structural weakness, which are parallel with
the faces of the octahedron. This process requires the utmost
judgment, care and skill on the part of the operator, as any
error would cause great loss of valuable material; hence expert
cleavers command very high wages. The stone is first examined
closely, to determine the directions of the cleavage planes,
which are recognizable only by an expert. The cleaver then cuts
a narrow notch at the place selected, with another diamond
having a sharp point; a rather dull iron or steel edge is then laid
on this line, and a smart blow struck upon it. If all has been
skilfully done, the diamond divides at once in the direction
desired. De Boot in 1609 mentions knowing some one who could
part a diamond like mica or talc. In this process, each of the
diamonds is fixed in cement on the end of a stick or handle,
so that they can be held firmly while one is applied to the other.
When the stone is large and very valuable, the cleaving is a
most critical process. Wollaston in 1790 made many favourable
transactions by buying very poor-looking flawed stones and
cleaving off the good parts. In the case of the immense Excelsior
diamond of 971 carats, which was divided at Amsterdam in
1904, and made into ten splendid stones, the most elaborate
study extending over two months was given to the work before-
hand, and many models were made of the very irregular stone
and divided in different ways to determine those most advan-
tageous. This process was in 1908 applied to the most remark-
able piece of work of the kind ever undertaken — the cutting
of the gigantic Cullinan diamond of 3025! English carafc. The
stone was taken to Amsterdam to be treated by the old-fashioned
hand method, with innumerable precautions of every kind at
every step, and the cutting was successfully accomplished after
nine months' work (see The Times, Nov. 10, 1908). The two
principal stones obtained (see DIAMOND), one a pendeloque or
drop brilliant, and the other a square brilliant, were given 72
and 64 facets respectively (exclusive of the table and cullet)
instead of the normal 56.
This process of cleavage is the old-established one, still used
to a large extent, especially at Amsterdam. But a different
method has recently been introduced, that of sawing,1 which is
now generally employed in Antwerp. The stone is placed in a
small metal receptacle which is filled with melted aluminium;
thus embedded securely, with only the part to be cut exposed,
it is pressed firmly against the edge of a metallic disk or thin
wheel, 4 or 5 in. in diameter, made of copper, iron or phosphor
bronze, which is charged with diamond dust and oil, and made
to revolve with great velocity. This machine was announced as
an American invention, but the form now principally employed
at Antwerp was invented by a Belgian diamond cutter in the
United States, and is similar to slitting wheels used by gem
1 The Universal Magazine of Knowledge and Pleasure for 1 749 states
that diamond dust, " well ground and diluted with water and
vinegar, is used in the sawing of diamonds, which is done with
an iron or brass wire, as fine as a hair." — Ed.
cutters for centuries. Two patents were taken out, however,
by different parties, with some distinctions of method. The
process is much slower than hand-cleavage, but greatly diminishes
the loss of material involved. It is claimed that not only can
flaws or defective portions be thus easily taken off, but that
any well-formed crystal of the usual octahedral shape (known
in the trade as " six-point ") can be divided in half very perfectly
at the " girdle," making two stones, in each of which the sawed
face can be used with advantage to form the " table " of a brilliant.
By another method the stone is sawed at a tangent with the
octahedron, and then each half into three pieces; for this
Wood method a total saving of 5% is claimed. Occasionally
the finest material is only a small spot in a large mass of impure
material, and this is taken out by most skilful cleaving.
After the cleaving or sawing, however, the diamond is rarely
yet in a form for cutting the facets, and requires considerable
shaping. This rough " blocking-out " of the final form it is
to assume, by removing irregularities and making it symmetrical,
is called " brutage." Well-shaped and flawless crystals, indeed
may not require to be cleaved, and then the brutage is the first
process. Here again, the old hand methods are beginning to give
place to mechanism. In either case two diamonds are taken,
each fixed in cement on the end of a handle or support, and are
rubbed one against the other until the irregularities are ground
away and the general shape desired is attained. The old method
was to do this by hand — an extremely tedious and laborious
process. The machine method, invented about 1885 and first
used by Field and Morse of Boston, is now used at Antwerp
exclusively. In this, one diamond is fixed at the centre of a
rotating apparatus, and the other, on an arm or handle, is placed
so as to press steadily against the other stone at the proper
angle. The rotating diamond thus becomes rounded and
smoothed; the other one is then put in its place at the centre
and their mutual action reversed.
At Amsterdam a hand-process is employed, which lies between
the cleavage and the brutage. This consists in cutting or trim-
ming away angles and irregularities all over the stone by means
of a sharp-edged or pointed diamond, both being mounted in
cement on pear-shaped handles for firm holding. This work is
largely done by women. In all these processes the dust and
fragments are caught and carefully saved.
2. Cutting and Setting. — The next process is that of cutting
the facets; but an intervening step is the fixing or " setting "
of the stone for that purpose. This is done by embedding it in
a fusible alloy, melting at 440° Fahr., in a little cup-shaped
depression on the end of a handle, the whole being called a
" dop. " Only the portion to be ground off is left exposed;
and two such mounted diamonds are then rubbed against each
other until a face is produced. This is the work of the cutter;
it is very laborious, and requires great care and skill. The
hands must be protected with leather gloves. The powder
produced is carefully saved, as in the former processes, for use
in the final polishing. When one face has been produced, the
alloy is softened by heating, and the stone re-set for grinding
another surface; and as this process is necessary for every face
cut, it must be repeated many times for each stone. An improved
dop has lately been devised in which the diamond is held by a
system of claws so that all this heating and resetting can, it is
claimed, be obviated, and the cutting completed with only two
changes.
3. Polishing. — The faces having thus been cut, the last stage
is the polishing. This is done upon horizontal iron wheels
called " skaifs," made to rotate up to 2500 revolutions per
minute. The diamond-powder saved in the former operations,
and also made by crushing very inferior diamonds, here comes
into use as the only material for polishing. It is applied with
oil, and the stones are fixed in a " dop " in much the same way
as in the cutting process. Again, the utmost skill and watchful-
ness are necessary, as the angles of the faces must be mathematic-
ally exact, in order to yield the best effects by refraction and
reflection of light, and their sizes must be accurately regulated
to preserve the symmetry of the stone. In this process, also,
LAPILLI— LAPIS LAZULI
199
the old hand method is already replaced in part by an improved
device whereby the diamond is held by adjustable claws, on a base
that can be rotated, so as to apply it in any desired position.
By this means the time and trouble of repeated re-setting in
the dop are saved, as well as the liability to injury from the
heating and cooling; the services of special " setters " are also
made needless.
The rapid development of mechanical devices for the several
stages of diamond cutting has already greatly influenced the art.
A very interesting comparison was brought out in the thirteenth
report of the American Commissioner of Labour, as to the aspects
and relations of hand-work and machinery in this branch of
industry. It appeared from the data gathered that the advantage
lay with machinery as to time and with hand-work as to cost,
in the ratios respectively of i to -3-38 and 1-76 to i. In other
words, about half the gain in time is lost by increased expense
in the use of machine methods. A great many devices and
applications have been developed within the last few years,
owing to the immense increase in the production of diamonds
from the South African mines, and their consequent widespread
use.
History of Diamond Cutting. — The East Indian diamonds, many of
which are doubtless very ancient, were polished in the usual Oriental
fashion by merely rounding off the angles. Among church jewels in
Europe are a few diamonds of unknown age and source, cut four-
sided, with a table above and a pyramid below. Several cut diamonds
are recorded among the treasures of Louis of Anjou in the third
quarter of the I4th century. But the first definite accounts of
diamond polishing are early in the century following, when one
Hermann became noted for such work in Paris. The modern method
of " brilliant " cutting, however, is generally ascribed to Louis de
Berquem, of Bruges, who in 1475 cut several celebrated diamonds
sent to him by Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. He taught this
process to many pupils, who afterwards settled in Antwerp and
Amsterdam, which have been the chief centres of diamond cutting
ever since. Peruzzi was the artist who worked out the theory of the
well-proportioned brilliant of 58 facets. Some very fine work was
done early in London also, but most of the workmen were Jews, who,
being objectionable in England, finally betook themselves to
Amsterdam and Antwerp. Efforts have been lately made to re-
establish the art in London, where, as the great diamond mart of the
world, it should peculiarly belong.
The same unwise policy was even more marked in Portugal.
That nation had its colonial possessions in India, following the voyages
and discoveries of Da Gama, and thus became the chief importer of
diamonds into Europe. Early in the l8th century, also, the diamond-
mines were discovered in Brazil, which was then likewise a Portuguese
possession; thus the whole diamond product of the world came to
Portugal, and there was naturally developed in Lisbon an active
industry of cutting and polishing diamonds. But in time the Jews
were forced away, and went to Holland and Belgium, where diamond
cutting has been concentrated since the middle of the :8th century.
It is of interest to trace the recent endeavours to establish
diamond cutting in the United States. The pioneer in this move-
ment was Henry D. Morse of Boston, associated with James W.
Yerrington of New York. He opened a diamond-cutting establish-
ment about 1860 and carried it on for some years, training a number
of young men and women, who became the best cutters in the country.
But the chief importance of his work lay in its superior quality. So
long had it been a monopoly of the Dutch and Belgians that it was
declining into a mere mechanical trade. Morse studied the diamond
scientifically and taught his pupils how important mathematical
exactitude in cutting was to the beauty and value of the gem. He
thus attained a perfection rarely seen before, and gave a great
stimulus to the art. Shops were opened in London as well, in con-
sequence of Morse's success; and many valuable diamonds were
recut in the United States after his work became known. This fact
in turn reacted upon the cutter abroad, especially in France and
Switzerland; and thus the general standard of the art was greatly
advanced.
Diamond cutting in the United States is now a well-established
industry. From 1882 to 1885 a number of American jewelers under-
took such work, but for various reasons it was not found practicable
then. Ten years later, however, there were fifteen firms engaged in
diamond cutting, giving employment to nearly 150 men in the various
processes involved. In the year 1894 a number of European diamond
workers came over; some foreign capital became engaged; and a
rapid development of diamond cutting took place. This movement
was caused by the low tariff on uncut diamonds as compared with
that on cut stones. It went so far as to be felt seriously abroad ; but
in a year or two it declined, owing partly to strikes and partly to
legal questions as to the application of some of the tariff provisions.
At the close of 1895, however, there were still some fourteen establish-
ments in and near New York, employing about 500 men. Since then
the industry has gradually developed. Many of the European
diamond workers who came over to America remained and carried on
their art; and the movement then begun has become permanent.
New York is now recognized as one of the chief diamond-cutting
centres; there are some 500 cutters, and the quality of work done is
fully equal, if not superior, to any in the Old World. So well is this
fact established that American-cut diamonds are exported and sold
in Europe to a considerable and an increasing extent.
In the Brazilian diamond region of Minas Geraes an industry of
cutting has grown up since 1875. Small mills are run by water power,
and the machinery, as well as the.methods, are from Holland. This
Brazilian diamond work is done both well and cheaply, and supplies
the local market.
The leading position in diamond working still belongs to Amster-
dam, where the number of persons engaged in the industry has
trebled since about 1875, in consequence of the enormous increase
in the world's supply of diamonds. The number now amounts to
15,000, about one-third of whom are actual cleavers, cutters, polishers,
&c. The number of cutting establishments in Amsterdam is about
seventy, containing some 7000 mills.
Antwerp comes next with about half as many mills and a total of
some 4500 persons engaged in all departments, including about
seventy women. These are distributed among thirty-five or forty
establishments. A majority of the workers are Belgians, but there
are many Dutch, Poles and Austro-Hungarians, principally Jews.
Among these numerous employees there is much opportunity for
dishonesty, and but little surveillance, actual or possible; yet losses
from this cause are almost unknown. The wages paid are good,
averaging from £2, gs. 6d. to £2, 175. 6d. a week. Sorters receive
from 28s. to £2; cutters from £2, 95. 6d to £3, 6s., and cleavers from
£3, 143. upwards.
With the recent introduction of electricity in diamond cutting
there has been a revolution in that industry. Whereas formerly
wheels were made to revolve by steam, they are now placed in direct
connexion with electric motors, although there is not a motor to each
machine. The saws for slitting the diamond can thus be made to
revolve much more rapidly, and there is a cleanliness and a speed
about the work never before attained. (G. F. K.)
LAPILLI (pi. of Ital. lapillo, from Lat. lapillus, dim. of lapis,
a stone), a name applied to small fragments of lava ejected from
a volcano. They are generally subangular in shape and vesicular
in structure, varying in size from a pea to a walnut. In the
Neapolitan dialect the word becomes rapilli — a form sometimes
used by English writers on volcanoes. (See VOLCANOES.)
LAPIS LAZULI, or azure stone,1 a mineral substance valued
for decorative purposes in consequence of the fine blue colour
which it usually presents. It appears to have been the sapphire
of ancient writers: thus Theophrastus describes the ffair<j>ei,pos
as being spotted with gold-dust, a description quite inappropriate
to modern sapphire, but fully applicable to lapis lazuli, for this
stone frequently contains disseminated particles of iron-pyrites of
gold-like appearance. Pliny, too, refers to the sapphirus as
a stone sprinkled with specks of gold; and possibly an allusion
to the same character may be found in Job xxviii. 6. The
Hebrew sappir, denoting a stone in the High Priest's breastplate,
was probably lapis lazuli, as acknowledged in the Revised
Version of the Bible. With the ancient Egyptians lapis lazuli
was a favourite stone for amulets and ornaments such as scarabs;
it was also used to a limited extent by the Assyrians and Baby-
lonians for cylinder seals. It has been suggested that the
Egyptians obtained it from Persia in exchange for their emeralds.
When the lapis lazuli contains pyrites, the brilliant spots in the
deep blue matrix invite comparison with the stars in the firma-
ment. The stone seems to have been sometimes called by ancient
writers KVO.VOS. It was a favourite material with the Italians.
of the Cinquecento for vases, small busts and other ornaments.
Magnificent examples of the decorative use of lapis lazuli are to
be seen in St Petersburg, notably in the columns of St Isaac's
cathedral. The beautiful blue colour of lapis lazuli led to its
employment, when ground and levigated, as a valuable pigment
known as ultramarine (?.».), a substance now practically dis-
placed by a chemical product (artificial ultramarine).
Lapis lazuli occurs usually in compact masses, with a finely
granular structure; and occasionally, but only as a great rarity,
1 The Med. Gr. Xofofcptoc, Med. Lat. lazurius or lazulus, as the
names of this mineral substance, were adaptations of the Arab.
al-lazward, Pers. lajward, blue colour, lapis lazuli. The same word
appears in Med. Lat. as azura, whence O.F. azur, Eng. " azure," blue,
particularly used of that colour in heraldry (q.v.) and represented
conventionally in black and white by horizontal lines.
I
200
LAPITHAE— LAPLACE
it presents the form of the rhombic dodecahedron. Its specific
gravity is 2-38 to 2-45, and its hardness about 5-5, so that being
comparatively soft it tends, when polished, to lose its lustre
rather readily. The colour is generally a fine azure or rich
Berlin blue, but some varieties exhibit green, violet and even red
tints, or may be altogether colourless. The colour is sometimes
improved by heating the stone. Under artificial illumination
the dark-blue stones may appear almost black. The mineral
is opaque, with only slight translucency at thin edges.
Analyses of lapis lazuli show considerable variation in com-
position, and this led long ago to doubt as to its homogeneity.
This doubt was confirmed by the microscopic studies of L. H.
Fischer, F. Zirkel and H. P. J. Vogelsang, who found that sections
showed bluish particles in a white matrix; but it was reserved
for Professor W. C. Brogger and H. Backstrom, of Christiania,
to separate the several constituents and subject them to analysis,
thus demonstrating the true constitution of lapis lazuli, and
proving that it is a rock rather than a definite mineral species.
The essential part of most lapis lazuli is a blue mineral allied to
sodalite and crystallized in the cubic system, which Brogger
distinguishes as lazurite, but this is intimately associated with
a closely related mineral which has long been known as haiiyne,
or haiiynite. The lazurite, sometimes regarded as true lapis
lazuli, is a sulphur-bearing sodum and aluminium silicate,
having the formula: Na^NaSsAl) Al2(SiO4)3. As the lazurite
and the haiiynite seem to occur in molecular intermixture,
various kinds of lapis lazuli are formed; and it has been proposed
to distinguish some of them as lazurite-lapis and hauyne-lapis,
according as one or the other mineral prevails. The lazurite
of lapis lazuli is to be carefully distinguished from lazulite, an
aluminium-magnesium phosphate, related to turquoise. In
addition to the blue cubic minerals in lapis lazuli, the following
minerals have also been found: a non-ferriferous diopside,
an amphibole called, from the Russian mineralogist, koksharovite,
orthoclase, plagioclase, a muscovite-like mica, apatite, titanite,
zircon, calcite and pyrite. The calcite seems to form in some
cases a great part of the lapis; and the pyrite, which may occur
in patches, is often altered to limonite.
Lapis lazuli usually occurs in crystalline limestone, and seems
to be a product of contact metamorphism. It is recorded from
Persia, Tartary, Tibet and China, but many of the localities
are vague and some doubtful. The best known and probably
the most important locality is in Badakshan. There it occurs
in limestone, in the valley of the river Kokcha, a tributary to
the Oxus, south of Firgamu. The mines were visited by Marco
Polo in 1271, by J. B. Fraser in 1825, and by Captain John Wood
in 1837-1838. The rock is split by aid of fire. Three varieties
of the lapis lazuli are recognized by the miners: nili of indigo-
blue colour, asmani sky-blue, and sabzi of green tint. Another
locality for lapis lazuli is in Siberia near the western extremity
of Lake Baikal, where it occurs in limestone at its contact with
granite. Fine masses of lapis lazuli occur in the Andes, in
the vicinity of Ovalle, Chile. In Europe lapis lazuli is found
as a rarity in the peperino of Latium, near Rome, and in the
ejected blocks of Monte Somma, Vesuvius. (F. W. R.*)
LAPITHAE, a mythical race, whose home was in Thessaly
in the valley of the Peneus. The genealogies make them a
kindred race with the Centaurs, their king Peirithoiis being the
son, and the Centaurs the grandchildren (or sons) of Ixion.
The best -known legends with which they are connected are those
of Ixion (q.v.) and the battle with the Centaurs (q.v.). A well-
known Lapith was Caeneus, said to have been originally a girl
named Caenis, the favourite of Poseidon, who changed her into
a man and made her invulnerable (Ovid, Metam. xii. 146 ff).
In the Centaur battle, having been crushed by rocks and trunks
of trees, he was changed into a bird; or he disappeared into the
depths of the earth unharmed. According to some, the Lapithae
are representatives of the giants of fable, or spirits of the storm;
according to others, they are a semi-legendary, semi-historical
race, like the Myrmidons and other Thessalian tribes. The
Greek sculptors of the school of Pheidias conceived of the battle
of the Lapithae and Centaurs as a struggle between mankind
and mischievous monsters, and symbolical of the great conflict
between the Greeks and Persians. Sidney Colvin (Journ.
Hellen. Stud. i. 64) explains it as a contest of the physical
powers of nature, and the mythical expression of the terrible
effects of swollen waters. |
LA PLACE (Lat. Placaeus), JOSUE DE (i6o6?-i66s), French
Protestant divine, was born in Brittany. He studied and after-
wards taught philosophy at Saumur. In 1625 he became pastor
of the Reformed Church at Nantes, and in 1632 was appointed
professor of theology at Saumur, where he had as his colleagues,
appointed at the same time, Moses Amyraut and Louis Cappell.
In 1640 he published a work, Theses theologicae de statu hominis
lapsi ante gratiam, which was looked upon with some suspicion
as containing liberal ideas about the doctrine of original sin.
The view that the original sin of Adam was not imputed to his
descendants was condemned at the synod of Charenton (1645),
without special reference being made to La Place, whose position
perhaps was not quite clear. As a matter of fact La Place
distinguished between a direct and indirect imputation, and
after his death his views, as well as those of Amyraut, were
rejected in the Formula consensus of 1675. He died on the i7th
of August 1665.
La Place's defence was published with the title Disputaliones
academicae (3 yols., 1649-1651; and again in 1665); his work De
imputatione primi peccati Adami in 1655. A collected edition of his
works appeared at Franeker in 1699, and at Aubencit in 1702.
LAPLACE, PIERRE SIMON, MARQUIS DE (1749-1827), French
mathematician and astronomer, was born at Beaumont-en-Auge
in Normandy, on the 28th of March 1749. His father was a
small farmer, and he owed his education to the interest excited
by his lively parts in some persons of position. His first dis-
tinctions are said to have been gained in theological controversy,
but at an early age he became mathematical teacher in the military
school of Beaumont, the classes of which he had attended as an
extern. He was not more than eighteen when, armed with
letters of recommendation, he approached J. B. d'Alembert, then
at the height of his fame, in the hope of finding a career in Paris.
The letters remained unnoticed, but Laplace was not crushed by
the rebuff. He wrote to the great geometer a letter on the
principles of mechanics, which evoked an immediate and enthusi-
astic response. " You," said d'Alembert to him, " needed no
introduction; you have recommended yourself; my support
is your due." He accordingly obtained for him an appointment
as professor of mathematics in the Ecole Militaire of Paris, and
continued zealously to forward his interests.
Laplace had not yet completed his twenty-fourth year when
he entered upon the course of discovery which earned him the
title of " the Newton of France." Having in his first published
paper ' shown his mastery of analysis, he proceeded to apply its
resources to the great outstanding problems in celestial mechanics.
Of these the most conspicuous was offered by the opposite
inequalities of Jupiter and Saturn, which the emulous efforts
of L. Euler and J. L. Lagrange had failed to bring within the
bounds of theory. The discordance of their results incited
Laplace to a searching examination of the whole subject of
planetary perturbations, and his maiden effort was rewarded
with a discovery which constituted, when developed and com-
pletely demonstrated by his own further labours and those of
his illustrious rival Lagrange, the most important advance
made in physical astronomy since the time of Newton. In a paper
read before the Academy of Sciences, on the loth of February
1773 (Mlm. presentes par divers savans, torn, vii., 1776), Laplace
announced his celebrated conclusion of the invariability of
planetary mean motions, carrying the proof as far as the cubes
of the eccentricities and inclinations. This was the first and
most important step in the establishment of the stability of the
solar system. It was followed by a series of profound investiga-
tions, in which Lagrange and Laplace alternately surpassed and
supplemented each other in assigning limits of variation to the
several elements of the planetary orbits. The analytical tourna-
ment closed with the communication to the Academy by Laplace,
1 " Recherches sur le calcul integral," Melanges de la Soc. Roy. de
Turin (1766-1769).
LAPLACE
201
in 1787, of an entire group of remarkable discoveries. It would
be difficult, in the whole range of scientific literature, to point
to a memoir of equal brilliancy with that published (divided into
three parts) in the volumes of the Academy for 1784, 1785 and
1786. The long-sought cause of the " great inequality " of
Jupiter and Saturn was found in the near approach to com-
mensurability of their mean motions; it was demonstrated in
two elegant theorems, independently of any except the most
general considerations as to mass, that the mutual action of the
planets could never largely affect the eccentricities and inclina-
tions of their orbits; and the singular peculiarities detected by
him in the Jovian system were expressed in the so-called " laws
of Laplace." He completed the theory of these bodies in a
treatise published among the Paris Memoirs for 1788 and 1789;
and the striking superiority of the tables computed by J. B. J.
Delambre from the data there supplied marked the profit derived
from the investigation by practical astronomy. The year 1787
was rendered further memorable by Laplace's announcement on
the igth of November (Memoirs, 1786), of the dependence of
lunar acceleration upon the secular changes in the eccentricity
of the earth's orbit. The last apparent anomaly, and the last
threat of instability, thus disappeared from the solar system.
With these brilliant performances the first period of Laplace's
scientific career may be said to have closed. If he ceased to
make striking discoveries in celestial mechanics, it was rather
their subject-matter than his powers that failed. The general
working of the great machine was now laid bare, and it needed a
further advance of knowledge to bring a fresh set of problems
within reach .of investigation. The time had come when the
results obtained in the development and application of the law
of gravitation by three generations of illustrious mathematicians
might be presented from a single point of view. To this task
the second period of Laplace's activity was devoted. As a
monument of mathematical genius applied to the celestial
revolutions, the Mecanique celeste ranks second only to the
Principia of Newton.
The declared aim of the author l was to offer a complete solution
of the great mechanical problem presented by the solar system, and
to bring theory to coincide so closely with observation that empirical
equations should no longer find a place in astronomical tables. His
success in both respects fell little short of his lofty ideal. The
first part of the work (2 vols. 410, Paris, 1799) contains methods
for calculating the movements of translation and rotation of the
heavenly bodies, for determining their figures, and resolving tidal
problems; the second, especially dedicated to the improvement of
tables, exhibits in the third and fourth volumes (1802 and 1805) the
application of these formulae; while a fifth volume, published in
three instalments, 1823-1825, comprises the results of Laplace's
latest researches, together with a valuable history of progress in
each separate branch of his subject. In the delicate task of appor-
tioning his own large share of merit, he certainly does not err on
the side of modesty; but it would perhaps be as difficult to produce
an instance of injustice, as of generosity in his estimate of others.
Far more serious blame attaches to his all but total suppression in
the body of the work — and the fault pervades the whole of his
writings — of the names of his predecessors and contemporaries.
Theorems and formulae are appropriated wholesale without acknow-
ledgment, and a production which may be described as the organized
result of a century of patient toil presents itself to the world as the
offspring of a single brain. The Mecanique celeste is, even to those
most conversant with analytical methods, by no means easy reading.
J. B. Biot, who assisted in the correction of its proof sheets, re-
marked that it would have extended, had the demonstrations been
fully developed, to eight or ten instead of five volumes; and he saw
at times the author himself obliged to devote an hour's labour to
recovering the dropped links in the chain of reasoning covered by the
recurring formula. " II est aise' a voir." a
The Exposition du systeme du monde (Paris, 1796) has been
styled by Arago " the Mecanique celeste disembarrassed of its
analytical paraphernalia." Conclusions are not merely stated
in it, but the methods pursued for their attainment are indicated.
It has the strength of an analytical treatise, the charm of a
popular dissertation. The style is lucid and masterly, and the
summary of astronomical history with which it terminates has
been reckoned one of the masterpieces of the language. To this
linguistic excellence the writer owed the place accorded to him
" Plan de 1'Ouvrage," (Euvres, torn. i. p. i.
1 Journal des savants (1850).
in 1816 in the Academy, of which institution he became president
in the following year. The famous " nebular hypothesis " of
Laplace made its appearance in the Systeme du monde. Although
relegated to a note (vii.), and propounded " Avec la defiance que
doit inspirer tout ce qui n'est point un resultat de 1'observation
ou du calcul," it is plain, from the complacency with which he
recurred to it 3 at a later date, that he regarded the speculation
with considerable interest. That it formed the starting-point,
and largely prescribed the course of thought on the subject of
planetary origin is due to the simplicity of its assumptions, and
the clearness of the mechanical principles involved, rather than
to any cogent evidence of its truth. It is curious that Laplace,
while bestowing more attention than they deserved on the crude
conjectures of Buffon, seems to have been unaware that he had
been, to some extent, anticipated by Kant, who had put forward
in 1755, in his Allgemeine Naturgeschichte, a true though defective
nebular cosmogony.
The career of Laplace was one of scarcely interrupted
prosperity. Admitted to the Academy of Sciences as an associate
in 1773, he became a member in 1785, having, about a year
previously, succeeded E. Bezout as examiner to the royal
artillery. During an access of revolutionary suspicion, he was
removed from the commission of weights and measures; but
the slight was quickly effaced by new honours. He was one of
the first members, and became president of the Bureau of
Longitudes, took a prominent place at the Institute (founded in
1796), professed analysis at the Ecole Normale, and aided in the
organization of the decimal system. The publication of the
Mecanique celeste gained him world-wide celebrity, and his name
appeared on the lists of the principal scientific associations of
Europe, including the Royal Society. But scientific distinctions
by no means satisfied his ambition. He aspired to the role of
a politician, and has left a memorable example of genius degraded
to servility for the sake of a riband and a title. The ardour of his
republican principles gave place, after the i8th Brumaire, to
devotion towards the first consul, a sentiment promptly rewarded
with the post of minister of the interior. His incapacity for affairs
was, however, so flagrant that it became necessary to supersede
him at the end of six weeks, when Lucien Bonaparte became his
successor. " He brought into the administration," said Napoleon,
" the spirit of the infinitesimals." His failure was consoled by
elevation to the senate, of which body he became chancellor
in September 1803. He was at the same time named grand
officer of the Legion of Honour, and obtained in 1813 the same
rank in the new order of Reunion. The title of count he had
acquired on the creation of the empire. Nevertheless he cheer-
fully gave his voice in 1814 for the dethronement of his patron,
and his " suppleness " merited a seat in the chamber of peers,
and, in 1817, the dignity of«a marquisate. The memory of these
tergiversations is perpetuated in his writings. The first' edition
of the Systeme du monde was inscribed to the Council of Five
Hundred; to the third volume of the Mecanique celeste (1802)
was prefixed the declaration that, of all the truths contained in
the work, that most precious to the author was the expression
of his gratitude and devotion towards the " pacificator of
Europe "; upon which noteworthy protestation the suppression
in the editions of the Theorie des probability subsequent to the
restoration, of the original dedication to the emperor formed a
fitting commentary.
During the later years of his life, Laplace lived much at
Arcueil, where he had a country-place adjoining that of his
friend C. L. Berthollet. With his co-operation the Societe1
d'Arcueil was formed, and he occasionally contributed to its
Memoirs. In this peaceful retirement he pursued his studies
with unabated ardour, and received with uniform courtesy
distinguished visitors from all parts of the world. Here, too,
he died, attended by his physician, Dr Majendie, and his mathe-
matical coadjutor, Alexis Bouvard, on the 5th of March 1827.
His last words were: " Ce que nous connaissons est peu de
chose, ce que nous ignorons est immense."
Expressions occur in Laplace's private letters inconsistent
3 Mec. eel., torn. v. p. 346.
202
LAPLACE
with the atheistical opinions he is commonly believed to have
held. His character, notwithstanding the egotism by which it
was disfigured, had an amiable and engaging side. Young
men of science found in him an active benefactor. His relations
with these " adopted children of his thought " possessed a singular
charm of affectionate simplicity; their intellectual progress
and material interests were objects of equal solicitude to him,
and he demanded in return only diligence in the pursuit of
knowledge. Biot relates that, when he himself was beginning
his career, Laplace introduced him at the Institute for the
purpose of explaining his supposed discovery of equations of
mixed differences, and afterwards showed him, under a strict
pledge of secrecy, the papers, then yellow with age, in which he
had long before obtained the same results. This instance of
abnegation is the more worthy of record that it formed a marked
exception to Laplace's usual course. Between him and A. M.
Legendre there was a feeling of " more than coldness," owing
to his appropriation, with scant acknowledgment, of the fruits
of the other's labours; and Dr Thomas Young counted himself,
rightly or wrongly, amongst the number of those similarly
aggrieved by him. With Lagrange, on the other hand, he
always remained on the best of terms. Laplace left a son, Charles
Emile Pierre Joseph Laplace (1780-1874), who succeeded to his
title, and rose to the rank of general in the artillery.
It might be said that Laplace was a great mathematician by
the original structure of his mind, and became a great discoverer
through the sentiment which animated it. The regulated
enthusiasm with which he regarded the system of nature was
with him from first to last. It can be traced in his earliest essay,
and it dictated the ravings of his final illness. By it his extra-
ordinary analytical powers became strictly subordinated to
physical investigations. To this lofty quality of intellect he
added a rare sagacity in perceiving analogies, and in detecting
the new truths that lay concealed in his formulae, and a tenacity
of mental grip, by which problems, once seized, were held fast,
year after year, until they yielded up their solutions. In every
branch of physical astronomy, accordingly, deep traces of his
work are visible. " He would have completed the science of the
skies," Baron Fourier remarked," had the science been capable
of completion."
It may be added that he first examined the conditions of stability
of the system formed by Saturn's rings, pointed out the necessity for
their rotation, and fixed for it a period (ioh33m ) virtually identical
with that established by the observations of Herschel; that he
detected the existence in the solar system of an invariable plane such
that the sum of the products of the planetary masses by the pro-
jections upon it of the areas described by their radii vectores in a given
time is a maximum; and made notable advances in the theory of
astronomical refraction (Mec. eel. torn. iv. p. 258), besides construct-
ing satisfactory formulae for the barometrical determination of
heights (Mec. eel. torn. iv. p. 324). Hi* removal of the considerable
discrepancy between the actual and Newtonian velocities of sound,1
by taking into account the increase of elasticity due to the heat of
compression, would alone have sufficed to illustrate a lesser name.
Molecular physics also attracted his notice, and he announced in
1824 his purpose of treating the subject in a separate work. With
A. Lavoisier he made an important series of experiments on specific
heat (1,782-1784), in the course of which the " ice calorimeter " was
invented; and they contributed jointly to the Memoirs of the
Academy (1781)3 paper on the development of electricity by evapora-
tion. Laplace was, moreover, the first to offer a complete analysis
of capillary action based upon a definite hypothesis — that of forces
" sensible only at insensible distances "; and he made strenuous but
unsuccessful efforts to explain the phenomena of light on an identical
principle. It was a favourite idea of his that chemical affinity and
capillary attraction would eventually be included under the same
law, and it was perhaps because of its recalcitrance to this cherished
generalization that the undulatory theory of light was distasteful to
him.
The investigation of the figure of equilibrium of a rotating fluid
mass engaged the persistent attention of Laplace. His first memoir
was communicated to the Academy in 1 773, when he was only twenty-
four, his last in 1817, when he was sixty-eight. The results of his
many papers on this subject — characterized by him as " un des points
les plus interessans du syst£me du monde — are embodied in the
Mecanique celeste, and furnish one of the most remarkable proofs
of his analytical genius. C. Maclaurin, Legendre and d'Alembert
had furnished partial solutions of the problem, confining their
1 Annales de chimie et de physique (1816), torn. iii. p. 238.
attention to the possible figures which would satisfy the conditions of
equilibrium. Laplace treated the subject from the point of view of
the gradual aggregation and cooling of a mass of matter, and demon-
strated that the form which such a mass would ultimately assume
must be an ellipsoid of revolution whose equator was determined by
the primitive plane of maximum areas.
The related subject of the attraction of spheroide was also signally
promoted by him. Legendre, in 1783, extended Maclaurin's theorem
concerning ellipsoids of revolution to the case of any spheroid of
revolution where the attracted point, instead of being limited to the
axis or equator, occupied any position in space; and Laplace, in his
treatise Theorie du mouvement et de la figure elliptique des planetes
(published in 1784), effected a still further generalization by proving,
what had been suspected by Legendre, that the theorem was equally
true for any confocal ellipsoids. Finally, in a celebrated memoir,
Theorie des attractions des spheroides et de la figure des planetes,
published in 1785 among the Paris Memoirs for the year 1782,
although written after the treatise of 1784, Laplace treated ex-
haustively the general problem of the attraction of any spheroid upon
a particle situated outside or upon its surface.
These researches derive additional importance from having intro-
duced two powerful engines of analysis for the treatment of physical
problems, Laplace's coefficients and the potential function. By his
discovery that the attracting force in any direction of a mass upon a
particle could be obtained by the direct process of differentiating a
single function, Laplace laid the foundations of the mathematical
sciences of heat, electricity and magnetism. The expressions
designated by Dr Whewell, Laplace's coefficients (see SPHERICAL
HARMONICS) were definitely introduced in the memoir of 1785 on
attractions above referred to. In the figure of the earth, the theory
of attractions, and the sciences of electricity and magnetism this
powerful calculus occupies a prominent place. C. F. Gauss in particu-
lar employed it in the calculation of the magnetic potential of the
earth, and it received new light from Clerk Maxwell's interpretation
of harmonics with reference to poles on the sphere.
Laplace nowhere displayed the massiveness of his genius more
conspicuously than in the theory of probabilities. The science which
B. Pascal and P. de Fermat had initiated he brought very nearly
to perfection; but the demonstrations are so involved, and the
omissions in the chain of reasoning so frequent, that the Theorie
analytique (1812) is to the best mathematicians a work requiring
most arduous study. The theory of probabilities, which Laplace
described as common sense expressed in mathematical language,
engaged his attention from its importance in physics and astronomy;
and he applied his theory, not only to the ordinary problems of
chances, but also to the inquiry into the causes of phenomena, vital
statistics and future events.
The device known as the method of least squares, for reducing
numerous equations of condition to the number of unknown quantities
to be determined, had been adopted as a practically convenient rule
by Gauss and Legendre ; but Laplace first treated it as a problem
in probabilities, and proved by an intricate and difficult course of
reasoning that it was also the most advantageous, the mean of the
probabilities of error in the determination of the elements being
thereby reduced to a minimum.
Laplace published in 1779 the method of generating functions, the
foundation of his theory of probabilities, and the first part of his
Theorie analytique is devoted to the exposition of its principles,
which in their simplest form consist in treating the successive values
of any function as the coefficients in the expansion of another
function with reference to a different variable. The latter is there-
fore called the generating function of the former. A direct and an
inverse calculus is thus created, the object of the former being to
determine the coefficients from the generating function, of the
latter to discover the generating function from the coefficients.
The one is a problem of interpolation, the other a step towards the
solution of an equation in finite differences. The method, however,
is now obsolete owing to the more extended facilities afforded by
the calculus of operations.
The first formal proof of Lagrange's theorem for the development
in a series of an implicit function was furnished by Laplace, who
gave to it an extended generality. He also showed that every
equation of an even degree must have at least one real quadratic
factor, reduced the solution of linear differential equations to
definite integrals, and furnished an elegant method by which the
linear partial differential equation of the second order might be
solved. He was also the first to consider the difficult problems
involved in equations of mixed differences, and to prove that an
equation in finite differences of the first degree and the second order
might always be converted into a continued fraction.
In 1842, the works of Laplace being nearly out of print, his widow
was about to sell a farm to procure funds for a new impression, when
the government of Louis Philippe took the matter in hand. A grant
of 40,000 francs having been obtained from the chamber, a national
edition was issued in seven 410 vols., bearing the title CEuvres de
Laplace (1843-1847). The Mecanique celeste with its four supple-
ments occupies the first 5 vols., the 6th contains the Systeme du
monde, and the 7th the Th. des probabilites, to which the more popular
Essai philosophique forms an introduction. Of the four supplements
added by the author (1816-1825) he tells us that the problems in the
LAPLAND
203
last were contributed by his son. An enumeration of Laplace's
memoirs and papers (about one hundred in number) is rendered
superfluous by their embodiment in his principal works. The Th.
des prob. was first published in 1812, the Essai in 1814; and both
works as well as the Systeme du monde went through repeated
editions. An English version of the Essai appeared in New York in
1902. Laplace's first separate work, Theorie du mouvement et de la
figure elliptique des planetes (1784), was published at the expense
of President Bochard de Saron. The Precis de I'histoire de I'astro-
nomie (1821), formed the fifth book of the 5th edition of the Systeme
du monde. An English translation, with copious elucidatory notes,
of the first 4 vols. of the Mecanique celeste, by N. Bowditch, was
published at Boston, U.S. (1829-1839), in 4 vols. 4to. ; a compendium
of certain portions of the same work by Mrs Somerville appeared in
1831, and a German version of the first 2 vols. by Burckhardt at
Berlin in 1801. English translations of the Systeme du monde by
J. Pond and H. H. Harte were published, the first in 1809, the
second in 1830. An edition entitled Les CEuvres completes de Laplace
(1878), &c., which is to include all his memoirs as well as his separate
works, is in course of publication under the auspices of the Academy
of Sciences. The thirteenth 410 volume was issued in 1904. Some
of Laplace's results in the theory of probabilities are simplified in
S. F. Lacroix's Traite elementaire du calcul des probabilites and De
Morgan's Essay, published in Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia. For
the history of the subject see A History of the Mathematical Theory of
Probability, by Isaac Todhunter (1865). Laplace's treatise on
specific heat was published in German in 1892 as No. 40 of W.
Ostwald's Klassiker der exacten Wissenschaften.
AUTHORITIES. — Baron Fourier's Eloge, Memoires de I'institut, x.
Ixxxi. (1831); Revue encyclopedique, xliii. (1829); S. D. Poisson's
Funeral Oration (Conn, des Temps, 1830, p. 19); F. X. von Zach,
Allg. geographische Ephemeriden, iv. 70 (1799); F. Arago, Annuaire
du Bureau des Long. 1844, p. 271, translated among Arago's Bio-
graphies of Distinguished Men (1857); J. S. Bailly, Hist, de I'astr.
moderne, t. iii.; R. Grant, Hist, of Phys. Astr. p. 50, &c. ; A. Berry,
Short Hist, of Astr. p. 306; Max Marie, Hist, des sciences t. x. pp.
69-98; R. Wolf, Geschichte der Astronomie; J. Madler, Gesch. der
Himmelskunde, i. 17; W. Whewell, Hist, of the Inductive Sciences, ii.
passim; J. C. Poggendorff, Biog-lit. Handworterbuch. (A. M. C.)
LAPLAND, or LAPPLAND, a name used to indicate the region
of northern Europe inhabited by the Lapps, though not applied
to any administrative district. It covers in Norway the division
(amter) of Finmarken and the higher inland parts of Tromso and
Nordland; in Russian territory the western part of the govern-
ment of Archangel as far as the White Sea and the northern
part of the Finnish district of Uleaborg; and in Sweden the
inland and northern parts of the old province of Norrland,
roughly coincident with the districts (Ian) of Norbotten and
Vesterbotten, and divided into five divisions — Torne Lappmark,
Lule Lappmark, Pile Lappmark, Lycksele Lappmark and
Asele Lappmark. The Norwegian portion is thus insignificant;
of the Russian only a little lies south of the Arctic circle, and the
whole is less accessible and more sparsely populated than the
Swedish, the southern boundary of which may be taken arbit-
rarily at about 64° N., though scattered families of Lapps occur
much farther south, even in the Hardanger Fjeld in Norway.
The Scandinavian portion of Lapland presents the usual
characteristics of the mountain plateau of that peninsula — on the
west side the bold headlands and fjords, deeply-grooved valleys
and glaciers of Norway, on the east the long mountain lakes and
great lake-fed rivers of Sweden. Russian Lapland is broadly
similar to the lower-lying parts of Swedish Lapland, but the
great lakes are more generally distributed, and the valleys are
less direct. The country is low and gently undulating, broken
by detached hills and ridges not exceeding in elevation 2500 ft.
In the uplands of Swedish Lapland, and to some extent in
Russian Lapland, the lakes afford the principal means of com-
munication; it is almost impossible to cross the forests from
valley to valley without a native guide. In Sweden the few farms
of the Swedes who inhabit the region are on the lake shores,
and the traveller must be rowed from one to another in the
typical boats of the district, pointed at bow and stern, unusually
low amidships, and propelled by short sculls or paddles. Sailing
is hardly ever practised, and squalls on the lakes are often
dangerous to the rowing-boats. On a few of the lakes wood-fired
steam-launches are used in connexion with the timber trade,
which is considerable, as practically the whole region is forested.
Between the lakes all journeying is made on foot. The heads
of the Swedish valleys are connected with the Norwegian fjords
by passes generally traversed only by tracks; though from
the head of the Ume a driving road crosses to Mo on Ranen
Fjord. Each principal valley has a considerable village at
or near the tail of the lake-chain, up to which a road runs along
the valley. The village consists of wooden cottages with an inn
(gastgifvaregdrd), a church, and frequently a collection of huts
without windows, closed in summer, but inhabited by the Lapps
when they come down from the mountains to the winter fairs.
Sometimes there is another church and small settlement in the
upper valley, to which, once or twice in a summer, the Lapps
come from great distances to attend service. To these, too, they
sometimes bring their dead for burial, bearing them if necessary
on a journey of many days. Though Lapland gives little scope
for husbandry, a bad summer being commonly followed by a
winter famine, it is richly furnished with much that is serviceable
to man. There are copper-mines at the mountain of Sulitelma,
and the iron deposits in Norrland are among the most extensive
in the world. Their working is facilitated by the railway from
Stockholm to Gellivara, Kirunavara and Narvik on the Nor-
wegian coast, which also connects them with the port of Lulea
on the Gulf of Bothnia. The supply of timber (pine, fir, spruce
and birch) is unlimited. Though fruit-trees will not bear there
is an .abundance of edible berries; the rivers and lakes abound
with trout, perch, pike and other fish, and in the lower waters
with salmon; and the cod, herring, halibut and Greenland
shark in the northern seas attract numerous Norwegian and
Russian fishermen.
The climate is thoroughly Arctic. In the northern parts
unbroken daylight in summer and darkness in winter last from
two to three months each; and through the greater part of the
country the sun does not rise at mid-winter or set at midsummer.
In December and January in the far north there is little more
daylight than a cold glimmer of dawn; by February, however,
there are some hours of daylight; in March the heat of the sun
is beginning to modify the cold, and now and in April the birds of
passage begin to appear. In April the snow is melting from the
branches; spring comes in May; spring flowers are in blossom,
and grain is sown. At the end of this month or in June the ice
is breaking up on the lakes, woods rush into leaf, and the unbroken
daylight of the northern summer soon sets in. July is quite
warm; the great rivers come down full from the melting snows
in the mountains. August is a rainy month, the time of harvest ;
night-frosts may begin already about the middle of the month.
All preparations for winter are made during September and
October, and full winter has set in by November.
The Lapps. — The Lapps (Swed. Lappar; Russian Lopari;
Norw. Finner) call their country Sabme or Same, and themselves
Samelats — names almost identical with those employed by the
Finns for their country and race, and probably connected with
a root signifying " dark." Lapp is almost certainly a nickname
imposed by foreigners, although some of the Lapps apply it
contemptuously to those of their countrymen whom they think
to be less civilized than themselves.1
In Sweden and Finland the Lapps are usually divided into
fisher, mountain and forest Lapps. In Sweden the first class
includes many impoverished mountain Lapps. As described
by Laestadius (1827-1832), their condition was very miserable;
but since his time matters have improved. The principal colony
has its summer quarters on the Stora-Lule Lake, possesses good
boats and nets, and, besides catching and drying fish, makes
money by the shooting of wild fowl and the gathering of eggs.
When he has acquired a little means it is not unusual for the
fisher to settle down and reclaim a bit of land. The mountain
and forest Lapps are the true representatives of the race. In
the wandering life of the mountain Lapp his autumn residence,
on the borders of the forest district, may be considered as the
central point; it is there that he erects his njalla, a small wooden
storehouse raised high above the ground by one or more piles.
About the beginning of November he begins to wander south or
east into the forest land, and in the winter he may visit, not only
1 The most probable etymology is the Finnish lappu, and in this
case the meaning would be the " land's end folk."
204
LAPLAND
such places as Jokkmokk and Arjepluog, but even Gefle, Upsala
or Stockholm. About the beginning of May he is back at his
njalla, but as soon as the weather grows warm he pushes up to
the mountains, and there throughout the summer pastures
his herds and prepares his store of cheese. By autumn or
October he is busy at his njalla killing the tsurplus reindeer
bulls and curing meat for the winter. From the mountain
Lapp the forest (or, as he used to be called, the spruce-fir) Lapp
is mainly distinguished by the narrower limits within which
he pursues his nomadic life. He never wanders outside of a
certain district, in which he possesses hereditary rights, and
maintains a series of camping-grounds which he visits in regular
rotation. In May or April he lets his reindeer loose, to wander
as they please; but immediately after midsummer, when the
mosquitoes become troublesome, he goes to collect them.
Catching a single deer and belling it, he drives it through the
wood; the other deer, whose instinct leads them to gather
into herds for mutual protection against the mosquitoes, are
attracted by the sound. Should the summer be very cool and
the mosquitoes few, the Lapp finds it next to impossible to bring
the creatures together. About the end of August they are
again let loose, but they are once more collected in October,
the forest Lapp during winter pursuing the same course of life
as the mountain Lapp.
In Norway there are three classes — the sea Lapps, the river
Lapps and the mountain Lapps, the first two settled, the third
nomadic. The mountain Lapps have a rather ruder and harder
life than the same class in Sweden. About Christmas those of
Kautokeino and Karasjok are usually settled in the neighbourhood
of the churches; in summer they visit the coast, and in autumn
they return inland. Previous to 1852, when they were forbidden
by imperial decree, they were wont in winter to move south across
the Russian frontiers. It is seldom possible for them to remain
more than three or four days in one spot. Flesh is their favourite,
in winter almost their only food, though they also use reindeer
milk, cheese and rye or barley cakes. The sea Lapps are in
some respects hardly to be distinguished from the other coast
dwellers of Finmark. Their food consists mainly of cooked
fish. The river Lapps, many of whom, however, are descendants
of Finns proper, breed cattle, attempt a little tillage and entrust
their reindeer to the care of mountain Lapps.
In Finland there are comparatively few Laplanders, and the
great bulk of them belong to the fisher class. Many are settled
in the neighbourhood of the Enare Lake. In the spring they go
down to the Norwegian coast and take part in the sea fisheries,
returning to the lake about midsummer. Formerly they found
the capture of wild reindeer a profitable occupation, using for
this purpose a palisaded avenue gradually narrowing towards
a pitfall.
The Russian Lapps are also for the most part fishers, as is
natural in a district with such an extent of coast and such a
number of lakes, not to mention the advantage which the fisher
has over the reindeer keeper in connexion with the many fasts
of the Greek Church. They maintain a half nomadic life, very
few having become settlers in the Russian villages. It is usual
to distinguish them according to the district of the coast which
they frequent, as Murman (Murmanski) and Terian (Terski)
Lapps. A separate tribe, the Filmans, i.e Finnmans, wander
about the Pazyets, Motov and Pechenga tundras, and retain
the peculiar dialect and the Lutheran creed which they owe to
a former connexion with Sweden. They were formerly known
as the " twice and thrice tributary " Lapps, because they paid
to two or even three states — Russia, Denmark and Sweden.
The Lapps within the historical period have considerably
recruited themselves from neighbouring races. Shortness of
stature1 is their most obvious characteristic, though in regard
to this much exaggeration has prevailed. Dtiben found .an
average of 4-9 ft. for males and a little less for females; Mante-
gazza, who made a number of anthropological observations in
Norway in 1879, gives 5 ft. and 4-75 ft., respectively (Archimo
1 Hence they have been supposed by many to be the originals of
the " little folk " of Scandinavian legend.
per Vantrop., 1880). Individuals much above or much below
the average are rare. The body is usually of fair proportions,
but the legs are rather short, and in many cases somewhat bandy.
Dark, swarthy, yellow, copper-coloured are all adjectives
employed to describe their complexion — the truth being that
their habits of life do not conduce either to the preservation or
display of the natural colour of their skin, and that some of
them are really fair, and others, perhaps the majority, really
dark. The colour of the hair ranges from blonde and reddish
to a bluish or greyish black; the eyes are black, hazel, blue
or grey. The shape of the skull is the most striking peculiarity
of the Lapp. He is the most brachycephalous type of man in
Europe, perhaps in the world.2 According to Virchow, the
women in width of face are more Mongolian in type than the
men, but neither in men nor women does the opening of the
eye show any true obliquity. In children the eye is large,
open and round. The nose is always low and broad, more
markedly retrousse among the females than the males. Wrinkled
and puckered by exposure to the weather, the faces even of
the younger Lapps assume an appearance of old age. The
muscular system is usually well developed, but there is deficiency
of fatty tissue, which affects the features (particularly by giving
relative prominence to the eyes) and the general character
of the skin. The thinness of the skin, indeed, can but rarely be
paralleled among other Europeans. Among the Lapps, as among
other lower races, the index is shorter than the ring finger.
The Lapps are a quiet, inoffensive people. Crimes of violence
are almost unknown, and the only common breach of law is the
killing of tame reindeer belonging to other owners. In Russia,
however, they have a bad reputation for lying and general
untrustworthiness, and drunkenness is well-nigh a universal vice.
In Scandinavia laws have been directed against the importation
of intoxicating liquors into the Lapp country since 1723.
Superficially at least the great bulk of the Lapps have been
Christianized — those of the Scandinavian countries being Pro-
testants, those of Russia members of the Greek Church. Al-
though the first attempt to convert the Lapps to Christianity
seems to have been made in the nth century, the worship of
heathen idols was carried on openly in Swedish Lappmark as
late as 1687, and secretly in Norway down to the first quarter
of the 1 8th century, while the practices of heathen rites survived
into the igth century, if indeed they are extinct even yet. Lapp
graves, prepared in the heathen manner, have been discovered
in upper Namdal (Norway), belonging to the years 1820 and
1826. In education the Scandinavian Lapps are far ahead of
their Russian brethren, to whom reading and writing are arts
as unfamiliar as they were to their pagan ancestors. The
general manner of life is patriarchal. The father of the family
has complete authority over all its affairs; and on his death this
authority passes to the eldest son. Parents are free to disinherit
their children; and, if a son separates from the family without
his father's permission, he receives no share of the property
except a gun and his wife's dowry.3
The Lapps are of necessity conservative in most of their habits,
many of which can hardly have altered since the first taming of
the reindeer. But the strong current of mercantile enterprise
has carried a few important products of southern civilization into
their huts. The lines in which James Thomson describes their
simple life —
The reindeer form their riches: these their tents,
Their robes, their beds, and all their homely wealth
Supply ; their wholesome fare and cheerful cups —
are still applicable in the main to the mountain Lapps; but
even they have learned to use coffee as an ordinary beverage
and to wear stout Norwegian cloth (vadmal).
Linguistically the Lapps belong to the Finno-Ugrian group
(q.v.) ; the similarity of their speech to Finnish is evident though
2 Bertillon found in one instance a cephalic index of 94. The
average obtained by Pruner Bey was 84-7, by Virchow 82-5.
3 A valuable paper by Ephimenko, on " The Legal Customs of
the Lapps, especially in Russian Lapland," appeared in vol. viii. of
the Mem. of Russ. Geog. Soc., Ethnog. Section, 1878.
LAPLAND
205
the phonetics are different and more complicated. It is broken up
into very distinct and even mutually unintelligible dialects, the
origin of several of which is, however, easily found in the political
and social dismemberment of the people. Diiben distinguishes
four leading dialects; but a much greater number are recognizable.
In Russian Lapland alone there are three, due to the influence of
Norwegian, Karelian and Russian (Lonnrot, Acta Soc. Sci. Fennicae,
vol. iv.). "The Lapps," says Castren, "have had the misfortune
to come into close contact with foreign races while their language
was yet in its tenderest infancy, and consequently it has not only
adopted an endless number of foreign words, but in many gram-
matical aspects fashioned itself after foreign models." That it
began at a very early period to enrich itself with Scandinavian
words is shown by the use it still makes of forms belonging to a
linguistic stage older even than that of Icelandic. Diiben
Language. ]las subjected the vocabulary to a very interesting analysis
for the purpose of discovering what stage of culture the people had
reached before their contact with the Norse. Agricultural terms,
the names of the metals and the word for smith are all of ^Scandi-
navian origin, and the words for " taming " and " milk " would
suggest that the southern strangers taught the Lapps how to turn
the reindeer to full account. The important place, however, which
this creature must always have held in their estimation is evident
from the existence of more than three hundred native words in con-
nexion with reindeer.
The Lapp tongue was long ago reduced to writing by the mission-
aries; but very little has been printed in it except school-books and
religious works. A number of popular tales and songs, indeed, have
been taken down from the lips of the people. The songs are similar
to those of the Finns, and a process of mutual borrowing seems to
have gone on. In one of the saga-like pieces — Pishan-Peshan's son —
there seems to be a mention of the Baikal Lake, and possibly also
of the Altai Mountains. The story of Njavvisena, daughter of the
Sun, is full of quaint folk-lore about the taming of the reindeer.
Giants, as well as a blind or one-eyed monster, are frequently intro-
duced, and the Aesopic fable is not without its representatives.
Many of the Lapps are able to speak one or even two of the neigh-
bouring tongues.
The reputation of the Laplanders for skill in magic and divination
is of very early date, and in Finland is not yet extinct. When Erik
Blood-axe, son of Harold Haarfager, visited Bjarmaland in 922, he
found Gunhild, daughter of Asur Tote, living among the Lapps, to
whom she had been sent by her father for the purpose of being
trained in witchcraft; and Ivan the Terrible of Russia sent for
magicians from Lapland to explain the cause of the appearance of a
comet. One of the powers with which they were formerly credited
was that of raising winds. " They tye three knottes," says old
Richard Eden, " on a strynge hangyng at a whyp. When they lose
one of these they rayse tollerable wynds. When they lose an other
the wynde is more vehement; but by losing the thyrd they rayse
playne tempestes as in old tyme they were accustomed to rayse
thunder and lyghtnyng " (Hist, of Trauayle, 1577). Though we are
familiar in English with allusions to " Lapland witches," it appears
that the art, according to native custom, was in the hands of the
men. During his divination the wizard fell into a state of trance or
ecstasy, his soul being held to run at large to pursue its
witfh' inquiries. Great use was made of a curious divining-
drum, oval in shape and made of wood, I to 4 ft. in length.
Over the upper surface was stretched a white-dressed reindeer skin,
and at the corners (so to speak) hung a variety of charms — tufts of
wool, bones, teeth, claws, &c. The area was divided into several
spaces, often into three, one for the celestial gods, one for the
terrestrial and one for man. A variety of figures and conventional
signs were drawn in the several compartments: the sun, for in-
stance, is frequently represented by a square and a stroke from each
corner, Thor by two hammers placed crosswise; and in the more
modern specimens symbols for Christ, the Virgin, and the Holy
Ghost are introduced. An arpa or divining-rod was laid on a
definite spot, the drum beaten by a hammer, and conclusions drawn
from the position taken up by the arpa. Any Lapp who had attained
to manhood could in ordinary circumstances consult the drum for
himself, but in matters of unusual moment the professional wizard
(naid, noide or noaide) had to be called in.
History. — The Lapps have a dim tradition that their ancestors
lived in a far eastern land, and they tell rude stories of conflicts
with Norsemen and Karelians. But no answer can be obtained
from them in regard to their early distribution and movements.
It has been maintained that they were formerly spread over the
whole of the Scandinavian peninsula, and they have even been
considered the remnants of that primeval race of cave-dwellers
which hunted the reindeer over the snow-fields of central and
western Europe. But much of the evidence adduced for these
theories is highly questionable. The contents of the so-called
Lapps' graves found in vaiious parts of Scandinavia are often
sufficient in themselves to show that the appellation must be a
misnomer, and the syllable Lap or Lapp found in many names
of places can often be proved to have no connnexion with the
pps.1 They occupied their present territory when they are
first mentioned in history. According to Diiben the name first
occurs in the i3th century — in the Fundinn Noregr, composed
about 1 200, in Saxo Grammaticus, and in a papal bull of date
1230; but the people are probably to be identified with those
Finns of Tacitus whom he describes as wild hunters with skins
'or clothing and rude huts as only means of shelter, and certainly
with the Skrithiphinoi of Procopius (Goth. ii. 15), the Scritobini
of Paulus Warnefridus, and the Scridifinni of the geographer of
Ravenna. Some of the details given by Procopius, in regard
:or instance to the treatment of infants, show that his informant
was acquainted with certain characteristic customs of the Lapps.
In the 9th century the Norsemen from Norway began to treat
;heir feeble northern neighbours as a subject race. The wealth of
Dttar, " northmost of the northmen," whose narrative has been
areserved by King Alfred, consisted mainly of six hundred of those
" deer they call hrenas " and in tribute paid by the natives; and
the Eigils saga tells how Brynjulf Bjargulfson had his right to
collect contributions from the Finns (i.e. the Lapps) recognized by
Harold Haarfager. So much value was attached to this source of
wealth that as early as 1050 strangers were excluded from the fur-
trade of Finmark, and a kind of coast-guard prevented their intrusion.
Meantine the Karelians were pressing on the eastern Lapps, and
in the course of the llth century the rulers of Novgorod began to
treat them as the Norsemen had treated their western brethren.
The ground-swell of the Tatar invasion drove the Karelians west-
ward in the I3th century, and for many years even Finmark was so
unsettled that the Norsemen received no tribute from the Lapps.
At length in 1326 a treaty was concluded between Norway and
Russia by which the supremacy of the Norwegians over the Lapps
was recognized as far east as Voljo beyond Kandalax on the White
Sea, and the supremacy of the Russians over the Karelians as far
as Lyngen and the Malself. The relations of the Lapps to their
more powerful neighbours were complicated by the rivalry of the
different Scandinavian kingdoms. After the disruption of the
Calmar Union (1523) Sweden began to assert its rights with vigour,
and in 1595 the treaty of Teusina between Sweden and Russia
decreed " that the Lapps who dwell in the woods between eastern
Bothnia and Varanger shall pay their dues to the king of Sweden."
It was in vain that Christian IV. of Denmark visited Kola and
exacted homage in 1599, and every year sent messengers to protest
against the collection of his tribute by the Swedes (a custom which
continued down to 1806). Charles of Sweden took the title of " king
of the Kajans and Lapps," and left no means untried to establish
his power over all Scandinavian Lapland. By the peace of Knarod
(1613) Gustavus Adolphus gave up the Swedish claim to Finmark;
and in 1751 mutual renunciations brought the relations of Swedish
and Norwegian (Danish) Lapland to their present position. Mean-
while Russian influence had been spreading westward; and in
1809, when Alexander I. finally obtained the cession of Finland, he
also added to his dominions the whole of Finnish Lapland to the
east of the Muonio and the Kongama. It may be interesting to
mention that Lapps, armed with bows and arrows, were attached
to certain regiments of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany during the
Thirty Years' War.
The Lapps have had the ordinary fate of a subject and defenceless
people; they have been utilized with little regard to their own
interest or inclinations. The example set by the early Norwegians
was followed by the Swedes: a peculiar class of adventurers known
as the Birkarlians (from Bjark or Birk, " trade ") began in the I3th
century to farm the Lapps, and, receiving very extensive privileges
from the kings, grew to great wealth and influence. In 1606 there
were twenty-two Birkarlians in Tornio, seventeen in Lule, sixteen
in Pite, and sixty-six in Ume Lappmark. They are regularly spoken
of as having or owning Lapps, whom they dispose of as any other
piece of property. In Russian Lapland matters followed much the
same course. The very institutions of the Solovets monastery, in-
tended by St Tryphon for the benefit of the poor neglected pagans,
turned out the occasion of much injustice towards them. By a
charter of Ivan Vasilivitch (November 1556), the monks are declared
masters of the Lapps of the Motoff and Petchenga districts, and
they soon sought to extend their control over those not legally
assigned to them (Ephimenko). Other monasteries were gifted
1 The view that the Lapps at one time occupied the whole of the
Scandinavian peninsula, and have during the course of centuries
been driven back by the Swedes and Norwegians is disproved by
the recent investigations of Yngvar Nielsen, K. B. Wiklund and
others. The fact is, the Lapps are increasing in numbers, as well
as pushing their way farther and farther south. In the beginning
of the i6th century their southern border-line in Norway ran on the
upper side of 64° N. In 1890 they forced their way to the head of the
Hardanger Fjord in 60° N. In Sweden the presence of Lapps as far
south as Jamtland (or Jemtland) is first mentioned in 1564. In
1881 they pushed on into the north of Dalecarlia, about 61° 45'N.
206
LA PLATA— LAPPA
with similar proprietary rights; and the supplication of the patriarch
Nikon to Alexis Mikhaelovitch, for example, shows clearly the
oppression to which the Lapps were subjected.
It is long, however, since these abuses were abolished; and in
Scandinavia more especially the Lapps of the present day enjoy the
advantages resulting from a large amount of philanthropic legisla-
tion on the part of their rulers. There seems to be no fear of their
becoming extinct, except it may be by gradual amalgamation with
their more powerful neighbours. In Norway the total number of
Lapps was 20,786 in 1891, and in Sweden in 1904 it was officially
estimated that there were 7000. Add to these some 3000 for Russian
Lapland, and the total Lapp population approximates to 30,000.
In Sweden the Lapps are gradually abandoning their nomadic
habits and becoming merged in the Swedish population. The
majority of the Norwegian Lapps lead a semi-nomadic existence;
but the number of inveterate nomads can scarcely reach 1500 at
the present day. In Sweden there are about 3500 nomads.
AUTHORITIES. — G. von Diiben, Om Lappland och Lapparne
(Stockholm, 1873), with list of over 200 authorities; C. Rabot,
" La Laponie suedoise d'apres les recentes explorations de MM.
Svenonius et Hamberg," La Geographic, Soc. Geog. de Paris VII.
(1903) ; S. Passarge, Fahrten in Schweden, besonders in Nordschweden
und Lappland (Berlin, 1897) ; Bayard Taylor, Northern Travel
(London, 1858); E. Rae, The While Sea Peninsula (London, 1882),
and Land of the North Wind (London, 1875); P. B. du Chaillu,
Land of the Midnight Sun (London, 1881); S. Tromholt, Under
the Rays of the Aurora Borealis (London, 1885); Y. Nielsen, Det
Norske geogr. Selskabs Aarbog (1891); H. H. Reusch, Folk og natur
i Finmarken (1895); K. B. Wicklund, De Svenska nomadlapparnas
Ayttningar till Norge i dlore och nyare tid (Upsala, 1908) ; see also
SWEDEN. Among older works may be mentioned Scheffer, Lapponia
(Frankfurt, 1673, English trans. Oxford, 1674) ; Regnard, Voyage
de Laponie, English version in Pinkerton's Voyages, vol. i.; Leem,
Besknvelse over Finmarkens Lapper (Copenhagen, 1767), in Danish
and Latin; see also Pinkerton, loc. cit.\ Sir A. de C. Brooke, A
Winter in Lapland (London, 1827); Laestadius, Journal (1831).
As to the language, J. A. Friis, professor of Lapp in the university
of Christiania, has published Lappiske Sprogprover: en samling
lapp. eventyr, ordsprog, og g&der (Christiania, 1856), and Lappish
mythologi eventyr og folkesagn (Christiania, 1871). See also G.
Donner, Lieder der Lappen (Helsingfors, 1876); Poestion, Lapp-
landische Mdrchen, &c. (Vienna, 1885). Grammars of the Lapp
tongue have been published by Fjellstrom (1738), Leem (1748), Rask
(1832), Stockfleth (1840); lexicons by Fjellstrom (1703), Leem
(1768-1781), Lindahl (1780), Stockfleth (1852). Among more
recent works may be mentioned a dictionary (1885), by J. A. Friis;
a reader, with German translations (1888), by J. Qvigstad; a
dictionary (1890) and two grammars (1891 and 1897) of the Lulea
dialect, and a chrestomathy of Norwegian Lappish (1894), by K. B.
Wiklund; a dictionary of Russian Lappish, or the Kola dialect
(1891), by A. Genetz; readers of different dialects (1885-1896), by
J. Halasz; and a grammar of Norwegian Lappish (1882), by S.
Nielsen; further, a comparative study of Lappish and Finnish by
Qvigstad in the Acts of the Finnish Academy of Science, vol. xii.,
1883; the same author's Nordische Lehnworter im Lappischen
(1893); Wiklund, Entwurf einer urlappischen Lautlehre (1896);
see also various articles by these writers, Paasonen and others in the
Journal de la Societe Fmno-Ougrienne and the Finnisch-Ugrische
Forschungen; Qvigstad and Wiklund, Bibliographie der lappischen
Liter atur (1900).
The older literature on the Lapps received a notable addition by
the discovery in 1896, among the letters of Linnaeus preserved in the
British Museum, of a MS. diary of a journey made in 1695 to the
north of Swedish Lappmark by Olof Rudbeck the younger. On
missionary work see Stockfleth, Dagbog over mine missions Reiser
(1860); E. Haller, Svenska Kyrkans mission i Lappmarken (1896).
It was not until 1840 that the New Testament was translated into
Norwegian Lappish, and not until 1895 that the entire Bible was
printed in the same dialect. In the Russian dialect of Lappish
there exist only two versions of St Matthew's gospel.
LA PLATA, a city of Argentina and capital of the province
of Buenos Aires, 5 m. inland from the port of Ensenada, or La
Plata, and about 31 m. S.E. of the city of Buenos Aires, with
which it is connected by rail. Pop. (1895) 45,609; (1907,
estimate) 84,000. La Plata was founded in 1882, two years
after Buenos Aires had been constituted a federal district and
made the national capital. This necessitated the selection of
another provincial capital, which resulted in the choice of an
open plain near the former port of Ensenada de Barragan, on
which a city was laid out after the plan of Washington. The
streets are so wide that they seem out of proportion to the low
brick buildings. The principal public buildings, constructed of
brick and stucco, are the government-house, assembly building,
treasury, municipal hall, cathedral, courts of justice, police
headquarters, provincial museum and railway station. The
museum, originally presented by Dr Moreno, has become one
of the most important in South America, its palaeontological
and anthropological collections being unique. There are also
a university, national college, public library, astronomical
observatory, several churches, two hospitals and two theatres.
A noteworthy public park is formed by a large plantation of
eucalyptus trees, which have grown to a great height and present
an imposing appearance on the level, treeless plain. Electricity
is in general use for public and private lighting, and tramways
are laid down in the principal streets and extend eastward to
the port. The harbour of the port of La Plata consists of a large
artificial basin, 1450 yds. long by 150 yds. wide, with approaches,
in addition to the old port of Ensenada, which are capable of
receiving the largest vessels that can navigate the La Plata
estuary. Up to the opening of the new port works of Buenos
Aires a large part of the ocean-going traffic of Buenos Aires
passed through the port of La Plata. It has good railway con-
nexions with the interior, and exports cattle and agricultural
produce.
LAPORTE, ROLAND (1675-1704), Camisard leader, better
known as " Roland," was born at Mas Soubeyran (Card) in
a cottage which has become the property of the Societe de
1'Histoire du Protestantisme francais, and which contains relics
of the hero. He was a nephew of Laporte, the Camisard leader
who was hunted down and shot in October 1702, and he himself
became the leader of a band of a thousand men which he formed
into a disciplined army with magazines, arsenals and hospitals.
For daring in action and rapidity of movement he was second
only to Cavalier. These two leaders in 1702 secured entrance
to the town of Sauve under the pretence of being royal officers,
burnt the church and carried off provisions and ammunition for
their forces. Roland, who called himself " general of the children
of God," terrorized the country between Nimes and Alais, burning
churches and houses, and slaying those suspected of hostility
against the Huguenots, though without personally taking any
part of the spoil. Cavalier was already in negotiation with
Marshal Villars when Roland cut to pieces a Catholic regiment
at Fontmorte in May 1704. He refused to lay down his arms
without definite assurance of the restoration of the privileges
accorded by the Edict of Nantes. Villars then sought to
negotiate, offering Roland the command of a regiment on foreign
service and liberty of conscience, though not the free exercise
of their religion, for his co-religionists. This parley had no
results, but Roland was betrayed to his enemies, and on the I4th
of August 1704 was shot while defending himself against his
captors. The five officers who were with him surrendered,
and were broken on the wheel at Nimes. Roland's death put
an end to the effective resistance of the Cevenols.
See A. Court, Histoire des troubles des Cevennes (Villefranche,
1760) ; H. M. Baird, The Huguenots and the revocation of the Edict of
Nantes (2 vols., London, 1895), and other literature dealing with the
Camisards.
LA PORTE, a city and the county seat of La Porte county,
Indiana, U.S.A., 12 m. S. of Lake Michigan and about 60 m.
S.E. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 7126; (1900) 7113 (1403 foreign-
born); (1910) 10,525. It is served by the Lake Erie &
Western, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Pere
Marquette, the Chicago, South Bend & Northern Indiana
(electric), and the Chicago-New York Electric Air Line railways.
La Porte lies in the midst of a fertile agricultural region, and the
shipment of farm and orchard products is one of its chief in-
dustries. There are also numerous manufactures. La Forte's
situation in the heart of a region of beautiful lakes (including
Clear, Pine and Stone lakes) has given it a considerable reputation
as a summer resort. The lakes furnish a large supply of clear ice,
which is shipped to the Chicago markets. La Porte was settled
in 1830, laid out in 1833, incorporated as a town in 1835, and
first chartered as a city in 1852.
LAPPA, an island directly opposite the inner harbour of
Macao, the distance across being from i to ij m. It is a station
of the Chinese imperial maritime customs which collects duties
on vessels trading between China and the Portuguese colony
LAPPARENT— LAPWING
207
of Macao. The arrangement is altogether abnormal, and was
consented to by the Portuguese government in 1887 to assist
the Chinese authorities in the suppression of opium smuggling.
A similar arrangement prevails at the British colony of Hong-
Kong, where the Chinese customs station is Kowloon. In both
cases the customs stations levy duties on vessels entering and
leaving the foreign port in lieu of levying them, as ought to be
done, on entering or leaving a Chinese port.
LAPPARENT, ALBERT AUGUSTE COCHON DE (1830-1908),
French geologist, was born at Bourges on the 3oth of December
1839. After studying at the Ecole Polytechnique from 1858 to
1860 he became ingenieur au corps des mines, and took part in
drawing up the geological map of France; and in 1875 he was
appointed professor of geology and mineralogy at the Catholic
Institute, Paris. In 1879 he prepared an important memoir
for the geological survey of France on Le Pays de Bray, a subject
on which he had already published several memoirs, and in 1880
he served as president of the French Geological Society. In
1881-1883 he published his Traite de geologic (sth ed., 1905),
the best European text-book of stratigraphical geology. His
other works include Cours de mineralogie (1884, 3rd ed., 1899),
La Formation des combustibles miner aux (1886), Le Niveau de la
mer et ses variations (1886), Les TremUements de terre (1887),
La Geologic en chemin defer (1888), Precis de mineralogie (1888),
Le Siecle du fer (1890), Les Anciens Glaciers (1893), Leqons de
geographie physique (1896), Notions generales sur I'ecorce terrestre
(1897), Le Globe terrestre (1899), and Science et apologetique (1905).
With Achille Delesse he was for many years editor of the Revue
de geologic and contributed to the Extraits de geologie, and he
joined with A. Potier in the geological surveys undertaken in
connexion with the Channel Tunnel proposals. He died in
Paris on the 5th of May 1908.
LAPPENBERG, JOHANN MARTIN (1794-1865), German
historian, was born on the 3oth of July 1794 at Hamburg, where
his father, Valentin Anton Lappenberg (1759-1819), held an
official position. He studied medicine, and afterwards history,
at Edinburgh. He continued to study history in London, and at
Berlin and Gottingen, graduating as doctor of laws at Gottingen
in 1816. In 1820 he was sent by the Hamburg senate as resident
minister to the Prussian court. In 1823 he became keeper of
the Hamburg archives; an office in which he had the fullest
opportunities for the laborious and critical research work upon
which his reputation as an historian rests. He retained this
post until 1863, when a serious affection of the eyes compelled
him to resign. In 1850 he represented Hamburg in the German
parliament at Frankfort, and his death took place at Hamburg
on the 28th of November 1865. Lappenberg's most important
work is his Geschichle wn England, which deals with the history
of England from the earliest times to 1154, and was published
in two volumes at Hamburg in 1834-1837. It has been trans-
lated into English by B. Thorpe as History of England under the
Anglo-Saxon Kings (London 1845, and again 1881), and History
of England under the Norman Kings (Oxford, 1857), and has been
continued in three additional volumes from 1154 to 1509 by
R. Pauli. His other works deal mainly with the history of
Hamburg, and include Hamburgische Chroniken in Nieder-
siichsischer Sprache (Hamburg, 1852-1861); Geschichtsquellen des
Erzstiftes und der Stadt Bremen (Bremen, 1841); Hamburgisches
Urkundenbuch (Hamburg, 1842); Urkundliche Geschifhte des
Hansischen Stahlhofes zu London (Hamburg, 1851); Hambur-
gische Rechlsalterthiimer (Hamburg, 1845); and Urkundliche
Geschichte des Ursprunges der deutschen Hanse (Hamburg, 1830),
a continuation of the work of G. F. Sartorius. For the Monu-
menla Germaniae historica he edited the Chronicon of Thietmar
of Merseburg, the Gesta Hammenburgensis ecclesiae pontificum
of Adam of Bremen and the Chronica Slavorum of Helmold,
with its continuation by Arnold of Liibeck. Lappenberg, who
was a member of numerous learned societies in Europe, wrote
many other historical works.
See E. H. Meyer, Johann Martin Lappenberg (Hamburg, 1867);
and R. Pauli in the Allgemeine deutsche Biographic, Band xvii.
(Leipzig, 1883).
LAPRADE, PIERRE MARTIN VICTOR RICHARD DE (1812-
1883), known as VICTOR DE LAPRADE, French poet and critic,
was born on the I3th of January 1812 at Montbrison, in the
department of the Loire. He came of a modest provincial
family. After completing his studies at Lyons, he produced in
1839 a small volume of religious verse, Les Parfums de Madeleine.
This was followed in 1840 by La Colere de Jesus, in 1841 by the
religious fantasy of Psyche, and in 1844 by Odes et poemes.
In 1845 Laprade visited Italy on a mission of literary research,
and in 1847 he was appointed professor of French literature at
Lyons. The French Academy, by a single vote, preferred
Emile Augier at the election in 1857, but in the following year
Laprade was chosen to fill the chair of Alfred de Musset. In
1861 he was removed from his post at Lyons owing to the
publication of a political satire in verse (Les Muses d'Etat), and
in 1871 took his seat in the National Assembly on the benches
of the Right. He died on the I3th of December 1883. A
statue has been raised by his fellow-townsmen at Montbrison.
Besides those named above, Laprade's poetical works include
Poemes evangeliques (1852), Idylles heroiques (1858), Les Voix de
silence (1864), Pernette (1868), Poemes civiles (1873), Le Lime
d'un pere (1877), .Varia and Livre des adieux (1878-1879). In
prose he published, in 1840, Des habitudes intellect uelles de
I'avocat. Questions d'art et de morale appeared in 1861, succeeded
by Le Sentiment de la nature, avant le Christianisme in 1866, and
Chez les modernes in 1868, Education liberals in 1873. The
material for these books had in some cases been printed earlier,
after delivery as a lecture. He also contributed articles to the
Revue des deux mondes and the Revue de Paris. No writer
represents more perfectly than Laprade the admirable genius
of French provincial life, its homely simplicity, its culture, its
piety and its sober patriotism. As a poet he belongs to the
school of Chateaubriand and Lamartine. Devoted to the best
classical models, inspired by a sense of the ideal, and by worship
of nature as revealing the divine — gifted, too, with a full faculty of
expression — he lacked only fire and passion in the equipment
of a romantic poet. But the want of these, and the pressure of a
certain chilly facility and of a too conscious philosophizing have
prevented him from reaching the first rank, or from even attain-
ing the popularity due to his high place in the second. Only
in his patriotic verse did he shake himself clear from these
trammels. Speaking generally, he possessed some of the qualities,
and many of the defects, of the English Lake School. Laprade's
prose criticisms must be ranked high. Apart from his classical
and metaphysical studies, he was widely read in the literatures of
Europe, and built upon the groundwork of a naturally correct
taste. His dislike of irony and scepticism probably led him
to underrate the product of the i8th century, and there are signs
of a too fastidious dread of Philistinism. But a constant love
of the best, a joy in nature and a lofty patriotism are not less
evident than in his poetry. Few writers of any nation have
fixed their minds so steadily on whatsoever things are pure, and
lovely and of good report.
See also Edmond Eire, Victor de Laprade, sa vie et ses teuvres. (C.)
LAPSE (Lat. lapsus, a slip or departure), in law, a term used
in several senses, (i) In ecclesiastical law, when a patron has
neglected to present to a void benefice within six months next
after the avoidance, the right of presentation is said to lapse.
In such case the patronage or right of presentation devolves
from the neglectful patron to the bishop as ordinary, to the
metropolitan as superior and to the sovereign as patron para-
mount. (2) The failure of a testamentary disposition in favour
of any person, by reason of the decease of its object in the
testator's lifetime, is termed a lapse. See LEGACY, WILL.
LAPWING (O.Eng. hleapemnce= "one who turns about in
running or flight "),' a bird, the Tringa vanellus of Linnaeus
and the Vanellus vulgaris or V. cristalus of modern ornithologists.
1 Skeat, Etym. Diet. (1898), s.v. Caxton in 1481 has " lapwynches "
(Reynard the Fox, cap. 27). The first part of the word is from
hleapan, to leap ; the second part is " wink " (O.H.G. winchan, Ger.
wanken, to waver). Popular etymology has given the word its present
form, as if it meant " wing-flapper, from " lap," a fold or flap of
a garment.
208
LAPWORTH— LAR
In the temperate parts of the Old World this species is perhaps
the most abundant of the plovers, Charadriidae, breeding in
almost every suitable place from Ireland to Japan — the majority
migrating towards winter to southern countries, as the Punjab,
Egypt and Barbary — though in the British Islands some are
always found at that season. As a straggler it has occurred
within the Arctic Circle (as on the Varanger Fjord in Norway) , as
well as in Iceland and even Greenland; while it not unfrequently
appears in Madeira and the Azores. Conspicuous as the strongly
contrasted colours of its plumage and its very] peculiar flight
make it, it is remarkable that it maintains its ground when so
many of its allies have been almost exterminated, for the lap-
wing is the object perhaps of greater persecution than any other
European bird that is not a plunderer. Its eggs are the well-
known " plovers' eggs " of commerce,1 and the bird, wary and
wild at other times of the year, in the breeding-season becomes
easily approachable, and is shot to be sold in the markets for
" golden plover." Its growing scarcity in Great Britain was very
perceptible until the various acts for the protection of wild birds
were passed. It is now abundant and is of service both for the
market and to agriculture. What seems to be the secret of the
lapwing holding its position is the adaptability of its nature to
various kinds of localities. It will find sustenance equally on the
driest of soils as on the fattest pastures; upland and fen, arable
and moorland, are alike to it, provided only the ground be open
enough. The wailing cry2 and the frantic gestures of the cock
bird in the breeding-season will tell any passer-by that a nest
or brood is near; but, unless he knows how to look for it, nothing
save mere chance will enable him to find it. The nest is a slight
hollow in the ground, wonderfully inconspicuous even when
deepened, as is usually the case, by incubation, and the black-
spotted olive eggs (four in number) are almost invisible to the
careless or untrained eye. The young when first hatched are
clothed with mottled down, so as closely to resemble a stone,
and to be overlooked as they squat motionless on the approach
of danger. At a distance the plumage of the adult appears
to be white and black in about equal proportions, the latter
predominating above; but on closer examination nearly all
the seeming black is found to be a bottle-green gleaming with
purple and copper; the tail-coverts, both above and below,
are of a bright bay colour, seldom visible in flight. The crest
consists of six or eight narrow and elongated feathers, turned
slightly upwards at the end, and is usually carried in a horizontal
position, extending in the cock beyond the middle of the back;
but it is capable of being erected so as to become nearly vertical.
Frequenting parts of the open country so very divergent in
character, and as remarkable for the peculiarity of its flight
as for that of its cry, the lapwing is far more often observed in
nearly all parts of the British Islands than any other of the
group Limicolae. The peculiarity of its flight seems due to the
wide and rounded wings it possesses, the steady and ordinarily
1 There is a prevalent belief that many of the eggs sold as
"plovers' " are those of rooks, but no notion can be more absurd,
since the appearance of the two is wholly unlike. Those of the
redshank, of the golden plover (to a small extent), and enormous
numbers of those of the black-headed gull, and in certain places of
some of the terns, are, however, sold as lapwings', having a certain
similarity of shell to the latter, and a difference of flavour only to be
detected by a fine palate.
1 This sounds like pee-weet, with some variety of intonation.
Hence the names peewit, peaseweep and teuchit, commonly ap-
Elied in some parts of Britain to this bird — though the first is that
y which one of the smaller gulls, Larus ridibundus (see GULL), is
known in the districts it frequents. In Sweden Vipa, in Germany
Kiebitz, in Holland Kiewiet, and in France Dixhuit, are names of
the lapwing, given to it from its usual cry. Other English names are
green plover and hornpie — the latter from its long hornlike crest and
pied plumage. The lapwing's conspicuous crest seems to have been
the cause of a common blunder among English writers of the middle
ages, who translated the Latin word Upupa, property hoopoe, by
lapwing, as being the crested bird with which they were best ac-
quainted. _ In like manner other writers of the same or an earlier
period latinized lapwing by Egrettides (plural), and rendered that
again into English as egrets — the tuft of feathers misleading them
also. The word Vanellus is from vannus, the fan used for winnowing
corn, and refers to the audible beating of the bird's wings.
somewhat slow flapping of which impels the body at each
stroke with a manifest though easy jerk. Yet on occasion, as
when performing its migrations, or even its almost daily transits
from one feeding-ground to another, and still more when being
pursued by a falcon, the speed with which it moves through
the air is very considerable. On the ground this bird runs
nimbly, and is nearly always engaged in searching for its food,
which is wholly animal.
Allied to the lapwing are several forms that have been placed
by ornithologists in the genera Hoplopterus, Chettusia, Lobi-
•uanellus, Defilippia. In some of them the hind toe, which has
already ceased to have any function in the lapwing, is wholly
wanting. In others the wings are armed with a tubercle or even
a sharp spur on the carpus. Few have any occipital crest, but
several have the face ornamented by the outgrowth of a fleshy
lobe or lobes. With the exception of North America, they
are found in most parts of the world, but perhaps the greater
number in Africa. Europe has three species — Hoplopterus
spinosus, the spur-winged plover, and Chettusia gregaria and C.
leucura; but the first and last are only stragglers from Africa
and Asia. (A. N.)
LAPWORTH, CHARLES (1842- ), English geologist, was
born at Faringdon in Berkshire on the 3oth of September 1842.
He was educated partly in the village of Buckland in the
same county, and afterwards in the training college at Culham,
near Oxford (1862-1864). He was then appointed master in
a school connected with the Episcopal church at Galashiels,
where he remained eleven years. Geology came to absorb
all his leisure time, and he commenced to investigate the Silurian
rocks of the Southern Uplands, and to study the graptolites
and other fossils which mark horizons in the great series of Lower
Palaeozoic rocks. His first paper on the Lower Silurian rocks
of Galashiels was published in 1870, and from that date onwards
he continued to enrich our knowledge of the southern uplands
of Scotland until the publication by the Geological Society of
his masterly papers on The Moffat Series (1878) and The Girvan
Succession (1882). Meanwhile in 1875 he became an assistant
master in the Madras College, St Andrews, and in 1881 professor
of geology and mineralogy (afterwards geology and physiography)
in the Mason College, now University of Birmingham. In 1882
he started work in the Durness-Eriboll district of the Scottish
Highlands, and made out the true succession of the rocks, and
interpreted the complicated structure which had baffled most
of the previous observers. His results were published in " The
Secret of the Highlands" (Geol. Mag., 1883). His subsequent
work includes papers on the Cambrian rocks of Nuneaton and
the Ordovician rocks of Shropshire. The term Ordovician was
introduced by him in 1879 for the strata between the base of
the Lower Llandovery formation and that of the Lower Arenig;
and it was intended to settle the confusion arising from the use
by some writers of Lower Silurian and by others of Upper
Cambrian for the same set of rocks. The term Ordovician is
now generally adopted. Professor Lapworth was elected F.R.S.
in 1888, he received a royal medal in 1891, and was awarded
the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society in 1899. He
was president of the Geological Society, 1902-1904. His Inter-
mediate Text-book of Geology was published in 1899.
See article, with portrait and bibliography, in Geol. Mag. (July
1901).
LAR, a city of Persia, capital of Laristan, in 27° 30' N., 53° 58'
E., 180 m. from Shiraz and 75 from the coast at Bander Lingah.
It stands at the foot of a mountain range in an extensive plain
covered with palm trees, and was once a flourishing place, but
a large portion is in ruins, and the population which early in the
1 8th century numbered 50,000 is reduced to 8000. There are
still some good buildings, of which the most prominent are the
old bazaar consisting of four arcades each 180 ft. long, 14 broad
and 22 high, radiating from a domed centre 30 ft. high, an old
stone mosque and many cisterns. The crest of a steep limestone
hill immediately behind the town and rising 150 ft. above the
plain is crowned by the ruins of a castle formerly deemed im-
pregnable. Just below the castle is a well sunk 200 ft. in the
LARA— LARCENY
209
rock. The tower-flanked mud wall which surrounds the town
is for the most part in ruins.
LARA, western state of Venezuela, lying in the angle formed
by the parting of the N. and N.E. ranges of the Cordillera de
Merida and extending N.E. with converging frontiers to the
Caribbean. Pop. (1905 estimate) 272,252. The greater part of
its surface is mountainous, with elevated fertile valleys which
have a temperate climate. The Tocuyo river rises in the S.W.
angle of the state and flows N.E. to the Caribbean with a total
length of 287 m. A narrow-gauge railway, the " South-western,"
owned by British capitalists, runs from the port of Tucacas 55 m.
S.W. to Barquisimeto by way of the Aroa copper-mining district.
Lara produces wheat and other cereals, coffee, sugar, tobacco,
neat cattle, sheep and various mineral ores, including silver,
copper, iron, lead, bismuth and antimony. The capital, Barquisi-
meto, is one of the largest and most progressive of the inland
cities of Venezuela. Carora is also prominent as a commercial
centre. Tocuyo (pop. in 1891, 15,383), 40 m. S.W. of Barquisi-
meto, is an important commercial and mining town, over 2000 ft.
above sea-level, in the midst of a rich agricultural and pastoral
region. Yaritagua (pop. about 12,000), 20 m. E. of Barquisimeto,
and 1026 ft. above the sea, is known for its cigar manufactories.
LARAISH (El Araish), a port in northern Morocco on the
Atlantic coast in 35° 13' N., 6° 9' W., 43 m. by sea S. by W. of
Tangier, picturesquely situated on the left bank of the estuary
of the Wad Lekkus. Pop. 6000 to 7000. The river, being fairly
deep inside the bar, made this a favourite port for the Salli
rovers to winter in, but the quantity of alluvial soil brought
down threatens to close the port. The town is well situated
for defence, its walls are in fair condition, and it has ten forts,
all supplied with old-fashioned guns. Traces of the Spanish
occupation from 1610-1689 are to be seen in the towers whose
names are given by Tissot as those of St Stephen, St James and
that of the Jews, with the Castle of Our Lady of Europe, now the
kasbah or citadel. The most remarkable feature of Laraish is
its fine large market-place inside the town with a low colonnade
in front of very small shops. The streets, though narrow and
steep, are generally paved. Its chief exports are oranges, millet,
dra and other cereals, goat-hair and skins, sheepskins, wool and
fullers' earth. The wool goes chiefly to Marseilles. The annual
value of the trade is from £400,000 to £500,000.
In 1780 all the Europeans in Laraish were expelled by
Mohammed XVI., although in 1786 the monopoly of its trade
had been granted to Holland, even its export of wheat. In
1787 the Moors were still building pirate vessels here, the timber
for which came from the neighbouring forest of M'amora. Not
far from the town are the remains of what is believed to be a
Phoenician city, Shammish, mentioned by Idrisi, who makes
no allusion to Laraish. It is not, however, improbable from a
passage in Scylax that the site of the present town was occupied
by a Libyan settlement. Tradition also connects Laraish with
the garden of the Hesperides, ' Arasi being the Arabic for
" pleasure-gardens," and the " golden apples " perhaps the
familiar oranges.
LARAMIE, a city and the county-seat of Albany county,
Wyoming, U.S.A., on the Laramie river, 57 m. by rail N.W. of
Cheyenne. Pop. (1900) 8207, of whom 1280 were foreign-born;
(1905) 7601; (1910) 8237. It is served by the Union Pacific
and the Laramie, Hahn's Peak & Pacific railways, the latter
extending from Laramie to Centennial (30 m.). The city is
situated on the Laramie Plains, at an elevation of 7165 ft.,
and is hemmed in on three sides by picturesque mountains.
It has a public library, a United States Government building
and hospitals, and is the seat of the university of Wyoming
and of a Protestant Episcopal missionary bishopric. There is a
state fish hatchery in the vicinity. The university (part of the
public school system of the state) was founded in 1886, was
opened in 1887, and embraces a College of Liberal Arts and
Graduate School, a Normal School, a College of Agriculture and
the Mechanic Arts, an Agricultural Experiment Station (estab-
lished by a Federal appropriation), a College of Engineering, a
School of Music, a Preparatory School and a Summer School.
Laramie is a supply and distributing centre for a live-stock
raising and mining region — particularly coal mining, though
gold, silver, copper and iron are also found. The Union Pacific
Railroad Company has machine shops, repair shops and rolling
mills at Laramie, and, a short distance S. of the city, ice-houses
and a tie-preserving plant. The manufactures include glass,
leather, flour, plaster and pressed brick, the brick being made
from shale obtained in the vicinity. The municipality owns
and operates the water- works; the water is obtained from large
springs about z\ m. distant. Laramie was settled in 1868,
by people largely from New England, Michigan, Wisconsin and
Iowa, and was named in honour of Jacques Laramie, a French
fur trader. It was first chartered as a city in 1868 by the legisla-
ture of Dakota, and was rechartered by the legislature of
Wyoming in 1873.
LARBERT, a parish and town of Stirlingshire, Scotland.
Pop. of parish (1901) 6500, of town, 1442. The town is situated
on the Carron, 8 m. S. by E. of Stirling by the North British
and Caledonian railways, the junction being an important
station for traffic from the south by the West Coast route.
Coal-mining is the chief industry. The principal buildings are
the church, finely placed overlooking the river, the Stirling
district asylum and the Scottish National Institution for imbecile
children. In the churchyard is a monument to James Bruce,
the Abyssinian traveller, who was born and died at Kinnaird
House, 25 m. N.E. Two m. N. by W. are the ruins of Torwood
Castle and the remains of Torwood forest, to which Sir William
Wallace retired after his defeat at Falkirk (1298). Near
" Wallace's oak," in which the patriot concealed himself, Donald
Cargill (1619-1681), the Covenanter, excommunicated Charles II.
and James, duke of York, in 1680. The fragment of an old
round building is said to be the relic of one of the very few
" brochs," or round towers, found in the Lowlands.
LARCENY (an adaptation of Fr. larcin, O. Fr. larrecin, from
Lat. latrocinium, theft, lalio, robber), the unlawful taking and
carrying away of things personal, with intent to deprive the
rightful owner of the same. The term theft, sometimes used as a
synonym of larceny, is in reality a broader term, applying to all
cases of depriving another of his property whether by removing
or withholding it, and includes larceny, robbery, cheating,
embezzlement, breach of trust, &c.
Larceny is, in modern legal systems, universally treated as a
crime, but the conception of it as a crime is not one belonging to
the earliest stage of law. To its latest period Roman law regarded
larceny or theft (furtum) as a delict prima facie pursued by a civil
remedy — the actio furti for a penalty, the vindicatio or condictio
for the stolen property itself or its value. In later times, a
criminal remedy to meet the graver crimes gradually grew up
by the side of the civil, and in the time of Justinian the criminal
remedy, where it existed, took precedence of the civil (Cod.
iii. 8. 4). But to the last criminal proceedings could only be
taken in serious cases, e.g. against stealers of cattle (abigei) or
the clothes of bathers (balnearii). The punishment was death,
banishment, or labour in the mines or on public works. In the
main the Roman law coincides with the English law. The
definition as given in the Institutes (iv. i. i) is " furtum est
contrectatio rei fraudulosa, vel ipsius rei, vel etiam ejus usus
possessionisve," to which the Digest (xlvii. 2. i, 3) adds " lucri
faciendi gratia." The earliest English definition, that of Bracton
(1506), runs thus: " furtum est secundum leges contrectatio
rei alienae fraudulenta cum animo] furandi invito illo domino
cujus res ilia fuerit." Bracton omits the " lucri faciendi gratia "
of the Roman definition, because in English law the motive
is immaterial,1 and the " usus ejus possessionisve," because the
definition includes an intent to deprive the owner of his property
permanently. The " animo furandi " and " invito domino " of
Bracton's definition are expansions for the sake of greater clear-
ness. They seem to have been implied in Roman law. Furtum
is on the whole a more comprehensive term than larceny. This
1 Thus destruction of a letter by a servant, with a view of sup-
pressing inquiries into his or her character, makes the servant
guilty of larceny in English law.
210
LARCENY
difference no doubt arises from the tendency to extend the bounds
of a delict and to limit the bounds of a crime. Thus it was
furtum (but it would not be theft at English common law) to use
a deposit of pledge contrary to the wishes of the owner, to retain
goods found, or to steal a human being, such as a slave or films
familias (a special form of furtum called plagium). The latter
would be in English law an abduction under certain circumstances
but not a theft. One of two married persons could not commit
furtum as against the other, but larceny may be so committed
in England since the Married Women's Property Act 1882.
As a furtum was merely a delict, the obligalio ex delicto could be
extinguished by agreement between the parties; this cannot
be done in England. In another direction English law is more
considerate of the rights of third parties than was Roman.
The thief can give a good title to stolen goods; in Roman law
he could not do so, except in the single case of a hereditas acquired
by usucapio. The development of the law of furtum at Rome
is historically interesting, for even in its latest period is found a
relic of one of the most primitive theories of law adopted by
courts of justice: " They took as their guide the measure of
vengeance likely to be exacted by an aggrieved person under
the circumstances of the case " (Maine, Ancient Law, ch. x.).
This explains the reason of the division of furtum into mani-
festum and nee manifestum. The manifest thief was one taken
red-handed — " taken with the manner," in the language of old
English law. The Twelve Tables denounced the punishment of
death against the manifest thief, for that would be the penalty
demanded by the indignant owner in whose place the judge stood.
The severity of this penalty was afterwards mitigated by the
praetor, who substituted for it the payment of quadruple the
value of the thing stolen. The same penalty was also given by
the praetor in case of theft from a fire or a wreck, or of prevention
of search. The Twelve Tables mulcted the non-manifest thief in
double the value of the thing stolen. The actions for penalties
were in addition to the action for the stolen goods themselves or
their value. The quadruple and double penalties still remain
in the legislation of Justinian. The search for stolen goods, as it
existed in the time of Gaius, was a survival of a period when the
injured person was, as in the case of summons (in jus vocalio),
his own executive officer. Such a search, by the Twelve Tables,
might be conducted in the house of the supposed thief by the
owner in person, naked except for a cincture, and carrying a
platter in his hand, safeguards apparently against any possi-
bility of his making a false charge by depositing some of his own
property on his neighbour's premises. This mode of search
became obsolete before the time of Justinian. Robbery (bona vi
rapta) was violence added to furlum. By the actio vi bonorum
raptorum quadruple the value could be recovered if the action
were brought within a year, only the value if brought after the
expiration of a year. The quadruple value included the stolen
thing itself, so that the penalty was in effect only a triple one.
It was inclusive, and not cumulative, as in furtum.
In England theft or larceny appears to have been very early
regarded by legislators as a matter calling for special attention.
The pre-Conquest compilations of laws are full of provisions on
the subject. The earlier laws appear to regard it as a delict
which may be compounded for by payment. Considerable
distinctions of person are made, both in regard to the owner
and the thief. Thus, by the laws of ^Ethelberht, if a freeman
stole from the king he was to restore ninefold, if from a freeman
or from a dwelling, threefold. If a theow stole, he had only to
make a twofold reparation. In the laws of Alfred ordinary
theft was still only civil, but he who stole in a church was
punished by the loss of his hand. The laws of Ina named as
the penalty death or redemption according to the wer-gild of
the thief. By the same laws the thief might be slain if he fled
or resisted. Gradually the severity of the punishment increased.
By the laws of .flsthelstan death in a very cruel form was inflicted.
At a later date the Leges Henrici Primi placed a thief in the
king's mercy, and his lands were forfeited. Putting out the
eyes and other kinds of mutilation were sometimes the punish-
ment. The principle of severity continued down to the
century, and until 1827 theft or larceny of certain kinds re-
mained capital. Both before and after the Conquest local
jurisdiction over thieves was a common franchise of lords of
manors, attended with some of the advantages of modern
summary jurisdiction.
Under the common law larceny was a felony. It was affected by
numerous statutes, the main object of legislation being to bring
within the law of larceny offences which were not larcenies at common
law, either because they were thefts of things of which there could
be no larceny at common law, e.g. beasts ferae naturae, title deeds
or choses in action, or because the common law regarded them merely
as delicts for which the remedy was by civil action, e.g. fraudulent
breaches of trust. The earliest act in the statutes of the realm
dealing with larceny appears to be the Carlo. Forestae of 1225, by
which fine or imprisonment was inflicted for stealing the king's
deer. The next act appears to be the statute of Westminster the
First (1275), dealing again with stealing deer. It seems as though
the beginning of legislation on the subject was for the purpose of
protecting the chases and parks of the king and the nobility. A
very large number of the old acts are named in the repealing act of
1827. An act of the same date removed the old distinction between
grand and petit larceny.1 The former was theft of goods above the
value of twelve pence, in the house of the owner, not from the
person, or by night, and was a capital crime. It was petit larceny
where the value was twelve pence or under, the punishment being
imprisonment or whipping. The gradual depreciation in the value
of money afforded good ground for Sir Henry Spelman's sarcasm
that, while everything else became dearer, the life of man became
continually cheaper. The distinction between grand and petit
larceny first appears in statute law in the Statute of Westminster
the First, c. 15, but it was not created for the first time by that
statute. It is found in some of the pre-Conquest codes, as that of
^Ethelstan, and it is recognized in the Leges Henrici Primi. A
distinction between simple and compound larceny is still found in
the books. The latter is larceny accompanied by circumstances of
aggravation, as that it is in a dwelling-house or from the person.
The law of larceny is now contained chiefly in the Larceny Act 1861
(which extends to Englandand Ireland), a comprehensive enactment
including larceny, embezzlement, fraud by bailees, agents, bankers,
factors, and trustees, sacrilege, burglary, housebreaking, robbery,
obtaining money by threats or by false pretences, and receiving
stolen 'goods, and prescribing procedure, both civil and criminal.
There are, however, other acts in force dealing with special cases of
larceny, such as an actof Henry VIII. as to stealing the goods of
the king, and the Game, Post-Office and Merchant Shipping Acts.
There are separate acts providing for larceny by a partner of partner-
ship property, and by a husband or wife of the property of the other
(Married Women's Property Act 1882). Proceedings against persons
subject to naval or military law depend upon the Naval Discipline
Act 1866 and the Army Act 1881. There are several acts, both
before and after 1861, directing how the property is to be laid in
indictments for stealing the goods of counties, friendly societies,
trades unions, &c. The principal conditions which must exist in
order to constitute larceny are these: (i) there must be an actual
taking into the possession of the thief, though the smallest removal
is sufficient; (2) there must be an intent to deprive the owner of
his property for an indefinite period, and to assume the entire
dominion over it, an intent often described in Bracton's words as
animus furandi; (3) this intent must exist at the time of taking;
(4) the thing taken must be one capable of larceny either at common
law or by statute. One or two cases falling under the law of larceny
are of special interest. It was held more than once that a servant
taking corn to feed his master's horses, but without any intention of
applying it for his own benefit, was guilty of larceny. To remedy
this hardship, the Misappropriation of Servants Act 1863 was
passed to declare such an act not to be felony. The case of appro-
priation of goods which have been found has led to some difficulty.
It now seems to be the law that in order to constitute a larceny of
lost goods there must be a felonious intent at the time of finding,
that is, an intent to deprive the owner of them, coupled with reason-
able means at the same time of knowing the owner. The mere
retention of the goods when the owner has become known to the
finder does not make the retention criminal. Larceny of money
may be committed when the money is paid by mistake, if the
prisoner took it animo furandi. In two noteworthy cases the
question was argued before a very full court for crown cases re-
served, and in each case there was a striking difference of opinion.
In R. v. Middleton, 1873, L.R. 2 C.C.R., 38, the prisoner, a de-
positor in a post-office savings bank, received by the mistake of the
clerk a larger sum that he was entitled to. The jury found that
he had the animus furandi at the time of taking the money, and
that he knew it to be the money of the postmaster-general. The
majority of the court held it to be larceny. In a case in 1885 (R. v.
Ash-well, L.R. 16 Q.B.D. 190), where the prosecutor gave the
prisoner a sovereign believing it to be a shilling, and the prisoner
1 This provision was most unnecessarily repeated in the Larceny
Act of 1861.
LARCH
211
took it under that belief, but afterwards discovered its value and
retained it, the court was equally divided as to whether the prisoner
was guilty of larceny at common law, but held that he was not
guilty of larceny as a bailee. Legislation has considerably affected
the procedure in prosecutions for larceny. The inconveniences of
the common law rules of interpretation of indictments led to certain
amendments of the law, now contained in the Larceny Act, for
the purpose of avoiding the frequent failures of justice owing to the
strictness with which indictments were construed. Three larcenies
of property of the same person within six months may now be
charged in one indictment. On an indictment for larceny the prisoner
may be found guilty of embezzlement, and vice versa; and if the
prisoner be indicted for obtaining goods by false pretences, and the
offence turn out to be larceny, he is not entitled to be acquitted of
the misdemeanour. A count for receiving may be joined with the
count for stealing. In many cases it is unnecessary to allege or
prove ownership of the property the subject of the indictment.
The act also contains numerous provisions as to venue and the
apprehension of offenders. In another direction the powers of
courts of Summary Jurisdiction (q.v.) have been extended, in the
case of charges of larceny, embezzlement and receiving stolen
goods, against children and young persons and against adults plead-
ing guilty or waiving their right to trial by jury. The maximum
punishment for larceny is fourteen years' penal servitude, but this
can only be inflicted in certain exceptional cases, such as horse or
cattle stealing and larceny by a servant or a person in the service
of the crown or the police. The extreme punishment for simple
larceny after a previous conviction for felony is ten years' penal
servitude. Whipping may be part of the sentence on boys under
sixteen.
Scotland. — A vast number of acts of the Scottish parliament
dealt with larceny. The general policy of the acts was to make
larceny what was not larceny at common law, e.g. stealing fruit,
dogs, hawks or deer, and to extend the remedies, e.g. by giving
the justiciar authority throughout the kingdom, by making
the master in the case of theft by the servant liable to give the
latter up to justice, or by allowing the use of firearms against
thieves. The general result of legislation in England and
Scotland has been to assimilate the law of larceny in both
kingdoms. As a rule, what would be larceny in one would be
larceny in the other.
United States. — The law depends almost entirely upon state
legislation, and is in general accordance with that of England.
The only acts of Congress bearing on the subject deal with
larceny in the army and navy, and with larceny and receiving
on the high seas or in any place under the exclusive jurisdiction
of the United States, e.g. Alaska.
Alaska. — Stealing any goods, chattels, government note, bank
note, or other thing in action, books of account, &c., is larceny:
punishment, imprisonment for not less than one nor more than ten
years if the property stolen is in value over $35. Larceny in any
dwelling-house, warehouse, steamship, church, &c., is punishable
by imprisonment for not less than one nor more than seven years.
Larceny of a horse, mule, ass, bull, steer, cow or reindeer is punish-
able by imprisonment for not less than one nor more than fifteen
years. Wilfully altering or defacing marks or brands on such animals
is larceny (Pen. Code Alaska, § 45, 1899).
Arizona. — Appropriating property found without due inquiry
for the owner is larceny (Penal Code, § 442). " Dogs are property
and of the value of one dollar each within the meaning of the terms
' property ' and ' value ' as used in this chapter " (id. § 448). Pro-
perty includes a passage ticket though never issued. Persons stealing
property in another state or county, or who receive it knowing it to
be stolen and bring it into Arizona, may be convicted and punished
as if the offence was committed there (id. § 454). Stealing gas or
water from a main is a misdemeanour.
Iowa. — It is larceny to steal electricity, gas or water from wires,
meters or mains (L. 1903, ch. 132).
New Korfc.— Larceny as defined by § 528 of the Penal Code in-
cludes also embezzlement, obtaining property by false pretences,
and felonious breach of- trust (People v. Dumar, 106 N.Y. 508), but
the method of proof required to establish these offences has not been
changed. Grand larceny in the first degree is (a) stealing property
of any value in the night time; (b) of $25 in value or more at night
from a dwelling house, vessel or railway car; (c) of the value of
more than $500 in any manner; in the second degree (a) stealing in
any manner property of the value of over $25 and under $500;
(6) taking from the person property of any value ; (c) stealing any
record of a court or other record filed with any public officer. Every
other larceny is petit larceny. " Value " of any stock, bond or
security having a market value is the amount of money due thereon
or what, in any contingency, might be collected thereon; of any
passenger ticket the price it is usually sold at. The value of any-
thing else not fixed by statute is its market value. Grand larceny,
in the first degree, is punishable by imprisonment not exceeding ten
years; in the second degree, not exceeding five years. Petit larceny
is a misdemeanour (Penal Code, §§ 530-535). Bringing stolen goods
into the state knowing them to be stolen is punishable as larceny
within the state (id. § 540). A " pay ticket " for removing a load
of snow may be the subject of larceny and its value the amount to
be paid on it. (People v. Fletcher [1906] no App. D. 231).
Kansas— The owner of goods who takes them from a 'railroad
company with intent to defeat its lien for transportation charges is
guilty of larceny. (Atchison Co. v. Hinsdell [1907] 90 Pac. Rep. 800).
Massachusetts. — Larceny includes embezzlement and obtaining
money by false pretences. (Rev. L. 1902, ch. 218, § 40.) The failing
to restore to or to notify the owner of property removed from
premises on fire is larceny (id. ch. 208, § 22). It is larceny to purchase
property (payment for which is to be made on or before delivery)
by means of a false pretence as to means or ability to pay, provided
such pretence is signed by the person to be charged. Indictment for
stealing a will need not contain an allegation of value (id. § 29).
A person convicted either as accessory or principal of three distinct
larcenies shall be adjudged " a common and notorious thief " and
may be imprisoned for not more than twenty years (id. 31). On
second conviction for larceny of a bicycle, the thief may be im-
prisoned for not more than five years. Larceny of things annexed
to realty is punishable as if it were a larceny of personal property
(id- §§ 33, 35)-.
Ohio. — Stealing " anything of value " is larceny (Bates Stats.
§ 6856). Tapping gas pipes is punishable by fine or imprisonment
for not more than thirty days. Stealing timber having " timber
dealers' " trade mark, or removing it from a stream, is punishable
by a fine of not less than $20.
Utah. — It is grand larceny to alter the mark or brand on an
animal (L. 1905, ch. 38).
Wyoming. — For branding or altering or defacing the brand on
cattle with intent to steal, the penalty is imprisonment for not
more than five years. It is larceny for a bailee to convert with
intent to steal goods left with or found by him (Rev. Stats. §§ 4986,
4989).
Washington. — A horse not branded, but under Code § 6861 an
" outlaw," the owner being unknown, can be the subject of a larceny,
having been held to be property of the state. (State v. Eddy [1907],
90 Pac. Rep. 641). For the third offence of such a larceny the penalty
is imprisonment for life (L. 1903, ch. 86).
See also EMBEZZLEMENT; CHEATING; FALSE PRETENCES;
ROBBERY ; STOLEN GOODS.
LARCH (from the Ger. Liirche, M.H.G. Lerche, Lat. larix),
a name applied to a small group of coniferous trees, of which
the common larch of Europe is taken as the type. The
members of the genus Larix are distinguished from the firs,
with which they were formerly placed, by their deciduous leaves,
scattered singly, as in Abies, on the young shoots of the season,
but on all older branchlets growing in whorl-like tufts, each
surrounding the extremity of a rudimentary or abortive branch ;
they differ from cedars (Cedrus), which also have the fascicles
of leaves on arrested branchlets, not only in the deciduous leaves,
but in the cones, the scales of which are thinner towards the apex,
and are persistent, remaining attached long after the seeds are
discharged. The trees of the genus are closely allied in botanic
features, as well as in general appearance, so that it is sometimes
difficult to assign to them determinate specific characters, and
the limit between species and variety is not always very accur-
ately defined. Nearly all are natives of Europe, or the northern
plains and mountain ranges of Asia and North America, though
one (Larix Griffilhii) occurs only on the Himalayas.
The common larch (L. emopaea) is, when grown in perfection,
a stately tree with tall erect trunk, gradually tapering from
root to summit, and horizontal branches springing at irregular
intervals from the stem, and in old trees often becoming more
or less drooping, but rising again towards the extremities;
the branchlets or side shoots, very slender and pendulous, are
pretty thickly studded with the spurs each bearing a fascicle
of thirty or more narrow linear leaves, of a peculiar bright light
green when they first appear in the spring, but becoming of a
deeper hue when mature. The yellow stamen-bearing flowers
are in sessile, nearly spherical catkins; the fertile ones vary in
colour, from red or purple to greenish-white, in different varieties;
the erect cones, which remain long on the branches, are above
an inch in length and oblong-ovate in shape, with reddish-brown
scales somewhat waved on the edges, the lower bracts usually
rather longer than the scales. The tree flowers in April or May,
and the winged seeds are shed the following autumn. When
standing in an open space, the larch grows of a nearly conical
212
LARCH
shape, with the lower branches almost reaching the ground,
while those above gradually diminish in length towards the top
of the trunk, presenting a very symmetrical form; but in dense
woods the lower parts become bare of foliage, as with the firs
under similar circumstances. When springing up among rocks
or on ledges, the stem sometimes becomes much curved, and,
with its spreading boughs and pendent branchlets, often forms
a striking and picturesque object in alpine passes and steep
ravines. In the prevalent European varieties the bark is
reddish-grey, and rather rough and scarred in old trees, which
are often much lichen-covered. The trunk attains a height of
from 80 to 140 ft., with a diameter of from 3 to 5 ft. near the
ground, but in close woods is comparatively slender in proportion
to its altitude. The larch abounds on the Alps of Switzerland,
on which it flourishes at an elevation of 5000 ft., and also on
those of Tirol and Savoy, on the CarpatWians, and in most of the
hill regions of central Europe; it is not wild on the Apennine
Branchlet of Larch (Larix europaea).
chain, or the Pyrenees, and in the wild state is unknown in the
Spanish peninsula. It forms extensive woods in Russia, but
does not extend to Scandinavia, where its absence is somewhat
remarkable, as the tree grows freely in Norway and Sweden
where planted, and even multiplies itself by self-sown seed,
according to F. C. Schiibeler, in the neighbourhood of Trondhjem.
In the north-eastern parts of Russia, in the country towards
the Petchora river, and on the Ural, a peculiar variety prevails,
regarded by some as a distinct species (L. sibirica) ; this form is
abundant nearly throughout Siberia, extending to the Pacific
coast of Kamchatka and the hills of the Amur region. The
Siberian larch has smooth grey bark and smaller cones, approach-
ing in shape somewhat to those of the American hackmatack;
it seems even hardier than the Alpine tree, growing up to latitude
68°, but, as the inclement climate of the polar shores is neared,
dwindling down to a dwarf and even trailing bush.
The larch, from its lofty straight trunk and the high quality
of its wood, is one of the most important of coniferous trees;
its growth is extremely rapid, the stem attaining a large size
in from sixty to eighty years, while the tree yields good useful
timber at forty or fifty; it forms firm heart wood at an early
age, and the sapwood is less perishable than that of the firs,
rendering it more valuable in the young state.
The wood of large trees is compact in texture, in the best varieties
of a deep reddish colour varying to brownish-yellow, but apt to be
lighter in tint, and less hard in grain, when grown in rich soils or
in low sheltered situations. It is remarkably tough, resisting a
rending strain better than any of the fir or pine woods in common
use, though not as elastic as some; properly seasoned, it is as little
liable to shrink as to split; the boughs being small compared to
the trunk, the timber is more free from large knots, and the small
knots remain firm and undecayed. The only drawback to these
good qualities is a certain liability to warp and bend, unless very
carefully seasoned; for this purpose it is recommended to be left
floating in water for a year after felling, and then allowed some
months to dry slowly and completely before sawing up the logs;
barking the trunk in winter while the tree is standing, and leaving
it in that state till the next year, has been often advised with the
larch as with other timber, but the practical inconveniences of the
plan have prevented its adoption on any large scale. When well
prepared for use, larch is one of the most durable of coniferous
woods. Its strength and toughness render it valuable for naval
purposes, to which it is largely applied; its freedom from any
tendency to split adapts it for clinker-built boats. It is much em-
ployed for house-building; most of the picturesque log-houses in
Vaud and the adjacent cantons are built of squared larch trunks,
and derive their fine brown tint from the hardened resin that slowly
exudes from the wood after long exposure to the summer sun; the
wooden shingles, that in Switzerland supply the place of tiles, are
also frequently of larch. In Germany it is much used by the cooper
as well as the carpenter, while the form of the trunk admirably
adapts it for all purposes for which long straight timber is needed.
It answers well for fence-posts and river piles; many of the founda-
tions of Venice rest upon larch, the lasting qualities of which were
well known and appreciated, not only in medieval times, but in the
days of Vitruvius and Pliny. The harder and darker varieties are
used in the construction of cheap solid furniture, being fine in grain
and taking polish better than many more costly woods. A peculiarity
of larch wood is the difficulty with which it is ignited, although so
resinous; and, coated with a thin layer of plaster, beams and
pillars of larch might probably be found to justify Caesar's epithet
" igni impenetrabile lignum"; even the small branches are not
easily kept alight, and a larch fire in the open needs considerable
care. Yet the forests of larch in Siberia often suffer from con-
flagration. When these fires occur while the trees are full of sap,
a curious mucilaginous matter is exuded from the half-burnt stems;
when dry it is of pale reddish colour, like some of the coarser kinds
of gum-arabic, and is soluble in water, the solution resembling gum-
water, in place of which it is sometimes used ; considerable quantities
are collected and sold as " Orenburg gum "; in Siberia and Russia
it is occasionally employed as a semi-medicinal food, being esteemed
an antiscorbutic. For burning in close stoves and furnaces, larch
makes tolerably good fuel, its value being estimated by Hartig as
only one-fifth less than that of beech; the charcoal is compact,
and is in demand for iron-smelting and other metallurgic uses in
some parts of Europe.
In the trunk of the larch, especially when growing in climates
where the sun is powerful in summer, a fine clear turpentine exists
in great abundance; in Savoy and the south of Switzerland, it is
collected for sale, though not in such quantity as formerly, when,
being taken to Venice for shipment, it was known in commerce as
" Venice turpentine." Old trees are selected, from the bark of
which it is observed to ooze in the early summer; holes are bored
in the trunk, somewhat inclined upward towards the centre of the
stem, in which, between the layers of wood, the turpentine is said
to collect in small lacunae; wooden gutters placed in these holes
convey the viscous fluid into little wooden pails hung on the end of
each gutter; the secretion flows slowly all through the summer
months, and a tree in proper condition yields from 6 to 8 ft a year,
and will continue to give an annual supply for thirty or forty years,
being, however, rendered quite useless for timber by subjection to
this process. In Tirol, a single hole is made near the root of the
tree in the spring; this is stopped with a plug, and the turpentine
is removed by a scoop in the autumn ; but each tree yields only
from a few ounces to i ft by this process. Real larch turpentine is
a thick tenacious fluid, of a deep yellow colour, and nearly trans-
parent; it does not harden by time; it contains 15% of the essential
oil of turpentine, also resin, succinic, pinic and sylvic acids, and a
bitter extractive matter. According to Pereira, much sold under
the name of Venice turpentine is a mixture of common resin and
oil of turpentine. On the French Alps a sweet exudation is found
on the small branchlets of young larches in June and July, resembling
manna in taste and laxative properties, and known as Manna de
Brianfon or Manna Brigantina ; it occurs in small whitish irregular
granular masses, which are removed in the morning before they are
too much dried by the sun; this manna seems to differ little in
composition from the sap of the tree, which also contains mannite;
its cathartic powers are weaker than those of the manna of the
manna ash (Fraximus ornus), but it is employed in France for the
same purposes.
The bark of the larch is largely used in some countries for tanning;
it is taken from the trunk only, being stripped from the trees when
felled; its value is about equal to that of birch bark; but, according
to the experience of British tanners, it is scarcely half as strong as
that of the oak. The soft inner bark is occasionally used in Siberia
as a ferment, by hunters and others, being boiled and mixed with
LARCH
213
rye-meal, and buried in the snow for a short time, when it is em-
ployed as a substitute for other leaven, and in making the sour
liquor called " quass." In Germany a fungus (Polyporus Lands)
grows on the roots and stems of decaying larches, which was formerly
in esteem as a drastic purgative. The young shoots of the larch are
sometimes given in Switzerland as fodder to cattle.
The larch, though mentioned by Parkinson in 1629 as "nursed
up "by a few "lovers of variety" as a rare exotic, does not seem
to have been much grown in England till early in the i8th century.
In Scotland the date of its introduction is a disputed point,
but it seems to have been planted at Dunkeld by the 2nd duke
of Athole in 1727, and about thirteen or fourteen years later
considerable plantations were made at that place, the commence-
ment of one of the largest planting experiments on record; it is
estimated that 14 million larches were planted on the Athole
estates between that date and 1826. The cultivation of the tree
rapidly spread, and the larch has become a conspicuous feature
of the scenery in many parts of Scotland. It grows as rapidly
and attains as large a size in British habitats suited to it as in
its home on the Alps, and often produces equally good timber.
The larch of Europe is essentially a mountain tree, and requires
not only free air above, but a certain moderate amount of
moisture in the soil beneath, with, at the same time, perfect
drainage, to bring the timber to perfection. Where there is
complete freedom from stagnant water in the ground, and
abundant room for the spread of its branches to light and air,
the larch will flourish in a great variety of soils, stiff clays, wet
or mossy peat, and moist alluvium being the chief exceptions;
in its native localities it seems partial to the debris of primitive
and metamorphic rocks, but is occasionally found growing
luxuriantly on calcareous subsoils; in Switzerland it attains
the largest size, and forms the best timber, on the northern
declivities of the mountains; but in Scotland a southern aspect
appears most favourable.
The best variety for culture in Britain is that with red female
flowers; the light-flowered kinds are said to produce inferior wood,
and the Siberian larch does not grow in Scotland nearly as fast as
the Alpine tree. The larch is raised from seed in immense numbers
in British nurseries; that obtained from Germany is preferred,
being more perfectly ripened than the cones of home growth usually
are. The seeds are sown in April, on rich ground, which should not
be too highly manured ; the young larches are planted out when
two years old, or sometimes transferred to a nursery bed to attain
a larger size; but, like all conifers, they succeed best when planted
young; on the mountains, the seedlings are usually put into a mere
slit made in the ground by a spade with a triangular blade, the place
being first cleared of any heath, bracken, or tall herbage that might
smother the young tree; the plants should be from 3 to 4 ft. apart,
or even more, according to the growth intended before thinning,
which should be begun as soon as the boughs begin to overspread
much; little or no pruning is needed beyond the careful removal
of dead branches. The larch is said not to succeed on arable land,
especially where corn has been grown, but experience does not
seem to support this view; that against the previous occupation
of the ground by Scotch fir or Norway spruce is probably better
founded, and, where timber is the object, it should not be planted
with other conifers. On the Grampians and neighbouring hills the
larch will flourish at a greater elevation than the pine, and will
grow up to an altitude of 1700 or even 1800 ft.; but it attains its
full size on lower slopes. In very dry and bleak localities, the Scotch
fir will probably be more successful up to 900 ft. above the sea, the
limit of the luxuriant growth of that hardy conifer in Britain; and
in moist valleys or on imperfectly drained acclivities Norway
spruce is more suitable. The growth of the larch while young is
exceedingly rapid; in the south of England it will often attain a
height of 25 ft. in the first ten years, while in favourable localities
it will grow upwards of 80 ft. in half a century or less; one at
Dunkeld felled sixty years after planting was no ft. high; but
usually the tree does not increase so rapidly after the first thirty
of forty years. Some larches in Scotland rival in size the most
gigantic specimens standing in their native woods; a tree at Dalwick,
Peeblesshire, attained 5 ft. in diameter; one at Glenarbuck, near
the Clyde, grew above 140 ft. high, with a circumference of 13 ft.
The annual increase in girth is often considerable even in large trees;
the fine larch near the abbey of Dunkeld figured by Strutt in his
Sylva Britannica increased 2j ft. between 1796 and 1825, its measure-
ment at the latter date being 13 ft., with a height of 97^ ft.
In the south of England, the larch is much planted for the supply
of hop-poles, though in parts of Kent and Sussex poles formed of
Spanish chestnut are regarded as still more lasting. In plantations
made with this object, the seedlings are placed very close (from ij
to 2 ft. apart), and either cut down all at once, when the required
height is attained, or thinned out, leaving the remainder to gain a
greater length; the land is always well trenched before planting.
The best month for larch planting, whether for poles or timber, is
November; larches are sometimes planted in the spring, but the
practice cannot be commended, as the sap flows early, and, if a dry
period follows, the growth is sure to be checked. The thinnings of
the larch woods in the Highlands are in demand for railway sleepers,
scaffold poles, and mining timber, and are applied to a variety of
agricultural purposes. The tree generally succeeds on the Welsh
hills.
The young seedlings are sometimes nibbled by the hare and
rabbit; and on parts of the highland hills both bark and shoots
are eaten in the winter by the roe-deer; larch woods should always
be fenced in to keep out the hill-cattle, which will browse upon
the shoots in spring. The " woolly aphis," " American blight," or
" larch blight " (Eriosoma lands) often attacks the trees in close
valleys, but rarely spreads much unless other unhealthy conditions
are present. The larch suffers from several diseases caused by
fungi ; the most important is the larch-canker caused by the parasit-
ism of Peziza Willkommii. The spores germinate on a damp surface
and enter the cortex through small cracks or wounds in the protecting
layer. The fungus-mycelium will go on growing indefinitely in the
cambium layer, thus killing and destroying a larger area year by year.
The most effective method of treatment is to cut out the diseased
branch or patch as early as possible. Another disease which is
sometimes confused with that caused by the Peziza is " heart-rot ";
it occasionally attacks larches only ten years old or less, but is more
common when the trees have acquired a considerable size, sometimes
spreading in a short time through a whole plantation. The trees for
a considerable period show little sign of unhealthiness, but eventually
the stem begins to swell somewhat near the root, and the whole tree
gradually goes off as the disease advances; when cut down, the
trunk is found to be decayed at the centre, the " rot " usually com-
mencing near the ground. Trees of good size are thus rendered
nearly worthless, often showing little sign of unhealthiness till felled.
Great difference of opinion exists among foresters as to the cause
of this destructive malady; but it is probably the direct result of
unsuitable soil, especially soil containing insufficient nourishment.
Considerable quantities of larch timber are imported into Britain
for use in the dockyards, in addition to the large home supply.
The quality varies much, as well as the colour and density; an
Italian sample in the museum at Kew (of a very dark red tint) weighs
about 24j Ib to the cub. ft., while a Polish specimen, of equally deep
hue, is 44 ft I oz. to the same measurement.
For the landscape gardener, the larch is a valuable aid in the
formation of park and pleasure ground ; but it is never seen to such
advantage as when hanging over some tumbling burn or rocky
pass among the mountains. A variety with very pendent boughs,
known as the " drooping " larch var. pendula, is occasionally met
with in gardens.
The bark of the larch has been introduced into pharmacy, being
given, generally in the form of an alcoholic tincture, in chronic
bronchitic affections and internal haemorrhages. It contains, in
addition to tannin, a peculiar principle called larixin, which may be
obtained in a pure state by distillation from a concentrated infusion
of the bark; it is a colourless substance in long crystals, with a
bitter and astringent taste, and a faint acid reaction; hence some
term it larixinic add.
The European larch has long been introduced into the United
States, where, in suitable localities, it flourishes as luxuriantly
as in Britain. Plantations have been made in America with an
economic view, the tree growing much faster, and producing
good timber at an earlier age than the native hackmatack
(or tamarack), while the wood is less ponderous, and therefore
more generally applicable.
The genus is represented in the eastern parts of North America
by the hackmatack (L. americana), of which there are several
varieties, two so well marked that they are by some botanists
considered specifically distinct. In one (L. microcarpa) the cones
are very small, rarely exceeding | in. in length, of a roundish-
oblong shape; the scales are very few in number, crimson in
the young state, reddish-brown when ripe; the tree much re-
sembles the European larch in general appearance but is of more
slender growth; its trunk is seldom more than 2 ft. in diameter
and rarely above 80 ft. high; this form is the red larch, the
Spinette rouge of the French Canadians. The black larch (L.
pendula) has rather larger cones, of an oblong shape, about f in.
long, purplish or green in the immature state, and dark brown
when ripe, the scales somewhat more numerous, the bracts all
shorter than the scales. The bark is dark bluish-grey, smoother
than in the red larch, on the trunk and lower boughs often
glossy; the branches are more or less pendulous and very
slender.
214
The red larch grows usually on higher and drier ground, ranging
from the Virginian mountains to the shores of Hudson Bay; the
black larch is found often on moist land, and even in swamps. The
hackmatack is one of the most valuable timber trees of America;
it is in great demand in the ports of the St Lawrence for shipbuilding.
It is far more durable than any of the oaks of that region, is heavy
and close-grained, and much stronger, as well as more lasting, than
that of the pines and firs of Canada. In many parts all the finer trees
have been cut down, but large woods of it still exist in the less accessible
districts; it abounds especially near Lake St John, Quebec, and in
Newfoundland is the prevalent tree in some of the forest tracts;
it is likewise common in Maine and Vermont. In the timber and
building yards the " red " hackmatack is the kind preferred, the
produce, probably, of L. microcarpa; the " grey " is less esteemed;
but the varieties from which these woods are obtained cannot
always be traced with certainty. Several fine specimens of the red
larch exist in English parks, but its growth is much slower than that
of L. europaea ; the more pendulous forms of L. pendula are elegant
trees for the garden. The hackmatacks might perhaps be grown
with advantage in places too wet for the common larch.
In western America a larch (L. occidentalis) occurs more nearly
resembling L. europaea. The leaves are short, thicker and more rigid
than in any of the other larches; the cones are much larger than those
of the hackmatacks, egg-shaped or oval in outline; the scales are of
a fine red in the immature state, the bracts green and extending far
beyond the scales in a rigid leaf-like point. The bark of the trunk
has the same reddish tint as that of the common larch of Europe.
It is the largest of all larches and one of the most useful timber
trees of North America. Some of the trees are 250 ft. high and 6 to
8 ft. in diameter. The wood is the hardest and strongest of all the
American conifers; it is durable and adapted for construction work
or household furniture.
LARCHER, PIERRE HENRI (1726-1812), French classical
scholar and archaeologist, was born at Dijon on the I2th of
October 1726. Originally intended for the law, he abandoned
it for the classics. His (anonymous) translation of Chariton's
Chaereas and Callirrhoe (1763) marked him as an excellent
Greek scholar. His attack upon Voltaire's Philosophic de
Vhistorie (published under the name of 1'Abbe Bazin) created
considerable interest at the time. His archaeological and mytho-
logical Memoire sur Venus (1775), which has been ranked
with similar works of Heyne and Winckelmann, gained him
admission to the Academic des Inscriptions (1778). After the
imperial university was founded, he was appointed professor
of Greek literature (1809) with Boissonade as his assistant.
He died on the 22nd of December 1812. Larcher's best work
was his translation of Herodotus (1786, new ed. by L. Humbert,
1880) on the preparation of which he had spent fifteen years.
The translation itself, though correct, is dull, but the com-
mentary (translated into English, London, 1829, new ed.
1844, by W. D. Cooley) dealing with historical, geographical
and chronological questions, and enriched by a wealth of illus-
tration from ancient and modern authors, is not without value.
See J. F. Boissonade, Notice sur la vie et les ecrits de P. L. (1813) ;
F. A. Wolf, Literarische Analecten, i. 205; D. A. Wyttenbach,
Philomalhia, iii. (1817).
LARCIUS (less accurately LARTIUS), TITUS, probably sur-
named FLAVUS, a member of an Etruscan family (cf. Lars
Tolumnius, Lars Porsena) early settled in Rome. When consul
in 501 B.C. he was chosen dictator (the title and office being
then introduced for the first time) to command against the
thirty Latin cities, which had sworn to reinstate Tarquin in
Rome. Other authorities put the appointment three years
later, when the plebeians refused to serve against the Latins
until they had been released from the burden of their debts.
He opposed harsh measures against the Latins, and also inte-
rested himself in the improvement of the lot of the plebeians.
His brother, Spurius, is associated with Horatius Codes in the
defence of the Sublician bridge against the Etruscans.
See Livy ii. 10, 18, 21, 29; Dion. Halic. v. 50-77, vi. 37; Cicero,
De Re Publica, ii. 32.
LARD (Fr. lard, from Lat. laridum, bacon fat, related to
Gr. XapiTOs fat, Xap6s dainty or sweet), the melted and strained
fat of the common hog. Properly it is prepared from the " leaf "
or fat of the bowel and kidneys, but in commerce the term
as applied to products which include fat obtained from other
parts of the animal and sometimes containing no " leaf " at all.
Lard of various grades is made in enormous quantities by
the great pork -packing houses at Chicago and elsewhere in
LARCHER— LARDNER, N.
America. "Neutral lard" is prepared at a temperature of
40°-5o° C. from freshly killed hogs; the finest quality, used
for making oleomargarine, is got from the leaf, while the second,
employed by biscuit and pastry bakers, is obtained from the
fat of the back. Steam heat is utilized in extracting inferior
qualities, such as "choice lard" and "prime steam lard,"
the source of the latter being any fat portion of the animal.
Lard is a pure white fat of a butter-like consistence; its specific
gravity is about 0-93, its solidifying point about 27°-3o° C.,
and its melting point 35°-4S°C. It contains about 60% of
olein and 40% of palmitin and stearin. Adulteration is common,
the substances used including "stearin" both of beef and of
mutton, and vegetable oils such as cotton seed oil: indeed,
mixtures have been sold as lard that contain nothing but such
adulterants. In the pharmacopoeia lard figures as adeps and
is employed as a basis for ointments. Benzoated lard, used for
the same purpose, is prepared by heating lard with 3% of
powdered benzoin for two hours; it keeps better than ordinary
lard, but has slightly irritant, properties.
Lard oil is the limpid, clear, colourless oil expressed by hydraulic
pressure and gentle heat from lard; it is employed for burning
and for lubrication. Of the solid residue, lard " stearine,"
the best qualities are utilized for making oleomargarine, the
inferior ones in the manufacture of candles.
See J. Lewkowitsch, Oils, Fats and Waxes (London, 1909).
LARDNER, DIONYSIUS (1793-1859), Irish scientific writer,
was born at Dublin on the 3rd of April 1793. His father, a
solicitor, wished his son to follow the same calling. After
some years of uncongenial desk work, Lardner entered Trinity
College, Dublin, and graduated B.A. in 1817. In 1828 he
became professor of natural philosophy and astronomy at
University College, London, a position he held till 1840, when
he eloped with a married lady, and had to leave the country.
After a lecturing tour through the principal cities of the United
States, which realized £40,000, he returned to Europe in 1845.
He settled at Paris, and resided there till within a few months
of his death, which took place at Naples on the 2gth of April
1859.
Though lacking in originality or brilliancy, Lardner showed
himself to be a successful popularizer of science. He was the author
of numerous mathematical and physical treatises on such subjects
as algebraic geometry (1823), the differential and integral calculus
(1825), the steam engine (1828), besides hand-books on various
departments of natural philosophy (1854-1856) ; but it is as the
editor of Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia (1830-1844) that he is best
remembered. To this scientific library of 134 volumes many of the
ablest savants of the day contributed, Lardner himself being the
author of the treatises on arithmetic, geometry, heat, hydrostatics
and pneumatics, mechanics (in conjunction with Henry Kater)
and electricity (in conjunction with C. V. Walker). The Cabinet
Library (12 vols., 1830-1832) and the Museum of Science and Art
(12 vols., 1854-1856) are his other chief undertakings. A few
original papers appear in the Royal Irish Academy's Transactions
(1824), in the Royal Society's Proceedings (1831-1836) and in the
Astronomical Society's Monthly Notices (1852-1853); and two
Reports to the British Association on railway constants (1838, 1841)
are from his pen.
LARDNER, NATHANIEL (1684-1768), English theologian,
was born at Hawkhurst, Kent. After studying for the Presby-
terian ministry in London, and also at Utrecht and Leiden,
he took licence as a preacher in 1709, but was not successful.
In 1713 he entered the family of a lady of rank as tutor and
domestic chaplain, where he remained until 1721. In 1724
he was appointed to deliver the Tuesday evening lecture in the
Presbyterian chapel, Old Jewry, London, and in 1729 he became
assistant minister to the Presbyterian congregation in Crutched
Friars. He was given the degree of D.D. by Marischal College,
Aberdeen, in 1745. He died at Hawkhurst on the 24th of July
1768.
An anonymous volume of Memoirs appeared in 1769; and a life
by Andrew Kippis is prefixed to the edition of the Works of Lardner,
published in II vols., 8vo in 1788, in 4 vols. 4to in 1817, and IO vols.
8vo in 1827. The full title of his principal work — a work which,
though now out of date, entitles its author to be regarded as the
founder of modern critical research in the field of early Christian
literature— is The Credibility of the Gospel History; or the Principal
Facts of the New Testament confirmed by Passages of Ancient Authors,
LAREDO— LARES
215
who were contemporary with our Saviour or Ms Apostles, or lived near
their time. Part i., in 2 vols. 8vo, appeared in 1727; the publication
of part ii., in 12 vols. 8yo, began in 1733 and ended in 1755. In 1730
there was a second edition of part i., and the Additions and Alterations
were also published separately. A Supplement, otherwise entitled
A History of the Apostles and Evangelists, Writers of the New Testa-
ment, was added in 3 vols. (1756-1757), and reprinted in 1760. Other
works by Lardner are A Large Collection of Ancient Jewish and
Heathen Testimonies to the Truth of the Christian Revelation, with
Notes and Observations (4 vols., 4to, 1764-1767); The History of
the Heretics of the two first Centuries after Christ, published post-
humously in 1780 and a considerable number of occasional sermons.
LAREDO, a city and the county-seat of Webb county, Texas,
U.S.A., and a sub-port of entry, on the Rio Grande opposite
Nuevo Laredo, Mexico, and 150 m. S. of San Antonio. Pop.
(1900) 13,429, of whom 6882 were foreign-born (mostly Mexi-
cans) and 82 negroes; (1910 census) 14,855. It is served by
the International & Great Northern, the National of Mexico,
the Texas Mexican and the Rio Grande & Eagle Pass railways,
and is connected by bridges with Nuevo Laredo. Among the
principal buildings are the U.S. Government Building, the
City Hall and the County Court House; and the city's institu-
tions include the Laredo Seminary (1882) for boys and girls, the
Mercy Hospital, the National Railroad of Mexico Hospital and
an Ursuline Convent. Loma Vista Park (65 acres) is a pleasure
resort, and immediately W. of Laredo on the Rio Grande
is Fort Mclntosh (formerly Camp Crawford), a United States
military post. Laredo is a jobbing centre for trade between
the United States and Mexico, and is a sub-port of entry in the
Corpus Christi Customs District. It is situated in a good farming
and cattle-raising region, irrigated by water from the Rio Grande.
The principal crop is Bermuda onions; in 1909 it was estimated
that 1500 acres in the vicinity were devoted to this crop, the
average yield per acre being about 20,000 ft. There are coal
mines about 25 m. above Laredo on the Rio Grande, and natural
gas was discovered about 28 m. E. in 1908. The manufacture
of bricks is an important industry. Laredo was named from
the seaport in Spain, and was founded in 1767 as a Mexican town;
it originally included what is now Nuevo Laredo, Mexico, and
was long the only Mexican town on the left bank of the river.
It was captured in 1846 by a force of Texas Rangers, and in
1847 was occupied by U.S. troops under General Lamar. In
1852 it was chartered as a city of Texas.
LA REOLE, a town of south-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Gironde, on the right bank
of the Gironde, 38 m. S.E. of Bordeaux by rail. Pop. (1906)
3469. La Reole grew up round a monastery founded in the
7th or 8th century, which was reformed in the nth century and
took the name of Regula, whence that of the town. A church
of the end of the I2th century and some of the buildings (iSth
century) are left. There is also a town hall of the I2th and
1 4th centuries. The town fortifications were dismantled by
order of Richelieu, but remains dating from the i2th and I4th
centuries are to be seen, as well as a ruined chateau built by
Henry II. of England. La Reole has a sub-prefecture, a tribunal
of first instance, a communal college and an agricultural school.
The town is the centre of the district in which the well-known
breed of Bazadais cattle is reared. It is an agricultural market
and carries on trade in the wine of the region together with
liqueur distillery and the manufacture of casks, rope, brooms, &c.
LARES (older form Lases), Roman tutelary deities. The
word is generally supposed to mean " lords," and identified
with Etruscan larth, lar; but this is by no means certain. The
attempt to harmonize the Stoic demonology with Roman
religion led to the Lares being compared with the Greek " heroes "
during the period of Greco-Roman culture, and the word is
frequently translated fjp<o«. In the later period of the republic
they are confounded with the Penates (and other deities), though
the distinction between them was probably more sharply marked
in earlier times. They were originally gods of the cultivated
fields, worshipped by each household where its allotment joined
those of others (see below). The distinction between public
and private Lares existed from early times. The latter were
worshipped in the house by the family alone, and the household
Lar (familiaris) was conceived of as the centre-point of the
family and of the family cult. The word itself (in the singular)
came to be used in the general sense of " home." It is certain
that originally each household had only one Lar; the plural
was at first only used to include other classes of Lares, and only
gradually, after the time of Cicero, ousted the singular. The
image of the Lar, made of wood, stone or metal, sometimes
even of silver, stood in its special shrine (lararium), which in
early times was in the atrium, but was afterwards transferred
to other parts' of the house, when the family hearth was removed
from the atrium. In some of the Pompeian houses the lararium
was represented by a niche only, containing the image of the lar.
It was usually a youthful figure, dressed in a short, high-girt
tunic, holding in one hand a rhyton (drinking-horn), in the other
a patera (cup). Under the Empire we find usually two of these,
one on each side of the central figure of the Genius of the head
of the household, sometimes of Vesta the hearth-deity. The
whole group was called indifferently Lares or Penates. A prayer
was said to the Lar every morning, and at each meal offerings
of food and drink were set before him; a portion of these was
placed on the hearth and afterwards shaken into the fire. Special
sacrifices were offered on the kalends, nones, and ides of every
month, and on the occasion of important family events. Such
events were the birthday of the head of the household; the
assumption of the toga virilis by a son; the festival of the
Caristia in memory of deceased members of the household;
recovery from illness; the entry of a young bride into the house
for the first time; return home after a long absence. On these
occasions the Lares were crowned with garlands, and offerings of
cakes and honey, wine and incense, but especially swine, were
laid before them. Their worship persisted throughout the
pagan period, although its character changed considerably in
later times. The emperor Alexander Severus had images of
Abraham, Christ and Alexander the Great among his household
Lares.
The public Lares belonged to the state religion. Amongst
these must be included, at least after the time of Augustus, the
Lares compitales. Originally two in number, mythologically the
sons of Mercurius and Lara (or Larunda), they were the presiding
deities of the cross-roads (compita), where they had their special
chapels. It has been maintained by some that they are the twin
brothers so frequent in early religions, the Romulus and Remus
of the Roman foundation legends. Their sphere of influence
included not only the cross-roads, but the whole neighbouring
district of the town and country in which they were situated.
They had'a special annual festival, called Compitalia, to which
public games were added some time during the republican
period. When the colleges of freedmen and slaves, who assisted
the presidents of the festival, were abolished by Julius Caesar,
it fell into disuse. Its importance was revived by Augustus,
who added to these Lares his own Genius, the religious personi-
fication of the empire.
The state itself had its own Lares, called praestites, the protect-
ing patrons and guardians of the city. They had a temple and
altar on the Via Sacra, near the Palatine, and were represented
on coins as young men wearing the chlamys, carrying lances,
seated, with a dog, the emblem of watchfulness, at their feet.
Mention may also be made of the Lares grundules, whose worship
was connected with the white sow of Alba Longa and its thirty
young (the epithet has been connected with grunnire, to grunt) :
the males, who protected travellers; the hostilii, who kept off
the enemies of the state; the permarini, connected with the sea,
to whom L. Aemilius Regillus, after a naval victory over
Antiochus (190 B.C.), vowed a temple in the Campus Martius,
which was dedicated by M. Aemilius Lepidus the censor in
179.
The old view that the Lares were the deified ancestors of the
family has been rejected lately by Wissowa, who holds that the
Lar was originally the protecting spirit of a man's lot of arable
land, with a shrine at the compitum, i.e. the spot where the path
bounding his arable met that of another holding; and thence
found his way into the house.
2l6
LA REVELLIERE-LEPEAUX— LARINO
In addition to flie manuals of Marquardt and Preller-Jordan,
and Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie, see A. de Marchi, // Culto
private di Roma antica (1896-1903), p. 28 foil. ; G. Wissowa, Religion
und Kidtus der Romer (1902), p. 148 foil.; Archiv fur Religions-
wissenschaft (1904, p. 42 foil.) and W. Warde Fowler in the same
periodical (1906, p. 529).
LA REVELLIERE-LEPEAUX, LOUIS MARIE DE (1753-
1824), French politician, member of the Directory, the son of
J. B. de la Revelliere, was born at Montaign (Vendee), on the
24th of August 1753. The name of Lepeaux he adopted from a
small property belonging to his family, and he was known locally
as M. de Lepeaux. He studied law at Angers and Paris, being
called to the bar in 1775. A deputy to the states-general in
1789, he returned at the close of the session to Angers, where with
his school-friends J. B. Leclerc and Urbain Rene Pilastre he
sat on the council of Maine-et-Loire, and had to deal with the
first Vendeen outbreaks. In 1792 he was returned by the
department to the Convention, and on the igth of November
he proposed the famous decree by which France offered protec-
tion to foreign nations in their struggle for liberty. Although La
Revelliere-Lepeaux voted for the death of Louis XVI., he was
not in general agreement with the extremists. Proscribed with
the Girondins in 1793 he was in hiding until the revolution of
9-10 Thermidor (27th and 28th of July 1794). After serving on
the commission to prepare the initiation of the new constitution
he became in July 1795 president of the Assembly, and shortly
afterwards a member of the Committee of Public Safety. His
name stood first on the list of directors elected, and he became
president of the Directory. Of his colleagues he was in alliance
with Jean Francois Rewbell and to a less degree with Barras,
but the greatest of his fellow-directors, Lazare Carnot, was the
object of his undying hatred. His policy was marked by a bitter
hostility to the Christian religion, which he proposed to supplant
as a civilizing agent by theophilanthropy, a new religion invented
by the English deist David Williams. The credit of the coup
d'etat of 18 Fructidor (4th of September 1797), by which the
allied directors made'themselves supreme, La Revelliere arrogated
to himself in his Memoires, which in this as in other matters
must be read with caution. Compelled to resign by the revolu-
tion of 30 Prairial (i8th of June 1799) he lived in retirement in
the country, and even after his return to Paris ten years later took
no part in public affairs. He died on the 27th of March 1824.
The Memoires of La Revelliere-Lepeaux were edited by R. D.
D'Angers (Paris, 3 vols., 1895). See also E. Charavay, La Revelliere-
Lepeaux et ses memoires (1895) and A. Meynier, Un Representant
de la bourgeoisie angevine (1905).
LARGENTIERE, a town of south-eastern France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Ardeche, in the narrow
valley of the Ligne, 29 m. S.W. of Privas by road. Pop. (1906)
1690. A church of the I2th, i3th and isth centuries and the
old castle of the bishops of Viviers, lords of Largentiere, now
used as a hospital, are the chief buildings. The town is the
seat of a sub-prefect and of a tribunal of first instance; and has
silk-mills, and carries on silk-spinning, wine-growing and trade
in fruit and silk. It owes its name to silver-mines worked in
the vicinity in the middle ages.
LARGILLIERE, NICOLAS (1656-1746), French painter, was
born at Paris on the 2oth of October 1656. 'His father, a merchant,
took him to Antwerp at the age of three, and while a lad he
spent nearly two years in London. The attempt to turn his
attention to business having failed, he entered, some time after
his return to Antwerp, the studio of Goubeau, quitting this at
the age of eighteen to seek his fortune in England, where he was
befriended by Lely, who employed him for four years at Windsor.
His skill attracted the notice of Charles II., who wished to retain
him in his service, but the fury aroused against Roman Catholics
by the Rye House Plot alarmed Largilliere, and he went to Paris,
where he was well received by Le Brun and Van der Meulen.
In spite of his Flemish training, his reputation, especially as a
portrait-painter, was soon established; his brilliant colour and
lively touch attracted all the celebrities of the day— actresses,
public men and popular preachers flocking to his studio. Huet,
bishop of Avranches, Cardinal de Noailles, the Duclos and
President Lambert, with his beautiful wife and daughter, are
amongst his most noted subjects. It is said that James II.
recalled Largilliere to England on his accession to the throne in
1685, that he declined the office of keeper of the royal collections,
but that, during a short stay in London, he painted portraits of the
king, the queen and the prince of Wales. This last is impossible,
as the birth of the prince did not take place till 1688; the three
portraits, therefore, painted by Largilliere of the prince in his
youth must all have been executed in Paris, to which city he
returned some time before March 1686, when he was received by
the Academy as a member, and presented as his diploma picture
the fine portrait of Le Brun, now in the Louvre. He was received
as an historical painter; but, although he occasionally produced
works of that class (" Crucifixion," engraved by Roettiers),
and also treated subjects of still life, it was in historical portraits
that he excelled. Horace Walpole states that he left in London
those of Pierre van der Meulen and of Sybrecht. Several of his
works are at Versailles. The church of St fitienne du Mont at
Paris contains the finest example of Largilliere's work when
dealing with large groups of figures; it is an ex wto offered by
the city to St Genevieve, painted in 1694, and containing por-
traits of all the leading officers of the municipality. Largilliere
passed through every post of honour in the Academy, until in
1743 he was made chancellor. He died on the 2oth of March
1746. Jean Baptiste Oudry was the most distinguished of his
pupils. Largilliere's work found skilful interpreters in Van
Schuppen, Edelinck, Desplaces, Drevet, Pitou and other
engravers.
LARGS, a police burgh and watering place of Ayrshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1901) 3246. It is situated 43 m. W. by S. of
Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Western railway. Its fine
beach and dry, bracing climate have attracted many wealthy
residents, and the number of summer visitors is also large.
The public buildings include the Clark hospital, the Victoria
infirmary convalescent home and the Stevenson institute and
mechanics' library. Skelmorlie Aisle, the sole relic of the old
parish church of St Columba, was converted into a mausoleum
in 1636. Near it a mound covers remains, possibly those of the
Norwegians who fell in the battle (1263) between Alexander III.
and Haco, king of Norway. The harbour is used mainly by
Clyde passenger steamers and yachtsmen. From the quay a
broad esplanade has been constructed northwards round the
bay, and there is an excellent golf course. Kelburne Castle,
2 m. S., a seat of the earl of Glasgow, stands in romantic scenery.
FAIRLIE, 3 m. S., another seaside resort, with a station on the
Glasgow & South-Western railway, is the connecting-point
for Millport on Great Cumbrae. Once a fishing village, it has
acquired a great reputation for its yachts.
LARGUS, SCRIBONIUS, court physician to the emperor
Claudius. About A.D. 47, at the request of Gaius Julius Callistus,
the emperor's freedman, he drew up a list of 271 prescriptions
(Composiliones) , most of them his own, although he acknowledged
his indebtedness to his tutors, to friends and to the writings of
eminent physicians. Certain old wives' remedies are also in-
cluded. The work has no pretensions to style, and contains
many colloquialisms. The greater part of it was transferred
without acknowledgment to the work of Marcellus Empiricus
(c. 410), De Medicamentis Empiritis, Physicis, et Rationabilibus,
which is of great value for the correction of the text of Largus.
See the edition of the Compositiones by G. Helmreich (Teubner
series, 1887).
LARINO (anc. Larinum) a town and episcopal see of the Molise
(province of Campobasso), Italy, 32 m. N.E. of Campobasso by
rail (20 m. direct), 984 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 7044.
The cathedral, completed in 1319, has a good Gothic facade; the
interior has to some extent been spoilt by later restoration.
The campanile rests upon a Gothic arch erected in 1451. The
Palazzo Comunale has a courtyard of the i6th century. That
the ancient town (which is close to the modern) existed
aefore the Roman supremacy had extended so far is proved by
the coins. It lay in the and Augustan region (Apulia), but the
people belonged to the Frentani by race. Its strong position gave
LARISSA— LARK
217
it importance in the military history of Italy from the Hanni-
balic wars onwards. The town was a municipium, situated on the
main road to the S.E., which left the coast at Histonium (Vasto)
and ran from Larinum E. to Sipontum. From Larinum a branch
road ran to Bovianum Vetus. Remains of its city walls, of its
amphitheatre and also of baths, &c., exist, and it did not cease
to be inhabited until after the earthquake of 1300, when the
modern city was established. Cluentius, the client of Cicero,
who delivered a speech in his favour, was a native of Larinum,
his father having been praetor of the allied forces in the Social
War. (T. As.)
LARISSA (Turk. Yeni Shehr, " new town "), the most im-
portant town of Thessaly, situated in a rich agricultural district
on the right bank of the Salambria (Peneios, Peneus, Peneius),
about 35 m. N.W. of Volo, with which it is connected by rail.
Pop. (1889) 13,610, (1907) 18,001. Till 1881 it was the seat of a
pasha in the vilayet of Jannina; it is now the capital of the Greek
province and the seat of a nomarch. Its long subjection to
Turkey has left little trace of antiquity, and the most striking
features in the general view are the minarets of the disused
mosques (only four are now in use) and the Mahommedan
burying-grounds. It was formerly a Turkish military centre and
most of the people were of Turkish blood. In the outskirts is a
village of Africans from the Sudan — a curious remnant of the
forces collected by Ali Pasha. The manufactures include Turkish
leather, cotton, silk and tobacco; trade and industry, however, are
far from prosperous, though improving owing to the immigra-
tion of the Greek commercial element. Fevers and agues are
prevalent owing to bad drainage and the overflowing of the river;
and the death-rate is higher than the birth-rate. A considerable
portion of the Turkish population emigrated in 1881; a further
exodus took place in 1898. The department of Larissa had
in 1907 a population of 95,066.
Larissa, written Larisa on ancient coins and inscriptions, is near
the site of the Homeric Argissa. It appears in early times, when
Thessaly was mainly governed by a few aristocratic families, as an
important city under the rule of the Aleuadae, whose authority
extended over the whole district of Pelasgiotis. This powerful
family possessed for many generations before 369 B.C. the privilege
of furnishing the Tagus, or generalissimo, of the combined Thessalian
forces. The principal rivals of the Aleuadae were the Scopadae of
Crannon, the remains of which (called by the Turks Old Larissa) are
about 14 m. to the S.W. The inhabitants sided with Athens during
the Peloponnesian War, and during the Roman invasion their city
was of considerable importance. Since the 5th century it has been
the seat of an archbishop, who has now fifteen suffragans. Larissa
was the headquarters of Ali Pasha during the Greek War of Independ-
ence, and of the crown prince Constantine during the Greco-Turkish
War; the flight of the Greek army from this place to Pharsala took
place on the 23rd of April 1897. Notices of some ancient inscriptions
found at Larissa are given by Miller in Melanges philologiques (Paris,
1880); several sepulchral reliefs were found in the neighbourhood
in 1882. A few traces of the ancient acropolis and theatre are still
visible.
The name Larissa was common to many " Pelasgian " towns, and
apparently signified a fortified city or burg, such as the citadel of
Argos. Another town of the name in Thessaly was Larissa Cremaste,
surnamed Pelasgia (Strabo ix. p. 440), situated on the slope of Mt.
Othrys. (J. D. B.)
LARISTAN, a sub-province of the province of Fars in Persia,
bounded E. and N.E. by Kerman and S. by the Persian Gulf.
It lies between 26° 30' and 28° 25' N. and between 52° 30' and
55° 30' E. and has an extreme breadth and length of 120 and
210 m. respectively, with an area of about 20,000 sq. m. Pop.
about 90,000. Laristan consists mainly of mountain ranges in
the north and east, and of arid plains varied with rocky hills and
sandy valleys stretching thence to the coast. In the highlands,
where some fertile upland tracts produce corn, dates and other
fruits, the climate is genial, but elsewhere it is extremely sultry,
and on the low-lying coast lands malarious. Good water is
everywhere so scarce that but for the rain preserved in cisterns
the country would be mostly uninhabitable. Many cisterns are
infested with Guinea worm (filaria medinensis, Gm.). The
coast is chiefly occupied by Arab tribes who were virtually inde-
pendent, paying merely a nominal tribute to the shah's govern-
ment until 1898. They reside in small towns and mud forts
scattered along the coast. The people of the interior are mostly
of the old Iranian stock, and there are also a few nomads of the
Turkish Baharlu tribe which came to Persia in the nth century
when the province was subdued by a Turkish chief. Laristan
remained an independent state under a Turkish ruler until 1602,
when Shah Ibrahim Khan was deposed and put to death by
Shah 'Abbas the Great. The province is subdivided into eight
districts: (i) Lar, the capital and environs, with 34 villages;
(2) Bikhah Ihsham with 11; (3) Bikhah Fal with 10; (4)
Jehangiriyeh with 30; (5) Shibkuh with 36; (6) Fumistan with
13; (7) Kauristan with 4; (8) Mazayijan with 6 villages.
Lingah, with its principal place Bander Lingah and u villages,
formerly a part of Laristan, is now included in the " Persian
Gulf Ports," a separate administrative division. Laristan is
famous for the condiment called mdhiabeh (fish-jelly), a com-
pound of pounded small sprat-like fish, salt, mustard, nutmeg,
cloves and other spices, used as a relish with nearly all foods.
LARIVEY, PIERRE (c. 1550-1612), French dramatist, of
Italian origin, was the son of one of the Giunta, the famous
printers of Florence and Venice. The family was established
at Troyes and had taken the name of Larivey or L'Arrivey,
by way of translation from giunto. Pierre Larivey appears to
have cast horoscopes, and to have acted as clerk to the chapter
of the church of St Etienne, of which he eventually became
a canon. He has no claim to be the originator of French comedy.
The Corrivaux of Jean de la Taille dates from 1562, but Larivey
naturalized the Italian comedy of intrigue in France. He
adapted, rather than translated, twelve Italian comedies into
French prose. The first volume of the Comedies facetieuses
appeared in 1579, and the second in 1611. Only nine in all were
printed.1 The licence of the manners depicted in these plays
is matched by the coarseness of the expression. Larivey's
merit lies in the use of popular language in dialogue, which often
rises to real excellence, and was not without influence on Moliere
and Regnard. Moliere's L'Avare owes something to the scene
in Larivey's masterpiece, Les Esprils, where Severin laments
the loss of his purse, and the opening scene of the piece seems
to have suggested Regnard's Retour imprevu. It is uncertain
whether Larivey's plays were represented, though they were
evidently written for the stage. In any case prose comedy
gained very little ground in popular favour before the time of
Moliere. Larivey was the author of many translations, varying
in subject from the Facetieuses nulls (1573) of Straparola to the
Humanite de Jesus-Christ (1604) from Pietro Aretino.
LARK (O. Eng. Idwerce, Ger. Lerche, Dan. Laerke, Dutch Leeu-
werik), a bird's name used in a rather general sense, the specific
meaning being signified by a prefix, as skylark, titlark, woodlark.
It seems to be nearly conterminous with the Latin Alauda as
used by older authors; and, though this was to some extent
limited by Linnaeus, several of the species included by him
under the genus he so designated have long since been referred
elsewhere. By Englishmen the word lark, used without qualifica-
tion, almost invariably means the skylark, Alauda. arvensis,
which, as the best-known and fnost widely spread species through-
out Europe, has been invariably considered the type of the genus.
Of all birds it holds unquestionably the foremost place in English
literature. It is one of the most favourite cage birds, as it will
live for many years in captivity, and, except in the season of
moult, will pour forth its thrilling song many times in an hour
for weeks or months together. The skylark is probably the most
plentiful of the class in western Europe. Not only does it
frequent almost all unwooded districts in that quarter of the
globe, but, unlike most birds, its numbers increase with the spread
of agricultural improvement. Nesting chiefly in the growing
corn, its eggs and young are protected in a great measure from
molestation; and, as each pair of birds will rear several broods
1 Le Laquais, from the Ragazzo of Ludovico Dolce ; La Veuve,
from the Vedova of Nicolo Buonaparte; Les Esprits, from the
Aridosio of Lorenzino de Medicis; Le Morfondu, from the Gelosia of
Antonio Grazzini ; Les Jaloux, from the Gelosi of Vincent Gabbiani ;
and Les Escolliers, from the Cecca of Girolamo Razzi, in the first
volume; and in the second, Constance, from the Costanza of Razzi;
Le Fidele, from the Fedele of Luigi Pasqualigo; and Les Tromperies,
from the Inganni of N. Secchi.
2l8
LARK
in the season, their produce on the average may be set down
as at least quadrupling the original stock — the eggs in each
nest varying from five to three. Young larks leave their birth-
place as soon as they can shift for themselves. When the
stubbles are cleared, old and young congregate in flocks.
In Great Britain in the autumn they give place to others
coming from more northerly districts, and then as winter succeeds
in great part vanish, leaving but a tithe of the numbers previously
present. On the approach of severe weather great flocks arrive
from the continent of Europe. On the east coast of both Scotland
and England this immigration has been noticed as occurring
in a constant stream for as many as three days in succession.
Farther inland the birds are observed " in numbers simply
incalculable," and " in countless hundreds." In these migrations
enormous numbers are netted for the markets, but the rate of
reproduction is so rapid, and the conditions of life so favourable
in Europe that there is no reason to fear any serious diminution
in the numbers of the species.
The skylark's range extends across the Old World from the
Faeroe to the Kurile Islands. In winter it occurs in North
China, Nepal, the Punjab, Persia, Palestine, Lower Egypt
and Barbary. It sometimes strays to Madeira, and has been
killed in Bermuda, though its unassisted appearance there is
doubtful. It has been successfully introduced on Long Island,
in the state of New York, into Hawaii and into New Zealand —
in which latter it has become as troublesome a denizen as are
some other subjects upon which acclimatization societies have
exercised their activity.
FIG. i. — A, Alauda agrestis ; B, Alauda arvensis.
Allied to the skylark a considerable number of species have
been described, of which perhaps a dozen may be deemed valid,
besides a supposed local race, Alauda agrestis, the difference
between which and the normal bird is shown in the annexed
woodcut (fig. i), kindly lent to this work by H. E. Dresser, in
whose Birds of Europe it is described at length. These are found
in various parts of Africa and Asia.
The woodlark, Lullula arborea, is a much more local and, there-
fore, a far less numerous bird than the skylark, from which it
may be easily distinguished by its finer bill, shorter tail, more
spotted breast and light superciliary stripe. Though not actually
inhabiting woods, as its common name might imply, it is seldom
found far from trees. Its song wants the variety and power of
the skylark's, but has a resonant sweetness peculiarly its own.
The bird, however, requires much care in captivity. It has by
no means so wide a range as the skylark, and perhaps the most
eastern locality recorded for it is Erzerum, while its appearance
in Egypt and even in Algeria must be accounted rare.
Not far removed from the foregoing is a group of larks char-
acterized by a larger crest, a stronger and more curved bill,
a rufous lining to the wings, and some other minor features. This
group has been generally termed Galerita, and has for its type
the crested lark, the Alauda cristata of Linnaeus, a bird common
enough in parts of France and some other countries of the
European continent, and one which has been obtained several
times in the British Islands. Many of the birds of this group
frequent the borders if not the interior of deserts, and such as
do so exhibit a more or less pale coloration, whereby they are
assimilated in hue to that of their haunts. The same character-
istic may be observed in several other groups — especially
those known as belonging to the genera Calandrella, Ammomanes
and Certhilauda, some species of which are of a light sandy
or cream colour. The genus last named is of very peculiar
appearance, presenting in some respects an extraordinary
resemblance to the hoopoes, so much so that the first specimen
described was referred to the genus Upupa, and named U.
alaudipes. The resemblance, however, is merely one of analogy.
FIG. 2. — A, Lullula arborea; B,
Certhilauda.
FIG. 3. — A, Melanocorypha cal-
andra; B ,Rhamphocorys dot-bey.
There is, however, abundant evidence of the susceptibility
of the Alaudine structure to modification from external circum-
stances— in other words, of its plasticity; and perhaps no
homogeneous group of Passeres could be found which better
displays the working of natural selection. Almost every
character that among Passerine birds is accounted most sure
is in the larks found subject to modification. The form of the
bill varies in an extraordinary degree. In the woodlark (fig.
2, A), already noticed, it is almost as slender as a warbler's;
in Ammomanes it is short; in Certhilauda (fig. 2, B) it is elon-
gated and curved; in Pyrrhulauda and Melanocorypha (fig.
3, A) it is stout and finchlike; while in Rhamphocorys (fig.
3, B) it is exaggerated to an extent that surpasses almost any
Fringilline form, exceeding in its development that found in
some members of the- perplexing genus Paradoxornis, and even
presenting a resemblance to the same feature in the far-distant
Anastomus — the tomia of the maxilla not meeting those of the
mandibula along their whole length, but leaving an open space
between them. The hind claw, generally greatly elongated in
larks, is in Calandrella (fig. 4) and some other genera reduced
FIG. 4. — Calandrella brachydactyla.
to a very moderate size. The wings exhibit almost every
modification, from the almost entire abortion of the first primary
in the skylark to its considerable development (fig. 5), and from
tertials and scapulars of ordinary length to the extreme elonga-
tion found in the Motacillidae and almost in certain Limicolae.
The most constant character indeed of the Alaudidae would seem
to be that afforded by the podotheca or covering of the tarsus,
which is scutellate behind as well as in front, but a character
easily overlooked.1
In the Old World larks are found in most parts of the
1 By assigning far too great an importance to this superficial char-
acter (in comparison with others), C. J. Sundevall (Tentamen, pp.
53-63) was induced to array the larks, hoopoes and several other
heterogeneous groups in one " series," to which he applied the name
of Scutelliplantares.
LARKHALL— LA ROCHE
219
B
Palaearctic, Ethiopian and Indian regions; but only one genus,
Mirafra, inhabits Australia, where it is represented by, so
far as is ascertained, a single species, M. horsfieldi; and there
is no true lark indigenous to New Zealand. In the New World
there is also only one genus, Otocorys, where it is represented
by many races, some of which closely approach the Old World
shore-lark, O. alpestris. The shore-lark is in Europe a native
of only the extreme north, but is very common near the shores
of the Varanger Fjord, and likewise breeds on mountain- tops
farther south-west, though still well within the Arctic circle.
The mellow tone of its call-note has obtained for it in Lapland
a name signifying " bell-bird," and the song of the cock is
lively, though not very loud. The bird trustfully resorts to
the neighbourhood of
houses, and even
enters the villages
of East Finmark in
search of its food.
It produces at least
two broods in the
season, and towards
autumn migrates to
lower latitudes in
large flocks. These
have been observed
in winter on the
east coast of Great
Britain, and the
species instead of
being regarded, as it
once was, in the light
of an accidental
C
FIG. 5. — A, Alauda arborea; B, Certhi-
lauda; C, Melanocorypha calandra.
visitor to the United Kingdom, must now be deemed an almost
regular visitor, though in very varying numbers. The observa-
tions on its habits made by Audubon in Labrador have long
been known, and often reprinted. Other congeners of this
bird are the O. penicillata of south-eastern Europe, Palestine
and central Asia — to which are referred by H. E. Dresser
(B. Europe, iv. 401) several other forms originally described
as distinct. All these birds, which have been termed horned
larks, from the tuft of elongated black feathers growing on each
side of the head, form a little group easily recognized by their
peculiar coloration, which calls to mind some of the ringed
plovers, Aegialitis.
The name of lark is also frequently applied to many birds
which do not belong to the Alaudidae as now understood. The
mud-lark, rock-lark, tit-lark and tree-lark are pipits (q.ii.).
The grasshopper-lark is one of the aquatic warblers (q.v.),
while the so-called meadow-lark of America is an Icterus
(q.v.). Sand-lark and sea-lark are likewise names often given
to some of the smaller members of the Limicolae. Of the true
larks, Alaudidae, there may be perhaps about one hundred
species, and it is believed to be a physiological character of
the family that they moult but once in the year, while the
pipits, which in general appearance much resemble them, undergo
a double moult, as do others of the Motacillidae, to which they
are most nearly allied. (A. N.)
LARKHALL, a mining and manufacturing town of Lanark-
shire, Scotland, near the left bank of the Clyde, i m. S.E. of
Glasgow by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 11,879. The
highest bridge in Scotland has been thrown across the river
Avon, which flows close by. Brick-making is carried on at
several of the adjoining collieries. Other industries include bleach-
ing, silk-weaving, fire-clay and enamelling works, and a sanitary
appliances factory. The town has a public hall and baths.
LARKHANA, a town and district of British India, in Sind,
Bombay. The town is on a canal not far from the Indus, and
has a station on the North-Western railway, 281 m. N. by E.
of Karachi. It is pleasantly situated in a fertile locality, and
is well laid out with wide streets and spacious gardens. It
is a centre of trade, with manufactures of cotton, silk, leather,
metal-ware and paper. Pop. (1901) 14,543.
The DISTRICT OF LARKHANA, lying along the right bank of
the Indus, was formed out of portions of Sukkur and Karachi
districts in 1901, and has an area of 5091 sq. m.; pop. (1901)
656,083, showing an increase of 10% in the decade. Its western
part is mountainous, but the remainder is a plain of alluvium
watered by canals and well cultivated, being the most fertile
part of Sind. The staple grain-crops are rice, wheat and millets,
which are exported, together with wool, cotton and other agricul-
tural produce. Cotton cloth, carpets, salt and leather goods
are manufactured, and dyeing is an important industry. The
district is served by the North-Western railway.
LARKSPUR, in botany, the popular name for species of
Delphinium, a genus of hardy herbaceous plants belonging
to the natural order Ranunculaceae (q.v.). They are of erect
branching habit, with the flowers in terminal racemes, often
of considerable length. Blue is the predominating colour,
but purple, pink, yellow (D. Zalil or sulphur eum), scarlet (D.
cardinale) and white also occur; the " spur " is produced
by the elongation of the upper sepal. The field or rocket larkspur
(D. Ajacis), the branching larkspur (D. consolida), D. cardio-
petalum and their varieties, are charming annuals; height
about 18 in. The spotted larkspur (D. requienii) and a few
others are biennials. The perennial larkspurs, however, are the
most gorgeous of the family. There are numerous species of
this group, natives of the old and new worlds, and a great number
of varieties, raised chiefly from D. exaltatum, D. formosum
and D. grandiflorum. Members of this group vary from 2 ft.
to 6 ft. in height.
The larkspurs are of easy cultivation, either in beds or herbace-
ous borders; the soil should be deeply dug and manured. The
annual varieties are best sown early in April, where they are
intended to flower, and suitably thinned out as growth is made.
The perennial kinds are increased by the division of existing
plants in spring, or by cuttings taken in spring or autumn
and rooted in pots in cold frames. The varieties cannot be
perpetuated with certainty by seed. Seed is the most popular
means, however, of raising larkspurs in the majority of gardens,
and is suitable for all ordinary purposes; it should be sown
as soon as gathered, preferably in rows in nursery beds, and
the young plants transplanted when ready. They should
be fit for the borders in the spring of the following year, and
if strong, should be planted in groups about 3 ft. apart. Del-
phiniums require exposure to light and air. Given plenty
of space in a rich soil, the plants rarely require to be staked
except in windy localities.
LARNACA, LARNICA or LARNECA (anc. Citium, Turk.
Tuzla), a town of the island of Cyprus, at the head of a bay
on the south coast, 23 m. S.S.E. from Nicosia. Pop. (1901)
7964. It is the principal port of the island, exporting barley,
wheat, cotton, raisins, oranges, lemons and gypsum. There
is an iron pier 450 ft. long, but vessels anchor in the bay in
from 1 6 to 70 ft. of water. Larnaca occupies the site of the ancient
Citium, but the citadel of the ancient city was used to fill up
the ancient harbour in 1879. The modern and principal resi-
dential part of the town is called Scala. Mycenaean tombs
and other antiquities have been found (see CYPRUS).
LA ROCHE, a small town in the Belgian Ardennes, notice-
able for its antiquity and its picturesque situation. Pop. (1004)
2065. Its name is derived from its position on a rock command-
ing the river Ourthe, which meanders round the little place,
and skirts the rock on which are the interesting ruins of the old
castle of the nth century. This is supposed to have been
the site of a hunting box of Pippin, and certainly the counts
of La Roche held it in fief from his descendants, the Carolingian
rulers. In the 1 2th century they sold it to the counts of Luxem-
burg. In the i6th and i7th centuries the French and Imperial-
ists frequently fought in its neighbourhood, and at Tenneville,
not far distant, is shown the tomb of an English officer named
Barnewall killed in one of these encounters in 1692. La Roche
is famous as a tourist centre on account of its fine sylvan scenery.
Among the local curiosities is the Diable-Chateau, a freak of
nature, being the apparent replica of a medieval castle. La
220 LA ROCHEFOUCAULD— LA ROCHEFOUCAULD, F. DE
Roche is connected by steam tramway with Melreux, a station
on the main line from Marloie to Liege.
LA ROCHEFOUCAULD, the name of an old French family
which is derived from a castle1 in the province of Angoumois
(department of Charente), which was in its possession in the
nth century. Francois de La Rochefoucauld (1494-1517),
godson of King Francis I., was made count in 1515. At the time
of the wars of religion the family fought for the Protestant
cause. Franf ois (i 588-1650) was created duke and peer of France
by Louis XIII. in 1622. His son Francois was the author of
the Maxims, and the son of the latter acquired for his house
the estates of La Roche-Guyon and Liancourt by his marriage
with Jeanne Charlotte du Plessis-Liancourt. Alexandre, due de
La Rochefoucauld (d. 1762), left two daughters, who married
into the Roye branch of the family. Of the numerous branches
of the family the most famous are those of Roucy, Roye, Bayers,
Doudeauville, Randan and Estissac, which all furnished distin-
guished statesmen and soldiers.
LA ROCHEFOUCAULD, FRANCOIS DE (1613-1680), the
greatest maxim writer of France, one of her best memoir writers,
and perhaps the most complete and accomplished representative
of her ancient nobility, was born at Paris in the Rue des Pet its
Champs on the i5th of September 1613. The author of the
Maxims, who during the lifetime of his father (see above) and
part of his own most stirring years bore the title of prince de
Marcillac, was somewhat neglected in the matter of education,
at least of the scholastic kind; but he joined the army before
he was sixteen, and almost immediately began to make a figure
in public life. He had been nominally married a year before
to Andree de Vivonne, who seems to have been an affectionate
wife, while not a breath of scandal touches her — two points in
which La Rochefoucauld was perhaps more fortunate than he
deserved. For some years Marcillac continued to take part in
the annual campaigns, where he displayed the utmost bravery,
though he never obtained credit for much military skill. Then
he passed under the spell of Madame de Chevreuse, the first of
three celebrated women who successively influenced his life.
Through Madame de Chevreuse he became attached to the queen,
Anne of Austria, and in one of her quarrels with Richelieu
and her husband a wild scheme seems to have been formed,
according to which Marcillac was to carry her off to Brussels
on a pillion. These caballings against Richelieu, however, had
no more serious results (an eight days' experience of the Bastille
excepted) than occasional exiles, that is to say, orders to retire
to his father's estates. After the death of the great minister
(1642), opportunity seemed to be favourable to the vague
ambition which then animated half the nobility of France.
Marcillac became one of the so-called imporlants, and took an
active part in reconciling the queen and Conde in a league against
Gaston of Orleans. But the growing credit of Mazarin came
in his way, and the liaison in which about this time (1645) ne
became entangled with the beautiful duchess of Longueville
made him irrevocably a Frondeur. He was a conspicuous figure
in the siege of Paris, fought desperately in the desultory engage-
ments which were constantly taking place, and was severely
wounded at the siege of Mardyke. In the second Fronde Marcillac
followed the fortunes of Conde, and the death of his father,
which happened at the time (1650), gave rise to a characteristic
incident. The nobility of the province gathered to the funeral,
and the new duke de La Rochefoucauld took the opportunity of
persuading them to follow him in an attempt on the royalist
garrison of Saumur, which, however, was not successful. We
have no space to follow La Rochefoucauld through the tortuous
cabals and negotiations of the later Fronde; it is sufficient to
say that he was always brave and generally unlucky. His run
of bad fortune reached its climax in the battle of the Faubourg
Saint Antoine (1652), where he was shot through the head, and
it was thought that he would lose the sight of both eyes. It was
nearly a year before he recovered, and then he found himself
at his country seat of Verteuil, with no result of twenty years'
1 The castle was largely rebuilt in the reign of Francis I., and is
one of the finest specimens of the Renaissance architecture in France.
fighting and intriguing except impaired health, a seriously
embarrassed fortune, and some cause for bearing a grudge
against almost every party and man of importance in the state.
He spent some years in this retirement, and he was fortunate
enough (thanks chiefly to the fidelity of Gourville, who had been
in his service, and who, passing into the service of Mazarin and
of Conde, had acquired both wealth and influence) to be able
to repair in some measure the breaches in his fortune. He did
not, however, return to court life much before Mazarin's death,
when Louis XIV. was on the eve of assuming absolute power,
and the turbulent aristocratic anarchy of the Fronde was a thing
utterly of the past.
Somewhat earlier, La Rochefoucauld had taken his place
in the salon of Madame de Sable, a member of the old Rambouillet
coterie, and the founder of a kind of successor to it. It was
known that he, like almost all his more prominent contemporaries,
had spent his solitude in writing memoirs, while the special
literary employment of the Sable salon was the fabrication of
Sentences and Maxims. In 1662, however, more trouble than
reputation, and not a little of both, was given to him by a
surreptitious publication of his memoirs, or what purported
to be his memoirs, by the Elzevirs. Many of his old friends were
deeply wounded, and he hastened to deny flatly the authenticity
of the publication, a denial which (as it seems, without any
reason) was not very generally accepted. Three years later
(1665) he published, though without his name, the still more
famous Maxims, which at once established him high among the
men of letters of the time. About the same date began the
friendship with Madame de la Fayette, which lasted till the end
of his life. The glimpses which we have of him henceforward
are chiefly derived from the letters of Madame de Sevigne, and,
though they show him suffering agonies from gout, are on the
whole pleasant. He had a circle of devoted friends; he was
recognized as a moralist and man of letters of the first rank;
he might have entered the Academy for the asking; and in the
altered measure of the times his son, the prince de Marcillac, to
whom some time before his death he resigned his titles and
honours, enjoyed a considerable position at court. Above all,
La Rochefoucauld was generally recognized by his contemporaries
from the king downward as a type of the older noblesse as it
was before the sun of the great monarch dimmed its brilliant
qualities. This position he has retained until the present day.
He died at Paris on the 1 7th of March 1680, of the disease which
had so long tormented him.
La Rochefoucauld's character, if considered without the
prejudice which a dislike to his ethical views has sometimes
occasioned, is thoroughly respectable and even amiable. Like
almost all his contemporaries, he saw in politics little more than
a chessboard where the people at large were but pawns. The
weight of testimony, however, inclines to the conclusion that he
was unusually scrupulous in his conduct, and that his comparative
ill-success in the struggle arose more from this scrupulousness
than from anything else. He has been charged with irresolution,
and there is some ground for admitting the charge so far as to
pronounce him one of those the keenness of whose intellect,
together with their apprehension of both sides of a question,
interferes with their capacity as men of action. But there is
no ground whatever for the view which represents the Maxims
as the mere outcome of the spite of a disappointed intriguer,
disappointed through his own want of skill rather than of
fortune.
His importance as a social and historical figure is, however,
far inferior to his importance in literature. His work in this
respect consists of three parts — letters, Memoirs and the Maxims.
His letters exceed one hundred in number, and are biographically
valuable, besides displaying not a few of his literary character-
istics; but they need not further detain us. The Memoirs,
when they are read in their proper form, yield in literary merit,
in interest, and in value to no memoirs of the time, not even to
those of Retz, between whom and La Rochefoucauld there was
a strange mixture of enmity and esteem which resulted in a
couple of most characteristic " portraits." But their history is
LA ROCHEFOUCAULD-LIANCOURT— LA ROCHEJACQUELEIN 221
unique in its strangeness. It has been said that a pirated edition
appeared in Holland, and this, despite the author's protest,
continued to be reprinted for some thirty years. It has been
now proved to be a mere cento of the work of half a dozen
different men, scarcely a third of which is La Rochefoucauld's,
and which could only have been possible at a time when it was
the habit of persons who frequented literary society to copy pell-
mell in commonplace books the MS. compositions of their friends
and others. Some years after La Rochefoucauld's death a new
recension appeared, somewhat less incorrect than the former, but
still largely adulterated, and this held its ground for more than a
century. Only in 1817 did anything like a genuine edition (even
then by no means perfect) appear. The Maxims, however, had
no such fate. The author re-edited them frequently during his
life, with alterations and additions; a few were added after his
death, and it is usual now to print the whole of them, at what-
ever time they appeared, together. Thus taken, they amount to
about seven hundred in number, in hardly any case exceeding
half a page in length, and more frequently confined to two or
three lines. The view of conduct which they illustrate is usually
and not quite incorrectly summed up in the words " everything
is reducible to the motive of self-interest." But though not
absolutely incorrect, the phrase is misleading. The Maxims are
in no respect mere deductions from or applications of any such
general theory. They are on the contrary independent judg-
ments on different relations of life, different affections of the
human mind, and so forth, from which, taken together, the
general view may be deduced or rather composed. Sentimental
moralists have protested loudly against this view, yet it is easier
to declaim against it in general than to find a flaw in the several
parts of which it is made up. With a few exceptions La Roche-
foucauld's maxims represent the matured result of the reflection
of a man deeply versed in the business and pleasures of the world,
and possessed of an extraordinarily fine and acute intellect, on
the conduct and motives which have guided himself and his
fellows. There is as little trace in them of personal spite as of
forfanterie de vice. But the astonishing excellence of the literary
medium in which they are conveyed is even more remarkable
than the general soundness of their ethical import. In uniting
the four qualities of brevity, clearness, fulness of meaning and
point, La Rochefoucauld has no rival. His Maxims are never
mere epigrams; they are never platitudes; they are never dark
sayings. He has packed them so full of meaning that it would be
impossible to pack them closer, yet there is no undue com-
pression; he has sharpened their point to the utmost, yet there
is no loss of substance. The comparison which occurs most
frequently, and which is perhaps on the whole the justest, is
that of a bronze medallion, and it applies to the matter no less
than to the form. Nothing is left unfinished, yet none of the
workmanship is finical. The sentiment, far from being merely
hard, as the sentimentalists pretend, has a vein of melancholy
poetry running through it which calls to mind the traditions of
La Rochefoucauld's devotion to the romances of chivalry.
The maxims are never shallow; each is the text for a whole
sermon of application and corollary which any one of thought
and experience can write. Add to all this that the language in
which they are written is French, still at almost its greatest
strength, and chastened but as yet not emasculated by the
reforming influence of the i7th century, and it is not necessary
to say more. To the literary critic no less than to the man of
the world La Rochefoucauld ranks among the scanty number of
pocket-books to be read and re-read with ever new admiration,
instruction and delight.
The editions of La Rochefoucauld's Maxims (as the full title runs,
Reflexions ou sentences et maximes morales) published in his lifetime
bear the dates 1665 (editio princeps), 1666, 1671, 1675, 1678. An
important edition which appeared after his death in 1693 may rank
almost with these. As long as the Memoirs remained in the state
above described, no edition of them need be mentioned, and none of
the complete works was possible. The previous more or less complete
editions are all superseded by that of MM Gilbert and Gourdault
11868—1883), in the series of " Grands Ecrivains dela France," 3 vols.
There are still some puzzles as to the text; but this edition supplies
all available material in regard to them. The handsomest separate
edition of the Maxims is the so-called Edition des bibliophiles (1870);
but cheap and handy issues are plentiful. See the English version
by G. H. Powell (1903). Nearly all the great French critics of the
19th century have dealt more or less with La Rochefoucauld: the
chief recent monograph on him is that of J. Bourdeau in the Grands
ecrivains fran$ais (1893). (G. SA.)
LA ROCHEFOUCAULD-LIANCOURT, FRANCOIS ALEX-
ANDRE FREDERIC, Due DE (1747-1827), French social re-
former, was born at La Roche Guyon on the nth of January
1747, the son of Francois Armand de La Rochefoucauld, due
d'Estissac, grand master of the royal wardrobe. The due de
Liancourt became an officer of carbineers, and married at
seventeen. A visit to England seems to have suggested the
establishment of a model farm at Liancourt, where he reared
cattle imported from England and Switzerland. He also set up
spinning machines on his estate, and founded a school of arts
and crafts for the sons of soldiers, which became in 1788 the Ecole
des Enfants de la Patrie under royal protection. Elected to the
states-general of 1789 he sought in vain to support the cause of
royalty while furthering the social reforms he had at heart. On
the 1 2th of July, two days before the fall of the Bastille, he
warned Louis XVI. of the state of affairs in Paris, and met
his exclamation that there was a revolt with the answer, " Non,
sire, c'est tine revolution." On the i8th of July he became
president of the Assembly. Established in command of a military
division in Normandy, he offered Louis a refuge in Rouen, and,
failing in this effort, assisted him with a large sum of money.
After the events of the loth of August 1792 he fled to England,
where he was the guest of Arthur Young, and thence passed to
America. After the assassination of his cousin, Louis-Alexandre,
due de La Rochefoucauld d'Enville, at Gisors on the I4th of
September 1792 he assumed the title of due de La Rochefoucauld.
He returned to Paris in 1799, but received small favour from
Napoleon. At the Restoration he entered the House of Peers,
but Louis XVIII. refused to reinstate him as master of the
wardrobe, although his father had paid 400,000 francs for
the honour. Successive governments, revolutionary and other-
wise, recognized the value of his institutions at Liancourt,
and he was for twenty-three years government inspector of his
school of arts and crafts, which had been removed to Chalons.
He was one of the first promoters of vaccination in France;
he established a dispensary in Paris, and he was an active
member of the central boards of administration for hospitals,
prisons and agriculture. His opposition to the government in
the House of Peers led to his removal in 1823 from the honorary
positions he held, while the vaccination committee, of which
he was president, was suppressed. The academies of science and
of medicine admitted him to their membership by way of
protest. Official hostility pursued him even after his death
(27th of March 1827), for the old pupils of his school were charged
by the military at his funeral. His works, chiefly on economic
questions, include books on the English system of taxation,
poor-relief and education.
His eldest son, Frangois, due de La Rochefoucauld (1765-1848),
succeeded his father in the House of Peers. The second, Alexandra,
comte de La Rochefoucauld (1767-1841), married a San Domingo
heiress allied to the Beauharnais family. Mme de La Rochefoucauld
became dame d'honneur to the empress Josephine, and their eldest
daughter married a brother-in-law of Pauline Bonaparte, Princess
Borghese. La Rochefoucauld became ambassador successively to
Vienna (1805) and to the Hague (1808-1810), where he negotiated
the union of Holland with France. During the " Hundred Days "
he was made a peer of France. He subsequently devoted himself to
philanthropic work, and in 1822 became deputy to the Chamber and
sat with the constitutional royalists. He was again raised to the
peerage in 1831.
The third son, Frederic Gaetan, marquis de La Rochefoucauld-
Liancourt (1779—1863), was a zealous philanthropist and a partisan
of constitutional monarchy. He took no part in politics after 1848.
The marquis wrote on social questions, notably on prison administra-
tion; he edited the works of La Rochefoucauld, and the memoirs of
Condorcet; and he was the author of some vaudevilles, tragedies
and poems.
LA ROCHEJACQUELEIN, DE, the name of an ancient French
family of La Vendee, celebrated for its devotion to the throne
during and after the Revolution. Its original name was Duverger,
derived from a fief near Bressuire in Poitou, and its pedigree
222
LA ROCHELLE
is traceable to the i3th century. In 1505 Gui Duverger
married Renee, heiress of Jacques Lemartin, seigneur de La
Rochejacquelein, whose name he assumed. His grandson,
Louis Duverger, seigneur de La Rochejacquelein, was a devoted
adherent of Henry II., and was badly wounded at the battle of
Arques; other members of the family were also distinguished
soldiers, and the seigniory was raised to a countship and mar-
quisate in reward for their services.
At the outbreak of the Revolution the chief of the family
was HENRI Louis AUGUSTE, marquis de La Rochejacquelein,
marechal de camp in the royal army, who had three sons named
after himself — Henri, Louis and Auguste. The marquis fled
abroad with his second son Louis at the time of the emigration
of the nobles. He entered the service of Great Britain, and died
in San Domingo in 1802.
HENRI, comte de La Rochejacquelein, born at Dubertien,
near Chatillon, sur Sevres, on the 2oth of August 1772, did not
emigrate with his father. He served in the constitutional
guard of the king, and remained in Paris till the execution of
Louis XVI. He then took refuge with the marquis de Lescure
on his own estates in Poitou. When the anti-clerical policy
of the revolutionary powers provoked the rising of the peasantry
of La Vendee, he put himself at the head of the men of his
neighbourhood, and came rapidly to the front among the gentle-
men whom the peasants took for leaders. In spite of his youth
and his reluctance to assume the responsibility, he was chosen
as commander-in-chief after the defeat of the Vendeans by the
republicans at Cholet. His brilliant personal courage, his
amiability and his loyalty to the cause make him a very attractive
figure, but a commander-in-chief of the Vendeans, who came
and went as they pleased, had little real power or opportunity
to display the qualities of a general. The comte de La Roche-
jacquelein had in fact to obey his army, and could only display
his personal valour in action. He could not avert the mistaken
policy which led to the rout at Le Mans, and was finally shot
in an obscure skirmish at Nouaille on the 4th of March 1794.
Louis, marquis de La Rochejacquelein, the younger brother
of Henri, accompanied his father in the emigration, served in
the army of Conde, and entered the service of England in America.
He returned to France during the Consulate, and in 1801 married
the marquise de Lescure, widow of his brother's friend, who
was mortally wounded at Cholet. Marie Louise Victoire de
Donnissan, born at Versailles on the 2Sth of October 1772,
belonged to a court family and was the god-daughter of Mme
Victoire, daughter of Louis XV. At the age of seventeen she
married the marquis de Lescure, whom she accompanied in the
war of La Vendee. After his death she went through various
adventures recorded in her memoirs, first published at Bordeaux
in 1815. They are of extreme interest, and give a remarkable
picture of the war and the fortunes of the royalists. She saved
much of her own property and her first husband's, when a con-
ciliatory policy was adopted after the fall of the Terrorists.
After her second marriage she lived with her husband on her
estates, both refusing all offers to take service with Napoleon.
In 1814 they took an active part in the royalist movement in
and about Bordeaux. In 1815 the marquis endeavoured to
bring about another Vendean rising for the king, and was
shot in a skirmish with the Imperialist forces at the Pont des
Marthes on the 4th of June 1815. The marquis died at Orleans
in 1857.
Their eldest son, HENRI AUGUSTE GEORGES, marquis de La
Rochejacquelein, born at Chateau Citran in the Gironde on
the 28th of September 1805, was educated as a soldier, served
in Spain in 1822, and as a volunteer in the Russo-Turkish War
of 1828. During the reign of Louis Philippe he adhered to the
legitimist policy of his family, but he became reconciled to the
government of Napoleon III. and was mainly known as a clerical
orator and philanthropist. He died on the 7th of January
1867.
His son and successor, JULIEN MARIE GASTON, born at Chartres
on the 27th of March 1833, was an active legitimist deputy
in the Assembly chosen at the close of the German War of
1870-1871. He was a strong opponent of Thiers, and continued
to contest constituencies as a legitimist with varying fortunes
till his death in 1897.
AUTHORITIES. — Henri de La Rochejacquelein el la guerre de la
Vendee d'apres des documents inedits (Niort, 1890) ; A. F. Nettement,
Vie de Mme la Marquise de La Rochejacquelein (Paris, 1876). The
Memoirs of the marquise were translated into English by Sir
Walter Scott, and issued as a volume of " Constable's Miscellany "
(Edinburgh, 1827).
LA ROCHELLE, a seaport of western France, capital of the
department of Charente-Inferieure, 90 m. S. by E. of Nantes
on the railway to Bordeaux. Pop. (1906) town 24,524, commune
33,858. La Rochelle is situated on the Atlantic coast on an
inlet opening off the great bay in which lie the islands of Re
and Oleron. Its fortifications, constructed by Vauban, have a
circuit of 33 m. with seven gates. Towards the sea are three
towers, of which the oldest (1384) is that of St Nicholas. The
apartment in the first storey was formerly used as a chapel.
The Chain Tower, built towards the end of the I4th century,
is so called from the chain which guarded the harbour at this
point; the entrance to the tidal basin was at one time spanned
by a great pointed arch between the two towers. The lantern
tower (1445-1476), seven storeys high, is surmounted by a lofty
spire and was once used as a lighthouse. Of the ancient gateways
only one has been preserved in its entirety, that of the " Grosse
Horloge," a huge square tower of the I4th or isth century,
the corner turrets of which have been surmounted with trophies
since 1746. The cathedral of La Rochelle (St Louis or St
Bartholomew) is a heavy Grecian building (1742-1762) with a
dome above the transept, erected on the site of the old
church of St Bartholomew, destroyed in the i6th century and
now represented by a solitary tower dating from the i4th
century. Externally the town-house is in the Gothic style of
the latter years of the i5th century and has the appearance of
a fortress, though its severity is much relieved by the beautiful
carving of the two entrances, of the machicolations and of the
two belfries. The buildings looking into the inner court are in
the Renaissance style (i6th and early I7th centuries) and
contain several fine apartments. In the old episcopal palace
(which was in turn the residence of Sully, the prince of Conde,
Louis XIII., and Anne of Austria, and the scene of the marriage
of Alphonso VI. of Portugal with a princess of Savoy) accommoda-
tion has been provided for a library, a collection of records and
a museum of art and antiquities. Other buildings of note are
an arsenal with an artillery museum, a large hospital, a special
Protestant hospital, a military hospital and a lunatic asylum
for the department. In the botanical gardens there are museums
of natural history. Medieval and Renaissance houses give a
peculiar character to certain districts: several have French,
Latin or Greek inscriptions of a moral or religious turn and in
general of Protestant origin. Of these old houses the most
interesting is one built in the midddle of the i6th century and
wrongly known as that of Henry II. The parade-ground,
which forms the principal public square, occupies the site of the
castle demolished in 1 590. Some of the streets have side-arcades ;
the public wells are fed from a large reservoir in the Champ
de Mars; and among the promenades are the Cours des Dames
with the statue of Admiral Duperre, and outside the Charruyer
Park on the west front of the ramparts, and the Mail, a beautiful
piece of greensward. In this direction are the sea-bathing
establishments.
La Rochelle is the seat of a bishopric and a prefect, and has
tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of com-
merce and a branch of the Bank of France; its educational
establishments include an ecclesiastical seminary, a lycee and
a training college for girls. Ship-building, saw-milling and the
manufacture of briquettes and chemicals, sardine and tunny-
preserving and petroleum-refining are among the industries.
The rearing of oysters and mussels and the exploitation of salt
marshes is carried on in the vicinity.
The inlet of La Rochelle is protected by a stone mole con-
structed by Richelieu and visible at low tide. The harbour, one
of the safest on the coast, is entered by a channel 2730 yds. long,
LA ROCHE-SUR-YON— LARRA
223
and comprises an outer harbour opening on the one hand into a
floating basin, on the other into a tidal basin with another floating
basin adjoining it. Behind the tidal basin is the Maubec reservoir,
the waters of which, along with those of the Marans canal, help
to scour the port and navigable channel. Some 200 sailing ships
are engaged in the fisheries, and the fish market of La Rochelle is
the most important on the west coast. The harbour is, however,
inaccessible to the largest vessels, for the accommodation of
which the port of La Pallice, inaugurated in 1891, was created.
Lying about 3 m. W.S.W. of La Rochelle, this port opens into
the bay opposite the eastern extremity of the island of Re.
It was artificially excavated and affords safe anchorage in all
weathers. The outer port, protected by two jetties, has an area
of 29 acres and a depth of 165 ft. below lowest tide-level. At
the extremity of the breakwater is a wharf where ships may
discharge without entering the basin. A lock connects with
the inner basin, which has an area of 27 acres, with 5900 ft. of
quayage, a minimum depth of 28 ft., and depths of 295 ft. and
36 ft. at high, neap and spring tides. Connected with the basin
are two graving docks. La Pallice has regular communication
with South America by the vessels of the Pacific Steam Naviga-
tion Company and by those of other companies with London,
America, West Africa, Egypt and the Far East. The port has
petroleum refineries and chemical manure works.
In 1906 there entered the port of La Rochelle, including the
dock of La Pallice, 441 vessels with a tonnage of 629,038, and
cleared 468 vessels with a tonnage of 664,861 (of which 235 of
241,146 tons cleared with ballast). These figures do not include
vessels entering from, or clearing for, other ports in France.
The imports (value, £1,276,000 in 1900 as compared with
£1,578,000 in 1907) include coal and patent fuel, superphosphates,
natural phosphates, nitrate of soda, pyrites, building-timber,
wines and alcohol, pitch, dried codfish, petroleum, jute, wood-
pulp. Exports (value, £1,294,000 in 1900; £1,979,000 in 1907)
include wine and brandy, fancy goods, woven goods, garments,
skins, coal and briquettes, furniture, potatoes.
La Rochelle existed at the close of the loth century under the name
of Rupella. It belonged to the barony of Chatelaillon, which was
annexed by the duke of Aquitaine and succeeded Chatelaillon as
chief town in Aunis. In 1199 it received a communal charter from
Eleanor, duchess of Guienne, and it was in its harbour that John
Lackland ^disembarked when he came to try to recover the domains
seized by Philip Augustus. Captured by Louis VIII. in 1224, it
was restored to the English in 1360 by the treaty of Bretigny, but
it shook off the yoke of the foreigner when Du Guesclin recovered
Saintonge. During the I4th, I5th and l6th centuries La Rochelle,
then an almost independent commune, was one of the great maritime
cities of France. From its harbour in 1402 Jean de B<5thencourt
set out for the conquest of the Canaries, and its seamen were the
first to turn to account the discovery of the new world. The salt-
tax provoked a rebellion at Rochelle which Francis I. repressed
in person; in 1568 the town secured exemption by the payment of
a large sum. At the Reformation La Rochelle early became one of
the chief centres of Calvinism, and during the religious wars it
armed privateers which preyed on Catholic vessels in the Channel and
on the high seas. In 1571 a synod of the Protestant churches of
France was held within its walls under the presidency of Beza for the
purpose of drawing up a confession of faith. After the massacre of
St Bartholomew, La Rochelle held out for six and a half months
against the Catholic army, which was ultimately obliged to raise the
siege after losing more than 20,000 men. The peace of the 24th of
June 1573, signed by the people of La Rochelle in the name of all the
Protestant party, granted the Calvinists full liberty of worship in
several places of safety. Under Henry IV. the town remained quiet,
but under Louis XIII. it put itself again at the head of the Huguenot
party. Its vessels blockaded the mouth of the Gironde and stopped
the commerce of Bordeaux, and also seized the islands of R6 and
OleYon and several vessels of the royal fleet. Richelieu then re-
solved to subdue the town once for all. In spite of the assistance
rendered by the English troops under Buckingham and in spite of
the fierce energy of their mayor Guiton, the people of La Rochelle
were obliged to capitulate after a year's siege (October 1628).
During this investment Richelieu raised the celebrated mole which
cut off the town from the open sea. La Rochelle then became the
principal port for the trade between France and the colony of Canada.
But the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) deprived it of some
thousands of its most industrious inhabitants, and the loss of Canada
by France completed for the time the ruin of its commerce. Its
privateers, however, maintained a vigorous struggle with the English
during the republic and the empire.
See P. Suzanne, La Rochelle pittoresque (La Rochelle, 1903), and
E. Couneau, La Rochelle disparue (La Rochelle, 1904).
LA ROCHE-SUR-YON, a town of western France, capital of
the department of Vendee, on an eminence on the right bank
of the Yon, 48 m. S. of Nantes on the railway to Bordeaux.
Pop. (1906) town 10,666, commune 13,685. The castle of La
Roche, which probably existed before the time of the crusades,
and was frequently attacked or taken in the Hundred Years'
War and in the wars of religion, was finally dismantled under
Louis XIII. When Napoleon in 1804 made this place, then of
no importance, the chief town of a department, the stones from
its ruins were employed in the erection of the administrative
buildings, which, being all produced at once after a regular plan,
have a monotonous effect. The equestrian statue of Napoleon I.
in an immense square overlooking the rest of the town; the
statue of General Travot, who was engaged in the " pacification "
of La Vendee; the museum, with several paintings by P. Baudry,
a native artist, of whom there is a statue in the town, are the only
objects of interest. Napoleon- Vendee and Bourbon- Vendee, the
names borne by the town according to the dominance of either
dynasty, gave place to the original name after the revolution of
1870. The town, is the seat of a prefect and a court of assizes,
and has a tribunal of first instance, a chamber of commerce, a
branch of the Bank of France, a lycee for boys and training
colleges for both sexes. It is a market for farm-produce, horses
and cattle, and has flour-mills. The dog fairs of La Roche are
well known.
LAROMIGUIERE, PIERRE (1756-1837), French philosopher,
was born at Livignac on the 3rd of November 1756, and died on
the i2th of August 1837 in Paris. As professor of philosophy
at Toulouse he was unsuccessful and incurred the censure of
the parliament by a thesis on the rights of property in connexion
with taxation. Subsequently he came to Paris, where he was
appointed professor of logic in the Ecole Normale and lectured
in the Prytanee. In 1799 he was made a member of the Tri-
bunate, and in 1833 of the Academy of Moral and Political
Science. In 1793 he published Projet d' elements de melaphysique,
a work characterized by lucidity and excellence of style. He
wrote also two Memoires, read before the Institute, Les Paradoxes
de Condillac (1805) and Lemons de philosophic (1815-1818).
Laromiguiere's philosophy is interesting as a revolt against
the extreme physiological psychology of the natural scientists,
such as Cabanis. He distinguished between those psychological
phenomena which can be traced directly to purely physical causes,
and the actions of the soul which originate from within itself.
Psychology was not for him a branch of physiology, nor on the
other hand did he give to his theory an abstruse metaphysical
basis. A pupil of Condillac and indebted for much of his ideology
to Destutt de Tracy, he attached a fuller importance to Attention
as a psychic faculty. Attention provides the facts, Comparison
groups and combines them, while Reason systematizes and
explains. The sou) is active in its choice, i.e. is endowed with free-
will, and is, therefore, immortal. For natural science as a method
of discovery he had no respect. He held that its judgments are,
at the best, statements of identity, and that its so-called dis-
coveries are merely the reiteration, in a new form, of previous
truisms. Laromiguiere was not the first to develop these views;
he owed much to Condillac, Destutt de Tracy and Cabanis. But,
owing to the accuracy of his language and the purity of his style,
his works had great influence, especially over Armand Marrast,
Cardaillac and Cousin. A lecture of his in the Ecole Normale
impressed Cousin so strongly that he at once devoted himself to
the study of philosophy. Jouffroy and Taine agree in describing
him as one of the great thinkers of the igth century.
See Damiron, Essai sur la philosophic en France au XIX' siecle;
Biran, Examen des legons de philosophic; Victor Cousin, De Methodo
sive de Analysi; Daunou, Notice sur Laromiguiere; H. Taine, Les
Philosophes classiques du XIX' siecle; Gatien Arnoult, Etude sur
Laromiguiere; Compayre, Notice sur Laromiguiere; Ferraz, Spiritual-
isme et Liberalisme; F. Picavet, Les Ideologues.
LARRA, MARIANO JOSfi DE (1809-1837), Spanish satirist,
was born at Madrid in 1809. His father served as a regimental
doctor in the French army, and was compelled to leave the
224
LARSA— LARVAL FORMS
Peninsula with his family in 1812. In 1817 Larra returned to
Spain, knowing less Spanish than French. His nature was
disorderly, his education was imperfect, and, after futile attempts
to obtain a degree in medicine or law, he made an imprudent
marriage at the age of twenty, broke with his relatives and
became a journalist. On the 27th of April 1831 he produced his
first play, No mas mostrador, based on two pieces by Scribe and
Dieulafoy. Though wanting in originality, it is brilliantly
written, and held the stage for many years. On the 24th of
September 1834 he produced Marias, a play based on his own
historical novel, El Doncel de Don Enrique el Doliente (1834).
The drama and novel are interesting as experiments, but Larra
was essentially a journalist, and the increased liberty of the press
after the death of Ferdinand VII. gave his caustic talent an
ampler field. He was already famous under the pseudonyms of
" Juan Perez de Munguia " and " Figaro " which he used in
El Pobrecito Hablador and La Revista Espanola respectively.
Madrid laughed at his grim humour; ministers feared his
vitriolic pen and courted him assiduously; he was elected as
deputy for Avila, and a great career seemed to lie before him.
But the era of military pronunciamientos ruined his personal
prospects and patriotic plans. His writing took on a more
sombre tinge; domestic troubles increased his pessimism, and,
in consequence of a disastrous love-affair, he committed suicide
on the I3th of February 1837. Larra lived long enough to prove
himself the greatest prose-writer that Spain can boast during
the i pth century. He wrote at great speed with the constant fear
of the censor before his eyes, but no sign of haste is discernible
in his work, and the dexterity with which he aims his venomous
shafts is amazing. His political instinct, his abundance of ideas
and his forcible, mordant style would have given him a foremost
position at any time and in any country; in Spain, and in his
own period, they placed him beyond all rivalry. (J. F.-K.)
LARSA (Biblical Ellasar, Gen. xiv. i), an important city
of ancient Babylonia, the site of the worship of the sun-god,
Shamash, represented by the ancient ruin mound of Senkereh
(Senkera). It lay 15 m. S.E. of the ruin mounds of Warka
(anc. Erech), near the east bank of the Shatt-en-Nil canal.
Larsa is mentioned in Babylonian inscriptions as early as the
time of Ur-Gur, 2700 or 2800 B.C., who built or restored the
ziggurat (stage-tower) of E-Babbar, the temple of Shamash.
Politically it came into special prominence at the time of the
Elamite conquest, when it was made the centre of Elamite
dominion in Babylonia, perhaps as a special check upon the
neighbouring Erech, which had played a prominent part in the
resistance to the Elamites. At the time of Khammurabi's
successful struggle with the Elamite conquerors it was ruled
by an Elamite king named Eriaku, the Arioch of the Bible,
called Rim-Sin by his Semitic subjects. It finally lost its in-
dependence under Samsu-iluna, son of Khammurabi, c. 1900
B.C., and from that time until the close of the Babylonian
period it was a subject city of Babylon. Loftus conducted
excavations at this site in 1854. He describes the ruins as
consisting of a low, circular platform, about 45 m. in circum-
ference, rising gradually from the level of the plain to a central
mound 70 ft. high. This represents the ancient ziggurat of the
temple of Shamash, which was in part explored by Loftus.
From the inscriptions found there it appears that, besides the
kings already mentioned, Khammurabi, Burna-buriash (buryas)
and- the great Nebuchadrezzar restored or rebuilt the temple
of Shamash. The excavations at Senkereh were peculiarly
successful in the discovery of inscribed remains, consisting
of clay tablets, chiefly contracts, but including also an im-
portant mathematical tablet and a number of tablets of a
description almost peculiar to Senkereh, exhibiting in bas-
relief scenes of everyday life. Loftus found also the remains
of an ancient Babylonian cemetery. From the ruins it would
appear that Senkereh ceased to be inhabited at or soon after
the Persian conquest.
See W. K. Loftus, Chaldaea and Susiana (1857). (J. P. PE.)
LARTET, EDOUARD (1801-1871), French archaeologist,
was born in 1801 near Castelnau-Barbarens, department of
Gers, France, where his family had lived for more than five
hundred years. He was educated for the law at Auch and
Toulouse, but having private means elected to devote himself
to science. The then recent work of Cuvier on fossil mammalia
encouraged Lartet in excavations which led in 1834 to his first
discovery of fossil remains in the neighbourhood of Auch.
Thenceforward he devoted his whole time to a systematic
examination of the French caves, his first publication on the
subject being The Antiquity of Man in Western Europe
(1860), followed in 1861 by New Researches on the Coexistence
of Man and of the Great Fossil Mammifers characteristic of the
Last Geological Period. In this paper he made public the results
of his discoveries in the cave of Aurignac, where evidence existed
of the contemporaneous existence of man and extinct mammals.
In his work in the Perigord district Lartet had the aid of Henry
Christy (q.v.). The first account of their joint researches appeared
in a paper descriptive of the Dordogne caves and contents,
published in Revue archeologique (1864). The important dis-
coveries in the Madeleine cave and elsewhere were published
by Lartet and Christy under the title Reliquiae Aquitanicae,
the first part appearing in 1865. Christy died before the com-
pletion of the work, but Lartet continued it until his breakdown
in health in 1870. The most modest and one of the most illus-
trious of the founders of modern palaeontology, Lartet's work
had previously been publicly recognized by his nomination
as an officer of the Legion of Honour; and in 1848 he had
had the offer of a political post. In 1857 he had been elected
a foreign member of the Geological Society of London, and
a few weeks before his death he had been made professor of
palaeontology at the museum of the Jardin des Plantes. He
died at Seissan in January 1871.
LARVAL FORMS, in biology. As is explained in the article
on Embryology (q.v.), development and life are coextensive,
and it is impossible to point to any period in the life of an
organism when the developmental changes cease. Nevertheless
it is customary to speak of development as though it were
confined to the early period of life, during which the important
changes occur by which the uninucleated zygote acquires
the form characteristic of the species. Using the word in this
restricted sense, it is pointed out in the same article that the
developmental period frequently presents two phases, the em-
bryonic and the larval. During the embryonic phase the
development occurs under protection, either within the egg
envelopes, or within the maternal body, or in a brood pouch.
At the end of this phase the young organism becomes free
and uses, as a rule, its own mouth and digestive organs. If
this happens before it has approximately acquired the adult
form, it is called a larva (Lat. larva, ghost, spectre, mask), and
the subsequent development by which the adult form is acquired
constitutes the larval phase. In such forms the life-cycle
is divided into three phases, the embryonic, the larval and the
adult. The transition between the first two of these is always
abrupt; whereas the second and third, except in cases in which
a metamorphosis occurs (see METAMORPHOSIS), graduate into
one another, and it is not possible to say when the larval stage
ends and the adult begins. This is only what would be expected
when it is remembered that the developmental changes never
cease. It might be held that the presence of functional repro-
ductive organs, or the possibility of rapidly acquiring them,
marks off the adult phase of life from the larval. But this
test sometimes fails. In certain of the Ctenophora there is
a double sexual life; the larva becomes sexually mature and
lays eggs, which are fertilized and develop; it then loses its
generative organs and develops into the adult, which again
develops reproductive organs (dissogony; see Chun, Die Cteno-
phoren des Golfes von Neapel, 1880). In certain Amphibia the
larva may develop sexual organs and breed (axolotl), but in
this case (neoteny) it is doubtful whether further development
may occur in the larva. A very similar phenomenon is found
in certain insect larvae (Cecidomyia), but in this case ova alone
are produced and develop parthenogenetically (paedogenesis).
Again in certain Trematoda larval stages known as the sporocyst
LARVAL FORMS
225
and redia produce ova which have the power of developing
unfertilized; in this case the larva probably has not the power
of continuing its development. It is very generally held by
philosophers that the end of life is reproduction, and there is
much to be said for this view; but, granting its truth, it is
difficult to see why the capacity for reproduction should so
generally be confined to the later stages of life. We know
by more than one instance that it is possible for the larva to
reproduce by sexual generation; why should not the phenomenon
be more common? It is impossible in the present state of our
knowledge to answer this question.
The conclusion, then, that we reach is that the larval phase
of life graduates into the later phases, and that it is impossible
to characterize it with precision, as we can the embryonic
phase. Nevertheless great importance has been attached, in
certain cases, to the forms assumed by the young organism when
it breaks loose from its embryonic bonds. It has been widely
held that the study of larvae is of greater importance in determin-
ing genetic affinity than the study of adults. What justifi-
cation is there for this view? The phase of life, chosen for
the ordinary anatomical and physiological studies and labelled
as the adult phase, is merely one of the large number of stages
of structure through which the organism passes during its
free life. In animals with a well-marked larval phase, by
far the greater number of the stages of structure are included
in the larval period, for the developmental changes are more
numerous and take place with greater rapidity at the beginning
of life than in its later periods. As each of the larval stages
is equal in value for the purposes of our study to the adult
phase, it clearly follows that, if there is anything in the view
that the anatomical study of organisms is of importance in
determining their mutual relations, the study of the organism
in its various larval stages must have a greater importance
than the study of the single and arbitrarily selected stage of
life called the adult.
The importance, then, of the study of larval forms is admitted,
but before proceeding to it this question may be asked: What
is the meaning of the larval phase? Obviously this is part of a
larger problem: Why does an organism, as soon as it is estab-
lished at the fertilization of the ovum, enter upon a cycle of
transformations which never cease until death puts an end to
them? It is impossible to give any other answer to this question
than this, viz. that it is a property of living matter to react in a
remarkable way to external forces without undergoing destruc-
tion. As is explained in EMBRYOLOGY, development consists
of an orderly interaction between the organism and its environ-
ment. The action of the environment produces certain morpho-
logical changes in the organism. These changes enable the
organism to move into a new environment, which in its turn
produces further structural changes in the organism. These
in their turn enable, indeed necessitate, the organism to move
again into a new environment, and so the process continues until
the end of the life-cycle. The essential condition of success in
this process is that the organism should always shift into the
environment to which its new structure is suited, any failure in
this leading to impairment of the organism. In most cases the
shifting of the environment is a very gradual .process, and the
morphological changes in connexion with each step of it are but
slight. In some cases, however, jumps are made, and whenever
such jumps occur we get the morphological phenomenon termed
metamorphosis. It would be foreign to our purpose to consider
this question further here, but before leaving it we may suggest,
if we cannot answer, one further question. Has the duration
and complexity of the life-cycle expanded or contracted since
organisms first appeared on the earth? According to the
current view, the life-cycle is continually being shortened at
one end by the abbreviation of embryonic development and by
the absorption of larval stages into the embryonic period, and
lengthened at the other by the evolutionary creation of new
adult phases. What was the condition of the earliest organisms?
Had they the property of reacting to external forces to the same
extent and in the same orderlymanner that organisms have to-day?
xvi, 8
For the purpose of obtaining light upon the genetic affinities
of an organism, a larval stage has as much importance as has
the adult stage. According to the current views of naturalists,
which are largely a product of Darwinism, it has its counterpart,
as has the adult stage, in the ancestral form from which the living
organism has been derived by descent with modification. Just
as the adult phase of the living form differs owing to evolutionary
modification from the adult phase of the ancestor, so each larval
phase will differ. for the same reason from the corresponding
larval phase in the ancestral life-history. Inasmuch as the
organism is variable at every stage of its existence, and is exposed
to the action of natural selection, there is no reason why it should
escape modification at any stage. But, as the characters of
the ancestor are unknown, it is impossible to ascertain what the
modification has been, and the determination of which of the
characters of its descendant (whether larval or adult) are new
and which ancient must be conjectural. It has been customary
of late years to distinguish in larvae those characters which are
supposed to have been recently acquired as caenogenetic, the
ancient characters being termed palingenetic. These terms,
if they have any value, are applicable with equal force to adults,
but they are cumbrous, and the absence of any satisfactory test
which enables us to distinguish between a character which is
ancestral and one which has been recently acquired renders
their utility very doubtful. Just as the adult may be supposed,
on evolution doctrine, to be derived from an ancestral adult,
so the various larval stages may be supposed to have been
derived from the corresponding larval stage of the hypothetical
ancestor. If we admit organic evolution at all, we may perhaps
go so far, but we are not in a position to go further, and to assert
that each larval stage is representative of and, so to speak,
derived from some adult stage in the remote past, when the
organism progressed no further in its life-cycle than the stage
of structure revealed by such a larval form. We may perhaps
have a right to take up this position, but it is of no advantage
to us to do so, because it leads us into the realm of pure fancy.
Moreover, it assumes that an answer can be given to the question
asked above — has the life-cycle of organisms contracted or
expanded as the result of evolution? This question has not
been satisfactorily answered. Indeed we may go further and
say that naturalists have answered it in different ways according
to the class of facts they were contemplating at the moment.
If we are to consider larvae at all from the evolution point of
view, we must treat them as being representative of ancestral
larvae from which they have been derived by descent with
modification; and we must leave open the question whether
and to what extent the first organisms themselves passed through
a complicated life-cycle.
From the above considerations it is not surprising to find
that the larvae of different members of any group resemble each
other to the same kind of degree as do the adults, and that the
larvae of allied groups resemble one another more closely than
do the larvae of remote groups, and finally that a study of
larvae does in some cases reveal affinities which would not have
been evident from a study of adults alone. Though it is impos-
sible to give here an account of the larval forms of the animal
kingdom, we may illustrate these points, which are facts of
fundamental importance in the study of larvae, by a reference
to specific cases.
The two great groups, Annelida and Mollusca, which by their
adult structure present considerable affinity with one another,
agree in possessing a very similar larval form, known as the
trochosphere or trochophore.
A typical trochosphere larva (figs. I, 2) possesses a small, trans-
parent body divided into a large preoral lobe and a small postoral
region. The mouth (4) is on the ventral surface at the junction of the
preoral lobe with the hinder part of the body, and there is an anus
(7) at the hind end. Connecting the two is a curved alimentary
canal which is frequently divided into oesophagus, stomach and
intestine. There is a preoral circlet of powerful cilia, called the
" velum " (2), which encircles the body just anterior to the mouth
and marks off the preoral lobe, and there is very generally a second
ring of cilia immediately behind the mouth (3). At the anterior end
of the preoral lobe is a nervous thickening of the ectoderm called
226
LARVAL FORMS
After V. Drasche in Beitrage zur Entwickelung der
Polychaeten, Entwickelung von Pomatoceros.
FIG. I. — Trochosphere Larva of the
Chaetopod Pomatoceros trigueter, L. (Osmic
acid preparation.)
1. The apical plate.
2. Long cilia of preoral band (velum).
Long cilia of postoral band.
Mouth.
Excretory organ.
Mesoblastic band.
7. Anus.
young leaves the egg
at an early stage of
development it has
a form which can
be referred without
much difficulty to the
trochosphere type just described. A larva similar to the trocho-
sphere in some features, particularly in possessing a preoral
ring of cilia and an apical plate, is found in the Polyzoa, and
in adult Rotifera, which latter, in their ciliary ring and ex-
cretory organs, present some
resemblance to the trocho-
sphere, and are sometimes de-
scribed as permanent adult
trochospheres. But in these
phases the resemblance to the
After Hatschek,
Claus's Arbeitcn aus
liKtilut der Wien.
" Echiurus " in
dan zoolog.
After Patten," Patella" in Claus's Arbeiten
aus dem zoolog. Institul der Wien.
FIG. 3.^-Larva of the Gastropod
Patella, seen in longitudinal vertical
section.
1. Apical plate.
2. Cilia of preoral circlet (velum).
3. Mouth.
4. Foot.
5. Anal tuft of cilia.
6. Shell-gland covered by shell.
typical forms is not nearly so close as it is in the case of the larva
of Annelida and Mollusca.
In the Echinodermata there are two distinct larval forms which
cannot be brought into relation with one another. The one of these
is found in the Asteroids, Ophiuroids, Echinoids and Holothuroids;
the other in the Crinoids.
FIG. 2. — Young Trocho-
sphere Larvaof the Gephyrean
Echiurus, seen in optical
section.
1. Apical plate.
2. Muscle-bands.
3. Preoral band of cilia(velum).
4. Mouth.
5. Mesoblastic band.
6. Anus.
the apical plate (i). This usually carries a tuft of long cilia or sen-
sory hairs, and sometimes rudimentary visual organs. Mesoblastic
bands are present, proceeding a short distance forwards from the
anus on each side of the middle ventral line (6), and at the anterior
end of each of these structures is a tube (5) which more or less
branches internally and opens on the ventral surface. The branches
of this tube end internally in peculiar cells containing a flame-
shaped flagellum and
floating in the so-called
body cavity, into
which, however, they
do not open. These
are the primitive kid-
neys. The body
cavity, which is a
space between the
ectoderm and ali-
mentary canal, is not
lined by mesoderm :
and is traversed by a I
few muscular fibres.
Such a larva is found,
almost as described,
in many Chaetopods
(fig. i), in Echiurus(fig.
2), in many Gastro-
pods (fig. 3), and
Lamellibranchiates
(fig. 4). This typical
structure of the larva
is often departed from,
and the molluscan tro-
chosphere can be dis-
tinguished from the
annelidan by the pos-
session of a rudiment
at least of the shell-
gland and foot (figs. 3
and 4); but in all
cases in which the
The first is, in its most primitive form, a small transparent creature,
with a mouth and anus and a postoral longitudinal ciliated band (fig.
5, A). In Asteroids the band of cilia becomes divided in such a way
as to give rise to two bands, the one preoral, encircling the preoral
lobe, and the other remaining postoral (fig. 5, B). In the other
groups the band remains single and longitudinal. In all cases the
edges of the body
carrying the ciliary
bands become
sinuous (fig 6) and
sometimes p r o-
longed into arms
(figs. 7-9), and
each of the four
groups has its own
type of larva. In
Asteroids, in which
the band divides,
the larva is known
as the bipinnaria
(fig. 7); in Holo-
thurians it is called
the auricularia (fig.
6) ; in Echinoids
and Ophiuroids, in
which the arms
are well marked,
it is known as the
pluteus , the
echinopluteus (fig.
9) and ophio-
pluteus (fig. 8) re-
spectively.
1 in Claus's Arbeiten aus dem
After Hatschek on " Teredo '
zoolog. Institut der Wien.
FIG. 4. — A, Embryo, and B, Young Trocho-
sphere Larva of the Lamellibranch Teredo.
In A the shell-gland (i) and the mouth (2)
and the rudiment of the enteron (3) are shown;
(4) primitive mesoderm cells.
In B the shell-gland has flattened out and
the shell is formed. I, Apical plate; 2, mus-
cles; 3, shell; 4, anal invaginadon ; 5, meso-
blast; 6, mouth; 7, foot.
The cilia of the preoral and postoral bands are
All these forms not clearly differentiated at this stage,
were obviously distinct but as obviously modifications of a common
type and related to one another. They present certain remarkable
structural features which differentiate them from other larval
types except the tornaria larvae of the Enteropneusta. They
possess an alimentary canal with a mouth and anus as does the
trochosphere, but they differ altogether from that larva in having a
diverticulum of the alimentary canal which gives rise to the coelom
and to a considerable part of the meso-
blast. Further, they are without an
apical plate with its tuft of sensory hairs.
In Crinoids the type is different (fig. 10),
and might belong to a different phylum.
The body is opaque, and encircled by five
ciliary bands, and is without either mouth,
anus or arms, and there is a tuft of cilia
on the preoral lobe. A resemblance to
the other Echinoderm larvae is found in
the fact that coelomic diverticula of the
enteron are present.
The larvae of two other groups present
certain resemblances to the typical Echino-
derm larvae. The one of these is the tor-
•pr.e
From Balfour's Cemparalive Embryology.
by permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.
FIG. 5. — Diagrams of side views
of two young Echinoderm Larvae,
showing the course of the ciliary
bands. A, auricularia larva of a
Holothurian; B, bipinnaria larva
of an Asteroid; a, anus; l.c, in A
primitive longitudinal ciliary band,
in B postoral longitudinal ciliary
band; m, mouth; pr.c, preoral
ciliary band ; st, stomach.
After J. Miiller.
FIG. 6. — Auricularia
stelligera, ventral view,
somewhat diagrammatic.
The larva of a Holo-
thurian.
1. Frontal area.
2. Preoral arm.
3. Anterior transverse
portion of ciliary
band.
4. Posterior transverse
portion of same.
5. Postoral arm.
6. Anal area.
7. Posterior lateral arm.
8. Posterior dorsal arm.
9. Oral depression.
10. Middle dorsal arm.
11. Anterior dorsal arm.
12. Anterior lateral arm.
13. Ventral median arm.
14. Dorsal median arm.
15. Unpaired posterior
naria larva of the Enteropneusta (fig. Il), which recalls Echinoderms
in the possession of two ciliary bands, the one preoral and the other
postoral and partly longitudinal, and in the presence of gut diver-
ticula which give rise to the coelom; but, like the trochosphere, it
possesses an apical plate with sensory organs on the preoral lobe. The
resemblance of the tornaria to the bipinnaria is so close that, taking
into consideration certain additional resemblances in the arrangement
LARVAL FORMS
227
of the coelomic vesicles which arise from the original gut diverti-
culum, it is impossible to resist the conclusion that there is affinity
between the Echinoderm and Enteropneust phyla. Here we have a
case like that of the Tunicata in which an affinity which is not
Alter J. Muller.
FIG. 7. — Bipinnaria ele-
gans, the Larva of a Star-fish.
Description and lettering as
in fig. 6.
evident from a study of the adult alone is revealed by a study of
the young form. The other larva which recalls the Echinoderm
type is the Actinotrocha of Phoronis (fig. 12), but the resemblance
After J. Muller.
FIG. 8. — Ophiopluteus bimaculatus,
the Larva of an Ophiurid. Descrip-
tion and lettering as in fig. 6.
•7
After Seeliger on " Antedon" in Spengel's
Zoologische Jahrbiicher.
FIG. 10. — A free-swimming
Larva of Antedon, ventral view.
It has an apical tuft of cilia, five
After J. Muller. ciliated bands, and a depression —
FIG. 9. — Echinopluteus, the the vestibular depression — on its
Larva of a Spatangid. Descrip- ventral surface, v, Vestibular de-
tion and lettering as in fig. 6. pression ; /, adhesive pit.
is not nearly so close, being confined to the presence of a postoral
longitudinal band of cilia which is prolonged into arm-like processes.
The following groups have larvae which cannot be related
to other larvae: the Porifera, Coelenterata, Turbellaria and
of
After Metschnikoff .
FIG. II. — Tornaria Larva
an Enteropneust, side view.
ee, Apical plate.
aa, Preoral ciliary band.
bb, Postoral ciliary band.
dd, Mouth.
ff, Anterior coelomic vesicle and
pore.
gg, Alimentary canal.
hh, Anus.
FIG. 12. — Actinotrocha Larva
of Phoronis, side view. (Modified
after Benham.)
1. Apical plate.
2. Mouth.
3. Postoral ciliary band and arms.
4. Perianal ciliary band.
Nemertea,Brachiopoda,Myriapoda,In3ecta,Crustacea,Tunicata.
We may shortly notice the larvae of the two latter.
In the Crustacea the larvae are highly peculiar and share, in a
striking manner, certain of the important features of specialization
presented by the adult, viz. the presence of a strong cuticle and of
articulated appendages and the absence of cilia. They are re-
markable among larvae for the number of stages which they pass
through in attaining the adult state. However numerous these
may be, they almost always have, when first set free from the egg,
one of two forms, that of the nauplius (fig. 13, A) or that of the zoaea
(fig- 13. B). The nauplius is found throughout the group and is the
more important of the two; the zoaea is confined to the higher
members, in some of which it merely forms a stage through which the
larva, hatched as a nauplius, passes in its gradual development.
The nauplius larva is of
classic interest because its
occurrence has enabled zoo-
logists to determine with pre-
cision the position in the
animal kingdom of a group,
the Cirripedia, which was
placed by the illustrious
Cuvier among the Mollusca.
In the Tunicata the re-
markable tadpole larva, the
structure and development
of which was first elucidated
by the great Russian natur-
alist, A. Kowalevsky, pos-
sesses a similar interest to
that of the nauplius larva of
Cirripeds, and of the tornaria
larva of the Enteropneusta,
in that it pointed the way to
the recognition of the affinities
of the Tunicata, affinities
which were entirely unsus-
pected till they were revealed
by a study of the larvae.
With regard to the oc-
currence of larvae, three
general statements may be
made, (i) They are always
associated with a small egg
in which the amount of
food yolk is not sufficient
to enable the animal to
complete its development
in the embryonic state. (2)
A free-swimming larva is
usually found in cases in
which the adult is attached
to foreign objects. (3) A
larval stage is, as a rule,
associated with internal
parasitism of the adult.
The object gained by the
occurrence of a larva in
the two last cases is to en-
able the species to distribute
itself over as wide an area
as possible. It may further
be asserted that land and
fresh-water animals develop
without a larval stage much
more frequently than marine
forms. This is probably
partly due to the fact that
the conditions of land and
FIG. 13. — A, Nauplius of the Crus-
tacean Penaeus, dorsal view. B,
Zoaea Larva of the same animal,
ventral view.
I. 2. 3. The three pairs of appen-
dages of the nauplius larva (the
future first and second antennae
and mandibles).
3. Mandible.
4. First maxilla.
5. Second maxilla.
6. First maxilliped.
7. Second maxilliped.
8. Third maxilliped.
fresh-water life are not
favourable for the spread of a species over a wide area by means
of simply-organized larvae as are those of marine life, and partly
to the fact that, in the case of fresh-water forms at any rate, a
feebly-swimming larva would be in danger of being swept out to
sea by currents.
i . The association of larvae with small eggs. This is a true state-
ment as far as it goes, but in some cases small eggs do not give rise to
larvae, some special form of nutriment being provided by the parent,
e.g. Mammalia, in which there is a uterine nutrition by means of a
placenta; some Gastropoda (e.g. Helix waltoni, Bulimus), in which,
though the ovum is not specially large, it floats in a large quantity
of albumen at the expense of which the development is com-
pleted; some Lamellibranchiata (Cyclas, &c.), Echinodermata (many
Ophiurids,&c.),&c., in which development takes place in a brood
228
LARYNGITIS— LA SABLIERE
pouch. In the majority of cases, however, in which there is a small
amount of food yolk and no special arrangements for parental care,
a larva is formed. No better group than the Mollusca can be taken
to illustrate this point, for in them we find every kind of develop-
ment from the completely embryonic development Of the Cephalo-
poda, with their large heavily-yolked eggs, to the development of
most marine Lamellibranchiata and many Gastropoda, in which the
embryonic period is short and there is a long larval development.
The Mollusca are further specially interesting for showing very
clearly cases in which, though the young are born or hatched fully
developed, the larval stages are passed through in the egg, and the
larval organs (e.g. velum) are developed but without function (e.g.
Paludina, Cyclas, Onchidium). As already mentioned, the larval
form of the Mollusca is the trochosphere.
2. Free-swimming larvae are usually formed when the adult is
fixed. We need only refer to the cases of the Cirripedia with their
well-marked nauplius and cypris larvae, to Phoronis with its re-
markable aclinotrocha, to the Crinoidea, Polyzoa, &c. There are a
few exceptions to this rule, e.g. the Molgulidae amongst the fixed
Tunicata, Tubularia, Myriothela, &c., among the Hydrozoa.
3. Internal parasites generally have a stage which may be called
larval, in which they are transferred either by active or passive
migration to a new host. In most Nematoda, some Cestoda, and in
Trematoda this larva leads a free life; but in some nematodes
(Trichina) and some cestodes the larva does not become free.
(A. SE.*)
LARYNGITIS, an inflammation of the mucus of the larynx.
There are three chief varieties: acute, chronic, and oedematous.
The larynx is also liable to attacks of inflammation in connexion
with tubercle or syphilis.
Acute Laryngitis may be produced by an independent catarrh,
or by one extending either from the nasal or the bronchial mucous
membrane into that of the larynx. The causes are various,
" catching cold " being the most common. Excessive use of the
voice either in speaking or singing sometimes gives rise to it.
The inhalation of irritating particles, vapours, &c., and swallow-
ing very hot fluids or corrosive poisons are well-recognized causes.
It may also occur in connexion with diseases, notably measles
and influenza. As a result of the inflammation there is a general
swelling of the parts about the larynx and the epiglottis, the
result being a narrowing of the channel for the entrance of the
air, and to this the chief dangers are due. The symptoms vary
with the intensity of the attack; there is first a sense of tickling,
then of heat, dryness, and pain in the throat, with some difficulty
in swallowing. There is a dry cough, with expectoration later;
phonation becomes painful, while the voice is husky, and may
be completely lost. In children there is some dyspnoea. In
favourable cases, which form the majority, the attack tends to
abate in a few days, but the inflammation may become of the
oedematous variety, and death may occur suddenly from an
asphyxial paroxysm. Many cases of acute laryngitis are so
slight as to make themselves known only by hoarseness and the
character of the cough, nevertheless in every instance the
attack demands serious attention. The diagnosis is not, in
adults, a matter of much difficulty, especially if an examination
is made with the laryngoscope; in children, however, it is more
difficult, and the question of diphtheria must not be lost sight
of. The treatment is, first and foremost, rest; no talking must
be allowed. The patient should be kept in bed, in a room at an
even temperature, and the air saturated with moisture. An
ice-bag round the throat gives much relief, while internally
diaphoretics may be given, and a full dose of Dover's powder
if there be much pain or cough.
Chronic Laryngitis usually occurs as a result of repeated
attacks of the acute form. It is extremely common in people
who habitually over-use the voice, and is the cause of the hoarse
voice one associates with street sellers. The constant inhalation
of irritating vapours, such as tobacco smoke, may also cause it.
There is usually little or no pain, only the unpleasant sensation
of tickling in the larynx, with a constant desire to cough. The
changes in the mucous membrane are more permanent than in
the acute variety, and there nearly always accompanies this a
chronic alteration of the membrane of the pharynx (granular
pharyngitis). The treatment consists in stopping the cause,
where known, e.g. the smoking or shouting. Careful examination
should be made to see if there is any nasal obstruction, and the
larynx should be treated locally with suitable astringents,
by means of a brush, spray or insufflation. Overheated and
ill-ventilated rooms must be avoided, as entrance into them
immediately aggravates the trouble and causes a paroxysm of
coughing.
Oedematous Laryngitis is a very fatal condition, which may
occur, though rarely, as a sequence of acute laryngitis. It
is far more commonly seen in syphilitic and tubercular con-
ditions of the larynx, in kidney disease, in certain fevers, and
in cases of cellulitis of the neck. The larynx is also one of the
sites of Angeioneurolic oedema. In this form of laryngitis
there are all the symptoms of acute laryngitis, but on a very
much exaggerated scale. The dyspnoea, accompanied by
marked stridor, may arise and reach a dangerous condition within
the space of an hour, and demand the most prompt treatment.
On examination the mucous membrane round the epiglottis is
seen to be enormously swollen. The treatment is ice round the
throat and internally, scarification of the swollen parts, and
should that not relieve the asphyxial symptoms, tracheotomy
must be performed immediately.
Tubercular Laryngitis is practically always associated with
phthisis. The mucous membrane is invaded by the tubercles,
which first form small masses. These later break down and
ulcerate; the ulceration then spreads up and down, causing an
immense amount of destruction. The first indication is hoarse-
ness, or, in certain forms, pain on swallowing. The cough is,
as a rule, a late symptom. A sudden oedema may bring about
a rapid fatal termination. The general treatment is the same
as that advised for phthisis; locally, the affected parts may
be removed by one or a series of operations, generally under
local anaesthesia, or they may be treated with some destructive
agent such as lactic acid. The pain on swallowing can be best
alleviated by painting with a weak solution of cocaine. The
condition is a very grave one; the prognosis depends largely
on the associated pulmonary infection — if that be extensive, a
very small amount of laryngeal mischief resists treatment,
while, if the case be the contrary, a very extensive mischief
may be successfully dealt with.
Syphilitic Laryngitis. — Invasion of the larynx in syphilis is
very common. It may occur in both stages of the disease and
in the inherited form. In the secondary stage the damage is
superficial, and the symptoms those of a slight acute laryngitis.
The injury in the tertiary stage is much more serious, the deeper
structures are invaded with the formation of deep ulcers, which
may when they heal form strong cicatrices, which produce
a narrowing of the air-passage which may eventually require
surgical interference. Occasionally a fatal oedema may arise.
The treatment consists of administering constitutional remedies,
local treatment being of comparatively slight importance.
Paroxysmal Laryngitis, or Laryngismus stridulus, is a nervous
affection of the larynx that occurs in infants. It appears to
be associated with adenoids. The disease consists of a reflex
spasm of the glottis, which causes a complete blocking of the air-
passages. The attacks, which are recurrent, cause acute asphyxia-
tion. . They may cease for no obvious reason, or one may prove
fatal. The whole attack is of such short duration that the
infant has either recovered or succumbed before assistance can
be called. After an attack, careful examination should be made,
and the adenoids, if present, removed by operation.
LA SABLIERE, MARGUERITE DE (c. 1640-1693), friend and
patron of La Fontaine, was the wife of Antoine Rambouillet,
sieur de la Sabliere (1624-1679), a Protestant financier entrusted
with the administration of the royal estates, her maiden name
being Marguerite Hessein. She received an excellent education
in Latin, mathematics, physics and anatomy from the best
scholars of her time, and her house became a meeting-place for
poets, scientists and men of letters, no less than for brilliant
members of the court of Louis XIV. About 1673 Mme de la
Sabliere received into her house La Fontaine, whom for twenty
years she relieved of every kind of material anxiety. Another
friend and inmate of the house was the traveller and physician
Francois Bernier, whose abridgment of the works of Gassendi
was written for Mme de la Sabliere. The abb6 Chaulieu and
LA SALE
229
'
his fellow-poet, Charles Auguste, marquis de La Fare, were among
her most intimate associates. La Fare sold his commission in the
army to be able to spend his time with her. This liaison, which
seems to have been the only serious passion of her life, was broken
in 1679. La Fare was seduced from his allegiance, according to
Mme de Sevigne by his love of play, but to this must be added
a new passion for the actress La Champmesle. Mme de la
Sabliere thenceforward gave more and more attention to good
works, much of her time being spent in the hospital for in-
curables. Her husband's death in the same year increased her
serious tendencies, and she was presently converted to Roman
Catholicism. She died in Paris on the 8th of January 1693.
LA SALE (or LA SALLE), ANTOINE DE (c. 1388-1462?),
French writer, was born in Provence, probably at Aries. He was
a natural son of Bernard de la Salle,1 a famous soldier of fortune,
who served many masters, among others the Angevin dukes.
In 1402 Antoine entered the court of Anjou, probably as a page,
and in 1407 he was at Messina with Duke Louis II., who had
gone there to enforce his claim to the kingdom of Sicily. The
next years he perhaps spent in Brabant, for he was present at two
tournaments given at Brussels and Ghent. With other gentlemen
from Brabant, whose names he has preserved, he took part
in the expedition of 1415 against the Moors, organized by John I.
of Portugal. In 1420 he accompanied Louis III. on another
expedition to Naples, making in that year an excursion from
Norcia to the Monte della Sibilla, and the neighbouring Lake of
Pilate. The story of his adventures on this occasion, and an
account, with some sceptical comments, of the local legends
regarding Pilate, and the Sibyl's grotto,2 form the most interest-
ing chapter of La Salade, which is further adorned with a map of
the ascent from Montemonaco. La Sale probably returned with
Louis III. of Anjou, who was also comte de Provence, in 1426
to Provence, where he was acting as viguier of Aries in 1429. In
1434 Rene, Louis's successor, made La Sale tutor to his son
Jean d' Anjou, due de Calabre, to whom he dedicated, between
the years 1438 and 1447, his La Salade, which is a text-book
of the studies necessary for a prince. The primary intention
of the title is no doubt the play on his own name, but he explains
it on the ground of the miscellaneous character of the book —
a salad is composed " of many good herbs." In 1439 he was
again in Italy in charge of the castle of Capua, with the due de
Calabre and his young wife, Marie de Bourbon, when the
place was besieged by the king of Aragon. Rene abandoned
Naples in 1442, and Antoine no doubt returned to France about
the same time. His advice was sought at the tournaments which
celebrated the marriage of the unfortunate Margaret of Anjou
at Nancy in 1445; and in 1446, at a similar display at Saumur, he
was one of the umpires. La Sale's pupil was now twenty years
of age, and, after forty years' service of the house of Anjou,
La Sale left it to become tutor to the sons of Louis de Luxem-
bourg, comte de Saint Pol, who took him to Flanders and
presented him at the court of Philippe le Bon, duke of Burgundy.
For his new pupils he wrote at Chatelet-sur-Oise, in 1451, a
moral work entitled La Salle.
He was nearly seventy years of age when he wrote the work
that has made him famous, L'Hysloire el plaisante cronicque
du petit Jehan de Saintre et de la jeune dame des Belles-Cousines,
Sans autre nom nommer, dedicated to his former pupil, Jean
de Calabre. An envoi in MS. 10,057 (nouv. acq. fr.) in the
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, states that it was completed at
Chatelet on the 6th of March 1455 (i.e. 1436). La .Sale also
announces an intention, never fulfilled, apparently, of writing
a romance of Paris et Vienne. The MSS. of Petit Jehan de
Saintre usually contain in addition Floridam el Elvide, translated
by Rasse de Brunhamel from the Latin of Nicolas de Clamange,
1 For his career, see Paul Durrieu, Les Gascons en Italic (Auch,
1885, pp. 107-71).
2 For the legend of the Sibyl current in Italy at the time, given by
La Sale, and its inter-relation with the Tannhauser story, see^W.
Soederhjelm, " A. de la Salle et la Ifigende de Tannhauser "_ in
Memoires de la soc. neo-philolo^ique d'Helsingfors (1897, vol. ii.);
and Gaston Paris, " Le Paradis de la Reine Sibylle," and " La
L6gende du Tannhauser," in the Revue de Paris (Dec. 1897 and
March 1898).
and dedicated to La Sale; also Addiction extraite des Cronicques
de Flandres, of which only a few lines are original. Brunhamel
says in his dedication that La Sale had delighted to write honour-
able histories from the time of his " florie jeunesse," which
confirms a reasonable inference from the style of Petit Jehan
de Saintre that its author was no novice in the art of romance-
writing. The Reconfort a Madame de Neufville, a consolatory
epistle including two stories of parental fortitude, was written
at Vendeuil-sur-Oise about 1458, and in 1459 La Sale produced
his treatise Des anciens tournois et faictz d'armes and the Journee
d'Onneur et de Prouesse. He followed his patron to Genappe
in Brabant when the Dauphin (afterwards Louis XI.) took
refuge at the Burgundian court.
La Sale is generally accepted as the author of one of the most
famous satires in the French language, Les Quinze Joyes de
mariage, because his name has been disengaged from an acrostic
at the end of the Rouen MS. He is also supposed to have been
the " acteur " in the collection of licentious stories supposed to
be narrated by various persons at the court of Philippe le Bon,
and entitled the Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles. One only of the stories
is given in his name, but he is credited with the compilation of
the whole, for which Louis XI. was long held responsible. A
completed copy of this was presented to the Duke of Burgundy
at Dijon in 1462. If then La Sale was the author, he probably
was still living; otherwise the last mention of him is in 1461.
Petit Jehan de Saintre gives, at the point when the traditions of
chivalry were fast disappearing, an account of the education of an
ideal knight and rules for his conduct under many different circum-
stances. When Petit Jehan, aged thirteen, is persuaded by the
Dame des Belles-Cousines to accept her as his lady, she gives him
systematic instruction in religion, courtesy, chivalry and the arts of
success. She materially advances his career until Saintre- becomes
an accomplished knight, the fame of whose prowess spreads through-
put Europe. This section of the romance — apparently didactic in
intention — fits in with tne author's other works of edification. But
in the second part this virtuous lady falls a victim to a vulgar intrigue
with Damp Abb<5. One of La Sale s commentators, M. Joseph Neve,
ingeniously maintains that the last section is simply to show how the
hero, after passing through the other grades of education, learns at
last by experience to arm himself against coquetry. The book may,
however, be fairly regarded as satirizing the whole theory of
" courteous " love, by the simple method of fastening a repulsive
conclusion on an ideal case. The contention that the fabliau-like
ending of a romance begun in idyllic fashion was due to the corrupt
influences of the Dauphin's exiled court, is inadmissible, for the last
page was written when the prince arrived in Brabant in 1456. That
it is an anti-clerical satire seems unlikely. The profession of the
seducer is not necessarily chosen from that point of view. The
language of the book is not disfigured by coarseness of any kind, but.
if the brutal ending was the expression of the writer's real views,
there is little difficulty in accepting him as the author of the Quinze
Joyes de mariage and the Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles. — Both these are
masterpieces in their way and exhibit a much greater dramatic
power and grasp of dialogue than does Petit Jehan. Some light is
thrown on the romance by the circumstances of the due de Calabre,
to whom it was dedicated. His wife, Marie de Bourbon, was one of
the " Belles-Cousines " who contended for the favour of Jacques or
Jacquet de Lalaing in the Livre des fails de Jacques Lalaing which
forms the chief source of the early exploits of Petit Jehan.
The incongruities of La Sale's aims appear in his method of con-
struction. The hero is not imaginary. Jehan de Saintr6 flourished
in the Hundred Years' War, was taken prisoner after Poitiers, with
the elder Boucicaut, and was employed in negotiating the treaty of
Bretigny. Froissart mentioned him as " le meilleur et le plus vaillant
chevalier de France." His exploits as related in the romance are,
however, founded on those of Jacques de Lalaing (c. 1422-1453),
who was brought up at the Burgundian court, and became such a
famous knight that he excited the rivalry of the " Belles-Cousines,"
Marie de Bourbon and Marie deCleves, duchessed'Orleans. Lalaing 's
exploits are related by more than one chronicler, but M. Gustave
Raynaud thinks that the Livre des fails de Jacques de Lalaing,
published among the works of Georges Chastelain, to which textual
parallels may be found in Petit Jehan, should also be attributed to
La Sale, who in that case undertook two accounts of the same hero,
one historical and the othec fictitious. To complicate matters, he
drew, for the later exploits of Petit Jehan, on the Limes des fails de
Jean Boucicaut, which gives the history of the younger Boucicaut.
The atmosphere of the book is not the rough realities of the English
wars in which the real Saintr6 figured but that of the courts to which
La Sale was accustomed.
The title of Les Quinze Joyes de mariage is, with a profanity char-
acteristic of the time, borrowed from a popular litany, Les Quinze
Joies de Notre Dame, and each chapter terminates with a liturgical
230
LASALLE— LA SALLE, SIEUR DE
refrain voicing the miseries of marriage. Evidence in favour of
La Sale's authorship is brought forward by M. E. Gossart (Bibliophile
beige, 1871, pp. 83-7), who quotes from his didactic treatise of La
Sails a passage paraphrased from St Jerome's treatise against
Jovinian which contains the chief elements of the satire. Gaston
Paris (Revue de Paris, Dec. 1897) expressed an opinion that to find
anything like the malicious penetration by which La Sale divines
the most intimate details of married life, and the painful exactness
of the description, it is necessary to travel as far as Balzac. The
theme itself was common enough in the middle ages in France, but
the dialogue of the Quinze Joyes is unusually natural and pregnant.
Each of the fifteen vignettes is perfect in its kind. There is no re-
dundance. The diffuseness of romance is replaced by the methods
of the writers of the fabliaux.
In the Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles the Italian novella is naturalized in
France. The book is modelled on the Decameron of Boccaccio, and
owes something to the Latin Facetiae of the contemporary scholar
Poggio; but the stories are rarely borrowed, and in cases where the
Nouvelles have Italian parallels they appear to be independent
variants. In most cases the general immorality of the conception is
matched by the grossness of the details, but the ninety-eighth story
narrates what appears to be a genuine tragedy, and is of an entirely
different nature from the other conies. It is another version of the
story of Floridam et Elvide already mentioned.
Not content with allowing these achievements to La Sale, some
critics have proposed to ascribe to him also the farce of Maitre
Pathelin.
The best editions of La Sale's undoubted and reputed works are: —
Petit Jehan de Saintre by J. M. Guichard (1843) ; Les Cent Nouvelles
Nouvelles by Thomas Wright (Bibl. elzeveVienne, 1858) ; Les Quinze
Joyes de mariage by P. Jannet (Bibl. elzeV., 1857). La Salade was
printed more than once during the i6th century. La Salle was never
printed. For its contents see E. Gossart in the Bibliophile beige
(1871, pp. 77 et seq.). See also the authorities quoted above, and
Joseph Neve, Antoine de la Salle, sa vie et ses ouvrages . . . suivi du
Reconfort de Madame de Fresne . . . et de fragments et documents
inedits (1903), who argues for the rejection of Les Quinze Joyes and the
Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles from La Sale's works; Pietro Toldo,
Contributo olio studio della novella francese del XV e XVI secolo
(1895), and a review of it by Gaston Paris in the Journal des Savants
(May 1895); L. Stern, " Versuch uber Antoine de la Salle," in
Archiv fur das Studium der neueren Sprachen, vol. xlvi. ; and G.
Raynaud, " Un Nouveau Manuscrit du Petit Jehan de SaintreV' in
Romania, vol. xxxi. (M. BR.)
LASALLE, ANTOINE CHEVALIER LOUIS COLLINET,
COUNT (1775-1809), French soldier, belonged to a noble family
in Lorraine. His grandfather was Abraham Fabert, marshal
of France. Entering the French army at the age of eleven,
he had reached the rank of lieutenant when the Revolution
broke out. As an aristocrat, he lost his commission, but he
enlisted in the ranks, where his desperate bravery and innate
power of command soon distinguished him. By 1795 he had
won back his grade, and was serving as a staff-officer in the army
of Italy. On one occasion, at Vicenza, he rivalled Seydlitz's
feat of leaping his horse over the parapet of a bridge to avoid
capture, and, later, in Egypt, he saved Davout's life in action.
By 1800 he had become colonel, and in one combat in that year
he had two horses killed under him, and broke seven swords.
Five years later, having attained the rank of general of brigade,
he was present with his brigade of light cavalry at Austerlitz.
In the pursuit after Jena in 1806, though he had but 600 hussars
and not one piece of artillery with him, he terrified the com-
mandant of the strong fortress of Stettin into surrender, a feat
rarely equalled save by that of Cromwell on Bletchingdon House.
Made general of division for this exploit, he was next in the Polish
campaign, and at Heilsberg saved the life of Murat, grand
duke of Berg. When the Peninsular War began, Lasalle was
sent out with one of the cavalry divisions, and at Medina de
Rio Seco, Gamonal and Medellin broke every body of troops
which he charged. A year later, at the head of one of the cavalry
divisions of the Grande Armee he took part in the Austrian war.
•At Wagram he was killed at the head of his men. With the
possible exception of Curely, who was in 1809 still unknown,
Napoleon never possessed a better leader of light horse. Wild
and irregular in his private life, Lasalle was far more than
a beau sabreur. To talent and experience he added that
power of feeling the pulse of the battle which is the true gift
of a great leader. A statue of him was erected in Luneville in
1893. His remains were brought from Austria to the Invalides
in 1891.
LA SALLE, RENE ROBERT CAVELIER, SIEUR DE (1643-
1687), French explorer in North America, was born at Rouen
on the 22nd of November 1643. He taught for a time in a school
(probably Jesuit) in France, and seems to have forfeited his
claim to his father's estate by his connexion with the Jesuits.
In 1666 he became a settler in Canada, whither his brother, a
Sulpician abbe, had preceded him. From the Seminary of St
Sulpice in Montreal La Salle received a grant on the St Lawrence
about 8 m. above Montreal, where he built a stockade and
established a fur-trading post. In 1669 he sold this post (partly
to the Sulpicians who had granted it to him) to raise funds for
an expedition to China 1 by way of the Ohio,2 which he supposed,
from the reports of the Indians, to flow into the Pacific. He
passed up the St Lawrence and through Lake Ontario to a
Seneca village on the Genesee river; thence with an Iroquois
guide he crossed the mouth of the Niagara (where he heard the
noise of the distant falls) to Ganastogue, an Iroquois colony
at the head of Lake Ontario, where he met Louis Joliet and
received from him a map of parts of the Great Lakes. La Salle's
missionary comrades now gave up the quest for China to preach
among the Indians. La Salle discovered the Ohio river, descended
it at least as far as the site of Louisville, Kentucky, and possibly,
though not probably, to its junction with the Mississippi, and
in 1669-1670, abandoned by his few followers, made his way
back to Lake Erie. Apparently he passed through Lake Erie,
Lake Huron and Lake Michigan, and some way down the Illinois
river. Little is known of these explorations, for his journals
are lost, and the description of his travels rests only on the
testimony of the anonymous author of a Histoire de M. de la
Salle. Before 1673 La Salle had returned to Montreal. Becoming
convinced, after the explorations of Marquette and Joliet in
1673, that the Mississippi flowed into the Gulf of Mexico, he
conceived a vast project for exploring that river to its mouth
and extending the French power to the lower Mississippi Valley.
He secured the support of Count Frontenac, then governor of
Canada, and in 1674 and 1677 visited France, obtaining from
Louis XIV. on his first visit a patent of nobility and a grant of
lands about Fort Frontenac, on the site of the present Kingston,
Ontario, and on his second visit a patent empowering him to
explore the West at his own expense, and giving him the buffalo-
hide monopoly. Late in the year 1678, at the head of a small
party, he started from Fort Frontenac. He established a post
above Niagara Falls, where he spent the winter, and where,
his vessel having been wrecked, he built a larger ship, the
" Griffon," in which he sailed up the Great Lakes to Green Bay
(Lake Michigan), where he arrived in September 1679. Sending
back the " Griffon " freighted with furs, by which he hoped to
satisfy the cl?ims of his creditors, he proceeded to the Illinois
river, and near what is now Peoria, Illinois, built a fort, which
he called Fort Crevecceur. Thence he detached Father Hennepin,
with one companion, to explore the Illinois to its mouth, and,
leaving his lieutenant, Henri de Tonty (c. 1650-6. 1702),' with
about fifteen men, at Fort Crevecceur, he returned by land,
afoot, to Canada to obtain needed supplies, discovering the fate
of the " Griffon " (which proved to have been lost), thwarting
the intrigues of his enemies and appeasing his creditors. In
July 1680 news reached him at Fort Frontenac that nearly
all Tonty's men had deserted, after destroying or appropriating
most of the supplies; and that twelve of them were on their
way to kill him as the surest means of escaping punishment.
1 The name La Chine was sarcastically applied to La Salle's
settlement on the St Lawrence.
1 The Iroquois seem to have used the name Ohio for the Mississippi,
or at least for its lower part ; and this circumstance makes the story
of La Salle's exploration peculiarly difficult to disentangle.
8 Tonty (or Tonti), an Italian, born at Gaeta, was La Salle's
principal lieutenant, and was the equal of his chief in intrepidity.
Before his association with La Salle he had engaged in military
service in Europe, during which he had lost a hand. He accompanied
La Salle to the mouth of the Mississippi, and was in command of Fort
St Louis from ths time of its erection until 1702, except during his
journeys down the Mississippi in search of his chief. In 1702 he
joined d'Iberville in lower Louisiana, and soon after was despatched
on a mission to the Chickasaw Indians. This is the last authentic
trace of him.
LA SALLE, ST. JEAN DE— LASAULX
These he met and captured or killed. He then returned to the
Illinois, to find the country devastated by the Iroquois, and
his post abandoned. He formed a league of the Western Indians
to fight the Iroquois, then went to Michilimackinac, where he
found Tonty, proceeded again to Fort Frontenac to obtain
supplies and organize his expedition anew, and returned in
December 1681 to the Illinois. Passing down the Illinois to
the Mississippi, which he reached in February 1682, he floated
down that stream to its mouth, which he reached on the 9th
of April, and, erecting there a monument and a cross, took
formal possession in the name of Louis XIV., in whose honour
he gave the name " Louisiana " to the region. He then returned
to Michilimackinac, whence, with Tonty, he went again to the
Illinois and established a fort, Fort St Louis, probably on
Starved Rock (near the present Ottawa, Illinois), around which
nearly 20,000 Indians (Illinois, Miamis and others seeking
protection from the Iroquois) had been gathered. La Salle
then went to Quebec, and La Barre, who had succeeded
Frontenac, being unfriendly to him, again visited France (1684),
where he succeeded in interesting the king in a scheme to establish
a fort at the mouth of the Mississippi and to seize the Spanish
posts in the vicinity. On the 24th of July 1684, with four
vessels under the command of himself and Captain Beaujeu,
a naval officer, he sailed from La Rochelle. Mistaking, it appears,
the inlets of Matagorda Bay (which La Salle called St Louis's
Bay) in the present state of Texas, for the mouth of an arm of
the Mississippi, he landed there, and Beaujeu, soon afterwards
returned to France. The expedition had met with various
misfortunes; one vessel had been captured by the Spaniards
and another had been wrecked; and throughout La Salle and
Beaujeu had failed to work in harmony. Soon finding that he
was not at the mouth of the Mississippi, La Salle established a
settlement and built a fort, Fort St Louis, on the Lavaca (he
called it La Vache) river, and leaving there the greater part of
his force, from October 1685 to March 1686 he vainly sought
for the Mississippi. He also made two attempts to reach the
Illinois country and Canada, and during the second, after two
months of fruitless wanderings, he was assassinated, on the
igth of March 1687, by several of his followers, near the Trinity
river in the present Texas.
His colony on the Lavaca, after suffering terribly from priva-
tion and disease and being attacked by the Indians, was finally
broken up, and a force of Spaniards sent against it in 1689 found
nothing but dead bodies and a dismantled fort; the few sur-
vivors having become domesticated in the Indian villages
near by. Some writers, notably J. G. Shea, maintain that La
Salle never intended to fortify the mouth of the Mississippi,
but was instructed to establish an advanced post near the
Spanish possessions, where he was to await a powerful expedi-
tion under a renegade Spaniard, Penalosa, with whom he was
to co-operate in expelling the Spaniards from this part of the
continent.1
La Salle was one of the greatest of the explorers in North
America. Besides discovering the Ohio and probably the
Illinois, he was the first to follow the Mississippi from its upper
course to its mouth and thus to establish the connexion between
the discoveries of Radisson, Joliet and Marquette in the north
with those of De Soto in the south. He was stern, indomitable
and full of resource.
The best accounts of La Salle's explorations may be found in
Francis Parkman's La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West
(Boston, 1879; later revised editions), in Justin VVinsor's Cartier to
'Although La Salle and Don Diego de Penalosa (1624-1687)
presented to the French government independent plans for an
expedition against the Spaniards and Penalosa afterwards proposed
their co-operation, there is no substantial evidence that this project
was adopted. Parkman is of the opinion that La Salle proposed his
expedition against the Spaniards in the hope that the conclusion of
peace between France and Spain would prevent its execution and
that he might then use the aid he had thus received in establishing a
fortified commercial colony at the mouth of the Mississippi. See
:. T. Miller, " The Connection of Penalosa with the La Salle Expe-
dition," in the Quarterly of the Texas State Historical Association,
vol. v. (Austin, Tex., 1902).
231
Frontenac (Boston, 1894), and in J. G. Shea's Discooery and Explora-
tion of the Mississippi Valley (New York, 1852) ; see also P. Chesnel,
Histoire de Cavelier de La Satte, explorations et conquete du bassin
du Mississippi (Paris, 1901). Of the early narratives see Louis
Hennepin, Description de la Louisiane (1683); Joutel, Journal
historique du dernier voyage que feu M. de la Salle fit dans le Golfe de
Mexique, &c. (Paris, 1713); and Henri de Tonty, Derniers De-
couvertes dans I'Amerique septentrionale de M. de La Salle (Paris,
1697). Original narratives may be found, translated into English, in
The Journeys of Rene Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, as related by his
Faithful Lieutenant, Henri de Tonty, &c. (2 vols., New York, 1905),
edited by I. J. Cox; in Benjamin F. French's Historical Collections
of Louisiana (6 series, New York, 1846-1853), and in Shea's Early
Voyages Up and Down the Mississippi (Albany, 1861); and an
immense collection of documents relating to La Salle may be found
in Pierre Margry's Decouverles et etablissements des Frangais dans
Vouest et dans le snd de I'Amerique septentrionale, 1614—1754;
Memoires et documents originaux recueillis et publies (6 vols., Paris,
1875-1886), especially in vol. ii. (C. C. W.)
LA SALLE, ST JEAN BAPTISTE DE (1651-1719), founder
of the order of Christian Brothers, was born at Reims. The
son of a rich lawyer, his father's influence early secured him
a canonry in the cathedral; there he established a school,
where free elementary instruction was given to poor children.
The enterprise soon broadened in scope; a band of enthusiastic
assistants gathered round him; he resolved to resign his canonry,
and devote himself entirely to education. His assistants were
organized into a community, which gradually rooted itself all
over France; and a training-school for teachers, the College
de Saint-Yon, was set up at Rouen. In 1725, six years after
the founder's death, the society was recognized by the pope,
under the official title of " Brothers of the Christian Schools ";
its members took the usual monastic vows, but did not aspire
to the priesthood. During the first hundred years of its existence
its activities were mainly confined to France; during the igth
century it spread to most of the countries of western Europe,
and has been markedly successful in the United States. When
La Salle was canonized in 1900, the total number of brothers
was estimated at 15,000. Although the order has been chiefly
concerned with elementary schools, it undertakes most branches
of secondary and technical education; and it has served as a
model for other societies, in Ireland and elsewhere, slightly
differing in character from the original institute.
LA SALLE, a city of La Salle county, Illinois, U.S.A., on the
Illinois river, near the head of navigation, 99 m. S.W. of Chicago.
Pop. (1900) 10,446, of whom 3471 were foreign-born; (1910
census) 11,537. The city is served by the Chicago, Burlington
& Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific^and the Illinois
Central railways, and by the Illinois & Michigan Canal, of
which La Salle is the western terminus. The city has a public
library. The principal industries are the smelting of zinc and
the manufacture of cement, rolled zinc, bricks, sulphuric acid
and clocks; in 1905 the city's factory products were valued
at $3,158,173. In the vicinity large quantities of coal are mined,
for which the city is an important shipping point. The muni-
cipality owns and operates the waterworks and the electric light-
ing plant. The first settlement was made here in 1830; and the
place which was named in honour of the explorer, Rene Robert
Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, was chartered as a city in 1852 and
rechartered in 1876.
LASAULX, ARNOLD CONSTANTIN PETER FRANZ VON
(1839-1886), German mineralogist and petrographer, was born
at Castellaun near Coblenz on the i4th of June 1839. He was
educated at Berlin, where he took his Ph. D. in 1868. In 1875
he became professor of mineralogy at Breslau, and in 1880
professor of mineralogy and geology at Bonn. He was distin-
guished for his researches on minerals and on crystallography,
and he was one of the earlier workers on microscopic petrography.
He described in 1878 the eruptive rocks of the district of Saar
and Moselle. In 1880 he edited Der Aetna from the MSS. of
Dr W. Sartorius von Waltershausen, the results of observations
made between the years 1834-1869. He was author of Elemente
der Petrographie (1875), Einfuhrung in die Gesteinslehre (1885),
and Precis de petrographie (1887). He died at Bonn on the
25th of January 1886.
232
LASCAR— LAS CASAS
LASCAR, the name in common use for all oriental, and
especially Indian, sailors, which has been adopted in England
into the Merchant Shipping Acts, though without any definition.
It is derived from the Persian lashkar = army, or camp, in which
sense it is. still used in India, e.g. Lashkar, originally the camp,
now the permanent capital, of Sindhia at Gwalior. It would
seem to have been applied by the Portuguese, first to an inferior
class of men in military service (cf. " gun-lascars "), and then
to sailors as early as the lyth century. The form askari on the
east coast of Africa, equivalent to " sepoy," comes from the
Arabic 'askar—a,imy, which is believed to be itself taken from
the Persian.
LASCARIS, CONSTANTINE (d..i493 or 1500), Greek scholar
and grammarian, one of the promoters of the revival of Greek
learning in Italy, was born at Constantinople. He was a member
of the noble Bithynian family, which had furnished three em-
perors of Nicaea during the i3th century. After the fall of
Constantinople in 1453, he took refuge first in Corfu and then
in Italy, where Francesco Sforza, duke of Milan, appointed
him Greek tutor to his daughter. Here was published his
Grammatica Graeca, sive compendium oclo orationis partium,
remarkable as being the first book entirely in Greek issued
from the printing press. After leaving Milan, Lascaris taught
in Rome under the patronage of Cardinal Bessarion, and in
Naples, whither he had been summoned by Ferdinand I. to
deliver a course of lectures on Greece. Ultimately, on the
invitation of the inhabitants, he settled in Messina, Sicily, where
he continued to teach publicly until his death. Among his
numerous pupils here was Pietro Bembo. Lascaris bequeathed
his library of valuable MSS. to the senate of Messina; the
collection was afterwards carried to Spain and lodged in the
Escurial.
The Grammatica, which has often been reprinted, is the only work
of value produced by Lascaris. Some of his letters are given by
J. Iriarte in the Regiae Bibliothecae Matritensis codices Graeci manu-
scripli, i. (Madrid, 1769). His name is known to modern readers in
the romance of A. F. Villemain, Lascaris, ou les Grecs du quinzieme
siecle (1825). See also J. E. Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol., ed. 2, vol. ii.
(1908), pp. 76 foil.
LASCARIS, JOANNES [JOHN], or JANUS (c. 1445-1 535),
Greek scholar, probably the younger brother of Constantine
Lascaris, surnamed Rhyndacenus from the river Rhyndacus
in Bithynia, his native province. After the fall of Constantinople
he was taken to the Peloponnese, thence to Crete, and ultimately
found refuge in Florence at the court of Lorenzo de' Medici,
whose intermediary he was with the sultan Bayezid II. in
the purchase of Greek MSS. for the Medicean library. On
the expulsion of the Medici from Florence, at the invitation
of Charles VIII. of France, Lascaris removed to Paris (1495),
where he gave public instruction in Greek. By Louis XII.
he was several times employed on public missions, amongst
others to Venice (1503-1508), and in 1515 he appears to have
accepted the invitation of Leo X. to take charge of the Greek
college he had founded at Rome. We afterwards (1518) find
Lascaris employed along with Budaeus (Bude) by Francis I.
in the formation of the royal library at Fontainebleau, and also
again sent in the service of the French crown to Venice. He
died at Rome, whither he had been summoned by Pope Paul
III., in 1535. Among his pupils was Musurus.
Amongst other works, Lascaris edited or wrote: Anthologia
epigrammatum Graecorum (1494), in which he ascribed the collection
of the Anthology to Agathias, not to Planudes; Didymi Alexandrini
scholia in Iliadem (1517); Porphyrius of Tyre's Homericarum
quaeslionum liber (1518); De veris Graecarum lilterarum formis ac
causis apud antiques (Paris, 1556). See H. Hody, De Graecis illustri-
bus (London, 1742); W. Roscoe, Life of Leo X. ii. (1846); C. F.
Borner, De doctis hominibus Graecis (Leipzig, 1750); A. Horawitz
in Ersch & Gruber's Allgemeine Encyclopadie; J. E. Sandys, Hist.
Class. Schol., ed. 2, vols. ii. (1908), p. 78.
LAS CASAS, BARTOLOMfi DE (1474-1566), for some time
bishop of Chiapa in Mexico, and known to posterity as " The
Apostle of the Indies," was a native of Seville. His father,
one of the companions of Columbus in the voyage which resulted
in the discovery of the New World, sent him to Salamanca,
where he graduated. In 1498 he accompanied his father in
an expedition under Columbus to the West Indies, and in 1502
he went with Nicolas de Ovando, the governor, to Hayti, where
in 1510 he was admitted to holy orders, being the first priest
ordained in the American colonies. In 1511 he passed over
to Cuba to take part in the work of " population and pacifi-
cation," and in 1513 or 1514 he witnessed and vainly endeavoured
to check the massacre of Indians at Caonao. Soon afterwards
there was assigned to him and his friend Renteria a large village
in the neighbourhood of Zagua, with a number of Indians attached
to it in what was known as repartimiento (allotment); like the
rest of his countrymen he made the most of this opportunity
for growing rich, but occasionally celebrated mass and preached.
Soon, however, having become convinced of the injustice con-
nected with the repartimiento system, he began to preach against
it, at the same time giving up his own slaves. With the consent
of his partner he resolved to go to Spain on behalf of the op-
pressed natives, and the result of his representations was that
in 1516 Cardinal Jimenes caused a commission to be sent out
for the reform of abuses, Las Casas himself, with the title of
" protector of the Indians," being appointed to advise and
report on them. This commission had not been long at San
Domingo before Las Casas perceived the indifference of his
coadjutors to the cause which he himself had at heart, and
July 1517 found him again in Spain, where he developed his
scheme for the complete liberation of the Indians — a scheme
which not only included facilities for emigration from Spain,
but was intended to give to each Spanish resident in the colonies
the right of importing twelve negro slaves. The emigration
movement proved a failure, and Las Casas lived long enough
to express his shame for having been so slow to see that Africans
were as much entitled to freedom as were the natives of the
New World. Overwhelmed with disappointment, he retired
to the Dominican monastery in Haiti; he joined the order in
1522 and devoted eight years to study. About 1530 he appears
to have revisited the Spanish court, but on what precise errand
is not known; the confusion concerning this period of his life
extends to the time when, after visits to Mexico, Nicaragua,
Peru and Guatemala, he undertook an expedition in 1537 into
Tuzulutlan, the inhabitants of which were, chiefly through
his tact, peaceably converted to Christianity, mass being cele-
brated for the first time amongst them in the newly founded
town of Rabinal in 1538. In 1539 Las Casas was sent to Spain
to obtain Dominican recruits, and through Loaysa, general
of the order, and confessor of Charles V., he was successful
in obtaining royal orders and letters favouring his enterprise.
During this stay in Europe, which lasted more than four years,
he visited Germany to see the emperor; he also (1542) wrote
his Veynte Razones, in defence of the liberties of the Indians
and the Brevisima Relation de la Destruycion des las Indias
occidentales, the latter of which was published some twelve
years later. In 1543 he refused the Mexican bishopric of Cuzco,
but was prevailed upon to accept that of Chiapa, for which he
sailed in 1544. Thwarted at every point by the officials, and
outraged by his countrymen in his attempt to carry out the
new laws which his humanity had procured, he returned to
Spain and resigned his dignity (1547). In 155° he met Sepul-
veda in public debate on the theses drawn from the recently
published Apologia pro libra de juslis belli causis, in which
the latter had maintained the lawfulness of waging unprovoked
war upon the natives of the New World. The course of the
discussion may be traced in the account of the Dispula con-
tained in the Obras (1552). In 1565 Las Casas successfully
remonstrated with Philip II. against the financial project for
selling the reversion of the encomiendas — a project which
would have involved the Indians in hopeless bondage. In July
of the following year he died at Madrid, whither he had gone
to urge (and with success) the necessity of restoring a court
of justice which had been suppressed in Guatemala. His
Hisloria de las Indias was not published till 1875-1876.
Sir Arthur Helps' Life of Las Casas (London, 1868) has not been
superseded; but see also F. A. MacNutt, Bartholomew de Las Casas
(1909).
LAS CASES— LASKER
233
LAS CASES, EMMANUEL AUGUSTIN DIEUDONNt MARIN
JOSEPH, MARQUIS (1766-1842), French official, was born at the
castle of Las Cases near Revel in Languedoc. He was educated
at the military schools of Vend&me and Paris; he entered the
navy and took part in various engagements of the years 1781-
1782. The outbreak of the Revolution in 1789 caused him to
" emigrate," and he spent some years in Germany and England,
sharing in the disastrous Quiberon expedition (1795). He was
one of the few survivors and returned to London, where he lived
in poverty. He returned to France during the Consulate with
other royalists who rallied to the side of Napoleon, and stated
afterwards to the emperor that he was " conquered by his glory."
Not until 1810 did he receive much notice from Napoleon, who
then made him a chamberlain and created him a count of the
empir3 (he was marquis by hereditary right). After the first
abdication of the emperor (nth of April 1814), Las Cases retired
to England, but returned to serve Napoleon during the Hundred
Days. The second abdication opened up for Las Cases the most
noteworthy part of his career. He withdrew with the ex-emperor
and a few other trusty followers to Rochefort; and it was Las
Cases who first proposed and strongly urged the emperor to
throw himself on the generosity of the British nation. Las Cases
made the first overtures to Captain Maitland of H.M.S. " Belle-
rophon " and received a guarded reply, the nature of which he
afterwards misrepresented. Las Cases accompanied the ex-
emperor to St Helena and acted informally but very assiduously
as his secretary, taking down numerous notes of his conversations
which thereafter took form in the famous Memorial de Ste
Helene. The limits of this article preclude an attempt at assessing
the value of this work. It should be read with great caution,
as the compiler did not scruple to insert his own thoughts and
to colour the expressions of his master. In some cases he
misstated facts and even fabricated documents. It is far less
trustworthy than the record penned by Gourgaud in his Journal.
Disliked by Montholon and Gourgaud, Las Cases seems to have
sought an opportunity to leave the island when he had accumu-
lated sufficient literary material. However that may be, he
infringed the British regulations in such a way as to lead to his
expulsion by the governor, Sir Hudson Lowe (November, 1816).
He was sent first to the Cape of Good Hope and thence to Europe,
but was not at first allowed by the government of Louis XVIII.
to enter France. He resided at Brussels; but, gaining per-
mission to come to Paris after the death of Napoleon, he took
up his residence there, published the Memorial, and soon gained
an enormous sum from it. He died in 1842 at Passy.
See Memoires de E A. D., comie de Las Cases (Brussels, 1818);
Memorial de Ste Helene (4 vols., London and Paris, 1823; often
republished and translated) ; Suite au memorial de Ste Helene, ou
observations critiques, &c. (2 vols., Paris, 1824), anonymous, but
known to be by Grille and Musset-Pathay. See too GOURGAUD,
MONTHOLON, and LOWE, SIR HUDSON. (J. HL. R.)
LASHIO, the headquarters of the superintendent, northern
Shan States, Burma, situated in 22° 56' N. and 97° 45' E. at an
altitude of 3100 ft., on alow spur overlooking the valley of the
Nam Yao. It is the present terminus of the Mandalay-Kun
Long railway and of the government cart road from Mandalay,
from which it is 178 m. distant. It consists of the European
station, with court house and quarters for the civil officers;
the military police post, the headquarters of the Lashio battalion
of military police; the native station, in which the various
nationalities, Shans, Burmans, Hindus and Mahommedans,
are divided into separate quarters, with reserves for government
servants and for the temporary residences of the five sawbwas
of the northern Shan States; and a bazaar. Under Burmese
rule Lashio was also the centre of authority for the northern
Shan States, but the Burmese post in the valley was close to the
Nam Yao, in an old Chinese fortified camp. The Lashio valley
was formerly very populous; but a rebellion, started by the
sawbwa of Hsenwi, about ten years before the British occupation,
ruined it, and it is only slowly approaching the prosperity it
formerly enjoyed; pop. (1901) 2565. The annual rainfall
averages S4 in. The average maximum temperature is 80-5°
and the average minimum 55-5°.
LASKER, EDUARD (1820-1884), German publicist, was born
on the 1 4th of October 1829, at jarotschin, a village in Posen,
being the son of a Jewish tradesman. He attended the gym-
nasium, and afterwards the university of Breslau. In 1848,
after the outbreak of the revolution, he went to Vienna and
entered the students' legion which took so prominent a part in
the disturbances; he fought against the imperial troops during
the siege of the city in October. He then continued his legal
studies at Breslau and Berlin, and after a visit of three years to
England, then the model state for German liberals, entered the
Prussian judicial service. In 1870 he left the government
service, and in 1873 was appointed to an administrative post
in the service of the city of Berlin. He had been brought to the
notice of the political world by some articles he wrote from
1861 to 1864, which were afterwards published under the title
Zur Verfassungsgeschichte Preussens (Leipzig, 1874), and in
1865 he was elected member for one of the divisions of Berlin
in the Prussian parliament. He joined the radical or Fortschritts
party, and in 1867 was also elected to the German parliament,
but he helped to form the national liberal party, and in con-
sequence lost his seat in Berlin, which remained faithful to the
radicals; after this he represented Magdeburg and Frankfort-on-
Main in the Prussian, and Meiningen in the German, parliament.
He threw himself with great energy into his parliamentary
duties; and quickly became one of its most popular and most
influential members. An optimist and idealist, he joined to a
fervent belief in liberty an equal enthusiasm for German unity
and the idea of the German state. His motion that Baden
should be included in the North German Confederation in
January 1870 caused much embarrassment to Bismarck, but
was not without effect in hastening the crisis of 1870. His great
work, however, was the share he took in the judicial reform
during the ten years 1867-1877. To him more than to any
other single individual is due the great codification of the law.
While he again and again was able to compel the government
to withdraw or amend proposals which seemed dangerous to
liberty, he opposed those liberals who, unable to obtain all the
concessions which they called for, refused to vote for the new
laws as a whole. A speech made by Lasker on the 7th of February
1873, in which he attacked the management of the Pomeranian
railway, caused a great sensation, and his exposure of the
financial mismanagement brought about the fall of Hermann
Wagener, one of Bismarck's most trusted assistants. By this
action he caused, however, some embarrassment to his party.
This is generally regarded as the beginning of the reaction
against economic liberalism by which he and his party were to
be deprived of their influence. He refused to follow Bismarck
in his financial and economic policy after 1878; always un-
sympathetic to the chancellor, he was now selected for his most
bitter attacks. Between the radicals and socialists on the one
side and the government on the other, like many of his friends,
he was unable to maintain himself. In 1879 he lost his seat in
the Prussian parliament; he joined the Sezession, but was ill
at ease in his new position. Broken in health and spirits by the
incessant labours of the time when he did " half the work of the
Reichstag," he went in 1883 for a tour* in America, and died
suddenly in New York on the 5th of January 1884.
Lasker's death was the occasion of a curious episode, which caused
much discussion at the time. The American House of Representa-
tives adopted a motion of regret, and added to it these words:
" That his loss is not alone to be mourned by the people of his
native land, where his firm and constant exposition of, and devotion
to, free and liberal ideas have materially advanced the social, political
and economic conditions of these people, but by the lovers of liberty
throughout the world." This motion was sent through the American
minister at Berlin to the German foreign office, with a request that it
might be communicated to the president of the Reichstag. It was
to ask Bismarck officially to communicate a resolution in which a
foreign parliament expressed an opinion in German affairs exactly
opposed to that which the emperor at his advice had always followed.
Bismarck therefore refused to communicate the resolution, and re-
turned it through the German minister at Washington.
Among Lasker's writings may be mentioned: Zur Geschichte der
parlamentarischen Entwickelung Preussens (Leipzig, 1873), Die
Zukunft des Deutschen Reichs (Leipzig, 1877) and Wege und Ziele der
234
LASKI
Kulturentwickelung (Leipzig, 1881). After his death his Funfzehn
Jahre parlamentarischer Geschichte 1866-1880 appeared edited by
W. Cahn (Berlin, 1902). See also L. Bamberger, Eduard Lasker,
Gedenkrede (Leipzig, 1884); A. Wolff, Zur Erinnerung an Eduard
Lasker (Berlin, 1884); Freund, Einiges iiber Eduard Lasker (Leipzig,
1885); and Eduard Lasker, seine Biographic und letzte offentliche
Rede, by various writers (Stuttgart, 1884). (J. W. HE.)
LASKI, the name of a noble and powerful Polish family, is
taken from the town of Lask, the seat of their lordship.
JAN LASKI, the elder (1456-1531), Polish statesman and
ecclesiastic, appears to have been largely self-taught and to have
owed everything to the remarkable mental alertness which was
hereditary in the Laski family. He took orders betimes, and in
1495 was secretary to the Polish chancellor Zawisza Kurozwecki,
in which position he acquired both influence and experience.
The aged chancellor entrusted the sharp-witted young ecclesiastic
with the conduct of several important missions. Twice, in 1495
and again in 1500, he was sent to Rome, and once on a special
embassy to Flanders, of which he has left an account. On these
occasions he had the opportunity of displaying diplomatic talent
of a high order. On the accession to the Polish throne in 1501 of
the indolent Alexander, who had little knowledge of Polish affairs
and chiefly resided in Lithuania, Laski was appointed by the
senate the king's secretary, in which capacity he successfully
opposed the growing separatist tendencies of the grand-duchy
and maintained the influence of Catholicism, now seriously
threatened there by the Muscovite propaganda. So struck
was the king by his ability that on the death of the Polish
chancellor in 1503 he passed over the vice-chancellor Macics
Dzewicki and confided the great seal to Laski. As chancellor
Laski supported the szlachta, or country-gentlemen, against
the lower orders, going so far as to pass an edict excluding
henceforth all plebeians from the higher benefices of the church.
Nevertheless he approved himself such an excellent public
servant that the new king, Sigismund I., made him one of his
chief counsellors. In 1511 the chancellor, who ecclesiastically
was still only a canon of Cracow, obtained the coveted dignity
of archbishop of Gnesen which carried with it the primacy of
the Polish church. In the long negotiations with the restive
and semi-rebellious Teutonic Order, Laski rendered Sigismund
most important political services, proposing as a solution of the
question that Sigismund should be elected grand master, while
he, Laski, should surrender the primacy to the new candidate
of the knights, Albert of Brandenburg, a solution which would
have been far more profitable to Poland than the ultimate
settlement of 1525. In 1513 Laski was sent to the Lateran
council, convened by Pope Julius II., to plead the cause of Poland
against the knights, where both as an orator and as a diplomatist
he brilliantly distinguished himself. This mission was equally
profitable to his country and himself, and he succeeded in obtain-
ing from the pope for the archbishops of Gnesen the title of legali
nati. In his old age Laski's partiality for his nephew, Hieronymus,
led him to support the candidature of John Zapolya, the protege
of the Turks, for the Hungarian crown so vehemently against
the Habsburgs that Clement VII. excommunicated him, and the
shock of this disgrace was the cause of his sudden death in 1531.
Of his numerous works the most noteworthy are his collection of
Polish statutes entitled: Slatuta provinciae gnesnensis antiqua, &V.
(Cracow, 1525-1528) and De Ruthenorum nationibus eorumque
erroribus, printed at Nuremberg.
See Heinrich R. von Zeissberg, Joh. Laski, Erzbischof in Gnesen
(Vienna, 1874); and Jan Korytkowski, Jan Laski, Archbishop of
Gnesen (Gnesen, 1880).
HIERONYMUS JAROSLAW LASKI (1496-1542), Polish diplo-
matist, nephew of Archbishop Laski, was successively palatine
of Inowroclaw and of Sieradia. His first important mission was
to Paris in 1524, ostensibly to contract an anti-Turkish league
with the French king, but really to bring about a matrimonial
alliance between the dauphin, afterwards Henry II., and the
daughter of King Sigismund I., a project which failed through
no fault of Laski's. The collapse of the Hungarian monarchy
at Mohacs (1526) first opened up a wider career to Laski's
adventurous activity. Contrary to the wishes of his own
sovereign, Sigismund I., whose pro- Austrian policy he detested,
Laski entered the service of John Zapolya, the Magyar com-
petitor for the Hungarian throne, thereby seriously compromising
Poland both with the emperor and the pope. Zapolya despatched
him on an embassy to Paris, Copenhagen and Munich for help,
but on his return he found his patron a refugee in Transylvania,
whither he had retired after his defeat by the German king
Ferdinand I. at Tokay in 1527. In his extremity Zapolya placed
himself under the protection of the sultan, Laski being sent to
Constantinople as his intermediary. On his way thither he was
attacked and robbed of everything, including his credentials and
the rich presents without which no negotiations were deemed
possible at the Porte. But Laski was nothing if not audacious.
Proceeding on his way to the Turkish capital empty-handed,
he nevertheless succeeded in gaming the confidence of Gritti, the
favourite of the grand vizier, and ultimately persuaded the
sultan to befriend Zapolya and to proclaim him king of Hungary.
He went still further, and without the slightest authority for his
action concluded a ten years' truce between his old master
King Sigismund of Poland and the Porte. He then returned
to Hungary at the head of 10,000 men, with whose aid he enabled
Zapolya to re-establish his position and defeat Ferdinand at
Saros-Patak. He was rewarded with the countship of Zips
and the governor-generalship of Transylvania. But his influence
excited the jealousy of the Magyars, and Zapolya was persuaded
to imprison him. On being released by the interposition of the
Polish grand hetman, Tarnowski, he became the most violent
opponent of Zapolya. Shortly after his return to Poland,
Laski died suddenly at Cracow, probably poisoned by one of his
innumerable enemies.
See Alexander Hirschberg, Hieronymus Laski (Pol.) (Lemberg,
1888).
JAN LASKI, the younger (1490-1560), also known as Johannes
a Lasco, Polish reformer, son of Jaroslaw (d. 1523) voivode
of Sieradia and nephew of the famous Archbishop Laski. During
his academical course abroad he made the acquaintance of
Zwingli and Erasmus and returned to Poland in 1526 saturated
with the new doctrines. Nevertheless he took orders, and owing
to the influence of his uncle obtained the bishopric of Veszprem
in Hungary from King John Zapolya, besides holding a canonry
of Cracow and the office of royal secretary. In 1531 he resigned
all his benefices rather than give up a woman whom he had
secretly married, and having incurred general reprobation and
the lasting displeasure of his uncle the archbishop, he fled to
Germany, where ultimately (1543) he adopted the Augsburg
Confession. For the next thirteen years Laski was a wandering
apostle of the new doctrines. He was successively superintendent
at Emden and in Friesland, passed from thence to London where
he became a member of the so-called ecclesia peregrinorum, a
congregation of foreign Protestants exiled in consequence of the
Augsburg Interim of 1548 and, on being expelled by Queen
Mary, took refuge first in Denmark and subsequently at Frank-
fort-on-Main, where he was greatly esteemed. From Frankfort
he addressed three letters (printed at Basel) to King Sigismund,
Augustus, and the Polish gentry and people, urging the con-
version of Poland to Protestantism. In 1556, during the brief
triumph of the anti-catholics, he returned to his native land,
took part in the synod of Brzesc, and published a number of
polemical works, the most noteworthy of which were Forma
ac ratio tola ecclesiastici ministerii in peregrinorum Ecclesiae
instituta (Pinczow, 1560), and in Polish, History of the Cruel
Persecution of the Church of God in 1567, republished in his
Opera, edited by A. Kuyper at Amsterdam in 1866. He died at
Pinczow in January 1560 and was buried with great pomp by
the Polish Protestants, who also struck a medal in his honour.
Twice married, he left two sons and two daughters. His nephew
(?) Albert Laski, who visited England in 1583, wasted a fortune
in aid of Dr Dee's craze for the " philosopher's stone." Laski's
writings are important for the organization of the ecclesia
Peregrinorum, and he was concerned in the Polish version of the
Bible, not published till 1563.
See H. Dalton, Johannes a Lasco (1881), English version of the
earlier portion by J. Evans (1886); Bartels, Johannes a Lasco
(1860) ; Harboe, Schicksale des Johannes a Lasco (1758) ; R. Wallace,
LAS PALMAS— LASSALLE
235
Antitrinitarian Biography (1850); Bonet-Maury, Early Sources of
Eng. Unit. Christianity (1884); W. A. J. Archbold in Diet. Nat.
Biog. (1892) under " Laski," George Pascal, Jean de Lasco (Paris,
1894); Life in Polish by Antoni Walewski (Warsaw, 1872); and
Julian Bukowski, History of the Reformation in Poland (Pol.) (Cracow,
1883). (R. N. B.)
LAS PALMAS, the capital of the Spanish island of Grand
Canary, in the Canary archipelago, and of an administrative
district which also comprises the islands of Lanzarote and
Fuerteventura; on the east coast, in 28° 7' N. and 5° 24' W.
Pop. (1900) 44,517. Las Palmas is the largest city in the Canary
Islands, of which it was the capital until 1833. It is the seat of
a court of appeal, of a brigadier, who commands the military forces
in the district, of a civil lieutenant-governor, who is independent
of the governor-general except in connexion with elections and
municipal administration, and of, a bishop, who is subordinate
to the archbishop of Seville. The palms from which the city
derives its name are still characteristic of the fertile valley which
it occupies. Las Palmas is built on both banks of a small river,
and although parts of it date from the i6th century, it is on the
whole a clean and modern city, well drained, and supplied with
pure water, conveyed by an aqueduct from the highlands of the
interior. Its principal buildings include a handsome cathedral,
founded in the i6th century but only completed in the igth, a
theatre, a museum, an academy of art, and several hospitals and
good schools. The modern development of Las Palmas is largely
due to the foreign merchants, and especially to the British who
control the greater portion of the local commerce. La Luz, the
port, is connected with Las Palmas by a railway 4 m. long;
it is a free port and harbour of refuge, officially considered the
third in importance of Spanish ports, but actually the first in
the matter of tonnage. It is strongly fortified. The harbour,
protected by the promontory of La Isleta, which is connected
with the mainland by a narrow bar of sand, can accommodate
the largest ships, and affords secure anchorage in all weathers.
Ships can discharge at the breakwater (1257 yds. long) or at the
Santa Catalina mole, constructed in 1883-1902. The minimum
depth of water alongside the quays is 45 ft. There are floating
water-tanks, numerous lighters, titan and other cranes, repairing
workshops, and very large supplies of coal afloat and ashore. La
Luz is one of the principal Atlantic coaling stations, and the coal-
trade is entirely in British hands. Other important industries
are shipbuilding, fishing, and the manufacture of glass, leather
and hats. The chief exports are fruit, vegetables, sugar, wine
and cochineal; coal, iron, cement, timber, petroleum, manure,
textiles and provisions are the chief imports. (See also CANARY
ISLANDS.)
LASSALLE, FERDINAND (1825-1864), German socialist,
was born at Breslau on the nth of April 1825, of Jewish ex-
traction. His father, a prosperous merchant in Breslau, intended
Ferdinand for a business career, and sent him to the commercial
school at Leipzig; but the boy got himself transferred to the
university, first at Breslau, and afterwards at Berlin. His
favourite studies were philology and philosophy; he became
an ardent Hegelian. Having completed his university studies
in 1845, he began to write a work on Heraclitus from the Hegelian
point of view; but it was soon interrupted by more stirring
interests, and did not see the light for many years. It was
in Berlin, towards the end of 1845, that he met the lady with
whom his life was to be associated in so remarkable a way, the
Countess Hatzfeldt. She had been separated from her husband
for many years, and was at feud with him on questions of
property and the custody of their children. Lassalle attached
himself to the cause of the countess, whom he believed to have
been outrageously wronged, made special study of law, and,
after bringing the case before thirty-six tribunals, reduced
the powerful count to a compromise on terms most favourable
to his client. The process, which lasted ten years, gave rise
to not a little scandal, especially that of the Cassettengeschichte
which pursued Lassalle all the rest of his life. This " affair
of the casket " arose out of an attempt by the countess's friends
to get possession of a bond for a large life annuity settled by
the count on his mistress, a Baroness Meyendorf, to the prejudice
of the countess and her children. Two of Lassalle's comrades
succeeded in carrying off the casket, which contained the lady's
jewels, from the baroness's room at an hotel in Cologne. They
were prosecuted for theft, one of them being condemned to
six months' imprisonment. Lassalle, accused of moral com-
plicity, was acquitted on appeal. He was not so fortunate
in 1849, when he underwent a year's durance for resistance
to the authorities of Diisseldorf during the troubles of that
stormy period. But going to prison was a familiar experience
in Lassalle's life. Till 1859 Lassalle resided mostly in the Rhine
country, prosecuting the suit of the countess, finishing the
work on Heraclitus, which was not published till 1858, taking
little part in political agitation, but ever a helpful friend of
the working men. He was not allowed to live in Berlin because
of his connexion with the disturbances of '48. In 1859, however,
he entered the city disguised as a carter, and, through the
influence of Humboldt with the king, got permission to stay
there. The same year he published a remarkable pamphlet
on the Italian War and the Mission of Prussia, in which he
warned his countrymen against going to the rescue of Austria
in her war with Fran.ce. He pointed out that if France drove
Austria out of Italy she might annex Savoy, but could not prevent
the restoration of Italian unity under Victor Emmanuel. France
was doing the work of Germany by weakening Austria; Prussia
should form an alliance with France to drive out Austria and
make herself supreme in Germany. After their realization
by Bismarck these ideas have become sufficiently commonplace;
but they were nowise obvious when thus published by Lassalle.
In 1 86 1 he published a great work in two volumes, System der
erworbenen Rechte (System of Acquired Rights).
Now began the short-lived activity which was to give him
an historical significance. It was early in 1862, when the
struggle of Bismarck with the Prussian liberals was already
begun. Lassalle, a democrat of the most advanced type, saw
that an opportunity had come for asserting a third great cause —
that of the working men — which would outflank the liberalism
of the middle classes, and might even command the sympathy
of the government. His political programme was, however,
entirely subordinate to the social, that of bettering the condition
of the working classes, for which he believed the schemes
of Schulze-Delitzsch were utterly inadequate. Lassalle flung
himself into the career of agitator with his accustomed vigour.
His worst difficulties were with the working men themselves,
among whom he met the most discouraging apathy. His
mission as organizer and emancipator of the working class lasted
only two years and a half. In that period he issued about twenty
separate publications, most of them speeches and pamphlets,
but one of them, that against Schulze-Delitzsch, a considerable
treatise, and all full of keen and vigorous thought. He founded
the " Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein," was its president
and almost single-handed champion, conducted its affairs,
and carried on a vast correspondence, not to mention about
a dozen state prosecutions in which he was during that period
involved. Berlin, Leipzig, Frankfort and the industrial centres
on the Rhine were the chief scenes of his activity. His greatest
success was on the Rhine, where in the summers of 1863 and
1864 his travels as missionary of the new gospel resembled
a triumphal procession. The agitation was growing rapidly,
but he had achieved little substantial success when a most
unworthy death closed his career.
While posing as the messiah of the poor, Lassalle was a man
of decidedly fashionable and luxurious habits. His suppers
were well known as among the most exquisite in Berlin. It
was the most piquant feature of his life that he, one of the gilded
youth, a connoisseur in wines, and a learned man to boot, had
become agitator and the champion of the working man. In
one of the literary and fashionable circles of Berlin he had
met a Fraulein von Donniges, for whom he at once felt a passion,
which was ardently reciprocated. In the summer of 1864
he met her again on the Rigi, when they resolved to marry.
She was a young lady of twenty, decidedly unconventional
and original in character, but the daughter of a Bavarian
236
LASSEN, C.
diplomatist then resident at Geneva, who would have nothing to
do with Lassalle. The lady was imprisoned in her own room,
and soon, apparently under the influence of very questionable
pressure, renounced Lassalle in favour of another admirer, a
Wallachian, Count von Racowitza. Lassalle sent a challenge
both to the lady's father and her betrothed, which was accepted
by the latter. At the Carouge, a suburb of Geneva, the meeting
took place on the morning of August 28, 1864, when Lassalle
was mortally wounded, and he died on the 3ist of August.
In spite of such a foolish ending, his funeral was that of a martyr,
and by many of his adherents he has been regarded since with
feelings almost of religious devotion.
Lassalle did not lay claim to any special originality as a socialistic
thinker, nor did he publish any systematic statement of his views.
Yet his leading ideas are sufficiently clear and simple. Like a true
Hegelian he saw three stages in the development of labour: the
ancient and feudal period, which, through the subjection of the
labourer, sought solidarity without freedom ; the reign of capital and
the middle classes, established in 1789, which sought freedom by
destroying solidarity; and the new era, beginning in 1848, which
would reconcile solidarity with freedom by introducing the principle
of association. It was the basis and starting-point of his opinions
that, under the empire of capital and so lopg as the working man
was merely a receiver of wages, no improvement in his condition
could be expected. This position he founded on the law of wages
formulated by Ricardo, and accepted by all the leading economists,
that wages are controlled by the ordinary relations of supply and
demand, that a rise in wages leads to an increase in the labouring
population, which, by increasing the supply of labour, is followed by a
corresponding fall of wages. Thus population increases or decreases
in fixed relation to the rise or fall of wages. The condition of the
working man will never permanently rise above the mere standard of
living required for his subsistence, and the continued supply of his
kind. Lassalle held that the co-operative schemes of Schulze-
Delitzsch on the principle of " self-help " were utterly inadequate,
for the obvious reason that the working classes were destitute of
capital. The struggle of the working man helping himself with his
empty pockets against the capitalists he compared to a battle with
teeth and nails against modern artillery. In short, Lassalle ac-
cepted the orthodox political economy to show that the inevitable
operation of its laws left no hope for the working classes, and that no
remedy could be found but by abolishing the conditions in which
these laws had their validity — in other words, by abolishing the
present relations of labour and capital altogether. And this could
only be done by the productive association of the working men with
money provided by the state. And he held that such association
should be the voluntary act of the working men, the government
merely reserving the right to examine the books of the various
societies. All the arrangements should be carried out according to
the rules of business usually followed in such transactions. But how
move the government to grant such a loan ? Simply by introducing
(direct) universal suffrage. The working men were an overwhelming
majority! they were the state, and should control the government.
The aim of Lassalle, then, was to organize the working classes into
a great political power, which in the way thus indicated, by peaceful
resolute agitation, without violence or insurrection, might attain the
goal of productive association. In this way the fourth estate would
be emancipated from the despotism of the capitalist, and a great step
taken in the solution of the great " social question."
It will be seen that the net result of Lassalle's life was to produce
a European scandal, and to originate a socialistic movement in
Germany, which, at the election of 1903, returned to the Reichstag
eighty-one members and polled 3,010,771 votes, and at the election
of 1907 returned forty-three members and polled 3,258,968 votes.
(The diminution in the number of members returned in 1907 was due
mostly to combination among the different political groups.) This
result, great as it was, would hardly have been commensurate with
his ambition, which was boundless. In the heyday of his passion for
Fraulein von Donniges, his dream was to be enthroned as the
president of the German republic with her seated at his side. With
his energy, ability and gift of dominating and organizing, he might
indeed have done a great deal. Bismarck coquetted with him as the
representative of a force that might help him to combat the Prussian
liberals; in 1878, in a speech before the Reichstag, he spoke of him
with deep respect, as a man of the greatest amiability and ability
from whom much could be learned. Even Bishop Ketteler of Mainz
had declared his sympathy for the cause he advocated.
Lassalle's Die Philosophic Herakleitos des Dunklen von Ephesos
(Berlin, 1858), and the System der erworbenen Rechte (Leipzig, 1861)
are both marked by great learning and intellectual power. But of
far more historical interest are the speeches and pamphlets con-
nected with his socialistic agitation, of which the most important
are — Ueber Verfassungswesen; Arbeiterprogramm ; Offenes Ant-
wortschreiben; Zur Arbeiterfrage; Arbeiterlesebuck; Herr Bastiat-
Schulze von Delitzsch, oder Kapital and Arbeit. His drama, Franz
von Sickingen, published in 1859, is a work of no poetic value. His
Collected Works were issued at Leipzig in 1899-1901.
The best biography of Lassalle is H. Oncken's Lassalle (Stuttgart,
1904); another excellent work on his life and writings is George
Brandes's Danish work, Ferdinand Lassalle (German translation,
4th ed., Leipzig, 1900). See also A. Aaberg, Ferdinand Lassalle
(Leipzig, 1883); C. v. Plener, Lassalle (Leipzig, 1884); G. Meyer,
Lassalle als Sozialokonom (Berlin, 1894); Brandt, F. Lassalles
sozialokonomische Anschauungen und praktische Vorschldge (Jena,
J895); Seilliere, Etudes sur Ferdinand Lassalle (Paris, 1897); E.
Bernstein, Ferd. Lassalle und seine Bedeutung fur die Arbeiterklasse
(Berlin, 1904). There is a considerable literature on his love affair
and death; the most notable books are: Meine Beziehungen zu
F. Lassalle, by Helene von Racowitza, a very strange book; Ent-
hullungen liber das tragische Lebensende F. Lassalle's by B. Becker;
Im Anschluss an die Memoiren der H. von Racowitza, by A. Kutsch-
bach, and George Meredith's Tragic Comedians (1880). (T. K.)
LASSEN, CHRISTIAN (1800-1876), German orientalist, was
born on the 22nd of October 1800, at Bergen in Norway. Having
received his earliest university education at Christiania, he went
to Germany, and continued his studies at Heidelberg and Bonn.
In the latter university Lassen acquired a sound knowledge of
Sanskrit. He next spent three years in Paris and London,
engaged in copying and collating MSS., and collecting materials
for future research, especially in reference to the Hindu drama
and philosophy. During this period he published, jointly with
E. Burnouf, his first work, Essai sur le Pdli (Paris, 1826). On fiis
return to Bonn he studied Arabic, and took the degree of Ph.D.,
his dissertation discussing the Arabic notices of the geography
of the Punjab (Commentatio geographica atque historica de
Pentapotamia Indica, Bonn, 1827). Soon after he was admitted
Primtdozent, and in 1830 was appointed extraordinary and in
1840 ordinary professor of Old Indian language and literature.
In spite of a tempting offer from Copenhagen, in 1841, Lassen
remained faithful to the university of his adoption to the end of
his life. He died at Bonn on the 8th of May 1876, having been
affected with almost total blindness for many years. As early
as 1864 he was relieved of the duty of lecturing.
In 1829-1831 he brought out, in conjunction with August W. von
Schlegel, a critical annotated edition of the Hitopadesa. The ap-
pearance of this edition marks the starting-point of the critical study
of Sanskrit literature. At the same time Lassen assisted von
Schlegel in editing and translating the first two cantos of the epic
Ramayana (1829-1838). In 1832 he brought out the text of the first
act of Bhayabhuti's drama, MalaKmadhava, and a complete edition,
with a Latin translation, of the Sankhya-karika. In 1837 followed
his edition and translation of Jayadeva's charming lyrical drama,
Gttagovinda and his Institutiones linguae Pracriticae. His Anthologia
Sanscritica, which came out the following year (new ed. by Johann
Gildemeister, 1868), contained several hitherto unpublished texts,
and did much to stimulate the study of Sanskrit in German uni-
versities. In 1846 Lassen brought out an improved edition of
Schlegel's text and translation of the " Bhagavadgita." He did not
confine himself to the study of Indian languages, but acted likewise
as a scientific pioneer in other fields of philological inquiry. In his
Beitrage zur Deutung der Eugubinischen Tafeln (1833) he prepared
the way for the correct interpretation of the Umbrian inscriptions;
and the Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des Morgenlandes (7 vols., 1837—
1850), started and largely conducted by him, contains, among other
valuable papers from his pen, grammatical sketches of the Beluchi
and Brahui languages, and an essay on the Lycian inscriptions.
Soon after the appearance of Burnouf's Commentaire sur le Yafna
(1833), Lassen also directed his attention to the Zend, and to Iranian
studies generally; and in Die altpersischen Keilinschriften von
Persepolis (1836) he first made known the true character of the Old
Persian cuneiform inscriptions, thereby anticipating, by one month,
Burnouf's Memoire on the same subject, while Sir Henry Rawlinson's
famous memoir on the Behistun inscription, though drawn up in
Persia, independently of contemporaneous European research, at
about the same time, did not reach the Royal Asiatic Society until
three years later. Subsequently Lassen published, in the sixth
volume of his journal (1845), a collection of all the Old Persian cunei-
form inscriptions known up to that date. He also was the first
scholar in Europe who took up, with signal success, the decipherment
of the newly-discovered Bactrian coins, which furnished him the
materials for Zur Geschichte der griechischen und indo-skythischen
Konige in Bakterien, Kabul, und Indien (1838). He contemplated
bringing out a critical edition of the Vendidad ; but, after publishing
the first five fargards'(i852), he felt that his whole energies were re-
quired for the successful accomplishment of the great undertaking of
his life — his Indische Altertumskunde. In this work — completed in
four volumes, published respectively in 1847 (2nd ed., 1867), 1849
(2nd ed., 1874), 1858 and 1861 — which forms one of the greatest
monuments of untiring industry and critical scholarship, everything
that could be gathered from native and foreign sources, relative to
the political, social and intellectual development of India, from the
LASSEN, E.— LASSO, ORLANDO
237
earliest times down to the Mahommedan invasion, was worked up
by him into a connected historical account.
LASSEN, EDUARD (1830-1904), Belgian musical composer,
was born in Copenhagen, but was taken as a child to Brussels
and educated at the Brussels Conservatoire. He won the prix
de Rome in 1851, and went for a long tour in Germany and Italy.
He settled at Weimar, where in 1861 he succeeded Liszt as
conductor of the opera, and he died there on the I5th of
January 1904. Besides many well-known songs, he wrote
operas — Landgraf Ludivig's Brautfahrt (1857), Frauenlob (1861),
Le Captif (1868) — instrumental music to dramas, notably to
Goethe's Faust (1876), two symphonies and various choral works.
LASSO (LASSUS), ORLANDO (c. 1530-1594), Belgian musical
composer, whose real name was probably Roland Delattre, was
born at Mons, in Hainault, probably not much earlier than 1532,
the date given by the epitaph printed at the end of the volumes of
the Magnum opus musicum; though already in the i6th century
the opinions of his biographers were divided between the years
1520 and 1530. Much is reported, but very little known, of
his connexions and his early career. The discrepancy as to the
date of his birth appears also in connexion with his appointment
at the church of St John Lateran in Rome. If he was born in
1530 or 1532 he could not have obtained that appointment
in 1541. What is certain is that his first book of madrigals was
published in Venice in 1555, and that in the same year he speaks
of himself in the preface of Italian and French songs and Latin
motets as if he had recently come from Rome. He seems to have
visited England in 1554 and to have been introduced to Cardinal
Pole, to whom an adulatory motet appears in 1556. (This is
not, as might hastily be supposed, a confusion resulting from
the fact that the ambassador from Ferdinand, king of the Romans,
Don Pedro de Lasso, attended the marriage of Philip and Mary
in England in the same year.) His first book of motets appeared
at Antwerp in 1556, containing the motet in honour of Cardinal
Pole. The style of Orlando had already begun to purify itself
from the speculative and chaotic elements that led Burney, who
seems to have known only his earlier works, to call him "a dwarf
on stilts " as compared with Palestrina. But where he is
orthodox he is as yet stiff, and his secular compositions are, so
far, better than his more serious efforts.
In 1557, if not before, he was invited by Albrecht IV., duke
of Bavaria, to go to Munich. The duke was a most intelligent
patron of all the fine arts, a notable athlete, and a man of strict
principles. Munich from henceforth never ceased to be Orlando's
home ; though he sometimes paid long visits to Italy and France,
whether in response to royal invitations or with projects of his
own. In 1558 he made a very happy marriage by which he had
four sons and two daughters. The four sons all became good
musicians, and we owe an inestimable debt to the pious industry
of the two eldest sons, who (under the patronage of Duke Maxi-
milian I., the second successor of Orlando's master) published the
enormous collection of Orlando's Latin motets known as the
Magnum opus musicum.
Probably no composer has ever had more ideal circumstances
for artistic inspiration and "expression than had Orlando. His
duty was to make music all day and every day, and to make it
according to his own taste. Nothing was too good, too severe
or too new for the duke. Church music was not more in demand
than secular. Instrumental music, which in the i6th century
had hardly any independent existence, accompanied the meals
of the court; and Orlando would rise from dessert to sing trios
and quartets with picked voices. The daily prayers included
a full mass with polyphonic music. This amazing state of things
becomes more intelligible and less alarming when we consider
that 16th-century music was no sooner written than it could
be performed. With such material as Orlando had at his dis-
posal, musical performance was as unattended by expense and
tedious preliminaries as a game of billiards in a good billiard
room. Not even Haydn's position at Esterhaz can have enabled
him, as has been said, to " ring the bell " for musicians to come
and try a new orchestral effect with such ease as that with
which Orlando could produce his work at Munich. His fame soon
became world-wide, and every contemporary authority is full
of the acclamation with which Orlando was greeted wherever
his travels took him.
Very soon, with this rapid means of acquiring experience,
Orlando's style became as pure as Palestrina's; while he always
retained his originality and versatility. His relations to the
literary culture of the time are intimate and fascinating; and
during his stay at the court of France in 1571 he became a
friend of the poet Ronsard. In 1579 Duke Albrecht died.
Orlando's salary had already been guaranteed to him for life,
so that his outward circumstances did not change, and the new
duke was very kind to him. But the loss of his master was a
great grief and seems to have checked his activity for some time.
In 1589, after the publication of six Masses, ending with a
beautiful Missa pro defunctis, his strength began to fail; and
a sudden serious illness left him alarmingly depressed and
inactive until his death on the I4th of June 1 594.
If Palestrina represents the supreme height attained by 16th-
century music, Orlando represents the whole century. It is
impossible to exaggerate the range and variety of his style,
so long as we recognise the limits of 16th-century musical
language. Even critics to whom this language is unfamiliar
cannot fail to notice the glaring differences between Orlando's
numerous types of art, though such critics may believe all those
types to be equally crude and archaic. The swiftness of Orlando's
intellectual and artistic development is astonishing. His first
four volumes of madrigals show a very intermittent sense of
beauty. Many a number in them is one compact mass of the
fashionable harsh play upon the " false relation " between twin
major and minor chords, which is usually believed to be the
unenviable distinction of the English madrigal style from that
of the Italians. It must be confessed that in the Italian madrigal
(as distinguished from the mllanella and other light forms),
Orlando never attained complete certainty of touch, though
some of his later madrigals are indeed glorious. But in his
French chansons, many of which are settings of the poems of
his friend Ronsard, his wit and lightness of touch are unfailing.
In setting other French poems he is sometimes unfortunately
most witty where the words are most gross, for he is as free
from modern scruples as any of his Elizabethan contemporaries.
In 1562, when the Council of Trent was censuring the abuses of
Flemish church music, Orlando had already purified his ecclesi-
astical style; though he did not go so far as to Italianize it in
order to oblige those modern critics who are unwilling to believe
that anything appreciably unlike Palestrina can be legitimate.
At the same time Orlando's Masses are not among his greatest
works. This is possibly partly due to the fact that the proportions
of a musical Mass are at the mercy of the local practice of the
liturgy; and that perhaps the uses of the court at Munich were
not quite so favourable to broadly designed proportion (not
length) as the uses of Rome. Differences which might cramp
the 16th-century composer need not amount to anything that
would draw down the censure of ecclesiastical authorities. Be
this as it may, Orlando's other church music is always markedly
different from Palestrina's, and often fully a^ sublime. It is
also in many ways far more modern in resource. We frequently
come upon things like the Justorum animae [Magnum Opus,
No. 260 (301)] which in their way are as overpoweringly touching
as, for example, the Benedictus of Beethoven's Mass in D or
the soprano solo in Brahms's Deulsches Requiem.
No one has approached Orlando in the ingenuity, quaintness
and humour of his tone-painting. He sometimes descends to
extremely elaborate musical puns, carrying farther than any
other composer since the dark ages the absurd device of setting
syllables that happened to coincide with .the sol-fa system to
the corresponding sol-fa notes. But in the most absurd of such
cases he evidently enjoys twisting these notes into a theme of
pregnant musical meaning. The quaintest instance is the
motet Quid eslis pusillanimes [Magnum Opus, No. 92 (69)]
where extra sol-fa syllables are introduced into the text to make
a good theme in combination with the syllables already there
by accident ! (An nescitis Justitiae Ut Sol [Fa Mi] Re Laxatas
LASSO— LAS VEGAS
habenas possit denuo cohiberet). The significance of these
euphuistic jokes is that they always make good music in Orlando's
hands. There is musical fun even in his voluminous parody
of the stammering style of word-setting in the burlesque motet
5. U.Su. PER. per. super F.L. U., which gets through one verse
of a psalm in fifteen minutes.
When it was a question of purely musical high spirits Orlando
was unrivalled; and his setting of Walter de Mape's Fertur
in conviviis (given in the Magnum opus with a stupid moral
derangement of the text), and most of his French chansons,
are among the most deeply humorous music in the world.
But it is in the tests of the sublime that Orlando shows himself
one of the greatest minds that ever found expression in art.
Nothing sublime was too unfamiliar to frighten him into repress-
ing his quaint fancy, though he early repressed all that thwarted
his musical nature. His Penitential Psalms stand with Josquin's
Miserere and Palestrina's first book of Lamentations as artistic
monuments of 16th-century penitential religion, just as Bach's
Matthew Passion stands alone among such monuments in later
art. Yet the passage (quoted by Sir Hubert Parry in vol. 3
of the Oxford History of Music) " Nolite fieri sicut mulus " is
one among many traits which are ingeniously and grotesquely
descriptive without losing harmony with the austere profundity
of the huge works in which they occur. It is impossible to read
any large quantity of Orlando's mature music without feeling
that a mind like his would in modern times have covered a
wider field of mature art than any one classical or modern
composer known to us. Yet we cannot say that anything has
been lost by his belonging to the i6th century. His music, if
only from its peculiar technique of crossing parts and unexpected
intervals, is exceptionally difficult to read; and hence intelligent
conducting and performance of it is rare. But its irnpressiveness
is beyond dispute; and there are many things which, like the
Justorum animae cannot even be read, much less heard, without
emotion.
Orlando's works as shown by the plan of Messrs Breitkopf &
Hand's complete critical edition (begun in 1894) comprise: (i) the
Magnum opus musicum, a posthumous collection containing Latin
pieces for from two to twelve voices, 516 in number (or, counting by
single movements, over 700). Not all of these are to the original
texts. The Magnum opus fills eleven volumes. (2) Five volumes of
madrigals, containing six books, and a large number of single
madrigals, and about half a volume of lighter Italian songs (villa-
nellas, &c.). (3) Three volumes (not four as in the prospectus) of
French chansons. (4) Two volumes of German four-part and five-
part Lieder. (5) Serial church music: three volumes, containing
Lessons from the Book of Job (two settings). Passion according to St
Matthew (i.e. like the Passions of Victoria and Soriano, a setting of
the words of the crowds and of the disciples) ; Lamentations of
Jeremiah ; Morning Lessons ; the Officia printed in the third volume
of the Patroncinium (a publication suggested and supported by
Orlando's patrons and containing eight entire volumes of his works) ;
the Seven Penitential Psalms; German Psalms and Prophetiae
Sibyllarum, (6) one hundred Magnificats (Jubilus B. M. Virginis)
3 vols., (7) eight volumes of Masses, (8) two volumes of Latin songs
not in the Magnum opus, (9) five volumes of unpublished works.
(D. F. T.)
LASSO (Span, lazo, snare, ultimately from Lat. laqueus, cf.
" lace "), a rope«6o to 100 ft. in length with a slip-noose at one
end, used in the Spanish and Portuguese parts of America and
in the western United States for catching wild horses and cattle.
It is now less employed in South America than in the vast
grazing country west of the Mississippi river, where the herders,
called locally cow-boys or cow-punchers, are provided with it.
When not in use, the lasso, called rope in the West, is coiled at
the right of the saddle in front of the rider. When an animal
is to be caught the herder, galloping after it, swings the coiled
lasso round his head and casts it straight forward in such a
manner that the noose settles over the head or round the legs
of the quarry, when it is speedily brought into submission. A
shorter rope called lariat (Span, la reata) is used to picket horses.
LAST. i. (A syncopated form of "latest," the superlative
of O.E. laet, late), an adjective applied to the conclusion of
anything, all that remains after everything else has gone, or
that which has just occurred. In theology the "four last
things" denote the final scenes of Death, Judgment, Heaven
and Hell; the " last day " means the Day of Judgment (see
ESCHATOLOGY).
2. (O.E. Idst, footstep; the word appears in many Teutonic
languages, meaning foot, footstep, track, &c.; it is usually
referred to a Teutonic root lais, cognate with Lat. lira, a furrow;
from this root, used figuratively, came " learn " and " lore "),
originally a footstep, trace or track, now only used of the model
of a foot in wood on which a shoemaker makes boots and shoes;
hence the proverb " let the cobbler stick to his last," " ne sutor
ultra crepidam."
3. (O.E. hlaest; the work is connected with the root seen in
" lade," and is used in German and Dutch of a weight; it is also
seen in " ballast "), a commercial weight or measure of quantity,
varying according to the commodity and locality; originally
applied to the load of goods carried by the boat or wagon used in
carrying any particular commodity in any particular locality,
it is now chiefly used as a weight for fish, a " last " of herrings
being equal to from 10,000 to 12,000 fish. The German Last =
4000 Ib, and this is frequently taken as the nominal weight of an
English " last." A " last " of wool= 12 sacks, and of beer= 12
barrels.
LASUS, Greek lyric poet, of Hermione in Argolis, flourished
about 510 B.C. A member of the literary and artistic circle of
the Peisistratidae, he was the instructor of Pindar in music and
poetry and the rival of Simonides. The dithyramb (of which
he was sometimes considered the actual inventor) was developed
by him, by the aid of various changes in music and rhythm, into
an artistically constructed choral song, with an accompaniment
of several flutes. It became more artificial and mimetic in
character, and its range of subjects was no longer confined to the
adventures of Dionysus. Lasus further increased its popularity
by introducing prize contests for the best poem of the kind.
His over-refinement is shown by his avoidance of the letter
sigma (on account of its hissing sound) in several of his poems,
of one of which (a hymn to Demeter of Hermione) a few lines
have been preserved in Athenaeus (xiv. 624 E). Lasus was also
the author of the first theoretical treatise on music.
See Sui'das s.v. ; Aristophanes, Wasps, 1410, Birds, 1403 and
schol.; Plutarch, De Musica, xxix. ; Miiller and Donaldson, Hist,
of Greek Literature, i. 284; G. H. Bode, Geschichte der hellenischen
Dichtkunst, ii. pt. 2, p. Ill ; F. W. Schneidewin, De Laso Hermionensi
Comment. (Gottingen, 1842) ; Fragm. in Bergk, Poet. Lyr.
LAS VEGAS, a city and the county-seat of San Miguel county,
New Mexico, U.S.A., in the north central part of New Mexico,
on the Gallinas river, and 83 m. by rail E. of Santa Fe. Though
usually designated as a single municipality, Las Vegas consists
of two distinct corporations, the old town on the W. bank of the
river and the city proper on the E. bank. Pop. of the city ( 1 890)
2385; (1900) 3552 (340 being foreign-born and 116 negroes);
(1910) 3755. According to local estimates, the combined
population of the city and the old town in 1908 was 10,000. Las
Vegas is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe railway,
and is its division headquarters in New Mexico. The city lies
in a valley at the foot of the main range of the Rocky Mountains,
and is about 6400 ft. above the sea. There are high peaks to the
W. and within a short distance of the city much beautiful
mountain scenery, especially along the " Scenic Route," a
highway from Las Vegas to Santa Fe, traversing the Las Vegas
canyon and the Pecos Valley forest reserve. The country E. of
the city consists of level plains. The small amount of rainfall, the
great elevation and the southern latitude give the region a dry
and rarified air, and Las Vegas is a noted health resort. Six miles
distant, and connected with the city by rail, are the Las Vegas
Hot Springs. The old town on the W. bank of the Gallinas
river retains many features of a Mexican village, with low adobe
houses facing narrow and crooked streets. Its inhabitants are
largely of Spanish-American descent. The part on the E. bank
or city proper is thoroughly modern, with well-graded streets,
many of them bordered with trees. The most important public
institutions are the New Mexico insane asylum, the New Mexico
normal university (chartered 1893, opened 1898), the county
court house (in the old town), the academy of the Immaculate
Conception, conducted by the Sisters of Loretto, Saint Anthony's
LASWARI— LA TENE
239
sanatorium, maintained by the Sisters of Charity, La Salle
institute, conducted by the Christian Brothers, a Presbyterian
mission school and a Methodist manual training and commercial
school. There are railway machine-shops, and various manu-
factories. Las Vegas lies in the centre of an extensive grazing
region, has large stockyards and annually ships great quantities
of wool. Three of the local newspapers are published in Spanish.
Las Vegas was founded in 1835, under the government of the
Mexican Republic. On the isth of August 1846, during the war
between Mexico and the United States, Gen. Stephen W. Kearny
entered the town, and its alcalde took the oath of allegiance to
the United States. There was but little progress or development
until the arrival of the railway in 1879. In 1888 the part east
of the river was incorporated as a town under the name of East
Las Vegas, and in 1896 it was chartered as the city of Las Vegas.
The old Las Vegas, west of the river, was incorporated as a town
in 1903.
LASWARI, one of the decisive battles of India. It was fought
on the ist of November 1803 between the British under General
Lake, and the Mahratta troops of Sindia, consisting of the
remnant of Perron's battalions. Laswari is a village in the state
of Alwar some 80 m. S. of Delhi, and here Lake overtook the
enemy and attacked them with his cavalry before the infantry
arrived. The result was indecisive, but when the infantry came
up there ensued one of the most evenly contested battles ever
fought between the British and the natives of India, which ended
in a complete victory for the British.
LATACUNGA (LLACTACUNGA, or, in local parlance, TACUNGA),
a plateau town of Ecuador, capital of the province of Leon,
46 m. S. of Quito, near the confluence of the Alagues and Cutuchi
to form the Patate, the headstream of the Pastaza. Pop. (1900,
estimate) 12,000, largely Indian. Latacunga stands on the old
road between Guayaquil and Quito and has a station on the
railway between those cities. It is 9141 ft. above sea-level;
and its climate is cold and unpleasant, owing to the winds from
the neighbouring snowclad heights, and the barren, pumice-
covered table-land on which it stands. Cotopaxi is only 25 m.
distant, and the town has suffered repeatedly from eruptions.
Founded in 1534, it was four times destroyed by earthquakes
between 1698 and 1798. The neighbouring ruins of an older
native town are said to date from the Incas.
LA TAILLE, JEAN DE (c. 1540-1608), French poet and
dramatist, was born at Bondaroy. He studied the humanities
in Paris under Muret, and law at Orleans under Anne de Bourg.
He began his career as a Huguenot, but afterwards adopted a
mild Catholicism. He was wounded at the battle of Arnay-le
Due in 1370, and retired to his estate at Bondaroy, where he
wrote a political pamphlet entitled Histoire abregee des singeries
de la ligue, often published with the Satire Menippee. His
chief poem is a satire on the follies of court life, Le Courtisan
retire; he also wrote a political poem, Le Prince necessaire.
But his fame rests on his achievements in drama. In 1572
appeared the tragedy of Saulle furieux, with a preface on L'Art de
la tragedie. Like Jodelle, Grevin, La Peruse and their followers,
he wrote, not for the general public to which the mysteries and
farces had addressed themselves, but for the limited audience
of a lettered aristocracy. He therefore depreciated the native
drama and insisted on the Senecan model. In his preface La
Taille enunciates the unities of place, time and action; he
maintains that each act should have a unity of its own and that
the scenes composing it should be continuous; he objects to
deaths on the stage on the ground that the representation is un-
convincing, and he requires as subject of the tragedy an incident
really terrible, developed, if possible, by elaborate intrigue.
He criticizes e.g. the subject of the sacrifice of Abraham, chosen by
Theodore de Beze for his tragedy (1351), as unsuitable because
" pity and terror " are evoked from the spectators without real
cause. If in Saill le furieux he did not completely carry out his
own convictions he developed his principal character with great
ability. A second tragedy, La Famine ou les Gabeonites (1573).
is inferior in construction, but is redeemed by the character of
Rizpah. He was also the author of two comedies, Le Negromant
and Les Corrivaux, both written apparently by 1562 but not
published until 1573. Les Corrivaux is remarkable for its collo-
quial prose dialogue, which foreshadows the excellence of later
French comedy.
His brother, JACQUES DE LA TAILLE (1542-1562), composed a
number of tragedies, of which La Mart de Daire and La Mart
d'Alexandre (both published in 1573) are the chief. He is best
known by his Maniere defaire des vers enfranQais comme en grec
et en latin, an attempt to regulate French verse by quantity.
He died of plague at the age of 20. His Poesies diverse* were
published in 1572.
The works of Jean de la Taille were edited by Ren6 de Maulde
(4 vols., 1878-1882). See also E. Faguet, La Tragedie francaise an
XVI.'siecle (1883).
LATAKIA (anc. Laodicea), the chief town of a sanjak in
the Beirut vilayet of Syria, situated on the coast, opposite
the island of Cyprus. The oldest name of the town, according
to Philo Herennius, was P6./ju8a or Aeu/ci) d/CTij; it received
that of Laodicea (ad mare) from Seleucus Nicator, who re-
founded it in honour of his mother as one of the four " sister "
cities of the Syrian Tetrapolis (Antioch, Seleucia, Apamea,
Laodicea). In the Roman period it was favoured by Caesar,
and took the name of Julia; and, though it suffered severely
when the fugitive Dolabella stood his last siege within its walls
(43 B.C.), Strabo describes it as a flourishing port, which supplied,
'from the vineyards on the mountains, the greater part of the
wine imported to Alexandria. The town received the privileges
of an Italian colony from Severus, for taking his part against
Antioch in the struggle with Niger. Laodicea was the seat
of an ancient bishopric, and even had some claim to metro-
politan rights. At the time of the crusades, " Liche," as Jacques
de Vitry says it was popularly called, was a wealthy city. It
fell to Tancred with Antioch in 1102, and was recovered by
Saladin in 1188. A Christian settlement was afterwards per-
mitted to establish itself in the town, and to protect itself by
fortifications; but it was expelled by Sultan Kala'un and the
defences destroyed. By the i6th century Laodicea had sunk
very low; the revival in the beginning of the i7th was due
to the new trade in tobacco. The town has several times been
almost destroyed by earthquakes — in 1170, 1287 and 1822.
The people are chiefly employed in tobacco cultivation, silk
and oil culture, poultry rearing and the sponge fishery. There
is a large export of eggs to Alexandria; but the wealth of the
place depends most on the famous " Latakia " tobacco, grown
in the plain behind the town and on the Ansarieh hills. There
are three main varieties, of which the worst is dark in colour
and strong in flavour; the best, grown in the districts of Diryus
and Amamareh, is light and aromatic, and is exported mainly
to Alexandria; but much goes also to Constantinople, Cyprus
and direct to Europe. After the construction of a road through
Jebel Ansarieh to Hamah, Latakia drew a good deal of traffic
from upper Syria; but the Hamah-Homs railway has now
diverted much of this again. The products of the surrounding
district, however, cause the town to increase steadily, and it
is a regular port of call for the main Levantine lines of steamers.
The only notable object of antiquity is a triumphal arch, prob-
ably of the early 3rd century, in the S.E. quarter of the modern
town. Latakia and its neighbourhood formerly produced a
very beautiful type of rug, examples of which are highly
prized. (D. G. H.)
LATEEN (the Anglicized form of Fr. latine, i.e. voile latine,
Latin sail, so-called as the chief form of rig in the Mediterranean),
a certain kind of triangular sail, having a long yard by which
it is suspended to the mast. A " lateener " is a vessel rigged
with a lateen sail and yard. This rig was formerly much used,
and is still the typical sail of the felucca of the Mediterranean,
and dhow of the Arabian Sea.
LA TENE (Lat. tennis, shallow), the site of a lake-dwelling
at the north end of Lake Neuchatel, between Marin and Pr6-
fargier. According to some, it was originally a Helvetic op-
pidum; according to others, a Gallic commercial settlement.
R. Forrer distinguishes an older semi-military, and a younger
240
LATERAN COUNCILS— LATERITE
civilian settlement, the former a Gallic customs station,* the
latter, which may be compared to the canabae of the Roman
camps, containing the booths and taverns used by soldiers and
sailors. He also considers the older station to have been, not
as usually supposed, Helvetic, but pre- or proto-Helvetic, the
character of which changed with the advance of the Helvetii
into Switzerland (c. 110-100 B.C.). La Tene has given its name
to a period of culture (c. 500 B.C.-A.D. 100), the phase of the
Iron age succeeding the Hallstatt phase, not as being its starting-
point, but because the finds are the best known of their kind.
The latter are divided into early (c. 50x3-250 B.C.), middle (250-
100 B.C.) and late (100 B.C.-A.D. 100), and chiefly belong to the
middle period. They are mostly of iron, and consist of swords,
spear-heads, axes, scythes and knives, which exhibit a remark-
able agreement with the description of the weapons of the
southern Celts given by Diodorus Siculus. There are also
brooches, bronze kettles, torques, small bronze ear-rings with
little glass pearls of various colours, belt-hooks and pins for
fastening articles of clothing. The La Tene culture made its
way through France across to England, where it has received
the name of " late Celtic "; a remarkable find has been made
at Aylesford in Kent.
See F. Keller, Lake Dwellings of Switzerland, vi. (Eng. trans., 1878) ;
V. Gross, La Tene un oppidum helvete (1886) ; E. Vouga, Les Helvetes
a La Tene (1886); P. Remecke, Zur Kenntnis der la Tene Denkmaler
der Zone nordwdrls der Alpen (Mainzer Festschrift, 1902) ; R. Forrer,
Reallexikon der prdhistorischen . . . Altertumer (1907), where many
illustrations are given.
LATERAN COUNCILS, the ecclesiastical councils or synods
held at Rome in the Lateran basilica which was dedicated to
Christ under the title of Salvator, and further called the basilica
of Constantine or the church of John the Baptist. Ranking
as a papal cathedral, this became a much-favoured place of
assembly for ecclesiastical councils both in antiquity (313,
487) and more especially during the middle ages. Among
these numerous synods the most prominent are those which the
tradition of the Roman Catholic church has classed as ecumenical
councils.
1. The first Lateran council (the ninth ecumenical) was
opened by Pope Calixtus II. on the i8th of March 1123; its
primary object being to confirm the concordat of Worms, and
so close the conflict on the question of investiture (q.v.). In
addition to this, canons were enacted against simony and the
marriage of priests; while resolutions were passed in favour
of the crusaders, of pilgrims to Rome and in the interests of the
truce of God. More than three hundred bishops are reported
to have been present.
For the resolutions see Monumenta Germaniae, Leges, iv., i. 574-
576 (1893); Mansi, Collectio Conciliorum, xxi. p. 281 sq.; Hefele,
Conciliengeschichte, \. 378-384 (ed. 2, 1886).
2. The second Lateran, and tenth ecumenical, council was
held by Pope Innocent II. in April 1139, and was attended by
close on a thousand clerics. Its immediate task was to neutralize
the after-effects of the schism, which had only been terminated
in the previous year by the death of Anacletus II. (d. 25th
January 1138). All consecrations received at his hands were
declared invalid, his adherents were deposed, and King Roger
of Sicily was excommunicated. Arnold of Brescia, too, was
removed from office and banished from Italy.
Resolutions, ap. Mansi, op. cit. xxi., 525 sq.; Hefele, Concilien-
geschichte, v. 438-445 (ed. 2).
3. At the third Lateran council (eleventh ecumenical), which
met in March 1179 under Pope Alexander III., the clergy present
again numbered about one thousand. The council formed
a sequel to the peace of Venice (1177), which marked the close
of the struggle between the papacy and the emperor Frederick I.
Barbarossa; its main object being to repair the direct or in-
direct injuries which the schism had inflicted on the life of the
church and to display to Christendom the power of the see of
Rome. Among the enactments of the council, the most important
concerned the appointment to the papal throne (Canon i),
the electoral law of 1059 being supplemented by a further pro-
vision declaring a two-thirds majority to be requisite for the
validity of the cardinals' choice. Of the participation of the
Roman clergy and populace, or of the imperial ratification, there
was no longer any question. Another resolution, of importance
for the history of the treatment of heresy, was the canon which
decreed that armed force should be employed against the Cathari
in southern France, that their goods were liable to confiscation
and their persons to enslavement by the princes, and that all
who took up weapons against them should receive a two years'
remission of their penance and be placed — like the crusaders —
under the direct protection of the church.
Resolutions, ap. Mansi, op. cit. xxii. 212 sq.; Hefele, Concilien-
geschichte, v. 710-719 (ed. 2).
4. The fourth Lateran council (twelfth ecumenical), convened
by Pope Innocent III. in 1215, was the most brilliant and the
most numerously attended of all, and marks the culminating
point of a pontificate which itself represents the zenith attained
by the medieval papacy. Prelates assembled from every country
in Christendom, and with them the deputies of numerous
princes. The total included 412 bishops, with 800 priors and
abbots, besides the representatives of absent prelates and a
number of inferior clerics. The seventy decrees of the council
begin with a confession of faith directed against the Cathari and
Waldenses, which is significant if only for the mention of a
transubstantiation of the elements in the Lord's Supper. A
series of resolutions provided in detail for the organized sup-
pression of heresy and for the institution of the episcopal in-
quisition (Canon 3). On every Christian, of either sex, arrived
at years of discretion, the duty was imposed of confessing at
least once annually and of receiving the Eucharist at least at
Easter (Canon 21). Enactments were also passed touching
procedure in the ecclesiastical courts, the creation of new monastic
orders, appointments to offices in the church, marriage-law,
conventual discipline, the veneration of relics, pilgrimages and
intercourse with Jews and Saracens. Finally, a great crusade
was resolved upon, to defray the expenses of which it was
determined that the clergy should lay aside one-twentieth —
the pope and the cardinals one-tenth — of their revenues for the
next three years; while the crusaders were to be held free of
all burdens during the period of their absence.
Resolutions, ap. Mansi, op. cit. xxii. 953 sq.; Hefele, Concilien-
geschichte, v. 872-905 (ed. 2). See also INNOCENT III.
5. The fifth Lateran council (eighteenth ecumenical) was
convened by Pope Julius II. and continued by Leo X. It met
from the 3rd of May 1512 to the i6th of March 1517, and was the
last great council anterior to the Reformation. The change in
the government of the church, the rival council of Pisa, the
ecclesiastical and political dissensions within and without the
council, and the lack of disinterestedness on the part of its
members, all combined to frustrate the hopes which its convoca-
tion had awakened. Its resolutions comprised the rejection of
the pragmatic sanction, the proclamation of the pope's superi-
ority over the council, and the renewal of the bull Unam sanctam
of Boniface VIII. The theory that it is possible for a thing to be
theologically true and philosophically false, and the doctrine of
the mortality of the human soul, were both repudiated; while
a three years' tithe on all church property was set apart to
provide funds for a war against the Turks.
See Hardouin, Coll. Cone. ix. 1570 sq.; Hefele-Hergenrother,
Conciliengeschichte, viii. 454 sq.; (1887). Cf. bibliography under
LEO X. (C. M.)
LATERITE (Lat. later, a brick), in petrology, a red or brown
superficial deposit of clay or earth which gathers on the surface
of rocks and has been produced by their decomposition; it is
very common in tropical regions. In consistency it is generally
scft and friable, but hard masses, nodules and bands often occur
in it. These are usually rich in iron. The superficial layers
of laterite deposits are often indurated and smooth black or dark-
brown crusts occur where the clays have long been exposed
to a dry atmosphere; in other cases the soft clays are full of hard
nodules, and in general the laterite is perforated by tubules,
sometimes with veins of different composition and appearance
from the main mass. The depth of the laterite beds varies up
to 30 or 40 ft., the deeper layers often being soft when the
surface is hard or stony; the transition to fresh, sound rock
LATH— LATHE
241
below may be very sudden. That laterite is merely rotted
crystalline rock is proved by its often preserving the structures,
veins and even the outlines of the minerals of the parent mass
below; the felspars and other components of granite gneiss
having evidently been converted in situ into a soft argillaceous
material.
Laterite occurs in practically every tropical region of the earth,
and is very abundant in Ceylon, India, Burma, Central and
West Africa, Central America, &c. It is especially well developed
where the underlying rock is crystalline and felspathic (as
granite gneiss, syenite and diorite), but occurs also on basalts
in the Deccan and in other places, and is found even on mica
schist, sandstone and quartzite, though in such cases it tends
to be more sandy than argillaceous. Many varieties have been
recognized. In India a calcareous laterite with large concretion-
ary blocks of carbonate of lime is called kankar (kunkar), and
has been much used in building bridges, &c., because it serves as
a hydraulic cement. In some districts (e.g. W. Indies) similar
types of laterite have been called " puzzuolana " and are also
used as mortar and cement. Kankar is also known and worked
in British East Africa. The clay called cabook in Ceylon is
essentially a variety of laterite. Common laterite contains very
little lime, and it seems that in districts which have an excessive
rainfall that component may be dissolved out by percolating
water, while kankar, or calcareous laterite, is formed in districts
which have a smaller rainfall. In India also a distinction is
made between " high-level " and " low-level " laterites. The
former are found at all elevations up to 5000 ft. and more,
and are the products of the decomposition of rock in situ; they
are often fine-grained and sometimes have a very well-marked
concretionary structure. These laterites are subject to removal
by running water, and are thus carried to lower grounds forming
transported or " low-level " laterites. The finer particles tend
to be carried away into the rivers, while the sand is left behind
and with it much of the heavy iron oxides. In such situations
the laterites are sandy and ferruginous, with a smaller proportion
of clay, and are not intimately connected with the rocks on
which they lie. On steep slopes laterite also may creep or slip
when soaked with rain, and if exposed in sections on roadsides
or river banks has a bedded appearance, the stratification being
parallel to the surface of the ground.
Chemical and microscopical investigations show that laterite
is not a clay like those which are so familiar in temperate regions;
it does not consist of hydrous silicate of alumina, but is a
mechanical mixture of fine grains of quartz with minute scales
of hydrates of alumina. The latter are easily soluble in acid
while clay is not, and after treating laterite with acids the alu-
mina and iron leave the silica as a residue in the form of quartz.
The alumina seems to be combined with variable proportions of
water, probably as the minerals hydrargillite, diaspore and
gibbsite, while the iron occurs as goethite, turgite, limonite,
haematite. As already remarked, there is a tendency for the
superficial layers to become hard, probably by a loss of the
water contained in these aluminous minerals. These chemical
changes may be the cause of the frequent concretionary structure
and veining in the laterite. The great abundance of alumina
in some varieties of laterite is a consequence of the removal
of the fine particles of gibbsite, &c., from the quartz by the
action of gentle currents of water. We may also point out the
essential chemical similarity between laterite and the seams of
bauxite which occur, for example, in the north of Ireland as
reddish clays between flows of Tertiary basalt. The bauxite is
rich in alumina combined with water, and is used as an ore of
aluminium. It is often very ferruginous. Similar deposits
occur at Vogelsberg in Germany, and we may infer that the
bauxite beds are layers of laterite produced by sub-aerial de-
composition in the same manner as the thick laterite deposits
which are now in course of formation in the plateau basalts of
the Deccan in India.
The conditions under which laterite are formed include, first, a
high seasonal temperature, for it occurs only in tropical districts and
in plains or mountains up to about 5000 ft. in height ; secondly, a
heavy rainfall, with well-marked alternation of wet and dry seasons
(in arid countries laterite is seldom seen, and where the rainfall is
moderate the laterite is often calcareous) ; third, the presence of
rocks containing aluminous minerals such as felspar, augite, horn-
blende and mica. On pure limestones such as coral rocks and on
quartzites laterite deposits do not originate except where the material
has been transported.
Many hypotheses have been advanced to account for the essential
difference between lateritization and the weathering processes
exhibited by rocks in temperate and arctic climates. In the tropics
the rank growth of vegetation produces large amounts of humus and
carbonic acid which greatly promote rock decomposition ; igneous
and crystalline rocks of all kinds are deeply covered under rich dark
soils, so that in tropical forests the underlying rocks are rarely to be
seen. In the warm soil nitrification proceeds rapidly and bacteria
of many kinds flourish. It has also been argued that the frequent
thunderstorms produce much nitric acid in the atmosphere and that
this may be a cause of lateritization, but it is certainly not a necessary
factor, as beds of laterite occur in oceanic islands lying in regions of
the ocean where lightning is rarely seen. Sir Thomas Holland has
brought forward the suggestion that the development of laterite
may depend on the presence in the soil of bacteria which are able to
decompose silicate of alumina into quartz and hydrates of alumina.
The restricted distribution of laterite deposits might then be due to
the inhibiting effect of low temperatures on the reproduction of these
organisms. This very ingenious hypothesis has not yet received the
experimental confirmation which seems necessary before it can be
regarded as established. Malcolm Maclaren, rejecting the bacterial
theory, directs special attention to the alternate saturation of the soil
with rain water in the wet season and desiccation in the subsequent
drought. The laterite beds are porous, in fact they are traversed by
innumerable tubules which are often lined with deposits of iron oxide
and aluminous minerals. We may be certain that, as in all soils
during dry weather, there is an ascent of water by capillary action
towards the surface, where it is gradually dissipated by evaporation.
The soil water brings with it mineral matter in solution, which is
deposited in the upper part of the beds. If the alumina be at one
time in a soluble condition it will be drawn upwards and concentrated
near the surface. This process explains many peculiarities of
laterites, such as their porous and slaggy structure, which is often so
marked that they have been mistaken for slaggy volcanic rocks.
The concretionary structure is undoubtedly due to chemical re-
arrangements, among which the escape of water is probably one of
the most important; and many writers have recognized that the
hard ferruginous crust, like the induration which many soft laterites
undergo when dug up and exposed to the air, is the result of desicca-
tion and exposure to the hot sun of tropical countries. The brecciated
structure which many laterites show may be produced by great
expansion of the mass consequent on absorption of water after heavy
rains, followed by contraction during the subsequent dry season.
Laterites are not of much economic use. They usually form a
poor soil, full of hard concretionary lumps and very unfertile because
the potash and phosphates have been removed in solution, while only
alumina, iron and silica are left behind. They are used as clays for
puddling, for making tiles, and as a mortar in rough work. Kankar
has filled an important part as a cement in many large engineering
works in India. Where the iron concretions have been washed out
by rains or by artificial treatment (often in the form of small shot-
like pellets) they serve as an iron ore in parts of India and Africa.
Attempts are being made to utilize laterite as an ore of aluminium,
a purpose for which some varieties seem well adapted. There are
also deposits of manganese associated with some laterites in India
which may ultimately be valuable as mineral ores. (J. S. F.)
LATH (O. Eng. laetl, Mid. Eng. lappe, a form possibly due to
the Welsh Hath; the word appears in many Teutonic languages,
cf. Dutch lat, Ger. Lalte, and has passed into Romanic, cf. Ital.
latta, Fr. latte), a thin flat strip of wood or other material used in
building to form a base or groundwork for plaster, or for tiles,
slates or other covering for roofs. Such strips of wood are
employed to form lattice-work, or for the bars of Venetian
blinds or shutters. A " lattice " (O. Fr. latlis) is an interlaced
structure of laths fastened together so as to form a screen with
diamond-shaped or square interstices. Such a screen was used,
as it still is in the East, as a shutter for a window admitting air
rather than light; it was hence used of the window closed by
such a screen. In modern usage the term is applied to a window
with diamond-shaped panes set in lead-work. A window with
a lattice painted red was formerly a common inn-sign (cf.
Shakespeare, 2 Hen. IV. ii. 2. 86); frequently the window was
dispensed with, and the sign remained painted on a board.
LATHE, (i) A mechanical appliance in which material is
held and rotated against a tool for cutting, scraping, polishing
or other purpose (see TOOLS). This word is of obscure origin.
It may be a modified form of " lath," for in an early form of
lathe the rotation is given by a treadle or spring lath attached
242
LATHROP— LATIMER
to the ceiling. The New English Dictionary points out a possible
source of the word in Dan. lad, meaning apparently a supporting
framework, found in the name of the turning-lathe, drejelad, and
also in savelad, saw-bench, vaeverlad, loom, &c. (2) One of five,
formerly six, districts containing three or more hundreds, into
which the county of Kent was divided. Though the division
survives, it no longer serves any administrative purpose. It
was formerly a judicial division, the court of the lathe being
superior to that of the hundred. In this it differs from the
rape (q.v.) of Sussex, which was a. geographical rather than an
administrative division. In O. Eng. the word was lags, the
origin of which is doubtful. The New English Dictionary
considers it almost certainly identical with O. Norse lad, landed
possessions, territory, with a possible association in meaning
with such words as lei®, court, motlaeafta, attendance at a meeting
or moot, or with Mod. Dan. laegd, a division of the country for
military purposes.
LATHROP, FRANCIS (1849-1909), American artist, was born
at sea, near the Hawaiian Islands, on the 22nd of June 1849,
being the great-grandson of Samuel Holden Parsons, and the
son of George Alfred Lathrop (1819-1877), who for some time
was United States consul at Honolulu. He was a pupil of T. C.
Farrar (1838-1891) in New York, and studied at the Royal
academy of Dresden. In 1870-1873 he was in England, studying
under Ford Madox Brown and Burne- Jones, and working in the
school of William Morris, where he devoted particular attention
to stained glass. Returning to America in 1873, he became
known as an illustrator, painted portraits, designed stained
glass, and subsequently confined himself to decorative work.
He designed the chancel of Trinity church, Boston, and decorated
the interior of Bowdoin college chapel, at Brunswick, Maine,
and several churches in New York. The Marquand memorial
window, Princeton chapel, is an example of his work in stained
glass. His latest work was a series of medallions for the building
of the Hispanic-American society in New York. He was one of
the charter members of the Society of American Artists, and
became an associate of the National Academy of Design, New
York, of which also William L. Lathrop (b. 1859) an artist
who is to be distinguished from him, became a member in
1907. He died at Woodcliff, New Jersey, on the i8th of
October 1909.
His younger brother, GEORGE PARSONS LATHROP (1851-1898),
born near Honolulu on the 25th of August 1851, took up litera-
ture as a profession. He was an assistant editor of the Atlantic
Monthly in 1875-1877, and editor of the Boston Courier in 1877-
1879. He was one of the founders (1883) of the American
copyright league, was prominent in the movement for Roman
Catholic summer schools, and wrote several novels, some
verse and critical essays. He was the author of A Study of
Nathaniel Hawthorne (1876), and edited the standard edition
(Boston, 1883) of Hawthorne's works. In 1871 he married
in London the second daughter of Nathaniel Hawthorne —
Rose Hawthorne Lathrop (b. 1851). After his death Mrs
Lathrop devoted herself entirely to charity. She was instru-
mental in establishing (1896) and subsequently conducted St
Rose's free home for cancer in New York City. In 1900 she
joined the Dominican order, taking the name of Mother Mary
Alphonsa and becoming superioress of the Dominican community
of the third order; and she established in 1901 and subsequently
conducted this order's Rosary Hill home (for cancerous patients)
at Hawthorne, N.Y. She published a volume of poems (1888);
Memories of Hawthorne (1897); and, with her husband, A Story
of Courage: Annals of the Georgetown Convent of the Visitation
of the Blessed Virgin Mary (1894).
LATIMER, HUGH (c. 1490-1555), English bishop, and one
of the chief promoters of the Reformation in England, was born
at Thurcaston, Leicestershire. He was the son of a yeoman,
who rented a farm " of three or four pounds by year at the
uttermost." Of this farm he " tilled as much as kept half a
dozen men," retaining also grass for a hundred sheep and thirty
cattle. The year of Latimer's birth is not definitely known.
In the Life by Gilpin it is given as 1470, a palpable error, and
possibly a misprint for 1490.' Foxe states that at " the age of
fourteen years he was sent to the university of Cambridge,"
and as he was elected fellow of Clare in 1509, his year of entrance
was in all likelihood 1505. Latimer himself also, in mentioning
his conversion from Romanism about 1523, says that it took
place after he was thirty years of age. According to Foxe,
Latimer went to school " at the age of four or thereabout."
The purpose of his parents was to train him up " in the knowledge
of all good literature," but his father " was as diligent to teach
him to shoot as any other thing." As the yeomen of England
were then in comparatively easy circumstances, the practice
of sending their sons to the universities was quite usual; indeed
Latimer mentions that in the reign of Edward VI., on account
of the increase of rents, the universities had begun wonderfully
to decay. He graduated B. A. in 1510 and M.A. in 1514. Before
the latter date he had taken holy orders. While a student he
was not unaccustomed " to make good cheer and be merry,"
but at the same time he was a punctilious observer of the minutest
rites of his faith and "as obstinate a Papist as any in England."
So keen was his opposition to the new learning that his oration
on the occasion of taking his degree of bachelor of divinity was
devoted to an attack on the opinions of Melanchthon. It was
this sermon that determined his friend Thomas Bilney to go to
Latimer's study, and ask him " for God's sake to hear his
confession," the result being that " from that time forward he
began to smell the word of God, and forsook the school doctors
and such fooleries." Soon his discourses exercised a potent
influence on learned and unlearned alike; and, although he
restricted himself, as indeed was principally his custom through
life, to the inculcation of practical righteousness, and the censure
of clamant abuses, a rumour of his heretical tendencies reached
the bishop of Ely, who resolved to become unexpectedly one of
his audience. Latimer, on seeing him enter the church, boldly
changed his theme to a portrayal of Christ as the pattern priest
and bishop. The points of comparison were, of course, deeply
distasteful to the prelate, who, though he professed his " obliga-
tions for the good admonition he had received," informed the
preacher that he " smelt somewhat of the pan." Latimer was
prohibited from preaching in the university or in any pulpits of
the diocese, and on his occupying the pulpit of the Augustinian
monastery, which enjoyed immunity from episcopal control,
he was summoned to answer for his opinions before Wolsey, who,
however, was so sensible of the value of such discourses that he
gave him special licence to preach throughout England.
At this time Protestant opinions were being disseminated in
England chiefly by the surreptitious circulation of the works
of Wycliffe, and especially of his translations of the New Testa-
ment. The new leaven had begun to communicate its subtle
influence to the universities, but was working chiefly in secret
and even to a great extent unconsciously to those affected by it,
for many were in profound ignorance of the ultimate tendency
of their own opinions. This was perhaps, as regards England,
the most critical conjuncture in the history of the Reformation,
both on this account and on account of the position in which
Henry VIII. then stood related to it. In no small degree its
ultimate fate seemed also to be placed in the hands of Latimer.
In 1526 the imprudent zeal of Robert Barnes had resulted in an
ignominious recantation, and in 1527 Bilney, Latimer's most
trusted coadjutor, incurred the displeasure of Wolsey, and did
humiliating penance for his offences. Latimer, however, besides
possessing sagacity, quick insight into character, and a ready
and formidable wit which thoroughly disconcerted and confused
his opponents, had naturally a distaste for mere theological
discussion, and the truths he was in the habit of inculcating
could scarcely be controverted, although, as he stated them, they
were diametrically contradictory of prevailing errors both in
1 The only reasons for assigning an earlier date are that he was
commonly known as " old Hugh Latimer," and that Bernher, his
Swiss servant, states incidentally that he was " above threescore and
seven years " in the reign of Edward VI. Bad health and anxieties
probably made him look older than his years, but under Edward VI.
his powers as an orator were in full vigour, and he was at his book
winter and summer at two o'clock in the morning.
LATINA, VTA
243
doctrine and practice. In December 1529 he preached his two
" sermons on the cards," which awakened a turbulent controversy
in the university, and his opponents, finding that they were
unable to cope with the dexterity and keenness of his satire,
would undoubtedly have succeeded in getting him silenced by
force, had it not been reported to the king that Latimer " favoured
his cause," that is, the cause of the divorce. While, therefore,
both parties were imperatively commanded to refrain from
further dispute, Latimer was invited to preach before Henry
in the Lent of 1530. The king was so pleased with the sermon
that after it " he did most familiarly talk with him in a gallery."
Of the special regard which Henry seemed to have conceived
for him Latimer took advantage to pen the famous letter on the
free circulation of the Bible, an address remarkable, not only
for what Froude justly calls " its almost unexampled grandeur,"
but for its striking repudiation of the aid of temporal weapons
to defend the faith., "for God," he says, "will not have it
defended by man or man's power, but by His Word only, by which
He hath evermore defended it, and that by a way far above man's
power and reason." Though the appeal was without effect
on the immediate policy of Henry, he could not have been
displeased with its tone, for shortly afterwards he appointed
Latimer one of the royal chaplains. In times so " out of joint "
Latimer soon became " weary of the court," and it was with a
sense of relief that he accepted the living of West Kington,
or West Kineton, Wiltshire, conferred on him by the king in
1531. Harassed by severe bodily ailments, encompassed by a
raging tumult of religious conflict and persecution, and aware
that the faint hopes of better times which seemed to gild the
horizon of the future might be utterly darkened by a failure
either in the constancy of his courage or in his discernment and
discretion, he exerted his eloquence with unabating energy in
the furtherance of the cause he had at heart. At last a sermon he
was persuaded to preach in London exasperated John Stokesley,
bishop of the diocese, and seemed to furnish that fervent perse-
cutor with an opportunity to overthrow the most dangerous
champion of the new opinions. Bilney, of whom Latimer wrote,
" if such as he shall die evil, what shall become of me? " perished
at the stake in the autumn of 1531, and in January following
Latimer was summoned to answer before the bishops in the
consistory. After a tedious and captious examination, he
was in March brought before convocation, and, on refusing to
subscribe certain articles, was excommunicated and imprisoned;
but through the interference of the king he was finally released
after he had voluntarily signified his acceptance of all the articles
except two, and confessed that he had erred not only " in
discretion but in doctrine." If in this confession he to some
extent tampered with his conscience, there is every reason to
believe that his culpable timidity was occasioned, not by personal
fear, but by anxiety lest by his death he should hinder instead
of promoting the cause of truth. After the consecration of
Cranmer to the archbishopric of Canterbury in 1533 Latimer's
position was completely altered. A commission appointed to
inquire into the disturbances caused by his preaching in Bristol
severely censured the conduct of his opponents; and, when the
bishop prohibited him from preaching in his diocese, he obtained
from Cranmer a special licence to preach throughout the province
of Canterbury. In 1 534 Henry formally repudiated the authority
of the pope, and from this time Latimer was the chief co-operator
with Cranmer and Cromwell in advising the king regarding the
series of legislative measures which rendered that repudiation
complete and irrevocable.
It was, however, the preaching of Latimer more than the edicts
of Henry that established the principles of the Reformation in
the minds and hearts of the people; and from his preaching
the movement received its chief colour and complexion. The
sermons of Latimer possess a combination of qualities whi^h
constitute them unique examples of that species of literature.
It is possible to learn from them more regarding the social and
political condition of the period than perhaps from any other
source, for they abound, not only in exposures of reh'gious
abuses, and of the prevailing corruptions of society, but in
references to many varieties of social injustice and unwise
customs, in racy sketches of character, and in vivid pictures
of special features of the time, occasionally illustrated by
interesting incidents in his own life. The homely terseness of
his style, his abounding humour — rough, cheery and playful, but
irresistible in its simplicity, and occasionally displaying sudden
and dangerous barbs of satire — his avoidance of dogmatic subtle-
ties, his noble advocacy of practical righteousness, his bold and
open denunciation of the oppression practised by the powerful,
his scathing diatribes against ecclesiastical hypocrisy, the
transparent honesty of his fervent zeal, tempered by sagacious
moderation — these are the qualities which not only rendered
his influence so paramount in his lifetime, but have transmitted
his memory to posterity as perhaps that of the one among his
contemporaries most worthy of our interest and admiration.
In September 1535 Latimer was consecrated bishop of
Worcester. While holding this office he was selected to officiate
as preacher when the friar, John Forest, whom he vainly en-
deavoured to move to submission, was burned at the stake
for denying the royal supremacy. In 1539, being opposed to-
the " act of the six articles," Latimer resigned his bishopric,
learning from Cromwell that this was the wish of the king. It
would appear that on this point he was deceived, but as he now
declined to accept the articles he was confined within the pre-
cincts of the palace of the bishop of Chichester. After the
attainder of Cromwell little is known of Latimer until 1546,
when, on account of his connexion with the preacher Edward
Crome, he was summoned before the council at Greenwich, and
committed to the Tower of London. Henry died before his
final trial could take place, and the general pardon at the
accession of Edward VI. procured him his liberty. He declined
to resume his see, notwithstanding the special request of the
Commons, but in January 1548 again began to preach, and
with more effectiveness than ever, crowds thronging to listen
to him both in London and in the country. Shortly after the
accession of Mary in 1553 a summons was sent to Latimer to
appear before the council at Westminster. Though he might
have escaped by flight, and though he knew, as he quaintly
remarked, that " Smithfield already groaned for him," he at
once joyfully obeyed. The pursuivant, he said, was " a welcome
messenger." The hardships of his imprisonment, and the long
disputations at Oxford, told severely on his health, but he
endured all with unbroken cheerfulness. On the i6th of October
1555 he and Ridley were led to the stake at Oxford. Never
was man more free than Latimer from the taint of fanaticism
or less dominated by " vainglory," but the motives which now
inspired his courage not only placed him beyond the influence
of fear, but enabled him to taste in dying an ineffable thrill of
victorious achievement. Ridley he greeted with the words,
" Be of good comfort, Master Ridley, and play the man; we
shall this day light such a candle by God's grace in England
as (I trust) shall never be put out." He " received the flame
as it were embracing it. After he had stroked his face with his
hands, and (as it were) bathed them a little in the fire, he soon
died (as it appeared) with very little pain or none."
Two volumes of Latimer's sermons were published in 1549- A
complete edition of his works, edited by G. E. Corrie for the Parker
Society, appeared in two volumes (1844-1845). His Sermon on the
Ploughers and Seven Sermons preached before Edward VI. were re-
printed by E. Arber (1869). The chief contemporary authorities for
his life are his own Sermons, John Stow's Chronicle and Foxe's Book
of Martyrs. In addition to memoirs prefixed to editions of his
sermons, there are lives of Latimer by R. Demaus (1869, new and
revised ed. 1881), and by R. M. and A. J. Carlyle (1899). (T. F. H.)
LATINA, VIA, an ancient highroad of Italy, leading S.E.
from Rome. It was probably one of the oldest of Roman roads,
leading to the pass of Algidus, so important in the early military
history of Rome; and it must have preceded the Via Appia
as a route to Campania, inasmuch as the Latin colony at Cales
was founded in 334 B.C. and must have been accessible from
Rome by road, whereas the Via Appia was only made twenty-
two years later. It follows, too, a far more natural line of
communication, without the engineering difficulties which the
Via Appia had to encounter. As a through route it no doubt
244
LATIN I— LATIN LANGUAGE
preceded the Via Labicana (see LABICANA, VIA), though the latter
may have been preferred in later times. After their junction,
the Via Latina continued to follow the valley of the Trerus
(Sacco), following the line taken by the modern railway to
Naples, and passing below the Hernican hill-towns, Anagnia,
Ferentinum, Frusino, &c. At Fregellae it crossed the Liris,
and then passed through Aquinum and Casinum, both of them
comparatively low-lying towns. It then entered the interval
between the Apennines and the volcanic group of Rocca Monfina,
and the original road, instead of traversing it, turned abruptly
N.E. over the mountains to Venafrum, thus giving a direct
communication with the interior of Samnium by roads to
Aesernia and Telesia. In later times, however, there was in all
probability a short cut by Rufrae along the line taken by the
modern highroad and railway. The two lines rejoined near the
present railway station of Caianello and the road ran to Teanum
and Cales, and so to Casilinum, where was the crossing of the
Volturnus and the junction with the Via Appia. The distance
from Rome to Casilinum was 129 m. by the Via Appia, 135 m.
by the old Via Latina through Venafrum, 1 26 m. by the short
cut by Rufrae. Considerable remains of the road exist in the
neighbourhood of Rome; for the first 40 m., as far as Compitum
Anagninum, it is not followed by any modern road; while farther
on in its course it is in the main identical with the modern high-
road.
See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome iv. i sq.,
v. i sq. (T. As.)
LATINI, BRUNETTO (c. i2io-c. 1294), Italian philosopher
and scholar, was born in Florence, and belonged to the Guelph
party. After the disaster of Montaperti he took refuge for some
years (1261-1268) in France, but in 1269 returned to Tuscany
and for some twenty years held successive high offices. Giovanni
Villani says that " he was a great philosopher and a consummate
master of rhetoric, not only in knowing how to speak well, but
how to write well. ... He both began and directed the growth
of the Florentines, both in making them ready in speaking well
and in knowing how to guide and direct our republic according
to the rules of politics." He was the author of various works
in prose and verse. While in France he wrote in French his
prose Tresor, a summary of the encyclopaedic knowledge of the
day (translated into Italian as Tesoro by Bono Giamboni in the
I3th century), and in Italian his poem Tesoretto, rhymed couplets
in heptasyllabic metre, a sort of abridgment put in allegorical
form, the earliest Italian didactic verse. He is famous as the
friend and counsellor of Dante (see Inferno, xv. 82-87).
For the Trksor see P. Chabville's edition (1863); for the Tesoro,
Gaiter's edition (1878); for the Tesoretto, B. Wiese's study in
Zeitschrift fur romamsche Philologie, vii. See also the biographical
and critical accounts of Drunetto Latini by Thoe Sundby (1884),
and Marchesini (1887 and 1890).
LATIN LANGUAGE, i. Earliest Records of Us Area.— Latin
was the language spoken in Rome and in the plain of Latium
in the 6th or 7th century B.C. — the earliest period from which
we have any contemporary record of its existence. But it is
as yet impossible to determine either, on the one hand, whether
the archaic inscription of Praeneste (see below), which is as-
signed with great probability to that epoch, represents exactly
the language then spoken in Rome; or, on the other, over how
much larger an area of the Italian peninsula, or even of the lands
to the north and west, the same language may at that date
have extended. In the sth century B.C. we find its limits within
the peninsula fixed- on the north-west and south-west by Etruscan
(see ETRURIA: Language); on the east, south-east, and probably
north and north-east, by Safine (Sabine) dialects (of the Marsi,
Paeligni, Samnites, Sabini and Picenum, qq.i>.); but on the
north we have no direct record of Sabine speech, nor of any
non-Latinian tongue nearer than Tuder and Asculum or earlier
than the 4th century B.C. (see UMBRIA, IGUVIUM, PICENUM).
We know however, both from tradition and from the archaeo-
logical data, that the Safine tribes were in the sth century B.C.
migrating, or at least sending off swarms of their younger folk,
farther and farther southward into the peninsula. Of the
languages they were then displacing we have no explicit record
save in the case of Etruscan in Campania, but it may be reason-
ably inferred from the evidence of place-names and tribal names,
combined with that of the Faliscan inscriptions, that before
the Safine invasion some idiom, not remote from Latin, was
spoken by the pre-Etruscan tribes down the length of the west
coast (see FALISCI; VOLSCI; also ROME: History; LIGURIA;
SlCULl).
2. Earliest Roman Inscriptions. — At Rome, at all events,
it is clear from the unwavering voice of tradition that Latin
was spoken from the beginning of the city. Of the earliest
Latin inscriptions found in Rome which were known in 1909,
the oldest, the so-called " Forum inscription," can hardly be re-
ferred with confidence to an earlier century than the sth; the
later, the well-known Duenos ( = later Latin bonus) inscription,
certainly belongs to the 4th; both of these are briefly described
below (§§ 40, 41). At this date we have probably the period of
the narrowest extension of Latin; non-Latin idioms were
spoken in Etruria, Umbria, Picenum and in the Marsian and
Volscian hills. But almost directly the area begins to expand
again, and after the war with Pyrrhus the Roman arms had
planted the language of Rome in her military colonies throughout
the peninsula. When we come to the 3rd century B.C. the
Latin inscriptions begin to be more numerous, and in them
(e.g. the oldest epitaphs of the Scipio family) the language is
very little removed from what it was in the time of Plautus.
3. The Italic Group of Languages. — For the characteristics
and affinities of the dialects that have just been mentioned, see
the article ITALY: Ancient Languages and Peoples, and to the
separate articles on the tribes. Here it is well to point out that
the only one of these languages which is not akin to Latin is
Etruscan; on the other hand, the only one very closely resembling
Latin is Fah'scan, which with it forms what we may call the
Latinian dialect of the Italic group of the Indo-European family
of languages. Since, however, we have a far more complete
knowledge of Latin than of any other member of the Italic
group, this is the most convenient place in which to state briefly
the very little than can be said as yet to have been ascertained
as to the general relations of Italic to its sister groups. Here,
as in many kindred questions, the work of Paul Kretschmer of
Vienna (Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache,
Gottingen, 1896) marked an important epoch in the historical
aspects of linguistic study, as the first scientific attempt to
interpret critically the different kinds of evidence which the
Indo-European languages give us, not in vocabulary merely,
but in phonology, morphology, and especially in their mutual
borrowings, and to combine it with the non-linguistic data of
tradition and archaeology. A certain number of the results so
obtained have met with general acceptance and may be briefly
treated here. It is, however, extremely dangerous to draw
merely from linguistic kinship deductions as to racial identity,
or even as to an original contiguity of habitation. Close re-
semblances in any two languages, especially those in their inner
structure (morphology), may be due to identity of race, or to long
neighbourhood in the earliest period of their development; but
they may also be caused by temporary neighbourhood (for a
longer or shorter period) , brought about by migrations at a later
epoch (or epochs). A particular change in sound or usage may
spread over a whole chain of dialects and be in the end exhibited
alike by them all, although the time at which it first began was
long after their special and distinctive characteristics had
become clearly marked. For example, the limitation of the
word-accent to the last three syllables of a word in Latin and
Oscan (see below) — a phenomenon which has left deep marks
on all the Romance languages — demonstrably grew up between
the sth and 2nd centuries B.C.; and it is a permissible conjecture
that it started from the influence of the Greek colonies in Italy
(especially Cumae and Naples), in whose language the same
limitation (although with an accent whose actual character was
probably more largely musical) had been established some
centuries sooner.
4. Position of the Italic Group. — The Italic group, then, when
compared with the other seven main " families " of Indo-
LATIN LANGUAGE
245
European speech, in respect of their most significant differences,
ranges itself thus:
(i ) Back-palatal and Velar Sounds.— In point of its treatment
of the Indo-European back-palatal and velar sounds, it belongs to
the western or centum group, the name of which is, of course, taken
from Latin; that is to say, like German, Celtic and Greek, it did not
sibilate original k and g, which in Indo-Iranian, Armenian, Slavonic
and Albanian have been converted into various types of sibilants
(Ind-Eur.* kmtom = Lat. centum, Gr. (ft-carfe, Welsh cant, Eng.
hund-(red), but Sans. Isatam, Zend sat»m) ; but, on the other hand, in
company with just the same three western groups, and in contrast to
the eastern, the Italic languages labialized the original velars (Ind.-
Eur. * go<2 = Lat. quod, Osc. pod, Gr. iro«-(air6s), Welsh pwy, Eng.
what, but Sans, kds, " who ?").
(ii.) Indo-European Aspirates. — Like Greek and Sanskrit, but
in contrast to all the other groups (even to Zend and Armenian), the
Italic group largely preserves a distinction between the Indo-
European mediae aspiratae and mediae (e.g. between Ind.-Eur. dh
and d, the former when initial becoming initially regularly Lat. / as
in Lat. fec-l [cf. Umb. feia, "facial "], beside Gr. I-07jic-a [cf. Sans.
da-dhd-ti, " he places "], the latter simply d as in domus, Gr. SOMOS).
But the aspiratae, even where thus distinctly treated in Italic,
became fricatives, not pure aspirates, a character which they only
retained in Greek and Sanskrit.
(iii.) Indo-European o.— With Greek and Celtic, Latin preserved
the Indo-European 5, which in the more northerly groups (Germanic,
Balto-Slavonic), and also in Indo-Iranian, and, curiously, in
Messapian, was confused with d. The name for olive-oil, which spread
with the use of this commodity from Greek (fratFov) to Italic
speakers and thence to the north, becoming by regular changes (see
below) in Latin first *6laivom, then *6lsivom, and then taken into
Gothic and becoming alev, leaving its parent form to change further
(not later than 100 B.C.) in Latin to oleum, is a particularly important
example, because (o) of the chronological limits which are implied,
however roughly, in the process just described, and (b) of the close
association in time of the change of o to a with the earlier stages of
the " sound-shifting " (of the Indo-European plosives and aspirates)
in German; see Kretschmer, Einleit. p. 116, and the authorities he
cites.
(iv.) Accentuation. — One marked innovation common to the
western groups as compared with what Greek and Sanskrit show
to have been an earlier feature of the Indo-European parent speech
was the development of a strong expiratory (sometimes called stress)
accent upon the first syllable of all words. This appears early in the
history of Italic, Celtic, Lettish (probably, and at a still later period)
in Germanic, though at a period later than the beginning of the
" sound-shifting." This extinguished the complex system of Indo-
European accentuation, which is directly reflected in Sanskrit, and
was itself replaced in Latin and Oscan by another system already
mentioned, but not in Latin till it had produced marked effects upon
the language (e.g. the degradation of the vowels in compounds as in
conficio from con-facio, include from in-claudo). This curious wave
of accentual change (first pointed out by Dieterich, Kuhn's Zeitschrift,
i., and later by Thurneysen, Revue celtique, vi. 312, Rheinisches
Museum, xliii. 349) needs and deserves to be more closely investi-
gated from a chronological standpoint. At present it is not clear how
far it was a really connected process in all the languages. (See
further Kretschmer, op. cit. p. 115, K. Brugmann, Kurze verglei-
chende Grammatik (1902-1904), p. 57, and their citations, especially
Meyer-Lubke, Die Betonung im Gallischen (1901).)
To these larger affinities may be added some important
points in which the Italic group shows marked resemblances to
other groups.
5. Italic and Celtic. — It is now universally admitted that the
Celtic languages stand in a much closer relation than any other
group to the Italic. It may even be doubted whether there was
any real frontier-line at all between the two groups before
the Etruscan invasion of Italy (see ETRURIA: Language;
LIGURIA). The number of morphological innovations on the
Indo-European system which the two groups share, and which
are almost if not wholly peculiar to them, is particularly striking.
Of these the chief are the following.
(i.) Extension of the abstract-noun stems in -ti- (like Greek $6.
with Attic /SAo-is, &c.) by an -n- suffix, as in Lat. mentio (stem menti-
on-) =lr. (er-)mitiu (stem miti-n-), contrasted with the same wore
without the re-suffix in Sans, mati-, Lat. mens, Ind.-Eur. *mn-ti-. A
similar extension (shared also by Gothic) appears in Lat. iuventu-t-
O. Ir. oitiu (stem oitiut-) beside the simple -tu- in nouns like senatus
(ii.) Superlative formation in -is-mmo- as in Lat. aegerrimus fo
*aegr-ismmos, Gallic 04£iffd(iij the name of a town meaning " thi
highest.
(iii.) Genitive singular of the o-stems (second declension) in -:
Lat. agri, O. Ir .(Ogam inscriptions) magi, " of a son."
(iv.) Passive and deponent formation in -r, Lat. sequitur = lr
sechedar, " he follows." The originally active meaning of this curiou
-r suffix was first pointed out by Zimmer (Kuhn's Zeitschrift, 1888
«x. 224), who thus explained the use of the accusative pronouns
with these " passive " forms in Celtic; Ir. -m-berar, " I am carried,"
iterally " folk carry me "; Umb. pir ferar, literally ignem feratur,
hough as pir is a neuter word ( = Gr. irup) this example was not so
jonvincing. But within a twelvemonth of the appearance of
Zimmer's article, an Oscan inscription (Cqnway, Camb. Philol.
Society's Proceedings, 1890, p. 16, and Italic Dialects, p. 113) was dis-
covered containing the phrase ultiumam (iuvilam) sakraftr, "ulti-
mam (imaginem) consecraverint " (or " ultima consecretur ")
which demonstrated the nature of the suffix in Italic also. This
ariginally active meaning of the -r form (in the third person singular
jassive) is the cause of the remarkable fondness for the " im-
>ersonal " use of the passive in Latin (e.g.,itur inantiquam silvam,
nstead of eunt), which was naturally extended to all tenses of the
jassive (wntum est, &c.), so soon as its origin was forgotten. Fuller
details of the development will be found in Conway, op. cit. p. 561,
and the authorities there cited (very little isadded by K. Brugmann,
*Curze vergl. Gramm. 1904, p. 596).
(v.) Formation of the perfect passive from the -to- past participle,
^at. monitus (est), &c., Ir. leic-the, " he was left," ro-leiced, "he has
seen left." In Latin the participle maintains its distinct adjectival
character; in Irish (J. Strachan, Old Irish Paradigms, 1905, p. 50) it
ms sunk into a purely verbal form, just as the perfect participles in
-us in Umbrian have been absorbed into the future perfect m -ust
[entelust, " intenderit " ; benust, " venerit ") with its impersonal passive
or third plural active -us(s)so (probably standing for -ussor) as in
lenuso, " ventum erit " (or " venerint ").
To these must be further added some striking peculiarities in
phonology.
(vi.) Assimilation of p to a gK in a following syllable as m Lat.
quinque = lr. coic, compared with Sans, pdnca, Gr. irivrt, Eng. five,
fnd.-Eur. *penqe.
(vii.) Finally — and perhaps this parallelism is the most important
of all from the historical standpoint — both 'Italic and Celtic are
divided into two sub-families which differ, and differ in the same
way, in their treatment of the Ind.-Eur. velar tenuis q. In both
halves of each group it was labialized to some extent; in one half of
each group it was labialized so far as to become p. This is the great
line of cleavage (i.) between Latinian (Lat. quod, quando, quinque;
Falisc". cuando) and Osco-Umbrian, better called Safine (Osc. pod,
Umb. panu- [for *pandd], Osc.-Umb. pompe-, " five," in Osc.
'pfimperias " nonae," Umb. pumpedia-, " fifth day of the month ") ;
and (ii.) between Goidelic (Gaelic) '(O. Ir. coic, " five," maq, " son ";
modern Irish and Scotch Mac as in MacPherson) and Brythonic
(Britannic) (Welsh pump, " five," Ap for map, as in Powel for Ap
Howel).
The same distinction appears elsewhere; Germanic belongs,
broadly described, to the g-group, and Greek, broadly described,
to the p-group. The ethnological bearing of the distinction within
Italy is considered in the articles SABINI and VOLSCI ; but the wider
questions which the facts suggest have as yet been only scantily
discussed; see the references for the " Sequanian " dialect of Gallic
(in the inscription of Coligny, whose language preserves q) in the
article CELTS : Language.
From these primitive affinities we must clearly distinguish the
numerous words taken into Latin from the Celts of north Italy within
the historic period ; for these see especially an interesting study by
J. Zwicker, De vocabulis et rebus Gallicis sive Transpadanis apud
Vergilium (Leipzig dissertation, 1905).
6. Greek and Italic. — We have seen above (§ 4, i., ii.,iii.) certain
broad characteristics which the Greek and the Italic groups of
language have in common. The old question of the degree of
their affinity may be briefly noticed. There are deep-seated
differences in morphology, phonology and vocabulary between
the two languages — such as (a) the loss of the forms of the
ablative in Greek and of the middle voice in Latin; (b) the decay
of the fricatives (5, », j) in Greek and the cavalier treatment of
the aspirates in Latin; and (c) the almost total discrepancy of
the vocabularies of law and religion in the two languages — which
altogether forbid the assumption that the two groups can ever
have been completely identical after their first dialectic separation
from the parent language. On the other hand, in the first early
periods of that dialectic development in the Indo-European
family, the precursors of Greek and Italic cannot have been
separated by any very wide boundary. To this primitive
neighbourhood may be referred such peculiarities as (a) the
genitive plural feminine ending in -asom (Gr. -dcoc, later in
various dialects -ewv, -Civ, -av; cf. Osc. egmazum "rerum";
Lat. mensarum, with -r- from-*-), (b) the feminine gender of
many nouns of the -o- declension, cf. Gr. ^ 66<k, Lat. haec
fdgus; and some important and ancient syntactical features,
especially in the uses of the cases (e.g. (c) the genitive of price)
of the (d) infinitive and of the (e) participles passive (though in
246
LATIN LANGUAGE
each case the forms differ widely in the two groups), and perhaps
(/) of the dependent moods (though here again the forms have
been vigorously reshaped in Italic). These syntactic parallels,
which are hardly noticed by Kretschmer in his otherwise careful
discussion (Einleit. p. 155 seq.), serve to confirm his general
conclusion which has been here adopted; because syntactic
peculiarities have a long life and may survive not merely complete
revolutions in morphology, but even a complete change in the
speaker's language, e.g. such Celticisms in Irish-English as
" What are you after doing?" for " What have you done?" or
in Welsh-English as " whatever " for " anyhow." A few isolated
correspondences in vocabulary, as in remits from *ret-s-mo-,
with tperfios and in a few plant-names (e.g. irpaffov and porrum),
cannot disturb the general conclusion, though no doubt they
have some historical significance, if it could be determined.
7. Indo-Iranian and I tola-Celtic. — Only a brief reference can
here be made to the striking list of resemblances between the
Indo-Iranian and Italo-Celtic groups, especially in vocabulary,
which Kretschmer has collected (ibid. pp. 126-144). The most
striking of these are rex, O. Ir. rig-, Sans, raj-, and the political
meaning of the same root in the corresponding verb in both
languages (contrast regere with the merely physical meaning
of Gr. opeyi'ii/ii) ; Lat. flamen (for * 'flag-men) exactly = Sans.
brahman- (neuter), meaning probably " sacrificing," " worship-
ping," and then " priesthood," " priest," from the Ind.-Eur.
root *bhelgh-, " blaze," " make to blaze "; res, rem exactly
= Sans. rds, ram in declension and especially in meaning; and
Ario-, " noble," in Gallic Ariomanus, &c., = Sans, arya-, " noble "
(whence "Aryan "). So argentum exactly = Sans, rajata-, Zend
erezata-; contrast the different (though morphologically kindred)
suffix in Gr. iipyvpos. Some forty-two other Latin or Celtic
words (among them credere, caesaries, probus, castus (cf. Osc.
kasit, Lat. caret, Sans. Sitfa-), Volcdnus, Neptunus, ensis, erus,
pruina, rus, novacula) have precise Sanskrit or Iranian equival-
ents, and none so near in any other of the eight groups of
languages. Finally the use of an -r suffix in the third plural is
common to both Italo-Celtic (see above) and Indo-Iranian.
These things clearly point to a fairly close, and probably in part
political, intercourse between the two communities of speakers
at some early epoch. A shorter, but interesting, list of corre-
spondences in vocabulary with Balto-Slavonic (e.g. the words
menliri, rds, ignis have close equivalents in Balto-Slavonic)
suggests that at the same period the precursor of this dialect
too was a not remote neighbour.
8. Date of the Separation of the Italic Group. — The date at
which the Italic group of languages began to have (so far as it
had at all) a separate development of its own is at present only
a matter of conjecture. But the combination of archaeological
and linguistic research which has already begun can have no
more interesting object than the approximate determination
of this date (or group of dates); for it will give us a point of
cardinal importance in the early history of Europe. The only
consideration which can here be offered as a starting-point for
the inquiry is the chronological relation of the Etruscan invasion,
which is probably referable to the i2th century B.C. (see ETRURIA),
to the two strata of Indo-European population — the -CO- folk
(Falisci, Marruci, Volsci, Hernici and others), to whom the
Tuscan invaders owe the names Etrusci and Tusci, and the
-NO- folk, who, on the West coast, in the centre and south of
Italy, appear at a distinctly later epoch, in some places (as in the
Bruttian peninsula, see BRUTTII) only at the beginning of our
historical record. If the view of Latin as mainly the tongue
of the -CO- folk prove to be correct (see ROME: History; ITALY:
Ancient Languages and Peoples; SABINI; VOLSCI) we must
regard it (a) as the southern or earlier half of the Italic group,
firmly rooted in Italy in the I2th century B.C., but (b) by no
means yet isolated from contact with the northern or later
half; such is at least the suggestion of the striking peculiarities
in morphology which it shares with not merely Oscan and
Umbrian, but also, as we have seen, with Celtic. The progress
in time of this isolation ought before long to be traced with
some approach to certainty.
THE HISTORY OF LATIN
9. We may now proceed to notice the chief changes that
arose in Latin after the (more or less) complete separation of
the Italic group whenever it came about. The contrasted
features of Oscan and Umbrian, to some of which, for special
reasons, occasional reference will be here made, are fully described
under OSCA LINGUA and IGUVIUM respectively.
It is rarely possible to fix with any precision the date at
which a particular change began or was completed, and the most
serviceable form for this conspectus of the development will
be to present, under the heads of Phonology, Morphology and
Syntax, the chief characteristics of Ciceronian Latin which we
know to have been developed after Latin became a separate
language. Which of these changes, if any, can be assigned to a
particular period will be seen as we proceed. But it should
be remembered that an enormous increase of exact knowledge
has accrued from the scientific methods of research introduced
by A. Leskien and K. Brugmann in 1879, and finally established
by Brugmann's great Grundriss in 1886, and that only a brief
enumeration can be here attempted. For adequate study
reference must be made to the fuller treatises quoted, and
especially to the sections bearing on Latin in K. Brugmann's
Kurze vergleichende Grammatik (1902).
I. PHONOLOGY
10. The Latin Accent. — It will be convenient to begin with some
account of the most important discovery made since the application
of scientific method to the study of Latin, for, though it is not
strictly a part of phonology, it is wrapped up with much of the
development both of the sounds and, by consequence, of the in-
flexions. It has long been observed (as we have seen § 4, iv. above)
that the restriction of the word-accent in Latin to the last three
syllables of the word, and its attachment to a long syllable in the
penult, were certainly not its earliest traceable condition; between
this, the classical system, and the comparative freedom with which
the word-accent was placed in pro-ethnic Indo-European, there had
intervened a period of first-syllable accentuation to which were due
many of the characteristic contractions of Oscan and Umbrian, and
in Latin the degradation of the vowels in such forms as accentus from
ad-\-cantus or praecipitem from prae -\-caput- (§ 19 below). R. von
Planta (Osk.-Umbr. Grammatik, 1893, i. p. 594) pointed out that in
Oscan also, by the 3rd century B.C., this first-syllable-accent had
probably given way to a system which limited the word-accent in
some such way as in classical Latin. But it remained for C. Exon, in
a brilliant article (Hermathena (1906), xiv. 117, seq.), to deduce from
the more precise stages of the change (which had been gradually
noted, see e.g. F. Skutsch in Kroll's Alterlumswissenschaft in
letzten Vierleljahrhundert, 1905) their actual effect on the language.
11. Accent in Time of Plautus. — The rules which have been
established for the position of the accent in the time of Plautus are
these:
(i.) The quantity of the final syllable had no effect on accent.
(ii.) If the penult was long, it bore the accent (amubamus).
(iii.) If the penult was short, then
(a) if the ante-penult was long, it bore the accent (amabimus) ;
(6) if the ante-penult was short, then
(i.) if the ante-ante-penult was long, the accent was
on the ante-penult (amicitia) ; but
(ii.) if the ante-ante-penult was also short, it bore the
accent (columine, pueritia).
Exon's Laws of Syncope. — With these facts are now linked what
may be called Exon s Laws, viz : —
In pre-Plauline Latin in all words or word-groups of four or more
syllables whose chief accent is on one long syllable, a short un-
accented medial vowel was syncopated; thus *quinquedecem
became *quinqdecem and thence quindecim (for the -im see § 19),
*sups-emere became *siipsmere and that sumere (on -psm- v. inf.)
*siirregere, *surregemus, and the like became surgere, surgemm, and
the rest of the paradigm followed; so probably validt bonus became
valdi bonus, exterd viam became extra mam; so *supo-tendo became
subtendo (pronounced sup-tendo), *dridere, *avidere (from aridus,
avidus) became ardere, audere. But the influence of cognate forms
often interfered; posiert-die became postrtdie, but in posterorum,
posterarum the short syllable was restored by the influence of the
tri-syllabic cases, posterns, posten, &c., to which the law did not
apply. Conversely, the nom. *Aridor (more correctly at this period
*dridds), which would not have been contracted, followed the form
of drdorem (from *aridorem), ardere, &c.
The same change produced the monosyllabic forms nee, ac, neu,
seu, from neque, &c., before consonants, since they had no accent of
their own, but were always pronounced in one breath with the
following word, neque tdntum becoming nee tantum, and the like.
So in Plautus (and probably always in spoken Latin) the words
nemp(e), ind(e), quipp(e), ill(e), are regularly monosyllables.
LATIN LANGUAGE
247
12. Syncope of Final Syllables. — It is possible that the frequent but
far from universal s>ncope of final syllables in Latin (especially
before -s, as in mens, which represents both Gr. pivot and Sans.
matis = Ind.-Eur. mntis, Eng. mind) is due also to this law operating
on such combinations as bona mens and the like, but this has not
yet been clearly shown. In any case the effects of any such phonetic
change have been very greatly modified by analogical changes.
The Oscan and Umbnan syncope of short vowels before final s
seems to be an independent change, at all events in its detailed
working. The outbreak of the unconscious affection of slurring
final syllables may have been contemporaneous.
13. In post-Plautine Latin words accented on the ante-ante-
penult : —
(i.) suffered syncope in the short syllable following the accented
syllable (bdlincae became bdlneae, pueritia became puertia (Horace),
columine, tegimine, &c., became culmine, tegmine, &C., beside the
trisyllabic columen, tegimen) unless
(ii.) that short vowel was e or i , followed by another vowel (as in
pdrietem, mulierem, Puteoli), when, instead of contraction, the
accent shifted to the penult, which at a later stage of the language
became lengthened, parietem giving Ital. partte, Fr. paroi, Puteoli
giving Ital. Pozzuili.
The restriction of the accent to the last three syllables was com-
pleted by these changes, which did away with all the cases in which it
had stood on the fourth syllable.
14. The Law of the Brevis Brevians. — Next must be mentioned
another great phonetic change, also dependent upon accent, which
had come about before the time of Plautus, the law long known to
students as the Brevis Brevians, which may be stated as follows
(Exon, Hermathena (1903), xii. 491, following Skutsch in, e.g.,
Vollmoller's Jahresbericht fur romanische Sprachwissenschaft, i. 33) :
a syllable long by nature or position, and preceded by a short
syllable, was itself shortened if the word-accent fell immediately
before or immediately after it — that is, on the preceding short
syllable or on the next following syllable. The sequence of syllables
need not be in the same word, but must be as closely connected in
utterance as if it were. Thus modo became modo, voluptatem became
volu(p)tatem, quid est? became quid est? either the s or the / or both
being but faintly pronounced.
It is clear that a great number of flexional syllables so shortened
would have their quantity immediately restored by the analogy of
the same inflexion occurring in words not of this particular shape;
thus, for instance, the long vowel of Ama and the like is due to that
in other verbs (pulsd, agita) not of iambic shape. So ablatives like
modo, sono get back their -5, while in particles like modo, " only,"
quomodo, " how," the shortened form remains. Conversely, the
shortening of the final -a in the nom. sing. fern, of the a-declension
(contrast tuna with Gr. xcops) was probably partly due to the
influence of common forms like ea, bona, mala, which had come under
the law.
15. Effect on Verb Inflexion. — These processes had far-reaching
effects on Latin inflexion. The chief of these was the creation of the
type of conjugation known as the ca/>io-class. All these verbs were
originally inflected like audio, but the accident of their short root-
syllable (in such early forms as *fugis, *fuglturus, *fuglsetis, &c.,
becoming later fugis,fugiturus, fugeretis) brought great parts of their
paradigm under this law, and the rest followed suit; but true forms
like fugire, cuplre, monri, never altogether died out of the spoken
language. St Augustine, for instance, confessed in 387 A.D. (Epist.
iii. 5, quoted by Exon, Hermathena (1901), xi. 383,) that he does not
know whether cupi or cupiri is the pass. inf. of cupio. Hence we
have Ital. fugglre, monre, Fr. fuir, mourir. (See further on this
conjugation, C. Exon, I.e., and F. Skutsch, Archiv fur lat. Lexico-
graphie, xii. 210, two papers which were written independently.)
16. The question has been raised how far the true phonetic shorten-
ing appears in Plautus, produced not by word-accent but by metrical
ictus — e.g. whether the reading is to be trusted in such lines as Amph.
761, which gives us dedisse as the first foot (tribrach) of a trochaic
line " because the metrical ictus fell on the syllable (fed- " — but this
remarkable theory cannot be discussed here. See the articles cited
and also F. Skutsch, Forschungen zu Latein. Grammatik und Metrik,
i. (1892); C. Exon, Hermathena (1903) xii. p. 492, W. M. Lindsay,
Captivi (1900), appendix,
In the history of the vowels and diphthongs in Latin we must
' distinguish the changes which came about independently of accent
and those produced by the preponderance of accent in another syllable.
17. Vowel Changes independent of Accent. — In the former category
the following are those of chief importance: —
(i.) i became e (a) when final, as in ant-e beside Gr. ia/rt, tnste
besides tnsti-s, contrasted with e.g., the Greek neuter 1£pi (the final
-e of the infinitive — regere, &c. — is the -T, of the locative, just as in the
so-called ablatives genere, &c.) ; (b) before -r- which has arisen from
-s-, as in cineris beside cinis, cinisculus; sero beside Gr. t(<r)wu (Ind.-
Eur. *si-semi, a reduplicated non-thematic present).
(ii.) Final o became e; imperative sequere = Gr. ?ire(ff)o; Lat. Me
may contain the old pronoun *so, " he," Gr. &, Sans, sa (otherwise
Skutsch, Glotta, i. Hefte 2-3).
(iii.) el became ol when followed by any sound save e, i or I, as in
void, volt beside velle; cold beside Gr. rJXXoMoi, iroXeii', Att. r«Xos;
colonus for *quelonus, beside inquilinus for *en-quelenus.
(iv.) e became i (i.) before a nasal followed by a palatal or velar
consonant (tingo, Gr. rkyyu; in-cipio from *en-capio); (ii.) under
certain conditions not yet precisely defined, one of which was i in a
following syllable (nihil, nisi, initium). From these forms in-
spread and banished en-, the earlier form.
(v.) The " neutral vowel " (" schwa Indo-Germanicum ") which
arose in pro-ethnic Indo-European from the reduction of long
a,eoro in unaccented syllables (as in the -tos participles of such roots
as std-, dhe-, do-, *st9tos, *dhatos, *datos) became a in Latin (status
con-ditus [from *con-dhatos], datus), and it is the same sound which
is represented by a in most of the forms of do (damns, dabo, &c.).
(vi.) When a long vowel came to stand before another vowel in
the same word through loss of i or u, it was always shortened ; thus
the -eo of intransitive verbs like candeo, caleo is for -eio (where the e
is identical with the TJ in Gr. t^>a.trr\v, inavTjv) and was'thus confused
with the causative -eio (as in moneo, " I make to think," &c.), where
the short e is original. So audiui became *audn and thence <iudil
(the form audwi would have disappeared altogether but for being
restored from audweram, &c.; conversely audieram is formed from
audit). In certain cases the vowels contracted, as in tres, paries, &c.
with -es from e%es, *amo from ama(j,)o.
1 8. Of the Diphthongs.
(vii.) eu became ou in pro-ethnic Italic, Lat. novus: Gr. ceos,
Lat. novem, Umb. nuviper (i.e. noviper, " usque ad
noviens": Gr. (iv-)vka.; in unaccented syllables this tfedKh-°f
-ov- sank to -u(v)- as in denud from de novo, suus (which is thongs in-
rarely anything but an enclitic word), Old Lat. sovos : dependent
Gr. k(F )6s. at accent.
(viii.) ou, whether original or from eu, when in one syllable
became -u-, probably about 200 B.C., as in duco, Old Lat. douco,
Goth, tiuhan, Eng. tow, Ind.-Eur. *deuco.
(ix.) ei became i (as in died, Old Lat. deico: Gr. St'in-mm, fido : Gr.
ireWojixat, Ind.-Eur. *bheidho) just before the time of Lucilius, who
prescribes the spellings puerei (nom. plur.) but pueri (gen. sing.),
which indicates that the two forms were pronounced alike in his
time, but that the traditional distinction in spelling had been more
or less preserved. But after his time, since the sound of ei was
merely that of i, ei is continually used merely to denote a long i, even
where, as in faxeis for faxis, there never had been any diphthongal
sound at all.
(x.) In rustic Latin (Volscian and Sabine) au became 6 as in the
vulgar terms explodere, plostrum. Hence arose interesting doublets
of meaning; — lautus (the Roman form), "elegant," but lotus,
"washed"; haustus, "draught," but hostus (Cato), "the season's
yield of fruit."
(xi.) oi became oe and thence u some time after Plautus, as in
unus. Old Lat. oenus: Gr. olvfi " ace." In Plautus the forms have
nearly all been modernized, save in special cases, e.g. in Trin. i.
I, 2, immoene f acinus, "a thankless task," has not been changed to
immune because that meaning had died out of the adjective so that
immune f acinus would have made nonsense; but at the end of the
same line utile has replaced oetile. Similarly in a small group of
words the old form was preserved through their frequent use in legal
or religious documents where tradition was strictly preserved —
poena, foedus (neut.), foedus (adj.), " ill-omened." So the archaic
and poetical moenia, " ramparts," beside the true classical form
munia, " duties " ; the historic Poeni beside the living and frequently
used Punicum (bellum) — an example which demonstrates con-
clusively (pace Sommer) that the variation between u and oe is not
due to any difference in the surrounding sounds.
(xii.) ai became ae and this in rustic and later Latin (2nd or 3rd
century A.D.) simple e, though of an open quality — Gr. aldos, a.Wu,
Lat. aedes (originally " the place for the fire "); the country forms
of haedus, praetor were edus, pretor (Varro, Ling. Lat. v. 97, Lindsay,
Lat. Lang. p. 44).
IQ. Vowels and Diphthongs in unaccented Syllables. — The changes
of the short vowels and of the diphthongs in unaccented syllables are
too numerous and complex to be set forth here. Some took place
under the first-syllable system of accent, some later (§§ 9, 10).
Typical examples are pepErci from *peparcai and onustus from
*onostos (before two consonants) ; conclno from *concano and hospltls
from *hostipotes, leglmus beside Gr. Xe-yo^y (before one consonant) ;
Siculi from *Siceloi (before a thick /, see § 17, 3); dillglt from
*disleget (contrast, however, the preservation of the second e in
neglEgit); occvpat from *opcapat (contrast accipit with i in the
following syllable) ; the varying spelling in monumentum and
monimentum, maxumus and maximus, points toan intermediate sound
(u) between u and i (cf. Quint, i. 4. 8, reading optumum ;and optimum
[not opimum} with W. M. Lindsay, Latin Language §§ 14, 16, seq.),
which could not be correctly represented in spelling ; this difference
may, however, be due merely to the effect of differences in the
neighbouring sounds, an effect greatly obscured by analogical influ-
ences.
Inscriptions of the 4th or 3rd century, B.C. which show original
-es and -os in final syllables (e.g. Veneres, gen. sing., navebos abl. pi.)
compared with the usual forms in -is, -us a century later, give us
roughly the date of these changes. But final -os, -om, remained after
-u- (and v) down to 50 B.C. as in servos.
20. Special mention should be made of the change of -rl- and -ro-
to -er- (incertus from *encritos; ager, acer from *agros, 'acris; the
248
LATIN LANGUAGE
feminine acris was restored in Latin (though not in North Oscan) by
the analogy of other adjectives, like tristis, while the masculine acer
was protected by the parallel masculine forms of the -o- declension,
like tener, niger [from *teneros, *nigros]).
21. Long vowels generally remained unchanged, as in compago,
condono.
22. Of the diphthongs, ai and oi both sank to ei, and with original
ei further to 1, in unaccented syllables, as in Achivi from Gr. 'Ax<ufoi,
olivom, earlier *oleivom (borrowed into Gothic and there becoming
alev) from Gr. t\aifov. This gives us interesting chronological data,
since the el- must have changed to o/- (§ 1 6. 3) before the change of
-ai- to -ei-, and that before the change of the accent from the first
syllable to the penultimate (§ 9) ; and the borrowing took place after
-ai- had become -ei-, but before -eivom had become -eum, as it regu-
larly did before the time of Plautus.
But cases of ai, ae, which arose later than the change to ei , i,
were unaffected by it; thus the nom. plur. of the first declension
originally ended in -as (as in Oscan), but was changed at some period
before Plautus to -ae by the influence of the pronominal nom. plur.
ending -ae in quae? hoe, &c., which was accented in these mono-
syllables and had therefore been preserved. The history of the -ae
of the dative, genitive and locative is hardly yet clear (see Exon,
Hermathena (1905), xiii. 555; K. Brugmann, Grundriss, ist ed. ii.
571, 601).
The diphthongs au, ou in unaccented syllables sank to -u-, as in
include beside claudo; the form cludo, taken from the compounds,
superseded claudo altogether after Cicero's time. So cudo, taken
from incudo, excudo, banished the older *caudo, " I cut, strike,"
with which is probably connected cauda, " the striking member,
tail," and from which comes caussa, " a cutting, decision, legal case,"
whose -ss- shows that it is derived from a root ending in a dental
(see §25 (b) below and Conway, Verner's Law in Italy, p. 72).
Consonants. — Passing now to the chief changes of the consonants
we may notice the following points: —
23. Consonant i (wrongly written j; there is no g-sound in the
letter), conveniently written i by phoneticians,
(i.) was lost between vowels, as in tres for "Irenes, &c. (§ 17. 6);
(ii.) in combination: -mj- became -ni-, as in venio, from Ind.-Eur.
*G» mjo, " I come," Sans, gam-, Eng. come; -nj- probably (under
certain conditions at least) became -nd~, as in tendo beside Gr. rdvw,
fendo = Gr.edva, and in the gerundive stem -endus, -undus, probably
for -enios, -onjps; cf. the Sanskrit gerundive in -an-lya-s; -gi-, -dj-
became -t- as in motor from *mag-ior, peior from *ped-ior;
(iii.) otherwise -j[- after a consonant became generally syllabic
(-t'j-), as in capio (trisyllabic) beside Goth, hafya.
24. Consonant u (formerly represented by English v), conveniently
written #,
(i.) was lost between similar vowels when the first was accented,
as in audtui, which became audil (§17 [6]), but not in amaui, nor in
avArus.
(ii.) in combination: du- became b, as in bonus, helium, O. Lat.
dyonus, *duellum (though the poets finding this written form in old
literary sources treated it as trisyllabic) ; pu-, fy.-, by-, lost the K,
as in ap-erio, op-erio beside Lith. -veriu, " I open," Osc. veru, " gate,"
and in the verbal endings -bam, -bo, from -bhu-am, -bhud (with the
root of Lat. fui), and /to, du-bius, super-bus, vasta-bundus, &c.,
from the same; -sy- between vowels (at least when the second was
accented) disappeared (see below § 25 (a), iv.), as in pruina for prus-
ulna, cf. Eng. fros-t, Sans, prusva, " hoar-frost." Contrast Minerva
from an earlier "menes-ua, sue-, suo-, both became so-, as in soror(em)
beside Sans, svasar-am, Ger. schwes-t-er, Eng. sister, sordes, beside
O. Ger. swart-s, mod. schwarz. -yo- in final syllables became -u-,
as in cum from quom, parum from paryom; but in the declensional
forms -uu- was commonly restored by the analogy of the other cases,
thus (a) seryos seruom, seryi became (4) *serus, *serum, *serul, but
finally (c) seruus, "seryum, seryi.
(iii.) In the 2nd century A.D., Lat. v (i.e. y) had become a voiced
labio-dental fricative, like Eng. v; and the voiced labial plosive 6
had broken down (at least in certain positions) into the same sound;
hence they are frequently confused as in spellings like vene for bene,
Biclorinus for Victorinus.
25. (a) Latin s
(i.) became r between vowels between 450 and 350 B.C. (for the
date see R. S. Conway, Verner's Law in Italy, pp. 61-64), as >n ara,
beside O. Lat. asa, generis from *geneses, Gr. ytvtos; eram, era for
'esam, *eso, and so in the verbal endings -eram, -era, -erim. But a
considerable number of words came into Latin, partly from neigh-
bouring dialects, with -s- between vowels, after 350 B.C., when the
change ceased, and so show -s-, as rosa (probably from S. Oscan for
*rodia " rose-bush " cf. Gr. p6&ov), caseus, " cheese," miser, a term
of abuse, beside Gr. /iwapis (probably also borrowed from south
Italy), and many more, especially the participles in -sus (Jusus),
where the -s- was -ss- at the time of the change of -i- to -r- (so in
causa, see above). All attempts to explain the retention of the -s-
otherwise must be said to have failed (e.g. the theory of accentual
difference in Verner's Law in Italy, or that of dissimilation, given by
Brugmann, Kurze vergl. Gram. p. 242).
(ii.) sr became br ( = Eng. thr in throw) in pro-ethnic Italic, and
this became initially fr- as in frlgus, Gr. #70? (Ind.-Eur. *sngos), but
medially -br-, as infunebris, fromfunus, stemfunes-.
(iii.) -rs-, Is- became -rr-, -U-, as in ferre, velle, for *fer-se, *vel-se
(cf. es-se).
(iv.) Before m, n, I, and v, -s- vanished, having previously caused
the loss of any preceding plosive or -n-, and the preceding vowel, if
short, was lengthened as in
primus from *prismos, Paelig. prismu, " prima," beside pris-cus.
iumentum from O. Lat. iouxmentum, older *ieugsmentom; cf.
Gr. ftvyita, fityov, Lat. iugum, iungo.
luna from *leucsna-, Praenest, losna, Zend rao\sna-; cf.
Gr. XeGxos, " white-ness " neut. e.g. \tvnos, " white," Lat.
luceo.
telum from *tens-lpm or *tends-lom, trdnare from *trans-ndre.
sevirl from *sex-viri, eveho from *ex-veho, and so e-mitto, e-lido,
e-numero, and from these forms arose the proposition e
instead of ex.
(v.) Similarly -sd- became -d-, as in Idem from is-dem.
(vi.) Before n-, m-, /-, initially f- disappeared, as in nubo beside
Old Church Slavonic snubiti, " to love, pay court to "; miror beside
Sans, smdyate, " laughs," Eng. smi-le; lubricus beside Goth, sliupan,
Eng. slip.
(b) Latin -.ss- arose from an original -t + /-, -d +<-, -dh +t- (except
before -r), as in missus, earlier *mit-tos; tonsus, earlier *tond-tos, but
tonstnx from *tond-trix. After long vowels this -ss- became a single
-s- some time before Cicero (who wrote caussa [see above], divissio,
&c., but probably only pronounced them with -s-,since the-w- came
to be written single directly after his time).
26. Of the Indo-European velars the breathed q was usually pre-
served in Latin with a labial addition of -u- (as in sequor, Gr. cVo/jai,
Goth, saihvan, Eng. see; quod, Gr. iro5-(air<5s), Eng. what); but the
voiced Ss remained (as -gu-) only after -n- (unguo beside Ir. imb,
" butter ") and (as g) before r, I, and u (as in grains, Gr. (lupin; glans,
Gr. fSaXavos; legumen, Gr. Xo/S6s, Xe/SWos). Elsewhere it became r,
as in venio, (see § 23, ii.), nudus from *novedos, Eng. naked. Hence
bos (Sans, gaus, Eng. cow) must be regarded as a farmer's word
borrowed from one of the country dialects (e.g. Sabine) ; the pure
Latin would be *vos, and its oblique cases, e.g. ace. *vovem, would be
inconveniently close in sound to the word for sheep ovem.
27. The treatment of the Indo-European voiced aspirates (bh
dh, gh, s/i)in Latin is one of the most marked characteristics of the
language, which separates it from all the other Italic dialects, since
the fricative sounds, which represented the Indo-European aspirates
in pro-ethnic Italic, remained fricatives medially if they remained at
all in that position in Oscan and Umbrian, whereas in Latin they
were nearly always changed into voiced explosives. Thus —
Ind.-Eur. bh: initially Lat./- (fero; Gr. tfwpai).
medially Lat. -6- (tibi; Umb. tefe; Sans. tubhy-(am),
" to thee "; the same suffix in Gr. fliri-<t>i, &c.).
Ind.-Eur. dh: initially Lat./- (fa-c-ere, fe-c-i; Gr. OtriK (instead
of *Ba.Th), WTI-KO).
medially -d- (medius; Osc. mefio-; Gr. ukaaot,
jieiros from *ne0tps) ; except after u (iubere beside
iussus for *iudh-tos; Sans, yddhati, " rouses to
battle"); before / (stabulum, but Umb. staflo-,
with the suffix of Gr. artpyiflpov, &c.) ; before or
after r (verbum: Umb. verfale: Eng. word.
Lat. glaber [v. inf]. : Ger. glatt: Eng. glad).
Ind.-Eur. gh: initially h- (hurni: Gr. \anal); except before -u-
(fundo: Gr. x*(f)a>, x^P«).
medially -h- (veho: Gr. txu, &\os; cf. Eng. wagon);
except after -n- (fingere: Osc. feiho-, "wall":
Gr. 6i.yyA.vw: Ind.-Eur. dheigh-, dhingh-); and
before / (flg(u)lus, from the same root).
Ind.-Eur g*h: initially /- (formus a.ndfurnus, " oven ", Gr. Otpubs,
Biplt-i), cf. Ligurian Bormio, " a place with hot
springs," Bormanus, "a god of hot springs";
fendo: Gr. 8dt>u, 4>Acos, irp6<r-<^aToj).
medially v, -gu- or -g- just as Ind.-Eur. S* (ninguere, '
nivem beside Gr. vUt>a, vel<j>a; fragrare beside Gr.
6a<t>paivo/iai. [6a- for ods-, cf. Lat. odor], a re-
duplicated verb from a root 6«Aro-).
For the " non-labializing velars " (Hostis, concius, claber) refer-
ence must be made to the fuller accounts in the handbooks.
28. AUTHORITIES. — This summary account of the chief points in
Latin phonology may serve as an introduction to its principles, and
give some insight into the phonetic character of the language. For
systematic study reference must be made to the standard books,
Karl Brugmann, Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der Indo-
Germanischen Sprachen (vol. i., Lautlehre, 2nd ed. Strassburg,
1897; Eng. trans, of ed. I by Joseph Wright, Strassburg, 1888) and
his Kurze vergleichende Grammatik (Strassburg, 1902) ; these contain
still by far the best accounts of Latin; Max Niederman, Precis de
phonttique du Latin (Paris, 1906), a very convenient handbook,
excellently planned ; F. Sommer, Lateinische, Laut- and Flexionslehre
(Heidelberg, 1902), containing many new conjectures; W. M.
Lindsay, The Latin Language (Oxford, 1894), translated into German
(with corrections) by Nohl (Leipzig, 1897), a most valuable collection
of material, especially from the ancient grammarians, but not always
accurate in phonology; F. Stolz, vol. i. of a joint Historische Gram-
matik d. lat. Sprache by Blase, Landgraf, Stolz and others (Leipzig,
1894); Neue-Wagener, Formenlehre d. lat. Sprache (3 vols., 3rd ed..
LATIN LANGUAGE
249
Leipzig, 1888, foil.); H. J. Roby's Latin Grammar (from Plautus
to Suetonius; London, 7th ed., 1896) contains a masterly collection
of material, especially in morphology, which is still of great value.
W. G. Hale and C. D. Buck's Latin Grammar (Boston, 1903), though
on a smaller scale, is of very great importance, as it contains the
fruit of much independent research on the part of both authors; in
the difficult questions of orthography it was, as late as 1907, the only
safe guide.
II. MORPHOLOGY
In morphology the following are the most characteristic Latin
innovations: —
29. In nouns.
(i.) The complete loss of the dual number, save for a survival in
the dialect of Praeneste (C.I.L. xiv. 2891, = Conway, Ital. Dial. p. 285,
where Q. k. Cestio Q. f. seems to be nom. dual) ; so C.I.L. xi. 67065,
T. C. Vomanio, see W. Schulze, Lat. Eigennamen, p. 117.
(ii.) The introduction of new forms in the gen. sing, of the -o- stems
(dominl), of the -a- stems (tnensae) and in the nom. plural of the
same two declensions; innovations mostly derived from the pro-
nominal declension.
(iii.) The development of an adverbial formation out of what was
either an instrumental or a locative of the -o- stems, as in longe.
And here may be added the other adverbial developments, in -m
(palam, sensim) probably accusative, and -Her, which is simply the
accusative of Her, " way," crystallized, as is shown especially
by the fact that though in the end it attached itself particularly to
adjectives of the third declension (molliter), it appears also from
adjectives of the second declension whose meaning made their com-
bination with iter especially natural, such as longiter, firmitt.r, largiter
(cf. English straightway, longivays). The only objections to this
derivation which had any real weight (see F. Skutsch, De nomini-
bus no- suffixi ope formatis, 1890, pp. 4-7) have been removed by
Exon's Law (§ n), which supplies a clear reason why the contracted
type constanter arose in and was felt to be proper to Participial
adverbs, while firmiter and the like set the type for those formed
from adjectives.
(iv.) The development of the so-called fifth declension by a re-ad-
justment of the declension of the nouns formed with the suffix -ii-:
ia- (which appears, for instance, in all the Greek feminine participles,
and in a more abstract sense in words like materies) to match the
inflexion of two old root-nouns res and dies, the stems of which were
originally rej.- (Sans, ras, rayas, cf. Lat. rear) and dieu-.
(v.) The disuse of the -ti- suffix in an abstract sense. The great
number of nouns which Latin inherited formed with this suffix were
either (l) marked as abstract by the addition of the further suffix
-on- (as in natio beside the Gr. 7^<ri-os, &c.) or else (2) confined to a
concrete sense; thus vectis, properly " a carrying, lifting," came to
mean " pole, lever "; ratis, properly a " reckoning, devising," came
to mean " an (improvised) raft " (contrast ratio) ; postis, a " placing,"
came to mean " post."
(vi.) The confusion of the consonantal stems with stems ending in
-J-. This was probably due very largely to the forms assumed
through phonetic changes by the gen. sing, and the nom. and ace.
plural. Thus at say 300 B.C. the inflexions probably were:
conson. stem -»- stem
Nom. plur. *reg-es host-es
Ace. plur. reg-es host-is
The confusing difference of signification of the long -es ending led
to a levelling of these and other forms in the two paradigms.
(vii.) The disuse of the « declension (Gr. liSiu, OTO.XVS) in ad-
jectives; this group in Latin, thanks to its feminine form (Sans. fern.
svadvi, " sweet "), was transferred to the i declension (suavis, gravis,
levis, dulcis).
30. In verbs.
(i.) The disuse of the distinction between the personal endings of
primary and secondary tenses, the -/ and -nt, for instance, being used
for the third person singular and plural respectively in all tenses and
moods of the active. This change was completed after the archaic
period, since we find in the oldest inscriptions -a regularly used in the
third person singular of past tenses, e.g. deded, feced in place of the
later dealt, fecit !; and since in Oscan the distinction was preserved to
the end, both in singular and plural, e.g. faamat (perhaps meaning
" auctionatur "), but deded ("dcdit "). It is commonly assumed from
the evidence of Greek and Sanskrit (Gr. fart, Sans, asti beside Lat.
est) that the primary endings in Latin have lost a final -i, partly or
wholly by some phonetic change,
(ii.) The non-thematic conjugation is almost wholly lost, sur-
viving only in a few forms of very common use, est, "is"; est,
" eats " ; volt, " wills," &c.
(iii.) The complete fusion of the aorist and perfect forms, and in
the same tense the fusion of active and middle endings; thus
tutudi, earlier *tutudai, is a true middle perfect ; dlxi is an s aorist with
the same ending attached; dlxit"\s an aorist active; tutudisti is a
conflation of perfect and aorist with a middle personal ending.
(iv.) The development of perfects in -ui and -in, derived partly
from true perfects of roots ending in v or u, e.g. mom rid. For the
origin of monui see Exon, Hermathena (1901), xi. 396 sq.
(v.) The complete fusion of conjunctive and optative into a single
mood, the subjunctive; regam, &c., are conjunctive forms, whereas
rexerim, rexissem are certainly and regerem most probably optative;
the origin of amem and the like is still doubtful. Notice, however,
that true conjunctive forms were often used as futures, reges, reget,
&c., and also the simple thematic conjunctive in forms like era,
rexero, &c.
(vi.) The development of the future in -bo and imperfect in -bam
by compounding some form of the verb, possibly the Present
Participle with forms from the root of fui, "amans-fuo becoming
amabo, *amans-fuam becoming amabam at a very early period of
Latin; see F. Skutsch, Atti d. Congresso Storico Intern. (1903),
vol. ii. p. 191.
(vii.) We have already noticed the rise of the passive in -r (§ 5 (d)).
Observe, however, that several middle forms have been pressed into
the service, partly because the -r- in them which had come from -s-
seemed to give them a passive colour (legere = Gr. \kyt(a)o, Attic
\iyov). The interesting forms in -mini are a confusion of two distinct
inflexions, namely, an old infinitive in -menai, used for the imperative,
and the participial -menoi, masculine, -menai, feminine, used with
the verb " to be" in place of the ordinary inflexions. Since these
forms had all come to have the same shape, through phonetic change,
their meanings were fused; the imperative forms being restricted
to the plural, and the participial forms being restricted to the second
person.
31. Past Participle Passive. — Next should be mentioned the great
development in the use of the participle in -los (Jactus, fusus, &c.).
This participle was taken with sum to form the perfect tenses of the
passive, in which, thanks partly to the fusion of perfect and aorist
active, a past aorist sense was also evolved. This reacted on the
participle itself giving it a prevailingly past colour, but its originally
timeless use survives in many places, e.g. in the participle ratus,
which has as a rule no past sense, and more definitely still in such
passages as Vergil, Georg. i. 206 (vectis), Aen. vi. 22 (ductis), both of
which passages demand a present sense. It is to be noticed also that
in the earliest Latin, as in Greek and Sanskrit, the passive meaning,
though the commonest, is not universal. Many traces of this survive
in classical Latin, of which the chief are
1. The active meaning of deponent participles, in spite of the
fact that some of them (e.g. adeplus, emensus, expertus) have
also a passive sense, and
2. The familiar use of these participles by the Augustan poets
with an accusative attached (galeam indutus, Iraiectus lora).
Here no doubt the use of the Greek middle influenced the
Latin poets, but no doubt they thought also that they were
reviving an old Latin idiom.
32. Future Participle. — Finally may be mentioned together (a) the
development of the future participle active (in -urus, never so freely
used as the other participles, being rare in the ablative absolute even
in Tacitus) from an old infinitive in -urum (" scio inimicos meos
hoc dicturum," C. Gracchus (and others) apud Cell. I. 7, and Priscian
ix. 864 (p. 475 Keil), which arose from combining the dative or
locative of the verbal noun in -tu with an old infinitive esom " esse "
which survives in Oscan, *dictu esom becoming dicturum. This was
discovered by J. P. Postgate (Class. Review, v. 301, and Idg.
Forschungen iv. 252). (b) From the same infinitival accusative with
the post-position -do, meaning " to," " for," " in " (cf. quando for
*quam-do, and Eng. to, Germ, zu) was formed the so-called gerund
agen-do, " for doing," " in doing," which was taken for a Case, and
so gave rise to the accusative and genitive in -dum and -di. The form
in rdo still lives in Italian as an indeclinable present participle. The
modal and purposive meanings of -do appear in the uses of the gerund.
The authorities giving a fuller account of Latin morphology are the
same as those cited in § 28 above, save that the reader must consult
the second volume of Brugmann's Grundriss, which in the English
translation (by Conway and Rouse, Strassburg, 1890-1896) is
divided into volumes ii, iii. and iv. ; and that Niedermann does not
deal with morphology.
III. SYNTAX
The chief innovations of syntax developed in Latin may now be
briefly noted.
33. In nouns.
(i.) Latin restricted the various Cases to more sharply denned uses
than either Greek or Sanskrit ; the free use of the internal accusative
in Greek (e.g. &ffpov (taii>tii>, TWJ>\&S rb. wra) is strange to Latin, save in
poetical imitations of Greek; and so is the freedom of the Sanskrit
instrumental, which often covers meanings expressed in Latin by
cum, ab, inter.
(ii.) The syncretism of the so-called ablative case, which combines
the uses of (a) the true ablative which ended in -d (O. Lat. praidad) ;
(b) the instrumental sociative (plural forms like domims, the ending
being that of Sans, fivais,); and (c) the locative (noct-e, " at night ";
itiner-e, " on the road," with the ending of Greek l\iri&-i). The so-
called absolute construction is mainly derived from the second of
these, since it is regularly attached fairly closely to the subject of the
clause in which it stands, and when accompanied by a passive
participle most commonly denotes an action performed by that
subject. But the other two sources cannot be altogether excluded
(orto sole, " starting from sunrise "; campo patente, " on, in sight of,
the open plain ").
34. In verbs.
(i.) The rich development and fine discrimination of the uses of
the subjunctive mood, especially (o) in indirect questions (based on
25°
LATIN LANGUAGE
direct deliberative questions and not fully developed by the time
of Plautus, who constantly writes such phrases as die quis es for the
Ciceronian die quis sis) ; (b) after the relative of essential definition
(non is sum gui negem) and the circumstantial cum (" at such a time
as that "). The two uses (a) and (b) with (c) the common Purpose
and Consequence-clauses spring from the " prospective " or " antici-
patory " meaning of the mood, (d) Observe further its use in sub-
ordinate oblique clauses (irascitur quod abierim, " he is angry because,
as he asserts, I went away "). This and all the uses of the mood in
oratio obliqua are derived partly from (a) and (b) and partly from
the («) Unreal Jussive of past time (Non illi argentum redderem?
Non redderes, " Ought I not to have returned the money to him?"
" You certainly ought not to have," or, more literally, " You were not
to i:).
On this interesting chapter of Latin syntax see W.G.Hale's " Cum-
constructions " (Cornell University Studies in Classical Philology,
No. I, 1887-1889), and The Anticipatory Subjunctive (Chicago, 1894).
(ii.) The complex system of oratio obliqua with the sequence of
tenses (on the growth of the latter see Con way, Livy II., Appendix ii.,
Cambridge, 1901).
(iii.) The curious construction of the gerundive (ad capiendam
urbem), originally a present (and future?) passive participle, but re-
stricted in its use by being linked with the so-called gerund (see § 32,6).
The use, but probably not the restriction, appears in Oscan and
Umbrian.
(iv.) The favourite use of the impersonal passive has already been
mentioned (§ 5, iv.).
35. The chief authorities for the study of Latin syntax are:
Brugmann's Kurze vergl. Grammatik, vol. ii. (see § 28) ; Landgraf's
Historische lat. Syntax (vol. ii. of the joint Hist. Gram., see § 28) ;
Hale and Buck's Latin Grammar (see § 28) ; Draeger's Historische
lat. Syntax, 2 vols. (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1878-1881), useful but not
always trustworthy; the Latin sections in Delbruck's Vergleichende
Syntax, being the third volume of Brugmann's Grundriss (§ 28).
IV. IMPORTATION OF GREEK WORDS
36. It is convenient, before proceeding to describe the develop-
ment of the language in its various epochs, to notice briefly
the debt of its vocabulary to Greek, since it affords an indication
of the steadily increasing influence of Greek life and literature
upon the growth of the younger idiom. Corssen (Lat. Aus-
sprache, ii. 814) pointed out four different stages in the process,
and though they are by no means sharply divided in time,
they do correspond to different degrees and kinds of intercourse.
(a) The first represents the period of the early intercourse of Rome
with the Greek states, especially with the colonies in the south of
Italy and Sicily. To this stage belong many names of nations,
countries and towns, as Siculi, Tarentum, Graeci, Achivi, Poenus;
and also names of weights and measures, articles of industry and
terms connected with navigation, as mina, talentum, purpura,
patina, ancora, aplustre, nausea. Words like amurca, scutula,
pessulus, balineum, tarpessita represent familiarity with Greek
customs and bear equally the mark of naturalization. To these
may be added names of gods or heroes, like Apollo, Pollux and
perhaps Hercules. These all became naturalized Latin words and
were modified by the phonetic changes which took place in the Latin
language after they had come into it (cf. §§ 9-27 supra), (b) The
second stage was probably the result of the closer intercourse re-
sulting from the conquest of southern Italy, and the wars in Sicily,
and of the contemporary introduction of imitations of Greek litera-
ture into Rome, with its numerous references to Greek life and
culture. It is marked by the free use of hybrid forms, whether made
by the addition of Latin suffixes to Greek stems as ballistarius,
hepatarius, subbasilicanus, sycophantiosus, comissan or of Greek
suffixes to Latin stems as plagipatidas, pernonides ; or by derivation,
as thermopotare, supparasltari; or by composition as ineuscheme,
thyrsigerae, flagritnbae, scrophipasci,. The character of many of
these words shows that the comic poets who coined them must have
been able to calculate upon a fair knowledge of colloquial Greek on
the part of a considerable portion of their audience. The most
remarkable instance of this is supplied by the burlesque lines in
Plautus (Pers. 702 seq.), where Sagaristio describes himself as
Vaniloquidorus, Virginisvendonides,
Nugipiloquides, Argentumexterebronides,
Tedigniloquides, Nummosexpalppnides,
Quodsemelarripides, Nunquameripides.
During this period Greek words are still generally inflected according
to the Latin usage.
(c) But with Accius (see below) begins a third stage, in which the
Greek inflexion is frequently preserved, e.g. Hectora, Oresten, Ci-
thaeron; and from this time forward the practice wavers. Cicero
generally prefers the Latin case-endings, defending, e.g., Piraeeum as
against Piraeea (ad Alt. vii. 3, 7), but not without some fluctua-
tion, while Varro takes the opposite side, and prefers po'emasin to the
Ciceronian poematis. By this time also y and z were introduced, and
the representation of the Greek aspirates by th, ph, ch, so that words
newly borrowed from the Greek could be more faithfully reproduced.
This is equally true whatever was the precise nature of the sound
which at that period the Greek aspirates had reached in their secular
process of change from pure aspirates (as in Eng. ant-hill, &c.) to
fricatives (like Eng. th in thin). (See Arnold and Conway, The
Restored Pronunciation of Greek and Latin, 4th ed., Cambridge,
1908, p. 21.)
(d) A fourth stage is marked by the practice of the Augustan
poets, who, especially when writing in imitation of Greek originals,
freely use the Greek inflexions, such as Arcades, Tethy, Aegida,
Echus, &c. Horace probably always used the Latin form in his
Satires and Epistles, the Greek in his Odes. Later prose writers for
the most part followed the example of his Odes. It must be added,
however, in regard to these literary borrowings that it is not quite
clear whether in this fourth class, and even in the unmodified forms
in the preceding class, the words had really any living use in
spoken Latin.
V. PRONUNCIATION
This appears the proper place for a rapid survey of the pronuncia-
tion1 of the Latin language, as spoken in its best days.
37. CONSONANTS. — (i.) Back palatal. Breathed plosive c, pro-
nounced always as k (except that in some early inscriptions —
probably none much later, if at all later, than 300 B.C. — the char-
acter is used also for g) until about the 7th century after Christ. K
went out of use at an early period, except in a few old abbreviations
for words in which it had stood before a, e.g., kal. for kalendae. Q,
always followed by the consonantal u, except in a few old inscrip-
tions, in which it is used for c before the vowel u, e.g. pequnia. X,
an abbreviation for cs; xs is, however, sometimes found. Voiced
plosive g, pronounced as in English gone, but never as in English
gem before about the 6th century after Christ. Aspirate h, the rough
breathing as in English.
(ii.) Palatal. — The consonantal i, like the English y; it is only
in late inscriptions that we find, in spellings like Zanuario, Giove,
any definite indication of a pronunciation like the English^'. The
precise date of the change is difficult to determine (see Lindsay's
Latin Lang. p. 49), especially as we may, in isolated cases, have before
us merely a dialectic variation ; see PAELIGNI.
(iii.) Lingual. — r as in English, but probably produced more
with the point of the tongue. / similarly more dental than in
English, s always breathed (as Eng. ce in ice), z, which is only
found in the transcription of Greek words in and after the time of
Cicero, as dz or zz.
(iv.) Dental. — Breathed, t as in English. Voiced, d as in
English; but by the end of the 4th century di before a vowel was
pronounced like our j (cf. diurnal and journal). Nasal, n as in
English ; but also (like the English n) a guttural nasal (ng) before a
guttural. Apparently it was very lightly pronounced, and easily
fell away before s.
(v.) Labial. — Breathed, p as in English. Voiced, b as in
English; but occasionally in inscriptions of the later empire v is
written for b, showing that in some cases b had already acquired the
fricative sound of the contemporary /3 (see § 24, iii.). b before a
sharp s was pronounced p, e.g. in urbs. Nasal, m as in English,
but very slightly pronounced at the end of a word. Spirant,
v like the ou in French out, but later approximating to the -u> heard
in some parts of Germany, Ed. Sievers, Grundzuge d. Phonetik, ed. 4,
p. 117, i.e. a labial v, not (like the English v) a labio-dental v.
(vi.) Labio-dental. — Breathed fricative,/as in English.
38. VOWELS. — a, u, i, as the English ah, oo, ee; d, a sound coming
nearer to Eng. aiv than to Eng. d ; e a close Italian e, nearly as the a of
Eng. mate, ee of Fr. passee. The short sound of the vowels was not
always identical in quality with the long sound, a was pronounced
as in the French chatte, « nearly as in Eng. pull, I nearly as in pit, o
as in dot, e_ nearly as in pet. The diphthongs were produced by pro-
nouncing in rapid succession the vowels of which they were com-
posed, according to the above scheme. This gives, au somewhat
broader than ou in house; eu like ow in the " Yankee " pronunciation
of town; ae like the vowel in hat lengthened, with perhaps somewhat
more approximation to the i in wine; oe, a diphthongal sound
approximating to Eng. oi; ui, as the French oui.
To this it should be added that the Classical Association, acting
1 The grounds for this pronunciation will be found best stated in
Postgate, How to pronounce Latin (1907), Arnold and Conway, The
Restored Pronunciation of Greek and Latin (4th ed., Cambridge, 1908) ;
and in the grammars enumerated in § 28 above, especially the preface
to vol. i. of Roby's Grammar. The chief points about c may be briefly
given as a specimen of the kind of evidence, (i) In some words the
letter following c varies in a manner which makes it impossible to
believe that the pronunciation of the c depended upon this, e.g.
decumus and decimus, die from Plaut. dtce; (2) if c was prpnounced
before e and * otherwise than before a, o and u, it is hard to see why
k should not have been retained for the latter use; (3) no ancient
writer gives any hint of a varying pronunciation of c; (4) a Greek K
is always transliterated by c, and c by K; (5) Laan words containing
c borrowed by Gothic and early High German are always spelt with
k; (6) the varying pronunciations of ce, ci in the Romance languages
are inexplicable except as derived independently from an original
he, ki.
LATIN LANGUAGE
251
on the advice of a committee of Latin scholars, has recommended
for the diphthongs ae and oe the pronunciation of English j (really at)
in wine and oi in boil, sounds which they undoubtedly had in the
time of Plautus and probably much later, and which for practical
use in teaching have been proved far the best.
VI. THE LANGUAGE AS RECORDED
39. Passing now to a survey of the condition of the language
at various epochs and in the different authors, we find the
earliest monument of it yet discovered in a donative inscription
on a fibula or brooch found in a tomb of the 7th century B.C.
at Praeneste. It runs " Manios med fhefhaked Numasioi,"
i.e. " Manios made me for Numasios." The use of/ (//;) to denote
the sound of Latin / supplied the explanation of the change of
the symbol / from its Greek value ( = Eng. w) to its Latin value
/, and shows the Chalcidian Greek alphabet in process of adapta-
tion to the needs of Latin (see WRITING). The reduplicated
perfect, its 3rd sing, ending -ed, the dative masculine in -oi
(this is one of the only two recorded examples in Latin), the
-s- between vowels (§ 25, i), and the -a- in what was then (see
§§ 9, 10) certainly an unaccented syllable and the accusative
med, are all interesting marks of antiquity.1
40. The next oldest fragment of continuous Latin is furnished
by a vessel dug up in the valley between the Quirinal and the
Viminal early in 1880. The vessel is of a dark brown clay, and
consists of three small round pots, the sides of which are con-
nected together. All round this vessel runs an inscription,
in three clauses, two nearly continuous, the third written below;
the writing is from right to left, and is still clearly legible; the
characters include one sign not belonging to the later Latin
alphabet, namely ^ for R, while the M has five strokes and the
Q has the form of a Koppa.
The inscription is as follows: —
" iovesat deivos qoi med mitat, nei ted endo cosmis virco sied, asted
noisi opetoitesiai pacari vois.
dvenos med feced en manom einom duenoi ne med malo statod."
The general style of the writing and the phonetic peculiarities
make it fairly certain that this work must have been produced
not later than 300 B.C. Some points in its interpretation are
still open to doubt,2 but the probable interpretation is —
" Deos iurat ille (or iurant ill!) qui me mittat (or mittant) ne in te
Virgo (i.e. Proserpina) comis sit, nisi quidem optimo (?) Theseae (?)
pacari vis. Duenos me fecit contra Manum, Dueno autem ne per me
malum stato ( = imputetur, imponatur)."
" He (or they) who dispatch me binds the gods (by his offer-
ing) that Proserpine shall not be kind to thee unless thou wilt
make terms with (or " for ") Opetos Thesias (?). Duenos
made me against Manus, but let no evil fall to Duenos on my
account."
41. Between these two inscriptions lies in point of date the
famous stele discovered in the Forum in 1899 (G. Boni, Notiz.
d. scan, May 1899). The upper half had been cut off in order
to make way for a new pavement or black stone blocks (known
to archaeologists as the niger lapis} on the site of the comitium,
just to the north-east of the Forum in front of the Senate House.
The inscription was written lengthwise along the (pyramidal)
stele from foot to apex, but with the alternate lines in reverse
directions, and one line not on the full face of any one of the four
sides, but up a roughly-flattened fifth side made by slightly
broadening one of the angles. No single sentence is complete
and the mutilated fragments have given rise to a whole literature
of conjectural " restorations."
1 The inscription was first published by Helbig and Dummler in
Mittheilungen des deutschen archdol. Inst. Rom. ii. 40; since in
C.I.I., xiv. 4123 and Conway, Italic Dial. 280, where other refer-
ences will be found.
2 This inscription was first published by Dressel, Annali dell' Inst.
Archeol. Romano (1880), p. 158, and since then by a multitude of
commentators. The view of the inscription as a curse, translating a
Greek cursing-formula, which has been generally adopted, was first
put forward by R. S. Conway in the American Journal of Philology,
x. (1889), 453; see further his commentary Italic Dialects, p.
329, and since then G. Hempl, Trans. Amer. Philol. Assoc. xxxiii.
(1902), 150, whose interpretation of .iouesat = iurat and Opetoi
Tesiai has been here adopted, and who gives other references.
R. S. Conway examined it in situ in company with F. Skutsch in
1903 (cf. his article in Vollmoller's Jahresbericht, vi. 453), and the
only words that can be regarded as reasonably certain are regei
(regi) on face 2, kalatorem and iouxmenta on face 3, and ioueslod
(iusto) on face 4.* The date may be said to be fixed by the variation of
the sign form between (-Hand y/\ (with Q for r) and other alphabetic
indications which suggest the 5th century B.C. It has been suggested
also that the reason for the destruction of the stele and the repave-
ment may have been either (i) the pollution of the comitium by the
Gallic invasion of 390 B.C., all traces of which, on their departure,
could be best removed by a repaving; or (2) perhaps more probably,
the Augustan restorations (Studniczka, Jahreshejt d. Osterr. Institut,
1903, vi. 129 ff.). (R. S. C.)
42. Of the earlier long inscriptions the most important would be
the Columna Rostrata, or column of Gaius Duilius (g.n.)> erected to
commemorate his victory over the Carthaginians in 260 B.C., but for
the extent to which it has suffered from the hands of restorers.
The shape of the letters plainly shows that the inscription, as we
have it, was cut in the time of the empire. Hence Ritschl and
Mommsen pointed out that the language was modified at the same
time, and that, although many archaisms have been retained, some
were falsely introduced, and others replaced by more modern forms
The most noteworthy features in it are — C always written for G
(CESET —gessit), single for double consonants (clases-classes), d
retained in the ablative (e.g., in altod marid), o for u in inflexions
(piimps, ezfociont = exfugiunt), e for i (navebos = navibus, exemel =
exemit); of these the first is probably an affected archaism, G
having been introduced some time before the assumed date of the
inscription. On the other hand, we have praeda where we should
have expected praida ; no final consonants are dropped ; and the
forms -es, -eis and -is for the accusative plural are interchanged
capriciously. The doubts hence arising preclude the possibility of
using it with confidence as evidence lor the state of the language in
the 3rd century B.C.
43. Of unquestionable genuineness and the greatest value are the
Scipionum Elogia. inscribed on stone coffins, found in the monument
of the Scipios outside the Capene gate (C.I.L.1 i. 32). The earliest
of the family whose epitaph has been preserved is L. Cornelius Scipio
Barbatus (consul 298 B.C.), the latest C. Cornelius Scipio Hispanus
(praetor in 139 B.C.); but there are good reasons for believing with
Ritschl that the epitaph of the first was not contemporary, but was
somewhat later than that of his son (consul 259 B.C.). This last may
therefore be taken as the earliest specimen of any length of Latin
and it was written at Rome; it runs as follows: —
honcoino . ploirume . cosentiont . r[omai]
duonoro . optumo . fuise . uiro [virorum]
luciom . scipione . filips . barbati
co]nsol . censor . aidilis . hie . fuet a \pud vos]
he c . cepit . Corsica . aleriaque . urbejm]
de det . tempestatebus. aide . mereto[d votam],
The archaisms in this inscription are — (i) the retention of o for u
in the inflexion of both nouns and verbs; (2) the diphthongs oi
( = later «) and ai ( = later ae) ; (3) -et for -it, hec for hie, and -ebus
for -ibus; (4) duon- tor ban; and (5) the dropping of a final m in every
case except in Luciom, a variation which is a marked characteristic
of the language of this period.
44. The oldest specimen of the Latin language preserved to us
in any literary source is to be found in two fragments of the Carmina
Saliaria (Varro, De ling. Lat. vii. 26, 27), and one in Terentianus
Scaurus, but they are unfortunately so corrupt as to give us little
real information (see B. Maurenbrecher, Carminum Saliarium
reliquiae, Leipzig, 1894; G. Hempl, American Philol. Assoc.
Transactions, xxxi., 1900, 184). Rather better evidence is supplied
in the Carmen Fratrum Arvalium, which was found in 1778 engraved
on one of the numerous tablets recording the transactions of the
college of the Arval brothers, dug up on the site of their grove by
the Tiber, 5 m. from the city of Rome; but this also has been so
corrupted in its oral tradition that even its general meaning is by
no means clear (C.I.L.1 i. 28; Jordan, Krit. Beitrdge, pp. 203-211).
45. The text of the Twelve Tables (451-450 B.C.), if preserved
in its integrity, would have been invaluable as a record of antique
Latin; but it is known to us only in quotations. R. Schoell,
whose edition and commentary (Leipzig, 1866) is the most
complete, notes the following traces, among others, of an 'archaic
syntax: (i) both the subject and the object of the verb are often
left to be understood from the context, e.g. ni it anlestamino,
igitur, em capita; (2) the imperative is used even for permissions,
" si volet, plus dato," " if he choose, he may give him more ";
(3) the subjunctive is apparently never used in conditional,
3 The most important writings upon it are those of Domenico
Comparetti, Iscriz. arcaica del Foro Romano (Florence-Rome, 1900) ;
Hiilsen, Berl. philolog. Wochenschrift (1899), No. 40; and Thurney-
sen, Rheinisches Museum (Neue Folge), iii. 2. Prof. G. Tropea
gives a Cronaca della discussions in a series of very useful articles in
the Rivista di storia antica (Messina, 1900 and 1901). Skutsch's
article already cited puts the trustworthy results in an exceedingly
brief compass.
252
LATIN LANGUAGE
only in final sentences, but the future perfect is common; (4)
the connexion between sentences is of the simplest kind, and
conjunctions are rare. There are, of course, numerous isolated
archaisms of form and meaning, such as calirilur, pacunt, endo,
escit. Later and less elaborate editions are contained in Fontes
luris Romani, by Bruns-Mommsen-Gradenwitz (1892); and
P. Girard, Textes de droit remain (1895).
46. Turning now to the language of literature we may group
the Latin authors as follows: — *
I. Ante-Classical (240-80 B.C.). — Naevius (? 269-204), Plautus
(254-184), Ennius (230-169), Cato the Elder (234-149), Terentius
(? 195-159), Pacuvius (220-132), Accius (170-94), Lucilius
(? 168-103).
II. Classical — Golden Age (80 B.C.-A.D. 14). — Varro (116-28),
Cicero (106-44), Lucretius (99-55), Caesar (102-44), Catullus
(87-? 47), Sallust (86-34), Virgil (70-19), Horace (65-8), Pro-
pertius (? 50- ?), Tibullus (? 54-? 18), Ovid (43 B.C.-A.D. 18),
Livy (59 B.C.-A.D. 18).
III. Classical — Silver Age (A.D. 14-180). — Velleius (? 19 B.C.—
? A.D. 31), M. Seneca (d. c. A.D. 30), Persius (34-62), Petronius
^d. 66), Lucan (39-65), L. Seneca (d. A.D. 65), Plinius major
(23-A.D. 79), Martial (40-101), Quintilian (42-118), Pliny the
Younger (61-? 113), Tacitus (? 60-? 118), Juvenal (? 47-? 138),
Suetonius (75-160), Pronto, (c. 90-170).
47. Naevius and Plautus. — In Naevius we find archaisms
proportionally much more numerous than in Plautus, especially
in the retention of the original length of vowels, and early forms
of inflexion, such as the genitive in -as and the ablative in -d.
The number of archaic words preserved is perhaps due to the fact
that so large a proportion of his fragments have been preserved
only by the grammarians, who cited them for the express purpose
of explaining these.
Of the language of Plautus important features have already
been mentioned (§§ 10-16); for its more general characteristics
see PLAUTUS.
48. Ennius. — The language of Ennius deserves especial study
because of the immense influence which he exerted in fixing the
literary style. He first established the rule that in hexameter
verse all vowels followed by two consonants (except in the case
of a mute and a liquid), or a double consonant, must be treated
as lengthened by position. The number of varying quantities
is also much diminished, and the elision of final -m becomes .the
rule, though not without exceptions. On the other hand he very
commonly retains the original length of verbal terminations
(esset, faciel) and of nominatives in or and a, and elides final
s before an initial consonant. In declension he never uses -ae
as the genitive, but -ai or -as; the older and shorter form of the
gen. plur. is -um in common; obsolete forms of pronouns are
used, as mis, olli, sum ( = eum), sas, sos, sapsa; and in verbal
inflexion there are old forms like morimur (§ i5),/0Amu (f 17, vi.),
potestur (cf. § 5, iv.). Some experiments in the way of tmesis
(saxo cere comminuit-brum) and apocope (divum domus altisonum
cael, replel te laelificum gau) were happily regarded as failures,
and never came into real use. His syntax is simple and straight-
forward, with the occasional pleonasmslof a rude style, and con-
junctions are comparatively rare. From this time forward the
literary language of Rome parted company with the popular
dialect. Even to the classical writers Latin was in a certain
sense a dead language. Its vocabulary was not identical with
that of ordinary life. Now and again a writer would lend new
vigour to his style by phrases and constructions drawn from
homely speech. But on the whole, and in ever-increasing
measure, the language of literature was the language of the
schools, adapted to foreign models. The genuine current of
Italian speech is almost lost to view with Plautus and Terence,
and reappears clearly only in the semi-barbarous products of
the early Romance literature.
49. Pacuvius, Accius and Lucilius. — Pacuvius is noteworthy
especially for his attempt to introduce a free use of compounds
after the fashion of the Greek, which were felt in the classical
1 For further information see special articles on these authors,
and LATIN LITERATURE.
times to be unsuited to the genius of the Latin language,
Quintilian censures severely his line —
Nerei repandirostrum incurvicervicum pecus.
Accius, though probably the greatest of the Roman tragedians,
is only preserved in comparatively unimportant fragments.
We know that he paid much attention to grammar and ortho-
graphy; and his language is much more finished than that of
Ennius. It shows no marked archaisms of form, unless the
infinitive in -ier is to be accounted as such.
Lucilius furnishes a specimen of the language of the period,
free from the restraints of tragic diction and the imitation of
Greek originals. Unfortunately the greater part of his fragments
are preserved only by a grammarian whose text is exceptionally
corrupt; but they leave no doubt as to the justice of the criticism
passed by Horace on his careless and " muddy " diction. The
urbanitas which is with one accord conceded to him by ancient
critics seems to indicate that his style was free from the taint of
provincial Latinity, and it may be regarded as reproducing the
language of educated circles in ordinary life; the numerous
Graecisms and Greek quotations with which it abounds show the
familiarity of his readers with the Greek language and literature.
Varro ascribes to him the gracile genus dicendi, the distinguishing
features of which were venustas and subtilitas. Hence it appears
that his numerous archaisms were regarded as in no way in-
consistent with grace and precision of diction. But it may be
remembered that Varro was himself something of an archaizer,
and also that the grammarians' quotations may bring this aspect
too much into prominence. Lucilius shares with the comic poets
the use of many plebeian expressions, the love for diminutives,
abstract terms and words of abuse; but occasionally he borrows
from the more elevated style of Ennius forms like simitu ( = simul),
noenu ( = non),/acw/ ( = facile), and the genitive in -ai, and he
ridicules the contemporary tragedians for their zetemalia, their
high-flown diction and sesquipedalia verba, which make the
characters talk " not like men but like portents, flying winged
snakes." In his ninth book he discusses questions of grammar,
and gives some interesting facts as to the tendencies of the
language. For instance, when he ridicules a praetor urbanus
for calling himself pretor, we see already the intrusion of the
rustic degradation of ae into e, which afterwards became universal.
He shows a great command of technical language, and (partly
owing to the nature of the fragments) a7ra£ Xey6juej/a are very
numerous.
50. Cato. — The treatise of Cato the elder, De re rustica,
would have afforded invaluable material, but it has unfortunately
come down to us in a text greatly modernized, which is more of
interest from the point of view of literature than of language.
We find in it, however, instances of the accusative with uti, of
the old imperative praefamino and of the fut. sub. servassis,
prohibessis and such interesting subjunctive constructions as
data bubus bibant omnibus, " give all the oxen (water) to drink."
51. Growth of Latin Prose. — It is unfortunately impossible to
trace the growth of Latin prose diction through its several stages
with the same clearness as in the case of poetry. The fragments
of the earlier Latin prose writers are too scanty for us to be
able to say with certainty when and how a formed prose style
was created. But the impulse to it was undoubtedly given in
the habitual practice of oratory. The earliest orators, like
Cato, were distinguished for strong common sense, biting wit
and vigorous language, rather than for any graces of style; and
probably personal aucloritas was of far more account than rhetoric
both in the law courts and in the assemblies of the people. The
first public speaker, according to Cicero, who aimed at a polished
style and elaborate periods was M. Aemilius Lepidus Porcina,
in the middle of the 2nd century B.C.2 On his model the Gracchi
and Carbo fashioned themselves, and, if we may judge from the
fragments of the orations of C. Gracchus which are preserved,
there were few traces of archaism remaining. A more perfect
example of the urbanitas at which good speakers aimed was
supplied by a famous speech of C. Fannius against C. Gracchus,
1 Cicero also refers to certain scripta dulcissima of the son of Scipio
Africanus Maior, which must have possessed some merits of style.
LATIN LANGUAGE
253
which Cicero considered the best oration of the time. No small
part of the urbanitas consisted in a correct urban pronunciation;
and the standard of this was found in the language of the women
of the upper classes, such as Laelia and Cornelia.
In the earliest continuous prose work which remains to us
the four books De Rhetorica ad Herennium, we find the language
already almost indistinguishable from that of Cicero. There has
been much discussion as to the authorship of this work, now
commonly, without very convincing reasons, ascribed to Q. Corni-
ficius; but, among the numerous arguments which prove that
it cannot have been the work of Cicero, none has been adduced
of any importance drawn from the character of the language.
It is worth while noticing that not only is the style in itself
perfectly finished, but the treatment of the subject of style,
elocutio (iv. 12. 17), shows the pains which had already been
given to the question. The writer lays down three chief re-
quisites— (i) elegantia, (2) compositio and (3) dignitas. Under
the first come Latinitas, a due avoidance of solecisms and barbar-
isms, and explanatio, clearness, the employment of familiar and
appropriate expressions. The second demands a proper arrange-
ment; hiatus, alliteration, rhyme, the repetition or displacement
of words, and too long sentences are all to be eschewed. Dignity
depends upon the selection of language and of sentiments.
52. Characteristics of Latin Prose. — Hence we see that by the
time of Cicero Latin prose was fully developed. We may, there-
fore, pause here to notice the characteristic qualities of the
language at its most perfect stage. The Latin critics were
themselves fully conscious of the broad distinction in character
between their own language and the Greek. Seneca dwells
upon the stately and dignified movement of the Latin period,
and uses for Cicero the happy epithet of gradarius. He allows
to the Greeks gratia, but claims potentia for his own countrymen.
Quintilian (xii. 10. 27 seq.) concedes to Greek more euphony and
variety both of vocalization and of accent; he admits that
Latin words are harsher in sound, and often less happily adapted
to the expression of varying shades of meaning. But he too
claims " power " as the distinguishing mark of his own language.
Feeble thought may be carried off by the exquisite harmony and
subtleness of Greek diction; his countrymen must aim at fulness
and weight of ideas if they are not to be beaten off the field.
The Greek authors are like lightly moving skiffs; the Romans
spread wider sails and are wafted by stronger breezes; hence
the deeper waters suit them. It is not that the Latin language
fails to respond to the calls made upon it. Lucretius and Cicero
concur, it is true, in complaints of the poverty of their native
language; but this was only because they had had no prede-
cessors in the task of adapting it to philosophic utterance;
and the long life of Latin technical terms like qualilas, species,
genus, ratio, shows how well the need was met when it arose.
H. A. J. Munro has said admirably of this very period: —
" The living Latin for all the higher forms of composition, both
prose and verse, was a far nobler language than the living Greek.
During the long period of Grecian pre-eminence and literary glory,
from Homer to Demosthenes, all the manifold forms of poetry and
prose which were invented one after the other were brought to such
exquisite perfection that their beauty of form and grace of language
were never afterwards rivalled by Latin or any other people. But
hardly had Demosthenes and Aristotle ceased to live when that
Attic which had been gradually formed into such a noble instrument
of thought in the hands of Aristophanes, Euripides, Plato and the
orators, and had superseded for general use all the other dialects,
became at the same time the language of the civilized world and was
stricken with a mortal decay. . . . Epicurus, who was born in the
same year as Menander, writes a harsh jargon that does not deserve
to be called a style; and others of whose writings anything is left
entire or in fragments, historians and philosophers alike, Polybius,
Chrysippus, Philodemus, are little if any better. When Cicero deigns
to translate any of their sentences, see what grace and life he instils
into their clumsily expressed thoughts, how satisfying to the ear and
taste are the periods of Livy when he is putting into Latin the heavy
and uncouth clauses of Polybius ! This may explain what Cicero
means when at one time he gives to Greek the preference over
Latin, at another to Latin over Greek; in reading Sophocles or
Plato he could acknowledge their unrivalled excellence; in trans-
lating Panaetius or Philodemus he would feel his own immeasurable
superiority."
The greater number of long syllables, combined with the
paucity of diphthongs and the consequent monotony of vocaliza-
tion, and the uniformity of the accent, lent a weight and dignity of
movement to the language which well suited the national gravitas.
The precision of grammatical rules and the entire absence of
dialectic forms from the written literature contributed to maintain
the character of unity which marked the Roman republic as com-
pared with the multiplicity of Greek states. It was remarked by
Francis Bacon that artistic and imaginative nations indulge freely
in verbal compounds, practical nations in simple concrete terms.
In this respect, too, Latin contrasts with Greek. The attempts
made by some of the earlier poets to indulge in novel compounds
was felt to be out of harmony with the genius of the language.
Composition, though necessarily employed, was kept within
narrow limits, and the words thus produced have a sharply
defined meaning, wholly unlike the poetical vagueness of some
of the Greek compounds. The vocabulary of the language, though
receiving accessions from time to time in accordance with practical
needs, was rarely enriched by the products of a spontaneous
creativeness. In literature the taste of the educated town
circles gave the law; and these, trained in the study of the Greek
masters of style, required something which should reproduce
for them the harmony of the Greek period. Happily the orators
who gave form to Latin prose were able to meet the demand
without departing from the spirit of their own language.1
53. Cicero and Caesar. — To Cicero especially the Romans
owed the realization of what was possible to their language
in the way of artistic finish of style. He represents a protest
at one and the same time against the inroads of the plebeius
sermo, vulgarized by the constant influx of non-Italian provincials
into Rome, and the " jargon of spurious and partial culture "
in vogue among the Roman pupils of the Asiatic rhetoricians.
His essential service was to have caught the tone and style of
the true Roman urbanitas, and to have fixed it in extensive and
widely read speeches and treatises as the final model of classical
prose. The influence of Caesar was wholly in the same direction.
His cardinal principle was that every new-fangled and affected
expression, from whatever quarter it might come, should be
avoided by the writer, as rocks by the mariner. His own style
for straightforward simplicity and purity has never been sur-
passed; and it is not without full reason that Cicero and Caesar
are regarded as the models of classical prose. But, while they
fixed the type of the best Latin, they did not and could not alter
its essential character. In subtlety, in suggest iveness, in many-
sided grace and versatility, it remained far inferior to the Greek.
But for dignity and force, for cadence and rhythm, for clearness
and precision, the best Latin prose remains unrivalled.
It is needless to dwell upon the grammar or vocabulary of
Cicero. His language is universally taken as the normal type of
Latin; and, as hitherto the history of the language has been
traced by marking differences from his usage, so the same method
may be followed for what remains.
54. Varro, " the most learned of the ancients," a friend and
contemporary of Cicero, seems to have rejected the periodic
rhythmical style of Cicero, and to have fallen back upon a more
archaic structure. Mommsen says of one passage " the clauses
of the sentence are arranged on the thread of the relative like
dead thrushes on a string." But, in spite (some would say,
because) of his old-fashioned tendencies, his language shows
great vigour and spirit. In his Menippean satires he intentionally
made free use of plebeian expressions, while rising at times to
a real grace and showing often fresh humour. His treatise De Re
Rustica, in the form of a dialogue, is the most agreeable of his
works, and where the nature of his subject allows it there is
1 The study of the rhythm of the Clausulae, i.e. of the last dozen
(or half-dozen) syllables of a period in different Latin authors, has
been remarkably developed in the last three years, and is of the
highest importance for the criticism of Latin prose. It is only
possible to refer to Th. Zielinski's Das Clauselgesetz in Cicero's Reden
(St. Petersburg, 1904), reviewed by A. C. Clark in Classical Review,
1905, p. 164, and to F. Skutsch's important comments in Vollmoller's
Jahresberichten iiber die Fortschritte der romanischen Philologie (1905)
and Glotta (i. 1908, esp. p. 413), also to A. C. Clark's Fontes Prosae
Numerosae (Oxford, 1909), The Cursus in Mediaeval and Vulgar
Latin (ibid. 1910), and article CICERO.
254
LATIN LANGUAGE
much vivacity and dramatic picturesqueness, although the
precepts are necessarily given in a terse and abrupt form. His
sentences are as a rule co-ordinated, with but few connecting
links; his diction contains many antiquated or unique words.
55. Sallust. — In Sallust, a younger contemporary of Cicero,
we have the earliest complete specimen of historical narrative.
It is probably due to his subject-matter, at least in part, that his
style is marked by frequent archaisms; but something must
be ascribed to intentional imitation of the earlier chroniclers,
which led him to be called priscorum Catonisque •uerborum
ineruditissimus fur. His archaisms consist partly of words and
phrases used in a sense for which we have only early authorities,
e.g. cum animo habere, &c., animos tollere, bene factum, consultor,
prosapia, dolus, venenum, obsequela, inquies, sallere, occipere,
collibeo, and the like, where we may notice especially the fondness
for frequentatives, which he shares with the early comedy;
partly in inflections which were growing obsolete, such as senati,
solui, comperior (dep.), neglegisset, vis (ace. pi.) nequitur. In
syntax his constructions are for the most part those of the
contemporary writers.
56. Lucretius is largely archaic in his style. We find im for
turn, endo for in, illae, ullae, unae and aliae as genitives, olid
for aliud, rabies as a genitive by the side of genitives in -ai,
ablatives in -i like colli, orbi, parti, nominatives in s for r, like
tolas, iiapos, humos. In verbs there are scatit, fulgit, quaesil,
<:onfluxet=confluxisset, recesse = recessisse, induiacere for inicere;
simple forms like fligere, lacere, cedere, stinguere for the more
usual compounds, the infinitive passive in -ier, and archaic
forms from esse like siet, escit, fuat. Sometimes he indulges
in tmesis which reminds us of Ennius: inque pediri, disque
supata, ordia prima. But this archaic tinge is adopted only for
poetical purposes, and as a proof of his devotion to the earlier
masters of his art; it does not affect the general substance of
his style, which is of the freshest and most vigorous stamp.
But the purity of his idiom is not gained by any slavish adherence
to a recognized vocabulary: he coins words freely; Munro
has noted more than a hundred a7ra£ \fy6neva, or words which
he alone among good writers uses. Many of these are formed
on familiar models, such as compounds and frequentatives;
others are directly borrowed from the Greek apparently with a
view to sweetness of rhythm (ii. 412, v. 334, 505); others again
(forty or more in number) are compounds of a kind which
the classical language refused to adopt, such as silvifragus,
terriloquus, perterricrepus. He represents not so much a stage
in the history of the language as a protest against the tendencies
fashionable in his own time. But his influence was deep upon
Virgil, and through him upon all subsequent Latin literature.
57. Catullus gives us the type of the language of the cultivated
circles, lifted into poetry by the simple directness with which
it is used to express emotion. In his heroic and elegiac poems
he did not escape the influence of the Alexandrian school, and
his genius is ill suited for long-continued flights; but in his
lyrical poems his language is altogether perfect. As Macaulay
says: " No Latin writer is so Greek. The simplicity, the pathos,
the perfect grace, which I find in the great Athenian models are
all in Catullus, and in him alone of the Romans." The language
of these poems comes nearest perhaps to that of Cicero's more
intimate letters. It is full of colloquial idioms and familiar
language, of the diminutives of affection or of playfulness.
Greek words are rare, especially in the lyrics, and those which
are employed are only such as had come to be current coin.
Archaisms are but sparingly introduced; but for metrical
reasons he has four instances of the inf. pass., in -ier, and several
contracted forms; we find also alls and olid, uni (gen.), and the
antiquated letuli and recepso. There are traces of the popular
language in the shortened imperatives cave and mane, in the
analytic perfect paratam habes, and in the use of unus approaching
that of the indefinite article.
58. Horace. — The poets of the Augustan age mark the opening
of a new chapter in the history of the Latin language. The
influence of Horace was less than that of his friend and con-
temporary Virgil; for Horace worked in a field of his own, and,
although Statius imitated his lyrics, and Persius and Juvenal,
especially the former, his satires, on the whole there are few
traces of any deep marks left by him on the language of later
writers. In his Satires and Epistles the diction is that of the
contemporary urbanitas, differing hardly at all from that of
Cicero in his epistles and dialogues. The occasional archaisms,
such as the syncope in erepsemus, evasse, surrexe, the infinitives
in -ier, and the genitives deum, divum, may be explained as still
conversationally allowable, though ceasing to be current in
literature; and a similar explanation may account for plebeian
terms, e.g. balatro, blatero, giarrio, mutto, iiappa, caldus, soldus,
surpite, for the numerous diminutives, and for such pronouns,
adverbs, conjunctions and turns of expression as were common
in prose, but not found, or found but rarely, in elevated poetry.
Greek words are used sparingly, not with the licence which he
censures in Lucilius, and in his hexameters are framed according
to Latin rules. In the Odes, on the other hand, the language is
much more precisely limited. There are practically no archaisms
(spargier in Carm. iv. n. 8 is a doubtful exception), or plebeian
expressions; Greek inflections are employed, but not with the
licence of Catullus; there are no datives in t or sin like T ethyl
or Dryasin; Greek constructions are fairly numerous, e.g. the
genitive with verbs like regnare, abstinere, desinere, and with
adjectives, as integer vitae, the so-called Greek accusative, the
dative with verbs of contest, like luctari, decertare, the transitive
use of many intransitive verbs in the past participle, as regnatus,
triumphatus; and finally there is a " prolative " use of the
infinitive after verbs and adjectives, where prose would have
employed other constructions, which, though not limited to
Horace, is more common with him than with other poets.
Compounds are very sparingly employed, and apparently only
when sanctioned by authority. His own innovations in voca-
bulary are not numerous. About eighty aira£ \eybneva have
been noted. Like Virgil, he shows his exquisite skill in the use
of language rather in the selection from already existing stores,
than in the creation of new resources: tatitum series iuncluraque
pallet. But both his diction and his syntax left much less marked
traces upon succeeding writers than did those of either Virgil
or Ovid.
59. Virgil. — In Virgil the Latin language reached its full
maturity. What Cicero was to the period, Virgil was to the
hexameter; indeed the changes that he wrought were still
more marked, inasmuch as the language of verse admits of
greater subtlety and finish than even the most artistic prose.
For the straightforward idiomatic simplicity of Lucretius and
Catullus he substituted a most exact and felicitous diction, rich
with the suggestion of the most varied sources of inspiration.
Sometimes it is a phrase of Homer's "conveyed" literally with
happy boldness, sometimes it is a line of Ennius, or again some
artistic Sophoclean combination. Virgil was equally familiar
with the great Greek models of style and with the earlier Latin
poets. This learning, guided by an unerring sense of fitness and
harmony, enabled him to give to his diction a music which recalls
at once the fullest tones of the Greek lyre and the lofty strains
of the most genuinely national song. His love of antiquarianism
in language has often been noticed, but it never passes into
pedantry. His vocabulary and constructions are often such as
would have conveyed to his contemporaries a grateful flavour of
the past, but they would never have been unintelligible. Forms
like iusso, olle or admittier can have delayed no one.
In the details of syntax it is difficult to notice any peculiarly
Virgilian points, for the reason that his language, like that of
Cicero, became the canon, departures from which were accounted
irregularities. But we may notice as favourite constructions a
free use of oblique cases in the place of the more definite con-
struction with prepositions usual in prose, e.g. it clamor caelo,
flet noctem, rivis currentia vina, bacchatam iugis Naxon, and many
similar phrases; the employment of some substantives as
adjectives, like venator canis, and vice versa, as plurimusvolilans;
a proleptic use of adjectives, as tristia torquebit; idioms involving
ille, atque, deinde, hand, quin, vix, and the frequent occurrence of
passive verbs in their earlier reflexive sense, as induor, velar, pascor.
LATIN LANGUAGE
255
60. Liiiy. — In the singularly varied and beautiful style of
Livy we find Latin prose in rich maturity. To a training in the
rhetorical schools, and perhaps professional experience as a
teacher of rhetoric, he added a thorough familiarity with con-
temporary poetry and with the Greek language; and these
attainments have all deeply coloured his language. It is probable
that the variety of style naturally suggested by the wide range
of his subject matter was increased by a half-unconscious
adoption of the phrases and constructions of the different
authorities whom he followed in different parts of his work;
and the industry of German critics has gone far to demonstrate
a conclusion likely enough in itself. Hence perhaps comes the
fairly long list of archaisms, especially in formulae (cf . Kiihnast,
Liv. Synt. pp. 14-18). These are, however, purely isolated
phenomena, which do not affect the general tone. It is different
with the poetical constructions and Graecisms, which appear on
every page. Of the latter we find numerous instances in the use
of the cases, e.g. in genitives like via praedae omissae, oppidum
Antiochiae, aequum campi; in datives like quibusdam volentibus
erat; in accusatives like iurare calumniam, certare mullam; an
especially frequent use of transitive verbs absolutely; and the
constant omission of the reflexive pronoun as the subject of an
infinitive in reported speech. To the same source must be
assigned the very frequent pregnant construction with preposi-
tions, an attraction of relatives, and the great extension of the
employment of relative adverbs of place instead of relative
pronouns, e.g. quo = in quern. Among his poetical characteristics
we may place the extensive list of words which are found for the
first time in his works and in those of Virgil or Ovid, and perhaps
his common use of concrete words for collective, e.g. eques for
equitatus, of abstract terms such as remigium, servitia, robora,
and of frequentative verbs, to say nothing of poetical phrases like
haec ubi dicta ded.it, adversum monlium, &c. Indications of the
extended use of the subjunctive, which he shares with con-
temporary writers, especially poets, are found in the construction
of ante quam, post quam with this mood, even when there is no
underlying notion of anticipation, of donee, and of cum meaning
" whenever." On the other hand, forsitan and quamms, as in the
poets, are used with the indicative in forgetfulness of their
original force. Among his individual peculiarities may be
noticed the large number of verbal nouns in -tus (for which
Cicero prefers forms in -tio) and in -tor, and the extensive use
of the past passive participle to replace an abstract substantive,
e.g. ex dictatorio imperio concusso. In the arrangement of words
Livy is much more free than any previous prose writer, aiming,
like the poets, at the most effective order. His periods are con-
structed with less regularity than those of Cicero, but they gain
at least as much in variety and energy as they lose in uniformity
of rhythm and artistic finish. His style cannot be more fitly
described than in the language of Quintilian, who speaks of his
mira iucundilas and lactea ubertas.
61. Propertius. — The language of Propertius is too distinctly
his own to call for detailed examination here. It cannot be
taken as a specimen of the great current of the Latin language;
it is rather a tributary springing from a source apart, tinging
to some slight extent the stream into which it pours itself, but
soon ceasing to affect it in any perceptible fashion. " His
obscurity, his indirectness and his incoherence " (to adopt the
words of J. P. Postgate) were too much out of harmony with
the Latin taste for him to be regarded as in any sense representa-
tive; sometimes he seems to be hardly writing Latin at all.
Partly from his own strikingly independent genius, partly from
his profound and not always judicious study of the Alexandrian
writers, his poems abound in phrases and constructions which
are without a parallel in Latin poetry. His archaisms and
Graecisms, both in diction and in syntax, are very numerous;
but frequently there is a freedom in the use of cases and pre-
positions which can only be due to bold and independent innova-
tions. His style well deserves a careful study for its own sake
(cf. J. P. Postgate's Introduction, pp. Ivii.-cxxv.) ; but it is of
comparatively little significance in the history of the language.
62. Ovid. — The brief and few poems of Tibullus supply only
what is given much more fully in the works of Ovid. In these
we have the language recognized as that best fitted for poetry
by the fashionable circles in the later years of Augustus. The
style of Ovid bears many traces of the imitation of Virgil, Horace
and Propertius, but it is not less deeply affected by the rhetoric
of the schools. His never-failing fertility of fancy and command
of diction often lead him into a diffuseness which mars the effect
of his best works; according to Quintilian it was only in his
(lost) tragedy of Medea that he showed what real excellence he
might have reached if he had chosen to control his natural
powers. His influence on later poets was largely for evil; if he
taught them smoothness of versification and polish of language,
he also co-operated powerfully with the practice of recitation to
lead them to aim at rhetorical point and striking turns of ex-
pression, instead of a firm grasp of a subject as a whole, and due
subordination of the several parts to the general impression.
Ovid's own influence on language was not great; he took the
diction of poetry as he found it, formed by the labours of his
predecessors; the conflict between the archaistic and the
Graecizing schools was already settled in favour of the latter;
and all that he did was to accept the generally accepted models
as supplying the material in moulding which his luxuriant fancy
could have free play. He has no deviations from classical
syntax but those which were coming into fashion in his time
(e.g. jorsilan and quamms with the indie., the dative of the agent
with passive verbs, the ablative for the accusative of time, the
infinitive after adjectives like certus, aptus, &c.), and but few
peculiarities in his vocabulary. It is only in the letters from the
Pontus that laxities of construction are detected, which show
that the purity of his Latin was impaired by his residence away
from Rome, and perhaps by increasing carelessness of com-
position.
63. The Latin of Daily Life. — While the leading writers of the
Ciceronian and Augustan eras enable us to trace the gradual
development of the Latin language to its utmost finish as an
instrument of literary expression, there are some less important
authors who supply valuable evidence of the character of the
sermo plebeius. Among them may be placed the authors of the
Bellum Africanum and the Bellum Hispaniense appended to
Caesar's Commentaries. These are not only far inferior to the
exquisite urbanitas of Caesar's own writings; they are much
rougher in style even than the less polished Bellum Alexandrinum
and De Bella Gallico Liber VIII., which are now with justice
ascribed to Hirtius. There is sufficient difference between the
two to justify us in assuming two different authors; but both
freely employ words and constructions which are at once anti-
quated and vulgar. The writer of the Bellum Alexandrinum
uses a larger number of diminutives within his short treatise
than Caesar in nearly ten times the space; poslquam and ubi
are used with the pluperfect subjunctive; there are numerous
forms unknown to the best Latin, like trislimonia, exporrigere,
cruciabiliter and convulnero; potior is followed by the accusative,
a simple relative by the subjunctive. There is also a very
common use of the pluperfect for the imperfect, which seems a
mark of this plebeius sermo (Nipperdey, Quaest. Caes.pp. 13-30).
Another example of what we may call the Latin of business life is
supplied by Vitruvius. Besides the obscurity of many of his technical
expressions, there is a roughness and looseness in his language, far
removed from a literary style; he shares the incorrect use of the
pluperfect, and uses plebeian forms like calefaciuntur, faciliter,
expertiones and such careless phrases as rogavit Archimedem uti in
se sumeret sibi de eo cogitationem. At a somewhat later stage we
have, not merely plebeian, but also provincial Latin represented in
the Satyricon of Petronius. The narrative and the poems which are
introduced into it are written in a style distinguished only by the
ordinary peculiarities of silver Latinity; but in the numerous
conversations the distinctions of language appropriate to the various
speakers are accurately preserved; and we have in the talk of the
slaves and provincials a perfect storehouse of words and construc-
tions of the greatest linguistic value. Among the unclassical forms
and constructions may be noticed masculines like fatus, vinus,
balneus, fericulus and lactem (for lac}, striga for strix, gaudimonium
and tristimonium, sanguen, manducare, nutricare, molestare, nesapius
(sapius = Fr. sage), rostrum (=os), ipsimus ( = master), scordalias,
baro, and numerous diminutives like camella, audaculus, potiuncula.
256
LATIN LANGUAGE
savunculum, offla, peduclus, corcillum, with constructions such as
maledicere and persuadere with the accusative, and adiutare with the
dative, and the deponent forms pudeatur and ridetur. Of especial
interest for the Romance languages are astrum (desastre), berbex
(brebis), botellus (boyau), improperare, muttus, nattfragare.
Suetonius (Aug. c. 87) gives an interesting selection of plebeian
words employed in conversation by Augustus, who for the rest was
something of a purist in his written utterances: ponit assidue et pro
slulto baceolum, et pro pullo pulleiaceum, et pro cerrito vacerrosum, et
vapide se habere pro male, et betizare pro languere, quod vulgo lachani-
zare dicitur.
The inscriptions, especially those of Pompeii, supply abundant
evidence of the corruptions both of forms and of pronunciation
common among the vulgar. It is not easy always to determine
whether a mutilated form is evidence of a letter omitted in pro-
nunciation, or only in writing; but it is clear that the ordinary man
habitually dropped final m, s, and t, omitted n before s, and pro-
nounced i like e. There are already signs of the decay of ae to e,
which later on became almost universal. The additions to our
vocabulary are slight and unimportant (cf. Corpus Inscr. Lat. iv.,
with Zangemeister's Indices).
64. To turn to the language of literature. In the dark days
of Tiberius and the two succeeding emperors a paralysis seemed
to have come upon prose and poetry alike. With the one ex-
ception of oratory, literature had long been the utterance of a
narrow circle, not the expression of the energies of national life;
and now, while all free speech in the popular assemblies was
silenced, the nobles were living under a suspicious despotism,
which, whatever the advantage which it brought to the poorer
classes and to the provincials, was to them a reign of terror.
It is no wonder that the fifty years after the accession of Tiberius
are a blank as regards all higher literature. Velleius Paterculus,
Valerius Maximus, Celsus and Phaedrus give specimens of the
Latin of the time, but the style of no one of these, classical for
the most part in vocabulary, but occasionally approaching the
later usages in syntax, calls for special analysis. The elder
Seneca in his collection of suasoriae and controversiae supplies
examples of the barren quibblings by which the young Romans
were trained in the rhetorical schools. A course of instruction,
which may have been of service when its end was efficiency in
active public life, though even then not without its serious draw-
backs, as is shown by Cicero in his treatise De Oratore, became
seriously injurious when its object was merely idle display.
Prose came to be overloaded with ornament, and borrowed too
often the language, though not the genius, of poetry; while
poetry in its turn, partly owing to the fashion of recitation,
became a string of rhetorical points.
65. Seneca, Persius and Lucan. — In the writers of Nero's age
there are already plain indications of the evil effects of the
rhetorical schools upon language as well as literature. The
leading man of letters was undoubtedly Seneca the younger,
"the Ovid of prose"; and his style set the model which it
became the fashion to imitate. But it could not commend itself
to the judgment of sound critics like Quintilian, who held firmly
to the great masters of an earlier time. He admits its brilliance,
and the fertility of its pointed reflections, but charges the author
justly with want of self-restraint, jerkiness, frequent repetitions
and tawdry tricks of rhetoric. Seneca was the worst of models,
and pleased by his very faults. In his tragedies the rhetorical
elaboration of the style only serves to bring into prominence
the frigidity and frequent bad taste of the matter. But his
diction is on the whole fairly classical; he is, in the words of
Muretus, vetusti sermonis diligentior quam quidam ineplefastidiosi
suspicantur. In Persius there is a constant straining after
rhetorical effect, which fills his verses with harsh and obscure
expressions. The careful choice of diction by which his master
Horace makes every word tell is exaggerated into an endeavour
to gain force and freshness by the most contorted phrases. The
sin of allusiveness is fostered by the fashion of the day for
epigram, till his lines are barely intelligible after repeated read-
ing. Conington happily suggested that this style was assumed
only for satiric purposes, and pointed out that when not writing
satire Persius was as simple and unaffected as Horace himself.
This view, while it relieves Persius of much of the censure
which has been directed against his want of judgment, makes
him all the more typical a representative of this stage of silver
Latinity. In his contemporary Lucan we have another example
of the faults of a style especially attractive to the young, handled
by a youth of brilliant but ill-disciplined powers. The Pharsalia
abounds in spirited rhetoric, in striking epigram, in high sounding
declamation; but there are no flights of sustained imagination,
no ripe wisdom, no self-control in avoiding the exaggerated or
the repulsive, no mature philosophy of life or human destiny.
Of all the Latin poets he is the least Virgilian. It has been said
of him that he corrupted the style of poetry, not less than Seneca
that of prose.
66. Pliny, Quintilian, Frontinus.—In the elder Pliny the same
tendencies are seen occasionally breaking out in the midst of the
prosaic and inartistic form in which he gives out the stores of his
cumbrous erudition. Wherever he attempts a loftier tone than
that of the mere compiler, he falls into the tricks of Seneca.
The nature of his encyclopaedic subject matter naturally makes
his vocabulary very extensive; but in syntax and general tone
of language he does not differ materially from contemporary
writers. Quintilian is of interest especially for the sound judg-
ment which led him to a true appreciation of the writers of
Rome's golden age. He set himself strenuously to resist the
tawdry rhetoric fashionable in his own time, and to hold up
before his pupils purer and loftier models. His own criticisms
are marked by excellent taste, and often by great happiness of
expression, which is pointed without being unduly epigrammatic.
But his own style did not escape, as indeed it hardly could, the
influences of his time; and in many small points his language
falls short of classical purity. There is more approach to the
simplicity of the best models in Frontinus, who furnishes a
striking proof that it was rather the corruption of literary taste
than any serious change in the language of ordinary cultivated
men to which the prevalent style was due. Writing on practical
matters — the art of war and the water-supply of Rome — he goes
straight to the point without rhetorical flourishes; and the
ornaments of style which he occasionally introduces serve to
embellish but not to distort his thought.
67. The Flavian Age. — The epic poets of the Flavian age
present a striking contrast to the writers of the Claudian period.
As a strained originality was the cardinal fault of the one school,
so a tame and slavish following of 'authority is the mark of
the other. The general correctness of this period may perhaps
be ascribed (with Merivale) partly to the political conditions,
partly to the establishment of professional schools. Teachers
like Quintilian must have done much to repress extravagance
of thought and language; but they could not kindle the spark
of genius. Valerius Flaccus, Silius Italicus and Papinius Statius
are all correct in diction and in rhythm, and abound in learning;
but their inspiration is drawn from books and not from nature or
the heart; details are elaborated to the injury of the impression
of the whole; every line is laboured, and overcharged with
epigrammatic rhetoric. Statius shows by far the greatest
natural ability and freshness; but he attempts to fill a broad
canvas with drawing and colouring suited only to a miniature.
Juvenal exemplifies the tendencies of the language of his time,
as moulded by a singularly powerful mind. A careful study of
the earlier poets, especially Virgil and Lucan, has kept his
language up to a high standard of purity. His style is eminently
rhetorical; but it is rhetoric of real power. The concise brevity
by which it is marked seems to have been the result of a deliberate
attempt to mould his natural diffuseness into the form recognized
as most appropriate for satire. In his verses we notice a few
metrical peculiarities which represent the pronunciation of his
age, especially the shortening of the final -o in verbs, but as a
rule they conform to the Virgilian standard. In Martial the
tendency of this period to witty epigram finds its most perfect
embodiment, combined with finished versification.
68. Pliny the Younger and Tacitus. — The typical prose-writers
of this time are Pliny the younger and Tacitus. Some features
of the style of Tacitus are peculiar to himself; but on the whole
the following statement represents the tendencies shared in
greater or less degree by all the writers of this period. The
gains lie mainly in the direction of a more varied and occasionally
LATIN LITERATURE
257
more effective syntax; its most striking defect is a lack of
harmony in the periods, of arrangements in words, of variety
in particles arising from the loose connexion of sentences The
vocabulary is extended, but there are losses as well as gains.
Quintilian's remarks are fully borne out by the evidence of
extant authorities: on the one hand, quid quod nihil iam proprium
placet, dum parum creditur disertum, quod el alms dixisset (viii.
prooem. 24) ; a corruplissimo quoque poetarum figuras seu transla-
tiones mutuamur; turn demum ingeniosi scilicet, si ad intelligendos
nos opus sit ingenio (ib. 25); sordet omne quod natura dictavit
(ib. 26); on the other hand, nunc ulique, cum haec exercitatio
procul a veritate seiuncta laboret incredibili verborum fastidio, ac
sibi magnam partem sermonis absciderit (viii. 3, 23), multa cotidie
ab anliquis ficla moriuntur (ib. 6, 32). A writer like Suetonius
therefore did good service in introducing into his writings terms
and phrases borrowed, not from the rhetoricians, but from the
usage of daily life.
69. In the vocabulary of Tacitus there are to be noted : —
1. Words borrowed (consciously or unconsciously) from the
classical poets, especially Virgil, occurring for the most part also in
contemporary prose. Of these Drager gives a list of ninety-five
(Syntax und Stil des Tacitus, p. 96).
2. Words occurring only, or for the first time, in Tacitus. These
are for the most part new formations or compounds from stems
already in use, especially verbal substantives in -tor and -sor, -tus and
-sus, -tura and -mentum, with new frequentatives.
3. Words used with a meaning (a) not found in earlier prose,
but sometimes borrowed from the poets, e.g. componere, " to bury ";
scriplura, " a writing"; ferratus "armed with a sword"; (6)
peculiar to later writers, e.g. numerosus, "numerous"; famosus,
famous"; decollare, "to behead"; imputare, "to take credit
for," &c. ; (c) restricted to Tacitus himself, e.g. dispergere = dtvolgare.
Generally speaking, Tacitus likes to use a simple verb instead of
a compound one, after the fashion of the poets, employs a pluperfect
for a perfect, and (like Livy and sometimes Caesar) aims at vividness
and variety by retaining the present and perfect subjunctive in
indirect speech even after historical tenses. Collective words are
followed by a plural far more commonly than in Cicero. The ellipse
of a verb is more frequent. The use of the cases approximates to
that of the poets, and is even more free. The accusative of limitation
is common in Tacitus, though never found in Quintilian. Compound
verbs are frequently followed by the accusative where the dative
might have been expected; and the Virgilian construction of an
accusative with middle and passive verbs is not unusual. The
dative of purpose and the dative with a substantive in place of a
genitive are more common with Tacitus than with any writer.
The ablative of separation is used without a preposition, even with
names of countries and with common nouns; the ablative of place
is employed similarly without a preposition; the ablative of time
has sometimes the force of duration; the instrumental ablative is
employed even of persons. A large extension is given to the use
of the quantitative genitive after neuter adjectives and pronouns,
and even adverbs, and to the genitive with active participles; and
the genitive of relation after adjectives is (probably by a Graecism)
very freely employed. In regard to prepositions, there are special
uses of citra, erga, iuxta and tenus to be noted, and a frequent tendency
to interchange the use of a preposition with that of a simple case in
corresponding clauses. In subordinate sentences quod is used for
" the fact that," and sometimes approaches the later use of "that " ;
the infinitive follows many verbs and adjectives that do not admit
of this construction in classical prose; the accusative and infinitive
are used after negative expressions of doubt, and even in modal
and hypothetical clauses.
Like Livy, the writers of this time freely employ the subjunctive
of repeated action with a relative, and extend its use to relative
conjunctions, which he does not. In clauses of comparison and
proporticn there is frequently an ellipse of a verb (with nihil aliud
quam, ut, tanquam} ; tanquam, quasi and velut are used to imply not
comparison but alleged reason; quin and quo-minus are inter-
changed at pleasure. Quamquam and quamvis are commonly
followed by the subjunctive, even when denoting facts. The free
use of the genitive and dative of the gerundive to denote purpose is
common in Tacitus, the former being almost limited to him. Livy's
practice in the use of participles is extended even beyond the limits
to which he restricts it. It has been calculated that where Caesar
uses five participial clauses, Livy has sixteen, Tacitus twenty-four.
In his compressed brevity Tacitus may be said to be individual ;
but in the poetical colouring of his diction, in the rhetorical cast of
his sentences, and in his love for picturesqueness and variety he is a
true representative of his time.
70. Suetonius. — The language of Suetonius is of interest as
giving a specimen of silver Latinity almost entirely free from
personal idiosyncrasies; his expressions are regular and straight-
forward, clear and business-like; and, while in grammar he
xvi. 9
does not attain to classical purity, he is comparatively free from
rhetorical affectations.
71. The African Latinity. — A new era commences with the
accession of Hadrian (117). As the preceding half century had
been marked by the influence of Spanish Latinity (the Senecas,
Lucan, Martial, Quintilian), so in this the African style was
paramount. This is the period of affected archaisms and
pedantic learning, combined at times with a reckless love of
innovation and experiment, resulting in the creation of a large
number of new formations and in the adoption of much of the
plebeian dialect. Pronto and Apuleius mark a strong reaction
against the culture of the preceding century, and for evil far
more than for good the chain of literary tradition was broken.
The language which had been unduly refined and elaborated
now relapsed into a tasteless and confused patch-work, without
either harmony or brilliance of colouring. In the case of the
former the subject matter is no set-off against the inferiority of
the style. He deliberately attempts to go back to the obsolete
diction of writers like Cato and Ennius. We find compounds
like altipendulus, nudiustertianus, toluliloquentia, diminutives
such as matercella, anulla, passercula, studiolum, forms like
congarrire, disconcinnus, pedetemptius, desideranlissimus (passive),
conticinium; gaudeo, oboedio and perfungor are used with an
accusative, modestus with a genitive. On the other hand he
actually attempts to revive the form asa for ara. In Apuleius
the archaic element is only one element in the queer mixture
which constitutes his style, and it probably was not intended
to give the tone to the whole. Poetical and prosaic phrases,
Graecisms, solecisms, jingling assonances, quotations and
coinages apparently on the spur of the moment, all appear hi
this wonderful medley. There are found such extraordinary
genitives as sitire beatitudinis, cenae pignerarer, incoram omnium,
foras corporis, sometimes heaped one upon another as fluxos
vestium Arsacidas et frugum pauper es Ityraeos et odorum diviles
Arabas. Diminutives are coined with reckless freedom, e.g.
diutule, longule, mundule amicla et alliuscule sub ipsas papillas
succinctula. He confesses himself that he is writing in a language
not familiar to him: In urbe Latia advena Studiorum Quiritium
indigenam sermonem aerumnabili labore, nullo magislro praeeunte,
aggressus excolui; and the general impression of his style fully
bears out his confession. Melanchthon is hardly too severe when
he says that Apuleius brays like his own ass. The language of
Aulus Gellius is much superior in purity; but still it abounds
in rare and archaic words, e.g. edulcare, recentari, aeruscator,
and in meaningless frequentatives like solitavisse. He has some
admirable remarks on the pedantry of those who delighted in
obsolete expressions (xi. 7) such as apluda, flocus and bovinator;
but his practice falls far short of his theory.
72. The Lawyers. — The style of the eminent lawyers of this
period, foremost among whom is Gaius, deserves especial notice
as showing well one of the characteristic excellences of the Latin
language. It is for the most part dry and unadorned, and in
syru^ax departs occasionally from classical usages, but it is clear,
terse and exact. Technical terms may cause difficulty to the
ordinary reader, but their meaning is always precisely defined;
new compounds are employed- whenever the subject requires
them, but the capacities of the language rise to the demands
made upon it; and the conceptions of jurisprudence have never
been more adequately expressed than by the great Romanist
jurists. (A. S. W. ; R. S. C.)
For the subsequent history of the language see ROMANCE
LANGUAGES.
LATIN LITERATURE. The germs of an indigenous literature
had existed at an early period in Rome and in the country dis-
tricts of Italy, and they have an importance as indicating natural
wants in the Italian race, which were ultimately satisfied by
regular literary forms. The art of writing was first employed
in the service of the state and of religion for books of ritual,
treaties with other states, the laws of the Twelve Tables and the
like. An approach to literature was made in the Annales
Maximi, records of private families, funeral orations and in-
scriptions on busts and tombs such as those of the Scipios in
258
LATIN LITERATURE
[240-80 B. C
the Appian Way. In the satisfaction they afforded to the
commemorative and patriotic instincts they anticipated an
office afterwards performed by the national epics and the works
of regular historians. A still nearer approach to literature was
probably made in oratory, as we learn from Cicero that the
famous speech delivered by Appius Claudius Caecus against
concluding peace with Pyrrhus (280 B.C.) was extant in his time.
Appius also published a collection of moral maxims and reflections
in verse. No other name associated with any form of literature
belonging to the pre-literary age has been preserved by tradition.
But it was rather in the chants and litanies of the ancient
religion, such as those of the Salii and the Fratres Arvales, and
the dirges for the dead (neniae), and in certain extemporaneous
effusions, that some germs of a native poetry might have been
detected; and finally in the use of Saturnian verse, a metre of
pure native origin, which by its rapid and lively movement gave
expression to the vivacity and quick apprehension of the Italian
race. This metre was employed in ritual hymns, which seem to
have assumed definite shapes out of the exclamations of a primi-
tive priesthood engaged in a rude ceremonial dance. It was also
used by a class of bards or itinerant soothsayers known by the
name of vales, of whom the most famous was one Marcius, and
in the " Fescennine verses," as sung at harvest-homes and
weddings, which gave expression to the coarse gaiety of the
people and to their strong tendency to personal raillery and satiric
comment. The metre was also employed in commemorative
poems, accompanied with music, which were sung at funeral
banquets in celebration of the exploits and virtues of distin-
guished men. These had their origin in the same impulse which
ultimately found its full gratification in Roman history, Roman
epic poetry, and that form of Roman oratory known aslaudationes,
and in some of the Odes of Horace. The latest and probably the
most important of these rude and inchoate forms was that of
dramatic saturae (medleys), put together without any regular
plot and consisting apparently of contests of wit and satiric
invective, and perhaps of comments on current events, accom-
panied with music (Livy vii. 2). These have a real bearing on
the subsequent development of Latin literature. They prepared
the mind of the people for the reception of regular comedy.
They may have contributed to the formation of the style of
comedy which appears at the very outset much more mature
than that of serious poetry, tragic or epic. They gave the name
and some of the characteristics to that special literary product
of the Roman soil, the satura, addressed to readers, not to
spectators, which ultimately was developed into pure poetic
satire in Lucilius, Horace, Persius and Juvenal, into the prose
and verse miscellany of Varro, and into something approaching
the prose novel in Petronius.
First Period: from 240 to about 80 B.C.
The historical event which brought about the greatest change
in the intellectual condition of the Romans, and thereby exercised
a decisive influence on the whole course of human
LMUM culture, was the capture of Tarentum in 272. After
Anaroni* . ^-111 i i ,
cu,. the capture many Greek slaves were brought to
Rome, and among them the young Livius Andronicus
(c. 284-204), who was employed in teaching Greek in the family
of his master, a member of the Livian gens. From that time to
learn Greek became a regular part of the education of a Roman
noble. The capture of Tarentum was followed by the complete
Romanizing of all southern Italy. Soon after came the first
Punic war, the principal scene of which was Sicily, where, from
common hostility to the Carthaginian, Greek and Roman were
brought into friendly relations, and the Roman armies must have
become familiar with the spectacles and performances of the
Greek theatre. In the year after the war (240), when the armies
had returned and the people were at leisure to enjoy the fruits of
victory, Livius Andronicus substituted at one of the public
festivals a regular drama, translated or adapted from the Greek,
for the musical medleys (saturae) hitherto in use. From this
time dramatic performances became a regular accompaniment
of the public games, and came more and more to encroach on
the older kinds of amusement, such as the chariot races. The
dramatic work of Livius was mainly of educative value. The
same may be said of his translation of the Odyssey, which was
still used as a school-book in the days of Horace, and the religious
hymn which he was called upon to compose in 207 had no high
literary pretensions. He was, however, the first to familiarize
the Romans with the forms of the Greek drama and the Greek
epic, and thus to determine the main lines which Latin literature
followed for more than a century afterwards.
His immediate successor, Cn. Naevius (d. c. 200 B.C.), was not,
like Livius, a Greek, but either a Roman citizen or, more probably,
a Campanian who enjoyed the limited citizenship of a
Latin and who had served in the Roman army in the
first Punic war. His first appearance as a dramatic author was
in 235. He adapted both tragedies and comedies from the
Greek, but the bent of his genius, the tastes of his audience,
and the condition of the language developed through the active
intercourse and business of life, gave a greater impulse to comedy
than to tragedy. Naevius tried to use the theatre, as it had been
used by the writers of the Old Comedy of Athens, for the purposes
of political warfare, and thus seems to have anticipated by a
century the part played by Lucilius. But his attacks upon the
Roman aristocracy, especially the Metelli, were resented by their
objects; and Naevius, after being imprisoned, had to retire in
his old age into banishment. He was not only the first in point
of time, and according to ancient testimony one of the first in
point of merit, among the comic poets of Rome, and in spirit,
though not in form, the earliest of the line of Roman satirists,
but he was also the oldest of the national poets. Besides cele-
brating the success of M. Claudius Marcellus in 222 over the Gauls
in a play called Claslidium, he gave the first specimen of the
fabttla praelexta in his Alimonium Romuli et Remi, based on the
most national of all Roman traditions. Still more important
service was rendered by him in his long Saturnian poem on the
first Punic war, in which he not only told the story of contem-
porary events but gave shape to the legend of the settlement of
Aeneas in Latium, — the theme ultimately adopted for the great
national epic of Rome.
His younger contemporary T. Maccius Plautus (c. 254-184)
was the greatest comic dramatist of Rome. He lived and wrote
only to amuse his contemporaries, and thus, although
more popular in his lifetime and more fortunate than
any of the older authors in the ultimate survival of a large
number of his works, he is less than any of the great writers of
Rome in sympathy with either the serious or the caustic spirit in
Latin literature. Yet he is the one extant witness to the humour
and vivacity of the Italian temperament at a stage between its
early rudeness and rigidity and its subsequent degeneracy.
Thus far Latin literature, of which the predominant character-
istics are dignity, gravity and fervour of feeling, seemed likely
to become a mere vehicle of amusement adapted to all classes
of the people in their holiday mood. But a new spirit, which
henceforth became predominant, appeared in the time of Plautus.
Latin literature ceased to be in close sympathy with the popular
spirit, either politically or as a form of amusement, but became
the expression of the ideas, sentiment and culture of the aristo-
cratic governing class. It was by Q. Ennius (230-169) gnn/us
of Rudiae in Messapia, that a new direction was
given to Latin literature. Deriving from his birthplace the
culture, literary and philosophical, of Magna Graecia, and
having gained the friendship of the greatest of the Romans living
in that great age, he was of all the early writers most fitted to be
the medium of conciliation between the serious genius of ancient
Greece and the serious genius of Rome. Alone among the older
writers he was endowed with the gifts of a poetical imagination
and animated with enthusiasm for a great ideal.
First among his special services to Latin literature was the
fresh impulse which he gave to tragedy. He turned the eyes
of his contemporaries from the commonplace social humours of
later Greek life to the contemplation of the heroic age. But he
did not thereby denationalize the Roman drama. He animated
the heroes of early Greece with the martial spirit of Roman
240-60 B. C.]
LATIN LITERATURE
259
soldiers and the ideal magnanimity and sagacity of Roman
senators, and imparted weight and dignity to thf language
and verse in which their sentiments and thoughts were expressed.
Although Rome wanted creative force to add a great series of
tragic dramas to the literature of the world, yet the spirit of
elevation and moral authority breathed into tragedy by Ennius
passed into the ethical and didactic writings and the oratory
of a later time.
Another work was the Salurae, written in various metres,
but chiefly in the trochaic tetrameter. He thus became the
inventor of a new form of literature; and, if in his hands the
satura was rude and indeterminate in its scope, it became a
vehicle by which to address a reading public on matters of the
day, or on the materials of his wide reading, in a style not far
removed from the language of common life. His greatest work,
which made the Romans regard him as the father of their litera-
ture, was his epic poem, in eighteen books, the Annales, in which
the record of the whole career of Rome was unrolled with idealiz-
ing enthusiasm and realistic detail. The idea which inspired
Ennius was ultimately realized in both the national epic of
Virgil and the national history of Livy. And the metrical
vehicle which he conceived as the only one adequate to his
great theme was a rude experiment, which was ultimately de-
veloped into the stately Virgilian hexameter. Even as a gram-
marian he performed an important service to the literary language
of Rome, by fixing its prosody and arresting the tendency to
decay in its final syllables. Although of his writings only
fragments remain, these fragments are enough, along with what
we know of him from ancient testimony, to justify us in regarding
him as the most important among the makers of Latin literature
before the age of Cicero.
There is still one other name belonging partly to this, partly
to the next generation, to be added to those of the men of original
force of mind and character who created Latin litera-
ture, that of M. Porcius Cato the Censor (234-149),
the younger contemporary of Ennius, whom he brought to
Rome. More than Naevius and Plautus he represented the pure
native element in that literature, the mind and character of
Latium, the plebeian pugnacity, which was one of the great
forces in the Roman state. His lack of imagination and his
narrow patriotism made him the natural leader of the reaction
against the new Hellenic culture. He strove to make literature
ancillary to politics and to objects of practical utility, and thus
started prose literature on the chief lines that it afterwards
followed. Through his industry and vigorous understanding
he gave a great impulse to the creation of Roman oratory,
history and systematic didactic writing. He was one of the first
to publish his speeches and thus to bring them into the domain
of literature. Cicero, who speaks of 150 of these speeches as
extant in his day, praises them for their acuteness, their wit,
their conciseness. He speaks with emphasis of the impres-
siveness of Cato's eulogy and the satiric bitterness of his
invective.
Cato was the first historical writer of Rome to use his native
tongue. His Origines, the work of his old age, was written with
that thoroughly Roman conception of history which regarded
actions and events solely as they affected the continuous and
progressive life of a state. Cato felt that the record of Roman
glory could not be isolated from the story of the other Italian
communities, which, after fighting against Rome for their owa
independence, shared with her the task of conquering the world.
To the wider national sympathies which stimulated the re-
searches of the old censor into the legendary history of the
Italian towns we owe some of the most truly national parts of
Virgil's Aeneid.
In Naevius, Plautus, Ennius and Cato are represented the
contending forces which strove for ascendancy in determining
what was to be the character of the new literature. The work,
begun by them, was carried on by younger contemporaries and
successors; by Statius Caecilius (^.220-168), an Insubrian Gaul,
in comedy; in tragedy by M. Pacuvius (6.220-132), the nephew
of Ennius, called by Cicero the greatest of Roman tragedians;
and, in the following generation, by L. Accius (£.170-86), who
was more usually placed in this position. The impulse given to
oratory by Cato, Ser. Sulpicius Galba and others, and along with
it the development of prose composition, went on with increased
momentum till the age of Cicero. But the interval between
the death of Ennius (169) and the beginning of Cicero's career,
while one of progressive advance in the appreciation of literary
form and style, was much less distinguished by original force
than the time immediately before and after the end of the
second Punic war. The one complete survival of the generation
after the death of Ennius, the comedy of P. Terentius
Afer or Terence (c. 185-159), exemplifies the gain in
literary accomplishment and the loss in literary freedom. Ter-
ence has nothing Roman or Italian except his pure and idiomatic
Latinity. His Athenian elegance affords the strongest contrast
to the Italian rudeness of Cato's De Re Rustica. By looking at
them together we understand how much the comedy of Terence
was able to do to refine and humanize the manners of Rome,
but at the same time what a solvent it was of the discipline
and ideas of the old republic. What makes Terence an im-
portant witness of the culture of his time is ttat he wrote from
the centre of the Scipionic circle, in which what was most
humane and liberal in Roman statesmanship was combined
with the appreciation of what was most vital in the Greek
thought and literature of the time. The comedies of Terence
may therefore be held to give some indication of the tastes of
Scipio, Laelius and their friends in their youth. The influence
of Panaetius and Polybius was more adapted to their maturity,
when they led the state in war, statesmanship and oratory,
and when the humaner teaching of Stoicism began to enlarge
the sympathies of Roman jurists. But in the last years during
which this circle kept together a new spirit appeared in Roman
politics and a new power in Roman literature, — the revolutionary
spirit evoked by the Gracchi in opposition to the long-continued
ascendancy of the senate, and the new power of Roman satire,
which was exercised impartially and unsparingly against both
the excesses of the revolutionary spirit and the arrogance and
incompetence of the extreme party among the nobles. Roman
satire, though in form a legitimate development of the indigenous
dramatic satura through the written satura of Ennius and
Pacuvius, is really a birth of this time, and its author was the
youngest of those admitted into the intimacy of the Scipionic
circle, C. Lucilius of Suessa Aurunca (c. 180-103).
Among the writers before the age of Cicero he alone
deserves to be named with Naevius, Plautus Ennius and Cato
as a great originative force in literature. For about thirty
years the most important event in Roman literature was the
production of the satires of Lucilius, in which the politics, morals,
society and letters of the time were criticized with the utmost
freedom and pungency, and his own personality was brought
immediately and familiarly before his contemporaries. The
years that intervened between his death and the beginning
of the Ciceronian age are singularly barren in works of original
value. But in one direction there was some novelty. The
tragic writers had occasionally taken their subjects from Roman
life (fabulae praetextae) , and in comedy we find the corresponding
togatae of Lucius Afranius and others, in which comedy, while
assuming a Roman dress, did not assume the virtue of a Roman
matron.
The general results of the last fifty years of the first period
(130 to 80) may be thus summed up. In poetry we have the
satires of Lucilius, the tragedies of Accius and of a 0enera/
few successors among the Roman aristocracy, who results
thus exemplified the affinity of the Roman stage to
Roman oratory; various annalistic poems intended
to serve as continuations of the great poem of Ennius; minor
poems of an epigrammatic and erotic character, unimportant
anticipations of the Alexandrian tendency operative in the
following period; works of criticism in trochaic tetrameters
by Porcius Licinus and others, forming part of the critical and
grammatical movement which almost from the first accompanied
the creative movement in Latin literature, and which may be
130 to 80.
26o
LATIN LITERATURE
[80-42 B.C.
History.
regarded as rude precursors of the didactic epistles that Horace
devoted to literary criticism.
The only extant prose work which may be assigned to the end
of this period is the treatise on rhetoric known by the title Ad
Herennium (c. 84) a work indicative of the attention bestowed
on prose style and rhetorical studies during the last century of
the republic, and which may be regarded as a precursor of the
oratorical treatises of Cicero and of the work of Quintilian.
But the great literary product of this period was oratory,
developed indeed with the aid of these rhetorical studies, but
Oratory itself the immediate outcome of the imperial interests,
the legal conflicts, and the political passions of that
time of agitation. The speakers and writers of a later age
looked back on Scipio and Laelius, the Gracchi and their con-
temporaries, L. Crassus and M. Antonius, as masters of their art.
In history, regarded as a great branch of prose literature,
it is not probable that much was accomplished, although, with
the advance of oratory and grammatical studies,
there must have been not only greater fluency of
composition but the beginning of a richer and more ornate style.
Yet Cicero denies to Rome the existence, before his own time,
of any adequate historical literature. Nevertheless it was by
the work of a number of Roman chroniclers during this period
that the materials of early Roman history were systematized,
and the record of the state, as it was finally given to the world
in the artistic work of Livy, was extracted from the early annals,
state documents and private memorials, combined into a
coherent unity, and supplemented by invention and reflection.
Amongst these chroniclers may be mentioned L. Calpurnius Piso
Frugi (consul 133, censor 108), C. Sempronius Tuditanus
(consul 129), Cn. Gellius, C. Fannius (consul 122), L. Coelius
Antipater, who wrote a narrative of the second Punic war about
1 20, and Sempronius Asellio, who wrote a history of his own
times, have a better claim to be considered historians. There
were also special works on antiquities and contemporary
memoirs, and autobiographies such as those of M. Aemilius
Scaurus, the elder, Q. Lutatius Catulus (consul 102 B.C.), and
P. Rutilius Rufus, which formed the sources of future his-
torians. (See further ANNALES; and ROME: History, Ancient,
§ " Authorities."
Although the artistic product of the first period of Latin
literature which has reached us in a complete shape is limited
to the comedies of Plautus and Terence, the influence
°^ ^ne 'os'' literature in determining the spirit, form
period. and style of the eras of more perfect accomplishment
which followed is unmistakable. While humour and
vivacity characterize the earlier, and urbanity of tone the later
development of comedy, the tendency of serious literature had
been in the main practical, ethical, commemorative and satirical.
The higher poetical imagination had appeared only in Ennius,
and had been called forth in him by sympathy with the grandeur
of the national life and the great personal qualities of its repre-
sentative men. Some of the chief motives of the later poetry,
e.g. the pleasures and sorrows of private life, had as yet found
scarcely any expression in Latin literature. The fittest metrical
vehicle for epic, didactic, and satiric poetry had been discovered,
but its movement was as yet rude and inharmonious. The
idiom of ordinary life and social intercourse and the more fervid
and elevated diction of oratorical prose had made great progress,
but the language of imagination and poetical feeling was, if
vivid and impressive in isolated expressions, still incapable of
being wrought into consecutive passages of artistic composition.
The influences of Greek literature to which Latin literature owed
its birth had not as yet spread beyond Rome and Latium. The
Sabellian races of central and eastern Italy and the Italo-Celtic
and Venetian races of the north, in whom the poetic susceptibility
of Italy was most manifest two generations later, were not, until
after the Social war, sufficiently in sympathy with Rome, and
were probably not as yet sufficiently educated to induce them
to contribute their share to the national literature. Hence the
end of the Social war, and of the Civil war, which arose out of it,
is most clearly a determining factor in Roman literature, and
may most appropriately be taken as marking the end of one
period and the beginning of another.
Second Period: from 80 to 42 B.C.
The last age of the republic coincides with the first half of the
Golden age of Roman literature. It is generally known as the
Ciceronian age from the name of its greatest literary represent-
ative, whose activity as as peaker and writer was unremitting
during nearly the whole period. It is the age of purest excellence
in prose, and of a new birth of poetry, characterized rather by
great original force and artistic promise than by perfect accom-
plishment. The five chief representatives of this age who still
hold their rank among the great classical writers are Cicero,
Caesar and Sallust in prose, Lucretius and Catullus in verse.
The works of other prose writers, Varro and Cornelius Nepos,
have been partially preserved; but these writers have no claim
to rank with those already mentioned as creators and masters
of literary style. Although literature had not as yet become
a trade or profession, an educated reading public already existed,
and books and intellectual intercourse filled a large part of the
leisure of men actively engaged in affairs. Even oratory was
intended quite as much for readers as for the audiences to which
it was immediately addressed; and some of the greatest speeches
which have come down from that great age of orators were never
delivered at all, but were published as manifestoes after the
event with the view of influencing educated opinion, and as
works of art with the view of giving pleasure to educated taste.
Thus the speeches of M.Tullius Cicero (106-43) belong to the
domain of literature quite as much as to that of forensic or
political oratory. And, although Demosthenes is a cicero
master of style unrivalled even by Cicero, the literary
interest of most of Cicero's speeches is stronger than that of the
great mass of Greek oratory. It is urged with justice that the
greater part of Cicero's Defence of Archias was irrelevant to
the issue and would not have been listened to by a Greek court of
justice or a modern jury. But it was fortunate for the interests
of literature that a court of educated Romans could be influenced
by the considerations there submitted to them. In this way a
question of the most temporary interest, concerning an individual
of no particular eminence or importance, has produced one of
the most impressive vindications of literature ever spoken or
written. Oratory at Rome assumed a new type from being
cultivated as an art which endeavoured to produce persuasion
not so much by intellectual conviction as by appeal to general
human sympathies. In oratory, as in every other intellectual
province, the Greeks had a truer sense of the limits and conditions
of their art. But command over form is only one element in the
making of an orator or poet. The largeness and dignity of the
matter with which he has to deal are at least as important.
The Roman oratory of the law courts had to deal not with petty
questions of disputed property, of fraud, or violence, but with
great imperial questions, with matters affecting the well-being
of large provinces and the honour and safety of the republic;
and no man ever lived who, in these respects, was better fitted
than Cicero to be the representative of the type of oratory
demanded by the condition of the later republic. To his great
artistic accomplishment, perfected by practice and elaborate
study, to the power of his patriotic, his moral, and personal
sympathies, and his passionate emotional nature, must be added
his vivid imagination and the rich and copious stream of his
language, in which he had no rival among Roman writers or
speakers. It has been said that Roman poetry has produced
few, if any, great types of character. But the Verres, Catiline,
Antony of Cicero are living and permanent types. The story
told in the Pro Cluentio may be true or false, but the picture of
provincial crime which it presents is vividly dramatic. Had
we only known Cicero in his speeches we should have ranked
him with Demosthenes as one who had realized the highest
literary ideal. We should think of him also as the creator and
master of Latin style — and, moreover, not only as a great orator
but as a just and appreciative critic of oratory. But to his
services to Roman oratory we have to add his services not indeed
80 — 42 B.C.]
LATIN LITERATURE
261
to philosophy but to the literature of philosophy. Though not
a philosopher he is an admirable interpreter of those branches of
philosophy which are fitted for practical application, and he
presents us with the results of Greek reflection vivified by his own
human sympathies and his large experience of men. In giving
a model of the style in which human interest can best be imparted
to abstract discussions, he used his great oratorical gift and art
to persuade the world to accept the most hopeful opinions on
human destiny and the principles of conduct most conducive to
elevation and integrity of character.
The Letters of Cicero are thoroughly natural — colloquia
absentium amicorum, to use his own phrase. Cicero's letters to
Atticus, and to the friends with whom he was completely at his
ease, are the most sincere and immediate expression of the
thought and feeling of the moment. They let us into the secret
of his most serious thoughts and cares, and they give a natural
outlet to his vivacity of observation, his wit and humour, his
kindliness of nature. It shows how flexible an instrument Latin
prose had become in his hand, when it could do justice at once
to the ample and vehement volume of his oratory, to the calmer
and more rhythmical movement of his philosophical meditation,
and to the natural interchange of thought and feeling in the
everyday intercourse of life.
Among the many rival orators of the age the most eminent
were Quintus Hortensius Ortalus and C. Julius Caesar. The
Caesar former was the leading representative of the Asiatic
or florid style of oratory, and, like other members of
the aristocracy, such as C.Memmius arid L. Manlius Torquatus,
and like Q. Catulus in the preceding generation, was a kind of
dilettante poet and a precursor of the poetry of pleasure, which
attained such prominence in the elegiac poets of the Augustan
age. Of C. Julius Caesar (102-44) as an orator we can judge only
by his reputation and by the testimony of his great rival and
adversary Cicero; but we are able to appreciate the special
praise of perfect taste in the use of language attributed to him.1
In his Commentaries, by laying aside the ornaments of oratory,
he created the most admirable style of prose narrative, the style
which presents interesting events in their sequence of time and
dependence on the will of the actor, rapidly and vividly, with
scarcely any colouring of personal or moral feeling, any oratorical
passion, any pictorial illustration. While he shows the persuasive
art of an orator by presenting the subjugation of Gaul and his own
action in the Civil War in the light most favourable to his claim
to rule the Roman world, he is entirely free from the Roman
fashion of self-laudation or disparagement of an adversary.
The character of the man reveals itself especially in a perfect
simplicity of style, the result of the clearest intelligence and the
strongest sense of personal dignity. He avoids not only every
unusual but every superfluous word; and, although no writing
can be more free from rhetorical colouring, yet there may from
time to time be detected a glow of sympathy, like the glow of
generous passion in Thucydides, the more effective from the
reserve with which it betrays itself whenever he is called on to
record any act of personal heroism or of devotion to military duty.
In the simplicity of his style, the directness of his narrative,
the entire absence of any didactic tendency, Caesar presents a
Saiiust marked contrast to another prose writer of that age —
the historian C. Sallustius Crispus or Sallust (c. 87-36).
Like Varro, he survived Cicero by some years, but the tone and
spirit in which his works are written assign him to the republican
era. He was the first of the purely artistic historians, as distinct
from the annalists and the writers of personal memoirs. He
imitated the Greek historians in taking particular actions — the
Jugurthan War and the Catilinarian Conspiracy — as the subjects
of artistic treatment. He wrote also a continuous work, Historiae,
treating of the events of the twelve years following the death of
Sulla, of which only fragments are preserved. His two extant
works are more valuable as artistic studies of the rival parties in
the state and of personal character than as trustworthy narratives
of facts. His style aims at effectiveness by pregnant expression,
sententiousness, archaism. He produces the impression of
1 Latine loqui elegantissime.
caring more for the manner of saying a thing than for its truth.
Yet he has great value as a painter of historical portraits, some of
them those of his contemporaries,and as an author who had been
a political partisan and had taken some part in making history
before undertaking to write it; and he gives us, from the popular
side, the views of a contemporary on the politics of the time.
Of the other historians, or rather annalists, who belong to this
period, such as Q. Claudius Quadrigarius, Q. Valerius Antias,
and C. Licinius Macer, the father of Calvus, we have only frag-
ments remaining.
The period was also remarkable for the production of works
which we should class as technical or scientific rather than
literary. The activity of one of these writers was so „
great that he is entitled to a separate mention. This
was M. Terentius Varro, the most learned not only of the Romans
but of the Greeks, as he has been called. The list of Varro's
writings includes over seventy treatises and more than six
hundred books dealing with topics of every conceivable kind.
His Menippeae Saturae, miscellanies in prose and verse, of which
unfortunately only fragments are left, was a work of singular
literary interest.
Since the Annals of Ennius no great and original poem had
appeared. The powerful poetical force which for half a century
continued to be the strongest force in literature, and ,
' . Lucretius,
which created masterpieces of art and genius, first
revealed itself in the latter part of the Ciceronian age. The
conditions which enabled the poetic genius of Italy to come to
maturity in the person of T. Lucretius Carus (96-55) were entire
seclusion from public life and absorption in the ideal pleasures
of contemplation and artistic production. This isolation from
the familiar ways of his contemporaries, while it was, according
to tradition and the internal evidence of his poem, destructive
to his spirit's health, resulted in a work of genius, unique in
character, which still stands forth as the greatest philosophical
poem in any language. In the form of his poem he followed a
Greek original; and the stuff out of which the texture of his
philosophical argument is framed was derived from Greek
science; but all that is of deep human and poetical meaning in
the poem is his own. While we recognize in the De Rerum
Natura some of the most powerful poetry in any language and
feel that few poets have penetrated with such passionate sincerity
and courage into the secret of nature and some of the deeper
truths of human life, we must acknowledge that, as compared
with the great didactic poem of Virgil, it is crude and unformed
in artistic design, and often rough and unequal in artistic execu-
tion. Yet, apart altogether from its independent value, by his
speculative power and enthusiasm, by his revelation of the life
and spectacle of nature, by the fresh creativeness of his diction
and the elevated movement of his rhythm, Lucretius exercised
a more powerful influence than any other on the art of his more
perfect successors.
While the imaginative and emotional side of Roman poetry
was so powerfully represented by Lucretius, attention was
directed to its artistic side by a younger genera- cutaliu*.
tion, who moulded themselves in a great degree on
Alexandrian models. Such were Valerius Cato also a dis-
tinguished literary critic, and C. Licinius Calvus, an eminent
orator. Of this small group of poets one only has survived,
fortunately the man of most genius among them, the bosom-
friend of Calvus, C. Valerius Catullus (84-54). He too was a
new force in Roman literature. He was a provincial by birth,
although early brought into intimate relations with members of
the great Roman families. The subjects of his best art are
taken immediately from his own life — his loves, his friendships,
his travels, his animosities, personal and political. His most
original 'contribution to the substance of Roma^i literature was
that he first shaped into poetry the experience of his own heart,
as it had been shaped by Alcaeus and Sappho in the early days
of Greek poetry. No poet has surpassed him in the power of
vitally reproducing the pleasure and pain of the passing hour, not
recalled by idealizing reflection as in Horace, nor overlaid with
mythological ornament as in Propertius, but in all the keenness
262
LATIN LITERATURE
[AUGUSTAN AGE
of immediate impression. He also introduced into Roman
literature that personal as distinct from political or social satire
which appears later in the Epodes of Horace and the Epigrams
of Martial. He anticipated Ovid in recalling the stories of Greek
mythology to a second poetical life. His greatest contribution to
poetic art consisted in the perfection which he attained in the
phalaecian, the pure iambic, and the scazon metres, and in the
ease and grace with which he used the language of familiar
intercourse, as distinct from that of the creative imagination,
of the rostra, and of the schools, to give at once a lifelike and an
artistic expression to his feelings. He has the interest of being
the last poet of the free republic. In his life and in his art he
was the precursor of those poets who used their genius as the
interpreter and minister of pleasure; but he rises above them
in the spirit of personal independence, in his affection for his
friends, in his keen enjoyment of natural and simple pleasures,
and in his power of giving vital expression to these feelings.
Third Period: Augustan Age, 42 B.C. to A.D. 17. ' .
The poetic impulse and culture communicated to Roman
literature in the last years of the republic passed on without
Influence anv break of continuity into the literature of the
ot imperial succeeding age. One or two of the circle of Catullus
inxtitu- survived into that age; but an entirely new spirit
tions. came over the literature of the new period, and it is
by new men, educated indeed under the same literary influences,
but living in an altered world and belonging originally to a
different order in the state, that the new spirit was expressed.
The literature of the later republic reflects the sympathies and
prejudices of an aristocratic class, sharing in the conduct of
national affairs and living on terms of equality with one another;
that of the Augustan age, first in its early serious enthusiasm,
and then in the licence and levity of its later development,
represents the hopes and aspirations with which the new mon-
archy was ushered into the world, and the pursuit of pleasure
and amusement, which becomes the chief interest of a class cut
off from the higher energies of practical life, and moving in the
refining and enervating atmosphere of an imperial court. The
great inspiring influence of the new literature was the enthusiasm
produced first by the hope and afterwards by the fulfilment
of the restoration of peace, order, national glory, under the rule
of Augustus. All that the age longed for seemed to be embodied
in a nAn who had both in his own person and by inheritance
the natural spell which sways the imagination of the world.
The sentiment of hero-worship was at all times strong in the
Romans, and no one was ever the object of more sincere as
well as simulated hero-worship than Augustus. It was not,
however, by his equals in station that the first feeling was likely
to be entertained. The earliest to give expression to it was
Virgil; but the spell was soon acknowledged by the colder
and more worldly-wise Horace. The disgust aroused by the
anti-national policy of Antony, and the danger to the empire
which was averted by the result of the battle of Actium, com-
bined with the confidence inspired by the new ruler to reconcile
the great families as well as the great body of the people to the
new order of things.
While the establishment of the empire produced a revival
of national and imperial feeling, it suppressed all independent
political thought and action. Hence the two great forms of
prose literature which drew their nourishment from the struggles
of political life, oratory and contemporary history, were arrested
in their development. The main course of literature was thus
for a time diverted into poetry. That poetry in its most elevated
form aimed at being the organ of the new empire and of realizing
the national ideals of life and character under its auspices;
and in carrying out this aim it sought to recall the great memories
of the past. It became also the organ of the pleasures and
interests of private life, the chief motives of which were the
love of nature and the passion of love. It sought also to make
the art and poetry of Greece live a new artistic life. Satire,
debarred from comment on political action, turned to social
and individual life, and combined with the newly-developed
taste for ethical analysis and reflection introduced by Cicero.
One great work had still to be done in prose — a retrospect of
the past history of the state from an idealizing and romanticizing
point of view. For that work the Augustan age, as the end of
one great cycle of events and the beginning of another, was
eminently suited, and a writer who, by his gifts of imagination
and sympathy, was perhaps better fitted than any other man
of antiquity for the task, and who through the whole of this
period lived a life of literary leisure, was found to do justice to
the subject.
Although the age did not afford free scope and stimulus to
individual energy and enterprise, it furnished more material
and social advantages for the peaceful cultivation of letters.
The new influence of patronage, which in other times has chilled
the genial current of literature, become, in the person of Maecenas,
the medium through which literature and the imperial policy
were brought into union. Poetry thus acquired the tone of the
world, kept in close connexion with the chief source of national
life, while it was cultivated to the highest pitch of artistic per-
fection under the most favourable conditions of leisure and
freedom from the distractions and anxieties of life.
The earliest in the order of time of the poets who adorn this
age — P. Vergilius Maro or Virgil (70-19) — is also the greatest
in genius, the most richly cultivated, and the most virgii.
perfect in art. He is the idealizing poet of the hopes
and aspirations and of the purer and happier life of which the
age seemed to contain the promise. He elevates the present
by associating it with tMe past and future of the world, and
sanctifies it by seeing in it the fulfilment of a divine purpose.
Virgil is the true representative poet of Rome and Italy, of
national glory and of the beauty of nature, the artist in whom
all the efforts of the past were made perfect, and the unapproach-
able standard of excellence to future times. While more richly
endowed with sensibility to all native influences, he was more
deeply imbued than any of his contemporaries with the poetry,
the thought and the learning of Greece. The earliest efforts
of his art (the Eclogues) reproduce the cadences, the diction
and the pastoral fancies of Theocritus; but even in these imi-
tative poems of his youth Virgil shows a perfect mastery of his
materials. The Latin hexameter, which in Ennius and Lucretius
was the organ of the more dignified and majestic emotions,
became in his hands the most perfect measure in which the
softer and more luxurious sentiment of nature has been ex-
pressed. The sentiment of Italian scenery and the love which
the Italian peasant has for the familiar sights and sounds of his
home found a voice which never can pass away.
In the Georgics we are struck by the great advance in the
originality and self-dependence of the artist, in the mature
perfection of his workmanship, in the deepening and strengthen-
ing of all his sympathies and convictions. His genius still we rks
under forms prescribed by Greek art, and under the disadvantage
of having a practical and utilitarian aim imposed on it. But
he has ever in form so far surpassed his originals that he alone
has gained for the pure didactic poem a place among the highest
forms of serious poetry, while he has so transmuted his material
that, without violation of truth, he has made the whole poem
alive with poetic feeling. The homeliest details of the farmer's
work are transfigured through the poet's love of nature; through
his religious feeling and his pious sympathy with the sanctities
of human affection; through his patriotic sympathy with the
national greatness; and through the rich allusiveness of his
art to everything in poetry and legend which can illustrate and
glorify his theme.
In the Eclogues and Georgics Virgil is the idealizing poet of
the old simple and hardy life of Italy, as the imagination could
conceive of it in an altered world. In the Aeneid he is the
idealizing poet of national glory, as manifested in the person of
Augustus. The epic of national life, vividly conceived but
rudely executed by Ennius, was perfected in the years that
followed the decisive victory at Actium. To do justice to his
idea Virgil enters into rivalry with a greater poet than those
whom he had equalled or surpassed in his previous works. And,
AUGUSTAN AGE]
LATIN LITERATURE
263
though Ije cannot unroll before us the page of heroic action with
the power and majesty of Homer, yet by the sympathy with
which he realizes the idea of Rome, and by the power with which
he has used the details of tradition, of local scenes, of religious
usage, to embody it, he has built up in the form of an epic
poem the most enduring and the most artistically constructed
monument of national grandeur.
The second great poet of the time — Q. Horatius Flaccus or
Horace (68-8) is both the realist and the idealist of his age. If
Horace we want to know the actual lives, manners and ways
of thinking of the Romans of the generation succeeding
the overthrow of the republic it is in the Satires and partially in
the Epistles of Horace that we shall find them. If we ask whatr
that time provided to stir the fancy and move the mood of
imaginative reflection, it is in the lyrical poems of Horace that
we shall find the most varied and trustworthy answer. His
literary activity extends over about thirty years and naturally
divides itself into three periods, each marked by a distinct
character. The first — extending from about 40 to 29 — is that of
the Epodes and Satires. In the former he imitates the Greek poet
Archilochus, but takes his subjects from the men, women and
incidents of the day. Personality is the essence of his Epodes; in
the Satires it is used merely as illustrative of general tendencies.
In the Satires we find realistic pictures of social life, and the
conduct and opinions of the world submitted to the standard of
good feeling and common sense. The style of the Epodes is
pointed and epigrammatic, that of the Satires natural and
familiar. The hexameter no longer, as in Lucilius, moves awk-
wardly as if in fetters, but, like the language of Terence, of
Catullus in his lighter pieces, of Cicero in his letters to Atticus,
adapts itself to the everyday intercourse of life. The next period
is the meridian of his genius, the time of his greatest lyrical
inspiration, which he himself associates with the peace and
leisure secured to him by his Sabine farm. The life of pleasure
which he had lived in his youth comes back to him, not as it was
in its actual distractions and disappointments, but in the idealiz-
ing light of meditative retrospect. He had not only become
reconciled to the new order of things, but was moved by his
intimate friendship with Maecenas to aid in raising the world
to sympathy with the imperial rule through the medium of his
lyrical inspiration, as Virgil had through the glory of his epic art.
With the completion of the three books of Odes he cast aside for
a time the office of the vates, and resumed that of the critical spec-
tator of human life, but in the spirit of a moralist rather than a
satirist. He feels the increasing languor of the time as well as the
languor of advancing years, and seeks to encourage younger men
to take up the role of lyrical poetry, while he devotes himself to
the contemplation of the true art of living. Self-culture rather
than the fulfilment of public or social duty, as in the moral
teaching of Cicero, is the aim of his teaching; and in this we
recognize the influence of the empire in throwing the individual
back on himself. As Cicero tones down his oratory in his moral
treatises, so Horace tones down the fervour of his lyrical utter-
ances in his Epistles, and thus produces a style combining the ease
of the best epistolary style with the grace and concentration of
poetry — the style, as it has been called, of " idealized common
sense," that of the urbanus and cultivated man of the world who
is also in his hours of inspiration a genuine poet. In the last
ten years of his life Horace resumed his lyrical function for a
time, under pressure of the imperial command, and produced
some of the most exquisite and mature products of his art.
But his chief activity is devoted to criticism. He first vindicates
the claims of his own age to literary pre-eminence, and then seeks
to stimulate the younger writers of the day to what he regarded
as the manlier forms of poetry, and especially to the tragic
drama, which seemed for a short time to give promise of an
artistic revival.
But the poetry of the latter half of the Augustan age destined
to survive did not follow the lines either of lyrical or of dramatic
art marked out by Horace. The latest form of poetry adopted
from Greece and destined to gain and permanently to hold the ear
of the world was the elegy. From the time of Mimnermus this
libullus.
form seems to have presented itself as the most natural vehicle
for the poetry of pleasure in an age of luxury, refinement and
incipient decay. Its facile flow and rhythm seem to adapt it
to the expression and illustration of personal feeling. It goes to
the mind of the reader through a medium of sentiment rather
than of continuous thought or imaginative illustration. The
greatest masters of this kind of poetry are the elegiac poets of
the Augustan age — Tibullus, Propertius and Ovid.
Of the ill-fated C. Cornelius Gallus, their predecessor, we have
but a single pentameter remaining. Of the three Tibullus
(c. 54-19) is the most refined and tender. As the poet
of love he gives utterance to the pensive melancholy
rather than to the pleasures associated with it. In his sympathy
with the life and beliefs of the country people he shows an affinity
both to the idyllic spirit and to the piety of Virgil. There is
something, too, in his fastidious refinement and in his shrinking
from the rough contact of life that reminds us of the English
poet Gray.
A poet of more strength and more powerful imagination, but
of less refinement in his life and less exquisite taste in his art,
is Sextus Propertius (c. SQ-C. 15). His youth was a properfius
more stormy one than that of Tibullus, and was
passed, not like his, among the " healthy woods " of his
country estate, but amid all the licence of the capital. His
passion for Cynthia, the theme of his most finished poetry, is
second only in interest to that of Catullus for Lesbia; and
Cynthia in her fascination and caprices seems a more real and
intelligible personage than the idealized object first of the
idolatry and afterwards of the malediction of Catullus. Pro-
pertius is a less accomplished artist and a less equably pleasing
writer than either Tibullus or Ovid, but he shows more power
of dealing gravely with a great or tragic situation than either of
them, and his diction and rhythm give frequent proof of a
concentrated force of conception and a corresponding movement
of imaginative feeling which remind us of Lucretius.
The most facile and brilliant of the elegiac poets and the
least serious in tone and spirit is P. Ovidius Naso or Ovid (43 B.C.-
A.D. 18). As an amatory poet he is the poet of pleasure
and intrigue rather than of tender sentiment or
absorbing passion. Though he treated his subject in relation to
himself with more levity and irony than real feeling, yet by his
sparkling wit and fancy he created a literature of sentiment and
adventure adapted to amuse the idle and luxurious society of
which the elder Julia was the centre. His power of continuous
narrative is best seen in the Metamorphoses, written in hexameters
to which he has imparted a rapidity and precision of movement
more suited to romantic and picturesque narrative than the
weighty self-restrained verse of Virgil. In his Fasti he treats a
subject of national interest; it is not, however, through the
strength of Roman sentiment but through the power of vividly
conceiving and narrating stories of strong human interest that
the poem lives. In his latest works — the Tristia and Ex Ponto
— he imparts the interest of personal confessions to the record of
a unique experience. Latin poetry is more rich in the expression
of personal feeling than of dramatic realism. In Ovid we have
both. We know him in the intense liveliness of his feeling and the
human weakness of his nature more intimately than any other
writer of antiquity, except perhaps Cicero. As Virgil marks the
point of maturest excellence in poetic diction and rhythm, Ovid
marks that of the greatest facility.
The Augustan age was one of those great eras in the world
like the era succeeding the Persian War in Greece, the Eliza-
bethan age in England, and the beginning of the igth Llvy^
century in Europe, in which what seems a new spring
of national and individual life calls out an idealizing retrospect
of the past. As the present seems full of new life, the past seems
rich in glory and the future in hope. The past of Rome had
always a peculiar fascination for Roman writers. Virgil in a
supreme degree, and Horace, Propertius and Ovid in a less
degree, had expressed in their poetry the romance of the past.
But it was in the great historical work of T. Livius or Livy
(59 B.C.-A.D. 17) that the record of the national life received its
Ovid.
264
LATIN LITERATURE
[SILVER AGE
Charac-
teristics
of post-
Augustan
age.
most systematic exposition. Its execution was the work of a life
prolonged through the languor and dissolution following so soon
upon the promise of the new era, during which time the past
became glorified by contrast with the disheartening aspect of
the present. The value of the work consists not in any power
of critical investigation or weighing of historical evidence but in
the intense sympathy of the writer with the national ideal, and
the vivid imagination with which under the influence of this
sympathy he gives life to the events and personages, the wars
and political struggles, of times remote from his own. He makes
us feel more than any one the majesty of the Roman state, of its
great magistracies, and of the august council by which its policy
was guided. And, while he makes the words senatus populusque
Romanus full of significance for all times, no one realizes with
more enthusiasm all that is implied in the- words imperium
Romanum, and the great military qualities of head and heart by
which that empire was acquired and maintained. The vast scale
on which the work was conceived and the thoroughness of artistic
execution with which the details are finished are characteristically
Roman. The prose style of Rome, as a vehicle for the continuous
narration of events coloured by a rich and picturesque imagina-
tion and instinct with dignified emotion, attained its perfection
in Livy.
Fourth Period: The Silver Age, from A.D. 17 to about 130.
For more than a century after the death of Augustus Roman
literature continues to flow in the old channels. Though drawing
from the provinces, Rome remains the centre of the
literary movement. The characteristics of the great
writers are essentially national, not provincial nor
cosmopolitan. In prose the old forms — oratory,
history, the epistle, treatises or dialogues on ethical
and literary questions — continue to be cultivated. Scientific
and practical subjects, such as natural history, architecture,
medicine, agriculture, are treated in more elaborate literary style.
The old Roman satura is developed into something like the
modern prose novel. In the various provinces of poetry, while
there is little novelty or inspiration, there is abundance of industry
and ambitious effort. The national love of works of large
compass shows itself in the production of long epic poems, both
of the historic and of the imitative Alexandrian type. The
imitative and rhetorical tastes of Rome showed themselves
in the composition of exotic tragedies, as remote in spirit and
character from Greek as from Roman life, of which the only
extant specimens are those attributed to the younger Seneca.
The composition of didactic, lyrical and elegiac poetry also was
the accomplishment and pastime of an educated dilettante class,
the only extant specimens of any interest being some of the
Silvae of Statius. The only voice with which the poet of this
age can express himself with force and sincerity is that of satire
and satiric epigram. We find now only imitative echoes of the old
music created by Virgil and others, as in Statius, or powerful
declamation, as in Lucan and Juvenal. There is a deterioration
in the diction as well as in the music of poetry. The elaborate
literary culture of the Augustan age has done something to
impair the native force of the Latin idiom. The language of
literature, in the most elaborate kind of prose as well as poetry,
loses all ring of popular speech. The old oratorical tastes and
aptitudes find their outlet in public recitations and the practice of
declamation. Forced and distorted expression, exaggerated
emphasis, point and antithesis, an affected prettiness, are studied
with the view of gaining the applause of audiences who thronged
the lecture and recitation rooms in search of temporary excite-
ment. Education is more widely diffused, but is less thorough,
less leisurely in its method, derived less than before from the
purer sources of culture. The precocious immaturity of Lucan 's
career affords a marked contrast to the long preparation of
Virgil and Horace for their high office. Although there are some
works of this so-called Silver Age of considerable and one at
least of supreme interest, from the insight they afford into the
experience of a century of organized despotism and its effect on
the spiritual life of the ancient world, it cannot be doubted that
the steady literary decline which characterized the last centuries
of paganism was beginning before the death of Ovid and Livy.
The influences which had inspired republican and Augustan
literature were the artistic impulse derived from a familiarity
with the great works of Greek genius, becoming more intimate
with every new generation, the spell of Rome over the imagina-
tion of the kindred Italian races, the charm of Italy, and the
vivid sensibility of the Italian temperament. These influences
were certainly much less operative in the first century -of the
empire. The imitative impulse, which had much of the character
of a creative impulse, and had resulted in the appropriation of
the forms of poetry suited to the Roman and Italian character
•and of the metres suited to the genius of the Latin language, no
longer stimulated to artistic effort. The great sources of Greek
poetry were no longer regarded, as they were by Lucretius and
Virgil, as sacred, untasted springs, to be approached in a spirit
of enthusiasm tempered with reverence. We have the testimony
of two men of shrewd common sense and masculine understanding
— Martial and Juvenal— to the stale and lifeless character of the
art of the Silver Age, which sought to reproduce in the form of
epics, tragedies and elegies the bright fancies of the Greek
mythology.
The idea of Rome, owing to the antagonism between the policy
of the government and the sympathies of the class by which
literature was favoured and cultivated, could no longer be an
inspiring motive, as it had been in the literature of the republic
and of the Augustan age. The spirit of Rome appears only as
animating the protest of Lucan, the satire of Persius and Juvenal,
the sombre picture which Tacitus paints of the annals of the
empire. Oratory is no longer an independent voice appealing to
sentiments of Roman dignity, but the weapon of the " informers "
(delatores) , wielded for their own advancement and the destruc-
tion of that class which, even in their degeneracy, retained most
sympathy with the national traditions. Roman history was no
longer a record of national glory, stimulating the patriotism and
flattering the pride of all Roman citizens, but a personal eulogy
or a personal invective, according as servility to a present or
hatred of a recent ruler was the motive which animated it.
The charm of Italian scenes still remained the same, but the
fresh and inspiring feeling of nature gave place to the mere
sensuous gratification derived from the luxurious and artificial
beauty of the country villa. The idealizing poetry of passion,
which found a genuine voice in Catullus and the elegiac poets,
could not prolong itself through the exhausting licence of suc-
cessive generations. The vigorous vitality which gives interest
to the personality of Catullus, Propertius and Ovid no longer
characterizes their successors. The pathos of natural affection
is occasionally recognized in Statius and more rarely in Martial,
but it has not the depth of tenderness found in Lucretius and
Virgil. The wealth and luxury of successive generations, the
monotonous routine of life, the separation of the educated
class from the higher work of the world, have produced their
enervating and paralysing effect on the mainsprings of poetic
and imaginative feeling.
New elements, however, appear in the literature of this period.
As the result of the severance from the active interests of life,
a new interest is awakened in the inner life of the
individual. The immorality of Roman society not jj£raiy
only affords abundant material to the satirist, but elements.
deepens the consciousness of moral evil in purer and
more thoughtful minds. To these causes we attribute the patho-
logical observation of Seneca and Tacitus, the new sense of
purity in Persius called out by contrast with the impurity
around him, the glowing if somewhat sensational exaggeration
of Juvenal, the vivid characterization of Martial. The literature
of no time presents so powerfully the contrast between moral
good and evil. In this respect it is truly representative of the
life of the age. Another new element is the influence of a new
race. In the two preceding periods the rapid diffusion of literary
culture following the Social War and the first Civil War was seen
to awaken into new life the elements of original genius in Italy
and Cisalpine Gaul. In the first century of the empire a similar
SILVER AGE]
LATIN LITERATURE
265
result was produced by the diffusion of that culture in the
Latinized districts of Spain. The fervid temperament of a fresh
and vigorous race, which received the Latin discipline just as
Latium had twg or three centuries previously received the
Greek discipline, revealed itself in the writings of the Senecas,
Lucan, Quintilian, Martial and others, who in their own time
added literary distinction to the Spanish towns from which
they came. The new extraneous element introduced into
Roman literature draws into greater prominence the character-
istics of the last great representatives of the genuine Roman
and Italian spirit — the historian Tacitus and the satirist Juvenal.
On the whole this century shows, in form, language and
substance, the signs of literary decay. But it is still capable
of producing men of original force; it still maintains the tradi-
tions of a happier time; it is still, alive to the value of literary
culture, and endeavours by minute attention to style to produce
new effects. Though it was not one of the great eras in the annals
of literature, yet the century which produced Martial, Juvenal
and Tacitus cannot be pronounced barren in literary originality,
nor that which produced Seneca and Quintilian devoid of culture
and literary taste.
This fourth period is itself subdivided into three divisions:
(1) from the accession of Tiberius to the death of Nero, 68 —
the most important part of it being the Neronian age, 54 to 68;
(2) the Flavian era, from the death of Nero to the death of
Domitian, 96; (3) the reigns of Nerva and Trajan and part of
the reign of Hadrian.
i. For a generation after the death of Augustus no new
original literary force appeared. The later poetry of the Augus-
Period tan age had ended in trifling dilettantism, for the
from continuance of which the atmosphere of the court
Tiberius was no longer favourable. The class by which litera-
to Nero. ture wag encourage(j had become both enervated and
terrorized. The most remarkable poetical product of the time is
the long-neglected astrological poem of Manilius which was
written at the beginning of Tiberius's reign. Its vigour and
originality have had scanty justice done to them owing to the
difficulty of the subject-matter and the style, and the corruptions
which still disfigure its text. Very different has been the fate
of the Fables of Phaedrus. This slight work of a Macedonian
freedman, destitute of national significance and representative
in its morality only of the spirit of cosmopolitan individualism,
owes its vogue to its easy Latinity and popular subject-matter.
Of the prose writers C. Velleius Paterculus, the historian, and
Valerius Maximus, the collector of anecdotes, are the most
important. A. Cornelius Celsus composed a series of technical
handbooks, one of which, upon medicine, has survived. Its
purity of style and the fact that it was long a standard work
entitle it to a mention here. The traditional culture was still,
however, maintained, and the age was rich in grammarians and
rhetoricians. The new profession of the delator must have given
a stimulus to oratory. A high ideal of culture, literary as well
as practical, was realized in Germanicus, which seems to have
been transmitted to his daughter Agrippina, whose patronage of
Seneca had important results in the next generation. The reign
of Claudius was a time in which antiquarian learning, gram-
matical studies, and jurisprudence were cultivated, but no
important additions were made to literature. A fresh impulse
was given to letters on the accession of Nero, and this was partly
due to the theatrical and artistic tastes of the young emperor.
Four writers of the Neronian age still possess considerable
interest, — L. Annaeus Seneca, M. Annaeus Lucanus, A. Persius
Flaccus and Petronius Arbiter. The first three represent the
spirit of their age by exhibiting the power of the Stoic philosophy
as a moral, political and religious force; the last is the most
cynical exponent of the depravity of the time. Seneca (c. 5 B.C.-
A.D. 65) is less than Persius a pure Stoic, and more of a
moralist and pathological observer of man's inner life. He makes
the commonplaces of a cosmopolitan philosophy interesting
by his abundant illustration drawn from the private and social
life of his contemporaries. He has knowledge of the world,
the suppleness of a courtier, Spanish vivacity, and the ingenium
amoenum attributed to him by Tacitus, the fruit of which is
sometimes seen in the " honeyed phrases " mentioned by
Petronius — pure aspirations combined with inconsistency of
purpose — the inconsistency of one who tries to make the best
of two worlds, the ideal inner life and the successful real life
in the atmosphere of a most corrupt court. The Pharsalia of
Lucan (39-65), with Cato as its hero, is essentially a Stoic mani-
festo of the opposition. It is written with the force and fervour
of extreme youth and with the literary ambition of a race as
yet new to the discipline of intellectual culture, and is charac-
terized by rhetorical rather than poetical imagination. The
six short Satires of Persius (34-62) are the purest product of
Stoicism — a Stoicism that had found in a contemporary, Thrasea,
a more rational and practical hero than Cato. But no important
writer of antiquity has less literary charm than Persius. In
avoiding the literary conceits and fopperies which he satirizes
he has recourse to the most unnatural contortions of expression.
Of hardly greater length are the seven eclogues of T. Calpurnius
Siculus, written at the beginning of the reign of Nero, which
are not without grace and facility of diction. Of the works
of the time that which from a human point of view is perhaps
the most detestable in ancient literature has the most genuine
literary quality, the fragment of a prose novel — the Satyricon —
of Petronius (d. 66). It is most sincere in its representation,
least artificial in diction, most penetrating in its satire, most
just in its criticism of art and style.
2. A greater sobriety of tone was introduced both into life
and literature with the accession of Vespasian. The time was,
however, characterized rather by good sense and
industry than by original genius. Under Vespasian
C. Plinius Secundus, or Pliny the elder (compiler of the tlaa
Natural History, an encyclopaedic treatise, 23-79),
is the most important prose writer, and C. Valerius Flaccus
Setinus Balbus, author of the Argonautica (d. c. 90), the most
important among the writers of poetry. The reign of Domitian,
although it silenced the more independent spirits of the time,
Tacitus and Juvenal, witnessed more important contributions
to Roman literature than any age since the Augustan, — among
them the Institutes of Quintilian, the Punic War of Silius Italicus,
the epics and the Silvae of Statius, and the Epigrams of Martial.
M. Fabius Quintilianus, or Quintilian (c. 3 5-95), is brought forward
by Juvenal as a unique instance of a thoroughly successful
man of letters, of one not belonging by .birth to the rich or official
class, who had risen to wealth and honours through literature.
He was well adapted to his time by his good sense and sobriety
of judgment. His criticism is just and true rather than subtle
or ingenious, and has thus stood the test of the judgment of
after-times. The poem of Ti. Catius Silius Italicus (25-101)
is a proof of the industry and literary ambition of members
of the rich official class. Of the epic poets of the Silver Age
P. Papinius Statius (c. 45-96) shows the greatest technical
skill and the richest pictorial fancy in the execution of detail;
but his epics have no true inspiring motive, and, although the
recitation of the Thebaid could attract and charm an audience
in the days of Juvenal, it really belongs to the class of poems
so unsparingly condemned both by him and Martial. In the
Silvae, though many of them have little root in the deeper
feelings of human nature, we find occasionally more than in
any poetry after the Augustan age something of the purer
charm and pathos of life. But it is not in the Silvae, nor in the
epics and tragedies of the time, nor in the cultivated criticism
of Quintilian that the age of Domitian lives for us. It is in the
Epigrams of M. Valerius Martialis or Martial (c. 41-104) that
we have a true image of the average sensual frivolous life of
Rome at the end of the ist century, seen through a medium
of wit and humour, but undistorted by the exaggeration which
moral indignation and the love of effect add to the representation
of Juvenal. Martial represents his age in his Epigrams, as
Horace does his in his Satires and Odes, with more variety and
incisive force in his sketches, though with much less poetic
charm and serious meaning. We know the daily life, the familiar
personages, the outward aspect of Rome in the age of Domitian
266
LATIN LITERATURE
[LATER WRITERS
better than at any other period of Roman history, and this
knowledge we owe to Martial.
3. But it was under Nerva andTrajan that the greatest and
most truly representative works of the empire were written.
Period of The.4rtna£j and Histories of Cornelius Tacitus (54-1 19),
Nerva, with the supplementary Life of Agricola and the
Trajan Germania, and the Satires of D. lunius luvenalis or
%"driaa Juvenal (<-• 47~I3°)i sum UP f°r posterity the moral
experience of the Roman world from the accession
of Tiberius to the death of Domitian. The generous scorn
and pathos of the historian acting on extraordinary gifts of
imaginative insight and characterization, and the fierce indigna-
tion of the satirist finding its vent in exaggerating realism,
doubtless to some extent warped their impressions; nevertheless
their works are the last voices expressive of the freedom and
manly virtue of the ancient world. In them alone among the
writers of the empire the spirit of the Roman republic seems to
revive. The Letters of C. Plinius Caecilius Secundus or Pliny
the Younger (6i-c. 115), though they do not contradict the
representation of Tacitus and Juvenal regarded as an exposure
of the political degradation and moral corruption of prominent
individuals and classes, do much to modify the pervadingly
tragic and sombre character of their representation.
With the death of Juvenal, the most important part of whose
activity falls in the reign of Trajan, Latin literature as an
original and national expression of the experience, character,
and sentiment of the Roman state and empire, and as one of the
great literatures of the world, may be considered closed.
Later Writers.
What remains to describe is little but death and decay.
Poetry died first; the paucity of writings in verse is matched
by their insignificance. For two centuries after Juvenal there
are no names but those of Q. Serenus Sammonicus, with his
pharmacopoeia in verse (c. 225), and M. Aurelius Olympius
Nemesianus, who wrote a few feeble eclogues and (2 83) a dull
piece on the training of dogs for the chase. Towards the middle
of the 4th century we have Decimus Magnus Ausonius, a professor
of Bordeaux and afterwards consul (379), whose style is as
little like that of classical poetry as is his prosody. His Mosella,
a detailed description of the river Moselle, is the least unattractive
of his works. A little better is his contemporary, Rufius Festus
Avienus, who made some free translations of astronomical and
geographical poems in Greek. A generation later, in what
might be called the expiring effort of Latin poetry, appeared
two writers of much greater merit. The first is Claudius
Claudianus (c. 400), a native of Alexandria and the court poet
of the emperor Honorius and his minister Stilicho. Claudian
may be properly styled the last of the poets of Rome.
He breathes the old national spirit, and his mastery
of classical idiom and versification is for his age extraordinary.
Something of the same may be seen in Rutilius Namatianus,
a Gaul by birth, who wrote in 416 a description of his voyage
from the capital to his native land, which contains the most
glowing eulogy of Rome ever penned by an ancient hand.
Of the Christian " poets " only Aurelius Prudentius Clemens
(c. 348-410) need be mentioned. He was well read in the
ancient literature; but the task of embodying- the Christian
spirit in the classical form was one far beyond his powers.
The vitality of the prose literature was not much greater though
its complete extinction was from the nature of the case impossible.
The most important writer in the age succeeding
Juvenal was the biographer C. Suetonius Tranquillus
(c. 75-160), whose work is more valuable for its matter
than its manner. His style is simple and direct, but has hardly
any other merit. A little later the rise of M. Cornelius Pronto
(c. 100-175), a native of Cirta, marks the beginning of an African
influence. Pronto, a distinguished orator and intimate friend
of the emperor M. Aurelius, broke away from the traditional
Latin of the Silver and Golden ages, and took as his models the
pre-classical authors. The reaction was shortlived; but the
same affectation of antiquity is seen in the writings of Apuleius,
Claudian.
Suetonius.
also an African, who lived a little later than Pronto and was
a man of much greater natural parts. In his Metamorphoses,
which were based upon a Greek original, he takes the
wonderful story of the adventures of Lucius of Madaura, pu '
and interweaves the famous legend of Cupid and Psyche. His
bizarre and mystical style has a strange fascination for the
reader; but there is nothing Roman or Italian about it. Two
epitomists of previous histories may be mentioned: Justinus
(of uncertain date) who abridged the history of Pompeius Trogus,
an Augustan writer; and P. Annius Florus, who wrote in the
reign of Hadrian a rhetorical sketch based upon Livy. The
Historia Augusta, which includes the lives of the emperors
from Hadrian to Numerianus (117-284), is the work of six
writers, four of whom wrote under Diocletian and two under
Constantine. It is a collection of personal memoirs of little
historical importance, and marked by puerility and poverty
of style. Ammianus Marcellinus (c. 330-400) had a higher
conception of the historian's function. His narrative of the
years 353-378 (all that now remains) is honest and straightfor-
ward, but his diction is awkward and obscure. The last pagan
prose writer who need be mentioned is Q. Aurelius Symmachus
(c. 350-410), the author of some speeches and a collection of
letters. All the art of his ornate and courtly periods cannot
disguise the fact that there was nothing now for paganism to say.
It is in Christian writers alone that we find the vigour of life.
The earliest work of Christian apologetics is the Octavius or
Minucius Felix, a contemporary of Pronto. It is
written in pure Latin and is strongly tinged by classical
influences. Quite different is the work of " the
fierce Tertullian," Q. Septimius Florens Tertullianus (c. 150-230),
a native of Carthage, the most vigorous of the Latin champions
of the new faith. His style shows the African revolt of which we
have already spoken, and in its medley of archaisms, Graecisms
and Hebraisms reveals the strength of the disintegrating forces
at work upon the Latin language. A more commanding figure
is that of Aurelius Augustinus or St Augustine (354-430), bishop
of Hippo, who for comprehensiveness and dialectical power
stands out in the same way as Hieronymus or St Jerome (£.331
or 340-420), a native of Stridon in Dalmatia, does for many-
sided learning and scholarship.
The decline of literature proper was attended by an increased
output of grammatical and critical studies. From the time of
L. Aelius Stilo Praeconinus, who was the teacher of
Varro and Cicero, much interest had been taken in
literary and linguistic problems at Rome. Varro
under the republic, and M. Verrius Flaccus in the Augustan
age, had busied themselves with lexicography and etymology.
The grammarian M. Valerius Probus (c. A.D. 60) was the first
critical editor of Latin texts. In the next century we have
Velius Longus's treatise De Orthographia, and then a much
more important work, the Nodes Alticaeoi Aulus Gellius,and
(c. 200) a treatise in verse by Terentianus, an African, upon
Latin pronunciation, prosody and metre. Somewhat later
are the commentators on Terence and Horace, Helenius Aero
and Pomponius Porphyrio. The tradition was continued in
the 4th century by Nonius Marcellus and C. Marius Victorinus,
both Africans; Aelius Donatus, the grammarian and commen-
tator on Terence and Virgil, Flavius Sosipater Charisius and
Diomedes, and Servius, the author of a valuable commentary
on Virgil. Ambrosius Macrobius Theodosius (c. 400) wrote a
treatise on Cicero's Somnium Scipionis and seven books of
miscellanies (Saturnalia); and Martianus Capella (c. 430), a
native of Africa, published a compendium of the seven liberal
arts, written in a mixture of prose and verse, with some literary
pretensions. The last grammarian who need be named is the
most widely known of all, the celebrated Priscianus, who pub-
lished his text-book at Constantinople probably in the middle
of the sth century.
In jurisprudence, which maybe regarded as one of the outlying
regions of literature, Roman genius had had some of its greatest
triumphs, and, if we take account of the " codes," was active
to the end. The most distinguished of the early jurists (whose
LATINUS— LATITUDE
267
Jurists.
works are lost) were Q. Mucius Scaevola, who died in 82 B.C.,
and following him Ser. Sulpicius Rufus, who died in 43 B.C.
In the Augustan age M. Antistius Labeo and C. Ateius
Capito headed two opposing schools in jurispru-
dence, Labeo being an advocate of method and reform, and
Capito being a conservative and empiricist. The strife, which
reflects the controversy between the " analogists " and the
" anomalists " in philology, continued long after their death.
Salvius Julianus was entrusted by Hadrian with the task of
reducing into shape the immense mass of law which had grown
up in the edicts of successive praetors — thus taking the first
step towards a code. Sex. Pomponius, a contemporary, wrote
an important legal manual of which fragments are preserved.
The most celebrated handbook, however, is the Institutiones
of Gaius, who lived under Antonius Pius — a model of what such
treatises should be. The most eminent of all the Roman jurists
was Aemilius Papinianus, the intimate friend of Septimius
Severus; of his works only fragments remain. Other consider-
able writers were the prolific Domitius Ulpianus (c. 215) and
Julius Paulus, his contemporary. The last juristical writer of
note was Herennius Modestinus (c. 240). But though the line
of great lawyers had ceased, the effects of their work remained
and are clearly visible long after in the " codes " — the code of
Theodosius (438) and the still more famous code of Justinian
(529 and 533), with which is associated the name of Tribonianus.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The most full and satisfactory modern account
of Latin literature is M. Schanz's Geschichte der romisclien Litteratur.
The best in English is the translation by C. C. Warr of W. S. Teuffel
and L. Schwabe's History of Roman Literature. ]. W. Mackail's
short History of Latin Literature is full of excellent literary and
aesthetic criticisms on the writers. C. Lamarre's Histoire de la
literature latine (1901, with specimens) only deals with the writers of
the republic. W. Y. Sellar's Roman Poets of the Republic and Poets
of the Augustan Age, and R. Y. Tyrrell's Lectures on Latin Poetry,
will also be found of service. A concise account of the various Latin
writers and their works, together with bibliographies, is given in
J. E. B. Mayor's Bibliographical Clue to Latin Literature (1879), which
is based on a German work by E. Hiibner. See also the separate
bibliographies to the articles on individual writers.
(W. Y. S.;J. P. P.)
LATINUS, in Roman legend, king of the aborigines in Latium,
and eponymous hero of the Latin race. In Hesiod (Theogony,
1013) he is the son of Odysseus and Circe, and ruler of the Tyr-
senians; in Virgil, the son of Faunus and the nymph Marica,
a national genealogy being substituted for the Hesiodic, which
probably originated from a Greek source. Latinus was a
shadowy personality, invented to explain the origin of Rome
and its relations with Latium, and only obtained importance
in later times through his legendary connexion with Aeneas
and the foundation of Rome. According to Virgil (Aeneid,
vii.-xii.), Aeneas, on landing at the mouth of the Tiber, was
welcomed by Latinus, the peaceful ruler whose seat of govern-
ment was Laurentum, and ultimately married his daughter
Lavinia.
Other accounts of Latinus, differing considerably in detail, are to
be found in the fragments of Cato's Origines (in Servius's commentary
on Virgil) and in Dionysius of Halicarnassus; see further authorities
in the article by J. A. Hild, in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire
des antiquites.
LATITUDE (Lat. latitude, latus, broad), a word meaning
breadth or width, hence, figuratively, freedom from restriction,
but more generally used in the geographical and astronomical
sense here treated. The latitude of a point on the earth's surface
is its angular distance from the equator, measured on the curved
surface of the earth. The direct measure of this distance being
impracticable, it has to be determined by astronomical observa-
tions. As thus determined it is the angle between the direction
of the plumb-line at the place and the plane of the equator.
This is identical with the angle between the horizontal planes
at the place and at the equator, and also with the elevation of
the celestial pole above the horizon (see ASTRONOMY). Latitude
thus determined by the plumb-line is termed astronomical.
The geocentric latitude of a place is the angle which the line from
the earth's centre to the place makes with the plane of the
equator. Geographical latitude, which is used in mapping, is
based on the supposition that the earth is an elliptic spheroid
of known compression, and is the angle which the normal to this
spheroid makes with the equator. It differs from the astro-
nomical latitude only in being corrected for local deviation of
the plumb-line.
The latitude of a celestial object isxthe angle which the line
drawn from some fixed point of reference to the object makes
with the plane of the ecliptic.
Variability of Terrestrial Latitudes. — The latitude of a point
on the earth's surface, as above denned, is measured from the
equator. The latter is defined by the condition that its plane
makes a right angle with the earth's axis of rotation. It follows
that if the points in which this axis intersects the earth's surface,
i.e. the poles of the earth, change their positions on the earth's
surface, the position of the equator will also change, and there-
fore the latitudes of places will change also. About the end of
the i gth century research showed that there actually was a very
minute but measurable periodic change of this kind. The north
and south poles, instead of being fixed points on the earth's
surface, wander round within a circle about 50 ft. in diameter.
The result is a variability of terrestrial latitudes generally.
To show the cause of this motion, let BQ represent a section of an
oblate spheroid through its shortest axis, PP. We may consider this
spheroid to be that of the earth, the ellipticity being greatly exagge-
rated. If set in rotation around its axis of figure PP, it will con-
tinue to rotate around that axis for an indefinite time. But if,
instead of rotating around PP, it rotates around some other axis, RR,
making a small angle,
POR, with the axis of
figure PP; then it has
been known since the time
of Euler that the axis of
rotation RR, if referred
to the spheroid regarded
as fixed, will gradually
rotate round the axis of
figure PP in a period de-
fined in the following
way: — If we put C = the
moment of momentum of
the spheroid around the
axis of figure, and A =
the corresponding moment
around an axis passing
through the equator EQ,
then, calling one day the
period of rotation of the
spheroid, the axis RR will
make a revolution around PP in a number of days represented by
the fraction C/(C— A). In the case of the earth, this ratio is
1/0-0032813 or 305. It follows that the period in question is 305
days.
Up to 1890 the most careful observations and researches
failed to establish the periodicity of such a rotation, though
there was strong evidence of a variation of latitude. Then
S. C. Chandler, from an elaborate discussion of a great number
of observations, showed that there was really a variation of the
latitude of the points of observation; but, instead of the period
being 305 days, it was about 428 days. At first sight this period
seemed to be inconsistent with dynamical theory. But a defect
was soon found in the latter, the- correction of which reconciled
the divergence. In deriving a period of 305 days the earth is
regarded as an absolutely rigid body, and no account is taken
either of its elasticity or of the mobility of the ocean. A study
of the figure will show that the centrifugal force round the axis
RR will act on the equatorial protuberance of the rotating
earth so as to make it tend in the direction of the arrows. A
slight deformation of the earth will thus result; and the axis of
figure of the distorted spheroid will no longer be PP, but a line
P'P' between PP and RR. As the latter moves round, P'P' will
continually follow it through the incessant change of figure pro-
duced by the change in the direction of the centrifugal force.
Now the rate of motion of RR is determined by the actual figure
at the moment. It is therefore less than the motion in an
absolutely rigid spheroid in the proportion RP': RP. It is found
that, even though the earth were no more elastic than steel, its
yielding combined with the mobility of the ocean would make this
ratio about 2 : 3, resulting in an increase of the period by one-half,
making it about 457 days. Thus this small flexibility is even
268
LATIUM
greater than that necessary to the reconciliation of observation
with theory, and the earth is shown to be more rigid than steel —
a conclusion long since announced by Kelvin for other reasons.
Chandler afterwards made an important addition to the subject
by showing that the motion was represented by the superposition
of two harmonic terms, the first having a period of about 430
days, the other of one year. The result of this superposition is
a seven-year period, which makes 6 periods of the 428-day term
(428dX6 = 2s68d = 7 years, nearly), and 7 periods of the annual
term. Near one phase of this combined period the two com-
ponent motions nearly annul each other, so that the variation
is then small, while at the opposite phase, 3 to 4 years later, the
two motions are in the same direction and the range of variation
is at its maximum. The coefficient of the 428-day term seems
to be between 0-12" and 0-16"; that of the annual term between
0-06" and o-ii*. Recent observations give smaller values of both
than those made between 1890 and 1900, and there is no reason
to suppose either to be constant.
The present state of the theory may be summed up as follows : —
1. The fourteen-month term is an immediate result of the
fact that the axes of rotation and figure of the earth do not
strictly coincide, but make with each other a small angle of
which the mean value is about 0-15". If the earth remained
invariable, without any motion of matter on its surface, the
result of this non-coincidence would be the revolution of the one
pole round the other in a circle of radius 0-15", or about 15 ft.,
in a period of about 429 days. This revolution is called the
Eulerian motion, after the mathematician who discovered it.
But owing to meteorological causes the motion in question is
subject to annual changes. These changes arise from two
causes — the one statical, the other dynamical.
2. The statical causes are deposits of snow or ice slowly
changing the position of the pole of figure of the earth. For
example, a deposit of snow in Siberia would bring the equator of
figure of the earth a little nearer to Siberia and throw the pole
a little way from it, while a deposit on the American continent
would have the opposite effect. Owing to the approximate
symmetry of the American and Asiatic continents it does not
seem likely that the inequality of snowfall would produce an
appreciable effect.
3. The dynamical causes are atmospheric and oceanic currents.
Were these currents invariable their only effect would be that the
Eulerian motion would not take place exactly round the mean
pole of figure, but round a point slightly separated from it.
But, as a matter of fact, they are subject to an annual variation.
Hence the motion of the pole of rotation is also subject to a
similar variation. The annual term in the latitude is thus
accounted for.
Besides Chandler, Albrecht of Berlin has investigated the
motion of the pole P. The methods of the two astronomers are
in some points different. Chandler has constructed empirical
formulae representing the motion, with the results already given,
while Albrecht has determined the motion of the pole from
observation simply, without trying to represent it either by a
formula or by theory. It is noteworthy that the difference
between Albrecht's numerical results and Chandler's formulae is
generally less than 0-05*.
When the fluctuation in the position of the pole was fully
confirmed, its importance in astronomy and geodesy led the
International Geodetic Association to establish a series of
stations round the globe, as nearly as possible on the same
parallel of latitude, for the purpose of observing the fluctuation
with a greater degree of precision than could be attained by the
miscellaneous observations before available. The same stars
were to be observed from month to month at each station with
zenith-telescopes of similar approved construction. This secures
a double observation of each component of the polar motion,
from which most of the systematic errors are eliminated. The
principal stations are: Carloforte, Italy; Mizusawa, Japan;
Gaithersburg, Maryland; and Ukiah, California, all nearly
on the same parallel of latitude, 39° 8'.
The fluctuations derived from this international work during
the last seven years deviate but slightly from Chandler's formulae
though they show a markedly smaller value of the annual term.
In consequence, the change in the amplitude of the fluctuation
through the seven-year period is not so well marked as before 1 900.
Chandler's investigations are found in a series of papers published
in the Astronomical Journal, vols. xi. to xv. and xviii. Newcomb's
explanation of the lengthening of the Eulerian period is found in the
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society for March 1892.
Later volumes of the Astronomical Joiirnal contain discussions of the
causes which may produce the annual fluctuation. An elaborate
mathematical discussion of the theory is by Vito Volterra: " Sulla
teoria dei movimenti del Polo terrestre " in the A stronomische
Nachrichten, vol. 138; also, more fully in his memoir " Sur la
theorie des variations des latitudes," Acta Mathematica, vol. xxii.
The results of the international observations are discussed from time
to time by Albrecht in the publications of the International Geodetic
Association, and in the Astronomische Nachrichten (see also EARTH,
FIGURE OF). (S. N.)
LATIUM,1 in ancient geography, the name given to the
portion of central Italy which was bounded on the N.W. by
Etruria, on the S.W. by the Tyrrhenian Sea, on the S.E. by
Campania, on the E. by Samnium and on the N.E. by the
mountainous district inhabited by the Sabini, Aequi and Marsi.
The name was, however, applied very differently at different
times. Latium originally means the land of the Latini, and in
this sense, which alone is in use historically, it was a tract of
limited extent; but after the overthrow of the Latin confederacy,
when the neighbouring tribes of the Rutuli, Hernici, Volsci and
Aurunci, as well as the Latini properly so called, were reduced
to the condition of subjects and citizens of Rome, the name of
Latium was extended to comprise them all. It thus denoted the
whole country from the Tiber to the mouth of the Savo, and just
included the Mons Massicus, though the boundary was not very
precisely fixed (see below). The change thus introduced, though
already manifest in the composition of the Latin league (see
below) was not formally established till the reign of Augustus,
who formed of this larger Latium and Campania taken together
the first region of Italy; but it is already recognized by Strabo
(v. 3. 2. p. 228), as well as by Pliny, who terms the additional
territory thus incorporated Latium Adjectum, while he desig-
nates the original Latium, extending from the Tiber to Circeii, as
Latium A ntiquum.
i. LATIUM ANTIQUUM consisted principally of an extensive
plain, now known as the Campagna di Roma, bounded towards
the interior by the Apennines, which rise very abruptly from the
plains to a height of between 4000 and 5000 ft. Several of the
Latin cities, including Tibur and Praeneste, were situated on the
terrace-like underfills of these mountains,2 while Cora, Norba
and Setia were placed in like manner on the slopes of the Volscian
mountains (Monti Lepini), a rugged and lofty limestone range,
which runs parallel to the main mass of the Apennines, being
separated from them, however, by the valley of the Trerus
(Sacco), and forms a continuous barrier from there to Terracina.
No volcanic eruptions are known to have taken place in these
mountains within the historic period, though Livy sometimes
speaks of it " raining stones in the Alban hills " (i. 31, xxxv. 9 —
on the latter occasion it even did so on the Aventine). It is
asserted, too, that some of the earliest tombs of the necropolis
of Alba Longa (q.v.) were found beneath. a stratum of peperino.
Earthquakes (not of a violent character within recent centuries,
though the ruin of the Colosseum is probably to be ascribed to
this cause) are not unknown even at the present day in Rome
and in the Alban Hills, and a seismograph has been established
at Rocca di Papa. The surface is by no means a uniform plain,
but is a broad undulating tract, furrowed throughout by numerous
depressions, with precipitous banks, serving as water-courses,
though rarely traversed by any considerable stream. As the
general level of the plain rises gradually, though almost im-
perceptibly, to the foot of the Apennines, these channels by
degrees assume the character of ravines of a formidable de-
scription.
1 Latium, from the same root as lalus, side; later, brick; irXarfa,
flat ; Sans, prath : not connected with latus, wide.
2 In the time of Augustus the boundary of Latium extended as
far E. as Treba (Trevi), 12 m. S.E. of Sublaqueum (Subiaco).
LATIUM
269
Four main periods may be distinguished in the geological history
of Rome and the surrounding district. The hills on the right bank
of the Tiber culminating in Monte Mario (455 ft.) belong
Geology. to tjje grs,. of these, being of the Pliocene formation ; they
consist of a lower bluish-grey clay and an upper group of yellow sands
and gravels. This clay since Roman times has supplied the material
for brick-making, and the valleys which now separate the different
summits (Janiculum, Vatican, Monte Mario) are in considerable
measure artificial. On the left bank this clay has been reached at a
lower level, at the foot of the Pincian Hill, while in the Campagna it
has been found to extend below the later volcanic formations. The
latter may be divided into two groups, corresponding to the second
and third periods. In the second period volcanic activity occurred
at the bottom of the Pliocene sea, and the tufa, which extends over
the whole Campagna to a thickness of 300 ft. or more, was formed.
At the same time, hot springs, containing abundant carbonate of
lime in solution, produced deposits of travertine at various points.
In the third, after the Campagna, by a great general uplift, had
become a land surface, volcanic energy found an outlet in com-
paratively few large craters, which emitted streams of hard lava as
well as fragmentary materials, the latter forming sperone (lapis
Gabinus) and peperino (lapis Albanus), while upon one of the former,
which runs from the Alban Hills to within 2 m. of Rome, the Via
Appia was carried. The two main areas near Rome are formed by
the group of craters on the north (Bracciano, Bolsena, &c.) and the
Alban Hills on the south, the latter consisting of one great crater
with a base about 12 m. in diameter, in the centre of which a smaller
crater was later on built up (the basin is now known as the Campo di
Annibale) with several lateral vents (the Lake of Albano, the Lake
of Nemi, &c.). The Alban Mount (Monte Cavo) is almost the
highest point on the rim of the inner crater, while Mount Algidus and
Tusculum are on the outer ring wall of the larger (earlier) crater.
The fourth period is that in which the various subaerial agencies of
abrasion, and especially the streams which drain the mountain chain
of the Apennines, have produced the present features of the Cam-
pagna, a plain furrowed by gullies and ravines. The communities
which inhabited the detached hills and projecting ridges which later
on formed the city of Rome were in a specially favourable position.
These hills (especially the Palatine, the site of the original settle-
ment) with their naturally steep sides, partly surrounded at the base
by marshes and situated not far from the confluence of the Anio with
the Tiber, possessed natural advantages not shared by the other
primitive settlements of the district; and their proximity to one
another rendered it easy to bring them into a larger whole. The
volcanic materials available in Rome and its neighbourhood were
especially useful in building. The tufa, sperone and peperino were
easy to quarry, and could be employed by those who possessed com-
paratively elementary tools, while travertine, which came into use
later, was an excellent building stone, and the lava (selce) served
for paving stones and as material for concrete. The strength of the
renowned Roman concrete is largely due to the use of pozzolana (see
PUTEOLI), which also is found in plenty in the Campagna.
Between the volcanic tract of the Campagna and the sea there is a
broad strip of sandy plain, evidently formed merely by the accumu-
lation of sand from the sea, and constituting a barren tract, still
covered almost entirely with wood as it was in ancient times, except
for the almost uninterrupted line of villas along the ancient coast-
line, which is now marked by a line of sandhills, some £ m. or more
inland (see LAVINIUM, TIBER). This long belt of sandy shore extends
without a break for a distance of above 30 m. from the mouth of the
Tiber to the promontory of Antium (Porto d'Anzio), a low rocky
headland, projecting out into the sea, and forming the only con-
siderable angle in this line of coast. Thence again a low sandy shore
of similar character, but with extensive shore lagoons which served in
Roman times and serve still for fish-breeding, extends for about 24 m.
to the foot of the Monte Circeo (Circeius Mons, q.v.). The region of
the Pomptine Marshes (q.v.) occupies almost the whole tract between
the sandy belt on the sea-shore and the Volscian mountains, extend-
ing from the southern foot of the Alban Hills below Velletri to the sea
near Terracina.
The district sloping down from Velletri to the dead level of the
Pontine (Pomptine) Marshes has not, like the western and northern
slopes of the Alban Hills, drainage towards the Tiber.
aage. -pne sut,soil too is differently formed : the surface consists
of very absorbent materials, then comes a stratum of less permeable
tufa or peperino (sometimes clay is present), and below that again
more permeable materials. In ancient, and probably pre-Roman,
times this district was drained by an elaborate system of cuniculi,
small drainage tunnels, about 5 ft. high and 2 ft. wide, which ran, not
at the bottom of the valleys, where there were sometimes streams
already, and where, in any case, erosion would have broken through
their roofs, but along their slopes, through the less permeable tufa,
their object being to drain the hills on each side of the valleys.
They had probably much to do with the relative healthiness of this
district in early times. Some of them have been observed to be
earlier in date than the Via Appia (312 B.C.). They were studied in
detail by R. de la Blanchere. When they fell into desuetude,
malaria gained the upper hand, the lack of drainage providing
breeding-places for the malarial mosquito. Remains of similar
drainage channels exist in many parts of the Campagna Romana
and of southern Etruria at points where the natural drainage was not
sufficient, and especially in cultivated or inhabited hills (though it
was not necessary here, as in the neighbourhood of Velletri, to create
a drainage system, as streams and rivers were already present as
natural collectors) and streams very frequently pass through them
at the present day. The drainage channels which were dug for the
various crater lakes in the neighbourhood of Rome are also interest-
ing in this regard. That of the Alban Lake is the most famous;
but all the other crater lakes are similarly provided. As the drainage
by cuniculi removed the moisture in the subsoil, so the drainage of the
lakes by emissaria, outlet channels at a low level, prevented the
permeable strata below the tufa from becoming impregnated with
moisture which they would otherwise have derived from the lakes of
the Alban Hills. The slopes below Velletri, on the other hand,
derive much of their moisture from the space between the inner and
outer ring of the Alban volcano, which it was impossible to drain:
and this in turn receives much moisture from the basin of the extinct
inner crater.1
Numerous isolated palaeolithic objects of the Mousterian type
have been found in the neighbourhood of Rome in the quaternary
gravels of the Tiber and Anio; but no certain traces
of th^ neolithic period have come to light, as the many **e"
flint implements found sporadically round Rome pro- "'s'or'c
bably belong to the period which succeeded neolithic
(called by Italian archaeologists the eneolithic period) inasmuch
as both stone and metal (not, however, bronze, but copper) were
in use.2 At Sgurgola, in the valley of the Sacco, a skeleton was
found in a rock-cut tomb of this period which still bears traces
of painting with cinnabar. A similar rock-cut tomb was found
at Mandela, in the Anio valley. Both are outside the limits of
the Campagna in the narrower sense; but similar tombs were
found (though less accurately observed) in travertine quarries
between Rome and Tivoli. Objects of the Bronze age too have only
been found sporadically. The earliest cemeteries and hut foundations
of the Alban Hills belong to the Iron age, and cemeteries and objects
of a similar character have been found in Rome itself and in southern
Etruria, especially the characteristic hut-urns. The objects found
in these cemeteries show close affinity with those found in the
terremare of Emilia, these last being of earlier date, and hence
Pigorini and Helbig consider that the Latini were close descendants
of the inhabitants of the terremare. On the other hand, the ossuaries
of the Villanova type, while they occur as far south as Veil and Caere,
have never so far been found on the left bank of the Tiber, in Latium
proper (see L. Pigorini in Rendiconti dei Lincei, ser. v. vol. xvi., 1907,
p. 676, and xyiii., 1909). We thus have at the beginning of the Iron
age two distinct currents of civilization in central Italy, the Latin
and that of Villanova. As to the dates to which these are to be
attributed, there is not as yet complete accord, e.g. some archae-
ologists assign to the nth, others (and with far better reasons) to
the 8th century B.C., the earliest tombs of the Alban necropolis and
the coeval tombs of the necropolis recently discovered in the Forum
at Rome. In this last necropolis cremation seems slightly to precede
inhumation in date.
For the prehistoric period see Bullettino di paleontologia Italiana,
passim, B. Modestov, Introduction a I'histoire romaine (Paris, 1907),
and T. E. Peet, The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy (Oxford,
1909).
It is uncertain to what extent reliance can be placed upon the
traditional accounts of the gradual spread of the sup-
remacy of Rome in Latium, and the question cannot be
discussed here.3 The list of the thirty communities be-
longing to the Latin league, given by Dionysius of Halicarnassus
•'See R. de la Blanchere in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire
des antiquites, s.vv. Cuniculus, Emissarium, and the same author's
Chapitre d'histoire ponline (Paris, 1889).
2 See G. A. Colini in Bullettino di palentologia Italiana, xxxi.
(1905)-
3 The most important results will be found stated at the outset
of the articles ROME : History (the chief being that the Plebeians of
Rome probably consisted of Latins and the Patricians of Sabines),
LIGURIA, SICULI and ARICIA. For the Etruscan dominion in the
Latin plain see ETRURIA. Special mention may here be made of one
or two points of importance. The legends represent the Latins of
the historical period as a fusion of different races, Ligures, Veneti and
Siculi among them; the story of the alliance of the Trojan settler
Aeneas with the daughter of Latinus, king of the aborigines, and the
consequent enmity of the Rutulian prince Turnus, well known to
readers of Virgil, is thoroughly typical of the reflection of these
distant ethnical phenomena in the surviving traditions. In view of
the historical significance of the NO- ethnicon (see SABINI) it is im-
portant to observe that the original form of the ethnic adjective
no doubt appears in the title of Juppiter Latiaris (not Latinus);
and that Virgil's description of the descent of the noble Drances
at Latinus's court (Aen. xi. 340) — genus huic materna superbum
Nobilitas dabat, incertum de patre ferebat — indicates a very different
system of family ties from the famous patria potestas and agnation
of the Patrician and Sabine clans. (R. S- C.)
Latin
League.
2JO
LATIUM
(v. 61), is, however, of great importance. It is considered by Th.
Mommsen (Roman History, i. 448) that it dates from about
the year 370 B.C., to which period belong the closing of the
confederacy, no fresh communities being afterwards admitted
to it, and the consequent fixing of the boundaries of Latium.
The list is as follows: Ardeates, Aricini, Bovillani,1 Bubentani,
Cabani, Carventani, Circeiates, Coriolani, Corbintes, Corni
(probably Corani), Fortinei (?), Gabini, Laurentini, Lavinates,
Labicani, Lanuvini, Nomentani, Norbani, Praenestini, Pedani,
Querquetulani, Satricani, Scaptini, Setini, Tellenii, Tiburtini,
Tolerini, Tuscukni, Veliterni.
These communities may be briefly described according to their
geographical arrangement. Laurentum and Lavinium, names so
conspicuous in the legendary history of Aeneas, were situated in the
sandy strip near the sea-coast — the former only 8 m. S.E. of Ostia,
which was from the first merely the port of Rome, and never figured
as an independent city. Farther S.E. again lay Ardea, the ancient
capital of the Rutuli, and some distance beyond that Antium,
situated on the sea-coast, which does not occur in the list of Dionysius,
and is, in the early annals of Rome, called a Volscian town — even
their chief city. On the southern underfalls of the Alban mountains,
commanding the plain at the foot, stood Lanuvium and Velitrae;
Aricia rose on a neighbouring hill, and Corioli was probably situated
on the lower slopes. The village of the Cabani (probably identical
with the Cabenses) is possibly to be sought on the site of the modern
Rocca di Papa, N. of Monte Cavo. The more important city of
Tusculum occupied one of the northern summits of the same group;
while opposite to it, in a commanding situation on a lofty offshoot of
the Apennines, rose Praeneste, now Palestrina. Bola and Pedum
were probably in the same neighbourhood, Labici on an outlying
summit (Monte Compatri) of the Alban Hills below Tusculum, and
Corbio (probably at Rocca Priora) on a rocky summit east of the
same city. Tibur (Tivoli) occupied a height commanding the outlet
of the river Anio. Corniculum, farther west, stood on the summit of
one of three conical hills that rise abruptly out of the plain at the
distance of a few miles from Monte Gennaro, the nearest of the
Apennines, and which were thence known as the Monies Corniculani.
Nomentum was a few miles farther north, between the Apennines and
the Tiber, and close to the Sabine frontier. The boundary between
the two nations was indeed in this part very fluctuating. Nearly in
the centre of the plain of the Campagna stood Gabii ; Bovillae was
also in the plain, but close to the Appian Way, where it begins to
ascend the Alban Hills. Several other cities — Tellenae, Scaptia and
Querquetulum — mentioned in the list of Dionysius were probably
situated in the Campagna, but the site cannot be determined.
Satricum, on the other hand, was certainly south of the Alban Hills,
between Velitrae and Antium; while Cora, Norba and Setia (all of
which retain their ancient names with little modification) crowned
the rocky heights which form advanced posts from the Volscian
mountains towards the Pontine Marshes. Carventum possibly
occupied the site of Rocca Massima N. of Cori, and Tolerium was very
likely at Valmontone in the valley of the Sacco (anc. Trerus or Tolerus) .
The cities of the Bubentani and Fortinei are quite unknown.
A considerable number of the Latin cities had before 370 B.C.
either been utterly destroyed or reduced to subjection by Rome,
and had thus lost their independent existence. Such were
Antemnae and Caenina, both of them situated within a few
miles of Rome to the N., the conquest of which was ascribed to
Romulus; Fidenae, about 5 m. N. of the city, and close to the
Tiber; and Crustumerium, in the hilly tract farther north
towards the Sabine frontier. Suessa Pometia also, on the borders
of the Pontine Marshes, to which it was said to have given name,
was a city of importance, the destruction of which was ascribed
to Tarquinius Superbus. In any case it had disappeared before
370 B.C., as it does not occur in the list of the Latin league attribut-
able to that date. It is probably to be sought between Velletri
and Cisterna. But by far the most important of these extinct
cities was Alba, on the lake to which it gave its name, which
was, according to universally received tradition, the parent of
Rome, as well as of numerous other cities within the limits of
Latium, including Gabii, Fidenae, Collatia, Nomentum and other
well-known towns. Whether or not this tradition deserves to
rank as historical, it appears certain that at a still earlier period
there existed a confederacy of thirty towns, of which Alba was
the supreme head. A list of those who were wont to participate
in the sacrifices on the Alban Mount is given us by Pliny (N.H.
iii. 5. 69) under the name of populi albenses, which includes only
1 The MSS. read Qo'XKav&v or /SoiXacajx: the Latin translation has
Bolanorum. It is difficult to say which is to be preferred. The list
gives only twenty-nine names, and Mommsen proposes to insert
Signini.
six or at most eight of those found in the list of Dionysius;
and these for the most part among the more obscure and least
known of the names given by him. Many of the rest are un-
known; while the more powerful cities of Aricia, Lanuvium
and Tusculum, though situated immediately on the Alban Hills,
are not included, and appear to have maintained a wholly
independent position. This earlier league was doubtless broken
up by the fall of Alba; it was probably the increasing power
of the Volsci and Aequi that led to the formation of the later
league, including all the more powerful cities of Latium, as well
as to the alliance concluded by them with the Romans in the
consulship of Spurius Cassius (493 B.C.). Other cities of the Latin
league had already (according to the traditional dates) received
Latin colonies — Velitrae (494 B.C.), Norba (492), Ardea (442),
Labici (418), Circei (393), Satricum (385), Setia (382).
The cities of the Latin league continued to hold general
meetings or assemblies from time to time at the grove of the
Aqua Ferentina, a sanctuary at the foot of the Alban Hills,
perhaps in a valley below Marino, while they had also a common
place of worship on the summit of the Alban Mount (Monte
Cavo), where stood the celebrated temple of Jupiter Latiaris.
The participation in the annual sacrifices at this sanctuary was
regarded as typical of a Latin city (hence the name " prisci
Latini " given to the participating peoples) ; and they continued
to be celebrated long after the Latins had lost their independence
and been incorporated in the Roman state.3
We are on firmer ground in dealing with the spread of the
supremacy of Rome in Latium when we take account of the
foundation of new colonies and of the formation of
new tribes, processes which as a rule go together. The Su™£macy.
information that we have as to the districts in which
the sixteen earliest clans (tribus rusticoe)4 were settled shows us
that, except along the Tiber, Rome's dominion extended hardly
more than 5 m. beyond the city gates (Mommsen, History of
Rome, i. 58). Thus, towards the N. and E. we find the towns of
Antemnae, Fidenae, Caenina and Gabii;5 on the S.E., towards
Alba, the boundary of Roman territory was at the Fossae
Cluiliae, 5 m. from Rome, where Coriolanus encamped (Livy ii.
39), and, on the S., towards Laurentum at the 6th mile, where
sacrifice to Terminus was made (Ovid, Fasti, ii. 681): the
Ambarvalia too were celebrated even in Strabo's day (v. 3. 3. p.
230) at a place called <E>rj0Toi between the sth and 6th mile.
The identification (cf. Hiilsen in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencydo-
pddie, vi. 2223) of this locality with the grove of the Arval
brothers at the 5th mile of the Via Portuensis, to the W. of
Rome, and of the Ambarvalia with the festival celebrated by
this brotherhood in May of each year, is now generally accepted.
But Roman sway must either from the first, or very soon, have
extended to Ostia, the port of Rome at the mouth of the Tiber:
and it was as the emporium of Latium that Rome acquired her
first importance.6
2 Albani, Aesolani (probably E. of Tibur), Accienses, Abolani,
Bubetani, Bolani, Cusuetani (Carventani ?), Coriolani, Fidenates,
Foreti (Fortinei ?), Hortenses (near Corbio), Latinienses (near Rome
itself), Longani, Manates, Macrales, Munienses (Castrimoenienses?),
Numinienses, Olliculani, Octulani, Pedani, Poletaurini, Querquetu-
lani, Sicani, Sisolenses, Tolerienses, Tutienses (not, one would think,
connected with the small stream called Tutia at the 6th mile of the
Via Salaria; Liv. xxvi. n), Vimitellari, Velienses, Venetulani,
Vitellenses (not far from Corbio).
3 To an earlier stage of the Latin league, perhaps to about 430 B.C.
(Mommsen, op. cit. 445 n. 2) belongs the dedication of the grove of
Diana by a dictator Latinus, in the name of the people of Tusculum,
Aricia, Lanuvium, Laurentum, Cora,Tibur,Suessa Pometia and Ardea.
4 Of the gentes from which these tribes took their names, six
entirely disappeared in later days, while the other ten can be traced
as patrician — a proof that the patricians were not noble families in
origin (Mommsen, Romische Forschungen, i. 106). For the tribes
see W. Kubitschek, De Romanarum tribuum origine (Vienna, 1882).
6 We have various traces of the early antagonism to Gabii, e.g. the
opposition between ager Romanus and ager Gabinus in the augural law.
6 For the early extension of Roman territory towards the sea, cf.
Festus, p. 213, Mull., s.v. " Pectuscum:" Pectuscum Palali dicta est ea
regio urbis, quam Romulus obversam posuil, ea parte, in qua plurimum
erat agri Romani ad mare versus el qua mollissime adibatur Urbo, cum
Etruscorum agrum a Romano Tiberis discluderet, ceterae vicinae
civitates colles aliquos haberent oppositos.
LATIUM
271
The
primitive
tribes.
The boundary of the Ager Romanus antiquus towards the
north-west is similarly fixed by the festival of the Robigalia
at the sth milestone of the Via Clodia. Within this
area fall the districts inhabited by the earliest tribes,
so far as these are known to us. The tribus Romilia
was settled on the right bank of the Tiber near the
sanctuary of the Arvales, the Galeria perhaps a little farther
west on the lower course of the stream now known as Galera,
and the Fabia perhaps on the Cremera towards Veii. We know
that the pagus Lemonius was on the Via Latina, and that the
tribus Pupinia dwelt between Tusculum and the city, while
the territory of the Papiria possibly lay nearer Tusculum, as
it was to this tribe that the Roman citizens in Tusculum belonged
in later days. It is possible that the Camilla was situated in
the direction of Tibur, inasmuch as this town was afterwards
enrolled in this tribe. The tribus Claudia, probably the last
of the 1 6 older tribus rusticae, was according to tradition founded
in 504 B.C. Its territory lay beyond the Anio, between Fidenae
and Ficulea (Liv. ii. 16; Dion. Hal. v. 40). The locality of the
pagi round which the other tribes were grouped is not known
to us.
With the earliest extensions of the Roman territory coincided the
first beginnings of the Roman road system. The road to Ostia may
have existed from the first: but after the Latin com-
munities on the lower Anip had fallen under the dominion
system. Qf Rome| we may well believe that the first portion of the
Via Salaria, leading to Antemnae, Fidenae (the fall of which is placed
by tradition in 428 B.C.) and Crustumerium, came into existence.
The formation (according to the traditional dating in 495 or 471 B.C.)
of the tribus Clustumina (the only one of the earlier twenty-one tribes
which bears a local name) is both a consequence of an extension of
territory and of the establishment of the assembly of the plebs by
tribes, for which an inequality of the total number of divisions was
desirable (Mommsen, History of Rome, i. 360). The correlative of the
Via Salaria was the Via Campana, so called because it led past the
grove of the Arvales along the right bank of the Tiber to the Campus
Salinarum Romanarum,1 the salt marshes, from which the Via
Salaria took its name, inasmuch as it was the route by which Sabine
traders came from the interior to fetch the salt. To this period
would also belong the Via Ficulensis, leading to Ficulea, and after-
wards prolonged to Nomentum, and the Via Collatina, which led
to Collatia. Gabii became Roman in fairly early times, though at
what period is uncertain, and with its subjugation must have origin-
ated the Via Gabina, afterwards prolonged to Praeneste. The Via
Latina too must be of very early origin; and tradition places the
foundation of the Latin colony at Signia (to which it led) as early as
495 B.C. Not long after the capture of Fidenae, the main outpost of
Veil, the chief city itself fell (396 B.C.) and a road (still traceable)
was probably made thither. There was also probably a road to
Caere in early times, inasmuch as we hear of the flight of the Vestals
thither in 389 B.C. The origin of the rest of the roads is no doubt to
be connected with the gradual establishment of the Latin league.
We find that while the later (long distance) roads bear as a rule the
name of their constructor, all the short distance roads on the left
bank of the Tiber bear the names of towns which belonged to the
league — Nomentum, Tibur, Praeneste, Labici, Ardea, Laurentum —
while Ficulea and Collatia do not appear. The Via Pedana,
leading to Pedum, is known to us only from an inscription (Bull. Soc.
Antiquaires de France, 1905, p. 177) discovered in Tunisia in 1905, and
may be of much later origin; it was a branch of the Via Praenestina.
There must too have been a road, along the line of the later Via
Appia, to Bovillac, Aricia, Lanuvium and Velitrae, going thence to
Cora, Norba and Setia along the foot of the Volscian Mountains;
while nameless roads, which can still be traced, led direct from Rome
to Satricum and to Lavinium.
We can trace the advance of the Roman supremacy with
greater ease after 387 B.C., inasmuch as from this year (adopting
the traditional dating for what it is worth) until 299 B.C. every
accession of territory is marked by the foundation of a group
of new tribes; the limit of 35 in all was reached in the latter
year. In 387, after the departure of the Gauls, southern Etruria
was conquered, and four new tribes were formed: Arnensis
(probably derived from Aro, mod. Arrone — though the ancient
name does not occur in literature — the stream which forms
the outlet to the lake of Bracciano, anc. Lacus Sabalinus)?
Sabatina (called after this lake), Stellatina (named from the
Campus Stellatinus, near Capena; cf. Festus p. 343 Mull.) and
Tromentina (which, Festus tells us, was so called from the
1 The ancient name is known from an inscription discovered in
1888.
8 So Kubitschek in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie, ii. 1204.
Campus Tromentus, the situation of which we do not know).
Four years later were founded the Latin colonies of Sutrium and
Nepet. In 358 B.C. Roman preponderance in the Pomptine
territory was shown by the formation of the tribus Pomplina
and Publilia, while in 338 and 329 respectively Antium and
Tarracina became colonies of Roman citizens, the former having
been founded as a Latin colony in 494 B.C.
After the dissolution of the Latin league which followed
upon the defeat of the united forces of the Samnites and of those
Latin and Volscian cities which had revolted against Rome,
two new tribes, Maecia and Scaptia,3 were created in 332 B.C.
in connexion with the distribution of the newly acquired lands
(Mommsen, History, i. 462). A further advance in the same
direction ending in the capture of Privernum in 329 B.C. is
marked by the establishment in 318 B.C. of the tribus Oufentina
(from the river Ufens which runs below Setia, mod. Sezze, and
Privernum, mod. Piperno, and the tribus Falerna (in the Ager
Falernus), while the foundation of the colonies of Cales (334)
and Fregellae (328) secured the newly won south Volscian and
Campanian territories and led no doubt to a prolongation of
the Via Latina. The moment had now come for the pushing
forward of another line of communication, which had no doubt
reached Tarracina in 329 B.C. but was now definitely constructed
(munita) as a permanent military highway as far as Capua in
312 B.C. by Appius Claudius, after whom it was named. To
him no doubt is due the direct line of road through the Pontine
Marshes from Velitrae to Terracina. Its construction may
fairly be taken to mark the period at which the roads of which
we have spoken, hitherto probably mere tracks, began to be
transformed into real highways. In the same year (312) the
colony of Interamna Lirenas was founded, while Luceria, Suessa
(Aurunca) and Saticula had been established a year or two
previously. Sora followed nine years later. In 299 B.C. further
successes led to the establishment of two new tribes — the Teretina
in the upper valley of the Trerus (Sacco) and the Aniensis,
in the upper valley of the Anio — while to about the same time
we must attribute the construction of two new military roads,
both secured by fortresses. The southern road, the Via Valeria
led to Carsioli and Alba Fucens (founded as Latin colonies
respectively in 298 and 303 B.C.), and the northern (afterwards
the Via Flaminia4) to Narnia (founded as a Latin colony in
299 B.C.). There is little doubt that the formation of the tribus
Quirina (deriving its name possibly from the town of Cures)
and the tribus Velina (from the river Velinus, which forms
the well-known waterfalls near Terni) is to be connected with
the construction of the latter high road, though its date is not
certainly known. The further history of Roman supremacy
in Italy will be found in the article ROME: History. We notice,
however, that the continual warfare in which the Roman state
was engaged led to the decadence of the free population of
Latium, and that the extension of the empire of Rome was
fatal to the prosperity of the territory which immediately sur-
rounded the city.6
What had previously, it seems, been a well-peopled region,
with peasant proprietors, kept healthy by careful drainage,
became in the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C. a district
consisting in large measure of huge estates (latifundid)
owned by the Roman aristocracy, cultivated by gangs
of slaves. This led to the disappearance of the agri-
cultural population, to a decline in public safety, and to the
spread of malaria in many parts; indeed, it is quite possible that
it was not introduced into Latium before the 4th century B.C.
The evil increased in the later period of the Republic, and
many of the old towns of Latium sank into a very decayed
condition; with this the continual competition of the provinces
as sources of food-supply no doubt had a good deal to do. Cicero
8 Festus tells us (p. 136 Mull.) that the Maecia derived its name
" a quodam castro. ' Scaptia was the only member of the Latin
league that gave its name to a tribe.
4 See FLAMINIA, VIA and VALERIA, VIA.
6 L. Caetani indeed (Nineteenth Century and After, 1908) attributes
the economic decadence of the Roman Campagna to the existence of
free trade throughout the Roman empire.
LATIUM
speaks of Gabii, Labici and Bovillae as places that had fallen into
abject poverty, while Horace refers to Gabii and Fidenae as mere
" deserted villages," and Strabo as " once fortified towns, but
now villages, belonging to private individuals." Many of the
smaller places mentioned in the list of Dionysius, or the early
wars of the Romans, had altogether ceased to exist, but the
statement of Pliny that fifty-three communities (populi) had thus
perished within the boundaries of Old Latium is perhaps ex-
aggerated. By the end of the Republic a good many parts of
Latium were infected, and Rome itself was highly malarious in the
warm months (see W. H. S. Jones in Annals of Archaeology and
Anthropology, ii. 97, Liverpool, 1909). The emperors Claudius,
Nerva and Trajan turned their attention to the district, and under
their example and exhortation the Roman aristocracy erected
numerous villas within its boundaries, and used them at least
for summer residences. During the 2nd century the Campagna
seems to have entered on a new era of prosperity. The system of
roads radiating in all directions from Rome (see ITALY: History,
§ B) belonged to a much earlier period; but they were con-
nected by a network of crossroads (now mostly abandoned,
while the main lines are still almost all in use) leading to the very
numerous villas with which the Campagna was strewn (even
in districts which till recently were devastated by malaria),
and which seem in large measure to belong to this period. Some
of these are of enormous extent, e.g. the villa of the Quintilii
on the Via Appia, that known as Setta Bassi on the Via Latina,
and that of Hadrian near Tibur, the largest of all.
When the land tax was introduced into Italy in 292, the first
region of Augustus obtained the name of provincia Campania.
Later on the name Latium entirely disappeared, and the name
Campania extended as far as Veii and the Via Aurelia, whence
the medieval and modern name Campagna di Roma. The
donation made by Constantine to various churches of Rome
of numerous estates belonging to the patrimonium Caesaris in
the neighbourhood of Rome was of great historical importance,
as being the origin of the territorial dominion of the papacy.
His example was followed by others, so that the church property
in the Campagna soon became considerable; and, owing to the
immunities and privileges which it enjoyed, a certain revival
of prosperity ensued. The invasions of the barbarian hordes
did great harm, but the formation of centres (domuscultae) in
the 8th and 9th centuries was a fact of great importance: the
inhabitants, indeed, formed the medieval militia of the papacy.
Smaller centres (the colonia — often formed in the remains of an
ancient villa — the curtis or curia, the castrum, the casale) grew
up later. We may note that, owing to the growth of the
temporal power of the popes, there was never a dux Romae
dependent on the exarchate of Ravenna, similar to those estab-
lished by Narses in the other districts of Italy.
The papal influence was also retained by means of the suburban
bishoprics, which took their rise as early as the 4th and 5lh
centuries. The rise of the democratic commune of
i/nrfer Rome ' about 1143 and of the various trade corpora-
commuae. tions which we already find in the early nth century
led to struggles with the papacy; the commune of
Rome made various attempts to exercise supremacy in the
Campagna and levied various taxes from the izth century until
the i sth. The commune also tried to restrict the power of
the barons, who, in the i3th century especially, though we find
them feudatories of the holy see from the loth century onwards,
threatened to become masters of the whole territory, which is
still dotted over with the baronial castles and lofty solitary
towers of the rival families of Rome — Orsini, Colonna, Savelli,
Conti, Caetani — who ruthlessly destroyed the remains of earlier
edifices to obtain materials for their own, and whose castles,
often placed upon the high roads, thus following a strategic
line to a stronghold in the country, did not contribute to the
undisturbed security of traffic upon them, but rather led to their
abandonment. On a list of the inhabited centres of the Cam-
pagna of the I4th century with the amount of salt (which was
1 The commune of Rome as such seems to have been in existence
in 999 at least.
tions.
a monopoly of the commune of Rome) consumed by each,
Tomassetti bases an estimate of the population: this was about
equal to that of our own times, but differently distributed, some
of the smaller centres having disappeared at the expense of the
towns. Several of the popes, as Sixtus IV. and Julius III.,
made unsuccessful attempts to improve the condition of the
Campagna, the former making a serious attempt to revive
agriculture as against pasture, while in the latter part of the
1 6th century a line of watch-towers was erected along the coast.
In the Renaissance, it is true, falls the erection of many fine
villas in the neighbourhood of Rome — not only in the hills
round the Campagna, but even in certain places in the lower
ground, e.g. those of Julius II. at La Magliana and of Cardinal
Trivulzio at Salone, — and these continued to be frequented
until the end of the i8th century, when the French P.evolution
dealt a fatal blow to the prosperity of the Roman nobility.
The 1 7th and i8th centuries, however, mark the worst period
of depopulation in the more malarious parts of the Campagna,
which seems to have begun in the isth century, though we hear
of malaria throughout the middle ages. The most healthy
portions of the territory are in the north and east, embracing
the slopes of the Apennines which are watered by the Teverone
and Sacco; and the most pestilential is the stretch between the
Monti Lepini and the sea. The Pontine Marshes (q.v.) included
in the latter division, were drained, according to the plan of
Bolognini, by Pius VI., who restored the ancient Via Appia to
traffic; but though they have returned to pasture
and cultivation, their insalubrity is still notorious.
The soil in many parts is very fertile and springs are
plentiful and abundant: the water is in some cases
sulphureous or ferruginous. In summer, indeed, the vast expanse
is little better than an arid steppe; but in the winter it furnishes
abundant pasture to flocks of sheep from the Apennines and
herds of silver-grey oxen and shaggy black horses, and sheep
passing in the summer to the mountain pastures. A certain
amount of horse-breeding is done, and the government has, as
elsewhere in Italy, a certain number of stallions. Efforts have
been made since 1882 to cure the waterlogged condition of the
marshy grounds. The methods employed have been three —
(i.) the cutting of drainage channels and clearing the marshes
by pumping, the method principally employed; (ii.) the system
of warping, i.e. directing a river so that it may deposit its
sedimentary matter in the lower-lying parts, thus levelling them
up and consolidating them, and then leading the water away again
by drainage; (iii.) the planting of firs and eucalyptus trees,
e.g. at Tre Fontane and elsewhere. These efforts have not been
without success, though it cannot be affirmed that the malarial
Campagna is anything like healthy yet. The regulation of the
rivers, more especially of the Tiber, is probably the most efficient
method for coping with the problem. Since 1884 the Italian
Government have been systematically enclosing, pumping dry,
and generally draining the marshes of the Agro Romano, that is,
the tracts around Ostia; the Isola Sacra, at the mouth of the
Tiber; and Maccarese. Of the whole of the Campagna less
than one-tenth comes annually under the plough. In its pictur-
esque desolation, contrasting so strongly with its prosperity
in Roman times, immediately surrounding a city of over half a
million inhabitants, and with lofty mountains in view from all
parts of it, it is one of the most interesting districts in the world,
and has a peculiar and indefinable charm. The modern province
of Rome (forming the compartimento of Lazio) includes also
considerable mountain districts, extending as far N.W. as the
Lake of Bolsena, and being divided on the N.E. from Umbria
by the Tiber, while on the E. it includes a considerable part of
the Sabine mountains and Apennines. The ancient district
of the Hernicans, of which Alatri is regarded as the centre, is
known as the Ciociaria, from a kind of sandals (cioce) worn by the
peasants. On the S.E. too a considerable proportion of the
group of the Lepini belongs to the province. The land is for the
most part let by the proprietors to mercanti di Campagna, who
employ a subordinate class of factors (JaUori) to manage their
affairs on the spot.
LATONA
273
Produce
The recent discovery that the malaria which has hitherto
rendered parts of the Campagna almost uninhabitable during
. H the summer is propagated by the mosquito (Anopheles
claviger) marks a new epoch; the most diverse theories
as to its origin had hitherto been propounded, but it is now
possible to combat it on a definite plan, by draining the marshes,
protecting the houses by fine mosquito-proof wire netting (for
Anopheles is not active by day), improving the water supply, &c.,
while for those who have fever, quinine (now sold cheaply by the
state) is a great specific. A great improvement is already
apparent; and a law carried in 1903 for the Bonifica dell' Agro
Romano compels the proprietors within a radius of some 6 m.
of Rome to cultivate their lands in a more productive way than
has often hitherto been the case, exemption from taxes for ten
years and loans at 25% from the government being granted
to those who carry on improvements, and those who refuse
being expropriated compulsorily. The government further
resolved to open roads and schools and provide twelve additional
doctors. Much is done in contending against malaria by the
Italian Red Cross Society. In 1900 31% of the inhabitants
of the Agro Romano had been fever-stricken; since then the
figure has rapidly decreased (5-1% in 1905).
The wheat crop in 1906 in the Agro Romano was 8,108,500
bushels, the Indian corn 3,314,000 bushels, the wine 12,100,000
gaU°ns and t^e °live oil 1,980,000 gallons, — these
last two from the hill districts. The wine production
had declined by one-half from the previous year, exportation
having fallen off in the whole country. 1907, however, was a
year of great overproduction all over Italy. The wine of the
Alban hills is famous in modern as in ancient times, but will not
as a rule bear exportation. • The forests of the Alban hills and
near the coast produce much charcoal and light timber, while
the Sabine and Volscian hills have been largely deforested and
are now bare limestone rocks. Much of the labour in the winter
and spring is furnished by peasants who come down from the
Volscian and Hernican mountains, and from Abruzzi, and
occupy sometimes caves, but more often the straw or wicker
huts which are so characteristic a feature of the Campagna.
The fixed population of the Campagna in the narrower sense
(as distinct from the hills) is less than 1000. Emigration to
America, especially from the Volscian and Hernican towns, is
now considerable.
2. LATIUM NOVUM or ADJECTUM, as it is termed by Pliny, com-
prised the territories occupied in earlier times by the Volsci and
Hernici. It was for the most part a rugged and mountainous
country, extending at the back of Latium proper, from the frontier
of the Sabines to the sea-coast between Terracina and Sinuessa.
But it was not separated from the adjacent territories by any natural
frontier or physical boundaries, and it is only by the enumeration of
the towns in Pliny according to the division of Italy by Augustus
that we can determine its limits. It included the Hernican cities of
Anagnia, Ferentinum, Alatrium and Verulae — a group of mountain
strongholds on the north side of the valley of the Trerus (Sacco) ;
together with the Volscian cities on the south of the same valley,
and in that of the Liris, the whole of which, with the exception of its
extreme upper end, was included in the Volscian territory. Here were
situated Signia, Frusino, Fabrateria, Fregellae, Sora, Arpinum, Atina,
Aquinum, Casinum and Interamna; Anxur (Terracina) was the
only seaport that properly belonged to the Volscians, the coast from
thence to the mouth of the Liris being included in the territory of the
Aurunci, or Ausones as they were termed by Greek writers, who
possessed the maritime towns of Fundi. Formiae, Caieta and Min-
turnae, together with Suessa in the interior, which had replaced their
more ancient capital of Aurunca. Sinuessa, on the sea-coast between
the Liris (Garigliano) and the Vulturnus, at the foot of the Monte
Massico, was the last town in Latium according to the official use of
the term and was sometimes assigned to Campania, while Suessa was
more assigned to Latium. On the other hand, as Nissen points out
(Italische Landeskunde, ii. 554), the Pons Campanus, by which the
Via Appia crossed the Savo some 9 m. S.E. of Sinuessa, indicates by
its name the position of the old Campanian frontier. In the interior
the boundary fell between Casinum and Teanum Sidicinum, at about
the tooth milestone of the Via Latina — a fact which led later to the
jurisdiction of the Roman courts being extended on every side to
the looth mile from the city, and to this being the limit beyond
which banishment from Rome was considered to begin.
Though the Apennines comprised within the boundaries of
Latium do not rise to a height approaching that of the loftiest sum-
mits of the central range, they attain to a considerable altitude, and
form steep and rugged mountain masses from 4000 to 5000 ft. high.
They are traversed by three principal valleys: (l) that of the Anio,
now called Teverone, which descends from above Subiaco to Tivoli,
where it enters the plain of the Campagna; (2) that of the Trerus
(Sacco), which has its source below Palestrina (Praeneste), and flows
through a comparatively broad valley that separates the main mass
of the Apennines from the Volscian mountains or Monti Lepini, till
it joins the Liris below Ceprano; (3) that of the Liris (Garigliano),
which enters the confines of New Latium about 20 m. from its source,
flows past the town of Sora, and has a very tortuous course from
thence to the sea at Minturnae; its lower valley is for the most part
of considerable width, and forms a fertile tract of considerable extent,
bordered on both sides by hills covered with vines, olives and fruit
trees, and thickly studded with towns and villages.
It may be observed that, long after the Latins had ceased to exist
as a separate people we meet in Roman writers with the phrase of
nomen Latinum, used not in an ethnical but a purely political sense,
to designate the inhabitants of all those cities on which the Romans
had conferred " Latin rights '' (jus Latinum) — an inferior form of
the Roman franchise, which had been granted in the first instance
to certain cities of the Latins, when they became subjects of Rome,
and was afterwards bestowed upon many other cities of Italy,
especially the so-called Latin colonies. At a later period the same
privileges were extended to places in other countries also — as for
instance to most of the cities in Sicily and Spain. All persons en-
joying these rights were termed in legal phraseology Latini or Latinae
conditionis .
AUTHORITIES. — For the topography of Latium, and the local history
of its more important cities, the reader may consult Sir W. Gell s
Topography of Rome and its Vicinity (2nd ed., I vol., London, 1846);
A. Nibby, Analisi storico-topografico-antiquaria della carta dei
dintorni di Roma (3 vols., 2nd ed., 1848); J. Westphal, Die romische
Kampagne (Berlin, 1829); A. Bormann, Alt-lateinische Chorographie
una Stadte-Geschichte (Halle, 1852); M. Zoeller, Latium und Rom
(Leipzig, 1878); R. Burn's Rome and the Campagna (London, 1871);
H. Dessau, Corp. Inscr. Lat. v. xiv. (Berlin, 1887) (Latium); Th.
Mommsen, Corp. Inscr. Lat. vol. x. pp. 498-675 (Berlin, 1883);
G. Tomassetti, Della Campagna Romana net medio evo," published
in the Archivio della Societa Romana di Storia Patria (Rome, 1874-
1907), and separately (a work dealing with the medieval history and
topography of the Campagna in great detail, containing also valuable
notices of the classical period) ; by the same author, La Campagna
romana (Rome, 1910 foil.) ; R. A. Lanciani, " I Comentari di Frontinp
intorno agli acquedotti," Memorie dei Lincei (Rome, 1880), serie iii.
vol. v. p. 215 sqq. (and separately), also many articles, and Wander-
ings in the Roman Campagna (London, 1909) ; E. Abbate, Guida
della provincia di Roma (Rome, 1894, 2 vols.); H. Nissen, Italische
Landeskunde, ii. (Berlin, 1902), 557 sqq.; T. Ashby, " The Classical
Topography of the Roman Campagna," in Papers of the British
School at Rome, i. iii.-v. (London, 1902 foil.). (T. As.)
LATONA (Lat. form of Gr. ATJTCO, Leto), daughter of Coeus
and Phoebe, mother of Apollo and Artemis. The chief seats of
her legend are Delos and Delphi, and the generally accepted
tradition is a union of the legends t>f these two places. Leto,
pregnant by Zeus, seeks for a place of refuge to be delivered.
After long wandering she reaches the barren isle of Delos, which,
according to Pindar (Frag. 87, 88), was a wandering rock borne
about by the waves till it was fixed to the bottom of the sea for
the birth of Apollo and Artemis. In the oldest forms of the
legend Hera is not mentioned; but afterwards the wanderings
of Leto are ascribed to the jealousy of that goddess, enraged
at her amour with Zeus. The foundation of Delphi follows
immediately on the birth of the god; and. on the sacred way
between Tempe and Delphi the giant Tityus offers violence to
Leto, and is immediately slain by the arrows of Apollo and
Artemis (Odyssey, xi. 576-581; Apollodorus i. 4) . Such are the
main facts of the Leto legend in its common literary form,
which is due especially to the two Homeric hymns to Apollo.
But Leto is a real goddess, not a mere mythological figure.
The honour paid to her in Delphi and Delos might be explained
as part of the cult of her son Apollo; but temples to her existed
in Argos, in Mantineia and in Xanthus in Lycia; her sacred
grove was on the coast of Crete. In Lycia graves are frequently
placed under her protection, and she is also known as a goddess of
fertility and as Kouparpofos. It is to be observed that she appears
far more conspicuously in the Apolline myths than in those
which grew round the great centres of Artemis worship, the
reason being that the idea of Apollo and Artemis as twins is
one of later growth on Greek soil. Lycia, one of the chief seats
of the cult of Apollo, where most frequent traces are found of
the worship of Leto as the great goddess, was probably the earlier
home of her religion.
274
LATOUCHE— LA TOUR D'AUVERGNE
In Greek art Leto usually appears carrying her children in her arms,
pursued by the dragon sent by the jealous Hera, which is slain by
the infant Apollo; in vase paintings especially she is often repre-
sented with Apollo and Artemis. The statue of Leto in the Letoon
at Argos was the work of Praxiteles.
LATOUCHE, HYACINTHE JOSEPH ALEXANDRE THA-
BAUD DE [known as HENRI] (1785-1851), French poet and
novelist, was born at La Chatre (Indre) on the 2nd of February
1785. Among his works may be distinguished his comedies:
Projets de sagesse (1811), and, in collaboration with fimile
Deschamps, Selmours de Florian (1818), which ran for a hundred
nights; also La Reine d'Espagne (1831), which proved too
indecent for the public taste; a novel, Fragoletta: Naples et
Paris en J/pp (1829), which attained a success of notoriety;
La Vallee aux coups (1833), a volume of prose essays and verse;
and two volumes of poems, Les Adieux (1843) and Les Agrestes
(1844). Latouche's chief claim to remembrance is that he
revealed to the world the genius of Andre Chenier, then only
known to a limited few. The remains of the poet's work had
passed from the hands of Daunou to Latouche, who had sufficient
critical insight instantly to recognize their value. In editing the
first selection of Chenier's poems (1819) he made some trifling
emendations, but did not, as Beranger afterwards asserted, make
radical and unnecessary changes. Latouche was guilty of more
than one literary fraud. He caused a licentious story of his
own to be attributed to the duchesse de Duras, the irreproachable
author of Ourika. He made many enemies by malicious attacks
on his contemporaries. The Conslitulionnel was suppressed in
1817 by the government for an obscure political allusion in an
article by Latouche. He then undertook the management of
the Mercure du XIX' slide, and began a bitter warfare against
the monarchy. After 1830 he edited the Figaro, and spared
neither the liberal politicians nor the romanticists who triumphed
under the monarchy of July. In his turn he was violently
attacked by Gustave Planche in the Revue des deux mondes
for November 1831. But it must be remembered to the credit
of Latouche that he did much to encourage George Sand at the
beginning of her career. The last twenty years of his life were
spent in retirement at Aulnay, where he died on the gth of
March 1851.
Sainte-Beuve, in the Causeries du lundi, vol. 3, gives a not too
sympathetic portrait of Latouche. See also George Sand in the
Siecle for the i8th, igth and 2Oth of July 1851.
LA TOUR, MAURICE QUENTIN DE (1704-1788), French
pastellist, was born at St Quentin on the sth of September 1704.
After leaving Picardy for Paris in 1727 he entered the studio of
Spoede — an upright man, but a poor master, rector of the
academy of St Luke, who still continued, in the teeth of the
Royal Academy, the traditions of the old gild of the master
painters of Paris. This possibly contributed to the adoption by
La Tour of a line of work foreign to that imposed by an academical
training; for pastels, though occasionally used, were not a
principal and distinct branch of work until 1720, when Rosalba
Camera brought them into fashion with the Parisian world.
In 1737 La Tour exhibited the first of that splendid series of a
hundred and fifty portraits which formed the glory of the Salon
for the succeeding thirty-seven years. In 1 746 he was received
into the academy; and in 1751, the following year to that
in which he received the title of painter to the king, he was
promoted by that body to the grade of councillor. His work
had the rare merit of satisfying at once both the taste of his
fashionable models and the judgment of his brother artists.
His art, consummate of its kind, achieved the task of nattering
his sitters, whilst hiding that flattery behind the just and striking
likeness which, says Pierre Jean Mariette, he haidly ever missed.
His portraits of Rousseau, of Voltaire, of Louis XV., of his queen,
of the dauphin and dauphiness, are at once documents and
masterpieces unsurpassed except by his life-size portrait of
Madame de Pompadour, which, exhibited at the Salon of 1755,
became the chief ornament of the cabinet of pastels in the Louvre.
The museum of St Quentin also possesses a magnificent collection
of works which at his death were in his own hands. La Tour
retired to St Quentin at the age of 80, and there he died on the
i8th of February 1788. The riches amassed during his long life
were freely bestowed by him in great part before his death; he
founded prizes at the school of fine arts in Paris and for the
town of Amiens, and endowed St Quentin with a great number
of useful and charitable institutions. He never married, but
lived on terms of warm affection with his brother (who survived
him, and left to the town the drawings now in the museum);
and his relations to Mile Marie Fel (1713-1789), the celebrated
singer, were distinguished by a strength and depth of feeling
not common to the loves of the i8th century.
See, in addition to the general works on French art, C. Desmeze,
M. Q. de La Tour, peintre du rot (1854) ; Champfleury, Les Peintres de
Laon et de St Quentin (1855); and " La Tour " in the Collection des
artistes celebres (1886); E. and J. de Goncourt, La Tour (1867);
Guiffrey and M. Tourneux, Correspondance inedite de M. G. de la
Tour (1885); Tourneux, La Tour, biographic critique (1904); and
Patoux, L'CEuvre de M. Quentin de la Tour au musee de St Quentin
(St Quentin, 1882).
LA TOUR D'AUVERGNE, THEOPHILE MALO (1743-1800),
French soldier, was born at Carhaix in Brittany on the 23rd of
December 1743, the son of an advocate named Corret. His
desire for a military career being strongly marked, he was en-
abled, by the not uncommon device of producing a certificate
of nobility signed by his friends, first to be nominally enlisted in
the Maison du Roi, and soon afterwards to receive a commission
in the line, under the name of Corret de Kerbaufret. Four
years after joining, in 1771, he assumed by leave of the duke
of Bouillon the surname of La Tour d'Auvergne, being in fact
descended from an illegitimate half-brother of the great Turenne.
Many years of routine service with his regiment were broken
only by his participation as a volunteer in the due de Crillon's
Franco-Spanish expedition to Minorca in 1781. This led to an
offer of promotion into the Spanish army, but he refused to
change his allegiance. In 1748 he was promoted captain, and in
1791 he received the cross of St Louis. In the early part of the
Revolution his patriotism was still more conspicuously displayed
in his resolute opposition to the proposals of many of his brother
officers in the Angoumois regiment to emigrate rather than to
swear to the constitution. In 1792 his lifelong interest in
numismatics and questions of language was shown by a work
which he published on the Bretons. At this time he was serving
under Montesquiou in the Alps, and although there was only
outpost fighting he distinguished himself by his courage and
audacity, qualities which were displayed in more serious fighting
in the Pyrenees the next year. He declined well-earned pro-
motion to colonel, and, being broken in health and compelled,
owing to the loss of his teeth, to live on milk, he left the army in
1 7^5. On his return by sea to Brittany he was captured by the
English and held prisoner for two years. When released, he
settled at Passy and published Origines gauloiscs, but in 1797,
on the appeal of an old friend whose son had been taken as a
conscript, he volunteered as the youth's substitute, and served
on the Rhine (1797) and in Switzerland (1798-1799) as a captain.
In recognition of his singular bravery and modesty Carnot
obtained a decree from the first consul naming LaTour d'Auvergne
" first grenadier of France " (27th of April 1800). This led him
to volunteer again, and he was killed in action at Oberhausen,
near Donauworth, on the 27th of June 1800.
La Tour d'Auvergne's almost legendary courage had captivated
the imagination of the French soldier, and his memory was not
suffered to die. It was customary for the French troops and
their allies of the Rhine Confederation under Napoleon to march
at attention when passing his burial-place on the battlefield. His
heart was long carried by the grenadier company of his regiment,
the 46th; after being in the possession of Garibaldi for many
years, it was finally deposited in the keeping of the city of Paris
in 1883. But the most striking tribute to his memory is paid
to-day as it was by order of the first consul in 1800. " His name
is to be kept on the pay list and roll of his company. It will be
called at all parades and a non-commissioned officer will reply,
Mori au champ d'honneur." This custom, with little variation, is
still observed in the 46th regiment on all occasions when the
colour is taken on parade.
L ATREILLE— L AT U K A
275
LATREILLE, PIERRE ANDRE (1762-1833), French natur-
alist, was born in humble circumstances at Brives-la-Gaillarde
(Correze), on the 2oth of November 1762. In 1778 he entered
the college Lemoine at Paris, and on his admission to priestly
orders in 1786 he retired to Brives, where he devoted all the
leisure which the discharge of his professional duties allowed
to the study of entomology. In 1788 he returned to Paris and
found means of making himself known to the leading naturalists
there. His " Memoire sur les mutilles decouvertes en France,"
contributed to the Proceedings of the Society of Natural History
in Paris, procured for him admission to that body. At the Re-
volution he was compelled to quit Paris, and as a priest of
conservative sympathies suffered considerable hardship, being
imprisoned for some time at Bordeaux. His Precis des caractcres
generiques des insectes, disposes dans un ordre naturel, appeared
at Brives in 1796. In 1798 he became a corresponding member
of the Institute, and at the same time was entrusted with the task
of arranging the entomological collection at the recently organized
Museum d'Histoire Naturelle (Jardin des Plantes); in 1814 he
succeeded G. A. Olivier as member of the Academic des Sciences,
and in 1821 he was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour.
For some time he acted as professor of zoology in the veterinary
school at Alfort near Paris, and in 1830, when the chair of
zoology of invertebrates at the Museum was divided after the
death of Lamarck, Latreille was appointed professor of zoology
of crustaceans, arachnids and insects, the chair of molluscs,
worms and zoophytes being assigned to H. M. D. de Blainville.
" On me donne du pain quand je n'ai plus de dents," said
Latreille, who was then in his sixty-eighth year. He died in
Paris on the 6th of February 1833.
In addition to the works already mentioned, the numerous works
of Latreille include: Hisloire naturelle generate el particuliere des
crustaces el insectes (14 vols., 1802-1805), forming part of C. N. S.
Sonnini's edition of Buffon; Genera crustaceorum el inseclorum,
secundum ordinem naturalem in familias disposita (4 vols., 1806—
1807) ; Considerations generates sur I 'ordre naturel des animaux
composant les classes des crustaces, des arachnides, el des insectes
( 1 8 1 o) ; Families naturelles du regne animal, exposees succinctement
et dans un ordre analytique (1825); Cours d' entomologie (of which
only the first volume appeared, 1831); the whole of the section
"Crustaces, Arachnides, Insectes," in G. Cuvier's Regne animal;
besides many papers in the Annales du Museum, the Encyclopedic
methodique, the Dictionnaire classique d'histoire naturelle and
elsewhere.
LA TR^MOILLE, an old French family which derives its name
from a village (the modern La Trimouille) in the department of
Vienne. The family has been known since the middle of the
nth century, and since the I4th century its members have been
conspicuous in French history. Guy, sire de la Tremoille,
standard-bearer of France, was taken prisoner at the battle of
Nicopolis (1396), and Georges, the favourite of King Charles VII.,
was captured at Agincourt (141 5). Louis (2), called the chevalier
sans reproche, defeated and captured the duke of Orleans at the
battle of Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier (1488), distinguished himself
in the wars in Italy, and was killed at Pavia (1525). In 1521
Francois (2) acquired a claim on the kingdom of Naples by his
marriage with Anne de Laval, daughter of Charlotte of Aragon.
Louis (3) became duke of Thouars in 1563, and his son Claude
turned Protestant, was created a peer of France in 1595, and
married a daughter of William the Silent in 1 598. To this family
belonged the lines of the counts of Joigny, the marquises of
Royan and counts of Olonne, and the marquises and dukes of
Noirmoutier.
LATROBE, CHARLES JOSEPH (1801-1875), Australian
governor, was born in London on the 2oth of March 1801. The
Latrobes were of Huguenot extraction, and belonged to the
Moravian community, of which the father and grandfather of
C. J. Latrobe were ministers. His father, Christian Ignatius
Latrobe (1758-1836), a musician of some note, did good service
in the direction of popularizing classical music in England by his
Selection of Sacred Music from the Works of the most Eminent
Composers of Germany and Italy (6 vols., 1806-1825). C. J.
Latrobe was an excellent mountaineer, and made some important
ascents in Switzerland in 1824-1826. In 1832 he went to
America with Count Albert Pourtales, and in 1834 crossed the
prairies from New Orleans to Mexico with Washington Irving.
In 1837 he was invested with a government commission in the
West Indies, and two years later was made superintendent of
the Port Philip district of New South Wales. When Port Philip
was erected into a separate colony as Victoria in 1851, Latrobe
became lieutenant-governor. The discovery of gold in that year
attracted enormous numbers of immigrants annually. Latrobe
discharged the difficult duties of government at this critical
period with tact and success. He retired in 1854, became C. B.
in 1858 and died in London on the 2nd of December 1875.
Beside some volumes of travel he published a volume of poems,
The Solace of Song (1837).
See Brief Notices of the Latrobe Family (1864), a privately printed
translation of an article revised by members of the family in the
Moravian Bruderbote (November 1864).
LATTEN (from O. Fr. laton, mod. Fr. laiton, possibly connected
with Span, /a/a, Ital. /a/to, a lath), a mixed metal like brass,
composed of copper and zinc, generally made in thin sheets, and
used especially for monumental brasses and effigies. A fine
example is in the screen of Henry VII. 's tomb in Westminster
Abbey. There are three forms of latten, " black latten," un-
polished and rolled, " shaven latten," of extreme thinness, and
" roll latten," of the thickness either of black or shaven latten,
but with both sides polished.
LATTICE LEAF PLANT, in botany, the common name for
Ouvirandra fenestralis, an aquatic monocotyledonous plant
belonging to the small natural order Aponogetonaceae and a
native of Madagascar. It has a singular appearance from the
structure of the leaves, which are oblong in shape, from 6 to
1 8 in. long and from 2 to 4 in. broad; they spread horizontally
beneath the surface of the water, and are reduced to little more
than a lattice-like network of veins. The tuberculate roots are
edible. The plant is grown in cultivation as a stove-aquatic.
LATUDE, JEAN HENRI, often called DANRY or MASERS DE
LATUDE (1725-1805), prisoner of the Bastille, was born at
Montagnac in Gascony on the 23rd of March 1725. He received
a military education and went to Paris in 1748 to study mathe-
matics. He led a dissipated life and endeavoured to curry favour
with the marquise de Pompadour by secretly sending her a box
of poison and then informing her of the supposed plot against her
life. The ruse was discovered, and Mme de Pompadour, not
appreciating the humour of the situation, had Latude put in the
Bastille on the ist of May 1749. .He was later transferred to
Vincennes, whence he escaped in 1750. Retaken and reim-
prisoned in the Bastille, he made a second brief escape in 1756.
He was transferred to Vincennes in 1764, and the next year made
a third escape and was a third time recaptured. He was put in
a madhouse by Malesherbes in 1775, and discharged in 1777 on
condition that he should retire to his native town. He remained
in Paris and was again imprisoned. A certain Mme Legros
became interested in him through chance reading of one of his
memoirs, and, by a vigorous agitation in his behalf, secured his
definite release in 1784. He exploited his long captivity with
considerable ability, posing as a brave officer, a son of the
marquis de la Tude, and a victim of Pompadour's intrigues.
He was extolled and pensioned during the Revolution, and in
1793 the convention compelled the heirs of Mme de Pompadour
to pay him 60,000 francs damages. He died in obscurity at Paris
on the ist of January 1805.
The principal work of Latude is the account of his imprisonment,
written in collaboration with an advocate named Thiery, and en-
titled Le Despotisme devoile, ou Memoires de Henri Masers de la Tude,
detenu pendant trente-cinq ans dans les diverses prisons d'etat (Amster-
dam, 1787, ed. Paris, 1889). An Eng. trans, of a portion was published
in 1787. The work is full of lies and misrepresentations, but had
great vogue at the time of the French Revolution. Latude also
wrote essays on all sorts of subjects.
See J. F. Barriere, Memoires de Linguet et de Latude (1884);
G. Bertin, Notice in edition of the Memoires (1889); F. Funck-
Brentano, " Latude," in the Revue des deux mondes (ist October
1889).
LATUKA, a tribe of negroid stock inhabiting the mountainous
country E. of Gondokoro on the upper Nile. They have received
a tinge of Hamitic blood from the Galla people, and have high
276
LAUBAN— LAUD
foreheads, large eyes, straight noses and thick but not pouting
lips. They are believed by Sir H. H. Johnston to be the original
and purest type of the great Masai people, and are assimilated
to the Nilotic negro races in customs. Like their neighbours
the Bari and Shilluk tribes, they despise clothing, though the
important chiefs have adopted Arab attire. Their country is
fertile, and they cultivate tobacco, durra and other crops. Their
villages are numerous, and some are of considerable size. Tar-
angole, for instance, on the Khor Kohs, has upwards of three
thousand huts, and sheds for many thousands of cattle. The
Latuka are industrious and especially noted for skill as smiths.
Emin Pasha stated that the lion was so little dreaded by the
Latuka that on one being caught in a leopard trap they hastily
set it free.
LAUBAN, a town of Germany in the Prussian province of
Silesia, is situated in a picturesque valley, at the junction of
the lines of railway from Gorlitz and Sorau, 16 m. E. of the former.
Pop. (1905) 14,624. Lauban has a Roman Catholic and two Evan-
gelical churches, a town hall, dating from 1541, a conventual
house of the order of St Magdalene, dating from the i4th century,
a municipal library and museum, two hospitals, an orphanage
and several schools. Its industrial establishments comprise
tobacco, yarn, thread, linen and woollen cloth manufactories,
bleaching and dyeing works, breweries and oil and flour mills.
Lauban was founded in the loth and fortified in the i3th
century; in 1427 and 1431 it was devastated by the Hussites,
and in 1640 by the Swedes. In 1761 it was the headquarters
of Frederick the Great, and in 1815 it was the last Saxon town
that made its submission to Prussia.
See Berkel, Geschichte der Stadl Lauban (Lauban, 1896).
LAUBE, HEINRICH (1806-1884), German dramatist, novelist
and theatre-director, was born at Sprottau in Silesia on the
i8th of September 1806. He studied theology at Halle and
Breslau (1826-1829), and settled in Leipzig in 1832. Here he
at once came into prominence with his political essays, collected
under the title Das neue J ahrhundert, in two parts — Polen (1833)
and Polilische Brief e (1833) — and with the novel Das junge
Europa, in three parts — Die Poeten, Die Krieger, Die Burger —
(1833-1837). These writings, in which, after the fashion of
Heinrich Heine and Ludwig Borne, he severely criticized the
political regime in Germany, together with the part he played
in the literary movement known as Das junge Deutschland, led
to his being subjected to police surveillance and his works con-
fiscated. On his return, in 1834, from a journey to Italy, under-
taken in the company of Karl Gutzkow, Laube was expelled
from Saxony and imprisoned for nine months in Berlin. In
1836 he married the widow of Professor Hanel of Leipzig;
almost immediately afterwards he suffered a year's imprison-
ment for his revolutionary sympathies. In 1839 he again settled
in Leipzig and began a literary activity as a playwright. Chief
among his earlier productions are the tragedies Monaldeschi
(1845) and Struensee (1847); the comedies Rokoko, oder die alien
H err en (1846); Gottsched und Getter I (1847); and Die Karls-
schuler (1847), of which the youthful Schiller is the hero. In
1848 Laube was elected to the national assembly at Frankfort-
on-Main for the district of Elbogen, but resigned in the spring
of 1849, when he was appointed artistic director of the Hofburg
theatre in Vienna. This office he held until 1867, and in this
period fall his finest dramatic productions, notably the tragedies
Graf Essex (1856) and Montr ose (1859), and his historical romance
Der deutsche Krieg (1865-1866, 9 vols.), which graphically
pictures a period in the Thirty Years' War. In 1869 he became
director of the Leipzig Stadttheater, but returned to Vienna
in 1870, where in 1872 he was placed at the head of the new
Stadttheater; with the exception of a short interval he managed
this theatre with brilliant success until his retirement from
public life in 1880. He has left a valuable record of his work
in Vienna and Leipzig in the three volumes Das Burgthealer
(1868), Das norddeutsche Theater (1872) and Das Wiener Stadt-
theater (1875). His pen was still active after his retirement,
and in the five years preceding his death, which took place at
Vienna on the ist of August 1884, he wrote the romances and
novels Die Bohminger (1880), Louison (1881), Der Schatten-
Wilhelm (1883), and published an interesting volume of remi-
niscences, Erinnerungen, 1841-1881 (1882). Laube's dramas
are not remarkable for originality or for poetical beauty; their
real and great merit lies in their stage-craft. As a theatre-
manager he has had no equal in Germany, and his services in
this capacity have assured him a more lasting name in German
literary history than his writings.
His Gesammelte Schriften (excluding his dramas) were published in
16 vols. (1875-1882); his Dramatische Werke in 13 vols. (1845-1875);
a popular edition of the latter in 12 vols. (1880-1892). An edition
of Laube's Ausgewdhlte Werke in 10 vols. appeared in 1906 with an
introduction by H. H. Houben. See also J. Proelss, Das junge
DeutscUand (1892); and H. Bulthaupt, Dramaturgic des Schau-
spiels (vol. iii., 6th ed., 1901).
L'AUBESPINE, a French family which sprang from Claude
de 1'Aubespine, a lawyer of Orleans and bailiff of the abbey of
St Euverte in the beginning of the i6th century, and rapidly
acquired distinction in offices connected with the law. Sebastien
de 1'Aubespine (d. 1582), abbot of Bassefontaine, bishop of
Vannes and afterwards of Limoges, fulfilled important diplo-
matic missions in Germany, Hungary, England, the Low Coun-
tries and Switzerland under Francis I. and his successors. Claude
(c. 1500-1567), baron of Chateauneuf-sur-Cher, Sebastien's
brother, was a secretary of finance; he had charge of negotiations
with England in 1555 and 1559, and was several times commis-
sioned to treat with the Huguenots in the king's name. His son
Guillaume was a councillor of state and ambassador to England.
Charles de 1'Aubespine (1580-1653) was ambassador to Germany,
the Low Countries, Venice and England, besides twice holding
the office of keeper of the seals of France, from 1630 to 1633,
and from 1650 to 1651. The family fell into poor circumstances
and became extinct in the ig'th century. (M.P.*)
LAUCHSTADT, a town of Germany in the province of Prussian
Saxony, on the Laucha, 6 m. N.W. of Merseburg by the railway
to Schafstadt. Pop. (1905) 2034. It contains an Evangelical
church, a theatre, a hydropathic establishment and several educa-
tional institutions, among which is an agricultural school affiliated
to the university of Halle. Its industries include malting,
vinegar-making and brewing. Lauchstadt was a popular
watering-place in the i8th century, the dukes of Saxe-Merseburg
often making it their summer residence. From 1789 to 1811
the Weimar court theatrical company gave performances here
of the plays of Schiller and Goethe, an attraction which greatly
contributed to the well-being of the town.
See Maak, Das Goethetheater in Lauchstadt (Lauchstadt, 1905) ;
and Nasemann, Bad Lauchstadt (Halle, 1885).
LAUD, WILLIAM (1573-1645), English archbishop, only son
of William Laud, a clothier, was born at Reading on the 7th of
October 1573. He was educated at Reading free school, matricul-
ated at St John's college, Oxford, in 1589, gained a scholarship
in 1590, a fellowship in 1593, and graduated B.A. in 1594,
proceeding to D.D. in 1608. In 1601 he took orders, in 1603
becoming chaplain to Charles Blount, earl of Devonshire. Laud
early took up a position of antagonism to the Calvinistic party
in the church, and in 1604 was reproved by the authorities for
maintaining in his thesis for the degree of B.D. "that- there
could be no true church without bishops," and again in 1606
for advocating " popish " opinions in a sermon at St Mary's.
If high-church doctrines, however, met with opposition at
Oxford, they were relished elsewhere, and Laud obtained rapid
advancement. In 1607 he was made vicar of Stanford in North-
amptonshire, and in 1608 he became chaplain to Bishop Neile,
who in 1610 presented him to the living of Cuxton, when he
resigned his fellowship. In 1611, in spite of the influence of
Archbishop Abbot and Lord Chancellor Ellesmere, Laud was
made president of St John's, and in 1614 obtained in addition
the prebend of Buckden, in 1615 the archdeaconry of Hunting-
don, and in 1616 the deanery of Gloucester. Here he repaired
the fabric and changed the position of the communion table, a
matter which aroused great religious controversy, from the centre
of the choir to the east end, by a characteristic tactless exercise
of power offending the bishop, who henceforth refused to enter the
LAUD
277
cathedral. In 1617 he went with the king to Scotland, and
aroused hostility by wearing the surplice. In 1621 he became
bishop of St David's, when he resigned the presidentship of St
John's.
In April 1622 Laud, by the king's orders, took part in a con-
troversy with Percy, a Jesuit, known as Fisher, the aim of
which was to prevent the conversion of the countess of Bucking-
ham, the favourite's mother, to Romanism, and his opinions
expressed on that occasion show considerable breadth and
comprehension. While refusing to acknowledge the Roman
Church as the true church, he allowed it to be a true church
and a branch of the Catholic body, at the same time emphasizing
the perils of knowingly associating with error; and with regard
to the English Church he denied that the acceptance of all its
articles was necessary. The foundation of belief was the Bible,
not any one branch of the Catholic church arrogating to itself
infallibility, and when dispute on matters of faith arose, " a
lawful and free council, determining according to Scripture, is
the best judge on earth." A close and somewhat strange intimacy,
considering the difference in the characters and ideals of the
two men, between Laud and Buckingham now began, and proved
the chief instrument of Laud's advancement. The opportunity
came with the old king's death in 1625, for James, with all his
pedantry, was too wise and cautious to embark in Laud's rash
undertakings, and had already shown a prudent moderation,
after setting up bishops in Scotland, in going no further in
opposition to the religious feelings of the people. On the ac-
cession of Charles, Laud's ambitious activities were allowed
free scope. A list of the clergy was immediately prepared by
him for the king, in which each name was labelled with an O
or a P, distinguishing the Orthodox to be promoted from the
Puritans to be suppressed. Laud defended Richard Montague,
who had aroused the wrath of the parliament by his pamphlet
against Calvinism. His influence soon extended into the domain
of the state. He supported the king's prerogative throughout
the conflict with the parliament, preached in favour of it before
Charles's second parliament in 1626, and assisted in Bucking-
ham's defence. In 1626 he was nominated bishop of Bath and
Wells, and in July 1628 bishop of London. On the 1 2th of April
1629 he was made chancellor of Oxford University.
In the patronage of learning and in the exercise of authority
over the morals and education of youth Laud was in his proper
sphere, many valuable reforms at Oxford being due to his
activity, including the codification of the statutes, the statute
by which public examinations were rendered obligatory for uni-
versity'degrees, and the ordinance for the election of proctors,
the revival of the college system, of moral and religious discipline
and order, and of academic dress. He founded or endowed
various professorships, including those of Hebrew and Arabic,
and the office of public orator, encouraged English and foreign
scholars, such as Voss, Selden and Jeremy Taylor, founded
the university printing press, procuring in 1633 the royal patent
for Oxford, and obtained for the Bodleian library over 1300
MSS., adding a new wing to the building to contain his gifts. His
rule at Oxford was marked by a great increase in the number of
students. In his own college he erected the new buildings, and
was its second founder. Of his chancellorship he himself wrote
a history, and the Laudian tradition long remained the great
standard of order and good government in the university.
Elsewhere he showed his liberality and his zeal for reform. He
was an active visitor of Eton and Winchester, and endowed the
grammar school at Reading, where he was himself educated.
In London he procured funds for the restoration of the dilapidated
cathedral of St Paul's.
He was far less great as a ruler in the state, showing as a
judge a tyrannical spirit both in the star chamber and high-
commission court, threatening Felton, the assassin of Bucking-
ham, with the rack, and showing special activity in procuring a
cruel sentence in the former court against Alexander Leighton
in June 1630 and against Henry Sherfield in 1634. His power
was greatly increased after his return from Scotland, whither he
had accompanied the king, by his promotion to the archbishopric
of Canterbury in August 1633. "As for the state indeed," he
wrote to Wentworth on this occasion, " I am for Thorough."
In 1636 the privy council decided in his favour his claim of
jurisdiction as visitor over both universities. Soon afterwards
he was placed on the commission of the treasury and on the
committee of the privy council for foreign affairs. He was all-
powerful both in church and state. He proceeded to impose
by authority the religious ceremonies and usages to which he
attached so much importance. His vicar-general, Sir Nathaniel
Brent, went through the dioceses of his province, noting every
dilapidation and every irregularity. The pulpit was no longer
to be the chief feature in the church, but the communion table.
The Puritan lecturers were suppressed. He showed great
hostility to the Puritan sabbath and supported the reissue of the
Book of Sports, especially odious to that party, and severely
reprimanded Chief Justice Richardson for his interference with
the Somerset wakes. He insisted on the use of the prayer-book
among the English soldiers in the service of Holland, and forced
strict conformity on the church of the merchant adventurers
at Delft, endeavouring even to reach the colonists in New
England. He tried to compel the Dutch and French refugees
in England to unite with the Church of England, advising double
taxation and other forms of persecution. In 1634 the justices
of the peace were ordered to enter houses to search for persons
holding conventicles and bring them before the commissioners.
He took pleasure in displaying his power over the great, and in
punishing them in the spiritual courts for moral offences. In
1637 he took part in the sentence of the star chamber on Prynne,
Bastwick and Burton, and in the same year in the prosecution
of Bishop Williams. He urged Strafford in Ireland to carry out
the same reforms and severities.
He was now to extend his ecclesiastical system to Scotland,
where, during his visits the appearance of the churches had
greatly displeased him. The new prayer-book and canons were
drawn up by the Scottish bishops with his assistance and enforced
in the country, and, though not officially connected with the
work, he was rightly regarded as its real author. The attack
not only on the national religion, but on the national independ-
ence of Scotland, proved to be the point at which the system,
already strained, broke and collapsed. Laud continued to
support Strafford's and the king's arbitrary measures to the last,
and spoke in favour of the vigorous continuation of the war on
Strafford's side in the memorable meeting of the committee of
eight on the 5th of May 1640, and for the employment of any
means for carrying it on. " Tried all ways," so ran the notes of
his speech, " and refused all ways. By the law of God and man
you should have subsistence and lawful to take it." Though
at first opposed to the sitting of convocation, after the dissolution
of parliament, as an independent body, on account of the opposi-
tion it would arouse, he yet caused to be passed in it the new
canons which both enforced his ecclesiastical system and assisted
the king's divine right, resistance to his power entailing " damna-
tion." Laud's infatuated policy could go no further, and the
etcetera oath, according to which whole classes of men were to be
forced to swear perpetual allegiance to the " government of this
church by archbishops, bishops, deans and archdeacons, &c.,"
was long remembered and derided. His power now quickly
abandoned him. He was attacked and reviled as the chief
author of the troubles on all sides. In October he was ordered
by Charles to suspend the etcetera oath. The same month, when
the high commission court was sacked by the mob, he was
unable to persuade the star chamber to punish the offenders.
On the 1 8th of December he was impeached by the Long Parlia-
ment, and on the ist of March imprisoned in the tower. On the
1 2th of May, at Strafford's request, the archbishop appeared
at the window of his cell to give him his blessing on his way to
execution, and fainted as he passed by. For some time he was
left unnoticed in confinement. On the 3ist of May 1643, how-
ever, Prynne received orders from the parliament to search his
papers, and published a mutilated edition of his diary. The
articles of impeachment were sent up to the Lords in October,
the trial beginning on the izth of March 1644, but the attempt
278
LAUD— LAUDER, SIR T. D.
to bring his conduct under a charge of high treason proving
hopeless, an attainder was substituted and sent up to the Lords
on the 22nd of November. In these proceedings there was no
semblance of respect for law or justice, the Lords yielding (4th of
January 1645) to the menaces of the Commons, who arrogated
to themselves the right to declare any crimes they pleased high
treason. Laud now tendered the king's pardon, which had been
granted to him in April 1643. This was rejected, and it was with
some difficulty that his petition to be executed with the axe,
instead of undergoing the ordinary brutal punishment for high
treason, was granted. He suffered death on the loth of January
on Tower Hill, asserting his innocence of any offence known to
the law, repudiating the charge of " popery," and declaring that
he had always lived in the Protestant Church of England. He
was buried in the chancel of All Hallows, Barking, whence his
body was removed on the 24th of July 1663 to the chapel of
St John's College, Oxford.
Laud never married. He is described by Fuller as " low of
stature, little in bulk, cheerful in countenance (wherein gravity
and quickness were all compounded), of a sharp and piercing eye,
clear judgment and (abating the influence of age) nrm memory."
His personality, on account of the sharp religious antagonisms
with which his name is inevitably associated, has rarely been
judged with impartiality. His severities were the result of a
narrow mind and not of a vindictive spirit, and their number
has certainly been exaggerated. His career was distinguished by
uprightness, by piety, by a devotion to duty, by courage and
consistency. In particular it is clear that the charge of partiality
for Rome is unfounded. At the same time the circumstances of
the period, the fact that various schemes of union with Rome
were abroad, that the missions of Panzani and later of Conn were
gathering into the Church of Rome numbers of members of the
Church of England who, like Laud himself, were dissatisfied with
the Puritan bias which then characterized it, the incident men-
tioned by Laud himself of his being twice offered the cardinalate,
the movement carried on at the court in favour of Romanism,
and the fact that Laud's changes in ritual, however clearly
denned and restricted in his own intention, all tended towards
Roman practice, fully warranted the suspicions and fears of his
contemporaries. Laud's complete neglect of the national senti-
ment, in his belief that the exercise of mere power was sufficient
to suppress it, is a principal proof of his total lack of true states-
manship. The hostility to " innovations in religion," it is
generally allowed, was a far stronger incentive to the rebellion
against the arbitrary power of the crown, than even the violation
of constitutional liberties; and to Laud, therefore, more than to
Strafford, to Buckingham, or even perhaps to Charles himself,
is especially due the responsibility for the catastrophe. He held
fast to the great idea of the catholicity of the English Church,
to that conception of it which regards it as a branch of the whole
Christian church, and emphasizes its historical continuity and
identity from the time of the apostles, but here again his policy
was at fault; for his despotic administration not only excited
and exaggerated the tendencies to separatism and independentism
which finally prevailed, but excluded large bodies of faithful
churchmen from communion with their church and from their
country. The emigration to Massachusetts in 1629, which
continued in a stream till 1640, was not composed of separatists
but of episcopalians. Thus what Laud grasped with one hand
he destroyed with the other.
Passing to the more indirect influence of Laud on his times,
we can observe a narrowness of mind and aim which separates
him from a man of such high imagination and idealism as
Strafford, however closely identified their policies may have
been for the moment. The chief feature of Laud's administration
is attention to countless details, to the most trivial of which he
attached excessive importance, and which are uninspired by
any great underlying principle. His view was always essentially
material. The one element in the church which to him was all
essential was its visibility. This was the source of his intense
dislike of the Puritan and Nonconformist conception of the
church, which afforded no tangible or definite form. Hence the
necessity for outward conformity, and the importance attached
to ritual and ceremony, unity in which must be established at
all costs, in contrast to dogma and doctrine, in which he showed
himself lenient and large-minded, winning over Hales by friendly
discussion, and encouraging the publication of Chillingworth's
Religion of Protestants. He was not a bigot, but a martinet.
The external form was with him the essential feature of religion,
preceding the spiritual conception, and in Laud's opinion being
the real foundation of it. In his last words on the scaffold he
alludes to the dangers and slanders he had endured labouring
to keep an uniformity in the external service of God; and Bacon's
conception of a spiritual union founded on variety and liberty was
one completely beyond his comprehension.
This narrow materialism was the true cause of his fatal
influence both in church and state. In his own character it
produced the somewhat blunted moral sense which led to the
few incidents in his career which need moral defence, his per-
formance of the marriage ceremony between his first patron Lord
Devonshire and the latter's mistress, the divorced wife of Lord
Rich, an act completely at variance with his principles; his
strange intimacy with Buckingham; his love of power and place.
Indistinguishable from his personal ambition was his passion
for the aggrandisement of the church and its predominance in
the state. He was greatly delighted at the foolish appointment
of Bishop Juxon as lord treasurer in 1636. " No churchman had
it," he cries exultingly, " since Henry VII. 's time, . . . and now
if the church will not hold up themselves under God, I can do no
more." Spiritual influence, in Laud's opinion, was not enough for
the church. The church as the guide of the nation in duty and
godliness, even extending its activity into state affairs as a
mediator and a moderator, was not sufficient. Its power must be
material and visible, embodied in great places of secular adminis-
tration and enthroned in high offices of state. Thus the church,
descending into the political arena, became identified with the
doctrines of one political party in the state — doctrines odious
to the majority of the nation — and at the same time became
associated with acts of violence and injustice, losing at once its
influence and its reputation. Equally disastrous to the state was
the identification of the king's administration with one party
in the church, and that with the party in an immense minority
not only in the nation but even among the clergy themselves.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — All Laud's works are to be found in the Library of
Anglo-Catholic Theology (7 vols.), including his sermons (of no great
merit), letters, history of the chancellorship, history of his troubles
and trial, and his remarkable diary, the MSS. of the last two works
being the property of St John's College. Various modern opinions
of Laud's career can be studied in T. Longueville's Life of Laud,
by a Romish Recusant (1894) ; Congregational Union Jubilee Lectures,
vol. i. (1882); J. B. Mozley's Essay on Laud; Archbishop Laud, by
A. C. Benson (1887); Wm. Laud, by W. H. Hutton (1895); Arch-
bishop Laud Commemoration, ed. by W. F. Collins (lectures, biblio-
graphy, catalogue of exhibits, 1895) ; Hook's Lives of the Archbishops
of Canterbury; and H. Bell, Archbishop Laud and Priestly Govern-
ment (1907). (P. C. Y.)
LAUD (Lat. laus), a term meaning praise, now rarely found
in this sense except in poetry or hymns. Lauds is the name for
the second of the offices of the canonical hours in the Roman
breviary, so called from the three laudes or psalms of praise,
cxlviii.-cl. which form part of the service (see BREVIARY and
HOURS, CANONICAL).
LAUDANUM, originally the name given by Paracelsus to a
famous medical preparation of his own composed of gold, pearls,
&c. (Opera, 1658, i. 492/2), but containing opium as its chief
ingredient. The term is now only used for the alcoholic tincture
of opium (q.v.). The name was either invented by Paracelsus
from Lat. laudare to praise, or was a corrupted form of
" ladanum " (Gr. \4i8avov, from Pers. ladan), a resinous juice or
gum obtained from various kinds of the Cislus shrub, formerly
used medicinally in external applications and as a stomachic, but
now only in perfumery and in making fumigating pastilles, &c.
LAUDER, SIR THOMAS DICK, Bart. (1784-1848), Scottish
author, only son of Sir Andrew Lauder, 6th baronet, was born
at Edinburgh in 1784. He succeeded to the baronetcy in 1820.
His first contribution to Blackwood's Magazine in 1817, entitled
LAUDER, W.— LAUDERDALE, DUKE OF
279
" Simon Roy, Gardener at Dunphail," was by some ascribed to
Sir Walter Scott. His paper (1818) on " The Parallel Roads of
Glenroy," printed in vol. ix. of the Transactions oj the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, first drew attention to the phenomenon
in question. In 1825 and 1827 he published two romances,
Lochandhn and the Wolj of Badenoch. He became a frequent
contributor to Black-wood and also to Tail's Magazine, and in
1 830 he published An A ccount of the Great Floods of A ugust 182(1 in
the Province of Moray and adjoining Districts. Subsequent works
were Highland Rambles, with Long Tales to Shorten the Way ( 2 vols.
8vo, 1837), Legendary Tales of the Highlands (3 vols. I2mo,
7841), Tour round the Coasts oj Scotland (1842) and Memorial
oj the Royal Progress in Scotland (1843). Vol. i. of a Miscellany
of Natural History, published in 1833, was also partly prepared
by Lauder. He was a Liberal, a,nd took an active interest in
politics; he held the office of secretary to the Board of Scottish
Manufactures. He died on the 2gth of May 1848. An unfinished
series of papers, written for Tail's Magazine shortly before his
death, was published under the title Scottish Rivers, with a preface
by John Brown, M.D., in 1874.
LAUDER, WILLIAM (d. 1771), Scottish literary forger, was
born in the latter parj; of the i7th century, and was educated
at Edinburgh university, where he graduated in 1695. He
applied unsuccessfully for the post of professor of humanity
there, in succession to Adam Watt, whose assistant he had been
for a time, and also for the keepership of the university library.
He was a good scholar, and in 1739, published Poetarum Scotorum
Musae Sacrae, a collection of poems by various writers, mostly
paraphrased from the Bible. In 1742 Lauder came to London.
In 1747 he wrote an article for the Gentleman's Magazine to
prove that Milton's Paradise Lost was largely a plagiarism from
the Adamus Exul (1601) of Hugo Grotius, the Sarcotis (1654) of
J. Masen (Masenius, 1606-1681), and the Poemata Sacra (1633)
of Andrew Ramsay (1574-1659). Lauder expounded his case
in a series of articles, and in a book (1753) increased the list of
plundered authors to nearly a hundred. But his success was
short-lived. Several scholars, who had independently studied
the alleged sources of Milton's inspiration, proved conclusively
that Lauder had not only garbled most of his quotations, but
had eve^inserted amongst them extracts from a Latin rendering
of Paradise Lost. This led to his exposure, and he was obliged
to write a complete confession at the dictation of his former
friend Samuel Johnson. After several vain endeavours to clear
his character he emigrated to Barbadoes, where he died in 1771.
LAUDER, a royal and police burgh of Berwickshire, Scotland.
Pop. (1901) 719. It is situated on the Leader, 29 m. S.E. of
Edinburgh by the North British railway's branch line from
Fountainhall, of which it is the terminus. The burgh is said to
date from the reign of William the Lion (1165-1214); its charter
was granted in 1502. In 1482 James III. with his court and
army rested here on the way to raise the siege of Berwick. While
the nobles were in the church considering grievances, Robert
Cochrane, recently created earl of Mar, one of the king's favourites,
whose " removal " was at the very moment under discussion,
demanded admittance. Archibald Douglas, earl of Angus,
opened the door and seized Mar, who was forthwith dragged to
Lauder Bridge and there, along with six other obnoxious
favourites, hanged in sight of his royal master. It was in
connexion with this exploit that Angus acquired the nickname of
" Bell-the-cat." The public buildings include a town-hall and
a library. The parish church was built in 1673 by the earl of
Lauderdale, in exchange for the older edifice, the site of which
was required for the enlargement of Thirlestane castle, which,
originally a fortress, was then remodelled for a residence. The
town is a favourite with anglers.
LAUDERDALE, JOHN MAITLAND, DUKE OF (1616-1682),
eldest surviving son of John Maitland, 2nd Lord Maitland of
Thirlestane (d. 1645), who was created earl of Lauderdale in 1624,
and of Lady Isabel Seton, daughter of Alexander, earl of
Dunfermline, and great-grandson of Sir Richard Maitland (q.v.),
the poet, a member of an ancient family of Berwickshire, was
born on the 24th of May 1616, at Lethington. He began public
life as a zealous adherent of the Presbyterian cause, took the
covenant, sat as an elder in the assembly at St Andrews in July
1643, and was sent to England as a commissioner for the covenant
in August, and to attend the Westminster assembly in November.
In February 1644 he was a member of the committee of both
kingdoms, and on the 2oth of November was one of the com-
missioners appointed to treat with the king at Uxbridge, when
he made efforts to persuade Charles to agree to the establishment
of Presbyterianism. In 1645 he advised Charles to reject the
proposals of the Independents, and in 1647 approved of the
king's surrender to the Scots. At this period Lauderdale
veered round completely to the king's cause, had several inter-
views with him. and engaged in various projects for his restora-
tion, offering the aid of the Scots, on the condition of Charles's
consent to the establishment of Presbyterianism, and on the
26th of December he obtained from Charles at Carisbrooke
" the engagement " by which Presbyterianism was to be estab-
lished for three years, schismatics were to be suppressed, and
the acts of the Scottish parliament ratified, the king in addition
promising to admit the Scottish nobles into public employment
in England and to reside frequently in Scotland. Returning
to Scotland, in the spring of 1648, Lauderdale joined the party
of Hamilton in alliance with the English royalists. Their
defeat at Preston postponed the arrival of the prince of Wales,
but Lauderdale had an interview with' the prince in the Downs
in August, and from this period obtained supreme influence over
the future king. He persuaded him later to accept the invitation
to Scotland from the Argyll faction, accompanied him thither
in 1650 and in the expedition into England, and was taken
prisoner at Worcester in 1651, remaining in confinement till
March 1660. He joined Charles in May 1660 at Breda, and, in
spite of the opposition of Clarendon and Monk, was appointed
secretary of state. From this time onwards he kept his hold
upon the king, was lodged at Whitehall, was " never from the
king's ear nor council,"1 and maintained his position against
his numerous adversaries by a crafty dexterity in dealing with
men, a fearless unscrupulousness, and a robust strength of will,
which overcame all opposition. Though a man of considerable
learning and intellectual attainment, his character was exception-
ally and grossly licentious, and his base and ignoble career was
henceforward unrelieved by a single redeeming feature. He
abandoned Argyll to his fate, permitted, if he did not assist in,
the restoration of episcopacy in Scotland, and after triumphing
over all his opponents in Scotland drew into his own hands the
whole administration of that kingdom, and proceeded to impose
upon it the absolute supremacy of the crown in church and
state, restoring the nomination of the lords of the articles to
the king and initiating severe measures against the Covenanters.
In 1669 he was able to boast with truth that " the king is now
master here in all causes and over all persons."
His own power was now at its height, and his position as the
favourite of Charles, controlled by no considerations of patriotism
or statesmanship, and completely independent of the English
parliament, recalled the worst scandals and abuses of the Stuart
administration before the Civil War. He was a member of the
cabal ministry, but took little part in English affairs, and was
not entrusted with the first secret treaty of Dover, but gave
personal support to Charles in his degrading demands for pen-
sions from Louis XIV. On the 2nd of May 1672 he was created
duke of Lauderdale and earl of March, and on the 3rd of June
knight of the garter. In 1673, on the resignation of James in
consequence of the Test Act, he was appointed a commissioner
for the admiralty. In October he visited Scotland to suppress
the dissenters and obtain money for the Dutch War, and the
intrigues organized by Shaftesbury against his power in his
absence, and the attacks made upon him in the House of Commons
in January 1674 and April 1675, were alike rendered futile by
the steady support of Charles and James. On the 25th of June
1674 he was created earl of Guilford and Baron Petersham in
the peerage of England. His ferocious measures having failed
to suppress the conventicles in Scotland, he summoned to his
1 Pepys's Diary, 2nd of March 1664.
280
LAUENBURG— LAUFF
aid in 1677 a band of Highlanders, who were sent into the western
country. In consequence, a large party of Scottish nobles came
to London, made common cause with the English country
faction, and compelled Charles to order the disbandment of the
marauders. In May 1678 another demand by the Commons for
Lauderdale's removal was thrown out by court influence by one
vote. He maintained his triumphs almost to the end. In
Scotland, which he visited immediately after this victory in
parliament, he overbore all opposition to the king's demands
for money. Another address for his removal from the Commons
in England was suppressed by the dissolution of parliament on
the 26th of May 1679, and a renewed attack upon him, by the
Scottish party and Shaftesbury's faction combined, also failed.
On the 22nd of June 1679 the last attempt of the unfortunate
Covenanters was suppressed at Bothwell Brig. In 1680, however,
failing health obliged Lauderdale to resign the place and power
for which he had so long successfully struggled. His vote given
for the execution of Lord Stafford on the 2gth of November is
said also to have incurred the displeasure of James. In 1682 he
was stripped of all his offices, and he died in August. Lauderdale
married (i) Lady Anne Home, daughter of the ist earl of Home,
by whom he had one daughter; and (2) Lady Elizabeth Murray,
daughter of the ist earl of Dysart and widow of Sir Lionel Tolle-
mache. He left no male issue, consequently his dukedom and
his English titles became extinct, but he was succeeded in the
earldom by his brother Charles (see below).
See Lauderdale Papers Add. MSS. in Brit. Mus., 30 vols., a small
selection of which, entitled The Lauderdale Papers, were edited by
Osmond Airy for the Camden Society in 188*1-1885; Hamilton
Papers published by the same society; " Lauderdale Correspondence
with Archbishop Sharp," Scottish Hist. Soc. Publications, vol. 15
(1893); Burnett Lives of the Hamiltons and History of his Own
Time; R. Baillie's Letters; S. R. Gardiner's Hist, of the Civil War
and of the Commonwealth; Clarendon's Hist, of the Rebellion; and
the Quarterly Review, clvii. 407. Several speeches of Lauder-
dale are extant. (P. C. Y.)
Earls of Lauderdale.
Charles Maitland, 3rd earl of Lauderdale (d. 1691), became an
ordinary lord of session as Lord Halton in 1669, afterwards assisting
his brother, the duke, in the management of public business in
Scotland. His eldest son, Richard (1653-1695), became the 4th earl.
As Lord Maitland he was lord-justice-general from 1681 to 1684; he
was an adherent of James II. and after fighting at the battle of the
Boyne he was an exile in France until his death. This earl made
a verse translation of Virgil (published 1737). He left no sons, and
his brother John (c. 1655-1710) became the 5th earl. John, a sup-
porter of William III. and of the union of England and Scotland,
was succeeded by his son Charles (c. 1688-1744), who was the grand-
father of James, the 8th earl.
James Maitland, 8th earl of Lauderdale (1750-1830), was a member
of parliament from 1780 until August 1789 when he succeeded his
father in the earldom. In the House of Commons he took an active
part in debate, and in the House of Lords, where he was a repre-
sentative peer for Scotland, he was prominent as an opponent of the
policy of Pitt and the English government with regard to France,
a country he had visited in 1792. In 1806 he was made a peer of the
United Kingdom as Baron Lauderdale of Thirlestane and for a
short time he was keeper of the great seal of Scotland. By this time
the earl, who had helped to found the Society of the Friends of the
People in 1792, had somewhat modified his political views; this
process was continued, and after acting as the leader of the Whigs in
Scotland, Lauderdale' became a Tory and voted against the Reform
Bill of 1832. He died on the I3th of September 1839. He wrote an
Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of Public Wealth ( 1 804 and 1 8 1 9) , a
work which has been translated into French and Italian and which
produced a controversy between the author and Lord Brougham ;
The Depreciation of the Paper-currency of Great Britain Proved (1812) ;
and other writings of a similar nature. He was succeeded by his
sons James (1784-1860) and Anthony (1785-1863) as oth and loth
earls. Anthony, a naval officer, died unmarried in March 1863,
when his barony of the United Kingdom became extinct, but his
Scottish earldom devolved upon a cousin, Thomas Maitland (1803—
1878), a grandson of the 7th earl, who became nth earl of Lauder-
dale. Thomas, who was an admiral of the fleet, died without sons,
and the title passed to Charles Barclay-Maitland (1822-1884), a
descendant of the 6th earl. When Charles died unmarried, another
of the 6th earl's descendants, Frederick Henry Maitland (b. 1840),
became I3th earl of Lauderdale.
The earls of Lauderdale are hereditary standard bearers for
Scotland.
LAUENBURG, a duchy of Germany, formerly belonging with
Holstein to Denmark, but from 1865 to Prussia, and now in-
cluded in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. It lies
on the right bank of the Elbe, is bounded by the territories of
Hamburg, Liibeck, Mecklenburg-Strelitz and the province of
Hanover, and comprises an area of 453 sq. m. The surface is a
slightly undulating plain. The soil, chiefly alluvial, though in
some places arenaceous, is generally fertile and well cultivated,
but a great portion is covered with forests, interspersed with
lakes. By means of the Stecknitz canal, the Elbe, the principal
river, is connected with the Trave. The chief agricultural
products are timber, fruit, grain, hemp, flax and vegetables.
Cattle-breeding affords employment for many of the inhabitants.
The railroad from Hamburg to Berlin traverses the country.
The capital is Ratzeburg, and there are two other towns, Molln
and Lauenburg.
The earliest inhabitants of Lauenburg were a Slav tribe, the
Polabes, who were gradually replaced by colonists from Saxony.
About the middle of the i2th century the country was subdued
by the duke of Saxony, Henry the Lion, who founded a bishopric
at Ratzeburg, and after Henry's fall in 1180 it formed part
of the smaller duchy of Saxony, which was governed by Duke
Bernhard. In 1203 it was conquered by Waldemar II., king of
Denmark, but in 1227 it reverted to Albert,, a son of its former
duke. When Albert died in 1260 Saxony was divided. Lauen-
burg, or Saxe-Lauenburg, as it is generally called, became a
separate duchy ruled by his son John, and had its own lines of
dukes for over 400 years, one of them, Magnus I. (d. 1543), being
responsible for the introduction of the reformed teaching into the
land. The reigning family, however, became extinct when Duke
Julius Francis died in September 1689, and there were at least
eight claimants for his duchy, chief among them being John
George III., elector of Saxony, and George William, duke of
Brunswick-Liineburg-Celle, the ancestors of both these princes
having made treaties of mutual succession with former dukes
of Saxe-Lauenburg. Both entered the country, but George
William proved himself the stronger and occupied Ratzeburg;
having paid a substantial sum of money to the elector, he was
recognized by the inhabitants as their duke. When he died
three years later Lauenburg passed to his nephew, George Louis,
elector of Hanover, afterwards king of Great Britain as George I.,
whose rights were recognized by the emperor Chades Vl.^n 1728.
In 1803 the duchy was occupied by the French, and in 1810 it
was incorporated with France. It reverted to Hanover after the
battle of Leipzig in 1813, and in 1816 was ceded to Prussia, the
greater part of it being at once transferred by her to Denmark in
exchange for Swedish Pomerania. In 1848, when Prussia made
war on Denmark, Lauenburg was occupied at her own request by
some Hanoverian troops, and was then administered for three
years under the authority of the German confederation, being
restored to Denmark in 1851. Definitely incorporated with this
country in 1853, it experienced another change of fortune
after the short war of 1864 between Denmark on the one side
and Prussia and Austria on the other, as by the peace of Vienna
(3oth of October 1864) it was ceded with Schleswig and Holstein
to the two German powers. By the convention of Gastein (i4th
of August 1865) Austria surrendered her claim to Prussia in
return for the payment of nearly £300,000 and in September
1865 King William I. took formal possession of the duchy.
Lauenburg entered the North German confederation in 1866
and the new German empire in 1870. It retained its constitution
and its special privileges until the ist of July 1876, when it
was incorporated with the kingdom of Prussia. In 1890 Prince
Bismarck received the title of duke of Lauenburg.
See P. von Kobbe, Geschichte und Landesbeschreibung des Herzogtums
Lauenburg (Altona, 1836-1837); Duve, Mitteilungen zur Kunde der
Staatsgeschichte Lauenburgs (Ratzeburg, 1852-1857), and the Archiv
des Vereins fur die Geschichte des Herzogtums Lauenburg (Ratzeburg,
1884 seq.).
LAUFF, JOSEF (1855- ), German poet and dramatist, was
born at Cologne on the i6th of November 1855, the son of a
jurist. He was educated at Mtinster in Westphalia, and entering
the army served as a lieutenant of artillery at Thorn and sub-
sequently at Cologne, where he attained the rank of captain in
1890. In 1898 he was summoned by the German emperor,
LAUGHTER— LAUNCH
281
William II., to Wiesbaden, being at the same time promoted to
major's rank, in order that he might devote his great dramatic
talents to the royal theatre. His literary career began, with the
epic poems Jan van Calkrr, ein Malerfied vom Niederrhein (1887,
3rd ed., 1892) and Der Helfensteiner, ein Sang aus dem Bauern-f
kriege (3rd ed., 1896). These were followed by Die Overstolzin
(5th ed., 1900), Herodias (2nd ed., 1898) and the Geislerin (4th
ed., 1902). He also wrote the novels Die Hexe (6th ed., 1900),
Regina coeli (a story of the fall of the Dutch Republic) (7th ed.,
1904), Die Hauptmannsfrau (8th ed., 1903) and Marie Verwahnen
(1903). But he is best known as a dramatist. Beginning with
the tragedy Ignez de Castro (1894), he proceeded to dramatize
the great monarchs of his country, and, in a Hohenzollern
tetralogy, issued Der Burggraf (1897, 6th ed. 1900) and Der
Eisenzahn (1900), to be followed by Der grosse Kurfurst (The
Great Elector) and Friedrich der Grosse (Frederick the Great).
See A. Schroeter, Josef Lauff, Ein litterarisches Zeitbild (1899),
and B. Sturm, Josef Lauff (1903).
LAUGHTER, the visible and audible expression of mirth,
pleasure or the sense of the ridiculous by movements of the
facial muscles and inarticulate sounds (see COMEDY, PLAY and
HUMOUR). The O. Eng. hleahtor is formed from hleahhan, to
laugh, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. lachen, Goth, hlahjan,
IceL hlaeja, &c. These are in origin echoic or imitative words,
to be referred to a Teut. base hlah-, Indo-Eur. kark-, to make
a noise; Skeat (Etym. Diet., 1898) connects ultimately Gr.
n\w(r<Tft.v, to cluck like a hen, Kpafeiv, to croak, &c. A gentle
and inaudible form of laughter expressed by a movement of
the lips and by the ey^s is a " smile." This is a comparatively
late word in English, and is due to Scandinavian influence; cf.
Swed. smila; it is ultimately connected with Lat. mirari, to
wonder, and probably with Gr. jueT5os.
LAUMONT, FRANCOIS PIERRE NICHOLAS GILLET DE
(1747-1834), French mineralogist, was born in Paris on the 28th
of May 1747. He was educated at a military school and served
in the army from 1772-1784, when he was appointed inspector
of mines. His attention in his leisure time was wholly given to
mineralogy, and he assisted in organizing the new Ecole des
Mines in Paris. He was author of numerous mineralogical
papers in the Journal and Annales des Mines. The mineral
laumontite was named after him by Haiiy. He died in Paris
on the ist of June 1834.
LAUNCESTON, a market town and municipal borough in
the Launceston parliamentary division of Cornwall, England,
355 m. N.W. of Plymouth, on branches of the Great Western
and the London & South-Western railways. Pop. (1901) 4053.
It lies in a hilly district by and above the river Kensey, an
affluent of the Tamar, the houses standing picturesquely on
the southern slope of the narrow valley, with the keep of the
ancient castle crowning the summit. On the northern slope
lies the parish of St Stephen. The castle, the ruins of which
are in part of Norman date, was the seat of the earls of Cornwall,
and was frequently besieged during the civil wars of the i7th
century. In 1656 George Fox the Quaker was imprisoned in the
north-east tower for disturbing the peace at St Ives by distribut-
ing tracts. Fragments of the old town walls and the south
gateway, of the Decorated period, are standing. The church
of St Mary Magdalen, built of granite, and richly ornamented
without, was erected early in the i6th century, but possesses
a detached tower dated 1380. A fine Norman doorway, now
appearing as the entrance to a hotel, is preserved from an
Augustinian priory founded in the reign of Henry I. The
parish church of St Stephen is Early English, and later, with
a Perpendicular tower. The trade of Launceston is chiefly
agricultural, but there are tanneries and iron foundries.
The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors.
Area, 2189 acres.
A silver penny of ^Ethelred II. witnesses to the fact that the
privilege of coining money was exercised by Launceston (Dun-
heved, Lanscaveton, Lanstone) more than half a century before
the Norman conquest. • At the time .of the Domesday survey
the canons of St Stephen held Launceston, and the count of
Mortain held Dunheved. The number of families settled on
the former is not given, but attention is called to the market
which had been removed thence by the count to the neighbour-
ing castle of Dunheved, which had two mills, one villein and
thirteen bordars. A spot more favoured by nature could not
have been chosen either for settlement or for defence than the
rich lands near the confluence of the Kensey and Tamar, out
of which there rises abruptly the gigantic mound upon which
the castle is built. It is not known when the canons settled
here nor whether the count's castle, then newly erected, replaced
some earlier fortification. Reginald, earl of Cornwall (1140-
1175), granted to the canons rights of jurisdiction in all their
lands and exemption from suit of court in the shire and hundred
courts. Richard (1225-1272), king of the Romans, constituted
Dunheved a free borough, and granted to the burgesses freedom
from pontage, stallage and suillage, liberty to elect their own
reeves, exemption from all pleas outside the borough except
pleas of the crown, and a site for a gild-hall. The farm of the
borough was fixed at iocs, payable to the earl, 653. to the prior
and iocs. icd. to the lepers of St Leonard's. In 1205 the market
which had been held on Sunday was changed to Thursday.
An inquisition held in 1383 discloses two markets, a merchant
gild, pillory and tumbrel. In 1555 Dunheved, otherwise Laun-
ceston, received a charter of incorporation, the common council
to consist of a mayor, 8 aldermen and a recorder. By its pro-
visions the borough was governed until 1835. The parliamentary
franchise which had been conferred in 1294 was confined to the
corporation and a number of free burgesses. In 1832 Launceston
was shorn of one of its members, and in 1885 merged in the
county. Separated from it by a small bridge over the Kensey
lies the hamlet of Newport which, from 1547 until 1832, also
returned two members. These were swept away when the
Reform Bill became law. Launceston was the assize town until
Earl Richard, having built a palace at Restormel, removed
the assize to Lostwithiel. In 1386 Launceston regained the
privilege by royal charter. From 1715 until 1837, eleven years
only excepted, the assize was held alternately here and at Bod-
min. Since that time Bodmin has enjoyed the distinction.
Launceston has never had a staple industry. The manufacture
of serge was considerable early in the igth century. Its market
on Saturdays is well attended, and an ancient fair on the Feast
of St Thomas is among those which survive.
See A. F. Robbins, Launceston Past and Present.
LAUNCESTON, the second city 'of Tasmania, in the county
of Cornwall, on the river Tamar, 40 m. from the N. coast of
the island, and 133 m. by rail N. by W. of Hobart. The city
lies amid surroundings of great natural beauty in a valley en-
closed by lofty hills. Cora Linn, about 6 m. distant, a deep
gorge of the North Esk river, the Punch Bowl and Cataract
Gorge, over which the South Esk falls in a magnificent cascade,
joining the North Esk to form the Tamar, are spots famed
throughout the Australian commonwealth for their romantic
beauty. The city is the commercial capital of northern Tas-
mania, the river Tamar being navigable up to the town for
vessels of 4000 tons. The larger ships lie in midstream and
discharge into lighters, while vessels of 2000 tons can berth
alongside the wharves on to which the railway runs. Laun-
ceston is a well-planned, pleasant town, lighted by electricity,
with numerous parks and squares and many fine buildings.
The post office, the custom house, the post office savings bank
and the Launceston bank form an attractive group; the town
hall is used exclusively for civic purposes, public meetings and
social functions being held in an elegant building called the
Albert hall. There are also a good art gallery, a theatre and
a number of fine churches, one of which, the Anglican church
of St John, dates from 1824. The city, which attained that rank
in 1889, has two attractive suburbs, Invermay and Trevallyn;
it has a racecourse at Mowbray 2 m. distant, and is the centre
and port of an important fruit-growing district. Pop. of the
city proper (1901) 18,022, of the city and suburbs 21,180.
LAUNCH, (i) A verb meaning originally to hurl, discharge
a missile or other object, also to rush or shoot out suddenly
282
LAUNDRY— LAUREATE
or rapidly. It is particularly used of the setting afloat a vessel
from the stocks on which she has been built. The word is an
adaptation of O. Fr. lancher, lander, to hurl, throw, Lat. lanceare,
from lancea, a lance or spear. (2) The name of a particular
type of boat, usually applied to one of the largest size of ships'
boats, or to a large boat moved by electricity, steam or other
power. The word is an adaptation of the Span, lancha, pinnace,
which is usually connected with lanchara, the Portuguese name,
common in i6th and i;th century histories, for a fast-moving
small vessel. This word is of Malay origin and is derived from
lanchar, quick, speedy.
LAUNDRY, a place or establishment where soiled linen, &c.,
is washed. The word is a contraction of an earlier form lavendry,
from Lat. lavanda, things to be washed, lavare, to wash.
" Launder," a similar contraction of lavender, was one (of either
sex) who washes linen; from its use as a verb came the form
" launderer," employed as both masculine and feminine in
America, and the feminine form " laundress," which is also
applied to a female caretaker of chambers in the Inns of Court,
London.
Laundry-work has become an important industry, organized
on a scale which requires elaborate mechanical plant very
different from the simple appliances that once sufficed for
domestic needs. For the actual cleansing of the articles, instead
of being rubbed by the hand or trodden by the foot of the washer-
woman, or stirred and beaten with a " dolly " in the wash-tub,
they are very commonly treated in rotary washing machines
driven by power. These machines consist of an outer casing
containing an inner horizontal cylindrical cage, in which the
clothes are placed. By the rotation of this cage, which is reversed
by automatic gearing every few turns, they are rubbed and
tumbled on each other in the soap and water which is contained
in the outer casing and enters the inner cylinder through perfora-
tions. The outer casing is provided with inlet valves for hot and
cold water, and with discharge valves; and often also arrange-
ments are made for the admission of steam under pressure, so that
the contents can be boiled. Thus the operations of washing,
boiling, rinsing and blueing (this last being the addition of a blue
colouring matter to mask the yellow tint and thus give the linen
the appearance of whiteness) can be performed without removing
the articles from the machine. For drying, the old methods of
wringing by hand, or by machines in which the clothes were
squeezed between rollers of wood. pf. india-rubber, have been
largely superseded by " hydro-extractors " or " centrifugals."
In these the wet garments are placed in a perforated cage or
basket, supported on vertical bearings, which is rotated at a
high speed (1000 to 1500 times a minute) and in a short time
as much as 85% of the moisture may thus be removed. The
drying is often completed in an apartment through which dry
air is forced by fans. In the process of finishing linen the old-
fashioned laundress made use of the mangle, about the only piece
of mechanism at her disposal. In the box-mangle the articles
were pressed on a flat surface by rollers which were weighted
with a box full of stones, moved to and fro by a rack and pinion.
In a later and less cumbrous form of the machine they were
passed between wooden rollers or " bowls " held close together
by weighted levers. An important advance was marked by
the introduction of machines which not only smooth and press
the linen like the mangle, but also give it the glazed finish
obtained by hot ironing. Machines of this kind are essentially
the same as the calenders used in paper and textile manufacture.
They are made in a great variety of forms, to enable them to
deal with articles of different shapes, but they may be described
generally as consisting either of a polished metal roller, heated
by steam or gas, which works against a blanketted or felted
surface in the form of another roller or a flat table, or, as in the
Decoudun type, of a felted metal roller rotating against a heated
concave bed of polished metal. In cases where hand-ironing
is resorted to, time is economized by the employment of irons
which are continuously heated by gas or electricity.
LA UNION, a seaport and the capital of the department of La
Union, Salvador, 144 m. E.S.E. of San Salvador. Pop. (1905)
about 4000. La Union is situated at the foot of a lofty volcano,
variously known as Conchagua, Pinos and Meanguera, and on a
broad indentation in the western shore of Fonseca Bay. Its
harbour, the best in the republic, is secure in all weathers and
.affords good anchorage to large ships. La Union is the port of
shipment for the exports of San Miguel and other centres of
production in eastern Salvador.
LA UNION, a town of eastern Spain in the province of Murcia,
5 m. by rail E. of Cartagena and close to the Mediterranean Sea.
Pop. (1900) 30,275, of whom little more than half inhabit the
town itself. The rest are scattered among the numerous metal
works and mines of iron, manganese, calamine, sulphur and lead,
which are included within the municipal boundaries. La Union
is quite a modern town, having sprung up in the second half
of the igth century. It has good modern municipal buildings,
schools, hospital, town hall and large factories.
LAURAHUTTE, a village of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Silesia, 5 m. S.E. of Beuthen, on the railway Tarnowitz-
Emanuelsegen. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic
church, but is especially noteworthy for its huge iron works,
which employ about 6000 hands. Pop. (1900) 13,571.
LAUREATE (Lat. laureatus, from laurea, the laurel tree).
The laurel, in ancient Greece, was sacred to Apollo, and as
such was used to form a crown or wreath of honour- for
poets and heroes; and this usage has been widespread. The
word " laureate " or " laureated " thus came in English to
signify eminent, or associated with glory, literary or military.
" Laureate letters " in old times meant the despatches announc-
ing a victory; and the epithet was given, even officially (e.g. to
John Skelton) by universities, to distinguished poets. The name
of " bacca-laureate " for the university degree of bachelor shows
a confusion with a supposed etymology from Lat. bacca lauri (the
laurel berry), which though incorrect (see BACHELOR) involves
the same idea. From the more general use of the term " poet
laureate " arose its restriction in England to the office of the
poet attached to the royal household, first held by Ben Jonson,
for whom the position was, in its essentials, created by Charles I.
in 1617. (Jonson's appointment does not seem to have been
formally made as poet-laureate, but his position was equivalent
to that). The office was really a development of the practice
of earlier times, when minstrels and versifiers were part of the
retinue of the King; it is recorded that Richard Cceur de Lion
had a versificator regis (Gulielmus Peregrinus), and Henry III.
had a versificator (Master Henry); in the isth century John
Kay, also a " versifier," described himself as Edward IV. 's
" humble poet laureate." Moreover, the crown had shown its
patronage in various ways; Chaucer had been given a pension
and a perquisite of wine by Edward III., and Spenser a pension
by Queen Elizabeth. W. Hamilton classes Chaucer, Gower,
Kay, Andrew Bernard, Skelton, Robert Whittington, Richard
Edwards, Spenser and Samuel Daniel, as " volunteer Laureates."
Sir William Davenant succeeded Jonson in 1638, and the title of
poet laureate was conferred by letters patent on Dryden in 1670,
two years after Davenant's death, coupled with a pension of
£300 and a butt of Canary wine. The post then became a
regular institution, though the emoluments varied, Dryden's
successors being T. Shadwell (who originated annual birthday
and New Year odes), Nahum Tate, Nicholas Rowe, Laurence
Eusden, Colley Gibber, William Whitehead, Thomas Warton,
H. J. Pye, Southey, Wordsworth, Tennyson and, four years
after Tennyson's death, Alfred Austin. The office took on a new
lustre from the personal distinction of Southey, Wordsworth
and Tennyson; it had fallen into contempt before Southey,
and on Tennyson's death there was a considerable feeling that
no possible successor was acceptable (William Morris and
Swinburne being hardly court poets). Eventually, however, the
undcsirability of breaking with tradition for temporary reasons,
and thus severing the one official link between literature and the
state, prevailed over the protests against following Tennyson by
any one of inferior genius. It may be noted that abolition was
similarly advocated when Warton and Wordsworth died.
The poet laureate, being a court official, was considered
LAUREL
283
responsible for producing formal and appropriate verses on
birthdays and state occasions; but his activity in this respect
has varied, according to circumstances, and the custom ceased
to be obligatory after Pye's death. Wordsworth stipulated,
before accepting the honour, that no formal effusions from
him should be considered a necessity; but Tennyson was
generally happy in his numerous poems of this class. The
emoluments of the post have varied; Ben Jonson first received
a pension of 100 marks, and later an annual " terse of Canary
wine." To Pye an allowance of £27 was made instead of the
'wine. Tennyson drew £72 a year from the lord chamberlain's
department, and £27 from the lord steward's in lieu of the
" butt of sack."
See Walter Hamilton's Poets Laureate of England (1879), and his
contributions to Notes and Queries (Feb. 4, 1893).
LAUREL. At least four shrubs or small trees are called by
this name in Great Britain, viz. the common or cherry laurel
(Prunus Laurocerasus) , the Portugal laurel (P. lusitanica), the
bay or sweet laurel (Laurus nobilis) and the spurge laurel (Daphne
Laureola). The first two belong to the rose family (Rosaceae),
to the section Cerasus (to which also belongs the cherry) of the
genus Prunus.
The common laurel is a native of the woody and sub-alpine
regions of the Caucasus, of the mountains of northern Persia, of
north-western Asia Minor and of the Crimea. It was received
into Europe in 1576, and flowered for the first time in 1583.
Ray in 1688 relates that it was first brought from Trebizonde
to Constantinople, thence to Italy, France, Germany and
England. Parkinson in his Paradisus records it as growing in a
garden at Highgate in 1629; and in Johnson's edition of Gerard's
Herbal (1633) it is recorded that the plant " is now got into many
of our choice English gardens, where it is well respected for the
beauty of the leaues and their lasting or continuall greennesse "
(see Loudon's Arboretum, ii. 717). The leaves of this plant
are rather large, broadly lance-shaped and of a leathery con-
sistence, the margin being somewhat serrated. They are re-
markable for their poisonous properties, giving off the odour
of bitter almonds when bruised; the vapour thus issuing is
sufficient to kill small insects by the prussic acid which it contains.
The leaves when cut up finely and distilled yield oil of bitter
almonds and hydrocyanic (prussic) acid. Sweetmeats, custards,
cream, &c., are often flavoured with laurel-leaf water, as it
imparts the same flavour as bitter almonds; but it should be
used sparingly, as it is a dangerous poison, having several times
proved fatal. The first case occurred in 1731, which induced a
careful investigation to be made of its nature; Schrader in
1802 discovered it to contain hydrocyanic acid. The effects of
the distilled laurel-leaf water on living vegetables is to destroy
them like ordinary prussic acid; while a few drops act on animals
as a powerful poison. It was introduced into the British phar-
macopoeia in 1839, but is generally superseded by the use of
prussic acid. The aqua laurocerasi, or cherry laurel water, is
now standardized to contain 0-1% of hydrocyanic acid. It
must not be given in doses larger than 2 drachms. It contains
benzole hydrate, which is antiseptic, and is therefore suitable for
hypodermic injection; but the drug is of inconsistent strength,
owing to the volatility of prussic acid.
The following varieties of the common laurel are in cultivation:
the Caucasian (Prunus Laurocerasus, var. caucasica), which is
hardier and bears very rich dark-green glossy foliage; the
Versailles laurel (var. latifolia), which has larger leaves; the
Colchican (var. colchica), which is a dwarf -spreading bush with
narrow sharply serrated pale-green leaves. There is also the
variety rotundifolia with short broad leaves, the Grecian with
narrow leaves and the Alexandrian with very small leaves.
The Portugal laurel is a native of Portugal and Madeira. It
was introduced into England about the year 1648, when it was
cultivated in the Oxford Botanic Gardens. During the first
half of the i8th century this plant, the common laurel and the
holly were almost the only hardy evergreen shrubs procurable in
British nurseries. They are all three tender about Paris, and
consequently much less seen in the neighbourhood of that city
than in England, where they stand the ordinary winters but not
very severe ones. There is a variety (myrlifolia) of compact habit
with smaller narrow leaves, also a variegated variety.
The evergreen glossy foliage of the common and Portugal
laurels render them well adapted for shrubberies, while the
racemes of white flowers are not devoid of beauty. The former
often ripens its insipid drupes, but the Portugal rarely does so.
It appears to be less able to accommodate itself to the English
climate, as the wood does not usually " ripen " so satisfactorily.
Hence it is rather more liable to be cut by the frost. It is grown
in the open air in the southern United States.
The bay or sweet laurel (Laurus nobilis) belongs to the family
Lauraceae, which contains sassafras, benzoin, camphor and other
trees remarkable for their aromatic properties. It is a large
evergreen shrub, sometimes reaching the height of 60 ft., but
rarely assuming a truly tree-like character. The leaves are
smaller than those of the preceding laurels, possessing an aromatic
and slightly bitter flavour, and are quite devoid of the poisonous
properties of the cherry laurel. The small yellowish-green
flowers are produced in axillary clusters, are male or female,
and consist of a simple 4-leaved perianth which encloses nine
stamens in the male, the anthers of which dehisce by valves
which lift upwards as in the common barberry, and carry
glandular processes at the base of the filament. The fruit con-
sists of a succulent berry surrounded by the persistent base of
the perianth. The bay laurel is a native of Italy, Greece and
North Africa, and is abundantly grown in the British Isles as
an evergreen shrub, as it stands most winters. The date of its
introduction is unknown, but must have been previous to 1562,
as it is mentioned in Turner's Herbal published in that year.
A full description also occurs in Gerard's Herball (1597, p. 1222).
It was used for strewing the floors of houses of distinguished
persons in the reign of Elizabeth. Several varieties have been
cultivated, differing in the character of their foliage, as the
undulata or wave-leafed, salicifolia or willow-leafed, the varie-
gated, the broad-leafed and the curled ; there is also the double-
flowered variety. The bay laurel was carried to North America
by the early colonists.
This laurel is generally held to be the Daphne of the ancients,
though Lindley, following Gerard (Herball, 1597, p. 761), asserted
that the Greek Daphne was Ruscus racemosus. Among the
Greeks the laurel was sacred to Apollo, especially in connexion
with Tempe, in whose laurel groves the god himself obtained
purification from the blood of the Python. This legend was
dramatically represented at the Pythian festival once in eight
years, a boy fleeing from Delphi to Tempe, and after a time being
led back with song, crowned and adorned with laurel. Similar
da<j)vrj(j)opiai: were known elsewhere in Greece. Apollo, himself
purified, was the author of purification and atonement to other
penitents, and the laurel was the symbol of this power, which
came to be generally associated with his person and sanctuaries.
The relation of Apollo to the laurel was expressed in the legend
of Daphne (q.v.). The victors in the Pythian games were crowned
with the laurels of Apollo, and thus the laurel became the symbol
of triumph in Rome as well as in Greece. As Apollo was the god
of poets, the Laurea Apollinaris naturally belonged to poetic
merit (see LAUREATE). The various prerogatives of the laurel
among the ancients are collected by Pliny (Hist. Nat. xv. 30).
It was a sign of truce, like the olive branch; letters announcing
victory and the arms of the victorious soldiery were garnished
with it; it was thought that lightning could not strike it, and the
emperor Tiberius always wore a laurel wreath during thunder-
storms. From its association with the divine power of purifica-
tion and protection, it was often set before the door of Greek
houses, and among the Romans it was the guardian of the gates
of the Caesars (Ovid, Met. i. 562 sq.). The laurel worn by
Augustus and his successors had a miraculous history: the laurel
grove at the imperial villa by the ninth milestone on the Flaminian
way sprang from a shoot sent from heaven to Livia Drusilla
(Sueton. Galba, i.). Like the olive, the laurel was forbidden to
profane use. It was employed in divination; the crackling of its
leaves in the sacred flame was a good omen (Tibull. ii. 5. 81),
LAURENS— LAURENT
and their silence unlucky (Propert. ii. 21); and the leaves when
chewed excited a prophetic afflatus (8a4>vr]<j>ayoi,, cf. Tibull. ii.
5. 63). There is a poem enumerating the ancient virtues of the
laurel by J. Passeratius (1594).
The last of the plants mentioned above under the name of
laurel is the so-called spurge laurel (Daphne Laureola). This
and one other species (D. Mezereum), the mezereon, are the sole
representatives of the family Thymelaeaceae in Great Britain.
The spurge laurel is a small evergreen shrub, with alternate
somewhat lanceolate leaves with entire margins. The green
flowers are produced in early spring, and form drooping clusters
at the base of the leaves. The calyx is four-cleft, and carries
eight stamens in two circles of four each within the tube. The
pistil forms a berry, green at first, but finally black. The
mezereon differs in blossoming before the leaves are produced,
while the flowers are lilac instead of green. The bark furnishes
the drug Cortex Mezerei, for which that of the spurge laurel is
often substituted. Both are powerfully acrid, but the latter is
less so than the bark of mezereon. It is now only used as an
ingredient of the liquor sarsae composilus concentralus. Of other
species in cultivation there are D. Fortunei from China, which
has lilac flowers; D. pontica, a native of Asia Minor; D. alpina,
from the Italian Alps; D. collina, south European; and D,
Cneorum, the garland flower or trailing daphne, the handsomest
of the hardy species.
See Hemsley's Handbook of Hardy Trees, &c.
LAURENS, HENRY (1724-1792), American statesman, was
born in Charleston, South Carolina, on the 24th of February 1724,
of Huguenot ancestry. When sixteen he became a clerk in a
counting-house in London, and later engaged in commercial
pursuits with great success at Charleston until 1771, when he
retired from active business. He spent the next three years
travelling in Europe and superintending the education of his
sons in England. In spite of his strong attachment to England,
and although he had defended the Stamp Act, in 1 774, in the hope
of averting war, he united with thirty-seven other Americans in
a petition to parliament against the passing of the Boston Port
Bill. Becoming convinced that a peaceful settlement was
impracticable, he returned to Charleston at the close of 1774,
and there allied himself with the conservative element of the
Whig party. He was soon made president of the South Carolina
council of safety, and in 1776 vice-president of the state; in
the same year he was sent as a delegate from South Carolina
to the general continental congress at Philadelphia, of which
body he was president from November 1777 until December
1778. In August 1780 he started on a mission to negotiate on
behalf of congress a loan of ten million dollars in Holland; but
he was captured on the 3rd of September off the Banks of
Newfoundland by the British frigate " Vestal," taken to London
and closely imprisoned in the Tower. His papers were found to
contain a sketch of a treaty between the United States and
Holland projected by William Lee, in the service of Congress,
and Jan de Neufville, acting on behalf of Mynheer Van Berckel,
pensionary of Amsterdam, and this discovery eventually led to
war between Great Britain and the United Provinces. During
his imprisonment his health became greatly impaired. On
the 3ist of December 1781 he was released on parole, and he was
finally exchanged for Cornwallis. In June 1 782 he was appointed
one of the American commissioners for negotiating peace with
Great Britain, but he did not reach Paris until the 28th of
November 1782, only two days before the preliminaries of
peace were signed by himself, John Adams, Franklin and Jay.
On the day of signing, however, he procured the insertion of a
clause prohibiting the British from " carrying away any negroes
or other property of American inhabitants "; and this subse-
quently led to considerable friction between the British and
American governments. On account of failing health he did
not remain for the signing of the definitive treaty, but
returned to Charleston, where he died on the 8th of December
1792.
His son, JOHN LAURENS (1754-1782), American revolutionary
officer, was born at Charleston, South Carolina, on the 28th of
October 1754. He was educated in England, and on his return
to America in 1777, in the height of the revolutionary struggle,
he joined Washington's staff. He soon gained his commander's
confidence, which he reciprocated with the most devoted attach-
ment, and was entrusted with the delicate duties of a confidential
secretary, which he performed with much tact and skill. He
was present in all Washington's battles, from Brandywine to
Yorktown, and his gallantry on every occasion has gained him
the title of " the Bayard of the Revolution." Laurens displayed
bravery even to rashness in the storming of the Chew mansion
at Germantown; at Monmouth, where he saved Washington's
life, and was himself severely wounded; and at Coosahatchie,
where, with a handful of men, he defended a pass against a
large English force under General Augustine Prevost, and was
again wounded. He fought a duel against General Charles Lee,
and wounded him, on account of that officer's disrespectful
conduct towards Washington. Laurens distinguished himself
further at Savannah, and at the siege of Charleston in 1780.
After the capture of Charleston by the English, he rejoined
Washington, and was selected by him as a special envoy to
appeal to the king of France for supplies for the relief of the
American armies, which had been brought by prolonged service
and scanty pay to the verge of dissolution. The more active
co-operation of the French fleets with the land forces in Virginia,
which was one result of his mission, brought about the disaster
of Cornwallis at Yorktown. Laurens lost no time in rejoining
the army, and at Yorktown was at the head of an American
storming party which captured an advanced redoubt. Laurens
was designated with the vicomte de Noailles to arrange the terms
of the surrender, which virtually ended the war, although
desultory skirmishing, especially in the South, attended the
months of delay before peace was formally concluded. In one
of these trifling affairs on the 27th of August 1782, on the
Combahee river, Laurens exposed himself needlessly and was
killed. Washington lamented deeply the death of Laurens,
saying of him, " He had not a fault that I could discover, unless
it were intrepidity bordering upon rashness."
The most valuable of Henry Laurens's papers and pamphlets in-
cluding the important " Narrative of the Capture of Henry Laurens,
of his Confinement in the Tower of London, &c., 1780, 1781, 1782,"
in vol. i. (Charleston, 1857) of the Society's Collections, have been
published by the South Carolina Historical Society. John Laurens's
military correspondence, with a brief memoir by W. G. Simms, was
privately printed by the Bradford Club, New York, in 1867.
LAURENT, FRANgOIS (1810-1887), Belgian historian and
jurisconsult, was born at Luxemburg on the 8th of July 1810.
He held a high appointment in the ministry of justice for some
time before he became professor of civil law in the university
of Ghent in 1836. His advocacy of liberal and anti-clerical
principles both from his chair and in the press made him bitter
enemies, but he retained his position until his death on the nth
of February 1887. He treated the relations of church and state
in L'£glise et I'etat (Brussels, 3 vols., 1858-1862; new and
revised edition, 1865), and the same subject occupied a large
proportion of the eighteen volumes of his chief historical work,
£,tudes sur I'histoire de I'humanite (Ghent and Brussels, 1855-
1870), which aroused considerable interest beyond the boundaries
of Belgium. His fame as a lawyer rests on his authoritative
exposition of the Code Napoleon in his Principes de droit civil
(Brussels, 33 vols., 1869-1878), and his Droit civil international
(Brussels, 8 vols., 1880-1881). He was charged in 1879 by the
minister of justice with the preparation of a report on the
proposed revision of the civil code. Besides his anti-clerical
pamphlets his minor writings include much discussion of social
questions, of the organization of savings banks, asylums, &c.,
and he founded the Societe Collier for the encouragement of
thrift among the working classes. With Gustave Callier, whose
funeral in 1863 was made the occasion of a display of clerical
intolerance, Laurent had much in common, and the efforts
of the society were directed to the continuation of Callier's
philanthropic schemes.
For a complete list of his works, see G. Koninck, Bibliographic
nationale (Brussels, vol. ii., 1892).
LAURENTINA, VIA— LAURIA, ROGER DE
285
LAURENTINA, VIA, an ancient road of Italy, leading south-
wards from Rome. The question of the nomenclature of the
group of roads between the Via Ardeatina and the Via Ostiensis is
somewhat difficult, and much depends en the view taken as to
the site of Laurentum. It seems probable, however, that the
Via Laurentina proper is that which led out of the Porta Ardea-
tina of the Aurelian wall and went direct to Tor Paterno, while
the road branching from the Via Ostiensis at the third mile, and
leading past Decimo to Lavinium (Pratica), which crosses the
other road at right angles not far from its destination (the
Laurentina there running S.W. and that to Lavinium S.E.)
may for convenience be called Lavinatis, though this name
does not occur in ancient times. On this latter road, beyond
Decimo, two milestones, one of Tiberius, the other of Maxentius,
each bearing the number n, have been found; and farther on,
at Capocotta, traces of ancient buildings, and an important
sepulchral inscription of a Jewish ruler of a synagogue have
come to light. That the Via Laurentina was near the Via
Ardeatina is clear from the fact that the same contractor was
responsible for both roads. Laurentum was also accessible by
a branch from the Via Ostiensis at the eighth mile (at Malafede)
leading past Castel Porziano, the royal hunting-lodge, which is
identical with the ancient Ager Solonius (in which, Festus tells
us, was situated the Pomonal or sacred grove of Pomona) and
which later belonged to Marius.
See R. Lanciani in articles quoted under LAVINIUM. (T. As.)
LAURENTIUS, PAUL (1554-1624), Lutheran divine, was
born on the 3oth of March 1554 at Ober Wierau, where his
father, of the same names, was pastor. From a school at
Zwickau he entered (1573) the university of Leipzig, graduating
in 1577. In 1578 he became rector of the Martin school at
Halberstadt; in 1583 he was appointed town's preacher at
Plauen-im-Vogtland, and in 1586 superintendent at Oelnitz.
On the 2oth of October 1595 he took his doctorate in theology
at Jena, his thesis on the Symbolum Athanasii (1597), gaining
him similar honours at Wittenberg and Leipzig. He was
promoted (1605) to be pastor and superintendent at Dresden,
and transferred (1616) to the superintendence at Meissen, where
he died on the 24th of February 1624. His works consist chiefly
of commentaries and expository discourses on prophetic books
of the Old Testament, parts of the Psalter, the Lord's Prayer
and the history of the Passion. In two orations he compared
Luther to Elijah. Besides theological works he was the author
of a Spicilegium Gnomonologicum (1612).
The main authority is C. Schlegel, the historian of the Dresden
superintendents (1698), summarized by H. W. Roternund, in the
additions (1810) to Jocher, Gelehrten-Lexicon (1750). (A. Go.*)
LAURIA (LURIA or LORIA) ROGER DE (d. 1305), admiral
of Aragon and Sicily, was the most prominent figure in the
naval war which arose directly from the Sicilian Vespers.
Nothing is really known of his life before he was named admiral
in 1283. His father was a supporter of the Hohenstaufen, and
his mother came to Spain with Costanza, the daughter of Man-
fred of Beneventum, when she married Peter, the eldest son and
heir of James the Conqueror of Aragon. According to one
account Bella of Lauria, the admiral's mother, had been the
foster mother of Costanza. Roger, who accompanied his mother,
was bred at the court of Aragon and endowed with lands in
the newly conquered kingdom of Valencia. When the misrule
of Charles of Anjou's French followers had produced the famous
revolt known as the Sicilian Vespers in 1282, Roger de Lauria
accompanied King Peter III. of Aragon on the expedition which
under the cover of an attack on the Moorish kingdom of Tunis
was designed to be an attempt to obtain possession of all or
at least part of the Hohenstaufen dominions in Naples and
Sicily which the king claimed by ripht of his wife as the heiress
of Manfred. In 1283, when the island had put itself under the
protection of Peter III. and had crowned him king, he gave the
command of his fleet to Roger de Lauria. The commission speaks
of him in the most laudatory terms, but makes no reference to
previous military services.
From this time forward till the peace of Calatabellota in
1303, Roger de Lauria was the ever victorious leader of fleets
in the service of Aragon, both in the waters of southern Italy
and on the coast of Catalonia. In the year of his appointment
he defeated a French naval force in the service of Charles of
Anjou, off Malta. The main object before him was to repel
the efforts of the Angevine party to reconquer Sicily and then
to carry the war into their dominions in Naples. Although
Roger de Lauria did incidental fighting on shore, he was as
much a naval officer as any modern admiral, and his victories
were won by good manceuvring and by discipline. The Catalan
squadron, on which the Sicilian was moulded, was in a state
of high and intelligent efficiency. Its chiefs relied not on merely
boarding, and the use of the sword, as the French forces of
Charles of Anjou did, but on the use of the ram, and of the
powerful cross-bows used by the Catalans either by hand or, in
case of the larger ones, mounted on the bulwarks, with great
skill. The conflict was in fact the equivalent on the water of
the battles between the English bowmen and the disorderly
chivalry of France in the Hundred Years' War. In 1284 Roger
defeated the Angevine fleet in the Bay of Naples, taking prisoner
the heir to the kingdom, Charles of Salerno, who remained a
prisoner in the hands of the Aragonese in Sicily, and later in
Spain, for years. In 1285 he fought on the coast of Catalonia
one of the most brilliant campaigns in all naval history. The
French king Philippe le Hardi had invaded Catalonia with
a large army to which the pope gave the character of crusaders,
in order to support his cousin of Anjou in his conflict with the
Aragonese. The king, Peter III., had offended his nobles by
his vigorous exercise of the royal authority, and received little
support from them, but the outrages perpetrated by the French
invaders raised the towns and country against them. The in-
vaders advanced slowly, taking the obstinately defended towns
one by one, and relying on the co-operation of a large number
of allies, who were stationed in squadrons along the coast, and
who brought stores and provisions from Narbonne and Aigues
Mortes. They relied in fact wholly on their fleet for their
existence. A successful blow struck at that would force them
to retreat. King Peter was compelled to risk Sicily for a time,
and he recalled Roger de Lauria from Palermo to the coast of
Catalonia. The admiral reached Barcelona on the 24th of August,
and was informed of the disposition of the French. He saw that
if he could break the centre of their line of squadrons, stretched
as it was so far that its general superiority of numbers was lost
in the attempt to occupy the whole of the coast, he could then
dispose of the extremities in detail. On the night of the 9th of
September he fell on the central squadron of the French fleet
near the Hormigas. The Catalan and Sicilian squadrons doubled
on the end of the enemies' line, and by a vigorous employment
of the ram, as well as by the destructive shower of bolts from
the cross-bows, which cleared the decks- of the French, gained
a complete victory. The defeat of the enemy was followed, as
usually in medieval naval wars, by a wholesale massacre. Roger
then made for Rosas, and tempted out the French squadron
stationed there by approaching under French colours. In the
open it was beaten in its turn. The result was the capture of
the town, and of the stores collected there by King Philippe for
the support of his army. Within a short time he was forced to
retreat amid sufferings from hunger, and the incessant attacks
of the Catalan mountaineers, by which his army was nearly
annihilated. This campaign, which was followed up by destruc-
tive attacks on the French coast, saved Catalonia from the
invaders, and completely ruined the French naval power for
the time being. No medieval admiral of any nation displayed
an equal combination of intellect and energy, and none of
modern times has surpassed it. The work had been so effectually
done on the coast of Catalonia that Roger de Lauria was able
to return to Sicily, and resume his command in the struggle of
Aragonese and Angevine to gain, or to hold, the possession of
Naples.
He maintained his reputation and was uniformly successful
in his battles at sea, but they were not always fought for the
defence of Sicily. The death of Peter III. in 1286 and of his
286
LAURIA— LAURIER
eldest son Alphonso in the following year caused a division among
the members of the house of Aragon. The new king, James,
would have given up Sicily to the Angevine line with which
he made peace and alliance, but his younger brother Fadrique
accepted the crown offered him by the Sicilians, and fought
for his own hand against both the Angevines and his senior.
King James tried to force him to submission without success.
Roger de Lauria adhered for a time to Fadrique, but his arrogant
temper made him an intolerable supporter, and he appears,
moreover, to have thought that he was bound to obey the king
of Aragon. His large estates in Valencia gave him a strong
reason for not offending that sovereign. He therefore left
Fadrique, who confiscated his estates in Sicily and put one of
his nephews to death as a traitor. For this Roger de Lauria
took a ferocious revenge in two successive victories at sea over
the Sicilians. When the war, which had become a ravening of
wild beasts, was at last ended by the peace of Calatabellota,
Roger de Lauria retired to Valencia, where he died on the 2nd
of January 1305, and was buried, by his express orders, in the
church of Santas Creus, a now deserted monastery of the Cister-
cians, at the feet of his old master Peter III. In his ferocity,
and his combination of loyalty to his feudal lord with utter
want of scruple to all other men, Roger belonged to his age.
As a captain he was far above his contemporaries and his
successors for many generations.
Signer Amari's Guerra del Vespro Siciliano gives a general picture
of these wars, but the portrait of Roger de Lauria must be sought in
the Chronicle of the Catalan Ramon de Muntaner who knew him and
was formed in his school. There is a very fair and well " docu-
mented" account of the masterly campaign of 1285 in Charles de la
Ronciere's .Htitoire de la marine fran$aise, i. 189-217. (D. H.)
LAURIA, or LORIA, a city of Basilicata, Italy, in the province
of Potenza, situated near the borders of Calabria, 75 m. by road
S. of Lagonegro. Pop. (1901) 10,470. It is a walled town on
the steep side of a hill with another portion in the plain below,
1821 ft. above sea-level. The castle was the birthplace of
Ruggiero di Loria, the great Italian admiral of the i3th century.
It was destroyed by the French under Massena in 1806. |
LAURIER, SIR WILFRID (1841- ), Canadian statesman,
was born on the 2oth of November 1841, at St Lin in the province
of Quebec. The child of French Roman Catholic parents, he
attended the elementary school of his native parish and for eight
or nine months was a pupil of the Protestant elementary school
at New Glasgow in order to learn English; his association with
the Presbyterian family with whom he lived during this period
had a permanent influence on his mind. At twelve years of age
he entered L'Assomption college, and was there for seven years.
The college, like all the secondary schools in Quebec then avail-
able for Roman Catholics, was under direct ecclesiastical control.
On leaving it he entered a law office at Montreal and took the
law course at McGill University. At graduation he delivered
the valedictory address for his class. This, like so many of his
later utterances, closed with an appeal for sympathy and union
between the French and English races as the secret of the future
of Canada. He began to practise law in Montreal, but owing to
ill-health soon removed to Athabaska, where he opened a law
office and undertook also to edit Le Defricheur, a newspaper then
on the eve of collapse. At Athabaska, the seat of one of the
superior courts of Quebec, the population of the district was fairly
divided between French- and English-speaking people, and
Laurier's career was undoubtedly influenced by his constant
association with English-speaking people and his intimate
acquaintance with their views and aspirations.
While at Montreal he had joined the Institut Canadien, a
literary and scientific society which, owing to its liberal dis-
cussions and the fact that certain books upon its shelves were
on the Index expurgatorius, was finally condemned by the Roman
Catholic authorities. Le Defricheur was an organ of extreme
French sentiment, opposed to confederation, and also under
ecclesiastical censure. One of its few surviving copies contains
an article by Laurier opposing confederation as a scheme
designed in the interest of the English colonies in North America,
and certain to prove the tomb of the French race and the ruin
of Lower Canada. The Liberals of Quebec under the leadership
of Sir Antoine Dorion were hostile to confederation, or at least to
the terms of union agreed upon at the Quebec conference, and
Laurier in editorials and speeches maintained the position of
Dorion and his allies. He was elected to the Quebec legislature
in 1871, and his first speech in the provincial assembly excited
great interest, on account of its literary qualities and the attrac-
tive manner and logical method of the speaker. He was not less
successful in the Dominion House of Commons, to which he was
elected in 1874. During his first two years in the federal parlia-
ment his chief speeches were made in defence of Riel and the
French halfbreeds who were concerned in the Red River rebellion,
and on fiscal questions. Sir John Macdonald, then in opposition,
had committed his party to a protectionist policy, and Laurier,
notwithstanding that the Liberal party stood for a low tariff,
avowed himself to be " a moderate protectionist." He declared
that if he were in Great Britain he would be a free trader, but
that free trade or protection must be applied according to the
necessities of a country, and that which protection necessarily
involved taxation it was the price a young and vigorous nation
must pay for its development. But the Liberal government, to
which Laurier was admitted as minister of inland revenue in
1877, made only a slight increase in duties, raising the general
tariff from 15% to 175%; and against the political judgment
of Alexander Mackenzie, Sir Richard Cartwright, George Brown.
Laurier and other of the more influential leaders of the party,
it adhered to a low tariff platform. In the bye-election which
followed Laurier's admission to the cabinet he was defeated—
the only personal defeat he ever sustained; but a few weeks
later he was returned for Quebec East, a constituency which he
held thenceforth by enormous majorities. In 1878 his party went
out of office and Sir John Macdonald entered upon a long term
of power, with protection as the chief feature of his policy, to
which was afterwards added the construction of the Canadian
Pacific railway.
After the defeat of the Mackenzie government, Laurier sat
in Parliament as the leader of the Quebec Liberals and first
lieutenant to the Hon. Edward Blake, who succeeded Mackenzie
in the leadership of the party. He was associated with Blake in
his sustained opposition to high tariff, and to the Conservative
plan for the construction of the Canadian Pacific railway, and
was a conspicuous figure in the long struggle between Sir John
Macdonald and the leaders of the Liberal party to settle the
territorial limits of the province of Ontario and the legislative
rights of the provinces under the constitution. He was forced
also to maintain a long conflict with the ultramontane element
of the Roman Catholic church in Quebec, which for many years
had a close working alliance with the Conservative politicians
of the province and even employed spiritual coercion in order
to detach votes from the Liberal party. Notwithstanding that
Quebec was almost solidly Roman Catholic the Rouges sternly
resisted clerical pressure; they appealed to the courts and had
certain elections voided on the ground of undue clerical influence,
and at length persuaded the pope to send out a delegate to
Canada, through whose inquiry into the circumstances the abuses
were checked and the zeal of the ultramontanes restrained.
In 1887, upon the resignation of Blake on the ground of ill-
health, Laurier became leader of the Liberal party, although he
and many of the more influential men in the party doubted
the wisdom of the proceeding. He was the first French Canadian
to lead a federal party in Canada since confederation. Apart
from the natural fear that he would arouse prejudice in the
English-speaking provinces, the second Riel rebellion was then
still fresh in the public mind, and the fierce nationalist agitation
which Riel's execution had excited in Quebec had hardly sub-
sided. Laurier could hardly have come to the leadership at a
more inopportune moment, and probably he would not have
accepted the office at all if he had not believed that Blake could
be persuaded to resume the leadership when his health was
restored. But from the first he won great popularity even in the
English-speaking provinces, and showed unusual capacity for
leadership. His party was beaten in the first general election
LAURISTON— LAURIUM
287
held after he became leader (1891), but even with its policy of
unrestricted reciprocity with the United States, and with Sir
John Macdonald still at the head of the Conservative party, it
was beaten by only a small majority. Five years later, with
unrestricted reciprocity relegated to the background, and with
a platform which demanded tariff revision so adjusted as not to
endanger established interests, and which opposed the federal
measure designed to restore in Manitoba the separate or Roman
Catholic schools which the provincial government had abolished,
Laurier carried the country, and in July 1896 he was called by
Lord Aberdeen, then governor-general, to form a government.
He was the first French-Canadian to occupy the office of
premier; and his personal supremacy was shown by his long
continuance in power. During the years from 1896 to 1910, he
came to hold a position within the British Empire which was
in its way unique, and in this period he had seen Canadian
prosperity advance progressively by leaps and bounds. The
chief features of his administration were the fiscal preference of
333% in favour of goods imported into Canada from Great
Britain, the despatch of Canadian contingents to South Africa
during the Boer war, the contract with the Grand Trunk railway
for the construction of a second transcontinental road from
ocean to ocean, the assumption by Canada of the imperial
fortresses at Halifax and Esquimault, the appointment of a
federal railway commission with power to regulate freight charges,
express rates and telephone rates, and the relations between
competing companies, the reduction of the postal rate to Great
Britain from 5 cents to 2 cents and of the domestic rate from
3 cents to 2 cents, a substantial contribution to the Pacific cable,
a practical and courageous policy of settlement and development
in the Western territories, the division of the North-West
territories into the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan and
the enactment of the legislation necessary to give them provincial
status, and finally (1910), a tariff arrangement with the United
States, which, if not all that Canada might claim in the way of
reciprocity, showed how entirely the course of events had changed
the balance of commercial interests in North America.
Laurier made his first visit to Great Britain on the occasion
of Queen Victoria's diamond jubilee (1897), when he received
the grand cross of the Bath; he then secured the denunciation of
the Belgian and German treaties and thus obtained for the
colonies the right to make preferential trade arrangements with
the mother country. His personality made a powerful impression
in Great Britain and also in France, which he visited before his
return to Canada. His strong facial resemblance both to Lord
Beaconsfield and to Sir John Macdonald marked him out in the
public eye, and he captured attention by his charm of manner,
fine command of scholarly English and genuine eloquence.
Some of his speeches in Great Britain, coming as they did from
a French-Canadian, and revealing delicate appreciation of
British sentiment and thorough comprehension of the genius of
British institutions, excited great interest and enthusiasm,
while one or two impassioned speeches in the Canadian parlia-
ment during the Boer war profoundly influenced opinion in
Canada and had a pronounced effect throughout the empire.
A skilful party-leader, Laurier kept from the first not only
the affection of his political friends but the respect of his
opponents; while enforcing the orderly conduct of public
business, he was careful as first minister to maintain the dignity
of parliament. In office he proved more of an opportunist than
his career in opposition would have indicated, but his political
courage and personal integrity remained beyond suspicion.
His jealousy for the political autonomy of Canada was noticeable
in his attitude at the Colonial conference held at the time of
King Edward's coronation, and marked all his diplomatic dealings
with the mother country. But he strove for sympathetic relations
between Canadian and imperial authorities, and favoured
general legislative and fiscal co-operation between the two
countries. He strove also for good relations between the two
races in Canada, and between Canada and the United States.
Although he was classed in Canada as a Liberal, his tendencies
would in England have been considered strongly conservative;
an individualist rather than a collectivist, he opposed the
intrusion of the state into the sphere of private enterprise, and
showed no sympathy with the movement for state operation
of railways, telegraphs and telephones, or with any kindred
proposal looking to the extension of the obligations of the
central government.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — J. S. Willison, Sir Wilfrid Laurier and the
Liberal Party; a Political History (Toronto, 1903) ; L. O. David,
Laurier et son temps (Montreal, 1905) ; see also Henri Moreau, Sir
Wilfrid Laurier, Premier Ministre du Canada (Paris, 1902) ; and the
collection of Laurier's speeches from 1871 to 1890, compiled by Ulric
Barthe (Quebec, 1890). (J. S. W.)
LAURISTON, JACQUES ALEXANDRE BERNARD LAW,
MARQUIS DE (1768-1828), French soldier and diplomatist, was
the son of Jacques Francois Law de Lauriston (1724-1785), a
general officer in the French army, and was born at Pondicherry
on the ist of February 1768. He obtained his first commission
about 1786, served with the artillery and on the staff in the
earlier Revolutionary campaigns, and became brigadier of
artillery in 1795. Resigning in 1796, he was brought back into
the service in 1800 as aide-de-camp to Napoleon, with whom
as a cadet Lauriston had been on friendly terms. In the years
immediately preceding the first empire Lauriston was succes-
sively director of the Le Fere artillery school and special envoy
to Denmark, and he was selected to convey to England the rati-
fication of the peace of Amiens (1802). In 1805, having risen to
the rank of general of division, he took part in the war against
Austria. He occupied Venice and Ragusa in 1806, was made
governor-general of Venice in 1807, took part in the Erfurt
negotiations of 1808, was made a count, served with the emperor
in Spain in 1808-1809 and held commands under the viceroy
Eugene Beauharnais in the Italian campaign and the advance
to Vienna in the same year. At the battle of Wagram he com-
manded the guard artillery in the famous " artillery preparation "
which decided the battle. In 1811 he was made ambassador to
Russia; in 1812 he held a command in the Grande Armee and
won distinction by his firmness in covering the retreat from
Moscow. He commanded the V. army corps at Liitzen and
Bautzen and the V. and XI. in the autumn campaign, falling
into the hands of the enemy in the disastrous retreat from
Leipzig. He was held a prisoner of war until the fall of the
empire, and then joined Louis XVIII., to whom he remained
faithful in the Hundred Days. His reward was a seat in the
house of peers and a command in the royal guard. In 1817 he
was created marquis and in 1823 marshal of France. During the
Spanish War he commanded the corps which besieged and took
Pamplona. He died at Paris on the i2th of June 1828.
LAURIUM (Aavpiov, mod. ERGASTIRI), a mining town in
Attica, Greece, famous for the silver mines which were one of
the chief sources of revenue of the Athenian state, and were
employed for coinage. After the battle of Marathon, Themi-
stocles persuaded the Athenians to devote the revenue derived
from the mines to shipbuilding, and thus laid the foundation of
the Athenian naval power, and made possible the victory of
Salamis. The mines, which were the property of the state,
were usually farmed out for a certain fixed sum and a percentage
on the working; slave labour was exclusively employed. To-
wards the end of the 5th century the output was diminished,
partly owing to the Spartan occupation of Decelea. But the
mines continued to be worked, though Strabo records that in
his time the tailings were being worked over, and Pausanias
speaks of the mines as a thing of the past. The ancient workings,
consisting of shafts and galleries for excavating the ore, and pans
and other arrangements for extracting the metal, may still be seen.
The mines are still worked at the present day by French and
Greek companies, but mainly for lead, manganese and cadmium.
The population of the modern town was 10,0x37 in 1907.
See E. Ardaillon, " Les Mines du Laurion dans I'antiquit6," No.
Ixxvii. of the Bibliotheque des ecoles fran^aises d'Athenes et de Rome.
LAURIUM, a village of Houghton county, Michigan, U.S.A.,
near the centre of Keweenaw peninsula, the northern extremity
of the state. Pop. (1890) 1159; (1900) 5643, of whom 2286
were foreign-born; (1904) 7653; (1910) 8537. It is served by
288
LAURUSTIN US— LAUSANNE
the Mineral Range and the Mohawk and Copper Range railways.
It is in one of the most productive copper districts in the United
States, and copper mining is its chief industry. Immediately
W. of Laurium is the famous Calumet and Hecla mine. The
village was formerly named Calumet, and was incorporated
under that name in 1889, but in 1895 its name was changed by
the legislature to Laurium, in allusion to the mineral wealth of
Laurium in Greece. The name Calumet is now applied to the
post office in the village of Red Jacket (incorporated 1875;
pop. 1900, 4668; 1904, 3784; 1910, 4211), W. of the Calumet and
Hecla mine; and Laurium, the mining property and Red
Jacket are all in the township of Calumet (pop. 1904, state
census, 28,587).
LAURUSTINUS, in botany, the popular name of a common
hardy evergreen garden shrub known botanically as Viburnum
Tinus, with rather dark-green ovate leaves in pairs and flat-
topped clusters (or corymbs) of white flowers, which are rose-
coloured before expansion, and appear very early in the year.
It is a native of the Mediterranean region, and was in cultivation
in Britain at the end of the i6th century. Viburnum belongs
to the natural order Caprifoliaceae and includes the common
wayfaring tree ( V. Lantana) and the guelder rose ( V. Opulus).
LAURVIK, LARVIK or LAURVIG, a seaport of Norway, in
Jarlsberg and Laurvik amt (county), at the head of a short
fjord near the mouth of the Laagen river, 98 m. S.S.W. of Chris-
tiania by the Skien railway. Pop. (1900) 10,664. It has various
industries, including saw and planing mills, shipbuilding, glass-
works and factories for wood-pulp, barrels and potato flour; and
an active trade in exporting timber, ice, wood-pulp and granite,
chiefly to Great Britain, and in importing from the same country
coal and salt. The port has a depth of 18 to 24 ft. beside the
quays. Four miles south is Fredriksvaern, formerly a station of
the Norwegian fleet and the seat of a naval academy. Laurviks
Bad is a favourite spa, with mineral and sulphur springs and
mud-baths.
LAUSANNE, the capital of the Swiss canton of Vaud. It is
the junction of the railway lines from Geneva, from Brieg and
the Simplon, from Fribourg and Bern, and from Vallorbe (for
Paris). A funicular railway connects the upper town with the
central railway station and with Ouchy, the port of Lausanne
on the lake of Geneva. Lausanne takes its name from the Flon
stream flowing through it, which was formerly called Laus
(water). The older or upper portion of the town is built on the
crest and slopes of five hillocks and in the hollows between them,
all forming part of the Jorat range. It has a picturesque appear-
ance from the surface of the lake, above which the cathedral
rises some 500 ft., while from the town there is a fine view across
the lake towards the mountains of Savoy and of the Valais.
The quaint characteristics of the hilly site of the old town have
largely been destroyed by modern improvements, which began
in 1836 and were not quite completed in 1910. The Grand Pont,
designed by the cantonal engineer, Adrien Pichard (1790-1841),
was built 1839-1844, while the Barre tunnel was pierced 1851-
1855 and the bridge of Chauderon was built in 1905. The
valleys and lower portions of the town were gradually filled up
so as to form a series of squares, of which those of Riponne and
of St Francois are the finest, the latter now being the real centre
of the town. The railways were built between 1856 and 1862,
while the opening of the Simplon tunnel (1906) greatly increased
the commercial importance of Lausanne, which is now on the
great international highway from Paris to Milan. From 1896
onwards a well-planned set of tramways within the town was
constructed. The town is still rapidly extending, especially
towards the south and west. Since the days of Gibbon (resident
here for three periods, 1753-1758, 1763-1764 and 1783-1793),
whose praises of the town have been often repeated, Lausanne
has become a favourite place of residence for foreigners (including
many English), who are especially attracted by the excellent
establishments for secondary and higher education. Hence in
1900 there were 9501 foreign residents (of whom 628 were British
subjects) out of a total population of 46,732 inhabitants; in
1905 it was reckoned that these numbers had risen respectively
to 10,625, 818 and 53,577. In 1709 it is said that the inhabitants
numbered but 7432 and 9965 in 1803, while the numbers were
20,515 in 1860 and 33,340 in 1888. Of the population in 1900
the great majority was French-speaking (only 6627 German-
speaking and 3146 Italian-speaking) and Protestant (9364
Romanists and 473 Jews).
The principal building is the cathedral church (now Protestant)
of Notre Dame, which with the castle occupies the highest
position. It is the finest medieval ecclesiastical building in
Switzerland. Earlier buildings were more or less completely
destroyed by fire, but the present edifice was consecrated in
1 2 7 5 by Pope Gregory X. in the presence of the emperor Rudolf of
Habsburg. It was sacked after the Bernese conquest (1536) and
the introduction of Protestantism, but many ancient tapestries
and other precious objects are still preserved in the Historical
Museum at Bern. The church was well restored at great cost
from 1873 onwards, as it is the great pride of the citizens. Close
by is the castle, built in the early isth century by the bishops,
later the residence of the Bernese bailiffs and now the seat of
the various branches of the administration of the canton of
Vaud. Near both is the splendid Palais de Rumine (on the Place
de la Riponne), opened in 1906 and now housing the university
as well as the cantonal library, the cantonal picture gallery
(or Musee Arlaud, founded 1841) and the cantonal collections of
archaeology, natural history, &c. The university was raised
to that rank in 1890, but, as an academy, dates from 1537.
Among its former teachers may be mentioned Theodore Beza,
Conrad Gesner, J. P. de Crousaz, Charles Monnard, Alexandre
Vinet, Eugene Rambert, Juste Olivier and several members of
the Secretan family. On the Montbenon heights to the south-
west of the cathedral group is the federal palace of justice, the
seat (since 1886) of the federal court of justice, which, erected
by the federal constitution of zgth May 1874, was fixed at
Lausanne by a federal resolution of 26th June 1874. The house,
La Grotte, which Gibbon inhabited 1 783-1 793 , and on the terrace
of which he completed (1787) his famous history, was demolished
in 1896 to make room for the new post office that stands on the
Place St Francois. The asylum for the blind was mainly founded
(1845) by the generosity of W. Haldimand, an Englishman of
Swiss descent. The first book printed in Lausanne was the missal
of the cathedral church (1493), while the Gazette de Lausanne
(founded 1798) took that name in 1804. Lausanne has been the
birthplace of many distinguished men, such as Benjamin Con-
stant, the Secretans, Vinet and Rambert. It is the seat of many
benevolent, scientific and literary societies and establishments.
The original town (mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary) was
on the shore of the lake, near Vidy, south-west of the present
city. It was burnt in the 4th century by the Alamanni. Some
of the inhabitants took refuge in the hills above and there
founded a new town, which acquired more importance when
Bishop Marius about 590 chose it as his see city (perhaps trans-
ferring it from Avenches). Here rose the cathedral church, the
bishop's palace, &c. Across the Flon was a Burgundian settle-
ment, later known as the Bourg, while to the west was a third
colony around the church of St Laurent. These three elements
joined together to form the present city. The bishops obtained
little by little great temporal powers (the diocese extended to the
left bank of the Aar) and riches, becoming in 1125 princes of the
empire, while their chapter was recruited only from the noblest
families. But in 1368 the bishop was forced to recognize various
liberties and customs that had been gradually won by the
citizens, the Plaid General of that year showing that there was
already some kind of municipal government, save for the cite,
which was not united with the ville inferieure or the other four
quartiers (Bourg, St Laurent, La Palud and Le Pont) in 1481.
In 1525 the city made an alliance with Bern and Fribourg. But
in 1536 the territory of the bishop (as well as the Savoyard
barony of Vaud) was forcibly conquered by the Bernese, who
at once introduced Protestantism. The Bernese occupation
lasted till 1798, though in 1723 an attempt was made to put an
end to it by Major Davel, who lost his life in consequence. In
1798 Lausanne became a simple prefecture of the canton Leman
LAUTREC— LAVA
289
of the Helvetic republic. But in 1803, on the creation of the
canton of Vaud by the Act of Mediation, it became its capital.
The bishop of Lausanne resided after 1663 at Fribourg, while
from 1821 onwards he added ." and of Geneva " to his title.
Besides the general works dealing with the canton of Vaud (q.v.),
the following books refer specially to Lausanne: A. Bernus,
L' Imprimerie a Lausanne et a Marges jusqu'a la fin du i6ilme siccle
(Lausanne, 1904); M. Besson, Recherches sur les origines des &veches
de Genkye, Lausanne, Sion (Fribourg, 1906) ; A. Bonnard, " Lausanne
au 18'°™" siecle," in the work entitled Chez nos a'ieux (Lausanne,
1902) ; E. Dupraz, La Cathedrale de Lausanne . . . etude historique
(Lausanne, 1906); E. Gibbon, Autobiography and Letters (3 vols.,
1896); F. Gingins and F. Forel, Documents concernant I'ancien
eveche de. Lausanne, 2 parts (Lausanne, 1846-1847); J. H. Lewis and
F. Gribble, Lausanne (1909); E. van Muyden and others, Lausanne
d travers les ages (Lausanne, 1906) ; Meredith Read, Historic Studies
in Vaud, Berne and Savoy (2 vols., 1897); M. Schmitt, Memoires
hist, sur le diocese de Lausanne (2 vols.', Fribourg, 1859) ; J. Stammler
(afterwards bishop of Lausanne), Le Tresor de la cathedrale de
Lausanne (Lausanne, 1902 ; trans, of a German book of 1894).
(W. A. B. C.)
LAUTREC, ODET DE FOIX, VICOMTE DE (1485-1528),
French soldier. The branch of the viscounts of Lautrec origi-
nated with Pierre, the grandson of Archambaud de Grailly,
captal de Buch, who came into possession of the county of Foix
in 1401: Odet de Foix and his two brothers, the seigneur de
Lescun and the seigneur de 1'Esparre or Asparros, served Francis
I. as captains; and the influence of their sister, Francoise de
Chateaubriant, who became the king' mistress, gained them
high offices. In 1515 Lautrec took part in the campaign of
Marignano. In 1516 he received the government of the Milanese,
and by his severity made the French domination insupportable.
In 1521 he succeeded in defending the duchy against the Spanish
army, but in 1522 he was completely defeated at the battle of
the Bicocca, and was forced to evacuate the Milanese. The
mutiny of his Swiss troops had compelled him, against his wish,
to engage in the battle. Created marshal of France, he received
again, in 1527, the command of the army of Italy, occupied the
Milanese, and was then sent to undertake the conquest of the
kingdom of Naples. The defection of Andrea Doria and the
plague which broke out in the French camp brought on a fresh
disaster. Lautrec himself caught the infection, and died on
the 1 5th of August 1528. He had the reputation of a gallant
and able soldier, but this reputation scarcely seems to be justified
by the facts; though he was always badly used by fortune.
There is abundant MS. correspondence in the Bibliotheque
Nationale, Paris. See the Works of Brantome (Coll. Soci6t6 d'Histoire
de France, vol. iii., 1867); Memoirs of Martin du Bellay (Coll.
M;chaud and Poujoulat, vol. v., 1838).
LAUZUN, ANTONIN NOMPAR DE CAUMONT, MARQUIS
DE PUYGUILHEM, Due DE (1632-1723), French courtier and
soldier, was the son of Gabriel, comte de Lauzun, and his wife
Charlotte, daughter of the due de La Force. He was brought
up with the children of his kinsman, the marechal de Gramont,
of whom the comte de Guiche became the lover of Henrietta
of England, duchess of Orleans, while Catherine Charlotte,
afterwards princess of Monaco, was the object of the one
passion of Lauzun's life. He entered the army, and served under
Turenne, also his kinsman, and in 1655 succeeded his father as
commander of the cent gentilshommes de la maison du roi. Puy-
guilhem (or Peguilin, as contemporaries simplified his name)
rapidly rose in Louis XIV.'s favour, became colonel of the royal
regiment of dragoons, and was gazetted marechal de camp. He
and Mme de Monaco belonged to the coterie of the young
duchess of Orleans. His rough wit and skill in practical jokes
pleased Louis XIV., but his jealousy and violence were the
causes of his undoing. He prevented a meeting between Louis
XIV. and Mme de Monaco, and it was jealousy in this matter,
rather than hostility to Louise de la Valliere, which led him to
promote Mme de Montespan's intrigues with the king. He asked
this lady to secure for him the post of grand-master of the
artillery, and on Louis's refusal to give him the appointment
he turned his back on the king, broke his sword, and swore
that never again would he serve a monarch who had broken
his word. The result was a short sojourn in the Bastille, but he
soon returned to his functions of court buffoon. Meanwhile,
the duchess of Montpensier (La Grande Mademoiselle) had
fallen in love with the little man, whose ugliness seems to have
exercised a certain fascination over many women. He naturally
encouraged one of the greatest heiresses in Europe, and the
wedding was fixed for the 2oth of December 1670, when on the
1 8th Louis sent for his cousin and forbade the marriage. Mme
de Montespan had never forgiven his fury when she failed to
procure the grand-mastership of the artillery, and now, with
Louvois, secured his arrest. He was removed in November
1671 from the Bastille to Pignerol, where excessive precautions
were taken to ensure his safety. He was eventually allowed
free intercourse with Fouquet, but before that time he managed
to find a way through the chimney into Fouquet's room, and
on another occasion succeeded in reaching the courtyard in
safety. Another fellow-prisoner, from communication with
whom he was supposed to be rigorously excluded, was Eustache
Dauger (see IRON MASK).
It was now intimated to Mademoiselle that Lauzun's restora-
tion to liberty depended on her immediate settlement of the
principality of Dombes, the county of Eu and the duchy of
Aumale — three properties assigned by her to Lauzun — on the
little due de Maine, eldest son of Louis XIV. and Mme de Monte-
span. She gave way, but Lauzun, even after ten years of im-
prisonment, refused to sign the documents, when he was brought
to Bourbon for the purpose. A short term of imprisonment
at Chalon-sur-Saone made him change his mind, but when he
was set free Louis XIV. was still set against the marriage, which
is supposed to have taken place secretly (see MONTPENSIER).
Married or not, Lauzun was openly courting Fouquet's daughter,
whom he had seen at Pignerol. He was to be restored to his
place at court, and to marry Mile Fouquet, who, however,
became Mme d'Uzes in 1683. In 1685 Lauzun went to England
to seek his fortune under James II., whom he had served as
duke of York in Flanders. He rapidly gained great influence
at the English court. In 1688 he was again in England, and
arranged the flight of Mary of Modena and the infant prince,
whom he accompanied to Calais, where he received strict in-
structions from Louis to bring them " on any pretext " to
Vincennes. In the late autumn of 1689 he was put in command
of the expedition fitted out at Brest for service in Ireland, and
he sailed in the following year. Lauzun was honest, a quality
not too common in James II. 's officials in Ireland, but had no
experience of the field, and he blindly followed Richard Talbot,
earl of Tyrconnel. After the battle of the Boyne they fled
to Limerick, and thence to the west, leaving Patrick Sarsfield
to show a brave front. In September they sailed for France,
and on their arrival at Versailles Lauzun found that his failure
had destroyed any prospect of a return of Louis XIV.'s favour.
Mademoiselle died in 1693, and two years later Lauzun married
Genevieve de Durfort, a child of fourteen, daughter of the
marechal de Lorges. Mary of Modena, through whose interest
Lauzun secured his dukedom, retained her faith in him, and
it was he who in 1715, more than a quarter of a century after
the flight from Whitehall, brought her the news of the disaster
of Sheriffmuir. Lauzun died on the ipth of November 1723.
The duchy fell to his nephew, Armand de Gontaut, comte de
Biron.
See the letters of Mme de SeVign6, the memoirs of Saint-Simon,
who was Lauzun's wife's brother-in-law; also J. Lair, Nicolas
Fouquet, vol. ii. (1890) ; Martin Hailes, Mary of Modena (1905), and
M. F. Sandars, Lauzun, Courtier and Adventurer (1908).
LAVA, an Italian word (from Lat. lavare, to wash) applied
to the liquid products of volcanic activity. Streams of rain-
water, formed by condensation of exhaled steam often mingled
with volcanic ashes so as to produce mud, are known as lava
d'acqua, whilst the streams of molten matter are called lava di
fuoco. The term lava is applied by geologists to all matter of
volcanic origin, which is, or has been, in a molten state. The
magma, or molten lava in the interior of the earth, may be
regarded as a mutual solution of various mineral silicates, charged
with highly-heated vapour, sometimes to the extent of super-
saturation. According to the proportion of silica, the lava
is distinguished as " acid " or " basic." The basic lavas are
29°
LAVABO— LA VALLIERE
usually darker and denser than lavas of acid type, and when
fused they tend to flow to great distances, and may thus form
far-spreading sheets, whilst the acid lavas, being more viscous,
rapidly consolidate after extrusion. The lava is emitted from
the volcanic vent at a high temperature, but on exposure to the
air it rapidly consolidates superficially, forming a crust which
in many cases is soon broken up by the continued flow of the
subjacent liquid lava, so that the surface becomes rugged with
clinkers. J. D. Dana introduced the term " aa " for this rough
kind of lava-stream, whilst he applied the term " pahoehoe "
to those flows which have a smooth surface, or are simply wrinkled
and ropy; these terms being used in this sense in Hawaii, in
relation to the local lavas. The different kinds of lava are more
fully described in the article VOLCANO.
LAVABO (Lat. " I will wash "; the Fr. equivalent is laroir),
in ecclesiastical usage, the term for the washing of the priests'
hands, at the celebration of the Mass, at the offertory. The
words of Psalm xxvi. 6, Lavabo inter innocentes manus meas,
are said during the rite. The word is also used for the basin
employed in the ritual washing, and also for the lavatories,
generally erected in the cloisters of monasteries. Those at
Gloucester, Norwich and Lincoln are best known. A very
curious example at Fontenay, surrounding a pillar, is given by
Viollet-le-Duc. In general the lavabo is a sort of trough; in
some places it has an almery for towels, &c.
LAVAGNA, a seaport of Liguria, Italy, in the province of
Genoa, from which it is 25$ m. S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901) 7005.
It has a small shipbuilding trade, and exports great quantities
of slate (lavagna, taking its name from the town). It also has
a large cotton-mill. It was the seat of the Fieschi family,
independent counts, who, at the end of the I2th century, were
obliged to recognize the supremacy of Genoa. Sinibaldo Fieschi
became Pope Innocent IV. (1243-1254), and Hadrian V. (1276)
was also a Fieschi.
LAVAL, ANDRfi DE, SEIGNEUR DE LOHEAC (c. 1408-1485),
French soldier. In 1423 he served in the French army against
England, and in 1428 was taken prisoner by John Talbot, ist
earl of Shrewsbury, after the capitulation of Laval, which he
wa? defending. After paying his ransom he was present with
Joan of Arc at the siege of Orleans, at the battle of Patay, and
at the coronation of Charles VII. He was made admiral of
France in 1437 and marshal in 1439. He served Charles VII.
faithfully in all his wars, even against the dauphin (1456),
and when the latter became king as Louis XL, Laval was
dismissed from the marshal's office. After the War of the Public
Weal he was restored to favour, and recovered the marshal's
baton, the king also granting him the offices of lieutenant-general
to the government of Paris and governor of Picardy, and confer-
ring upon him the collar of the order of St Michael. In 1472
Laval was successful in resisting the attacks of Charles the Bold,
duke of Burgundy, on Beauvais.
LAVAL, a town of north-western France, capital of the
department of Mayenne, on the Mayenne river, 188 m. W.S.W.
of Paris by rail. Pop. (1906) 24,874. On the right bank of
the river stands the old feudal city, with its ancient castle and
its irregularly built houses whose slate roofs and pointed gables
peep from the groves of trees which clothe the hill. On the left
bank the regularly built new town extends far into the plain.
The river, here 80 yds. broad, is crossed by the handsome
railway viaduct, a beautiful stone bridge called Pont Neuf, and
the Pont Vieux with three pointed arches, built in the i6th
century. There is communication by steamer as far as Angers.
Laval may justly claim to be one of the loveliest of French towns.
Its most curious and interesting monument is the sombre old
castle of the counts (now a prison) with a donjon of the I2th
century, the roof of which presents a fine example of the timber-
work superseded afterwards by stone machicolation. The " new
castle," dating partly from the Renaissance, serves as court-house.
Laval possesses several churches of different periods: in that
of the Trinity, which serves as the cathedral, the transept and
nave are of the I2th century while the choir is of the i6th;
St Venerand (isth century) has good stained glass; Notre-Dame
des Cordeliers, which dates from the end of the I4th century
or the beginning of the isth, has some fine marble altars.
Half-a-mile below the Pont Vieux is the beautiful 12th-
century church of Avenieres, with an ornamental spire
of 1534. The finest remaining relic of the ancient fortifica-
tions is the Beucheresse gate near the cathedral. The narrow
streets around the castle are bordered by many old houses o!
the isth and i6th century, chief among which is that known
as the " Maison du Grand Veneur." There are an art-museum,
a museum of natural history and archaeology and a library.
The town is embellished by fine promenades, at the entrance
of one of which, facing the mairie, stands the statue of the
celebrated surgeon Ambroise Pare (1517-1590). Laval is the
seat of a prefect, a bishopric created in 1855, and a court of
assizes, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce,
a chamber of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, training
colleges, an ecclesiastical seminary and a lycee for boys. The
principal industry of the town is the cloth manufacture, intro-
duced from Flanders in the i4th century. The production of
fabrics of linen, of cotton or of mixtures of both, occupies some
10,000 hands in the town and suburbs. Among the numerous
other industries are metal-founding, flour-milling, tanning,
dyeing, the making of boots and shoes, and the sawing of the
marble quarried in the vicinity. There is trade in grain.
Laval is not known to have existed before the 9th century.
It was taken by John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, in 1428,
changed hands several times during the wars of the League, and
played an important part at the end of the i8th century in the
war of La Vendee.
SEIGNEURS AND COUNTS or LAVAL. The castle of Laval was
founded at the beginning of the nth century by a lord of the
name of Guy, and remained in the possession of his male descend-
ants until the I3th century. In 1218 the lordship passed to the
house of Montmorency by the marriage of Emma, daughter
of Guy VI. of Laval, to Mathieu de Montmorency, the hero
of the battle of Bouvines. Of this union was born Guy VII.
seigneur of Laval, the ancestor of the second house of Laval.
Anne of Laval (d. 1466), the heiress of the second family, married
John de Montfort, who took the name of Guy (XIII.) of Laval.
At Charles VII. 's coronation (1429) Guy XIV., who was after-
wards son-in-law of John V., duke of Brittany, and father-in-law
of King Rene of Anjou, was created count of Laval, and the
countship remained in the possession of Guy's male descendants
until 1547. After .the Montforts, the countship of Laval passed
by inheritance to the families of Rieux and Sainte Maure, %to
the Colignys, and finally to the La Tremoilles, who held it until
the Revolution.
See Bertrand de Broussillon, La Maison de Laval (3 vols., 1895-
1900).
LA VALLIERE, LOUISE FRANCHISE DE (1644-1710),
mistress of Louis XIV., was born at Tours on the 6th of August
1644, the daughter of an officer, Laurent de la Baume le Blanc,
who took the name of La Valliere from a small property near
Amboise. Laurent de la Valliere died in 1651; his widow,
who soon married again, joined the court of Gaston d'Orleans
at Blois. Louise was brought up with the younger princesses,
the step-sisters of La Grande Mademoiselle. After Gaston's
death his widow moved with her daughters to the palace of the
Luxembourg in Paris, and with them went Louise, who was now
a girl of sixteen. Through the influence of a distant kinswoman,
Mme de Choisy, she was named maid of honour to Henrietta
of England, who was about her own age and had just married
Philip of Orleans, the king's brother. Henrietta joined the court
at Fontainebleau, and was soon on the friendliest terms with her
brother-in-law, so friendly indeed that there was some scandal,
to avoid which it was determined that Louis should pay marked
attentions elsewhere. The person selected was Madame's maid
of honour, Louise. She had been only two months in Fontaine-
bleau before she became the king's mistress. The affair, begun
on Louis's part as a blind, immediately developed into real
passion on both sides. It was Louis's first serious attachment,
and Louise was an innocent, religious-minded girl, who brought
LAVATER— LAVELEYE
291
neither coquetry nor self-interest to their relation, which was
sedulously concealed. Nicolas Fouquet's curiosity in the matter
was one of the causes of his disgrace. In February 1662 there
was a storm when Louise refused to tell her lover the relations
between Madame (Henrietta) and the comte de Guiche. She
fled to an obscure convent at Chaillot, where Louis rapidly
followed her. Her enemies, chief of whom was Olympe Mancini,
comtesse de Soissons, Mazarin's niece, sought her downfall by
bringing her liaison to the ears of Queen Maria Theresa. She
was presently removed from the service of Madame, and estab-
lished in a small building in the Palais Royal, where in December
1663 she gave birth to a son Charles, who was given in charge
to two faithful servants of Colbert. Concealment was practically
abandoned after her return to court, and within a week of Anne
of Austria's death in January 1666, La Valliere appeared at
mass side by side with Maria Theresa. But her favour was
already waning. She had given birth to a second child in
January 1665, but both children were dead before the autumn
of 1666. A daughter born at Vincennes in October 1666, who
received the name of Marie Anne and was known as Mile de
Blois, was publicly recognized by Louis as his daughter in
letters-patent making the mother a duchess in May 1667 and
conferring on her the estate of Vaujours. In October of that
year she bore a son, but by this time her place in Louis's affections
was definitely usurped by Athenai's de Montespan (q.v.), who had
long been plotting against her. She was compelled to remain at
court as the king's official mistress, and even to share Mme de
Montespan'* apartments at the Tuileries. She made an attempt
at escape in 1671, when she fled to the convent of Ste Marie de
Chaillot, only to be compelled to return. In 1674 she was finally
permitted to enter the Carmelite convent in the Rue d'Enfer.
She took the final vows a year later, when Bossuet pronounced
the allocution.
Her daughter married Armand de Bourbon, prince of Conti,
in 1680. The count of Vermandois, her youngest born, died
on his first campaign at Courtrai in 1683.
La Valliere's Reflexions sur la misericorde de Dieu, written after
her retreat, were printed by Lequeux in 1767, and in 1860 Re-
flexions, lettres et sermons, by M. P. Clement (2 vols.). Some
apocryphal Memoires appeared in 1829, and the Lettres de Mme la
duchesse de la Valliere (1767) are a corrupt version of her correspond-
ence with the manSchal de Bellefonds. Of modern works on "the
subject see Arsene Houssaye, Mile de la Valliere et Mme de Monte-
span (1860); Jules Lair, Louise de la Valliere (3rd ed., 1902, Eng.
trans., 1908) ; and C. Bonnet, Documents inedits sur Mme de la
Valliere (1904).
LAVATER, JOHANN KASPAR (1741-1801), German poet and
physiognomist, was born at Zurich on the I5th of November
1741. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native town,
where J. J. Bodmer and J. J. Breitinger were among his teachers.
When barely one-and-twenty he greatly distinguished himself
by denouncing, in conjunction with his friend, the painter
H. Fuseli, an iniquitous magistrate, who was compelled to make
restitution of his ill-gotten gains. In 1769 Lavater took orders,
and officiated till his death as deacon or pastor in various churches
in his native city. His oratorical fervour and genuine depth
of conviction gave him great personal influence; he was exten-
sively consulted as a casuist, and was welcomed with demon-
strative enthusiasm in his numerous journeys through Germany.
His mystical writings were also widely popular. Scarcely a trace
of this influence has remained, and Lavater's name would be
forgotten but for his work on physiognomy, Physiognomische
Fragmente zur Bejdrderung der Menschenkenntnis und Menschcn-
liebe (1775-1778). The fame even of this book, which found
enthusiastic admirers in France and England, as well as in Ger-
many, rests to a great extent upon the handsome style of publi-
cation and the accompanying illustrations. It left, however, the
study of physiognomy (q.v.), as desultory and unscientific as it
found it. As a poet, Lavater published Chrislliche Lleder (1776-
1780) and two epics, Jesus Messias (1780) and Joseph von
Arimathia (1794), in the style of Klopstock. More important
and characteristic of the religious temperament of Lavater's
age are his introspective Aussichten in die Ewigkeit (4 vols.,
1768-1778); Geheimes Tagebuch von cinem Beobachter seiner
selbst (2 vols., 1772-1773) and Pontius Pilatus, oder der Mensch
in alien Gestalten (4 vols., 1782-1785). From 1774 on, Goethe
was intimately acquainted with Lavater, but at a later period
he became estranged from him, somewhat abruptly accusing
him of superstition and hypocrisy. Lavater had a mystic's
indifference to historical Christianity, and, although esteemed
by himself and others a champion of orthodoxy, was in fact only
an antagonist of rationalism. During the later years of his life
his influence waned, and he incurred ridicule by some exhibitions
of vanity. He redeemed himself by his patriotic conduct during
the French occupation of Switzerland, which brought about his
tragical death. On the taking of Zurich by the French in 1799,
Lavater, while endeavouring to appease the soldiery, was shot
through the body by an infuriated grenadier; he died after long
sufferings borne with great fortitude, on the 2nd of January 1801.
Lavater himself published two collections of his writings,
Vermischte Schriften (2 vols., 1774-1781), and Kleinere prosaische
Schriften (3 vols., 1784-1785). His Nachgelassene Schriften were
edited by G. Gessner (5 vols., 1801-1802); Samtliche Werke (but
only poems) (6 vols., 1836-1838); Ausgewahlte Schriften (8 vols.,
1841—1844). See G. Gessner, Lavaters Lebensbeschreibung (3 vols.,
1802-1803); U. Hegner, Beitrdge zur Kenntnis Lavaters (1836);
F. W. Bodemann, Lavater nach seinem Leben, Lehren und Wirken
(1856; 2nd ed., 1877); F. Muncker, J, K. Lavater (1883); H.
Waser, /. K. Lavater nach Hegners Aufzeichnungen (1894); J- K-
Lavater, Denkschrift zum zoo. Todestag (1902).
LAVAUR, a town of south-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Tarn, 37 m. S.E. of Mont-
auban by rail. Pop. (1906), town 4069; commune 6388.
Lavaur stands on the left bank of the Agout, which is here
crossed by a railway-bridge and a fine stone bridge of the
late iSth century. From 1317 till the Revolution Lavaur was
the seat of a bishopric, and there is a cathedral dating from the
i3th, i4th and isth centuries, with an octagonal bell-tower;
a second smaller square tower contains a jaquemart (a statue
which strikes the hours with a hammer) of the i6th century.
In. the bishop's garden is the statue of Emmanuel Augustin,
marquis de Las Cases, one of the companions of Napoleon at
St Helena. The town carries on distilling and flour-milling and
the manufacture of brushes, plaster and wooden shoes. There
are a subprefecture and tribunal of first instance. Lavaur was
taken in 1211 by Simon de Montfort during the wars of the
Albigenses, and several times during the religious wars of the
1 6th century.
LAVEDAN, HENRI LEON EMILE (1859- ), French
dramatist and man of letters, was born at Orleans, the son of
Hubert Leon Lavedan, a well-known Catholic and liberal
journalist. He contributed to various Parisian papers a series
of witty tales and dialogues of Parisian life, many of which
were collected in volume form. In 1891 he produced at the
Theatre Francais Une Famille, followed at the Vaudeville in
1894 by Le Prince d'Aurec, a satire on the nobility, afterwards
re-named Les Descendants. Later brilliant and witty pieces
were Les Deux noblesses (1897), Catherine (1897), Le Nouveaujeu
(1898), Le Vieux marcheur (1899), Le Marquis de Priola*(i<)O2),
and Varennes (1904), written in collaboration with G. Len6tre.
He had a great success with Le Duel (Comedie Francaise,
1905), a powerful psychological study of the relations of two
brothers. Lavedan was admitted to the French Academy in
1898.
LAVELEYE, EMILE LOUIS VICTOR DE (1822-1892), Belgian
economist, was born at Bruges on the sth of April i822{ and
educated there and at the College Stanislas in Paris, a celebrated
establishment in the hands of the Oratorians. He continued
his studies at the Catholic university of Louvain and afterwards
at Ghent, where he came under the influence of Francois Huet,
the philosopher and Christian Socialist. In 1844 he won a prize
with an essay on the language and literature of Provence. In
1847 he published L'Histoire des rois francs, and in 1861 a French
version of the Nibelungen, but though he never lost his interest
in literature and history, his most important work was in the
domain of economics. He was one of a group of young lawyers,
doctors and critics, all old pupils of Huet, who met once a week
to discuss social and economic questions, and was thus led to
292
LAVENDER
publish his views on these subjects. In 1859 some articles
by him uv,the Revue des deux monies laid the foundation of his
reputation as an economist. In 1864 he was elected to the chair
of political economy at the state university of Liege. Here he
wrote his most important works: La Russie et I' Autriche depuis
Sadowa (1870), Essai sur Us formes de gouvernement dans les
societes modernes (1872), Des Causes actuelles de guerre en Europe
et de I 'arbitrage and De la propriete et de ses formes primitives
(1874), dedicated to the memory of John Stuart Mill and Francois
Huet. He died at Doyon, near Liege, on the 3rd of January
1892. Laveleye's name is particularly connected with bi-
metallism and primitive property, and he took a special interest
in the revival and preservation of small nationalities. But
his activity included the whole realm of political science, political
economy, monetary questions, international law, foreign and
Belgian politics, questions of education, religion and morality,
travel and literature. He had the art of popularizing even the
most technical subjects, owing to the clearness of his view and
his firm grasp of the matter in hand. He was especially attracted
to England, where he thought he saw many of his ideals of social,
political and religious progress realized. He was a frequent
contributor to the English newspapers and leading reviews.
The most widely circulated of his works was a pamphlet on
Le Parti clerical en Belgique, of which 2,000,000 copies were
circulated in ten languages.
LAVENDER, botanically Laiiandula, a genus of the natural
order Labiatae distinguished by an ovate tubular calyx, a two-
lipped corolla, of which the upper Up has two and the lower
three lobes, and four stamens bent downwards.
The plant to which the name of lavender is commonly applied,
Lavandula vera, is a native of the mountainous districts of the
countries bordering on the western half of the Mediterranean,
extending from the eastern coast of Spain to Calabria and
northern Africa, growing in some places at a height of 4500 ft.
above the sea-level, and preferring stony declivities in open
sunny situations. It is cultivated in the open air as far north
as Norway and Livonia. Lavender forms an evergreen under-
shrub about 2 ft. high, with greyish-green hoary linear leaves,
rolled under at the edges when young; the branches are erect
and give a bushy appearance to the plant. The flowers are
borne on a terminal spike at the summit of a long naked stalk,
the spike being composed of 6-10 dense clusters in the axils of
small, brownish, rhomboidal, tapering, opposite bracts, the
clusters being more widely separated towards the base of the
spike. The calyx is tubular, contracted towards the mouth,
marked with 13 ribs and 5-toothed, the posterior tooth being the
largest. The corolla is of a pale violet colour, but darker on
its inner surface, tubular, two-lipped, the upper lip with two and
the lower with three lobes. Both corolla and calyx are covered
with Stellate hairs, amongst which are imbedded shining oil
glands to which the fragrance of the plant is due. The leaves
and flowers of lavender are said to have been used by the ancients
to perfume their baths; hence the Med. Lat. name Lavandula or
Lavendula is supposed to have been derived from lavare, to
wash. This derivation is considered doubtful and a connexion
has been suggested with Lat. livere, to be of a bluish, pale or
livid colour.
' Although L. Stoechas was well known to the ancients, no
allusion unquestionably referring to L. vera has been found in
the -writings of classical authors, the earliest mention of the
latter plant being in the I2th century by the abbess Hildegard,
who lived near Bingen on the Rhine. Under the name of
llafant or llafantly it was known to the Welsh physicians as a
medicine in the i3th century. The dried flowers have long
been used in England, the United States and other countries for
perfuming linen, and the characteristic cry of " Lavender!
sweet lavender!" was still to be heard in London streets at
the beginning of'^he zoth century. In England lavender is
cultivated chiefly for the distillation of its essential oil, of which
it yields on an average i%% when freed from the stalks, but in
the south of Europe the flowers form an object of trade, being
exported to the Barbary states, Turkey and America.
In Great Britain lavender is grown in the parishes of Mitcham,
Carshalton and Beddington in Surrey, and in Hertfordshire in the
parish of Hitchin. The most suitable soil seems to be a sandy loam
with a calcareous substratum, and the most favourable position a
sunny slope in localities elevated above the level of fogs, where the
3lant is not in danger of early frost and is freely exposed to air and
ight. At Hitchin lavender is said to have been grown as early as
1568, but as a commercial speculation its cultivation dates back
only to 1823. The plants at present in cultivation do not produce
seed, and the propagation is always made by slips or by dividing the
roots. The latter plan has only been followed since 1860, when a
large number of lavender plants were killed by a severe frost. Since
that date the plants have been subject to the attack of a fungus, in
consequence of which the price of the oil has been considerably
nhanced.
The flowers are collected in the beginning of August, and taken
direct to the still. The yield of oil depends in great measure upon
the weather. After a wet and dull June and July the yield is some-
times only half as much as when the weather has been bright and
sunshiny. From 12 to 30 ft of oil per acre is the average amount
ob tained. The oil contained in the stem has a more rank odour and is
less volatile than that of the flowers; consequently the portion that
distils over after the first hour and a half is collected separately.
The finest oil is obtained by the distillation of the flowers, without
the stalks, but the labour spent upon this adds about IDS. per Ib
to the expense of
the oil, and the
same end is prac-
tically attained by
fractional distilla-
tion. The oil mel-
lows by keeping
three years, after
which it deterior-
ates unless mixed
with alcohol ; it
is also improved
by redistillation.
Oil of lavender is
distilled from the
wild plants in
Piedmont and the
South of France,
especially in the
villages about
Mont Ventoux
near Avignon, and
in those some
leagues west of
Montpellier. The
best French oil
realizes scarcely
one-sixth of the
priceof theEnglish
oil. Cheaper var-
ieties are made by
distilling the entire
plant.
Oil of lavender
is a mobile liquid
having a. specific
gravity from 0-85
to 0-89. Its chief
constituents are
linalool acetate,
which also occurs
in oil of berga-
mot, and linalool,
C10Hi,OH, an al-
cohol derived by
oxidation from
myrcene, CioHie,
which is one of the
terpenes. The dose
is }-3 minims.
Lavender (Lavandula vera) f nat. size.
1. Flower, side view.
2. Flower, front view.
3. Calyx opened and spread n?t-
4. Corolla opened and spread flat.
5. Pistil.
The British pharmacopeia contains a spiritus lavan-
dulae, dose 5-20 minims: and a compound tincture, dose i-l
drachm. This is contained in liquor arsenicalis, and its character-
istic odour may thus be of great practical importance, medico-legally
and otherwise. The pharmacology of oil of lavender is simply that
of an exceptionally pleasant and mild volatile oil. It is largely used
as a carminative and as a colouring and flavouring agent. Its
adulteration with alcohol may be detected by chloride of calcium
dissolving in it and forming a separate layer of liquid at the bottom
of the vessel. Glycerine acts in the same way. If it contain turpen-
tine it will not dissolve in three volumes of alcohol, in which quantity
the pure oil is perfectly soluble.
Lavender flowers were formerly considered good for all dis-
orders of the head and nerves "; a spirit prepared with them was
known under the name of palsy drops. '" ., •
Lavender water consists of a solution of the volatile oil in spirit
LAVERDY— LAVIGERIE
293
of wine with the addition of the essences of musk, rose, bergamot
and ambergris, but is very rarely prepared by distillation of the
flowers with spirit.
In the climate of New York lavender is scarcely hardy, but in
the vicinity of Philadelphia considerable quantities are grown for
the market. In American gardens sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum)
is frequently called lavender.
Lavandula Spica, a species which differs from L. vera chiefly in
its smaller size, more crowded leaves and linear bracts, is also used
for the distillation of an essential oil, which is known in England as
oil of spike and in France under the name of essence d'aspic. It is
used in painting on porcelain and in veterinary medicine. The oil
as met with in commerce is less fragrant than that of L. vera —
probably because the whole plant is distilled, for the flowers of the
two species are scarcely distinguishable in fragrance. L. Spica does
not extend so far north, nor ascend the mountains beyond 2000 ft.
It cannot be cultivated in Britain except in sheltered situations.
A nearly allied species, L. lanata, ,a native of Spain, with broader
leaves, is also very fragrant, but does not appear to be distilled for
oil.
Lavandula Stoechas, a species extending from the Canaries to
Asia Minor, is distinguished from the above plants by its blackish
purple flowers, and shortly stalked spikes crowned by conspicuous
purplish sterile bracts. The flowers were official in the London
pharmacopoeia as late as 1746. They are still used by the Arabs
as an expectorant and antispasmodic. The Stoechades (now called
the isles of Hyeres near Toulon) owed their name to the abundance
of the plant growing there.
Other species of lavender are known, some of which extend as
far east as to India. A few which differ from the above in having
divided leaves, as L. dentata, L. abrotanoid.es, L. multifolia, L.
pinnata and L. viridis, have been cultivated in greenhouses, &c., in
England.
Sea lavender is a name applied in England to several species of
Statice, a genus of littoral plants belonging to the order Plumba
gineae. Lavender cotton is a species of the genus Santolina, small,
yellow-flowered, evergreen undershrubs of the Composite order.
LAVERDY, CLEMENT CHARLES FRANCOIS DE (1723-1703),
French statesman, was a member of the parlement of Paris
when the case against the Jesuits came before that body in
August 1761. He demanded the suppression of the order and
thus acquired popularity. Louis XV. named him controller-
general of the finances in December 1763, but the burden, was
great and Laverdy knew nothing of finance. Three months
after his nomination he forbade anything of any kind whatever
to be printed concerning his administration, thus refusing
advice as well as censure. He used all sorts of expedients,
sometimes dishonest, to replenish the treasury, and was even
accused of having himself profited from the commerce in wheat.
A court intrigue led to his sudden dismissal on the ist of October
1768. Henceforward he lived in retirement until, during the
Revolution, he was involved in the charges against the financiers
of the old regime. The Revolutionary tribunal condemned
him to death, and he was guillotined on the 24th of November
1793-
See A. Jobez, La France sous Louis XV (1869).
LAVERNA, an old Italian divinity, originally one of the
spirits of the underworld. A cup found 'in an Etruscan tomb
bears the inscription " Laverriai Pocolom," and in a fragment
of Septimius Serenus Laverna is expressly mentioned in con-
nexion with the di inferi. By an easy transition, she came to
be regarded as the protectress of thieves, whose operations were
associated with darkness. She had an altar on the Aventine
hill, near the gate called after her Lavernalis, and a grove on
the Via Salaria. Her aid was invoked by thieves to enable them
to carry out their plans successfully without forfeiting their
reputation for piety and honesty (Horace, Ep. i. 16, 60). Many
explanations have been given of the name : (i) from latere
(Schol. on Horace, who gives lalernio as another form of lavernio
or robber); (2) from lavare (Acron on Horace, according to
whom thieves were called latiatores, perhaps referring to bath
thieves); (3) from levare (cf. shop-lifters). Modern etymologists
connect it with lu-crum, and explain it as meaning the goddess
of gain.
LAVERY, JOHN (1857- ), British painter, was born in
Belfast, and received his art training in Glasgow, London and
Paris. He was elected associate of the Royal Scottish Academy
in 1892 and academician in 1896, having won a considerable
reputation as a painter of portraits and figure subjects, and as
a facile and vigorous executant. He became also vice-president
of the International Society of sculptors, painters and gravers.
Many of his paintings have been acquired for public collections,
and he is represented in the National Galleries at Brussels,
Berlin and Edinburgh, in the Carnegie Institute at Pittsburg,
the Philadelphia Gallery, the New South Wales Gallery, the
Modern Gallery, Venice, the Pinakothek, Munich, the Glasgow
Corporation Gallery, and the Luxembourg.
LAVIGERIE, CHARLES MARTIAL ALLEMAND (1825-
1892), French divine, cardinal archbishop of Carthage and
Algiers and primate of Africa, was born at Bayonne on the
3ist of October 1825, and was educated at St Sulpice, Paris. He
was ordained priest in 1849, and was professor of ecclesiastical
history at the Sorbonne from 1854 to 1856. In 1856 he accepted
the direction of the schools of the East, and was thus for the
first time brought into contact with the Mahommedan world.
" C'est la," he wrote, " que j'ai connu enfin ma vocation."
Activity in missionary work, especially in alleviating the dis-
tresses of the victims of the Druses, soon brought him prominently
into notice; he was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour,
and in October 1861, shortly after his return to Europe, was
appointed French auditor at Rome. Two years later he was
raised to the see of Nancy, where he remained for four years,
during which the diocese became one of the best administered
in France. While bishop of Nancy he met Marshal MacMahon,
then governor-general of Algeria, who in 1866 offered him the
see of Algiers, just raised to an archbishopric. Lavigerie landed
in Africa on the nth of May 1868, when the great famine was
already making itself felt, and he began in November to collect
the orphans into villages. This action, however, did not meet
with the approval of MacMahon, who feared that the Arabs
would resent it as an infraction of the religious peace, and thought
that the Mahommedan church, being a state institution in Algeria,
ought to be protected from proselytism; so it was intimated
to the prelate that his sole duty was to minister to the colonists.
Lavigerie, however, continued his self-imposed task, refused
the archbishopric of Lyons, which was offered to him by the
emperor, and won his point. Contact with the natives during
the famine caused Lavigerie to entertain exaggerated hopes
for their general conversion, and his enthusiasm was such that
he offered to resign his archbishopric in order to devote himself
entirely to the missions. Pius IX, refused this, but granted
him a coadjutor, and placed the whole of equatorial Africa under
his charge. In 1870 Lavigerie warmly supported papal infalli-
bility. In 1871 he was twice a candidate for the National
Assembly, but was defeated. In 1874 he founded the Sahara
and Sudan mission, and sent missionaries to Tunis, Tripoli,
East Africa and the Congo. The order of African missionaries
thus founded, for which Lavigerie himself drew up the rule,
has since become famous as the Peres Blancs. From 1881
to 1884 his activity in Tunisia so raised the prestige of France
that it drew from Gambetta the celebrated declaration, L'Anli-
clericalisme n'est pas un article d 'exportation, and led to the
exemption of Algeria from the application of the decrees concern-
ing the religious orders. On the 27th of March 1882 the dignity
of cardinal was conferred upon Lavigerie, but the great object
of his ambition was to restore the see of St Cyprian; and in
that also he was successful, for by a bull of loth November 1884
the metropolitan see of Carthage was re-erected, and Lavigerie
received the pallium on the 2$th of January 1885. The later
years of his life were spent in ardent anti-slavery propaganda,
and his eloquence moved large audiences in London, as well
las in Paris, Brussels and other parts of the continent. He hoped,
by organizing a fraternity of armed laymen as pioneers, to
restore fertility to the Sahara; but this community did not
succeed, and was dissolved before his death. In 1890 Lavigerie
appeared in the new character of a politician, and arranged
with Pope Leo XIII. to make an attempt to reconcile the church
with the republic. He invited the officers of the Mediterranean
squadron to lunch at Algiers, and, practically renouncing his
monarchical sympathies, to which he clung as long as the comte
de Chambord was alive, expressed his support of the republic,
294
LA VILLEMARQUE— LAVISSE
and emphasized it by having the Marseillaise played by a band
of his Fires Blancs. The further steps in this evolution emanated
from the pope, and Lavigerie, whose health now began to fail,
receded comparatively into the background. He died at Algiers
on the 26th of November 1892. (G. F. B.)
LA VILLEMARQUl THEODORE CLAUDE HENRI, YICOMTE
HERSART DE (1815-1895), French philologist and man of
letters, was bom at Keransker, near Quimperld, on the 6th
of July 1815. He was descended from an old Breton family,
which counted among its members a Hersart who had followed
Saint Louis to the Crusade, and another who was a companion
in arms of Du Guesclin. La Yilleniarque devoted himself to
the elucidation of the monuments of Breton literature. Intro-
duced in 1851 by Jacob Grimm as correspondent to the Academy
of Berlin, he became in 1858 a member of the Academy of
Inscriptions. His works include: Ccnlfs populaires des anciens
Bretons (1842), to which was prefixed an essay on the origin of
the romances of the Round Table; Essai stir rkistoire de la
tongue bretonne (1837); Poemes des bardes bretons du sisifme
tilde (1850); La Ltgende ceilique en Irelande. en Cambrie tl en
Bretagne (1859). The popular Breton songs published by him
.in 1839 as Barsas Brcis were considerably retouched. La
Villemarqui's work has been superseded by the work of later
scholars, but he has the merit of having done much to arouse
popular interest in his subject. He died at Keransker on the
8th of December 1895.
On the subject of the doubtful authenticity of Barsas Brris, see
Luael's Preface to his Chansons populairts de la Basst-Brttagne, and,
for a list of works on the subject, the Rente Cetoqu* (voL v.).
LAVINIUM. an ancient town of Latium, on the so-called Via
Lavinatis (see LAUREXTIXA. VIA), 19 m. S. of Rome, the modern
PRATICA, situated 300 ft. above sea-level and z\ m. N.£. from
the sea-coast. Its foundation is attributed to Aeneas (whereas
Lauren turn was the primitive city of King Latinus), who named
it after his wife Lavinia. It is rarely mentioned in Roman history
and often confused with Lanuvium or Lanivium in the text
both of authors and of inscriptions. The custom by which the
consuls and praetors or dictators sacrificed on the Alban Mount
and at Lavinium to the'Penates and to Vesta, before they entered
upcr. office or departed for their province, seems to have been
one of great antiquity. There is no trace of its having continued
into imperial times, but the cults of Lavinium were kept up,
largely by the imperial appointment of honorary non-resident
citizens to hold the priesthoods. The citizens of Lavinium were
known under the empire as Laurentes Lavinates, and the place
itself at a late period as Laurolavinium. It was deserted or
forgotten not long after the time of Theodosius.
Lavinium was preceded by a more ancient town. LACREXTVM.
the city of Latinus (Verg. Arn. viii.); of this the site is un-
certain, but it is probably to besought at the modern Tor Paterno,
dose to the sea-coast and 5 m. X. by \V. of Lavinium. Here
the name of Lauren turn is preserved by the modern name Pantan
di Lauro. Even in ancient times it was famous for its groves
of bay-trees (founts) from which its name was perhaps derived,
and which in imperial times gave the villas of its territory a name
for salubrity, so that both Vitellius and Commodus resorted
there. The exact date of the abandonment of the town itself
and the incorporation of its territory with that of Lavinium
is uncertain, but it may be placed in the latter part of the republic.
Under the empire a portion of it must have been imperial domain
and forest. We hear of an imperial procurator in charge of
the elephants at Laurent urn; and the imperial villa may perhaps
be identified with the extensive ruins at Tor Paterno itself.
The remains of numerous other villas lie along the ancient
coast-line (which was half a mile inland of the modern, being
now marked by a row of sand-hills, and was followed by the
Via Severiana), both north-west and south-east of Tor Paterno:
they extended as a fact in an almost unbroken line along the low
sandy coast — now entirely deserted and largely occupied by
the low scrub which serves as cover for the wild boars of the king
of Italy's preserves — from the mouth of the Tiber to Antium.
and therce again to Astura; but there are no traces of any
buildings previous to the imperial period. In one of these
villas, excavated by the king of Italy in 1906, was found a fine
replica of the famous discobolus of Myron. The plan of the build-
ing is interesting, as it diverges entirely from the normal type
and adapts itself to the site. Some way to the NAY. was situated
the village of Vicus Augustanus Laurentium, taking its name
probably from Augustus himself, and probably identical with
the village mentioned by Pliny the younger as separated by
only one villa from his own. This village was brought to light
by excavation in 1874, and its forum and curia are still visible.
The remains of the villa of Pliny, too, were excavated in 1713
and in 1802-1819, and it is noteworthy that the place bears
the name Villa di Pino (sic) on the staff map; how old the name
is, is uncertain. It is impossible without further excavation
to reconcile the remains — mainly of substructions — with the
elaborate description of his villa given by Pliny (cf. H. Winnefeld
in JaJtrbuck des Institute. 1891, 200 seq.).
The site of the ancient Lavinium, no less than 300 ft. above
sea-level and 2$ m. inland, is far healthier than the low-lying
Laurentum, -where, except in the immediate vicinity of the coast,
malaria must have been a dreadful scourge. It possesses con-
siderable natural strength, and consists of a small hill, the
original acropolis, occupied by the modern castle and the village
surrounding it, and a larger one, now given over to cultivation,
where the city stood. On the former there are now no traces
of antiquity, but on the latter are scanty remains of the city
walls, in small blocks of the grey-green tufa (cappellaccio)
which is used in the earliest buildings of Rome, and traces of the
streets. The necropolis, too, has been discovered, but not sys-
tematically excavated; but objects of the first Iron age, includ-
ing a sword of Aegean type (thus confirming the tradition),
have been found; also remains of a building with Doric columns
of an archaistic type, remains of later buildings in brick, and
inscriptions, some of them of considerable interest.
See R. Lanciani in Monumenli dei Lincei, riii. (1903), 133 seq.;
xvi. .(.1906), 241 seq. (T. As.)
LAVISSE, ERNEST (1842- ), French historian, was born
at Nouvion-en-Thierache. Aisne, on the I7th of December 1842.
In 1865 he obtained a fellowship in history, and in 1875 became
a doctor of letters; he was appointed maltre de conference (1876)
at the ecole nonnale superieure, succeeding Fustel de Coulanges,
and then professor of modern history at the Sorbonne (1888),
in the place of Henri Wallon. He was an eloquent professor
and very fond of young people, and played an important part
in the revival of higher studies in France after 1871. His know-
ledge of pedagogy was displayed in his public lectures and his
addresses, in his private lessons, where he taught a small number
of pupils the historical method, and in his books, where he wrote
ad probandum at least as much as ad narrandum; class-books,
collections of articles, intermingled with personal reminiscences
(Questions d~enseignement national, 1885; Etudes ci (tudiamts,
1890; A propos de nos ecoles. 1895), rough historical sketches
( \'uf generate de F kistoire politiaue de F Europe, 1800), &c. Even
his works of learning, written without a trace of pedantry, are
remarkable for their lucidity and vividness,
After the Franco-Prussian War Lavisse studied the develop-
ment of Prussia and wrote Elude sur Fune des engines de la
monarckif pmssifnne, on la Marcke de Brandebourg sons la
dynastie ascanienne. which was his thesis for his doctor's degree
in 1875, and Etudes sur rkistoire de la Prusse (1879). In con-
nexion with his study of the Holy Roman Empire, and the cause
of its decline, he wrote a number of articles which were published
in the Reeue des Deux Mondes; and he wrote Trots empercurs
d'Allfmagne (1888), La Jeunessf du grand Frederic (1891) and
Frtdfric II. araui son atimmenl (1893) when studying the
modern German empire and the grounds for its strength. With
his friend Alfred Rambaud he conceived the plan of L'Histoire
gtntraie du IV' siede jusqii'd nos jours, to which, however, he
contributed nothing. He edited the Histoire de France depuis
les orfginfs jusqu'a la Revolution (1901- ), in which he care-
fully revised the work of his numerous assistants, reserving the
greatest part of the reign of Louis XIV. for himself. This
LAVOISIER
295
section occupies the whole of volume vii. It is a remarkable
piece of work, and the sketch of absolute government in France
during this period has never before been traced with an equal
amount of insight and brilliance. Lavisse was admitted to the
Academic Francaise on the death of Admiral Jurien de la
Graviere in 1892, and after the death of James Darmesteter
became editor of the Revue de Paris. He is, however, chiefly
a master of pedagogy. When the ecole normale was joined to
the university of Paris, Lavisse was appointed director of the
new organization, which he had helped more than any one to
bring about.
LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT (1743-1794), French
chemist, was born in Paris on the 26th of August 1743. His father,
an avocat au parlemcnt, gave him an excellent education at the
college Mazarin, and encouraged his taste for natural science;
and he studied mathematics and astronomy with N. L. de
Lacaille, chemistry with the elder Rouelle and botany with
Bernard de Jussieu. In 1766 he received a gold medal from the
Academy of Sciences for an essay on the best means of lighting
a large town; and among his early work were papers on the
analysis of gypsum, on thunder, on the aurora and on conge-
lation, and a refutation of the prevalent belief that water by
repeated distillation is converted into earth. He also assisted
J. E. Guettard (1715-1786) in preparing his mineralogical. atlas
of France. In 1768, recognized as a man who had both the
ability and tfye means for a scientific career, he was nominated
adjoint chimiste to the Academy, and in that capacity made
numerous reports on the most diverse subjects, from the theory
of colours to water-supply and from invalid chairs to mesmerism
and the divining rod. The same year he obtained the position
of adjoint to Baudon, one of the farmers-general of the revenue,
subsequently becoming a full titular member of the body.
This was the first of a series of posts in which his administrative
abilities found full scope. Appointed regisseur des poudres in
1775, he not only abolished the vexatious search for saltpetre
in the cellars of private houses, but increased the production
of the salt and improved the manufacture of gunpowder. In
1785 he was nominated to the committee on agriculture, and as
its secretary drew up reports and instructions on the cultivation
of various crops, and promulgated schemes for the establishment
of experimental agricultural stations, the distribution of agri-
cultural implements and the adjustment of rights of pasturage.
Seven years before he had started a model farm at Frechine,
where he demonstrated the advantages of scientific methods of
cultivation and of the introduction of good breeds of cattle and
sheep. Chosen a member of the provincial assembly of Orleans
in 1787, he busied himself with plans for the improvement of
the social and economic conditions of the community by means
of savings banks, insurance societies, canals, workhouses, &c.;
and he showed the sincerity of his philanthropical work by
advancing money out of his own pocket, without interest, to
the towns of Blois and Romorantin, for the purchase of barley
during the famine of 1788. Attached in this same year to the
caisse d'escompte, he presented the report of its operations to
the national assembly in 1789, and as commissary of the treasury
in 1791 he established a system of accounts of unexampled
punctuality. He was also asked by the national assembly to
draw up a new scheme of taxation in connexion with which he
produced a report De la richesse territoriale de la France, and
he was further associated with committees on hygiene, coinage,
the casting of cannon, &c., and was secretary and treasurer of
the commission appointed in 1 790 to secure uniformity of weights
and measures.
In 1791, when Lavoisier was in the middle of all this official
activity, the suppression of the farmers-general marked the
beginning of troubles which brought about his death. His
membership of that body was alone sufficient to make him an
object of suspicion; his administration at the rtgie des poudres
was attacked; and Marat accused him in the Ami du Peuple
of putting Paris in prison and of stopping the circulatiorrof air
in the city by the mur d' octroi erected at his suggestion in 1787.
The Academy, of which as treasurer at the time he was a con-
spicuous member, was regarded by the convention with no
friendly eyes as being tainted with " incivism," and in the
spring of 1792 A. F. Fourcroy endeavoured to persuade it to
purge itself of suspected members. The attempt was unsuccess-
ful, but in August of the same year Lavoisier had to leave his
house and laboratory at the Arsenal, and in November the
Academy was forbidden until further orders to fill up the vacancies
in its numbers. Next year, on the ist of August, the convention
passed a decree for the uniformity of weights and measures, and
requested the Academy to take measures for carrying it out,
but a week later Fourcroy persuaded the same convention to
suppress the Academy together with other literary societies
patentees cl dolecs by the nation. In November it ordered the
arrest of the ex-farmers-general, and on the advice of the com-
mittee of public instruction, of which Guyton de Morveau and
Fourcroy were members, the names of Lavoisier and others
were struck off from the commission of weights and measures.
The fate of the ex-farmcrs-general was sealed on the 2nd of
May 1794, when, on the proposal of Antoine Dupin, one of their
former officials, the convention sent them for trial by the Re-
volutionary tribunal. Within a week Lavoisier and 27 others
were condemned to death. A petition in his favour addressed
to Coffinhal, the president of the tribunal, is said to have been
met with the reply La Republique n'a pas besoin de savants,
and on the 8th of the month Lavoisier and his companions
were guillotined at the Place de la Revolution. He died fourth,
and was preceded by his colleague Jacques Paulze, whose
daughter he had married in 1771. " // ne leur afallu," Lagrange
remarked, " qu'un moment pour faire tomber cette te~te, el cent
annecs pcut-etre ne suffiront pas pour en reproduire une
scmblable."
Lavoisier's name is indissolubly associated with the overthrow
of the phlogistic doctrine that had dominated the development
of chemistry for over a century, and with the establishment
of the foundations upon which the modern science reposes. "He
discovered," says Justus von Liebig (Letters on Chemistry, No. 3),
" no new body, no new property, no natural phenomenon
previously unknown; but all the facts established by him were
the necessary consequences of the labours of those who preceded
him. His merit, his immortal glory, consists in this — that he
infused into the body of the science a new spirit; but all the
members of that body were already in existence, and rightly
joined together." Realizing that the total weight of all the
products of a chemical reaction must be exactly equal to the
total weight of the reacting substances, he made the balance
the ultima ratio of the laboratory, and he was able to draw
correct inferences from his weighings because, unlike many of the
phlogistonists, he looked upon heat as imponderable. It was by
weighing that in 1770 he proved that water is not converted into
earth by distillation, for he showed that the total weight of a
sealed glass vessel and the water it contained remained constant,
however long the water was boiled, but that the glass vessel
lost weight to an extent equal to the weight of earth produced,
his inference being that the earth came from the glass, not from
the water. On the ist of November 1772 he deposited with the
Academy a sealed note which stated that sulphur and phos-
phorus when burnt increased in weight because they absorbed
" air," while the metallic lead formed from litharge by reduction
with charcoal weighed less than the original litharge because it
had lost " air." The exact nature of the airs concerned in the
processes he did not explain until after the preparation of
" dephlogisticated air " (oxygen) by Priestley in 1774. Then,
perceiving that in combustion and the calcination of metals only
a portion of a given volume of common air was used up, he
concluded that Priestley's new air, air eminemment pur, was what
was absorbed by burning phosphorus, &c., "non-vital air,"
azote, or nitrogen remaining behind. The gas given off in the
reduction of metallic calces by charcoal he at first supposed to
be merely that contained in the calx, but he soon came to under-
stand that it was a product formed by the union of the charcoal
with the " dephlogisticated air " in the calx. In a memoir
presented to the Academy in 1777, but not. published till 1782,
296
LA VOISIN
he assigned to dephlogisticated air the name oxygen, or " acid-
producer," on the supposition that all acids were formed by its
union with a simple, usually non-metallic, body; and having
verified this notion for phosphorus, sulphur, charcoal, &c., and
even extended it to the vegetable acids, he naturally asked
himself what was formed by the combustion of " inflammable
air " (hydrogen). This problem he had attacked in 1774, and
in subsequent years he made various attempts to discover the
acid which, under the influence of his oxygen theory, he expected
would be formed. It was not till the 2$th of June 1783 that in
conjunction with Laplace he announced to the Academy that
water was the product formed by the combination of hydrogen
and oxygen, but by that time he had been anticipated by
Cavendish, to whose prior work, however, as to that of several
other investigators in other matters, it is to be regretted that
he did not render due acknowledgment. But a knowledge of the
composition of water enabled him to storm the last defences of
the phlogistonists. Hydrogen they held to be the phlogiston of
metals, and they supported this view by pointing out that it was
liberated when metals were dissolved in acids. Considerations
of weight had long prevented Lavoisier from accepting this
doctrine, but he was now able to explain the process fully,
showing that the hydrogen evolved did not come from the metal
itself, but was one product of the decomposition of the water of
the dilute acid, the other product, oxygen, combining with the
metal to form an oxide which in turn united with the acid. A
little later this same knowledge led him to the beginnings of
quantitative organic analysis. Knowing that the water produced
by the combustion of alcohol was not pfe-existent in that sub-
stance but was formed by the combination of its hydrogen with
the oxygen of the air, he burnt alcohol and other combustible
organic substances, such as wax and oil, in a known volume of
oxygen, and, from the weight of the water and carbon dioxide
produced and his knowledge of their composition, was able to
calculate the amounts of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen present
in the substance.
Up to about this time Lavoisier's work, mainly quantitative
in character, had appealed most strongly to physicists, but it
now began to win conviction from chemists also. C. L. Berthollet,
L. B. Guyton de Morveau and A. F. Fourcroy, his collaborators
in the reformed system of chemical terminology set forth in 1787
in the Melhode de nomenclature chimique, were among the earliest
French converts, and they were followed by M. H. Klaproth and
the German Academy, and by most English chemists except
Cavendish, who rather suspended his judgment, and Priestley,
who stubbornly clung to the opposite view. Indeed, though the
partisans of phlogiston did not surrender without a struggle,
the history of science scarcely presents a second instance of a
change so fundamental accomplished with such ease. The
spread of Lavoisier's doctrines was greatly facilitated by the
defined and logical form in which he presented them in his
Traits elementaire de chimie (presente dans un ordre nouveau et
d'apres les decouvertes modernes) (1789). The list of simple
substances contained in the first volume, of this work includes
light and caloric with oxygen, azote and hydrogen. Under the
head of " oxidable or acidifiable " substances, the combination
of which with oxygen yielded acids, were placed sulphur, phos-
phorus, carbon, and the muriatic, fluoric and boracic radicles.
The metals, which by combination with oxygen became oxides,
were antimony, silver, arsenic, bismuth, cobalt, copper, tin, iron,
manganese, mercury, molybdenum, nickel, gold, platinum, lead,
tungsten and zinc; and the " simple earthy salifiable sub-
stances " were lime, baryta, magnesia, alumina and silica.
The simple nature of the alkalies Lavoisier considered so doubtful
that he did not class them as elements, which he conceived as
substances which could not be further decomposed by any
known process of analysis — les molecules simples et indivisibles
qui composent les corps. The union of any two of the elements
gave rise to binary compounds, such as oxides, acids, sulphides,
&c. A substance containing three elements was a binary com-
pound of the second order; thus salts, the most important
compounds of this class, were formed by the union of acids and
oxides, iron sulphate, for instance, being a compound of iron
oxide with sulphuric acid.
In addition to his purely chemical work, Lavoisier, mostly in
conjunction with Laplace, devoted considerable attention to
physical problems, especially those connected with heat. The
two carried out some of the earliest thermochemical investiga-
tions, devised apparatus for measuring linear and cubical
expansions, and employed a modification of Joseph Black's ice
calorimeter in a series of determinations of specific heats.
Regarding heat (matiere de feu or fluide igne) as a peculiar kind
of imponderable matter, Lavoisier held that the three states of
aggregation — solid, liquid and gas — were modes of matter, each
depending on the amount of matiere de feu with which the pon-
derable substances concerned were interpenetrated and com-
bined; and this view enabled him correctly to anticipate that
gases would be reduced to liquids and solids by the influence of
cold and pressure. He also worked at fermentation, respiration
and animal heat, looking upon the processes concerned as
essentially chemical in nature. A paper discovered many years
after his death showed that he had anticipated later thinkers
in explaining the cyclical process of animal and vegetable life,
for he pointed out that plants derive their food from the air,
from water, and in general from the mineral kingdom, and
animals in turn feed on plants or on other animals fed by plants,
while the materials thus taken up by plants and animals are
restored to the mineral kingdom by the breaking-down processes
of fermentation, putrefaction and combustion.
A complete edition of the writings of Lavoisier, (Euvres de Lavoisier,
publiees par les soins du ministre de I'instruction publique, was issued
at Paris in six volumes from 1864-1893. This publication comprises
his Opuscules physiques et chimiques (1774), many memoirs from the
Academy volumes, and numerous letters, notes and reports relating
to the various matters on which he was engaged. At the time of
his death he was preparing an edition of his collected works, and the
portions ready for the press were published in two volumes as
Memoires de chimie in 1805 by his widow (in that year married to
Count Rumford), who had drawn and engraved the plates in his
Traite elementaire de chimie (1789).
See E. Grimaux, Lavoisier 1743-1794, d'aprks sa correspondance,
ses manuscripts, &c. (1888), which gives a list of his works; P. E. M.
Berthelot, La Revolution chimique: Lavoisier (1890), which contains
an analysis of and extracts from his laboratory notebooks.
LA VOISIN. CATHERINE MONVOISIN, known as " La Voisin "
(d. 1680), French sorceress, whose maiden name was Catherine
Deshayes, was one of the chief personages in the famous ajfaire
des poisons, which disgraced the reign of Louis XIV. Her
husband, Monvoisin, was an unsuccessful jeweller, and she
practised chiromancy and face-reading to retrieve their fortunes.
She gradually added the practice of witchcraft, in which she had
the help of a renegade priest, Etienne Guibourg, whose part
was the celebration of the " black mass," an abominable parody
in which the host was compounded of the blood of a little child
mixed with horrible ingredients. She practised medicine,
especially midwifery, procured abortion and provided love
powders and poisons. Her chief accomplice was one of her lovers,
the magician Lesage, whose real name was Adam Cceuret. The
great ladies of Paris flocked to La Voisin, who accumulated
enormous wealth. Among her clients were Olympe Mancini,
comtesse de Soissons, who sought the death of the king's mistress,
Louise de la Valliere; Mme de Montespan, Mme de Gramont
(la belle Hamilton) and others. The bones of toads, the teeth of
moles, cantharides, iron filings, human blood and human dust
were among the ingredients of the love powders concocted by
La Voisin. Her knowledge of poisons was not apparently so
thorough as that of less well-known sorcerers, or it would be
difficult to account for La Valliere's immunity. The art of
poisoning had become a regular science. The death of Henrietta,
duchess of Orleans, was attributed, falsely it is true, to poison,
and the crimes of Marie Madeleine de Brinvilliers (executed in
1676) and her accomplices were still fresh in the public mind.
In April 1679 a commission appointed to inquire into the subject
and to prosecute the offenders met for the first time. Its pro-
ceedings, including some suppressed in the official records, are
preserved in the notes of one of the official rapporteurs, Gabriel
Nicolas de la Reynie. The revelation of the treacherous intention
of Mme de Montespan to poison Louis XIV. and of other crimes,
planned by personages who could not be attacked without
scandal which touched the throne, caused Louis XIV. to close
the chambre ardenle, as the court was called, on the ist of October
1680. It was reopened on the igth of May 1681 and sat until
the 2ist of July 1682. Many of the culprits escaped through
private influence. Among these were Marie Anne Mancini,
duchesse de Bouillon, who had sought to get rid of her husband
in order to marry the duke of Vendome, though Louis XIV.
banished her to Nerac. Mme de Montespan was not openly
disgraced, because the preservation of Louis's own dignity was
essential, and some hundred prisoners, among them the infamous
Guibourg and Lesage, escaped the scaffold through the suppres-
sion of evidence insisted on by Louis XIV. and Louvois. Some of
these were imprisoned in various fortresses, with instructions
from Louvois to the respective commandants to flog them if they
sought to impart what they knew. Some innocent persons were
imprisoned for life because they had knowledge of the facts.
La Voisin herself was executed at an early stage of the proceed-
ings, on the 2oth of February 1680, after a perfunctoiy applica-
tion of torture. The authorities had every reason to avoid
further revelations. Thirty-five other prisoners were executed;
five were sent to the galleys and twenty-three were banished.
Their crimes had furnished one of the most extraordinary trials
known to history.
See F. Ravaisson, Archives de la Bastille, vojs. iv.-vii. (1870-1874) ;
the notes of La Reynie, preserved in the Bibliotheque Nationalc;
F. Funck-Brentano, Le Drame des poisons (1899); A. Masson, La
Sorcellerie et la science des poisons auX VII' siecle ( 1 904) . Sardou made
the affair a background for his Affaire des poisons (1907). There is a
portrait of La Voisin by Antoine Coypel, which has been often repro-
duced.
LAW, JOHN (1671-1729), Scots economist, best known as the
originator of the " Mississippi scheme," was born at Edinburgh
in April 1671. His father, a goldsmith and banker, bought
shortly before his death, which took place in his son's youth,
the lands of Lauriston near Edinburgh. John lived at home
till he was twenty, and then went to London. He had already
studied mathematics, and the theory of commerce and political
economy, with much interest; but he was known rather as fop
than scholar. In London he gambled, drank and flirted till in
April 1694 a love intrigue resulted in a duel with Beau Wilson
in Bloomsbury Square. Law killed his antagonist, and was
condemned to death. His life was spared, but he was detained
in prison. He found means to escape to Holland, then the
greatest commercial country in Europe. Here he observed
with close attention the practical working of banking and
financial business, and conceived the first ideas of his celebrated
" system." After a few years spent in foreign travel, he returned
to Scotland, then exhausted and enraged by the failure of the
Darien expedition (1695-1701). He propounded plans for the
relief of his country in a work1 entitled Money and Trade
Considered, with a Proposal for supplying the Nation with Money
(1705). This attracted some notice, but had no practical effect,
and Law again betook himself to travel. He visited Brussels,
Paris, Vienna, Genoa, Rome, making large sums by gambling
and speculation, and spending them lavishly. He was in Paris in
1708, and made some pioposals to the government as to their
financial difficulties, but Louis XIV. declined to treat with a
" Huguenot," and d 'Argenson, chief of the police, had Law
expelled as a suspicious character. He had, however, become
1 A work entitled Proposals and Reasons for constituting a Council
of Trade in Scotland was published anonymously at Edinburgh in
1701. It was republished at Glasgow in 1751 with Law's name
attached; but several references in the state papers of the time
mention William Paterson (1658-1719), founder of the Bank of
England, as the author of the plan therein propounded. Even if
Law had nothing to do with the composition of the work, he must
have read it and been influenced by it. This may explain how it
contains the germs of many of the developments of the " system."
Certainly the suggestion of a central board, to manage great com-
mercial undertakings, to furnish occupation for the poor, to encourage
mining, fishing and manufactures, and to bring about a reduction in
the rate of interest, was largely realized in the Mississippi scheme.
See Bannister's Life of William Paterson (ed. 1858), and Writings of
William. Paterson (2nd ed., 3 vols., 1859).
LAW, J. 297
intimately acquainted with the duke of Orleans, and when in
1715 that prince became regent, Law at once returned to Paris.
The extravagant expenditure of the late monarch had plunged
the kingdom into apparently inextricable financial confusion.
The debt was 3000 million livres, the estimated annual expendi-
ture, exclusive of interest payments, 148 million livres, and the
income about the same. The advisability of declaring a national
bankruptcy was seriously discussed, and though this plan was
rejected, measures hardly less violent were carried. By a visa,
or examination of the state liabilities by a committee with
full powers of quashing claims, the debt was reduced nearly
a half, the coin in circulation was ordered to be called in and
reissued at the rate of 120 for 100 — a measure by which foreign
coiners profited greatly, and a chamber of justice was established
to punish speculators, to whom the difficulties of the state were
ascribed. These measures had so little success that the billets
d'etat which were issued as part security for the new debt at
once sank 75% below their nominal value. At this crisis Law
unfolded a vast scheme to the perplexed regent. A royal bank
was to manage the trade and currency of the kingdom, to collect
the taxes, and to free the country from debt. The council of
finance, then under the due de Noailles, opposed the plan, but
the regent allowed Law to take some tentative steps. By an
edict of 2nd May 1716, a private institution called La Banque
generate, and managed by Law, was founded. The capital was
6 million livres, divided into 1 200 shares of 5000 livres, payable
in four instalments, one-fourth in cash, three-fourths in billets
d'etat. It was to perform the ordinary functions of a bank,
and had power to issue notes payable at sight in the weight and
value of the money mentioned at day of issue. The bank was
a great and immediate success. By providing for the absorption
of part of the state paper it raised, the credit of the government.
The notes were a most desirable medium of exchange, for they
had the element of fixity of value, which, owing to the arbitrary
mint decrees of the government, was wanting in the coin of the
realm. They proved the most convenient instruments of re-
mittance between the capital and the provinces, and they thus
developed the industries of the latter. The »rate of interest,
previously enormous and uncertain, fell first to 6 and then to
4%; and when another decree (loth April 1717) ordered
collectors of taxes to receive notes as payments, and to change
them for coin at request, the bank so rose in favour that it soon
had a note-issue of 60 million livres. Law now gained the full
confidence of the regent, and was allowed to proceed with the
development of the " system."
The trade of the region about the Mississippi had been granted
to a speculator named Crozat. He found the undertaking too
large, and was glad to give it up. By a decree of August 1717
Law was allowed to establish the Compagnie de la Louisiane ou
d'Occident, and to endow it with privileges practically amounting
to sovereignty over the most fertile region of North America.
The capital was 100 million livres divided into 200,000 shares
of 500 livres. The payments were to be one-fourth in coin and
three-fourths in billets d'tlat. On these last the government
was to pay 3 million livres interest yearly to the company.
As the state paper was depreciated the shares fell much below
par. The rapid rise of Law had made him many enemies, and
they took advantage of this to attack the system. D'Argenson,
now head of the council of finance, with the brothers Paris of
Grenoble, famous tax farmers of the day, formed what was called
the " anti-system." The farming of the taxes was let to them,
under an assumed name, for 485 million livres yearly. A company
was formed, the exact counterpart of the Mississippi company.
The capital was the same, divided in the same manner, but the
payments were to be entirely in money. The returns from the
public revenue were sure; those from the Mississippi scheme
were not. Hence the shares of the latter were for some time out
of favour. Law proceeded unmoved with the development of
his plans. On the 4th of December 1718 the bank became a
government institution under the name of La Banque royale.
Law was director, and the king guaranteed the notes. The
shareholders were repaid in coin, and, to widen the influence
298
LAW, J.
of the new institution, the transport of money between towns
where it had branches was forbidden. The paper-issue now
reached no millions. Law had such confidence in the success
of his plans that he agreed to take over shares in the Mississippi
company at par at a near date. The shares began rapidly to rise.
The next move was to unite the companies Des Indes Orientates
and De Chine, founded in 1664 and 1713 respectively, but now
dwindled away to a shadow, to his company. The united associa-
tion, La Compagnie des Indes, had a practical monopoly of the
foreign trade of France. These proceedings necessitated the
creation of new capital to the nominal amount of 25 million livres.
The payment was spread over 20 months. Every holder of four
original shares (meres) could purchase one of the new shares
(filles) at a premium of 50 livres. All these 5oo-livre shares
rapidly rose to 750, or 50% above par. Law now turned his
attention to obtaining additional powers within France itself.
On the 25th of July 1719 an edict was issued granting the
company for nine years the management of the mint and the
coin-issue. For this privilege the company paid 5 million livres,
and the money was raised by a new issue of shares of the nominal
value of 500 livres, but with a premium of other 500. The list
was only open for twenty days, and it was necessary to present
four meres and onefille in order to obtain one of the new shares
(petites filles). At the same time two dividends per annum of
6% each were promised. Again there was an attempt to ruin
the bank by the commonplace expedient of making a run on
it for coin; but the conspirators had to meet absolute power
managed with fearlessness and skill. An edict appeared reducing,
at a given date, the value of money, and those who had with-
drawn coin from the bank hastened again to exchange it for the
more stable notes. Public confidence in Law was increased,
and he was enabled rapidly to proceed with the completion of
the system. A decree of 27th August 1719 deprived the rival
company of the farming of the revenue, and gave it to the
Compagnie des Indes for nine years in return for an annual
payment of 52 million livres. Thus at one blow the " anti-
system " was crushed. One thing yet remained; Law proposed
to take over the national debt, and manage it on terms advan-
tageous to the state. The mode of transfer was this. The debt
was over 1500 million livres. Notes were to be issued to that
amount, and with these the state creditors must be paid in a
certain order. Shares were to be issued at intervals corresponding
to the payments, and it was expected that the notes would be
used in buying them. The government was to pay 3% for the
loan. It had formerly been bound to pay 80 millions, it would
now pay under 50, a clear gain of over 30. As the shares of
the company were almost the only medium for investment,
the transfer would be surely effected. The creditors would
now look to the government payments and the commercial
gains of the company for their annual returns. Indeed the
creditors were often not able to procure the shares, for each
succeeding issue was immediately seized upon, though the 500-
livre share was now issued at a premium of 4500 livres. After
the third issue, on the 2nd of October, the shares immediately
resold at 8000 livres in the Rue Quincampoix, then used as a
bourse. They went on rapidly rising as new privileges were
still granted to the company. Law had now more than regal
power. The exiled Stuarts paid him court; the proudest
aristocracy in Europe humbled themselves before him; and his
liberality made him the idol of the populace. After, as a neces-
sary preliminary, becoming a Catholic, he was made controller-
general of the finances in place of d'Argenson. Finally, in
February 1 7 20, the bank was in name as well as in reality united
to the company.
The system was now complete; but it had already begun to
decay. In December 1719 it was at its height. The shares
had then amounted to 20,000 livres, forty times their nominal
price. A sort of madness possessed the nation. Men sold their
all and hastened to Paris to speculate. The population of the
capital was increased by an enormous influx of provincials and
foreigners. Trade received a vast though unnatural impulse.
Everybody seemed to be getting richer, no one poorer. Those
who could still reflect saw that this prosperity was not real.
The whole issue of shares at the extreme market-price valued
12,000 million livres. It would require 600 million annual
revenue to give a 5 % dividend on this. Now, the whole income
of the company as yet was hardly sufficient to pay 5% on the
original capital of 1677 million livres. The receipts from the
taxes, &c., could be precisely calculated, and it would be many
years before the commercial undertakings of the company —
with which only some trifling beginning had been made —
would yield any considerable return. People began to sell their
shares, and to buy coin, houses, land — anything that had a stable
element of value in it. There was a rapid fall in the shares,
a rapid rise in all kinds of property, and consequently a rapid
depreciation of the paper money. Law met these new tendencies
by a succession of the most violent edicts. The notes were to
bear a premium over specie. Coin was only to be used in small
payments, and only a small amount was to be kept in the posses-
sion of private parties. The use of diamonds, the fabrication of
gold and silver plate, was forbidden. A dividend of 40 % on the
original capital was promised. By several ingenious but falla-
ciously reasoned pamphlets Law endeavoured to restore public
confidence. The shares still fell. At last, on the 5th of March
1720, an edict appeared fixing their pike at 9000 livres, and
ordering the bank to buy and sell them at that price. The fall
now was transferred to the notes, of which there were soon over
2 500 million livres in circulation. A large proportion of the coined
money was removed from the kingdom. Prices rose enormously.
There was everywhere distress and complete financial confusion.
Law became an object of popular hatred. He lost his court in-
fluence, and was obliged to consent to a decree (2ist May 1720)
by which the notes and consequently the shares were reduced
to half their nominal value. This created such a commotion that
its promoters were forced to recall it, but the mischief was done.
What confidence could there be in the depreciated paper after
such a measure? Law was removed from his office, and his
enemies proceeded to demolish the " system." A vast number
of shares had been deposited in the bank. These were destroyed.
The notes were reconverted into government debt, but there
was first a visa which reduced that debt to the same size as before
it was taken over by the company. The rate of interest was
lowered, and the government now only pledged itself to pay
37 instead of 80 millions annually. Finally the bank was
abolished, and the company reduced to a mere trading associa-
tion. By November the " system " had disappeared. With
these last measures Law, it may well be believed, had nothing to
do. He left France secretly in December 1720, resumed his
wandering life, and died at Venice, poor and forgotten, on the
2ist of March 1729.
Of Law's writings the most important for the comprehension of
the " system '_' is his Money and Trade Considered. In this work he
says that national power and wealth consist in numbers of people,
and magazines of home and foreign goods. These depend on trade,
and that on money, of which a greater quantity employs more
people; but credit, if the credit have a circulation, has all the
beneficial effects of money. To create and increase instruments of
credit is the function of a bank. Let such be created then, and let
its notes be only given in return for land sold or pledged. Such a
currency would supply the nation with abundance of money; and
it would have many advantages, which Law points out in detail,
over silver. The bank or commission was to be a government institu-
tion, and its profits were to be spent in encouraging the export and
manufacture of the nation. A very evident error lies at the root
of the " system." Money is not the result but the cause of wealth, he
thought. To increase it then must be beneficial, and the best way is
by a properly secured paper currency. This is the motive force; but
it is to be applied in a particular way. Law had a profound belief
in the omnipotence of government. He saw the evils of minor
monopolies, and of private farming of taxes. He proposed to centre
foreign trade and internal finance in one huge monopoly managed
by the state for the people, and carrying on business through a
plentiful supply of paper money. He did! not see that trade and
commerce are best left to private enterprise, and that such a scheme
would simply result in the profits of speculators and favourites.
The " system " was never so far developed as to exhibit its in-
herent faults. The madness of speculators ruined the plan when
only its foundations were laid. One part indeed might have been
saved. The bank was not necessarily bound to the company, and
had its note-issue been retrenched it might have become a permanent
LAW, W.— LAW
299
institution. As Thiers points out, the edict of the 5th of March 1720,
which made the shares convertible into notes, ruined the bank
without saving the company. The shares had risen to an unnatural
height, and they should have been allowed to fall to their natural
level. Perhaps Law felt this to be impossible. He had friends at
court whose interests were involved in the shares, and he had enemies
eager for his overthrow. It was necessary to succeed completely or
not at all ; so Law, a gambler to the core, risked and lost everything.
Notwithstanding the faults of the " system," its author was a
financial genius of the first order. He had the errors of his time; but
he propounded many truths as to the nature of currency and banking
then unknown to his contemporaries. The marvellous skill which he
displayed in adapting the theory of the " system " to the actual con-
dition of things in France, and in carrying out the various financial
transactions rendered necessary by its development, is absolutely
without parallel. His profound self-confidence and belief in the
truth of his own theories were the reasons alike of his success and his
ruin. He never hesitated to employ the whole force of a despotic
government for the definite ends which he saw before him. He left
France poorer than he entered it, yet he was not perceptibly changed
by his sudden transitions of fortune. Montesquieu visited him at
Venice after his fall, and has left a description of him touched with
a certain pathos. Law, he tells us, was still the same in character,
perpetually planning and scheming, and, though in poverty, re-
volving vast projects to restore himself to power, and France to
commercial prosperity.
The fullest account of the Mississippi scheme is that of Thiers, Law
et son systeme des finances (1826, American trans. 1859). See also
Heymann, Law und sein System (1853); Pierre Bonnassieux, Les
Grandes Compagnies de commerce (1892) ; S. Alexi, John Law und sein
System (1885); E. Levasseur, Recherches historiques sur le systeme de
Law (1854); and Jobez, Une Preface au socialisme, ou le systeme de
Law et la chasse aux capitalistes (i8'48). Full biographical details are
given in Wood's Life of Law (Edinburgh, 1824). All Law's later
writings are to be found in Daire, Collection des principaux econo-
mistes, vol. i. (1843). Other works on Law are : A. W. Wiston-Glynn,
John Law of Lauriston (1908); P. A. Cachut, The Financier Law, his
Scheme and Times (1856) ; A. Macf.Davis, An Historical Study of Law's
System (Boston, 1887); A. Beljame, La Pronunciation du nom de
Jean Law le financier (1891). See also E. A. Benians in Camb. Mod.
Hist. vi. 6 (1909). For minor notices see Pople's Index to Periodicals.
There is a portrait of Law by A. S. Belle in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. (F. WA.)
LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761), English divine, was born at
King's Cliff e, Northamptonshire. In 1 705 he entered as a sizar
at Emmanuel College, Cambridge; in 1711 he was elected fellow
of his college and was ordained. He resided at Cambridge,
teaching and taking occasional duty until the accession of
George I., when his conscience forbade him to take the oaths
of allegiance to the new government and of abjuration of the
Stuarts. His Jacobitism had already been betrayed in a tripos
speech which brought him into trouble; and he was now
deprived of his fellowship and became a non-juror. For the
next few years he is said to have been a curate in London. By
1727 he was domiciled with Edward Gibbon (1666-1736) at
Putney as tutor to his son Edward, father of the historian,
who says that Law became " the much honoured friend and
spiritual director of the whole family." In the same year he
accompanied his pupil to Cambridge, and resided with him as
governor, in term time, for the next four years. His pupil then
went abroad, but Law was left at Putney, where he remained
in Gibbon's house for more than ten years, acting as a religious
guide not only to the family but to a number of earnest-minded
folk who came to consult him. The most eminent of these were
the two brothers John and Charles Wesley, John Byrom the
poet, George Cheyne the physician and Archibald Hutcheson,
M.P. for Hastings. The household was dispersed in 1737.
Law was parted from his friends, and in 1740 retired to King's
Cliffe, where he had inherited from his father a house and a small
property. There he was presently joined by two ladies: Mrs
Hutcheson, the rich widow of his old friend, who recommended
her on his death-bed to place herself under Law's spiritual
guidance, and Miss Hester Gibbon, sister to his late pupil.
This curious trio lived for twenty-one years a life wholly given
to devotion, study and charity, until the death of Law on the
9th of April 1761.
Law was a busy writer under three heads : —
I. Controversy. — In this field he had no contemporary peer save
perhaps Richard Bentley. The first of his controversial works was
Three Letters to the Bishop of Bangor (1717)., which were considered by
friend and foe alike as one of the most powerful contributions to the
Bangorian controversy on the high church side. Thomas Sherlock
declared that " Mr Law was a writer so considerable that he knew
but one good reason why his lordship did not answer him." Law's
next controversial work was Remarks on Mandeville's Fable of the
Bees (1723), in which he vindicates morality on the highest grounds;
for pure style, caustic wit and lucid argument this work is re-
markable; it was enthusiastically praised by John Sterling, and
republished by F. D. Maurice. Law's Case of Reason (1732), in
answer to Tindal's Christianity as old as the Creation is to a great
extent an anticipation of Bishop Butler's famous argument in the
Analogy. In this work Law shows himself at least the equal of the
ablest champion of Deism. His Letters to a Lady inclined to enter the
Church of Rome are excellent specimens of the attitude of a high
Anglican towards Romanism. His controversial writings have not
received due recognition, partly because they were opposed to the
drift of his times, partly because of his success in other fields.
2. Practical Divinity. — The Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life
(1728), together with its predecessor, A Treatise of Christian Per-
fection (1726), deeply influenced the chief actors in the great
Evangelical revival. The Wesleys, George Whitefield, Henry Venn,
Thomas Scott and Thomas Adam all express their deep obligation
to the author. The Serious Call affected others quite as deeply.
Samuel Johnson, Gibbon, Lord Lyttelton and Bishop Home all
spoke enthusiastically of its merits; and it is still the only work by
which its author is popularly known. It has high merits of style,
being lucid and pointed to a degree. In a tract entitled The Absolute
Unlawfulness of Stage Entertainments (1726) Law was tempted by the
corruptions of the stage of the period to use unreasonable language,
and incurred some effective criticism from John Dennis in The Stage
Defended.
3. Mysticism. — Though the least popular, by far the most inter-
esting, original and suggestive of all Law's works are those which he
wrote in his later years, after he had become an enthusiastic admirer
(not a disciple) of Jacob Boehme, the Teutonic theospphist. From
his earliest years he had been deeply impressed with the piety,
beauty and thoughtfulness of the writings of the Christian mystics,
but it was not till after his accidental meeting with the works of
Boehme, about 1734, that pronounced mysticism appeared in his
works. Law's mystic tendencies divorced him from the practical-
minded Wesley, but in spite of occasional wild fancies the books are
worth reading. They are A Demonstration of the Gross and Funda-
mental Errors of a late Book called a " Plain Account, &c., of the Lord's
Supper " (1737); The Grounds and Reasons of the Christian Regenera-
tion (1739); An Appeal to all that Doubt and Disbelieve the Truths of
Revelation (1740); An Earnest and Serious Answer to Dr Trapp's
Sermon on being Righteous Overmuch (1740); The Spirit of Prayer
(1749, 1752) ; The Way to Divine Knowledge (1752) ; The Spirit of Love
(1752, 1754); A Short but Sufficient Confutation of Dr Warburton's
Projected Defence (as he calls it) of Christianity in his " Divine Legation
of Moses " (1757); A Series of Letters (1760); a Dialogue between a
Methodist and a Churchman (1760); and An Humble, Earnest and
Affectionate Address to the Clergy (1761).
Richard Tighe wrote a short account of Law's life in 1813. See also
Christopher Walton, Notes and Materials for a Complete Biography of
W. Law (1848); Sir Leslie Stephen, English Thought in the 1 8th
century, and in the Diet. Nat. Biog. (xxxii. 236); W. H. Lecky,
History of England in the i8th Century; C. J. Abbey, The English
Church in the i8lh Century; and J. H. Overton, William Law, Non-
juror and Mystic (1881).
LAW (O. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root
lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi), a word
used in English in two main senses — (i) as a rule prescribed by
authority for human action, and (2) in scientific and philosophic
phraseology, as a uniform order of sequence (e.g. " laws " of
motion) . In the first sense the word is used either in the abstract,
for jurisprudence generally or for a state of things in which the
laws of a country are duly observed (" law and order "), or in the
concrete for some particular rule or body of rules. It is usual
to distinguish further between " law " and " equity " (q.v.).
The scientific and philosophic usage has grown out of an early
conception of jurisprudence, and is really metaphorical, derived
from the phrase " natural law " or " law of nature," which
presumed that commands were laid on matter by God (see
T. E. Holland, Elements of Jurisprudence, ch. ii.). The adjective
" legal " is only used in the first sense, never in the second. In
the case of the " moral law " (see ETHICS) the term is employed
somewhat ambiguously because of its connexion with both
meanings. There is also an Old English use of the word " law "
in a more or less sporting sense (" to give law " or " allow so
much law "), meaning a start or fair allowance in time or distance.
Presumably this originated simply in the liberty-loving Briton's
respect for proper legal procedure; instead of the brute exercise
of tyrannous force he demanded " law," or a fair opportunity
300
LA WES, H.— LAWN-TENNIS
and trial. But it may simply be an extension of the meaning
of " right," or of the sense of " leave " which is found in early
uses of the French loi.
In this work the laws or uniformities of the physical universe
are dealt with in the articles on the various sciences. The general
principles of law in the legal sense are discussed under JURIS-
PRUDENCE. What may be described as " national systems "
of law are dealt with historically and generally under ENGLISH
LAW, AMERICAN LAW, ROMAN LAW, GREEK LAW, MAHOMMEDAN
LAW, INDIAN LAW, &c. Certain broad divisions of law are
treated under CONSTITUTION AND CONSTITUTIONAL LAW, CANON
LAW, CIVIL LAW, COMMON LAW, CRIMINAL LAW, ECCLESIASTICAL
LAW, EQUITY, INTERNATIONAL LAW, MILITARY LAW, &c. And
the particular laws of different countries on special subjects
are stated under the headings for those subjects (BANKRUPTCY,
&c.) . For courts (?.».) of law, and procedure, see JURISPRUDENCE,
APPEAL, TRIAL, KING'S BENCH, &c.
AUTHORITIES. — The various legal articles have bibliographies
attached, but it may be convenient here to mention such general
works on law, apart from the science of jurisprudence, as (for English
law) Lord Halsbury's Laws of England (vol. i.t 1907), The Encyclo-
paedia of the Laws of England, ed. Wood Renton (1907), Stephen's
Commentaries on the Laws of England (1908), Brett's Commentaries
on the present Laws of England (1896), Broom's Commentaries on
the Common Law (1896) and Brodie-Innes's Comparative Principles
of the Laws of England and Scotland (vol. i., 1903) ; and, for America,
Bouvier's Law Dictionary, and Kent's Commentaries on American
Law.
LAWES, HENRY (1595-1662), English musician, was born
at Dinton in Wiltshire in December 1595, and received his
musical education from John Cooper, better known under his
Italian pseudonym Giovanni Coperario (d. 1627), a famous
composer of the day. In 1626 he was received as one of the
gentlemen of the chapel royal, which place he held till the
Commonwealth put a stop to church music. But even during
that songless time Lawes continued his work as a composer, and
the famous collection of his vocal pieces, Ayres and Dialogues for
One, Two and Three Voyces, was published in 1653, being followed
by two other books under the same title in 1655 and 1658
respectively. When in 1660 the king returned, Lawes once
more entered the royal chapel, and composed an anthem for
the coronation of Charles II. He died on the 2ist of October
1662, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Lawes's name
has become known beyond musical circles by his friendship with
Milton, whose Comus he supplied with incidental music for the
performance of the masque in 1634. The poet in return im-
mortalized his friend in the famous sonnet in which Milton,
with a musical perception not common amongst poets, exactly
indicates the great merit of Lawes. His careful attention to the
words of the poet, the manner in which his music seems to grow
from those words, the perfect coincidence of the musical with the
metrical accent, all put Lawes's songs on a level with those of
Schumann or Liszt or any modern composer. At the same time
he is by no means wanting in genuine melodic invention, and
his concerted music shows the learned contrapuntist.
LAWES, SIR JOHN BENNET, BART. (1814-1900), English
agriculturist, was born at Rothamsted on the 28th of December
1814. Even before leaving Oxford, where he matriculated
in 1832, he had begun to interest himself in growing various
medicinal plants on the Rothamsted estates, which he inherited
on his father's death in 1822. About 1837 he began to experi-
ment on the effects of various manures on plants growing in
pots, and a year or two later the experiments were extended to
crops in the field. One immediate consequence was that in
1842 he patented a manure formed by treating phosphates with
sulphuric acid, and thus initiated the artificial manure industry.
In the succeeding year he enlisted the services of Sir J. H.
Gilbert, with whom he carried on for more than half a century
those experiments in raising crops and feeding animals which
have rendered Rothamsted famous in the eyes of scientific
agriculturists all over the world (see AGRICULTURE). In 1854
he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, which in 1867
bestowed a Royal medal on Lawes and Gilbert jointly, and in
1882 he was created a baronet. In the year before his death,
which happened on the 3ist of August 1900, he took measures
to ensure the continued existence of the Rothamsted experi-
mental farm by setting aside £100,000 for that purpose and
constituting the Lawes Agricultural Trust, composed of four
members from the Royal Society, two from the Royal Agri-
cultural Society, one each from the Chemical and Linnaean
Societies, and the owner of Rothamsted mansion-house for the
time being.
LAW MERCHANT or LEX MERCATORIA, originally a body
of rules and principles relating to merchants and mercantile
transactions, laid down by merchants themselves for the purpose
of regulating their dealings. It was composed of such usages
and customs as were common to merchants and traders in all
parts of Europe, varied slightly in different localities by special
peculiarities. The law merchant owed its origin to the fact that
the civil law was not sufficiently responsive to the growing
demands of commerce, as well as to the fact that trade in pre-
medieval times was practically in the hands of those who might
be termed cosmopolitan merchants, who wanted a prompt and
effective jurisdiction. It was administered for the most part in
special courts, such as those of the gilds in Italy, or the fair
courts of Germany and France, or as in England, in courts of
the staple or piepowder (see also SEA LAWS). The history of the
law merchant in England is divided into three stages: the first
prior to the time of Coke, when it was a special kind of law —
as distinct from the common law — administered in special courts
for a special class of the community (i.e. the mercantile); the
second stage was one of transition, the law merchant being
administered in the common law courts, but as a body of customs,
to be proved as a fact in each individual case of doubt; the
third stage, which has continued to the present day, dates from
the presidency over the king's bench of Lord Mansfield (<?.».),
under whom it was moulded into the mercantile law of to-day.
To the law merchant modern English law owes the fundamental
principles in the law of partnership, negotiable instruments and
trade marks.
See G. Malynes, Consuetudo vel lex mercatoria (London, 1622);
W. Mitchell, The Early History of the Law Merchant (Cambridge,
I9°4); J- W. Smith, Mercantile Law (ed. Hart and Simey, 1905).
LAWN, a very thin fabric made from level linen or cotton
yarns. It is used for light dresses and trimmings, also for
handkerchiefs. The terms lawn and cambric (q.v.) are often
intended to indicate the same fabric. The word " lawn " was
formerly derived from the French name for the fabric linon,
from lin, flax, linen, but Skeat (Etym. Diet., 1898, Addenda) and
A. Thomas (Romania, xxix. 182, 1900) have shown that the
real source of the word is to be found in the name of the French
town Laon. Skeat quotes from Palsgrave, Les claircissement
de la langue Franfoyse (1530), showing that the early name
of the fabric was Laune lynen. An early form of the word was
" laund," probably due to an adaptation to "laund," lawn,
glade or clearing in a forest, now used of a closely-mown expanse
of grass in a garden, park, &c. (see GRASS and HORTICULTURE).
This word comes from O. Fr. launde, mod. lande, wild, heathy
or sandy ground, covered with scrub or brushwood, a word of
Celtic origin; cf. Irish and Breton lann, heathy ground, also
enclosure, land; Welsh Han, enclosure. It is cognate with
" land," common to Teutonic languages. In the original sense
of clearing in a forest, glade, Lat. saltus, " lawn," still survives
in the New Forest, where it is used of the feeding-places of
cattle.
LAWN-TENNIS, a game played with racquet and ball on a
court traversed by a net, but without enclosing walls. It is a
modern adaptation of the ancient game of tennis (q.v.), with
which it is identical as regards the scoring of the game and
" set." Lawn-tennis is essentially a summer game, played
in the open air, either on courts marked with whitewash on
close-cut grass like a cricket pitch, or on asphalt, cinders, gravel,
wood, earth or other substance which can be so prepared as to
afford a firm, level and smooth surface. In winter, however,
the game is often played on the floor of gymnasiums, drill sheds
or other buildings, when it is called " covered-court lawn-tennis";
LAWN-TENNIS
301
but theie is no difference in the game itself corresponding to
these varieties of court.
The lawn-tennis court for the single-handed game, one player
against one ("singles"), is shown in fig. i, and that foi the
four-handed game (" doubles ") in fig. 2. The net stretched
across the middle of the court is attached to the tops of two
posts which stand 3 ft. outside the court on each side. The
height of the net is 3 ft. 6 in. at the posts and 3 ft. at the centre.
j
s
1
1
1
j
«. 27 feet v t -38 feet- «.
The court is
bisected longi-
tudinally by the
half-court-line,
which, however,
is marked only
between the
two service-
lines and at the
points of junc-
tion with the
base-lines. The
divisions of the
court on each
side of the half-
court-line are
*
I
R
A
M
I
feet
-tnifltt-
FIG. i. FIG. 2. called respec-
tively the
right-hand and left-hand courts; and the portion of these
divisions between the service-lines and the net are the right-
hand service-court and left-hand service-court respectively.
The balls, which are made of hollow india-rubber, tightly covered
with white flannel, are 2^ in. in diameter, and from ij to 2 oz.
in weight. The racquets (fig. 3), for which there are no regula-
tion dimensions, are broader and lighter than those used in tennis.
Before play begins, a racquet is spun as in tennis, and the
winner of the spin elects either to take
first service or to take choice of courts.
If he takes choice of courts, he and his
partner (if the game be doubles) take
their position on the selected side of the
net, one stationing himself in the right-
hand court and the other in the left,
which positions are retained throughout
the set. If the winner of the spin takes
choice of courts, his opponent has first
service; and vice versa. The players
change sides of the net at the end of the
first, third and every subsequent alter-
nate game, and at the end of each set;
but they may agree not to change during
any set except the last. Service is de-
livered by each player in turn, who retains
it for one game irrespective of the win-
ning or losing of points. In doubles the
partner of the server in the first game
serves in the third, and the partner of
the server in the second game serves in
the fourth; the same order being pre-
served till the end of the set; but each
pair of partners decide for themselves
before their first turn of service which
of the two shall serve first. The server
delivers the service from the right- and
left-hand courts alternately, begin-
ning in each of his service games from the right-hand court,
even though odds be given or owed; he must stand behind
(i.e. farther from the net than) the base-line, and must serve
the ball so that it drops in the opponent's service-court diagon-
ally opposite to the court served from, or upon one of the lines
enclosing that service-court. If in a serve, otherwise good, the
ball touches the net, it is a " let " whether the serve be " taken "
or not by striker-out; a "let" does, not annul a previous
" fault." (For the meaning of " let," " rest," " striker-out "
FIG. 3.
and other technical terms used in the game, see TENNIS and
RACQUETS.) The serve is a fault (i) if it be not delivered by
the server from the proper court, and from behind the base-line;
(2) if the ball drops into the net or out-of-court, or into any part
of the court other than the proper service-court. The striker-
out cannot, as in racquets, " take," and thereby condone, a
fault. When a fault has been served, the server must serve
again from the same court, unless it was a fault because served
from the wrong court, in which case the server crosses to the
proper court before serving again. Two consecutive faults
score a point against the side of the server. Lawn-tennis differs
from tennis and racquets in that the service may not be taken
on the volley by striker-out. After the serve has been returned
the play proceeds until the " rest " (or " rally ") ends by one
side or the other failing to make a "good return"; a good
return in lawn-tennis meaning a stroke by which the ball, having
been hit with the racquet before its seccnd bound, is sent over
the net, even if it touches the net, so as to fall within the limits
of the court on the opposite side. A point is scored by the player,
or side, whose opponent fails to return the serve or to make
a good return in the rest. A player also loses a point if the ball
when in play touches him or his partner, or their clothes; or
if he or his racquet touches the net or any of its supports while
the ball is in play; or if he leaps over the net to avoid touching
it; or if he volley the ball before it has passed the net.
For him who would excel in lawn-tennis a strong fast service is
hardly less necessary than a heavily " cut " service to the tennis
player and the racquet player. High overhand service, by which
alone any great pace can be obtained, was first perfected by the
brothers Renshaw between 1880 and 1890, and is now universal
even among players far below the first rank. The service in vogue
among the best players in America, and from this circumstance
known as the " American service," has less pace than the English
but is " cut " in such a way that it swerves in the air and " drags "
off the ground, the advantage being that it gives the server more
time to " run in " after his serve, so as to volley his opponent's
return from a position within a yard or two of the net. Both in
singles and doubles the best players often make it their aim to get
up comparatively near the net as soon as possible, whether they are
serving or receiving the serve, the object being to volley the ball
whenever possible before it begins to fall. The server's partner, in
doubles, stands about a yard and a half from the net, and rather
nearer the side-line than the half -court-line; the receiver of the
service, not being allowed to volley the serve, must take his stand
according to the nature of the service, which, if very fast, will require
him to stand outside the base-line; the receiver's partner usually
stands between the net and the service-line. All four players, if the
rest lasts beyond a stroke or two, are generally found nearer to the
net than the service-jines; and the game, assuming the players to
be of the championship class, consists chiefly of rapid low volleying,
varied by attempts on one side or the other to place the ball out of
the opponents' reach by " lobbing " it over their heads into the back
part of the court. Good " lobbing " demands great skill, to avoid on
the one hand sending the ball out of court beyond the base-line, and
on the other allowing it to drop short enough for the adversary to
kill it with a " smashing " volley. Of " lobbing " it has been laid
down by the brothers Doherty that " the higher it is the better, so
long as the length is good "; and as regards returning lobs the same
authorities say, " you must get them if you can before they drop,
for it is usually fatal to let them drop when playing against a good
pair." The reason for this is that if the lob be allowed to drop before
being returned, so much time is given to the striker of it to gain
position that he is almost certain to be able to kill the return, unless
the lob be returned by an equally good and very high lob, dropping
within a foot or so of the base-line in the opposite court, a stroke that
requires the utmost accuracy of strength to accomplish safely.
The game in the hands of first-class players consists largely in
manoeuvring for favourable position in the court while driving the
opponent into a less favourable position on his side of the net ; the
player who gains the advahtage of position in this way being gener-
ally able to finish the rest by a smashing volley impossible to return.
Ability to play this " smash " stroke is essential to strong lawn-
tennis. " To be good overhead," say the Dohertys, " is the sign of a
first-class player, even if a few have managed to get on without it."
The smash stroke is played very much in the same way as the over-
hand service, except that it is not from a defined position of known
distance from the net; and therefore when making it the player
must realize almost instinctively what his precise position is in re-
lation to the net and the side-lines, for it is of the last importance
that he should not take his eye off the ball " even for the hundredth
part of a second." By drawing the racquet across the balj at the
moment of impact spin may be imparted to it as in tennis, or as
" side " is imparted to a billiard ball, and the direction of this spin
302
LAWN-TENNIS
and the consequent behaviour of the ball after the stroke may be
greatly varied by a skilful player. Perhaps the most generally useful
form of spin, though by no means the only one commonly used, is
that known as " top " or " lift," a vertical .rotatory motion of the
ball in the same direction as its flight, which is imparted to it by an
upward draw of the racquet at the moment of making the stroke,
and the effect of which is to make it drop more suddenly than it
would ordinarily do, and in an unexpected curve. A drive made
with plenty of " top " can be hit much harder than would otherwise
be possible without sending the ball out of court, and it is therefore
extensively employed by the best players. While the volleying
eime is almost universally the practice of first-class players — A. W.
ore, M. J. G. Ritchie and S. H. Smith being almost alone among
those of championship rank in modern days to use the volley com-
paratively little — its difficulty places it beyond the reach of the less
skilful. In lawn-tennis as played at the ordinary country house or
local club the real " smash " of a Renshaw or a Doherty is seldom to
be seen, and the high lob is almost equally rare. Players of moderate
calibre are content to take the ball on the bound and to return it with
some pace along the side-lines or across the court, with the aim of
placing it as artfully as possible beyond the reach of the adversary;
and if now and again they venture to imitate a stroke employed
with killing effect at Wimbledon, they think themselves fortunate if
they occasionally succeed in making it without disaster to themselves.
Before 1890 the method of handicapping at lawn- tennis was the
same as in tennis so far as it was applicable to a game played in an
open court. In 1890 bisques were abolished, and in 1894 an elaborate
system was introduced by which fractional parts of " fifteen " could
be conceded by way of handicap, in accordance with tables inserted
in the laws of the game. The system is a development of the tennis
handicapping by which a finer graduation of odds may be given.
" One-sixth of fifteen " is one stroke given in every six games of a
set; and similarly two-sixths, three-sixths, four-sixths and five-
sixths of fifteen, are respectively two, three, four and five strokes given
in every six games of a set; the particular game in the set in which
the stroke in each case must be given being specified in the tables.
History. — Lawn-tennis cannot be said to have existed prior
to the year 1874. It is, indeed, true that outdoor games based
on tennis were from time to time improvised by lovers of that
game who found themselves out of reach of a tennis-court. Lord
Arthur Hervey, sometime bishop of Bath and Wells, had thus
devised a game which he and his friends played on the lawn
of his rectory in Suffolk; and even so early as the end of the
i8th century "field tennis " was mentioned by the Sporting
Magazine as a game that rivalled the popularity of cricket.
But, however much or little this game may have resembled
lawn-tennis, it had long ceased to exist; and even to be remem-
bered, when in 1874 Major Wingfield took out a patent for a
game called Sphairistike, which the specification described as
" a new and improved portable court for playing the ancient
game of tennis." The court for this game was wider at the base-
lines than at the net, giving the whole court the shape of an
hour-glass; one side of the net only was divided into service-
courts, service being always delivered from a fixed mark in the
centre of the opposite court; and from the net-posts side-nets
were fixed which tapered down to the ground at about the middle
of the side-lines, thus enclosing nearly half the courts on each
side of the net. The possibilities of Sphairistike were quickly
perceived; and under the new name.of lawn-tennis its popularity
grew so quickly that in 1875 a meeting of those interested in
the game was held at Lord's cricket-ground, where a committee
of the Marylebone Club (M.C.C.) was appointed to draw up a
code of rules. The hour-glass shape of the court was retained
by this code (issued in May 1875), and the scoring of the game
followed in the main the racquets instead of the tennis model.
It was at the suggestion of J. M. Heathcote, the amateur tennis
champion, that balls covered with white flannel were sub-
stituted for the uncovered balls used at first. In 1875, through
the influence of Henry Jones (" Cavendish "), lawn-tennis was
included in the programme of the All England Croquet Club,
which in 1877 became the All England Croquet and Lawn-
Tennis Club, on whose ground at Wimbledon the All England
championships have been annually played since that date.
In the same year, in anticipation of the first championship
meeting, the club appointed a committee consisting of Henry
Jones, Julian Marshall and C. G. Heathcote to revise the M.C.C.
code of rules; the result of their labours being the introduction
of the tennis in place of the racquets scoring, the substitution
of a rectangular for the " hour-glass " court, and the enactment
of the modern rule as regards the " fault." The height of the
net, which under the M.C.C. rules had been 4 ft. in the centre,
was reduced to 3 ft. 3 in.; and regulations as to the size and
weight of the ball were also made. Some controversy had
already taken place in the columns of the Field as to whether
volleying the ball, at all events within a certain distance of the
net, should not be prohibited. Spencer Gore, the first to win
the championship in 1877, used the volley with great skill and
judgment, and in principle anticipated the tactics afterwards
brought to perfection by the Renshaws, which aimed at forcing
the adversary back to the base-line and killing his return with
a volley from a position near the net. P. F. Hadow, champion
in 1878, showed how the volley might be defeated by skilful
use of the lob; but the question of placing some check on the
volley continued to be agitated among lovers of the game. The
rapidly growing popularity of lawn-tennis was proved in 1879
by the inauguration at Oxford of the four-handed championship,
and at Dublin of the Irish championship, and by the fact that
there were forty-five competitors for the All England single
championship at Wimbledon, won by J. T. Hartley, a player
who chiefly relied on the accuracy of his return without frequent
resort to the volley. It was in the autumn of the same year,
in a tournament at Cheltenham, that W. Renshaw made his
first successful appearance in public. The year 1880 saw the
foundation of the Northern Lawn-Tennis Association, whose
tournaments have long been regarded as inferior in importance
only to the championship meetings at Wimbledon and Dublin,
and a revision of the rules which substantially made them what
they have ever since remained. This year is also memorable
for the first championship doubles won by the twin brothers
William and Ernest Renshaw, a success which the former followed
up by winning the Irish championship, beating among others
H. F. Lawford for the first time.
The Renshaws had already developed the volleying game at the
net, and had shown what could be done with the " smash "
stroke (which became known by their name as the " Renshaw
smash "), but their service had not as yet become very severe.
In 1 88 1 the distinctive features of their style were more marked,
and the brothers first established firmly the supremacy which
they maintained almost without interruption for the next eight
years. In the doubles they discarded the older tactics of one
partner standing back and the other near the net; the two
Renshaws stood about the same level, just inside the service-
line, and from there volleyed with relentless severity and with
an accuracy never before equalled, and seldom if ever since;
while their service also acquired an immense increase of pace.
Their chief rival, and the leading exponent of the non-volleying
game for several years, was H. F. Lawford. After a year or two
it became evident that neither the volleying tactics of Renshaw
nor the strong back play of Lawford would be adopted to the
exclusion of the other, and both players began to combine the
two styles. Thus the permanent features of lawn-tennis may be
said to have been firmly established by about the year 1885;
and the players who have since then come to the front have for
the most part followed the principles laid down by the Renshaws
and Lawford. One of the greatest performances at lawn-tennis
was in the championship competition in 1886 when W. Renshaw
beat Lawford a love set in 9! minutes. The longest rest in first-
class lawn-tennis occurred in a match between Lawford and
E. Lubbock in 1880, when eighty-one strokes were played.
Among players in the first class who were contemporaries of
the Rensbaws, mention should be made of E. de S. Browne, a
powerful imitator of the Renshaw style; C. W. Grinstead,
R. T. Richardson, V. Goold (who played under the now. de plume
" St Leger "), J. T. Hartley, E. W. Lewis, E L. Williams,
H. Grove and W. J. Hamilton; while among the most prominent
lady players of the period were Miss M. Langrishe, Miss Bradley,
Miss Maud Watson, Miss L. Dod, Miss Martin and Miss Bingley
(afterwards Mrs Hillyard). In 1888 the Lawn-Tennis Association
was established; and the All England Mixed Doubles Champion-
ship (four-handed matches for ladies and gentlemen in partner-
ship) was added to the existing annual competitions. Since 1881
LAWN-TENNIS
303
lawn-tennis matches between Oxford and Cambridge universities
have been played annually;
and almost every county in
England, besides Scotland, Wales and districts such as " Midland
Counties," " South of England
&c., have their own champion-
ship meetings. Tournaments are
also played in winter at Nice,
Monte Carlo and other Mediterranean resorts where most of the
competitors are English visitors.
The results of the All England championships have been as
Year. Gentlemen's Singles.
Year. Gentlemen's Singles.
1877 S. W. Gore
1894 J. Pirn
1878 P. F. Hadow
1895 W. Baddeley
1879 J. T. Hartley
1880 J. T. Hartley
1 88 1 W. Renshaw
1896 H. S. Mahony
1897 R. F. Doherty
1898 R. F. Doherty
1882 W. Renshaw
1899 R. F. Doherty
1883 W. Renshaw
1900 R. F. Doherty
1884 W. Renshaw
1901 A. W. Gore
1885 W. Renshaw
1902 H. L. Doherty
1886 W. Renshaw
1903 H. L. Doherty
1887 H. F. Lawford
1904 H. L. Doherty
1888 E. Renshaw
1905 H. L. Doherty
1889 W. Renshaw
1906 H. L. Doherty
1890 W. J. Hamilton
1907 N. E. Brookes
1891 W. Baddeley
1908 A. W. Gore
1892 W. Baddeley
1909 A. W. Gore
1893 J- Pi™
1910 A. F. Wilding
Year. Gentlemen's Doubles.
1879 L. R. Erskine
and H. F. Lawford
1880 W. Renshaw
E. Renshaw
1 88 1 W. Renshaw
E. Renshaw
1882 J. T. Hartley
R. T. Richardson
1883 C. W. Grinstead
C. E. Welldon
1884 W. Renshaw
E. Renshaw
1885 W. Renshaw
E. Renshaw
1886 W. Renshaw
E. Renshaw
1887 P. B. Lyon
H. W. W. Wilberforce
1888 W. Renshaw
E. Renshaw
1889 W. Renshaw
E. Renshaw
1890 J. Pirn
F. O. Stoker
1891 W. Baddeley
H. Baddeley
1892 H. S. Barlow
E. W. Lewis
1893 J. Pirn
F. O. Stoker
1894 W. Baddeley
H. Baddeley
1895 W. Baddeley
H. Baddeley
1896 W. Baddeley
H. Baddeley
1897 R. F. Doherty
H. L. Doherty
1898 R. F. Doherty
H. L. Doherty
1899 R. F. Doherty
H. L. Doherty
1900 R. F. Doherty
H. L. Doherty
1901 R. F. Doherf
H. L. Doherty
1902 S. H. Smith
F. L. Riseley
1903 R. F. Doherty
H. L. Doherty
1904 R. F. Doherty
H. L. Doherty
1905 R. F. Doherty
H. L. Doherty
1906 S. H. Smith
F. L. Riseley
1907 N. E. Brookes
A. F. Wilding
1908 M. J. G. Ritchie
A. F. Wilding
1909 A. W. Gore
H. Roper Barrett
1910 M. J. G. Ritchie
A. F. Wilding
Year. Ladies' Singles.
Year. Ladies' Singles.
1884 Miss M. Watson
1898 Miss C. Cooper
1885 Miss M. Watson
1899 Mrs Hillyard
1886 Miss Bingley
1887 Miss Dod '
1900 Mrs Hillyard
1901 Mrs Sterry (Miss C.
1888 Miss Dod
Cooper)
1889 Mrs Hillyard
1902 Miss M. E. Robb
(Miss Bingley)
1903 Miss D. K. Douglass
1890 Miss Rice
1904 Miss D. K. Douglass
1891 Miss Dod
1905 Miss M. Sutton
1892 Miss Dod
1906 Miss D. K. Douglass
1893 Miss Dod
1907 Miss M. Sutton
1894 Mrs Hillyard
1908 Mrs Sterry
1895 Miss C. Cooper
1909 Miss D. Boothby
1896 Miss C. Cooper
1910 Mrs Lambert Chambers
1897 Mrs Hillyard
(Miss Douglass)
Year. Ladies' and
Gentlemen's Doubles.
1888 E. Renshaw
and Mrs Hillyard
1889 J. C. Kay
Miss Dod
1890 J. Baldwin
Miss K. Hill
1891 J. C. Kay
Miss Jackson
1892 A. Dod
Miss Dod
1893 W. Baddeley
Mrs Hillyard
1894 H. S. Mahony
Miss C. Cooper
Year.
Ladies' and Gentlemen's Doubles.
1895
H. S. Mahony and Miss C. Cooper
1896
H. S. Mahony
Miss C. Cooper
1897
H. S. Mahony
Miss C. Cooper
1898
H. S. Mahony
Miss C. Cooper
1899
C. H. L. Cazelet
Miss Robb
1900
H. L. Doherty
Miss C. Cooper
1901
S. H. Smith
Miss Martin
1902
S. H. Smith
Miss Martin
1903
F. L. Riseley
Miss D. K. Douglass
1904
S. H. Smith
Miss E. W. Thompson
1905
S. H. Smith
Miss E. W. Thompson
1906
F. L. Riseley
Miss D. K. Douglass
1907
N. E. Brookes
Mrs Hillyard
1908
A. F. Wilding
Mrs Lambert Chambers (Mi
D. K. Douglass)
1909
H. Roper Barrett
Miss Morton
1910
S. N. Doust
Mrs Lambert Chambers
In the United States lawn-tennis was played at Nahant,
near Boston, within a year of its invention in England, Dr
James Dwight and the brothers F. R. and R. D. Sears being
mainly instrumental in making it known to their countrymen.
In 1 88 1 at a meeting in New York of representatives of thirty-
three clubs the United States National Lawn-Tennis Association
was formed; and the adoption of the English rules put an end
to the absence of uniformity in the size of the ball and height
of the net which had hindered the progress of the game. The
association decided to hold matches for championship of the
United States at Newport, Rhode Island; and, by a curious
coincidence, in the same year in which W. Renshaw first won
the English championship, R. D. Sears won the first American
championship by playing a volleying game at the net which
entirely disconcerted his opponents, and he successfully defended
his title for the next six years, winning the doubles throughout
the same period in partnership with Dwight. In 1887, Sears
being unable to play through ill-health, the championship went
to H. W. Slocum. Other prominent players of the period were
the brothers C. M. and J. S. Clark, who in 1883 came to England
and were decisively beaten at Wimbledon by the two Renshaws.
To a later generation belong the strongest single players, M. D.
Whitman, Holcombe Ward, W. A. Larned and Karl Behr.
Holcombe Ward and Dwight Davis, who have the credit of intro-
ducing the peculiar " American twist service," were an ex-
ceedingly strong pair in doubles ; but after winning the American
doubles championship for three years in succession, they were
defeated in 1902 by the English brothers R. F. and H. L.
Doherty. The championship singles in 1904 and 1905 was won
by H. Ward and B. C. Wright, the latter being one of the finest
players America has produced; and these two in partnership
won the doubles for three years in succession, until they were
displaced by F. B. Alexander and H. H. Hackett, who in
their turn held the doubles championship for a like period.
In 1909 two young Californians, Long and McLoughlin, un-
expectedly came to the front, and, although beaten in the final
round for the championship doubles, they represented the
United States in the contest for the Davis cup (see below)
in Australia in that year; McLoughlin having acquired a
service of extraordinary power and a smashing stroke with
a reverse spin which was sufficient by itself to place him in
the highest rank of lawn-tennis players.
Winners of United States Championships.
Year.
Gentlemen's Singles.
Year.
Gentlemen's Singles.
1881
R. D. Sears
1896
R. D. Wrenn
1882
R. D. Sears
1897
R. D. Wrenn
1883
R. D. Sears
1898
•M. D. Whitman
1884
R. D. Sears
1899
M. D. Whitman
1885
R. D. Sears
1900
M. D. Whitman
1886
R. D. Sears
1901
W. A. Larned
1887
R. D. Sears
1902
W. A. Larned
1888
H. W. Slocum
1903
H. L. Doherty
1889
H. W. Slocum
1904
H. Ward
1890
O. S. Campbell
1905
B. C. Wright
1891
O. S. Campbell
1906
W. J. Clothier
1892
O. S. Campbell
1907
W. A. Larned
1893
R. D. Wrenn
1908
W. A. Larned
1894
R. D. Wrenn
1909
W. A. Larned
i895
F. H. Hovey
1910
W. A. Larned
304
LAWRENCE, ST— LAWRENCE, A.
Gentlemen's Doubles.
Year.
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
Year.
1882 . Dwight
1883 . Dwight
1884 . Dwight
1885 . S. Clark
1886 . Dwight
1887 . Dwight
1888 V. G. Hall
1889 H. W. Slocum
1890 V. G. Hall
1891 O. S. Campbell
1892 O. S. Campbell
1893 C. Hobart
1894 C. Hobart
1895 R. D. Wrenn
1896 C. B. Neel
1897 L. E. Ware
1898 L. E. Ware
1899 D. F. Davis
1900 D. F. Davis
1901 D. F. Davis
1902 R. F. Doherty
1903 R. F. Doherty
1904 H. Ward
1905 H. Ward
1906 H. Ward
1907 F. B. Alexander
1908 F. B. Alexander
1909 F. B. Alexander
1910 F. B. Alexander
Ladies' Singles.
Miss E. C. Roosevelt
Miss Mabel E.Cahill
Miss Mabel E. Cahill
Miss Aline M. Terry
Miss Helen R. Helwig
Miss J. P. Atkinson
Miss Elizabeth H. Moore
Miss J. P. Atkinson
Miss J. P. Atkinson
Miss Marion Jones
and R. D. Sears
R. D. Sears
R. D. Sears
R. D. Sears
R. D. Sears
R. D. Sears
O. S. Campbell
H. A. Taylor
C. Hobart
R. P. Huntingdon
R. P. Huntingdon
F. H. Hovey
F. H. Hovey
M. G. Chase
S. R. Neel
G. P. Sheldon
G. P. Sheldon
H. Ward
H. Ward
H. Ward
H. L. Doherty
H. L. Doherty
B. C. Wright
B. C. Wright
B. C. Wright
H. H. Hackett
H. H. Hackett
H. H. Hackett
„ H. H. Hackett
1900 Miss Myrtle McAteer
1901 Miss Elizabeth H.Moore
1902 Miss Marion Jones
1903 Miss Elizabeth H. Moore
1904 Miss May Sutton
1905 Miss Elizabeth H. Moore
1906 Miss Helen H. Homans
1907 Miss Evelyn Sears
1908 Mrs Barger Wallach
1909 Miss Hazel Hotchkiss
1910 Miss Hazel Hotchkiss
1895
E. P. Fischer
1896
E. P. Fischer
1897
D. L. Magruder
1898
E. P. Fischer
1899
A. L. Hoskins
1900
Alfred Codman
1901
R. D. Little
1902
W. C. Grant
1903
Harry Allen
1904
W. C. Grant
1905
Clarence Hobart
1906
E. B. Dewhurst
1907
W. F. Johnson
1908
N. W. Niles
1909
W. F. Johnson ,
1910
J. R. Carpenter ,
Year. Ladies' and Gentlemen's Doubles.
1894 E. P. Fischer and Miss J. P. Atkinson
Miss J. P. Atkinson
Miss J. P. Atkinson
Miss Laura Henson
Miss Carrie Neely
Miss Edith Rastall
Miss M. Hunnewell
Miss Marion Jones
Miss E. H. Moore
Miss Chapman
Miss E. H. Moore
Mrs Clarence Hobart
Miss Coffin
Miss Say res
Miss E. Rotch
Miss H. Hotchkiss
Miss H. Hotchkiss
In 1900 an international challenge cup was presented by the
American D. F. Davis, to be competed for in the country of the
holders. In the summer of that year a British team, consisting
of A. W. Gore,E. D. Black and H, R. Barrett, challenged for the
cup but were defeated by the Americans, Whitman, Larned,
Davis and Ward. In 1902 a more representative British team,
the two Dohertys and Pirn, were again defeated by the same
representatives of the United States; but in the following
year the Dohertys brought the Davis cup to England by beating
Larned and the brothers Wrenn at Longwood. In 1904 the cup
was played for at Wimbledon, when representatives of Belgium,
Austria and France entered, but failed to defeat the Dohertys
and F. L. Riseley, who represented Great Britain. In 1905 the
entries included France, Austria, Australasia, Belgium and the
United States; in 1906 the same countries, except Belgium,
competed; but in both years the British players withstood the
attack. In 1907, however, when the contest was confined to
England, the United States and Australasia, the latter was suc-
cessful in winning the cup, which was then for the first time taken
to the colonies, where it was retained in the following year
when the Australians N. E. Brookes and A. F.Wilding defeated
the representatives of the United States, who had previously
beaten the English challengers in America. In 1909 England
was not represented in the competition, and the Australians again
retained the cup, beating the Americans McLoughlin and Long
both in singles and doubles.
See " The Badminton Library," Tennis: Lawn-Tennis: Racquets:
Fives, new and revised edition (1903) ; R. F. and H. L. Doherty, On
Lawn-Tennis (1903); E. H. Miles, Lessons in Lawn-Tennis (1899);
E. de Nanteuil, La Paume et le lawn-tennis (1898); J. Dwight,
" Form in Lawn-Tennis," in Scribner's Magazine, vol. vi.; A. Wallis
Myers, The Complete Lawn-Tennis Player (1908). (R. J. M.)
LAWRENCE (LAURENTIUS, LORENZO), ST, Christian martyr,
whose name appears in the canon of the mass, and whose festival
is on the loth of August. The basilica reared over his tomb at
Rome is still visited by pilgrims. His legend is very popular.
Deacon of the pope (St) Sixtus (Xystus) II., he was called upon
by the judge to bring forth the treasures of the church which
had been committed to his keeping. He thereupon produced
the church's poor people. Seeing his bishop, Sixtus, being led
to punishment, he cried: " Father! whither goest thou without
thy son? Holy priest! whither goest thou without thy deacon? "
Sixtus prophesied that Lawrence would follow him in three days.
The prophecy was fulfilled, and Lawrence was sentenced to be
burnt alive on a gridiron. In the midst of his torments he
addressed the judge ironically with the words: Assum est,
versa et manduca (" I am roasted enough on this side; turn me
round, and eat"). All these details of the well-known legend
are already related by St Ambrose (De Offic. i. 41, ii. 28). The
punishment of the gridiron and the speech of the martyr are
probably a reminiscence of the Phrygian martyrs, as related
by Socrates (iii. 15) and Sozomen (v. n). But the fact of the
martyrdom is unquestionable. The date is usually put at the
persecution of Valerian in 258.
The cult of St Lawrence has spread throughout Christendom,
and there are numerous churches dedicated to* him, especially in
England, where 228 have been counted. The Escurial was built
in honour of St Lawrence by Philip II. of Spain, in memory of
the battle of St Quentin, which was won in 1557 on the day
of the martyr's festival. The meteorites which appear annually
on or about the loth of August are popularly known as " the
tears of St Lawrence."
See Ada sanctorum, August! ii. 485-532 ; P. Franchi de' Cavalieri,
5. Lorenzo e il supplicio della graticola (Rome, 1900); Analecta
Bollandiana, xix. 452 and 453; Fr. Arnold-Forster, Studies in
Church Dedications or England's Patron Saints, i. 508-515, iii. 18,
389-390 (1899). (H. DE.)
LAWRENCE, AMOS (1786-1852), American merchant and
philanthropist, was born in Groton, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on
the 22nd of April 1786, a descendant of John Lawrence of Wisset,
Suffolk, England, who was one of the first settlers of Groton.
Leaving Groton academy (founded by his father, Samuel
Lawrence, and others) in 1799, he became a clerk in a country
store in Groton, whence after his apprenticeship he went, with
$20 in his pocket, to Boston and there set up in business for
himself in December 1807. In the next year he took into his
employ his brother, Abbott (see below), whom he made his
partner in 1814, the firm name being at first A. & A. Lawrence,
and afterwards A. & A. Lawrence & Co. In 1831 when his
health failed, Amos Lawrence retired from active business,
and Abbott Lawrence was thereafter the head of the firm.
The firm became the greatest American mercantile house of the
day, was successful even in the hard times of 1812-1815, after-
wards engaged particularly in selling woollen and cotton goods
on commission, and did much for the establishment of the
cotton textile industry in New England: in 1830 by coming
to the aid of the financially distressed mills of Lowell, Massa-
chusetts, where in that year the Suffolk, Tremont and Lawrence
companies were established, and where Luther Lawrence, the
eldest brother, represented the firm's interests; and in 1845-
1847 by establishing and building up Lawrence, Massachusetts,
named in honour of Abbott Lawrence, who was a director of the
Essex company, which controlled the water power of Lawrence,
and afterwards was president of the Atlantic Cotton Mills and
Pacific Mills there. In 1842 Amos Lawrence decided not to
allow his property to increase any further, and in the last eleven
years of his life he spent in charity at least $525,000, a large sum
LAWRENCE, A. A.— LAWRENCE, SIR H. M.
305
in those days. He gave to Williams college, to Bowdoin college,
to the Bangor theological seminary, to Wabash college, to
Kenyon college and to Groton academy, which was re-named
Lawrence academy in honour of the family, and especially in
recognition of the gifts of William Lawrence, Amos's brother;
to the Boston children's infirmary, which he established, and
($10,000) to the Bunker Hill monument fund; and, besides,
he gave to many good causes on a smaller scale, taking especial
delight in giving books, occasionally from a bundle of books in
his sleigh or carriage as he drove. He died in Boston on the
3ist of December 1852.
See Extracts from the Diary and Correspondence of the late Amos
Lawrence, with a Brief Account of Some Incidents in his Life (Boston,
1856), edited by his son William R. Lawrence.
His brother, ABBOTT LAWRENCE (1792-1855), was born in
Groton, Massachusetts, on the" i6th of December 1792. Besides
being a partner in the firm established by his brother, and long
its head, he promoted various New England railways, notably
the Boston & Albany. He was a Whig representative in Congress
in 1835-1837 and in 1839-1840 (resigning in September 1840
because of ill-health); and in 1842 was one of the commissioners
for Massachusetts, who with commissioners from Maine and with
Daniel Webster, secretary of state and plenipotentiary of the
United States, settled with Lord Ashburton, the British pleni-
potentiary, the question of the north-eastern boundary. In
1842 he was presiding officer in the Massachusetts Whig con-
vention; he broke with President Tyler, tacitly rebuked Daniel
Webster for remaining in Tyler's cabinet after his colleagues had
resigned, and recommended Henry Clay and John Davis as the
nominees of the Whig party in 1844 — an action that aroused
Webster to make his famous Faneuil Hall address. In 1848
Lawrence was a prominent candidate for the Whig nomination for
the vice-presidency, but was defeated by Webster's followers.
He refused the portfolios of the navy and of the interior in
President Taylor's cabinet, and in 1849-1852 was United States
minister to Great Britain, where he was greatly aided by his
wealth and his generous hospitality. He was an ardent pro-
tectionist, and represented Massachusetts at the Harrisburg
convention in 1827. He died in Boston on the i8th of August
1855, leaving as his greatest memorial the Lawrence scientific
school of Harvard university, which he had established by a
gift of $50,000 in 1847 and to which he bequeathed another
$50,000; in 1907-1908 this school was practically abolished as
a distinct department of the university. He made large gifts
to the Boston public library, and he left $50,000 for the erection
of model lodging-houses, thus carrying on the work of an Associa-
tion for building model lodging-houses for the poor, organized
in Boston in 1857.
See Hamilton A. Hill, Memoir of Abbott Lawrence (Boston,
1884). Randolph Anders' Der Weg zum Cluck, oder die Kunst
Milliondr zu werden (Berlin, 1856) is a pretended translation of
moral maxims from a supposititious manuscript bequeathed to
Abbott Lawrence by a rich uncle.
LAWRENCE, AMOS ADAMS (1814-1886), American philan-
thropist, son of Amos Lawrence, was born in Groton, Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A., on the 3ist of July 1814. He graduated at
Harvard in 1835, went into business in Lowell, and in 1837
established in Boston his own counting-house, which from 1843
to 1858 was the firm of Lawrence & Mason, and which was a
selling agent for the Cocheco mills of Dover, New Hampshire,
and for other textile factories. Lawrence established a hosiery
and knitting mill at Ipswich — the first of importance in the
country — and was a director in many large corporations. He
was greatly interested in the claims of Eleazer Williams of Green
Bay, Wisconsin, and through loans to this " lost dauphin "
came into possession of much land in Wisconsin; in 1849 he
founded at Appleton, Wisconsin, a school named in his honour
Lawrence university (now Lawrence college). He also contri-
buted to funds for the colonization of free negroes in Liberia.
In 1854 he became treasurer of the Massachusetts Emigrant Aid
Company (reorganized in 1855 as the New England Emigrant
Aid Company), which sent 1300 settlers to Kansas, where the
city of Lawrence was named in his honour. He contributed
personally for the famous Sharp rifles, which, packed as " books "
and " primers," were shipped to Kansas and afterwards came
into the hands of John Brown, who had been a protege of Law-
rence. During the contest in Kansas, Lawrence wrote frequently
to- President Pierce (his mother's nephew) in behalf of the free-
state settlers; and when John Brown was arrested he appealed
to the governor of Virginia to secure for him a lawful trial. On
Robinson and others in Kansas he repeatedly urged the necessity
of offering no armed resistance to the Federal government; and
he deplored Brown's fanaticism. In 1858 and in 1860 he was
the Whig candidate for governor of Massachusetts. Till the
very outbreak of the Civil War he was a "law and order" man,
and he did his best to secure the adoption of the Crittenden
compromise; but he took an active part in drilling troops,
and in 1862 he raised a battalion of cavalry which became the
2nd Massachusetts Regiment of Cavalry, of which Charles Russell
Lowell was colonel. Lawrence was a member of the Protestant
Episcopal Church and built (1873-1880) Lawrence hall, Cam-
bridge, for the Episcopal theological school, of which he was
treasurer. In 1857-1862 he was treasurer of Harvard college,
and in 1879-1885 was an overseer. He died in Nahant, Mass.,
on the 22nd of August 1886.
See William Lawrence, Life of Amos A. Lawrence, with Extracts
from his Diary and Correspondence (Boston, 1888).
His son, WILLIAM LAWRENCE (1850- ), graduated in 1871
at Harvard, and in 1875 at the Episcopal theological school,
where, after being rector of Grace Church, Lawrence, Mass.,
in 1876-1884, he was professor of homiletics and natural
theology in 1884-1893 and dean in 1888-1893. In 1893 he
succeeded Phillips Brooks as Protestant Episcopal bishop of
Massachusetts. He wrote A Life of Roger Wolcott, Governor of
Massachusetts (1902).
LAWRENCE, GEORGE ALFRED (1827-1876), English novel-
ist, was born at Braxted, Essex, on the 25th of March 1827,
and was educated at Rugby and at Balliol college, Oxford. He
was called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1852, but soon
abandoned the law for literature. In 1857 he published, anony-
mously, his first novel, Guy Livingstone, or Thorough. The book
achieved a very large sale, and had nine or ten successors of a
similar type, the best perhaps being Sword and Gown (1859).
Lawrence may be regarded as the originator in English fiction
of the beau sabreur type of hero, great in sport and love and war.
He died at Edinburgh on the 23rd of September 1876.
LAWRENCE, SIR HENRY MONTGOMERY (1806-1857),
British soldier and statesman in India, brother of the ist Lord
Lawrence (q.v.), was born at Matara, Ceylon, on the 28th of June
1806. He inherited his father's stern devotion to duty and
Celtic impulsiveness, tempered by his mother's gentleness and
power of organization. Early in 1823 he joined the Bengal
Artillery at the Calcutta suburb of Dum Dum, where also
Henry Havelock was stationed about the same time. The
two officers pursued a very similar career, and developed the
same Puritan character up to the time that both died at Lucknow
in 1857. In the first Burmese War Henry Lawrence and his
battery formed part of the Chittagong column which General
Morrison led over the jungle-covered hills of Arakan, till fever
decimated the officers and men, and Lawrence found himself
at home again, wasted by a disease which never left him. On
his return to India with his younger brother John in 1829 he
was appointed revenue surveyor by Lord William Bentinck.
At Gorakhpur the wonderful personal influence which radiated
from the young officer formed a school of attached friends and
subordinates who were always eager to serve under him. After
some years spent in camp, during which he had married his
cousin Honoria Marshall, and had surveyed every village in
four districts, each larger than Yorkshire, he was recalled to a
brigade by the outbreak of the first Afghan War towards the
close of 1838. As assistant to Sir George Clerk, he now added
to his knowledge of the people political experience in the manage-
ment of the district of Ferozepore; and when disaster came
he was sent to Peshawar in order to push up supports for the
relief of Sale and the garrison of Jalalabad. The war had been
3°6
LAWRENCE, BARON
begun under the tripartite treaty signed at Lahore on the 2oth
of June 1838. But the Sikhs were slow to play their part after
the calamities in Afghanistan. No one but Henry Lawrence
could manage the disorderly contingent which they reluctantly
supplied to Pollock's avenging army in 1842. He helped to
force the Khyber Pass on the 5th of April, playing his guns
from the heights, for 8 and 20 m. In recognition of his services
Lord Ellenborough appointed him to the charge of the valley
of Dehra Dun and its hill stations, Mussoorie and Landour,
where he first formed the idea of asylums for the children of
European soldiers. After a month's experience there it was
discovered that the appointment was the legal right of the
civil service, and he was transferred, as assistant to the envoy
at Lahore, to Umballa, where he reduced to order the lapsed
territory of Kaithal. Soon he received the office of resident at
the protected court of Nepal, where, assisted by his wife, he began
a series of contributions to the Calcutta Review, a selected
volume of which forms an Anglo-Indian classic. There, too,
he elaborated his plans which resulted in the erection and
endowment of the noblest philanthropic establishments in the
East — the Lawrence military asylums at Sanawar (on the road
to Simla), at Murree in the Punjab, at Mount Abu in Rajputana,
and at Lovedale on the Madras Nilgiris. From 1844 to his
death he devoted all his income, above a modest pittance for
his children, to this and other forms of charity.
The Review articles led the new governor-general, Lord
Hardinge, to summon Lawrence to his side during the first
Sikh War; and not these articles only. He had published the
results of his experience of Sikh rule and soldiering in a vivid
work, the Adventures of an Officer in the Service of Ranjit Singh
(1845), in which he vainly attempted to disguise his own person-
ality and exploits. After the doubtful triumphs of Moodkee
and Ferozshah Lawrence was summoned from Nepal to take
the place of Major George Broadfoot, who had fallen. Aliwal
came; then the guns of Sobraon chased the demoralized Sikhs
across the Sutlej. All through the smoke Lawrence was at the
side of the governor-general. He gave his voice, not for the
rescue of the people from anarchy by annexation, but for the
reconstruction of the Sikh government, and was himself appointed
resident at Lahore, with power " over every department arid
to any extent " as president of the council of regency till the
maharaja Dhuleep Singh should come of age. Soon disgusted
by the " venal and selfish durbar " who formed his Sikh colleagues,
he summoned to his side assistants like Nicholson, James Abbott
and Edwardes, till they all did too much for the people, as he
regretfully confessed. But " my chief confidence was in my
brother John, . . . who gave me always such help as only a brother
could." Wearied out he went home with Lord Hardinge, and
was made K.C.B., when the second Sikh War summoned him
back at the end of 1848 to see the whole edifice of Sikh " recon-
struction " collapse. It fell to Lord Dalhousie to proclaim the
Punjab up to the Khyber British territory on the 2gth of March
1849. But still another compromise was tried. As the best
man to reconcile the Sikh chiefs to the inevitable, Henry Lawrence
was made president of the new board of administration with
charge of the political duties, and his brother John was entrusted
with the finances. John could not find the revenue necessary
for the rapid civilization of the new province so long as Henry
would, for political reasons, insist on granting life pensions and
alienating large estates to the needy remnants of Ranjit Singh's
court. Lord Dalhousie delicately but firmly removed Sir Henry
Lawrence to the charge of the great nobles of Rajputana, and
installed John as chief commissioner. If resentment burned
in Henry's heart, it was not against his younger brother, who
would fain have retired. To him he said, " If you preserve the
peace of the country and make the people high and low happy,
I shall have no regrets that I vacated the field for you."
In the comparative rest of Rajputana he once more took up
the pen as an army reformer. In March and September 1856
he published two articles, called forth by conversations with
Lord Dalhousie at Calcutta, whither he had gone as the hero
of a public banquet. The governor-general had vainly warned
the home authorities against reducing below 40,000 the British
garrison of India even for the Crimean War, and had sought to
improve the position of the sepoys. Lawrence pointed out the
latent causes of mutiny, and uttered warnings to be too soon
justified. In March 1857 he yielded to Lord Canning's request
that he should then take the helm at Lucknow, but it was too
late. In ten days his magic rule put down administrative
difficulties indeed, as he had done at Lahore. But what could
even he effect with only 700 European soldiers, when the epidemic
spread after the Meerut outbreak of mutiny on the roth of May?
In one week he had completed those preparations which made
the defence of the Lucknow residency for ever memorable.
Amid the deepening gloom Lord Canning ever wrote home of
him as " a tower of strength," and he was appointed provisional
governor-general. On the 3oth of May mutiny burst forth in
Oudh, and he was ready. On the 2pth of June, pressed by
fretful colleagues, and wasted by unceasing toil, he led 336
British soldiers with n guns and 220 natives out of Chinhat
to reconnoitre the insurgents, when the natives joined the
enemy and the residency was besieged. On the 2nd of July, as
he lay exhausted by the day's work and the terrific heat in an
exposed room, a shell struck him, and in forty-eight hours he
was no more. A baronetcy was conferred on his son. A marble
statue was placed in St Paul's as the national memorial of one
who has been declared to be the noblest man that has lived and
died for the good of India.
His biography was begun by Sir Herbert Edwardes, and completed
(2 vols. 1872) by Herman Merivale. See also J. J. McLeod Innes,
Sir Henry Lawrence (" Rulers of India " series), 1898.
LAWRENCE, JOHN LAIRD MAIR LAWRENCE, isx BARON
(1811-1879), viceroy and governor-general of India, was born
at Richmond, Yorkshire, on the 24th of March 1811. His father,
Colonel Alexander Lawrence, volunteered for the forlorn hope
at Seringapatam in presence of Baird and of Wellington, whose
friend he became. His mother, Letitia Knox, was a collateral
descendant of John Knox. To this couple were born twelve
children, of whom three became famous in India, Sir George
St Patrick, Sir Henry (q.v.) and Lord Lawrence. Irish Pro-
testants, the boys were trained at Foyle college, Derry, and at
Clifton, and received Indian appointments from their mother's
cousin, John Hudleston, who had been the friend of Schwartz
in Tanjore. In 1829, when only seventeen, John Lawrence
landed at Calcutta as a civilian; he mastered the Persian
language at the college of Fort William, and was sent to Delhi,
on his own application, as assistant to the collector. The position
was the most dangerous and difficult to which a Bengal civilian
could be appointed at that time. The titular court of the pen-
sioner who represented the Great Mogul was the centre of that
disaffection and sensuality which found their opportunity in
1857. A Mussulman rabble filled the city. The district around,
stretching from the desert of Rajputana to the Jumna, was
slowly recovering from the anarchy to which Lord Lake had
given the first blow. When not administering justice in the city
courts or under the village tree, John Lawrence was scouring
the country after the marauding Meos and Mahommedan free-
booters. His keen insight and sleepless energy at once detected
the murderer of his official superior, William Fraser, in 1835,
in the person of Shams-uddin Khan, the nawab of Loharu,
whose father had been raised to the principality by Lake, and
the assassin was executed. The first twenty years, from 1829
to 1849, during which John Lawrence acted as the magistrate
and land revenue collector of the most turbulent and backward
portion of the Indian empire as it then was, formed the period
of the reforms of Lord William Bentinck. To what became
the lieutenant-governorship of the North-Western (now part
of the United) Provinces Lord Wellesley had promised the same
permanent settlement of the land-tax which Lord Cornwallis
had made with the large landholders or zemindars of Bengal.
The court of directors, going to the opposite extreme, had
sanctioned leases for only five years, so that agricultural progress
was arrested. In 1833 Merttins Bird and James Thomason
introduced the system of thirty years' leases based on a careful
LAWRENCE, BARON
307
survey of every estate by trained civilians, and on the mapping
of every village holding by native subordinates. These two
revenue officers created a school of enthusiastic economists who
rapidly registered and assessed an area as large as that of Great
Britain, with a rural population of twenty-three millions. Of
that school John Lawrence proved the most ardent and the most
renowned. Intermitting his work at Delhi, he became land
revenue settlement officer in the district of Etawah, and there
began, by buying out or getting rid of the talukdars, to realize
the ideal which he did much to create throughout the rest of
his career — a country " thickly cultivated by a fat contented
yeomanry, each man riding his own horse, sitting under his own
fig-tree, and enjoying his rude family comforts." This and a
quiet persistent hostility to the oppression of the people by their
chiefs formed the two featur.es of his administrative policy
throughout life.
It was fortunate for the British power that, when the first
Sikh War broke out, John Lawrence was still collector of Delhi.
The critical engagements at Ferozeshah, following Moodkee,
and hardly redeemed by Aliwal, left the British army somewhat
exhausted at the gate of the Punjab, in front of the Sikh en-
trenchments on the Sutlej. For the first seven weeks of 1846
there poured into camp, day by day, the supplies and munitions
of war which this one man raised and pushed forward, with
all the influence acquired during fifteen years of an iron yet
sympathetic rule in the land between the Jumna and the Sutlej.
The crowning victory of Sobraon was the result, and at thirty-
five Lawrence became commissioner of the Jullundur Doab, the
fertile belt of hill and dale stretching from the Sutlej north to
the Indus. The still youthful civilian did for the newly annexed
territory what he had long before accomplished in and around
Delhi. He restored it to order, without one regular soldier.
By the fascination of his personal influence he organized levies
of the Sikhs who had just been defeated, led them now against
a chief in the upper hills and now to storm the fort of a raja in
the lower, till he so welded the people into a loyal mass that
he was ready to repeat the service of 1846 when, three years
after, the second Sikh War ended in the conversion of the Punjab
up to Peshawar into a British province.
Lord Dalhousie had to devise a government for a warlike
population now numbering twenty-three millions, and covering
an area little less than that of the United Kingdom. The first
results were not hopeful; and it was not till John Lawrence
became chief commissioner, and stood alone face to face with
the chiefs and people and ring fence of still untamed border
tribes, that there became possible the most successful experi-
ment in the art of civilizing turbulent millions which history
presents. The province was mapped out into districts, now
numbering thirty-two, in addition to thirty-six tributary states,
small and great. To each the thirty years' leases of the north-
west settlement were applied, after a patient survey and assess-
ment by skilled officials ever in the saddle or the tent. The
revenue was raised on principles so fair to the peasantry that
Ranjit Singh's exactions were reduced by a fourth, while agri-
cultural improvements were encouraged. For the first time
in its history since the earliest Aryan settlers had been over-
whelmed by successive waves of invaders, the soil of the Punjab
came to have a marketable value, which every year of British
rule has increased. A stalwart police was organized; roads
were cut through every district, and canals were constructed.
Commerce followed on increasing cultivation and communica-
tions, courts brought justice to every man's door, and crime hid
its head. The adventurous and warlike spirits, Sikh and Mahom-
medan, found a career in the new force of irregulars directed
by the chief commissioner himself, while the Afghan, Dost
Mahommed, kept within his own fastnesses, and the long extent
of frontier at the foot of the passes was patrolled.
Seven years of such work prepared the lately hostile and
always anarchic Punjab under such a pilot as John Lawrence
not only to weather the storm of 1857 but to lead the older
provinces into port. On the i2th of May the news of the
tragedies at Meerut and Delhi reached him at Rawalpindi. The
position was critical in the last degree, for of 50,000 native
soldiers 38,000 were Hindustanis of the very class that had
mutinied elsewhere, and the British troops were few and scattered.
For five days the fate of the Punjab hung upon a thread, for
the question was, " Could the 12,000 Punjabis be trusted and
the 38,000 Hindustanis be disarmed?" Not an hour was lost
in beginning the disarming at Lahore; and, as one by one the
Hindustani corps succumbed to the epidemic of mutiny, the
sepoys were deported or disappeared, or swelled the military
rabble in and around the city of Delhi. The remembrance of
the ten years' war which had closed only in 1849, a bountiful
harvest, the old love of battle, the offer of good pay, but, above
all, the personality of Lawrence and his officers, raised the
Punjabi force into a new army of 59,000 men, and induced the
non-combatant classes to subscribe to a 6% loan. Delhi was
invested, but for three months the rebel city did not fall. Under
John Nicholson, Lawrence sent on still more men to the siege,
till every available European and faithful native soldier was
there, while a movable column swept the country, and the
border was kept by an improvised militia. At length, when
even in the Punjab confidence became doubt, and doubt distrust,
and that was passing into disaffection, John Lawrence was ready
to consider whether we should not give up the Peshawar valley
to the Afghans as a last resource, and send its garrison to recruit
the force around Delhi. Another week and that alternative
must have been faced. But on the 2oth of September the city
and palace of Delhi were again in British hands, and the chief
commissioner and his officers united in ascribing " to the Lord
our God all the praise due for nerving the hearts of our states-
men and the arms of our soldiers." As Sir John Lawrence,
Bart., G.C.B., with the thanks of parliament, the gratitude
of his country, and a life pension of £ 2000 a year in addition
to his ordinary pension of £1000, the " saviour of India " re-
turned home in 1859. After guarding the interests of India
and its people as a member of the secretary of state's council,
he was sent out again in 1864 as viceroy and governor-general
on the death of Lord Elgin. If no great crisis enabled Lawrence
to increase his reputation, his five years' administration of the
whole Indian empire was worthy of the ruler of the Punjab.
His foreign policy has become a subject of imperial interest,
his name being associated with the " close border " as opposed
to the " forward " policy; while his internal administration
was remarkable for financial prudence, a jealous regard for the
good of the masses of the people and of the British soldiers,
and a generous interest in education, especially in its Christian
aspects.
When in 1854 Dost Mahommed, weakened by the antagonism
of his brothers in Kandahar, and by the interference of Persia,
sent his son to Peshawar to make a treaty, Sir John Lawrence
was opposed to any entangling relation with the Afghans after
the experience of 1838-1842, but he obeyed Lord Dalhousie
so far as to sign a treaty of perpetual peace and friendship.
His ruling idea, the fruit of long and sad experience, was that
de facto powers only should be recognized beyond the frontier.
When in 1863 Dost Mahommed's death let loose the factions of
Afghanistan he acted on this policy to such an extent that he
recognized both the sons, Afzul Khan and Shere Ali, at different
times, and the latter fully only when he had made himself master
of all his father's kingdom. The steady advance of Russia from
the north, notwithstanding the Gortchakov circular of 1864, led
to severe criticism of this cautious " buffer " policy which he
justified under the term of " masterly inactivity." But he was
ready to receive Shere Ali in conference, and to aid him in con-
solidating his power after it had been established and maintained
for a time, when his term of office came to an end and it fell to
Lord Mayo, his successor, to hold the Umballa conference in
1869. When, nine years after, the second Afghan War was
precipitated, the retired viceroy gave the last days of his life to an
unsparing exposure, in the House of Lords and in* the press, of
a policy which he had striven to prevent in its inception, and
which he did not cease to denounce in its course and consequences.
On his final return to England early in 1869, after forty years'-
3o8
LAWRENCE, S.— LAWRENCE
service in and for India, " the great proconsul of our English
Christian empire " was created Baron Lawrence of the Punjab,
and of Grately, Hants. He assumed the same arms and crest as
those of his brother Henry, with a Pathan and a Sikh trooper as
supporters, and took as his motto " Be ready," his brother's
being " Never give in." For ten years he gave himself to the
work of the London school board, of which he was the first
chairman, and of the Church missionary society. Towards the
end his eyesight failed, and on the 27th of June 1879 he died at
the age of sixty-eight. He was buried in the nave of Westminster
Abbey, beside Clyde, Outram and Livingstone. He had married
the daughter of the Rev. Richard Hamilton, Harriette-Katherine,
who survived him, and he was succeeded as 2nd baron by his
eldest son, John Hamilton Lawrence (b. 1846).
See Bosworth Smith, Life of Lord Lawrence (1885); Sir Charles
Aitchison, Lord Lawrence (" Rulers of India " series, 1892) ; L. J.
Trotter, Lord Lawrence (1880); and F. M. Holmes, Four Heroes of
India.
LAWRENCE, STRINGER (1697-1775), English soldier, was
born at Hereford on the 6th of March 1697. He seems to have
entered the army in 1727 and served in Gibraltar and Flanders,
subsequently taking part in the battle of Culloden. In 1748,
with the rank of major and the reputation of an experienced
soldier, he went out to India to command the East India Com-
pany's troops. Dupleix's schemes for the French conquest of
southern India were on the point of taking effect, and not long
after his arrival at Fort St David, Stringer Lawrence was actively
engaged. He successfully foiled an attempted French surprise
at Cuddalore, but subsequently was captured by a French cavalry
patrol at Ariancopang near Pondicherry and kept prisoner till
the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. In 1749 he was in command at the
capture of Devicota. On this occasion Clive served under him
and a life-long friendship began. On one occasion, when Clive
had become famous, he honoured the creator of the Indian army
by refusing to accept a sword of honour unless one was voted to
Lawrence also. In 1750 Lawrence returned to England, but
in 1752 he was back in India. Here he found Clive in command
of a force intended for the relief of Trichinopoly. As senior
officer Lawrence took over the command, but was careful to allow
Clive every credit for his share in the subsequent operations,
which included the relief of Trichinopoly and the surrender of
the entire French besieging force. In 1752 with an inferior force
he defeated the French at Bahur (Behoor) and in 1753 again
relieved Trichinopoly. For the next seventeen months he
fought a series of actions in defence of this place, finally arranging
a three months' armistice, which was afterwards converted into
a conditional treaty. He had commanded in chief up to the
arrival of the first detachment of regular forces of the crown.
In 1757 he served in the operations against Wandiwash, and in
1758-1759 was in command of Fort St George during the siege
by the French under Lally. In 1759 failing health compelled
him to return to England. He resumed his command in 1761
as major-general and commander-in-chief. Clive supplemented
his old friend's inconsiderable income by settling on him an
annuity of £50x3 a year. In 1765 he presided over the board
charged with arranging the reorganization of the Madras army,
and he finally retired the following year. He died in London on
the loth of January 1775. The East India Company erected a
monument to his memory in Westminster Abbey.
See Biddulph, Stringer Lawrence (1901).
LAWRENCE, SIR THOMAS (1760-1830), English painter,
was born at Bristol on the 4th of May 1769. His father was an
innkeeper, first at Bristol and afterwards at Devizes, and at
the age of six Thomas was already shown off to the guests of
the Black Boar as an infant prodigy who could sketch their
likenesses and declaim speeches from Milton. In 1779 the elder
Lawrence had to leave Devizes, having failed ,'in business,
and the precocious talent of the son, who had gained a sort
of reputation along the Bath road, became the support of
the family. His debut as a crayon portrait painter was made
at Oxford, where he was well patronized, and in 1782 the family
settled in Bath, where the young artist soon found himself fully
employed in taking crayon likenesses of the fashionables of the
place at a guinea or a guinea and a half a head. In 1784 he
gained the prize and silver-gilt palette of the Society of Arts for a
crayon drawing after Raphael's " Transfiguration," and presently
beginning to paint in oil. Throwing aside the idea of going
on the stage which he had for a short time entertained, he came
to London in 1787, was kindly received by Reynolds, and entered
as a student at the Royal Academy. He began to exhibit almost
immediately, and his reputation increased so rapidly that he
became an associate of the Academy in 1791. The death of Sir
Joshua in 1792 opened the way to further successes. He was
at once appointed painter to the Dilettanti society, and principal
painter to the king in room of Reynolds. In 1794 he was a Royal
Academician, and he became the fashionable portrait painter
of the age, having as his sitters all the rank, fashion and talent
of England, and ultimately most of the crowned heads of Europe.
In 1815 he was knighted; in 1818 he went to Aix-la-Chapelle
to paint the sovereigns and diplomatists gathered there, and
visited Vienna and Rome, everywhere receiving flattering marks
of distinction from princes, due as much to his courtly manners
as to his merits as an artist. After eighteen months he. returned
to England, and on the very day of his arrival was chosen pres-
ident of the Academy in room of West, who had died a few days
before. This office he held from 1820 to his death on the 7th of
January 1830. He was never married.
Sir Thomas Lawrence had all the qualities of personal manner
and artistic style necessary to make a fashionable painter, and
among English portrait painters he takes a high place, though
not as high as that given to him in his lifetime. His more
ambitious works, in the classical style, such as his once celebrated
" Satan," are practically forgotten.
The best display of Lawrence's work is in the Waterloo Gallery
of Windsor, a collection of much historical interest. " Master
Lambton," painted for Lord Durham at the price of 600 guineas, is
regarded as one of his best portraits, and a fine head in the National
Gallery, London, shows his power to advantage. The Life and
Correspondence of Sir T. Lawrence, by D. E. Williams, appeared in
1831.
LAWRENCE, a city and the county-seat of Douglas county,
Kansas, U.S.A., situated on both banks of the Kansas river,
about 40 m. W. of Kansas City. Pop. (1890) 9997, (1900)
10,862, of whom 2032 were negroes, (1910 census) 12,374.
It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe and the Union
Pacific railways, both having tributary lines extending N. and S.
Lawrence is surrounded by a good farming region, and is itself
a thriving educational and commercial centre. Its site slopes
up from the plateau that borders the river to the heights above,
from which there is a view of rare beauty. Among the city's
principal public buildings are the court house and the Y.M.C.A.
building. The university of Kansas, situated on Mount Oread,
overlooking the city, was first opened in 1866, and in 1907-1908
had a faculty of 105 and 2063 students, including 702 women
(see KANSAS). Just S. of the city of Lawrence is Haskell institute
(1884), one of the largest Indian schools in the country, main-
tained for children of the tribal Indians by the national govern-
ment. In 1907 the school had 813 students, of whom 313 were
girls; it has an academic department, a business school and
courses in domestic science, in farming, dairying and gardening,
and in masonry, carpentry, painting, blacksmithing, waggon-
making, shoemaking, steam-fitting, printing and other trades.
Among the city's manufactures are flour and grist mill products,
pianos and cement plaster. Lawrence, named in honour of
Amos A. Lawrence, was founded by agents of the Massachusetts
Emigrant Aid Company in July 1854, and during the Territorial
period was the political centre of the free-state cause and the
principal point against which the assaults of the pro-slavery
party were directed. It was first known as Wakarusa, fiom the
creek by which it lies. A town association was organized in
September 1854 before any Territorial government had been
established. In the next month some pro-slavery men presented
claims to a part of the land, projected a rival town to be called
Excelsior on the same site, and threatened violence; but when
Lawrence had organized its " regulators " the pro-slavery men
retired and later agreed to a compromise by which the town
LAWRENCE— LA WSON, C. G.
309
site was limited to 640 acres. In December 1855 occurred the
" Wakarusa war." A free-state man having been murdered
for his opinions, a friend who threatened retaliation was arrested
by the pro-slavery sheriff, S. J. Jones; he was rescued and taken
to Lawrence; the city disclaimed complicity, but Jones persuaded
Governor Wilson Shannon that there was rebellion, and Shannon
authorized a posse; Missouri responded, and a pro-slavery force
marched on Lawrence. The governor found that Lawrence
had not resisted and would not resist the service of writs; by
a written " agreement " with the free-state leaders he therefore
withdrew his sanction from the Missourians and averted battle.
The retreating Missourians committed some homicides. It was
during this " war " that John Brown first took up arms with the
free-state men. Preparations for another attack continued,
particularly after Sheriff Jones, while serving writs in Lawrence,
was wounded. On the zist of May 1856, at the head of several
hundred Missourians, he occupied the city without resistance,
destroyed its printing offices and the free-state headquarters
and pillaged private houses. In 1855 and again in 1857 the
pro-slavery Territorial legislature passed an Act giving Lawrence
a charter, but the people of Lawrence would not recognize that
" bogus " government, and on the I3th of July 1857, after an
application to the Topeka free-state legislature for a charter
had been denied, adopted a city charter of their own. Governor
Walker proclaimed this rebellion against the United States,
appeared before the town in command of 400 United States
dragoons and declared it under martial law; as perfect order
prevailed, and there was no overt resistance to Territorial law,
the troops were withdrawn after a few weeks by order of President
Buchanan, and in February 1858 the legislature passed an Act
legalizing the city charter of July 1857. On the 2ist of August
1863 William C. Quantrell and some 400 mounted Missouri
bushrangers surprised the sleeping town and murdered 150
citizens. The city's arms were in storage and no resistance was
possible. This was the most distressing episode in all the
turbulence of territorial days and border warfare in Kansas.
A monument erected in 1895 commemorates the dead. After
the free-state men gained control of the Territorial legislature in
1857 the legislature regularly adjourned from Lecompton, the
legal capital, to Lawrence, which was practically the capital
until the choice of Topeka under the Wyandotte constitution.
The first railway to reach Lawrence was the Union Pacific in
1864.
See F. W. Blackmar, " The Annals of an Historic Town," in the
Annual Report of the American Historical Association for 1893
(Washington, 1804).
LAWRENCE, a city, and one of the three county-seats (Salem
and Newburyport are the others) of Essex county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., on both sides of the Merrimac river, about 30 m. from
its mouth and about 26 m. N.N.W. of Boston. Pop. (1890)
44,654, (1900) 62,559, of whom 28,577 were foreign-born (7058
being Irish, 6999 French Canadians, 5131 English, 2465
German, 1683 English Canadian), and (1910 census) 85,892.
It is served by the Boston & Maine railroad and by
electric railways to Andover, Boston, Lowell, Haverhill and
Salem, Massachusetts, and to Nashua and Salem, New Hamp-
shire. The city's area of 6-54 sq. m. is about equally divided
by the Merrimac, which is here crossed by a great stone dam
900 ft. long, and, with a fall of 28 ft. .supplies about 12,000 horse-
power. Water from the river is carried to factories by a canal
on each side of the river and parallel to it; the first canal was
built on the north side in 1845-1847 and is i m. long; the
canal on the south side is about f m. long, and was built several
years later. There are large and well-kept public parks, a common
(17 acres) with a soldiers' monument, a free public library,
with more than 50,000 volumes in 1907, a city hall, county and
municipal court-houses, a county gaol and house of correction,
a county industrial school and a state armoury.
The value of the city's factory product was $48,036,593 in
1905, $41,741,980 in 1900. The manufacture of textiles is
the most important industry; in 1905 the city produced worsteds
valued at $30,926,964 and cotton goods worth $5,745,611,
the worsted product being greater than that of any other American
city. The Wood worsted mill here is said to be the largest single
mill in the world. The history of Lawrence is largely the history
of its textile mills. The town was formed in 1845 from parts of
Andover (S. of the Merrimac) and of Methuen (N. of the river),
and it was incorporated as a town in 1847, being named in honour
of Abbott Lawrence, a director of the Essex company, organized
in 1845 (on the same day as the formation of the town) for the
control of the water power and for the construction of the great
dam across the Merrimac. The Bay State woollen mills,
which in 1858 became the Washington mills, and the Atlantic
cotton mills were both chartered in 1846. The Pacific mills
(1853) introduced from Englandin 1854 Lister combs for worsted
manufacture; and the Washington mills soon afterward began
to make worsted dress goods. Worsted cloths for men's wear
seem to have been made first about 1870 at nearly the same time
in the Washington mills here, in the Hockanum mills of Rock-
ville, Connecticut, and in Wanskuck mills, Providence, Rhode
Island. The Pemberton mills, built in 1853, collapsed and after-
wards took fire on the loth of January 1860; 90 were killed
and hundreds severely injured. Lawrence was chartered as a
city in 1853, and annexed a small part of Methuen in 1854 and
parts of Andover and North Andover in 1879.
See H. A. Wadsworth, History of Lawrence, Massachusetts
(Lawrence, 1880).
LAWRENCEBUR6, a city and the county-seat of Dearborn
county, Indiana, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, in the S.E. part
of the state, 22 m. (by rail) W. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1890) 4284,
(1900) 4326 (413 foreign-born); (1910) 3930. Lawrenceburg is
served by the Baltimore & Ohio South- Western and the Cleveland,
Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, by the Cincinnati,
Lawrenceburg & Aurora electric street railroad, and by river
packets to Louisville and Cincinnati. The city lies along the river
and on higher land rising too ft. above river-level. It formerly
had an important river trade with New Orleans, beginning about
1820 and growing in volume after the city became the terminus
of the Whitewater canal, begun in 1836. The place was laid out
in 1802. In 1846 an " old " and a " new " settlement were
united, and Lawrenceburg was chartered as a city. Lawrence-
burg was the birthplace of James B. Eads, the famous engineer,
and of John Coit Spooner (b. 1843), a prominent Republican
member of the United States Senate from Wisconsin in 1885-
1891 and in 1897-1907; and the Presbyterian Church of Law-
renceburg was the first charge (1837-1839) of Henry Ward
Beecher.
LAWSON, CECIL GORDON (1851-1882), English landscape
painter, was the youngest son of William Lawson of Edinburgh,
esteemed as a portrait painter. His mother also was known
for her flower pieces. He was born near Shrewsbury on the
3rd of December 1851. Two of his brothers (one of them,
Malcolm, a clever musician and song-writer) were trained as
artists, and Cecil was from childhood devoted to art with the
intensity of a serious nature. Soon after his birth the Lawsons
moved to London. Lawson's first works were studies of fruit,
flowers, &c., in the manner of W. Hunt; followed by riverside
Chelsea subjects. His first exhibit at the Royal Academy
(1870) was " Cheyne Walk," and in 1871 he sent two other
Chelsea subjects. These gained full recognition from fellow-
artists, if not from the public. Among his friends were now
numbered Fred Walker, G. J. Pinwell and their associates.
Following them, he made a certain number of drawings for
wood-engraving. Lawson's Chelsea pictures had been painted in
somewhat low and sombre tones; in the " Hymn to Spring "
of 1872 (rejected by the Academy) he turned to a more joyous
play of colour, helped by work in more romantic scenes in North
Wales and Ireland. Early in 1874 he made a short tour in
Holland, Belgium and Paris; and in the summer he painted
his large " Hop Gardens of England." This was much praised
at the Academy of 1876. But Lawson's triumph was with the
great luxuriant canvas " The Minister's Garden," exhibited
in 1878 at the Grosvenor Gallery, and now in the Manchester
Art Gallery. This was followed by several works conceived
310
LAWSON, SIR J.— LAY A
in a new and tragic mood. His health began to fail, but he
worked on. He married in 1879 the daughter of Birnie Philip,
and settled at Haslemere. His later subjects are from this
neighbourhood (the most famous being " The August Moon,"
now in the National Gallery of British Art) or from Yorkshire.
Towards the end of 1881 he went to the Riviera, returned in the
spring, and died at Haslemere on the loth of June 1882. Lawson
may be said to have restored to English landscape the tradition
of Gainsborough, Crome and Constable, infused with an imagi-
native intensity of his own. Among English landscape painters
of the latter part of the ipth century his is in many respects
the most interesting name.
See E. W. Gosse, Cecil Lawson, a Memoir (1883); Heseltine
Owen, " In Memoriarn: Cecil Gordon Lawson," Magazine of Art
(1894). (L.B.)
LAWSON, SIR JOHN (d. 1665), British sailor, was born at
Scarborough. Joining the parliamentary navy in 1642, he
accompanied Penn to the Mediterranean in 1650, where he
served for some time. In 1652 he served under Blake in the
Dutch War and was present at the first action in the Downs and
the battle of the Kentish Knock. At Portland, early in 1653,
he was vice-admiral of the red, and his ship was severely handled.
Lawson took part in the battles of June and July in the following
summer. In 1654-1655 he commanded in the North Sea and
the Channel. Appointed in January 1655-1656 as Blake's
second-in-command, Lawson was a few weeks later summarily
dismissed from his command, probably for political reasons.
He was a Republican and Anabaptist, and therefore an enemy
to Cromwell. It is not improbable that like Penn and others
he was detected in correspondence with the exiled Charles II.,
who certainly hoped for his support. In 1657, along with
Harrison and others, he was arrested and, for a short time,
imprisoned for conspiring against Cromwell. Afterwards he
lived at Scarborough until the fall of Richard Cromwell's govern-
ment. During the troubled months which succeeded that event
Lawson, flying his flag as admiral of the Channel fleet, played a
marked political role. His ships escorted Charles to England,
and he was soon afterwards knighted. Sent out in 1661 with
Montagu, earl of Sandwich, to the Mediterranean, Lawson
conducted a series of campaigns against the piratical states of
the Algerian coast. Thence summoned to a command in the
Dutch War, he was mortally wounded at Lowestoft. He died
on the 29th of June 1665.
See Charnock, Biographia navalis, i. 20; Campbell, Lines of the
Admirals, ii. 251 ; Penn, Life of Sir William Penn; Pepys, Diary.
LAWSON, SIR WILFRID, Bart. (1820-1906), English
politician and temperance leader, son of the ist baronet (d. 1867),
was born on the 4th of September 1829. He was always an
enthusiast in the cause of total abstinence, and in parliament,
to which he was first elected in 1859 for Carlisle, he became
its leading spokesman. In 1864 he first introduced his Permissive
Bill, giving to a two-thirds majority in any district a veto upon
the granting of licences for the sale of intoxicating liquors;
and though this principle failed to be embodied in any act, he
had the satisfaction of seeing a resolution on its lines accepted
by a majority in the House of Commons in 1880, iSSiand 1883.
He lost his seat for Carlisle in 1865, but in 1868 was again returned
as a supporter of Mr Gladstone, and was member till 1885;
though defeated for the new Cockermouth division of Cumberland
in 1885, he won that seat in 1886, and he held it till the election
of 1900, when his violent opposition to the Boer War caused his
defeat, but in 1903 he was returned for the Camborne division
of Cornwall and at the general election of 1906 was once more
elected for his old constituency in Cumberland. During all
these years he was the champion of the United Kingdom Alliance
(founded 1853), of which he became president. An extreme
Radical, he also supported disestablishment, abolition of the
House of Lords, and disarmament. Though violent in the
expression of his opinions, Sir Wilfrid Lawson remained very
popular for his own sake both in and out of the House of
Commons; he became well known for his humorous vein, his
faculty for composing topical doggerel being often exercised on
questions of the day. He died on the ist of July 1906.
LAY, a word of several meanings. Apart from obsolete and
dialectical usages, such as the East Anglian word meaning
" pond," possibly cognate with Lat. lacus, pool or lake, or its
use in weaving for the batten of a loom, where it is a variant form
of " lath," the chief uses are as follows: (i) A song or, more
accurately, a short poem, lyrical or narrative, which could be
sung or accompanied by music; such were the romances sung
by minstrels. Such an expression as the " Lay of the Nibelungen "
is due to mistaken association of the word with Ger. Lied, song,
which appears in Anglo-Saxon as leoH. " Lay " comes from
O. Fr. lai, of which the derivation is doubtful. The New English
Dictionary rejects Celtic origins sometimes put forward, such as
Ir. laoidh, Welsh llais, and takes O. Mid. and High Ger. leich
as the probable source. (2) " Non-clerical " or " unlearned."
In this sense " lay " comes directly from Fr. lai (la'ique, the
learned form nearer to the Latin, is now used) from Lat. laicus,
Gr. XGU'KOS, of or belonging to the people (Xaos, Attic X«a>s).
The word is now specially applied to persons who are not in
orders, and more widely to those who do not belong to other
learned professions, particularly the law and medicine. The
New English Dictionary quotes two examples from versions of
the Bible. In the Douai version of i Sam. xxi. 4, Ahimelech
tells David that he has " no lay bread at hand but only holy
bread "; here the Authorized Version has " common bread,"
the Vulgate laicos panes. In Coverdale's version of Acts iv. 13,
the high priest and his kindred marvel at Peter and John as
being " unlearned and lay people "; the Authorized Version
has " unlearned and ignorant men." In a cathedral of the
Church of England " lay clerks " and " lay vicars " sing such
portions of the service as may be performed by laymen and
clergy in minor orders. " Lay readers " are persons who are
granted a commission by the bishop to perform certain religious
duties in a particular parish. The commission remains in force
until it is revoked by the bishop or his successors, or till there
is a new incumbent in the parish, when it has to be renewed.
In a religious order a " lay brother " is freed from duties at
religious services performed by the other members, and from
their studies, but is bound by vows of obedience and chastity
and serves the order by manual labour. For " lay impropriator "
see APPROPRIATION, and for " lay rector " see RECTOR and
TITHES; see further LAYMEN, HOUSES OF. (3) " Lay " as a
verb means " to make to lie down," " to place upon the ground,"
&c. The past tense is " laid "; it is vulgarly confused with the
verb " to lie," of which the past is " lay." The common root
of both " lie " and " lay " is represented by O. Teut. leg;
cf. Dutch leggen, Ger. legen, and Eng. "ledge."1 (4) "Lay-
figure " is the name commonly given to articulated figures of
human beings or animals, made of wood, papier-mache or other
materials; draped and posed, such figures serve as models for
artists (see MODELS, ARTISTS). The word has no connexion with
" to lay," to place in position, but is an adaptation of the word
" layman," commonly used with this meaning in the i8th
century. This was adapted from Dutch leeman (the older form
is ledenman) and meant an " articulated or jointed man " from
led, now lid, a joint ; cf . Ger. Gliedermann.
LAYA, JEAN LOUIS (1761-1833), French dramatist, was
born in Paris on the 4th of December 1761 and died in August
1833. He wrote his first comedy in collaboration with Gabriel
M. J. B. Legouve in 1785, but the piece, though accepted by
the Comedie Francaise, was never represented. In 1789 he
produced a plea for religious toleration in the form of a five-act
tragedy in verse, Jean Colas; the injustice of the disgrace cast
on a family by the crime of one of its members formed the theme
of Les Dangers de I'opinion (1790); but it is by his Ami des
lois (1793) that Laya is remembered. This energetic protest
against mob-rule, with its scarcely veiled characterizations of
Robespierre as Nomophage and of Marat as Duricrane, was
an act of the highest courage, for the play was 'produced at
the Theatre Francais (temporarily Theatre de la Nation) only
1 The verb " to lie," to speak falsely, to tell a falsehood, is in
O. Eng. leogan; it appears in most Teutonic languages, e.g. Dutch
lugen, Ger. liigen.
LAYAMON
nineteen days before the execution of Louis XVI. Ten days after
its first production the piece was prohibited by the commune,
but the public demanded its representation; the mayor of
Paris was compelled to appeal to the convention, and the piece
was played while some 30,000 Parisians guarded the hall. Laya
went into hiding, and several persons convicted of having a copy
of the obnoxious play in their possession were guillotined. At
the end of the Terror Laya returned to Paris. In 1813 he re-
placed Delille in the Paris chair of literary history and French
poetry; he was admitted to the Academy in 1817. Laya pro-
duced in 1797 Les Deux Stuarts, and in 1799 Falkland, the title-
role of which provided Talma with one of his finest oppor-
tunities. Laya's works, which chiefly owe their interest to the
circumstances attending their production, were collected in
1836-1837.
See Notice biographique sur J. L. Laya (1833); Ch. Nodier,
Discours de reception, 26th December 1833); Welschinger, Theatre
de la revolution (1880).
LAYAMON, early English poet, was the author of a chronicle
of Britain entitled Brut, a paraphrase of the Brut d'Angleterre
by Wace, a native of Jersey, who is also known as the author
of the Roman de Rou. The excellent edition of Layamon by Sir
F. Madden (Society of Antiquaries, London, 1847) should be
consulted. All that is known concerning Layamon is derived
from two extant MSS., which present texts that often vary
considerably, and it is necessary to understand their comparative
value before any conclusions can be drawn. The older text
(here called the A-text) lies very near the original text, which
is unfortunately lost, though it now and then omits lines which
are absolutely necessary to the sense. The later text (here called
the B-text) represents a later recension of the original version
by another writer who frequently omits couplets, and alters
the language by the substitution of better-known words for
such as seemed to be obsolescent; e.g. harme (harm) in place
of balewe (bale), and dead in place of feie (fated to die, or dead).
Hence little reliance can be placed on the B-text, its chief merit
being that it sometimes preserves couplets which seem to have
been accidentally omitted in A; besides which, it affords a
valuable commentary on the original version.
We learn from the brief prologue that Layamon was a priest
among the people, and was the son of Leovenath (a late spelling
of A.-S. Leofnoth); also, that he lived at Ernley, at a noble
church on Severn bank, close by Radstone. This is certainly
Areley Regis, or Areley Kings, close by Redstone rock and
ferry, i m. to the S. of Stourport in Worcestershire. The B-text
turns Layamon into the later form Laweman, i.e. Law-man,
correctly answering to Chaucer's " Man of Lawe," though here
apparently used as a mere name. It also turns Leovenath into
Leuca, i.e. Leofeca, a diminutive of Leofa, which is itself a pet-
name for Leofnoth; so that there is no real contradiction. But
it absurdly substitutes " with the good knight," which is practi-
cally meaningless, for " at a noble church."
We know no more about Layamon except that he was a
great lover of books; and that he procured three books in
particular which he prized above others, " turning over the
leaves, and beholding them lovingly." These were: the
English book that St Beda made; another in Latin that
St Albin and St Austin made; whilst the third was made
by a French clerk named Wace, who (in 1155) gave a copy to
the noble Eleanor, who was queen of the high king Henry (i.e.
Henry II.).
The first of these really means the Anglo-Saxon translation
of Beda's Ecclesiastical History, which begins with the words:
" Ic Beda, Cristes theow," i.e. " I, Beda, Christ's servant."
The second is a strange description of the original of the transla-
tion, i.e. Albinus Beda's own Latin book, the second paragraph
of which begins with the words: " Auctor ante omnes atque
adiutor opusculi huius Albinus Abba reverentissimus vir per
omnia doctissimus extitit "; which Layamon evidently mis-
understood. As to the share of St Augustine in this work,
see Book I., chapters 23-34, and Book II., chapters i and 2,
which are practically all concerned with him and occupy more
than a tenth of the whole work. The third book was Wace's
poem, Brut d'Angleterre. But we find that although Layamon
had ready access to all three of these works, he soon settled
down to the translation of the third, without troubling much
about the others. His chief obligation to Beda is for the well-
known story about Pope Gregory and the English captives at
Rome; see Layamon, vol. iii. 180.
It is impossible to enter here upon a discussion of the numerous
points of interest which a proper examination of this vast and
important work would present to any careful inquirer. Only
a few bare results can be here enumerated. The A-text may
be dated about 1205, and the B-text (practically by another
writer) about 1275. Both texts, the former especially, are
remarkably free from admixture with words of French origin;
the lists that have been given hitherto are inexact, but it may
be said that the number of French words in the A-text can hardly
exceed 100, or in the B-text 160. Layamon's work is largely
original; Wace's Brut contains 15,300 lines, and Layamon's
32,240 lines of a similar length; and many of Layamon's
additions to Wace are notable, such as his story " regarding the
fairy elves at Arthur's birth, and his transportation by them after
death in a boat to Avalon, the abode of Argante, their queen ";
see Sir F. Madden's pref. p. xv. Wace's Brut is almost wholly
a translation of the Latin chronicle concerning the early history
of Britain by Geoffrey of Monmouth, who said that he obtained
his materials from a manuscript written in Welsh. The name
Brut is the French form of Brutus, who was the fabulous grand-
son of Ascanius, and great-grandson of Aeneas of Troy, the hero
of Virgil's Aeneid. After many adventures, this Brutus arrived
in England, founded Troynovant or New Troy (better known
as London), and was the progenitor of a long line of British
kings, among whom were Locrine, Bladud, Leir, Gorboduc,
Ferrex and Porrex, Lud, Cymbeline, Constantine, Vortigern,
Uther and Arthur; and from this mythical Brutus the name
Brut was transferred so as to denote the entire chronicle of this
British history. Layamon gives the whole story, from the time
of Brutus to that of Cadwalader, who may be identified with the
Caedwalla of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, baptized by Pope
Sergius in the year 688. Both texts of Layamon are in a south-
western dialect; the A-text in particular shows the Wessex
dialect of earlier times (commonly called Anglo-Saxon) in a
much later form, and we can hardly doubt that the author,
as he intimates, could read the old version of Beda intelligently.
The remarks upon the B-text in Sir F. Madden's preface are not
to the point ; the peculiar spellings to which he refers (such as
same for shame) are by no means due to any confusion with the
Northumbrian dialect, but rather to the usual vagaries of a scribe
who knew French better than English, and had some difficulty
in acquiring the English pronunciation and in representing
it accurately. At the same time, he was not strong in English
grammar, and was apt to confuse the plural form with the
singular in the tenses of verbs; and this is the simple explanation
of most of the examples of so-called " nunnation " in this poem
(such as the use of wolden for wolde), which only existed in
writing and must not be seriously considered as representing real
spoken sounds. The full proof of this would occupy too much
space; but it should be noticed that, in many instances, "this
pleonastic n has been struck out or erased by a second hand."
In other instances it has escaped notice, and that is all that need
be said. The peculiar metre of the poem has been sufficiently
treated by J. Schipper. An abstract of the poem has been
given by Henry Morley; and good general criticisms of it by
B. ten Brink and others.
See Layamon's Brut, or a Chronicle of Britain; a Poetical
Semi-Saxon Paraphrase of the Brut of Wace;. . .by Sir F. Madden
(1847) ;B. ten Brink, Early English Literature, trans, by H.M.Kennedy
(in Bohn's Standard Library, 1885); H. Morley, English Writers,
vol. iii. (1888); J. Schipper, Englische Metrik, i. (Bonn, 1882); E.
Guest, A History of English Rhythms (new ed. by W. W. Skeat, 1882) ;
Article " Layamon," in the Diet. Nat. Biog.; Six Old English
Chronicles, including Gildas, Nennius and Geoffrey of Monmouth (in
Bohn's Antiquarian Library) ; Le Roux de Lincy, Le Roman de Brut,
par Wace, avec un commentaire et des notes (Rouen, 1836—1838);
E. Matzner, Altenglische Sprachproben (Berlin, 1867). (W. W. S.)
312
LAYARD— LAZAR
LAYARD, SIR AUSTEN HENRY (1817-1894), British author
and diplomatist, the excavator of Nineveh, was born in Paris
on the sth of March 1817. The Layards were of Huguenot
descent. His father, Henry P. J. Layard, of the Ceylon Civil
Service, was the son of Charles Peter Layard, dean of Bristol,
and grandson of Daniel Peter Layard, the physician. Through
his mother, a daughter of Nathaniel Austen, banker, of Ramsgate,
he inherited Spanish blood. This strain of cosmopolitanism
must have been greatly strengthened by the circumstances of his
education. Much of his boyhood was spent in Italy, where he
received part of his schooling, and acquired a taste for the fine
arts and a love of travel; but he was at school also in England,
France and Switzerland. After spending nearly six years in
the office of his uncle, Benjamin Austen, a solicitor, he was
tempted to leave England for Ceylon by the prospect of obtaining
an appointment in the civil service, and he started in 1839 with
the intention of making an overland journey across Asia. After
wandering for many months, chiefly in Persia, and having
abandoned his intention of proceeding to Ceylon, he returned
in 1842 to Constantinople, where he made the acquaintance of
Sir Stratford Canning, the British ambassador, who employed
him in various unofficial diplomatic missions in European Turkey.
In 1845, encouraged and assisted by Canning, Layard left Con-
stantinople to make those explorations among the ruins of
Assyria with which his name is chiefly associated. This expedi-
tion was in fulfilment of a design which he had formed, when,
during his former travels in the East, his curiosity had been
greatly excited by the ruins of Nimrud on the Tigris, and by the
great mound of Kuyunjik, near Mosul, already partly excavated
by Botta. Layard remained in the neighbourhood of Mosul,
carrying on excavations at Kuyunjik and Nimrud, and in-
vestigating the condition of various tribes, until 1847; and,
returning to England in 1848, published Nineveh and its Remains:
with an Account of a Visit to the Chaldaean Christians of Kurdistan,
and the Yezidis, or Devil-worshippers; and an Inquiry into the
Manners and Arts oj 'the Ancient Assyrians (2 vols., 1848-1849). To
illustrate the antiquities described in this work he published a
large folio volume of Illustrations of the Monuments of Nineveh
(1849). After spending a few months in England, and receiving
the degree of D.C.L. from the university of Oxford, Layard
returned to Constantinople as attach^ to the British embassy,
and, in August 1849, started on a second expedition, in the course
of which he extended his investigations to the ruins of Babylon
and the mounds of southern Mesopotamia. His record of this
expedition, Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon,
which was illustrated by another folio volume, called A Second
Series of the Monuments of Nineveh, was published in 1853.
During these expeditions, often in circumstances of great
difficulty, Layard despatched to England the splendid specimens
which now form the greater part of the collection of Assyrian
antiquities in the British Museum. Apart from the archaeo-
logical value of his work in identifying Kuyunjik as the site of
Nineveh, and in providing a great mass of materials for scholars
to work upon, these two books of Layard's are among the best-
written books of travel in the language.
Layard now turned to politics. Elected as a Liberal member
for Aylesbury in 1852, he was for a few weeks under-secretary
for foreign affairs, but afterwards freely criticized the govern-
ment, especially in connexion with army administration. He
was present, in the Crimea during the war, and was a member of
the committee appointed to inquire into the conduct of the
expedition. In 1855 he refused from Lord Palmerston an office
not connected with foreign affairs, was elected lord rector of
Aberdeen university, and on isth June moved a resolution in the
House of Commons (defeated by a large majority) declaring that
in public appointments merit had been sacrificed to private
influence and an adherence to routine. After being defeated
at Aylesbury in 1857, he visited India to investigate the causes
of the Mutiny. He unsuccessfully contested York in 1859, but
was elected for South wark in 1860, and from 1861 to 1866 was
under-secretary for foreign affairs in the successive administra-
tions of Lord Palmerston and Lord John Russell. In 1866 he
was appointed a trustee of the British Museum, and in 1868
chief commissioner of works in W. E. Gladstone's government
and a member of the Privy Council. He retired from parliament
in 1869, on being sent as envoy extraordinary to Madrid. In
1877 he was appointed by Lord Beaconsfield ambassador at
Constantinople, where he remained until Gladstone's return to
power in 1880, when he finally retired from public life. In 1878,
on the occasion of the Berlin conference, he received the grand
cross of the Bath. Layard's political life was somewhat stormy.
His manner was brusque, and his advocacy of the causes which
he had at heart, though always perfectly sincere, was vehement
to the point sometimes of recklessness. Layard retired to
Venice, where he devoted much of his time to collecting pictures
of the Venetian school, and to writing on Italian art. On this
subject he was a disciple of his friend G. Morelli, whose views
he embodied in his revision of F. Kugler's Handbook of Painting,
Italian Schools (1887). He wrote also an introduction to Miss
Ffoulkes's translation of Morelli's Italian Painters (1892-1893),
and edited that part of Murray's Handbook of Rome (1894)
which deals with pictures. In 1887 he published, from notes
taken at the time, a record of his first journey to the East,
entitled Early Adventures in Persia, Susiana and Babylonia.
An abbreviation of this work, which as a book of travel is even
more delightful than its predecessors, was published in 1894,
shortly after the author's death, with a brief introductory notice
by Lord Aberdare. Layard also from time to time contributed
papers to various learned societies, including the Huguenot
Society, of which he was first president. He died in London on
the 5th of July 1894. (A. GL.)
LAYMEN, HOUSES OF, deliberative assemblies of the laity of
the Church of England, one for the province of Canterbury,
and the other for the province of York. That of Canterbury
was formed in 1886, and that of York shortly afterwards. They
are merely consultative bodies, and the primary intention of
their foundation was to associate the laity in the deliberations
of convocation. They have no legal status. The members
are elected by the various diocesan conferences, which are
in turn elected by the laity of their respective parishes or rural
deaneries. Ten members are appointed for the diocese of London,
six for each of the dioceses of Winchester, Rochester, Lichfield and
Worcester; and four for each of the remaining dioceses. The
president of each house has the discretionary power of appointing
additional laymen, not exceeding ten in number.
LAYNEZ (or LAINEZ), DIEGO (1512-1565), the second general
of the Society of Jesus, was born in Castile, and after studying
at Alcala joined Ignatius of Loyola in Paris, being one of the
six who with Loyola in August r534 took the vow of missionary
work in Palestine in the Montmartre church. This plan fell
through, and Laynez became professor of scholastic theology at
Sapienza. After the order had been definitely established (1540)
Laynez was sent to Germany. He was one of the pope's theo-
logians at the council of Trent (q.v.), where he played a weighty
and decisive part. When Loyola died in 1556 Laynez acted as
vicar of the society, and two years later became general. Before
his death at Rome, on the igth of January 1565, he had immensely
strengthened the despotic constitution of the order and developed
its educational activities (see JESUITS).
His Disputationes Tridentinae were published in 2 volumes in
1886. Lives by Michel d'Esne (Douai, 1597) and Pet. Ribadeneira
(Madrid, 1592; Lat. trans, by A. Schott, Antwerp, 1598). See also
H. Miiller, Les Origines de la Compagnie de Jesus: Ignace et Lainez
(1898).
LAZAR, one afflicted with the disease of leprosy (q.v.). The
term is an adaptation in medieval Latin of the name of Lazarus
(q.v.), in Luke xvi. 20, who was supposed to be a leper. The
word was not confined to persons suffering from leprosy; thus
Caxton ( The Life of Charles the Great, 37), " there atte laste were
guarysshed and heled viij lazars of the palesey."
LAZARETTO or LAZAR-HOUSE is a hospital for the reception of
poor persons suffering from the plague, leprosy or other infectious
or contagious diseases. A peculiar use of " lazaretto " is found
in the application of the term, now obsolete, to a place in the
after-part of a merchant vessel for the storage of provisions, &c.
LAZARITES— LAZARUS, H.
Lazzarone, a name now often applied generally to beggars, is
an Italian term, particularly used of the poorest class of
Neapolitans, who, without any fixed abode, live by odd jobs and
fishing, but chiefly by begging.
LAZARITES (LAZARISTS or LAZARIANS) , the popular names of
the " Congregation of Priests of the Mission " in the Roman
Catholic Church. It had its origin in the successful mission to
the common people conducted by St Vincent de Paul (q.v.) and
five other priests on the estates of the Gondi, family. More
immediately it dates from 1624, when the little community
acquired a permanent settlement in the college des Bons Enfans
in Paris. Archiepiscopal recognition was obtained in 1626;
by a papal bull of the i2th of January 1632, the society was
constituted a congregation, with St Vincent de Paul at its head.
About the same time the canons, regular of St Victor handed over
to the congregation the priory of St Lazarus (formerly a lazar-
house) in Paris, whence the name of Lazarites or Lazarists.
Within a few years they had acquired another house in Paris and
set up other establishments throughout France; missions
were also sent to Italy (1638), Tunis (1643), Algiers and Ireland
(1646), Madagascar (1648) and Poland (1651). A fresh bull of
Alexander VII. in April 1655 further confirmed the society;
this was followed by a brief in September of the same year,
regulating its constitution. The rules then adopted, which were
framed on the model of those of the Jesuits, were published
at Paris in 1668 under the title Regulae seu constitutiones com-
munes congregationis missionis. The special objects contemplated
were the religious instruction of the lower classes, the training of
the clergy and foreign missions. During the French Revolution
the congregation was suppressed and St Lazare plundered by
the mob; it was restored by Napoleon in 1804 at the desire of
Pius VII., abolished by him in 1809 in consequence of a quarrel
with the pope, and again restored in 1816. The Lazarites were
expelled from Italy in 1871 and from Germany in 1873. The
Lazarite province of Poland was singularly prosperous; at the
date of its suppression in 1796 it possessed thirty-five establish-
ments. The order was permitted to return in 1816, but is now
extinct there. In Madagascar it had a mission from 1648 till
1674. In -1783 Lazarites were appointed to take the place of the
Jesuits in the Levantine and Chinese missions; they still have
some footing in China, and in 1874 their establishments through-
out the Turkish empire numbered sixteen. In addition, they
established branches in Persia, Abyssinia, Mexico, the South
American republics, Portugal, Spain and Russia, some of which
have been suppressed. In the same year they had fourteen
establishments in the United States of America. The total
number of Lazarites throughout the world is computed at about
3000. Amongst distinguished members of the congregation
may be mentioned: P. Collet (1693-1770), writer on theology
and ethics; J. de la Grive (1689-1757), geographer; E. Bore
(d. 1878), orientalist; P. Bertholon (1680-1757), physician;
and Armand David, Chinese missionary and traveller.
See Regulae seu constitutiones communes congregationis missionis
(Paris, 1668); Memoires de la congregation de la mission (1863);
Congregation de la mission. Repertoire hislorique (1900); Notices
bibliographiques sur les ecrivains de la congregation de la mission
(Angouleme, 1878); P. Helyot, Diet, des ordres religieux, viii. 64-77;
M. Heimbrecher, Die Orden und Kongregationen der katholisc'hen
Kirche, ii. (1897); C. Stork in Wetzer and Welte's Kirchenlexikon
(Catholic), vii. ; E. Bougaud, History of St Vincent de Paul (1908).
LAZARUS (a contracted form of the Heb. name Eleazar,
" God has helped," Gr. Adfapos), a name which occurs in the
New Testament in two connexions.
i. LAZARUS OF BETHANY, brother of Martha and Mary. The
story that he died and after four days was raised from the
dead is told by John (xi., xii.) only, and is not mentioned by the
Synoptists. By many this is regarded as the greatest of Christ's
miracles. It produced a great effect upon many Jews; the
Ada Pilali says that Pilate trembled when he heard of it, and,
according to Bayle's Dictionary, Spinoza declared that if he
were persuaded of its truth he would become a Christian. The
story has been attacked more vigorously than any other portion
of the Fourth Gospel, mainly, on two grounds, (i.) the fact that,
in spite of its striking character, it is omitted by the Synoptists,
and (ii.) its unique significance. The personality of Lazarus in
John's account, his relation to Martha and Mary, and the
possibility that John reconstructed the story by the aid of
inferences from the story of the supper in Luke x. 40, and
that of the anointing of Christ in Bethany given by Mark and
Matthew, are among the chief problems. The controversy has
given rise to a great mass of literature, discussions of which will
be found in the lives of Christ, the biblical encyclopaedias and
the commentaries on St John.
2. LAZARUS is also the name given by Luke (xvi. 20) to the
beggar in the parable known as that of "Lazarus and Dives,"1
illustrating the misuse of wealth. There is little doubt that the
name is introduced simply as part of the parable, and not with
any idea of identifying the beggar with Lazarus of Bethany. It
is curious, not only that Luke's story does not appear in the other
gospels, but also that in no other of Christ's parables is a name
given to the central character. Hence it was in early times
thought that the story was historical, not allegorical (see LAZAR).
LAZARUS, EMMA (1840-1887), American Jewish poetess,
was born in New York. When the Civil War broke out she was
soon inspired to lyric expression. Her first book (1867) included
poems and translations which she wrote between the ages of
fourteen and seventeen. As yet her models were classic and
romantic. At the age of twenty-one she published Admelus and
other Poems (1871). Admelus is inscribed to Emerson, who
greatly influenced her, and with whom she maintained a regular
correspondence for several years. She led a retired life, and had
a modest conception of her own powers. Much of her next work
appeared in Lippincott's Magazine, but in 1874 she published a
prose romance (Alide) based on Goethe's autobiography, and
received a generous letter of admiration from Turgeniev. Two
years later she visited Concord and made the acquaintance of the
Emerson circle, and while there read the proof-sheets of her
tragedy The Spagnoletto. In 1881 she published her excellent
translations of Heine's poems. Meanwhile events were occurring
which appealed to her Jewish sympathies and gave a new turn
to her feeling. The Russian massacres of 1880-1881 were a
trumpet-call to her. So far her Judaism had been latent. She
belonged to the oldest Jewish congregation of New York, but she
had not for some years taken a personal part in the observances
of the synagogue. But from this time she took up the cause of
her race, and " her verse rang out as it had never rung before, a
clarion note, calling a people to heroic action and unity; to the
consciousness and fulfilment of a grand destiny." Her poems,
" The Crowing of the Red Cock " and " The Banner of the Jew "
(1882) stirred the Jewish consciousness and helped to produce
the new Zionism (q.v.). She now wrote another drama, the Dance
to Death, the scene of which is laid in Nordhausen in the i4th
century; it is based on the accusation brought against the Jews
of poisoning the wells and thus causing the Black Death. The
Dance to Death was included (with some translations of medieval
Hebrew poems) in Songs of a Semite (1882), which she dedicated
to George Eliot. In 1885 she visited Europe. She devoted
much of the short remainder of her life to the cause of Jewish
nationalism. In 1887 appeared By the waters of Babylon,
which consists of a series of " prose poems," full of prophetic
fire. She died in New York on the igth of November 1887. A
sonnet by Emma Lazarus is engraved on a memorial tablet
on the colossal Bartholdi statue of Liberty, New York.
See article in the Century Magazine, New Series, xiv. 875 (portrait
p. 803), afterwards prefixed as a Memoir to the collected edition of
The poems of Emma Lazarus (2 vols., 1889). (I. A.)
LAZARUS, HENRY (1815-1895), British clarinettist, was
born in London on the ist of January 1815, and was a pupil
of Blizard, bandmaster of the Royal Military Asylum, Chelsea,
and subsequently of Charles Godfrey, senior, bandmaster of the
Coldstream Guards. He made his first appearance as a soloist
at a concert of Mme Dulcken's, in April 1838, and in that year
1 The English Bible does not use Lat. Dives (rich) as a proper name,
saying merely " a certain rich man." The idea that Dives was a
proper name arose from the Vulgate quidam dives, whence it became
a conventional name for a rich man.
LAZARUS, M.— LEAD
he was appointed as second clarinet to the Sacred Harmonic
Society. From Willman's death in 1840 Lazarus was principal
clarinet at the opera, and all the chief festivals and orchestral
concerts. His beautiful tone, excellent phrasing and accurate
execution were greatly admired. He was professor of the clarinet
at the Royal Academy of Music from 1854 until within a short
time of his death, and was appointed to teach his instrument
at the Military School of Music, Kneller Hall, in 1858. His
last public appearance was at a concert for his benefit in St
James's Hall, in June 1892, and he died on the 6th of March
1895-
LAZARUS, MORITZ (1824-1903), German philosopher, was
born on the isth of September 1824 at Filehne, Posen. The
son of a rabbinical scholar, he was educated in Hebrew literature
and history, and subsequently in law and philosophy at the
university of Berlin. From 1860 to 1866 he was professor in
the university of Berne, and subsequently returned to Berlin
as professor of philosophy in the kriegsakademie (1868) and
later in the university of Berlin (1873). On the occasion of his
seventieth birthday he was honoured with the title of Geheimralh.
The fundamental principle of his philosophy was that truth
must be sought not in metaphysical or a priori abstractions but
in psychological investigation, and further that this investigation
cannot confine itself successfully to the individual consciousness,
but must be devoted primarily to society as a whole. The
psychologist must study mankind from the historical or compara-
tive standpoint, analysing the elements which constitute the
fabric of society, with its customs, its .conventions and the
main tendencies of its. evolution. This V ' olkerpsychologie (folk-
or comparative psychology) is one of the chief developments of
the Herbartian theory of philosophy; it is a protest not only
against the so-called scientific standpoint of natural philosophers,
but also against the individualism of the positivists. In support
of his theory he founded, in combination with H. Steinthal,
the Zeitschrift fiir V olkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft
(1859). His own contributions to this periodical were numerous
and important. His chief work was Das Leben der Seele (Berlin,
1855-1857; 3rd edition, 1883). Other philosophical works
were: — Ueber den Ursprung der Sitten (1860 and 1867), Ueber
die Ideen in der Geschichte (1865 and 1872); Zur Lehre von den
Sinnestauschungen (1867); Ideale Fragen (1875 and 1885),
Erziehung und Geschichte (1881); Unser Slandpunkt (1881);
Ueber die Reize des Spiels (1883). Apart from the great interest
of his philosophical work, Lazarus was pre-eminent among the
Jews of the so-called Semitic domination in Germany. Like
Heine, Auerbach and Steinthal, he rose superior to the narrower
ideals of the German Jews, and took a .leading place in German
literature and thought. He protested against the violent
anti-Semitism of the time, and, in spite of the moderate tone
of his publications, drew upon himself unqualified censure. He
wrote in this connexion a number of articles collected in 1887
under the title Treu und Frei. Reden und Vorlrage iiber Juden
und Judenthum. In 1869 and 1871 he was president of the
first and second Jewish Synods at Leipzig and Augsburg.
See R. Flint, The Philosophy of History in Europe; M. Brasch,
Gesammelte Essays und Characterkopfe zur neuen Philos. und Litera-
lur; E. Berliner, Lazarus und die offentliche Meinung; M. Brasch,
" Der Begriinder de Volkerpsychologie," in Nord et Sud (September
1894).
LAZARUS, ST, ORDER OF, a religious and military order
founded in Jerusalem about the middle of the I2th century.
Its primary object was the tending of the sick, especially lepers,
of whom Lazarus (see LAZAR) was regarded as the patron.
From the i3th century, the order made its way into various
countries of Europe — Sicily, Lower Italy and Germany
(Thuringia); but its chief centre of activity was France, where
Louis IX. (1253) gave the members the lands of Boigny near
Orleans and a building at the gates of Paris, which they turned
into a lazar-house for the use of the lepers of the city. A papal
confirmation was obtained from Alexander IV. in 1255. The
knights were one hundred in number, and possessed the right
of marrying and receiving pensions charged on ecclesiastical
benefices. An eight-pointed cross was the insignia of both the
French and Italian orders. The gradual disappearance of
leprosy combined with other causes to secularize the order more
and more. In Savoy in 1572 it was merged by Gregory XIII.
(at the instance of Emanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy) in the
order of St Maurice (see KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY: Orders
of Knighthood, Italy). The chief task of this branch was the
defence of the Catholic faith, especially against the Protestantism
of Geneva. It continued to exist till the second half of the i9th
century. In 1608 it was in France united by Henry IV. with
the order of Notre-Dame du Mont-Carmel. It was treated with
especial favour by Louis XIV., and the most brilliant period
of its existence was from 1673 to 1691, under the marquis de
Louvois. From that time it began to decay. It was abolished
at the Revolution, reintroduced during the Restoration, and
formally abolished by a state decree of 1830.
See L. Mainbourg, Hist, des croisades (1682; Eng. trans, by
Nalson, 1686); P. Helyot, Hist, des ordres monastiques (1714), pp.
257. 386; J. G. Uhlhorn, Die christliche Liebesthatigkeit im Mittelalter
(Stuttgart, 1884); articles in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie fiir
protestantische Theologie, xi. (1902) and Wetzer and VVelte's
(Catholic) Kirchenlexikon, vii. (1891).
LEA, HENRY CHARLES (1825-1909), American historian,
was born at Philadelphia on the igth of September 1825.
His father was a publisher, whom in 1843 he joined in business,
and he retained his connexion with the firm till 1880. Weak
health, however, caused him from early days to devote himself
to research, mainly on church history in the later middle ages,
and his literary reputation rests on the important books he
produced on this subject. These are: Superstition and Force
(Philadelphia, 1866, new ed. 1892) ; Historical Sketch of Sacerdotal
Celibacy (Philadelphia, 1867); History of the Inquisition of the
Middle Ages (New York, 1888); Chapters from the religious
history of Spain connected with the Inquisition (Philadelphia,
1890); History of auricular Confession and Indulgences in the
Latin Church (3 vols., London, 1896); The Moriscos of Spain
(Philadelphia, 1901), and History of the Inquisition of Spain
(4 vols., New York and London, 1906-1907). He also edited
a Formulary of the Papal Penitentiary in the ijth century (Phila-
delphia, 1892), and in 1908 was published his Inquisition in the
Spanish Dependencies. As an authority on the Inquisition he
stood in the highest rank of modern historians, and distinctions
were conferred on him by the universities of Harvard, Princeton,
Pennsylvania, Giessen and Moscow. He died at Philadelphia
on the 24th of October 1909.
LEAD (pronounced feed), a city of Lawrence county, South
Dakota, U.S.A., situated in the Black Hills, at an altitude of
about 5300 ft., 3m. S.W. of Deadwood. Pop. (1890) 2581, (1900)
6210, of whom 2145 were foreign-born, (1905) 8217, (1910) 8392.
In 1905 it was second in population among the cities of the
state. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the
Chicago & North-Western, and the Chicago, Milwaukee &
St Paul railways. Lead has a hospital, the Hearst Free Library
and the Hearst Free Kindergarten, and is the see of a Roman
Catholic bishopric. It is the centre of the mining interests of the
Black Hills, and the Homestake Gold Mine here contains perhaps
the largest and most easily worked mass of .low-grade ore and
one of the largest mining plants (1000 stamps) in the world; it
has also three cyanide mills. From 1878 to 1906 the value of the
gold taken from this mine amounted to about $58,000,000, and
the net value of the product of 1906 alone was approximately
$5,313,516. For two months in the spring of 1907 the mine
was rendered idle by a fire (March 25), which was so severe that
it was necessary to flood the entire mine. Mining tools and gold
jewelry are manufactured. The first settlement was made here
by mining prospectors in July 1876. Lead was chartered as a
city in 1890 and became a city of the first class in 1904.
LEAD, a metallic chemical element; its symbol is Pb (from
the Lat. plumbum), and atomic weight 207-10 (0=16). This
metal was known to the ancients, and is mentioned in the Old
Testament. The Romans used it largely, as it is still used, for
the -making of water pipes, and soldered these with an alloy of
lead and tin. Pliny treats of these two metals as plumbum
nigrum and plumbum album respectively, which seems to show
LEAD
that at his time they were looked upon as being only two varieties
of the same species. In regard to the ancients' knowledge of
lead compounds, we may state that the substance described
by Dioscorides as fjw\vp8alva was undoubtedly litharge, that
Pliny uses the word minium in its present sense of red lead, ana
that white lead was well known to Geber in the 8th century.
The alchemists designated it by the sign of Saturn Tj..
Occurrence. — Metallic lead occurs in nature but very rarely
and then only in minute amount. The chief lead ores are galena
and cerussite; of minor importance are anglesite, pyromorphite
and mimetesite (qq.v.). Galena (q.v.), the principal lead ore,
has a world-wide distribution, and is always contaminated with
silver sulphide, the proportion of noble metal varying from about
o-oi or less to 0-3%, and in rare cases coming up to ^ or i%.
Fine-grained galena is usually richer in silver than the coarse-
grained. Galena .occurs in veins in the Cambrian clay-slate,
accompanied by copper and iron pyrites, zinc-blende, quartz, calc-
spar, iron-spar, &c.; also in beds or nests within sandstones and
rudimentary limestones, and in a great many other geological
formations. It is pretty widely diffused throughout the earth's
crust. The principal English lead mines are in Derbyshire; but
there are also mines at Allandale and other parts of western
Northumberland, at Alston Moor and other parts of Cumberland,
in the western parts of Durham, in Swaledale and Arkendale
and other parts of Yorkshire, in Salop, in Cornwall, in the
Mendip Hills in Somersetshire, and in the Isle of Man. The
Welsh mines are chiefly in Flint, Cardigan and Montgomery
shires; the Scottish in Dumfries, Lanark and Argyll; and the
Irish in Wicklow, Waterford and Down. Of continental mines
we may mention those in Saxony and in the Harz, Germany;
those of Carinthia, Austria; and especially those of the southern
provinces of Spain. It is widely distributed in the United States,
and occurs in Mexico and Brazil; it is found in Tunisia and
Algeria, in the Altai Mountains and India, and in New South
Wales, Queensland, and in Tasmania.
The native carbonate or cerussite (q.v.) occasionally occurs
in the pure form, but more frequently in a state of intimate
intermixture with clay (" lead earth," Bleierde), limestone, iron
oxides, &c. (as in the ores of Nevada and Colorado), and some
times also with coal (" black lead ore "). All native carbonate of
lead seems to be derived from what was originally galena, which
is always present in it as an admixture. This ore, metallurgically,
was not reckoned of much value, until immense quantities of it
were discovered in Nevada and in Colorado (U.S.). The Nevada
mines are mostly grouped around the city of Eureka, where the
ore occurs in " pockets " disseminated at random through lime-
stone. The crude ore contains about 30% lead and 0-2 to 0-3%
silver. The Colorado lead district is in the Rocky Mountains, a
few miles from the source of the Arkansas river. It forms gigantic
deposits of almost constant thickness, embedded between a floor
of limestone and a roof of porphyry. Stephens's discovery of
the ore in 1877 was the making of the city of Leadville, which,
in 1878, within a year of its foundation, had over 10,000 in-
habitants. The Leadville ore contains from 24 to 42% lead
and o- 1 to 2 % silver. In Nevada and Colorado the ore is worked
chiefly for the sake of the silver. Deposits are also worked at
Broken Hill, New South Wales.
Anglesite, or lead sulphate, PbSO4, is poor in silver, and is only
exceptionally mined by itself; it occurs in quantity in France,
Spain, Sardinia and Australia. Of other lead minerals we may
mention the basic sulphate lanarkite, PbO-PbSO4; leadhillite,
PbSO4-3PbCO3; the basic chlorides matlockite, PbO-PbCl2,
and mendipite, PbCl2-2PbO; the chloro-phosphate pyro-
morphite, PbCl2-3Pb3(PO4)2, the chloro-arsenate mimetesite,
PbCl2-3Pb3(AsO4)2; the molybdate wulfenite, PbMoO4; the
chromate crocoite or crocoisite, PbCrO4; the tungstate stolzite,
PbWO4.
Production. —At the beginning of the igth century the bulk of the
world's supply of lead was obtained from England and Spain, the
former contributing about 17,000 tons and the latter 10,000 tons
annually. Germany, Austria, Hungary, France, Russia and the
United States began to rank as producers during the second and
third decades; Belgium entered in about 1840; Italy in the 'sixties;
Mexico, Canada, Japan and Greece in the 'eighties ; while Australia
assumed importance in 1888 with a production of about 18,000 tons,
although it had contributed small and varying amounts for many
preceding decades. In 1850 England headed the list of producers
with about 66,000 tons; this amount had declined in 1872 to 61,000
tons. Since this date, it has, on the whole, diminished, although
large outputs occurred in isolated years, for instance, a production
of 40,000 tons in 1893 was followed by 60,000 tons in 1896 and
40,000 in 1897. The output in 1900 was 35,000 tons, and in 1905,
25,000 tons. Spain ranked second in 1850 with about 47,000 tons;
this was increased in 1863, 1876 and in 1888 to 84,000, 127,000 and
187,000 tons respectively; but the maximum outputs mentioned
were preceded and succeeded by periods of depression. In 1900 the
production was 176,000 tons, and in 1905, 179,000 tons. The
United States, which ranked third with a production of 20,000 tons
in 1850, maintained this annual yield, until 1870, when it began to
increase; the United States now ranks as the chief producer; in
1900 the output was 253,000 tons, and in 1905, 319,744 tons. Ger-
many has likewise made headway; an output of 12,000 tons in
1850 being increased to 120,000 tons in 1900 and to 152,590 in 1905.
This country now ranks third, having passed England in 1873.
Mexico increased its production from 18,000 tons in 1883 to 83,000
tons in 1900 and about 88,000 tons in 1905. The Australian pro-
duction of 18,000 tons in 188$ was increased to 58,000 tons in 1891,
a value maintained until 1893, when a depression set in, only 21,000
tons being produced in 1897; prosperity then returned, and in
1898 the yield was 68,000 tons, and in 1905, 120,000 tons. Canada
became important in 1895 with a production of 10,000 tons; this
increased to 28,654 tons in 1900; and in 1905 the yield was 25,391
tons. Italy has been a fairly steady producer; the output in 1896
was 20,000 tons, and in 1905, 25,000 tons.
• Metallurgy.
The extraction of the metal from pure (or nearly pure) galena
is the simplest of all metallurgical operations. The ore is roasted
(i.e. heated in the presence of atmospheric oxygen) until all
the sulphur is burned away and the lead left. This simple state-
ment, however, correctly formulates only the final result. The
first effect of the roasting is the elimination of sulphur as sulphur-
dioxide, with formation of oxide and sulphate of lead. In
practice this oxidation process is continued until the whole of the
oxygen is as nearly as possible equal in weight to the sulphur
present as sulphide or as sulphate, i.e. in the ratio S : O2. The
heat is then raised in (relative) absence of air, when the two
elements named unite into sulphur-dioxide, while a regulus
of molten lead remains. Lead ores are smelted in the rever-
beratory furnace, the ore-hearth, and the blast-furnace. The
use of the first two is restricted, as they are suited only for
galena ores or mixtures of galena and carbonate, which contain
not less than 58% lead and not more than 4% silica; further,
ores to be treated in the ore-hearth should run low in or be
free from silver, as the loss in the fumes is excessive. In the
blast-furnace all lead ores are successfully smelted. Blast-
furnace treatment has therefore become more general than any
other. „
Three types of reverberatory practice are in vogue — the English,
Carinthian and Silesian. In Wales and the south of England the
process is conducted in a reverberatory furnace, the sole of which is
paved with slags from previous operations, and has a depression in
the middle where the metal formed collects to be let off by a tap-hole.
The dressed ore is introduced through a " hopper " at the top, and
exposed to a moderate oxidizing flame until a certain proportion of
ore is oxidized, openings at the side enabling the workmen to stir
up the ore so as to constantly renew the surface exposed to the air.
At this stage as a rule some rich slags of a former operation are added
and a quantity of quicklime is incorporated, -the chief object of
which is to 'diminish the fluidity of the mass in the next stage,
which consists in this, that, with closed air-holes, the heat is
raised so as to cause the oxide and sulphate on the one hand and
the sulphide on the other to reduce each other to metal. The lead
produced runs into the hollow and is tapped off. The roasting
process is then resumed, to be followed by another reduction, and
so on.
A similar process is used in Carinthia; only the furnaces are
smaller and of a somewhat different form. They are long and
narrow; the sole is plane, but slopes from the fire-bridge towards
the flue, so that the metal runs to the latter end to collect in pots
placed outside the furnace. In Carinthia the oxidizing process from
the first is pushed on so far that metallic lead begins to show, and the
oxygen introduced predominates over the sulphur left. The mass is
then stirred to liberate the lead, which is removed as Riihrblei.
Charcoal is now added, and the heat urged on to obtain Pressblei,
an inferior metal formed partly by the action of the charcoal on the
oxide of lead. The fuel used is fir-wood.
316
LEAD
The Silesian furnace has an oblong hearth sloping from the fire-
bridge to the flue-bridge. This causes the lead to collect at the
coolest part of the hearth, whence it is tapped, &c., as in the English
furnace. While by the English and Carinthian processes as much
lead as possible is extracted in the furnace, with the Silesian method
a very low temperature is used, thus taking out about one-half of
the lead and leaving very rich slags (50% lead) to be smelted in
the blast-furnace, the ultimate result being a very much higher yield
than by either of the other processes. The loss in lead by the
combined reverberatory and blast-furnace treatment is only 3-2%.
In Cumberland, Northumberland, Durham and latterly the United
States, the reverberatory furnace is used only for roasting the ore,
and the oxidized ore is then reduced by fusion in a low, square blast-
furnace (a " Scottish hearth furnace ") lined with cast iron, as is
also the inclined sole-plate which is made to project beyond the
furnace, the outside portion (the " work-stone ") being provided with
grooves guiding any molten metal that may be placed on the
stone" into a cast iron pot; the "tuyere" for the introduc-
tion of the wind was, in the earlier types, about half way down the
furnace.
As a preliminary to the melting process, the " browse " left in the
preceding operation (half-fused and imperfectly reduced ore) is
introduced with some peat and coal, and heated with the help of
the blast. It is then raked out on the work-stone and divided into
a very poor " grey " slag which is put aside, and a richer portion,
which goes back into the furnace. Some of the roasted ore is strewed
upon it, and, after a quarter of an hour's working, the whole is taken
out on the work-stone, where the lead produced runs off. The
" browse," after removal of the " grey " slag, is reintroduced, ore
added, and, after a quarter of an hour's heating, the mass again
placed on the work-stone, &c.
In the more recent form of the hearth process the blocks of cast
iron forming the sides and back of the Scottish furnace are now
generally replaced in the United States by water-cooled shells (water-
jackets) of cast iron. In this way continuous working has been
rendered possible, whereas formerly operations had to be stopped
every twelve or fifteen hours to allow the over-heated blocks and
furnace to cool down. A later improvement (which somewhat
changes the mode of working) is that by Moffett. While he also
prevents interruption of the operation by means of water-jackets,
he uses hot-blast, and produces, besides metallic lead, large volumes
of lead fumes which are drawn off by fans through long cooling
tubes, and then forced through suspended bags which filter off the
dust, called " blue powder." Thus, a mixture of lead sulphate
(45%) and oxide (44%) with some sulphide (8%), zinc and carbon-
aceous matter, is agglomerated by a heap-roast and then smelted
in a slag-eye furnace with grey slag from the ore-hearth. The
furnace has, in addition to the usual tuyeres near the bottom, a
second set near the throat in order to effect a complete oxidation of
all combustible matter. Much fume is thus produced. This is
drawn off, cooled and filtered, and forms a white paint of good body,
consisting of about 65% lead sulphate, 26% lead oxide, 6% zinc
oxide and 3 % other substances. Thus in the Moffett method it is
immaterial whether metal or fume is produced, as in either case it is
saved and the price is about the same.
In smelting at once in the same blast-furnace ores of different
character, the old use of separate processes of precipitation, roasting
and reduction, and general reduction prevailing in the Harz Moun-
tains, Freiberg and other places, to suit local conditions, has been
abandoned. Ores are smelted raw if the fall of matte (metallic
sulphide) does not exceed 5%; otherwise they are subjected to a
preliminary oxidizing roast to expel the sulphur, unless they run too
high in silver, say 100 oz. to the ton, when they are smelted raw.
The leading reverberatory furnace for roasting lead-bearing sulphide
ores has a level hearth 14-16 ft. wide and 60-80 ft. long. It puts
through 9-12 tons of ore in twenty-four hours, reducing the percent-
age of sulphur to 2-4%, and requires four to six men and about 2
tons of coal. In many instances it has been replaced by mechanical
furnaces, which are now common in roasting sulphide copper ores
(see SULPHURIC ACID). A modern blast-furnace is oblong in hori-
zontal section and about 24 ft. high from furnace floor to feed floor.
The shaft, resting upon arches supported by four cast iron columns
about 9 ft. high, is usually of brick, red brick on the outside, fire-
brick on the inside; sometimes it is made of wrought iron water-
jackets. The smelting zone always has a bosh and a contracted
tuyere section. It is enclosed by water-jackets, which are usually
cast iron, sometimes mild steel. The hearth always has an Arents
siphon tap. This is an inclined channel running through the side-
wall, beginning near the bottom of the crucible and ending at the
top of the hearth, where it is enlarged into a basin. The crucible
and the channel form the two limbs of an inverted siphon. While
the furnace is running the crucible and channel remain filled with
Jead ; all the lead reduced to the metallic state in smelting collects
in the crucible, and- rising in the channel, overflows into the basin,
whence it is removed. The slag and matte formed float upon the
lead in the crucible and are tapped, usually together, at intervals
into slag-pots, where the heavy matter settles on the bottom and
the light slag on the top. When cold they are readily separated by
a blow from a hammer. The following table gives the dimensions
of some well-known American lead-furnaces.
Lead Blast- Furnace.
Locality.
Year.
Tuyere
Section.
Height, Tuyere
to Throat.
Leadville, Colorado .
Denver ,, .
Durango ,,
Denver ,,
Leadville, ,,
Salt Lake City, Utah
1880
1880
1882
1892
1892
1895
In.
33X84
36X100
36X96
42X100
42X120
45X140
Ft.
14
17
12-6
16
18
20
A furnace, 42 by 120 in. at the tuyeres, with a working height of
17-20 ft., will put through in twenty-four hours, with twelve men,
12% coke and 2 Ib blast-pressure, 85-100 tons average charge, i.e.
one that is a medium coarse, contains 12-15% lead, not over 5%
zinc, and makes under 5% matte. In making up a charge, the ores
and fluxes, whose chemical compositions have been determined,
are mixed so as to form out of the components, not to be reduced
to the metallic or sulphide state, typical slags (silicates of ferrous
and calcium oxides, incidentally of aluminium oxide, which have
been found to do successful work). Such slags contain SiOj=3O-
33%, Fe(Mn)O = 27-50%, Ca(Mg, Ba)O = i2-28%, and retain less
than i % lead and I oz. silver to the ton. The leading products of
the blast-furnace are argentiferous lead (base bullion), matte, slag
and flue-dust (fine particles of charge and volatilized metal carried
out of the furnace by the ascending gas current). The base bullion
1 ' below) ; the matte
•value of the base
when part of the
argentiferous lead is recovered as base bullion, while the rest remains
with the copper, which becomes concentrated in a copper-matte
(60 % copper) to be worked up by separate processes. The slag is
a waste product, and the flue-dust, collected by special devices in
dust-chambers, is briquetted by machinery, with lime as a bond,
and then resmelted with the ore-charge. The yield in lead is over
90%, in silver over 97% and in gold 100%. The cost of smelting
a ton of ore in Colorado in a single furnace, 42 by 120 in. at the
tuyeres, is about $3.
The lead produced in the reverberatory furnace and the ore-hearth
is of a higher grade than that produced in the blast-furnace, as the
ores treated are purer and richer, and the reducing action
is less powerful. The following analysis of blast-furnace
lead of Freiberg, Saxony, is from an exceptionally impure lead:
Pb =95-088, Ag = 0-470, Bi = 0-019, Cu =0-225, As = 1-826, Sb =0-958,
Sn = 1-354, Fe = o-O07, Zn = o-oo2, 8 = 0-051. Of the impurities,
most of the copper, nickel and copper, considerable arsenic, some
antimony and small amounts of silver are removed by liquation.
The lead is melted down slowly, when the impurities separate in the
form of a scum (dross), which is easily removed. The purification
by liquation is assisted by poling the lead when it is below redness.
A stick of green wood is forced into it, and the vapours and gases
set free expose new surfaces to the air, which at this temperature
has only a mildly oxidizing effect. The pole, the use of which is
awkward, has been replaced by dry stream, which has a similar
effect. To remove tin, arsenic and antimony, the lead has to be
brought up to a bright-red heat, when the air has a strongly oxidizing
effect. Tin is removed mainly as a powdery mixture of stannate
of lead and lead oxide, arsenic and antimony as a slagged mixture
of arsenate and antimonate of lead and lead oxide. They are readily
withdrawn from the surface of the lead, and are worked up into
antimony (arsenic) — tin-lead and antimony-lead alloys. Liquation,
if not followed by poling, is carried on as a rule in a reverberatory
furnace with an oblong, slightly trough-shaped inclined hearth;
if the lead is to be poled it is usually melted down in a cast-iron kettle.
If the lead is to be liquated and then brought to a bright-red heat,
both operations are carried on in the same reverberatory furnace.
This has an oblong, dish-shaped hearth of acid or basic fire-brick
built into a wrought-iron pan, which rests on transverse rails sup-
ported by longitudinal walls. The lead is melted down at a low
temperature and drossed. The temperature is then raised, and the
scum which forms on the surface is withdrawn until pure litharge
forms, which only takes place after all the tin, arsenic and antimony
have been eliminated.
Silver is extracted from lead by means of the process of cupellatipn.
Formerly all argentiferous lead had to be cupelled, and the resulting
litharge then reduced to metallic lead. In 1833 Pattinson l
invented his process by means of which practically all the es
silver is concentrated in 13% of the original lead to be
cupelled, while the rest becomes market lead. In 1842 Karsten
discovered that lead could be desilverized by means of zinc. His
invention, however, only took practical form in 1850-1852 through
the researches of Parkes, who showed how the zinc-silver-lead alloy
formed could be worked and the desilverized lead freed from the zinc
it had taken up. In the Parkes process only 5 % of the original lead
need be cupelled. Thus, while cupellation still furnishes the only
means for the final separation of lead and silver, it has become an
auxiliary process to the two methods of concentration given. Of
these the Pattinson process has become subordinate to the Parkes
LEAD
process, as it is more expensive and leaves more silver and im-
purities in the market lead. It holds its own, however, when base
bullion contains bismuth in appreciable amounts, as in the Pattinson
process bismuth follows the lead to be cupelled, while in the Parkes
process it remains with the desilverized lead which goes to market,
and lead of commerce should contain little bismuth. At Freiberg,
Saxony, the two processes have been combined. The base bullion
is imperfectly Pattinsonized, giving lead rich in silver and bismuth,
which is cupelled, and lead low in silver, and especially so in bismuth,
which is further desilverized by the Parkes process.
The effect of the two processes on the purity of the market lead
is clearly shown by the two following analyses by Hampe, which
represent lead from Lautenthal in the Harz Mountains, where the
Parkes process replaced that of Pattinson, the ores and smelting
process remaining practically the same : —
It is absolutely necessary for the success of the Parkes process
that the zinc and lead should contain only a small amount of im-
purity. The spelter used must therefore be of a good
grade, and the lead is usually first refined in a rever-
beratory furnace (the softening furnace). The capacity pn
of the furnace must be 10 % greater than that of the kettle into
which the softened lead is tapped, as the dross and skimmings
formed amount to about 10 % of the weight of the lead charged.
The kettle is spherical, and is suspended over a fire-place by a broad
rim resting on a wall; it is usually of cast iron. Most kettles at
present hold 30 tons of lead; some, however, have double that
capacity. When zinc is placed on the lead (heated to above the
melting-point of zinc), liquefied and brought into intimate contact
with the lead by stirring, gold, copper, silver and lead will combine
with the zinc in the order given. By beginning with a small amount
Process.
Pb.
Cu.
Sb.
As.
Bi.
Ag-
Fe.
Zn.
Ni.
Pattinson .
Parkes
99-966200
99-983'39
0-015000
0-001413
I-OIOOOO
0-005698
none
none
0-000600
0-005487
O-OO22OO
O-OOO46O
0-004000
0-002289
O-OOIOOO
0-000834
I-OOIOOO
0-000680
The reverberatory furnace commonly used for cupelling goes by
the name of the English cupelling furnace. It is oblong, and has a
c .. fixed roof and a movable iron hearth (test). Formerly
Cupelling. tjje j.est was i;necj with bone-ash; at present the hearth
material is a mixture of crushed limestone and clay (3:1) or Portland
cement, either alone or mixed with crushed fire-brick; in a few
instances the lining has been made of burnt magnesite. In the be-
ginning of the operation enough argentiferous lead is charged to fill
the cavity of the test. After it has been melted down and brought
to a red heat, the blast, admitted at the back, oxidizes the lead and
drives the litharge formed towards the front, where it is run off. At
the same time small bars of argentiferous lead, inserted at the back,
are slowly pushed forward, so that in melting down they may replace
the oxidized lead. Thus the level of the lead is kept approximately
constant, and the silver becomes concentrated in the lead. In large
works the silver-lead alloy is removed when it contains 60-80 %
silver, and the cupellation of the rich bullion from several concen-
tration furnaces is finished in a second furnace. At the same time
the silver is brought to the required degree of fineness, usually by the
use of nitre. In small works the cupellation is finished in one fur-
nace, and the resulting low-grade silver fined in a plumbago crucible,
either by overheating in the presence of air, or by the addition of
silver sulphate to the melted silver, when air or sulphur trioxide and
oxygen oxidize the impurities. The lead charged contains about
1-5 % lead if it comes from a Pattinson plant, from 5-10 % if from
a Parkes plant. In a test 7 ft. by 4 ft. 10 in. and 4 in. deep, about
6 tons of lead are cupelled in twenty-four hours. A furnace is served
by three men, working in eight-hour shifts, and requires about
2 tons of coal, which corresponds to about no gallons reduced oil,
air being used as atomizer. The loss in lead is about 5 %. The
latest cupelling furnaces have the general form of a reverberatory
copper-smelting furnace. The working door through which the
litharge is run off lies under the flue which carries off the products
of combustion and the lead fumes, the lead is charged and the blast
is admitted near the fire-bridge.
In the Pattinson process the argentiferous lead is melted down in
the central cast iron kettle of a series 8-15, placed one next to the
_ other, each having a capacity of 9-15 tons and a separate
ss°" fire-place. The crystals of impoverished lead which fall
to the bottom, upon coaling the charge, are taken out
with a skimmer and discharged into the neighbouring kettle (say
to the right) until about two-thirds of the original charge has been
removed ; then the liquid enriched lead is ladled into the kettle on
the opposite side. To the kettle, two-thirds full of crystals of lead,
is now added lead of the same tenor in silver, the whole is liquefied,
and the cooling, crystallizing, skimming and ladling are repeated.
The same is done with the kettle one-third filled with liquid lead,
and so on until the first kettle contains market lead, the last cupelling
lead. The intervening kettles contain leads with silver contents
ranging from above market to below cupelling lead. The original
Pattinson process has been in many cases replaced by the Luce-
Rozan process (1870), which does away with arduous labour and
attains a more satisfactory crystallization. The plant consists of
two tilting oval metal pans (capacity 7 tons), one cylindrical crystal-
lizing pot (capacity 22 tons), with two discharging spouts and one
steam inlet opening, two lead moulds (capacity 3! tons), and a steam
crane. Pans and pot are heated from separate fire-places. Supposing
the pot to be filled with melted lead to be treated, the fire is with-
drawn beneath and steam introduced. This cools and stirs the
lead when crystals begin to form. As soon as two-thirds of the lead
has separated in the form of crystals, the steam is shut off and the
liquid lead drained off through the two spouts into the moulds. The
fire underneath the pot is again started, the crystals are liquefied, and
one of the two pans, filled with melted lead, is tilted by means of the
crane and its contents poured into the pot. In the meantime the lead
in the moulds, which has solidified, is removed with the crane and
stacked to one side, until its turn comes to be raised and charged into
one of the pans. The crystallization proper lasts one hour, the work-
ing of a charge four hours, six charges being run in twenty-four hours.
of zinc, all the gold and copper and some silver and lead will be
alloyed with the zinc to a so-called gold — or copper — crust, and the
residual lead saturated with zinc. By removing from the surface
of the lead this first crust and working it up separately (liquating,
retorting and cupelling), -dor6 silver is obtained. By the second
addition of zinc most of the silver will be collected in a saturated
zinc-silver-lead crust, which, when worked up, gives fine silver.
A third addition becomes necessary to remove the rest of the silver,
when the lead will assay only o-i oz. silver per ton. As this com-
plete desilverization is only possible by the use of an excess of zinc,
the unsaturated zinc-silver-lead alloy is put aside to form part
of the second zincking of the next following charge. In skimming
the crust from the surface of the lead some unalloyed lead is also
drawn off, and has to be separated by an additional operation
(liquation), as, running lower in silver than the crust, it would other-
wise reduce its silver content and increase the amount of lead to be
cupelled. A zincking takes 5-6 hours;) 1-5-2-5 % zinc is required
for desilverizing. The liquated zinc-silver-lead crust contains
5-10 % silver, 30-40 % zinc and 65-50 % lead. Before it can be
cupelled it has to be freed from most of the zinc, which is accom-
plished by distilling in a retort made of a mixture similar to that of
the plumbago crucible. The retort is pear-shaped, and holds
1000-1500 ft of charge, consisting of liquated crust mixed with 1-3 %
of charcoal. The condenser commonly used is an old retort. The
distillation of 1000 Ib charge lasts 5-6 hours, requires 500-600 ft
coke or 30 ± gallons reduced oil, and yields about 10% metallic
zinc and I % blue powder — a mixture of finely-divided metallic zinc
and zinc oxide. About 60% of the zinc used in desilverizing is
recovered in a form to be used again. One man serves 2-4 retorts.
The desilverized lead, which retains 0-6-0-7 % zinc, has to be refined
before it is suited for industrial use. The operation is carried on in
a reverberatory furnace or in a kettle. In the reverberatory furnace,
similar to the one used in softening, the lead is brought to a bright-
red heat and air allowed to have free access. The zinc and some lead
are oxidized ; part of the zinc passes off with the fumes, part is dis-
solved by the litharge, forming a melted mixture which is skimmed
off and reduced in a blast-furnace or a reverberatory smelting furnace.
In the kettle covered with a hood the zinc is oxidized by means of
dry steam, and incidentally some lead by the air which cannot be
completely excluded. A yellowish powdery mixture of zinc and lead
oxides collects on the lead; it is skimmed off and sold as paint.
From the reverberatory furnace or the kettle the refined lead is
siphoned off into a storage (market) kettle after it has cooled some-
what, and from this it is siphoned off into moulds placed in a semi-
circle on the floor. In the process the yield in metal, based upon
the charge in the kettle, is lead 99%, silver 100+ %, gold 98-100%.
The plus-silver is due to the fact that in assaying the base bullion
by cupellation, the silver lost by volatilization and cupel-absorption
is neglected. In the United States the cost of desilverizing a ton
base bullion is about $6.
Properties of Lead. — Pure lead is'' a feebly lustrous bluish-
white metal, endowed with a characteristically high degree of
softness and plasticity, and almost entirely devoid of elasticity.
Its breaking strain is very small: a wire y^th in- thick is
ruptured by a charge of about 30 ft. The specific gravity is
11-352 for ingot, and from 11-354 to 11-365 for sheet lead (water
of 4°C. = i). The expansion of unit-length from o° C. to 100° C.
is -002948 (Fizeau). The conductivity for heat (Wiedemann and
Franz) or electricity is 8-5, that of silver being taken as 100.
It melts at 327-7° C. (H. L. Callendar); at a bright-red heat
it perceptibly vapourizes, and boils at a temperature between
1450° and 1600°. The specific heat is -0314 (Regnault). Lead
exposed to ordinary air is rapidly tarnished, but the thin dark
film formed is very slow in increasing. When kept fused in the
presence of air lead readily takes up oxygen, with the formation
LEAD
at first of a dark-coloured scum, and then of monoxide PbO,
the rate of oxidation increasing with the temperature.
Water when absolutely pure has no action on lead, but in the
presence of air the lead is quickly attacked, with formation
of the hydrate, Pb(OH)2, which is appreciably soluble in water
forming an alkaline liquid. When carbonic acid is present the
dissolved oxide is soon precipitated as basic carbonate, so that the
corrosion of the lead becomes continuous. Since all soluble lead
compounds are strong cumulative poisons, danger is involved
in using lead cisterns or pipes in the distribution of pure waters.
The word " pure " is emphasized because experience shows
that the presence in a water of even small proportions of calcium
bicarbonate or sulphate prevents its action on lead. All im-
purities do not act in a similar way. Ammonium nitrate and
nitrite, for instance, intensify the action of a water on lead. Even
pure waters, however, such as that of Loch Katrine (which
forms the Glasgow supply), act so slowly, at least on such lead
pipes as have already been in use for some time, that there is no
danger in using short lead service pipes even for them, if the taps
are being constantly used. Lead cisterns must be unhesitatingly
condemned.
The presence of carbonic acid in a water does not affect its
action on lead. Aqueous non-oxidizing acids generally have
little or no action on lead in the absence of air. Dilute sulphuric
acid (say an acid of 20% H2SO4 or less) has no action on lead
even when air is present, nor on boiling. Strong acid does act, the
more so the greater its concentration and the higher its tempera-
ture. Pure lead is far more readily corroded than a metal con-
taminated with i % or even less of antimony or copper. Boiling
concentrated sulphuric acid converts lead into sulphate, with
evolution of sulphur dioxide. Dilute nitric acid readily dissolves
the metal, with formation of nitrate Pb(NOs)2.
Lead Alloys. — Lead unites readily with almost all other
metals; hence, and on account of its being used for the extrac-
tion of (for instance) silver, its alchemistic name of saturnus.
Of the alloys the following may be named: —
With Antimony. — Lead contaminated with small proportions of
antimony is more highly proof against sulphuric acid than the pure
metal. An alloy of 83 parts of lead and 17 of antimony is used as
type metal ; other proportions are used, however, and other metals
added besides antimony (e.g. tin, bismuth) to give the alloy certain
properties.
Arsenic renders lead harder. An alloy made by addition of about
jth of arsenic has been used for making shot.
Bismuth and Antimony. — An alloy consisting of 9 parts of lead,
2 of antimony and 2 of bismuth is used for stereotype plates.
Bismuth and Tin. — These triple alloys are noted for their low
fusing points. An alloy of 5 of lead, 8 of bismuth and 3 of tin
fuses at 94-4° C., i.e. below the boiling-point of water (Rose's metal).
An alloy of 15 parts of bismuth, 8 of lead, 4 of tin and 3 of cadmium
(Wood's alloy) melts below 70° C.
Tin unites with lead in any proportion with slight expansion, the
alloy fusing at a lower temperature than either component. It is
used largely for soldering.
" Pewter " (q.v.) may be said to be substantially an alloy of the
same two metals, but small quantities of copper, antimony and zinc
are frequently added.
Compounds of Lead.
Lead generally functions as a divalent element of distinctly
metallic character, yielding a definite series of salts derived
from the oxide PbO. At the same time, however, it forms a
number of compounds in which it is most decidedly tetravalent ;
and thus it shows relations to carbon, silicon, germanium and tin.
Oxides. — Lead combines with oxygen to form five oxides, viz.
Pb2O, PbO, PbO2, Pb2O3 and Pb3O4. The suboxide, Pb2O, is the
first product of the oxidation of lead, and is also obtained as a black
powder by heating lead oxalate to 300° out of contact with air.
It ignites when heated in air with the formation of the monoxide;
dilute acids convert it into metallic lead and lead monoxide, the latter
dissolving in the acid. The monoxide, PbO, occurs in nature as the
mineral lead ochre. This oxide is produced by heating lead in contact
with air and removing the film of oxide as formed. It is manu-
factured in two forms, known as " massicot " and " litharge."
The former is produced at temperatures below, the latter at tempera-
tures above the fusing-point of the oxide. The liquid litharge when
allowed to cool solidifies into a hard stone-like mass, which, however,
when left to itself, soon crumbles up into a heap of resplendent
dark yellow scales known as " flake litharge." " Buff " or " levi-
gated litharge " is prepared by grinding the larger pieces under
water. Litharge is much used for the preparation of lead salts, for
the manufacture of oil varnishes, of certain cements, and of lead
plaster, and for other purposes. Massicot is the raw material for
the manufacture of " red lead " or " minium."
Lead monoxide is dimorphous, occurring as cubical dodecahedra
and as rhombic octahedra. Its specific gravity is about 9; it is
sparingly soluble in water, but readily dissolves in acids and molten
alkalis. A yellow and red modification have been described (Zeit.
anorg. Chem., 1906, 50, p. 265). The corresponding hydrate, Pb(OH)2,
is obtained as a white crystalline precipitate by adding ammonia
to a solution of lead nitrate or acetate. It dissolves in an excess
of alkali to form plumbites of the general formula Pb(OM)2. It
absorbs carbon dioxide from the air when moist. A hydrated oxide,
2PbO-H2O, is obtained when a solution of the monoxide in potash
is treated with carbon dioxide.
Lead dioxide, PbO2, also known as " puce oxide," occurs in nature
as the mineral plattnerite, and may be most conveniently prepared
by heating mixed solutions of lead acetate and bleaching powder
until the original precipitate blackens. The solution is filtered, the
precipitate well washed, and, generally, is put up in the form of a
paste in well-closed vessels. It is also obtained by passing chlorine
into a suspension of lead oxide or carbonate, or of magnesia and
lead sulphate, in water; or by treating the sesquioxide or red oxide
with nitric acid. The formation of lead dioxide by the electrolysis
of a lead solution, the anode being a lead plate coated with lead
oxide or sulphate and the cathode a lead plate, is the fundamental
principle of the storage cell (see ACCUMULATOR). Heating or ex-
posure to sunlight reduces it to the red oxide; it fires when ground
with sulphur, and oxidizes ammonia to nitric acid, with the simul-
taneous formation of ammonium nitrate. It oxidizes a manganese
salt (free from chlorine) in the presence of nitric acid to a per-
manganate; this is a very delicate test for manganese. It forms
crystallizable salts with potassium and calcium hydrates, and
functions as a weak acid forming salts named plumbates. The
Kassner process for the manufacture of oxygen depends upon the
formation of calcium plumbate, Ca2PbO4, by heating a mixture of
lime and litharge in a current of air, decomposing this substance into
calcium carbonate and lead dioxide by heating in a, current of
carbon dioxide, and then decomposing these compounds with the
evolution of carbon dioxide and oxygen by raising the temperature.
Plumbic acid, PbO(OH)2, is obtained as a bluish-black, lustrous
body of electrolysing an alkaline solution of lead sodium tartrate.
Tetravalent Lead. — If a suspension of lead dichloride in hydro-
chloric acid be treated with chlorine gas, a solution of lead tetra-
chloride is obtained; by adding ammonium chloride ammonium
plumbichloride, (NHi)2PbCl6, is precipitated, which on treatment
with strong sulphuric acid yields lead tetrachloride, PbCU, as a trans-
lucent, yellow, highly refractive liquid. It freezes at —15° to a
yellowish crystalline mass; on heating it loses chlorine and forms
lead dichloride. With water it forms a hydrate, and ultimately de-
composes into lead dioxide and hydrochloric acid. It combines with
alkaline chlorides — potassium, rubidium and caesium — to form
crystalline plumbichtorides; it also forms a crystalline compound
with quinohne. By dissolving red lead, Pb3O4, in glacial acetic acid
and crystallizing the filtrate, colourless monoclinic prisms of lead
tetracetate, Pb(C2H3O2)4, are obtained. This salt gives the corre-
sponding chloride and fluoride with hydrochloric and hydrofluoric
acids, and the phosphate, Pb(HPO.i)2, with phosphoric acid.
These salts are like those of tin; and the resemblance to this metal
is clearly enhanced by the study of the alkyl compounds. Here
compounds of divalent lead have not yet been obtained ; by acting
with zinc ethide on lead chloride, lead tetraethide, Pb(C2H3)4, is ob-
tained, with the separation of metallic lead.
Lead sesquioxide, Pb2O3, is obtained as a reddish-yellow amorphous
powder by carefully adding sodium hypochlorite to a cold potash
solution of lead oxide, or by adding very dilute ammonia to a
solution of red lead in acetic acid. It is decomposed by acids into
a mixture of lead monoxide and dioxide, and may thus be regarded
as lead metaplumbate, PbPbO3. Red lead or triplumbic tetroxide,
Pb3O4, is a scarlet crystalline powder of specific gravity 8-6-9-1,
obtained by roasting very finely divided pure massicot or lead car-
bonate; the brightness of the colour depends in a great measure on
the roasting. Pliny mentions it under the name of minium, but
it was confused with cinnabar and the red arsenic sulphide; Dios-
corides mentions its preparation from white lead or lead carbonate.
On heating it assumes a finer colour, but then turns violet and
finally black; regaining, however, its original colour on cooling.
On ignition, it loses oxygen and forms litharge. Commercial red
lead is frequently contaminated with this oxide, which may, however,
be removed by repeated digestion with lead acetate. Its common
adulterants are iron oxides, powdered barytes and brick dust.
Acids decompose it into lead dioxide and monoxide, and the latter
may or may not dissolve to form a salt; red lead may, therefore,
be regarded as lead orthoplumbate, Pb2PbO4. It is chiefly used as a
pigment and in the manufacture of flint glass.
Lead chloride, PbCl2, occurs in nature as the mineral cotunnite,
which crystallizes in the rhombic system, and is found in the neigh-
bourhood of volcanic craters. It is artificially obtained by adding
hydrochloric acid to a solution of lead salt, as a white precipitate,
LEAD
3*9
little soluble in cold water, less so in dilute hydrochloric acid, more-
so in the strong acid, and readily soluble in hot water, from which
on cooling, the excess of dissolved salt separates out in silky rhombic
needles. It melts at 485° and solidifies on cooling to a translucent,
horn-like mass; an early name for it was plumbum corneum, horn
lead. A basic chloride, Pb(OH)Cl, was introduced in 1849 by
Pattinspn as a substitute for white lead. Powdered galena is dis-
solved in hot hydrochloric acid, the solution allowed to cool and the
deposit of impure lead chloride washed with cold water to remove
iron and copper. The residue is then dissolved in hot water, filtered,
and the clear solution is mixed with very thin milk of lime so adjusted
that it takes out one-half of the chlorine of the PbCl2. The oxy-
chloride comes down as an amorphous white precipitate. Another
oxychloride, PbCl2-7PbO, known as " Cassel yellow," was prepared
by Vauquelin by fusing pure oxide, PbO, with one-tenth of its weight
of sal ammoniac. " Turner's yellow " or " patent yellow " is another
artificially prepared oxychloride, used as a pigment. Mendipite and
' matlockite are mineral oxychlorides.
Lead fluoride, PbF2, is a white powder obtained by precipitating
a lead salt with a soluble fluoride; it is sparingly soluble in water
but readily dissolves in hydrochloric and nitric acids. A chloro-
fluoride, PbCIF, is obtained by adding sodium fluoride to a solution
of lead chloride. Lead bromide, PbBrj, a white solid, and lead
iodide, PbI2, a yellow solid, are prepared by precipitating a lead
salt with a soluble bromide or iodide; they resemble the chloride in
solubility.
Lead carbonate, PbCO3, occurs in nature as the mineral cerussite
(q.v.). It is produced by the addition of a solution of lead salt to an
excess of ammonium carbonate, as an almost insoluble white pre-
cipitate. Of greater practical importance is a basic carbonate,
substantially 2PbCO3-Pb(OH)2, largely used as a white pigment under
the name of "white lead." This pigment is of great antiquity;
Theophrastus called it tyinvOiov, and prepared it by acting on lead
with vinegar, and Pliny, who called it cerussa, obtained it by dis-
solving lead in vinegar and evaporating to dryness. It thus appears
that white lead and sugar of lead were undifferentiated. Geber gave
the preparation in a correct form, and T. O. Bergman proved its
composition. This pigment is manufactured by several methods.
In the old Dutch method, pieces of sheet lead are suspended in
stoneware pots so as to occupy the upper two-thirds of the vessels.
A little vinegar is poured into each pot ; they are then covered with
plates of sheet lead, buried in horse-dung or spent tanner's bark,
and left to themselves for a considerable time. By the action of the
acetic acid and atmospheric oxygen, the lead is converted super-
ficially into a basic acetate, which is at once decomposed by the
carbon dioxide, with formation of white lead and acetic acid, which
latter then acts de novo. After a month or so the plates are converted
to a more or less considerable depth into crusts of white lead. These
are knocked off, ground up with water, freed from metal-particles
by elutriation, and the paste of white lead is allowed to set and dry
in small conical forms. The German method differs from the Dutch
inasmuch as the lead is suspended in a large chamber heated by
ordinary means, and there exposed to the simultaneous action of
vapour of aqueous acetic acid and of carbon dioxide. Another pro-
cess depends upon the formation of lead chloride by grinding together
litharge with salt and water, and then treating the alkaline fluid
with carbon dioxide until it is neutral. White lead is an earthy,
amorphous powder. The inferior varieties of commercial " white
lead " are produced by mixing the genuine article with more or less
of finely powdered heavy spar or occasionally zinc-white (ZnO).
Venetian white, Hamburg white and Dutch white are mixtures of one
part of white lead with one, two and three parts of barium sulphate
respectively.
Lead sulphide, PbS, occurs in nature as the mineral galena (q.v.),
and constitutes the most valuable ore of lead. It may be artificially
prepared by leading sulphur vapour over lead, by fusing litharge
with sulphur, or, as a black precipitate, by passing sulphuretted
hydrogen into a solution of a lead salt. It dissolves in strong
nitric acid with the formation of the nitrate and sulphate, and also
in hot concentrated hydrochloric acid.
Lead sulphate, PbSO<, occurs in nature as the mineral anglesite
(q.v.), and may be prepared by the addition of sulphuric acid to
solutions of lead salts, as a white precipitate almost insoluble in water
(i in 21,739), 'ess soluble still in dilute sulphuric acid (l in 36,504)
and insoluble in alcohol. Ammonium sulphide blackens it, and it is
soluble in solution of ammonium acetate, which distinguishes it from
barium sulphate. Strong sulphuric acid dissolves it, forming an
acid salt, Pb(HSO4)2, which is hydrolysed by adding water, the
normal sulphate being precipitated; hence the milkiness exhibited
by samples of oil of vitriol on dilution.
Lead nitrate, Pb(NO3)2, is obtained by dissolving the metal or oxide
in aqueous nitric acid ; it forms white crystals, difficultly soluble in
cold water, readily in hot water and almost insoluble in strong
nitric acid. It was mentioned by Libavius, who named it calx
plumb dulcis. It is decomposed by heat into oxide, nitrogen peroxide
and oxygen; and is used for the manufacture of fusees and other
deflagrating compounds, and also for preparing mordants in the dyeing
and calico-printing industries. Basic nitrates, e.g. Pb(NO3)OH,
Pb3O(OH)2(NO3)2, Pb3O2(OH)NO3, &c.., have been described.
Lead Phosphates. — The normal ortho-phosphate, PbsCPOOj, is
a white precipitate obtained by adding sodium phosphate to lead
acetate; the acid phosphate, PbHPQ4, is produced by precipitating
a boiling solution of lead nitrate with phosphoric acid; the pyro-
phosphate and meta-phosphate are similar white precipitates.
Lead Borates. — By fusing litharge with boron trioxide, glasses of a
composition varying with the proportions of the mixture are ob-
tained; some of these are used in the manufacture of glass. The
borate, Pb2B6On-4H2O,is obtained as a white precipitate by adding
borax to a lead salt; this on heating with strong ammonia gives
PbB2C>4-H2-O, which, in turn, when boiled with a solution of boric
acid, gives PbB4O7-4H2O.
Lead silicates are obtained as glasses by fusing litharge with silica ;
they play a considerable part in the manufacture of the lead glasses
(see GLASS).
Lead chromate, PbCrOi, is prepared industrially as a yellow
pigment, chrome yellow, by precipitating sugar of lead solution
with potassium bichromate. The beautiful yellow precipitate is
little soluble in dilute nitric acid, but soluble in caustic potash.
The vermilion-like pigment which occurs in commerce as " chrome-
red " is a basic chromate, Pb2CrO6, prepared by treating recently
precipitated normal chromate with a properly adjusted proportion
of caustic soda, or by boiling it with normal (yellow) potassium
chromate.
Lead acetate, Pb(C2H3O2)2-3H2O (called " sugar " of lead, on
account of its sweetish taste), is manufactured by dissolving massi-
cot in aqueous acetic acid. It forms colourless transparent crystals,
soluble in one and a half parts of cold water and in eight parts of
alcohol, which on exposure to ordinary air become opaque through
absorption of carbonic acid, which forms a crust of basic carbonate.
An aqueous solution readily dissolves lead oxide, with formation
of a strongly alkaline solution containing basic acetates (Acetum
Plumbi or Saturni). When carbon dioxide is passed into this solu-
tion the whole of the added oxide, and even part of the oxide of the
normal salt, is precipitated as a basic carbonate chemically similar,
but not quite equivalent as a pigment, to white lead.
Analysis. — When mixed with sodium carbonate and heated
on charcoal in the reducing flame lead salts yield malleable
globules of metal and a yellow oxide-ring. Solutions of lead
salts (colourless in the absence of coloured acids) are characterized
by their behaviour to hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid and
potassium chromate. But the most delicate precipitant for lead
is sulphuretted hydrogen, which produces a black precipitate
of lead sulphide, insoluble in cold dilute nitric acid, less so in
cold hydrochloric, and easily decomposed by hot hydrochloric
acid with formation of the characteristic chloride. The atomic
weight, determined by G. P. Baxter and J. H. Wilson (/. Amer.
Chem. Soc., 1908, 30, p. 187) by analysing the chloride, is 270-190
(0=i6).
Pharmacology and Therapeutics.
The metal itself is not used in medicine. The chief pharma-
copoeial salts are: (i) Plumbi oxidum (lead oxide), litharge.
It is not used internally, but from it is made Emplastrum Plumbi
(diachylon plaster), which is an oleate of lead and is contained in
emplastrum hydrargeri, emplastrum plumbi iodidi, emplastrum
resinae, emplastrum saponis. (2) Plumbi Acelas (sugar of lead),
dose i to 5 grains. From this salt are made the following prepara-
tions: (a) Pilula Plumbi cum Opio, the strength of the opium
in it being i in 8, dose 2 to 4 grains; (b) Suppositoria Plumbi
composila, containing lead acetate, opium and oil of theobroma,
there being one grain of opium in each suppository; (c) Un-
guentum Plumbi Acetatis; (d) Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis Fortior,
Goulard's extract, strength 24% of the subacetate; this again
has a sub-preparation, the Liquor Plumbi Subacetalis Dilutis,
called Goulard's water or Goulard's lotion, containing i part in
80 of the strong extract; (e) Glycerinum Plumbi Subacetatis, from
which is made the Unguentum Glycerini Plumbi Subacetatis.
(3) Plumbi Carbonas, white lead, a mixture of the carbonate
and the hydrate, a heavy white powder insoluble in water;
it is not used internally, but from it is made Unguentum Plumbi
Carbonatis, strength i in 10 parts of paraffin ointment. (4)
Plumbi lodidium, a heavy bright yellow powder not used in-
ternally. From it are made (a) Emplastrum Plumbi Iodidi,
and (b) Unguentum Plumbi Iodidi. The strength of each is
i in 10.
Applied externally lead salts have practically no action upon
the unbroken skin, but applied to sores, ulcers or any exposed
mucous membranes they coagulate the albumen in the tissues
themselves and contract the small vessels. They are very
astringent, haemostatic and sedative; the strong solution of the
320
LEADER— LEAD POISONING
subacetate is powerfully caustic and is rarely used undiluted.
Lead salts are applied as lotions in conditions where a sedative
astringent effect is desired, as in weeping eczema; in many
varieties of chronic ulceration; and as an injection for various
inflammatory discharges from the vagina, ear and urethra, the
Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis Dilutum being the one employed.
The sedative effect of lead lotion in pruritus is well known.
Internally lead has an astringent action on the mucous mem-
branes, causing a sensation of dry ness; the dilute solution
of the subacetate forms an effective gargle in tonsillitis. The
chief use of the preparations of lead, however, is as an astringent
in acute diarrhoea, particularly if ulceration be present, when
it is usefully given in combination with opium in the form of
the Pilula Plumbi cum Opio. It is useful in haemorrhage from
a gastric ulcer or in haemorrhage from the intestine. Lead salts
usually produce constipation, and lead is an active ecbolic.
Lead is said to enter the blood as an albuminate in which form
it is deposited in the tissues. As a rule the soluble salts if taken
in sufficient quantities produce acute poisoning, and the in-
soluble salts chronic plumbism. The symptoms of acute poison-
ing are pain and diarrhoea, owing to the setting up of an active
gastro-enteritis, the foeces being black (due to the formation
of a sulphide of lead), thirst, cramps in the legs and muscular
twitchings, with torpor, collapse, convulsions and coma. The
treatment is the prompt use of emetics, or the stomach should
be washed out, and large doses of sodium or magnesium sulphate
given in order to form an insoluble sulphate. Stimulants,
warmth and opium may be required. For an account of chronic
plumbism see LEAD POISONING.
AUTHORITIES. — For the history of lead see W. H. Pulsifer, Notes
for a History of Lead (1888); B. Neumann, Die Metalle (1904);
A. Rossing, Geschichte der Metalle (1901). For the chemistry see
H. Roscoe and C. Schorlemmer, Treatise on Inorganic Chemistry,
vol. ii. (1897); H. Moissan, Traitt de chimie minerale; O. Dammer,
Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie. For the metallurgy see J. Percy,
The Metallurgy of Lead (London, 1870) ; H. F. Collins, The Metallurgy
of Lead and Silver (London, 1899), part i. " Lead " ; H. O. Hofmann,
The Metallurgy of Lead (6th ed., New York, 1901); W. R. Ingalls,
Lead Smelting and Refining (1906); A. G. Betts, Lead Refining by
Electrolysis (1908) ; M. Eissler, The Metallurgy of Argentiferous Silver.
The Mineral Industry, begun in 1892, annually records the progress
made in lead smelting.
LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831- ), English
painter, the son of E. Leader Williams, an engineer, received his
art education first at the Worcester School of Design and later
in the schools of the Royal Academy. He began to exhibit at the
Academy in 1854, was elected A.R.A. in 1883 and R.A. in 1898,
and became exceedingly popular as a painter of landscape.
His subjects are attractive and skilfully composed. He was
awarded a gold medal at the Paris Exhibition in 1889, and was
made a knight of the Legion of Honour. One of his pictures,
" The Valley of the Llugwy," is in the National Gallery of British
Art.
See The Life and Work of B. W. Leader, R.A., by Lewis Lusk,
Art Journal Office (1901).
LEADHILLJTE, a rare mineral consisting of basic lead sulphato-
carbonate, Pb4 SO4 (CO3)2(OH)2. Crystals have usually the form
of six-sided plates (fig. i) or sometimes of acute
rhombohedra (fig. 2) ; they have a perfect basal
cleavage (parallel to P in fig. i) on which the
lustre is strongly pearly; they are usually white
and translucent. The hardness is 2-5 and the
sp. gr. 6-26-6-44. The crystallographic and optical
characters point to the existence of three dis-
tinct kinds of leadhillite, which are, however,
identical in external ap-
pearance and may even
occur intergrown to-
gether in the same cry-
stal: (a) monoclinic
with an optic axial angle
of 20°; (6) rhombohedral
(fig. 2) and optically
FIG. i.
FIG. 2.
uniaxial; (c) orthorhombic (fig. i) with an optic axial angle of
72!°. The first of these is the more common kind, and the
second has long been .known under the name susannite. The
fact that the published analyses of leadhillite vary somewhat
from the formula given above suggests that these three kinds
may also be chemically distinct.
Leadhillite is a mineral of secondary origin, occurring with
cerussite, anglesite, &c., in the oxidized portions of lead-bearing
lodes; it has also been found in weathered lead slags left by the
Romans. It has been found most abundantly in the Susanna
mine at Leadhills in Scotland (hence the names leadhillite and
susannite). Good crystals have also been found at Red Gill in
Cumberland and at Granby in Missouri. Crystals from Sardinia
have been called maxite. (L. J. S.)
LEADHILLS, a village of Lanarkshire, Scotland, 5! m.
W.S.W. of Elvanfoot station on the Caledonian Railway Com-
pany's main line from Glasgow to the south. Pop. (1901) 835.
It is the highest village in Scotland, lying 1301 ft. above sea-level,
near the source of Glengonner Water, an affluent of the Clyde.
It is served by a h'ght railway. Lead and silver have been
mined here and at Wanlockhead, 15 m. S.W., for many centuries
— according to some authorities even in Roman days. Gold was
discovered in the reign of James IV., but though it is said then
to have provided employment for 300 persons, its mining has long
ceased to be profitable. The village is neat and well built, and
contains a masonic hall and library, the latter founded by the
miners about the middle of the i8th century. Allan Ramsay,
the poet, and William Symington (1763-1831), one of the earliest
adaptors of the steam engine to the purposes of navigation, were
born at Leadhills.
LEAD POISONING, or PLUMBISM, a " disease of occupations,"
which is itself the cause of organic disease, particularly of the
nervous and urinary systems. The workpeople affected are
principally those engaged in potteries where lead-glaze is used;
but other industries in which health is similarly affected are file-
making, house-painting and glazing, glass-making, copper-
working, coach-making, plumbing and gasfitting, printing, cutlery,
and generally those occupations in which lead is concerned.
The symptoms of chronic lead poisoning vary within very
wide limits, from colic and constipation up to total blindness,
paralysis, convulsions and death. They are thus described by
Dr J. T. Arlidge (Diseases of Occupations): —
The poison finds its way gradually into the whole mass of the
circulating blood, and exerts its effects mainly on the nervous
system, paralysing nerve-force and with it muscular power. Its
victims become of a sallow-waxy hue; the functions of the stomach
and bowels are deranged, appetite fails and painful colic with
constipation supervenes. The loss of power is generally shown
first in the fingers, hands and wrists, and the condition known as
" wrist-drop " soon follows, rendering the victim useless for work.
The palsy will extend to the shoulders, and after no long time to
the legs also. Other organs frequently involved are the kidneys,
the tissue of which becomes permanently damaged; whilst the
sight is weakened or even lost.
Dr M'Aldowie, senior physician to the North Staffordshire
Infirmary, has stated that " in the pottery trade lead is very
slow in producing serious effects compared with certain other
industries." In his experience the average period of working in
lead before serious lesions manifest themselves is 18 years for
females and 225 years for males. But some individuals fall victims
to the worst forms of plumbism after a few months' or even weeks'
exposure to the danger. Young persons are more readily affected
than those of mature age, and women more than men. In
addition, there seems to be an element of personal susceptibility,
the nature of which is not understood. Some persons " work in
the lead " for twenty, forty or fifty years without the slightest
ill effects; others have attacks whenever they are brought into
contact with it. Possibly the difference is due to the general state
of health; robust persons resist the poison successfully, those
with impoverished blood and feeble constitution are mastered
by it. Lead enters the body chiefly through the nose and mouth,
being inspired in the form of dust or swallowed with food eaten
with unwashed hands. It is very apt to get under the nails,
and is possibly absorbed in this way through the skin. Personal
care and cleanliness are therefore of the greatest importance.
A factory surgeon of great experience in the English Potteries
LEADVILLE
321
has stated that seventeen out of twenty cases of lead-poisoning
in the china and earthenware industry are due to carelessness
(The Times, 8th October 1898).
The Home Office in England has from time to time made
special rules for workshops and workpeople, with the object of
minimizing or preventing the occurrence of lead-poisoning;
and in 1895 notification of cases was made compulsory. The
health of workpeople in the Potteries was the subject of a special
inquiry by a scientific committee in 1893. The committee
stated that " the general truth that the potteries occupation
is one fraught with injury to health and life is beyond dispute, "
and that " the ill effects of the trade are referable to two chief
causes — namely, dust and the poison of lead." Of these the
inhalation of clay and flint dust was the more important. It
led to bronchitis, pulmonary tuberculosis and pneumonia, which
were the most prevalent disorders among potters, and responsible
for 70% of the mortality. That from lead the committee did
not attempt to estimate, but they found that plumbism was less
prevalent than in past times, and expressed the opinion " that
a large part of the mortality from lead poisoning is avoidable;
although it must always be borne in mind that no arrangements
or rules, with regard to the work itself, can entirely obviate
the effects of the poison to which workers are exposed, because
so much depends upon the individual and the observance of
personal care and cleanliness." They recommended the adoption
of certain special rules in the workshops, with the objects of
protecting young persons from the lead, of minimizing the evils
of dust, and of promoting cleanliness, particularly in regard to
meals. Some of these recommendations were adopted and applied
with good results. With regard to the suggestion that " only
leadless glazes should be used on earthenware," they did not
" see any immediate prospect of such glazes becoming universally
applicable to pottery manufacture," and therefore turned their
attention to the question of " fritting " the lead.
It may be explained that lead is used in china and earthenware to
give the external glaze which renders the naturally porous ware
watertight. Both white " and " red " lead are used. The lead is
added to other ingredients, which have been " fritted " or fused
together and then ground very fine in water, making a thick creamy
liquid into which the articles are dipped. After dipping the glaze
dries quickly, and on being " fired " in the kiln it becomes fused by
the heat into the familiar glassy surface. In the manufacture of
ware with enamelled colours, glaze is mixed with the pigment to
form a flux, and such colours are used either moist or in the form of
a dry powder. " Fritting " the lead means mixing it with the other
ingredients of the glaze beforehand and fusing them all together under
great heat into a kind of rough glass, which is then ground to make
the glaze. Treated in this way the lead combines with the other
ingredients and becomes less soluble, and therefore less dangerous,
than when added afterwards in the raw state. The committee (1893)
thought it " reasonable to suppose that the fritting of lead might
ultimately be found universally practicable," but declared that
though fritting " no doubt diminishes the danger of lead-poisoning,"
they " could not regard all fritts as equally innocuous."
In the annual report of the chief inspector of factories for
1897, it was stated that there had been " material improvement
in dust conditions " in the potting industry, but " of lead-
poisoning unfortunately the same could not be said, the number
of grave cases reported, and particularly cases of blindness,
having ominously increased of late." This appears to have been
largely due to the erroneous inclusion among potting processes
of " litho-transfer making," a colour industry in which girls are
employed. New special rules were imposed in 1899 prohibiting
the employment of persons under fifteen in the dangerous
processes, ordering a monthly examination of all women and
young persons working in lead by the certifying surgeon, with
power to suspend those showing symptoms of poisoning, and
providing for the more effectual removal of dust and the better
enforcement of cleanliness. At the same time a scientific inquiry
was ordered into the practicability of dispensing with lead in
glazes or of substituting fritted compounds for the raw carbonate.
The scientific experts reported in 1899, recommending that the
use of raw lead should be absolutely prohibited, and expressing
the opinion that the greater amount of earthenware could be
successfully glazed without any lead. These views were in
advance of the opinions held by practical potters, and met with
XVI. II
a good deal of opposition. By certain manufacturers consider-
able progress had been made in diminishing the use of raw lead
and towards the discovery of satisfactory leadless glazes; but
it is a long step from individual experiments to the wholesale
compulsory revolution of the processes of manufacture in so
large and varied an industry, and in the face of foreign com-
petitors hampered by no such regulations. The materials used
by each manufacturer have been arrived at by a long process
of experience, and they are such as to suit the particular goods
he supplies for his particular market. It is therefore difficult
to apply a uniform rule without jeopardizing the prosperity
of the industry, which supports a population of 250,000 in
the Potteries alone. However, the bulk of the manufacturers
agreed to give up the use of raw lead, and to fritt all their glazes
in future, time being allowed to effect the change of process;
but they declined to be bound to any particular composition of
glaze for the reasons indicated.
In 1901 the Home Office brought forward a new set of special
rules. Most of these were framed to strengthen the provisions
for securing cleanliness, removing dust, &c., and were accepted
with a few modifications. But the question of making even
more stringent regulations, even to the extent of making the
use of lead-glaze illegal altogether, was still agitated; and in
1906 the Home Office again appointed an expert committee to
reinvestigate the subject. They reported in 1910, and made
various recommendations in detail for strengthening the
existing regulations; but while encouraging the use of leadless
glaze in certain sorts of common ceramic ware, they pointed
out that, without the use of lead, certain other sorts could
either not be made at all or only at a cost or sacrifice
of quality which would entail the loss of important markets.
In 1908 Dr Collis made an inquiry into the increase of plumbism
in connexion with the smelting of metals, and he considered the
increase in the cases of poisoning reported to be due to the third
schedule of the Workmen's Compensation Act, (l) by causing the
prevalence of pre-existing plumbism to come to light, (2) by the
tendency this fostered to replace men suspected of lead impregnation
by new hands amongst whom the incidence is necessarily greater.
LEADVILLE, a city and the county seat of Lake county,
Colorado, U.S.A., one of the highest (mean elevation c. 10,150
ft.) and most celebrated mining " camps " of the world. Pop.
(1900) 12,455, of whom 3802 were foreign-born; (1910 census)
7508. It is served by the Denver & Rio Grande, the Colorado
& Southern and the Colorado Midland railways. It lies amid
towering mountains on a terrace of the western flank of the
Mosquito Range at the head of the valley of the Arkansas river,
where the river cuts the valley between the Mosquito and the
Sawatch (Saguache) ranges. Among the peaks in the immediate
environs are Mt. Massive (14,424 ft., the highest in the state)
and Elbert Peak (14,421 ft.). There is a United States fish
hatchery at the foot of Mt. Massive. In the spring of 1860
placer gold was discovered in California Gulch, and by July
1860 Oro City had probably 10,000 inhabitants. In five years
the total yield was more than $5,000,000; then it dhninished,
and Oro City shrank to a few hundred inhabitants. This settle-
ment was within the present limits of Leadville. In 1876 the
output of the mines was about $20,000. During sixteen years
" heavy sands " and great boulders that obstructed the placer
fields had been moved thoughtlessly to one side. These boulders
were from enormous lead carbonate deposits extremely rich in
silver. The discovery of these deposits was made on the hills
at the edge of Leadville. The first building was erected in June
1877; in December there were several hundred miners, in
January the town was organized and named; at the end of 1879
there were, it is said, 35,000 inhabitants. Leadville was already
a chartered city, with the usual organization and all public
facilities. In 1880 it was reached by the Denver & Rio Grande
railway. In early years Leadville was one of the most turbulent,
picturesque and in all ways extraordinary, of the mining camps
of the West. The value of the output from 1879 to 1889 totalled
$147,834,186, including one-fifth of the silver production and a
third of the lead consumption of the country. The decline in
the price of silver, culminating with the closing of the India mints
322
LEAF
and the repeal of the Sherman Law in 1893, threatened Lead-
ville's future. But the source of the gold of the old placers was
found in 1892. From that year to 1899 the gold product rose
from $262,692 to $2,183,332. From 1879 to 1900 the camp
yielded $250,000,000 (as compared with $48,000,000 of gold
and silver in five years from the Comstock, Nevada, lode; and
$60,000,000 and 225,000 tons of lead, in fourteen years, from
the Eureka, Nevada, mines). Before 1898 the production of zinc
was unimportant, but in 1906 it was more valuable than that of
silver and gold combined. This increased output is a result of
the establishment of concentrating mills, in which the zinc
content is raised from 18 or 20% in the raw ores to 25 or 45%
in the concentrates. In 1904, per ton of Lake county ore, zinc
was valued at $6.93, silver at $4.16, lead at $3.85, gold at $1.77
and copper at $.66. The copper mined at Leadville amounted
to about one-third the total mined in the state in 1906. Iron
and manganese have been produced here, and in 1906 Leadville
was the only place in the United States known to have produced
bismuth. There were two famous labour strikes in the
" diggings " in 1879 and 1896. The latter attracted national
attention; it lasted from the igth of June 1896 to the 9th of
March 1897, when the miners, being practically starved out,
declared the strike off. There had been a riot on the 2ist of
September 1896 and militia guarded the mines for months
afterwards. In January 1897 the mines on Carbonate Hill
were flooded after the removal of their pumps. This strike
closed many mines, which were not opened for several years.
Leadville stocks are never on the exchange, and " flotation "
and " promotion " have been almost unknown.
The ores of the Leadville District occur in a blue limestone for-
mation overlaid by porphyry, and are in the form of heavy sulphides,
containing copper, gold, silver, lead and zinc; oxides containing
iron, manganese and small amounts of silver and lead ; and siliceous
ores, containing much silver and a little lead and gold. The best
grade of ores usually consists of a mixture of sulphides, with some
native gold. Nowhere have more wonderful advances in mining
been apparent — in the size and character of furnaces and pumps;
the development of local smelter supplies; the fall in the cost of
coal, of explosives and other mine supplies; the development of
railways and diminution of freight expenses; and the general im-
provement of economic and scientific methods— than at Leadville
since 1880. The increase of output more than doubled from 1890 to
1900, and many ores once far too low in grade for working now yield
sure profits. The Leadville smelters in 1900 had a capacity of
35,000 tons monthly; about as much more local ore being treated at
Denver, Pueblo and other places.
See S. F. Emmons, Geology and Mining Industry of Leadville,
Colorado, monograph United States Geological Survey, vol. 12
(1886), and with J. D. Irving, The Downtown District of Leadville,
Colorado, Bulletin 320, United States Geological Survey (1907),
particularly for the discussion of the origin of the ores of the region.
LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loo}, Ger. Laub, Swed. Id}, &c.;
possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. \tirfiv, to peel,
strip), the name given in popular language to all the green
expanded organs borne upon an axis, and so applied to similar
objects, such as a thin sheet of metal, a hinged flap of a table, the
page of a book, &c. Investigation has shown that many other
parts of a plant which externally appear very different from
ordinary leaves are, in their essential particulars, very similar
to them, and are in fact their morphological equivalents. Such
are the scales of a bulb, and the various parts of the flower,
and assuming that the structure ordinarily termed a leaf is the
typical form, these other structures were designated changed or
metamorphosed leaves, a somewhat misleading interpretation.
All structures morphologically equivalent with the leaf are
now included under the general term phyllome (leaf-structure).
Leaves are produced as lateral outgrowths of the stem in
definite succession below the apex. This character, common
to all leaves, distinguishes them from other organs. In the
higher plants we can easily recognize the distinction between
stem and leaf. Amongst the lower plants, however, it is found
that a demarcation into stem and leaf is impossible, but that
there is a structure which partakes of the characters of both —
such is a Ihallus. The leaves always arise from the outer portion
of the primary meristem of the plant, and the tissues of the leaf
are continuous with those of the stem. Every leaf originates as
a simple cellular papilla (fig i), which consists of a development
from the cortical layers covered by epidermis; and as growth
proceeds, the nbro-vascular bundles of the stem are continued
outwards, and finally expand and terminate in the leaf. The
increase in length of the leaf by growth at the apex is usually
of a limited nature. In some ferns, however, there seems to be
a provision for indefinite terminal growth, while in others this
growth is periodically in-
terrupted. It not unfre-
quently happens, especially
amongst Monocotyledons,
that after growth at the
apex has ceased, it is con-
tinued at the base of the
leaf, and in this way the
length may be much in-
creased. Amongst Dico-
tyledons this is very rare.
In all cases the dimensions
of the leaf are enlarged by
interstitial growth of its
parts.
The simplest leaf is found
in some mosses, where it
consists of a
single layer of
11 T«I_ ' • i
cells. The typical
foliage leaf consists of
several layers, and amongst
vascular plants is distin-
guishable into an outer
of leaves*
From Strasburger's I-ehrbuch der Bolanik by
permission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. i. — Apex of a shoot showing
origin of leaves: /, leaf rudiment; g,
rudiment of an axillary bud (Xio).
layer (epidermis) and a central
tissue (parenchyma) with fibro-vascular bundles distributed
through it.
The epidermis (fig. 2, es, ei), composed of cells more or less com-
pressed, has usually a different structure and aspect on the two
surfaces of the leaf. The cells of the epidermis are very closely
united laterally and contain no green colouring matter (chlorophyll)
except in the pair of cells— guard-cells— which bound the stomata.
The outer wall, especially of the upper epidermis, has a tough outer
layer or cuticle which
renders it impervious to
water. The epidermis
is continuous except
where stomata or spaces
bounded by specialized
cells communicate with
intercellular spaces in "*'
the interior of the leaf.
It is chiefly on the epi-
dermis of the lower sur-
face (fig. 2, ei) that/"
stomata, st, are pro-
duced, and it is there
also that hairs, p, usually
occur. The lower epi-
dermis is often of a dull
or pale-green colour, soft
and easily detached.
plants present on the f/ stomata
ESS "veraf
serve for storage of water "latous cells-
nH irp tnnwn a a m> Air-spaces connected with stomata.
aqueous tissue ?n '- Air-spaces between the loose cells in the
leaves which float upon , *P°n>P Parenchyma,
the surface of the water, >' Bundles of fibro-vascular tissue,
as those of the water-lily, the upper epidermis alone possesses'
stomata.
taining the green chlorophyll-granules, but differing in form and
arrangement. Below the epidermis of the upper side of the leaf
:here are one or two layers of cells, elongated at right angles to the
eaf surface (fig. 2, ps) , and applied so closely to each other as to leave
LEAF
323
only small intercellular spaces, except where stomata happen to
be present (fig. 2, m) ; they form the palisade tissue. On the other
side of the leaf the cells are irregular, often branched, and are
arranged more or less horizontally (fig. 2, pi), leaving air-spaces
between them, /, which communicate with stomata; on this account
the tissue has received the name of spongy. In leaves having a
very firm texture, as those of Coniferae and Cycadaceae, the cells of
the parenchyma immediately beneath the epidermis are very much
thickened and elongated in a direction parallel to the surface of the
leaf, so as to be fibre-like. These constitute a hypodermal layer,
beneath which the chlorophyll cells of the parenchyma are densely
packed together, and are elongated in a direction vertical to the
surface of the leaf, forming the palisade tissue. The form and
arrangement of the cells, however, depend much on the nature of
the plant, and its exposure to light and air. Sometimes the arrange-
ment of the cells on both sides of the leaf is similar, as occurs in
leaves which have their edges presented to the sky. In very suc-
culent plants the cells form a compact mass, and those in the centre
are often colourless. In some cases the cellular tissue is deficient
at certain points, giving rise to distinct holes in the leaf, as in Mon-
stera Adansonii. The fibre-vascular system in the leaf constitutes
the venation. The fibro-vascular bundles from the stem bend out
into the leaf, and are there arranged in a definite manner. In
skeleton leaves, or leaves in which the parenchyma is removed,
this arrangement is well seen. In some leaves, as in the barberry,
the veins are hardened, producing spines without any parenchyma.
The hardening of the extremities of the fibro-vascular tissue is the
cause of the spiny margin of many leaves, such as the holly, of the
sharp-pointed leaves of madder, and of mucronate leaves, or those
having a blunt end with a hard projection in the centre.
The form and arrangement of the parts of a typical foliage
leaf are intimately associated with the part played by the leaf
in the life of the plant. The flat surface is spread to allow the
maximum amount of sunlight to fall upon it, as it is by the
absorption of energy from the sun's rays by means of the chloro-
phyll contained in the cells of the leaf that the building up
of plant food is rendered possible; this process is known as
photo-synthesis; the first stage is the combination of carbon
dioxide, absorbed from the air taken in through the
stomata into the living cells of the leaf, with water which
is brought into the leaf by the wood-vessels. The wood-vessels
form part of the fibro-vascular bundles or veins of the leaf
and are continuous throughout the leaf-stalk and stem with
the root by which water is absorbed from the soil. The
palisade layers of the mesophyll contain the larger number of
chlorophyll grains (or corpuscles) while the absorption of
carbon dioxide is carried on chiefly through the lower
epidermis which is generally much richer in stomata. The
water taken up by the root from the soil contains nitro-
genous and mineral salts which combine with the first pro-
duct of photo-synthesis — a carbohydrate— to form more
complicated nitrogen-containing food substances of a proteid
nature; these are then distributed by other elements of the
vascular bundles (the phloem) through the leaf to the stem and
so throughout the plant to wherever growth or development, is
going on. A large proportion of the water which ascends to
the leaf acts merely as a carrier for the other raw food materials
and is got rid of from the leaf in the form of water vapour through
the stomata — this process is known as transpiration. Hence the
extended surface of the leaf exposing a large area to light and
air is eminently adapted for the carrying out of the process of
photo-synthesis and transpiration. The arrangement of the
leaves on the stem and branches (see Phyllotaxy, below) is such
as to prevent the upper leaves shading the lower, and the shape
of the leaf serves towards the same end — the disposition of
leaves on a branch or stem is often seen to form a " mosaic,"
each leaf fitting into the space between neighbouring leaves and
the branch on which they are borne without overlapping.
Submerged leaves, or leaves which are developed under water,
differ in structure from aerial leaves. They have usually no
fibro-vascular system, but consist of a congeries of cells, which
sometimes become elongated and compressed so as to resemble
veins. They have a layer of compact cells on their surface, but
no true epidermis, and no stomata. Their internal structure
consists of cells, disposed irregularly, and Sbmetimes leaving
spaces which are filled with air for the purpose of floating the
leaf. When exposed to the air these leaves easily part with their
moisture, and become shrivelled and dry. In some cases there
is only a network of filament-like cells, the spaces between
which are not filled with parenchyma, giving a skeleton appear-
ance to the leaf, as in Ouvirandra fenestralis (Lattice plant).
A leaf, whether aerial or submerged, generally consists of a
flat expanded portion, called the blade, or lamina, of a narrower
portion called the petiole or stalk, and sometimes of a portion
at the base of the petiole, which forms a sheath or vagina
(fig. 5, s), or is developed in the form of outgrowths, called
stipules (fig. 24, s). All these portions are not always present.
The sheathing or stipulary portion is frequently wanting.
When a leaf has a distinct stalk it is petiolate; when it has none,
it is sessile, and if in this case it embraces the stem it is said to be
amplexicaul. The part of the leaf next the petiole or the axis
is the base, while the opposite extremity is the apex. The leaf
is usually flattened and expanded horizontally, i.e. at right angles
to the longitudinal axis of the shoot, so that the upper face is
directed towards the heavens, and the lower towards the earth.
In some cases leaves, as in Iris, or leaf -like petioles, as in Australian
acacias and eucalypti, have their plane of expansion parallel
to the axis of the shoot, there is then no distinction into an upper
and a lower face, but the two sides are developed alike; or the
leaf may have a cylindrical or polyhedral form, as in mesembry-
anthemum. The upper angle formed between the leaf and the
stem is called its axil; it is there that leaf-buds are normally
developed. The leaf is sometimes articulated with the stem,
and when it falls off a scar remains; at other times it is con-
tinuous with it, and then decays, while still attached to the axis.
In their early state all leaves are continuous with the stem, and
it is only in their after growth that articulations are formed.
When leaves fall off annually they are called deciduous; when
they remain for two or more years they are persistent, and the
plant is evergreen. The laminar portion of a leaf is occasionally
articulated with the petiole, as in the orange, and a joint at times
exists between the vaginal or stipulary portion and the petiole.
The arrangement of the fibro-vascular system in the lamina
constitutes the venation or nervation. In an ordinary leaf, as that
of the elm, there is observed a large central vein running
from the base to the apex of the leaf, this is the midrib
(fig. 3); it gives off veins laterally (primary veins). A leaf with
FIG. 3. — Leaf of Elm
(Ulmus). Reticulated vena-
tion ; primary veins going
to the margin, which is ser-
rated. Leaf unequal at the
base.
FIG. 4. — Multicostate leaf of Castor-
oil plant (Ricinus communis). It is
palmately-cleft, and exhibits seven
lobes at the margin. The petiole is
inserted a little above the base, and
hence the leaf is called peltate or shield-
like.
only a single midrib is said to be unicostate and the venation is
described as pinnate or feather-veined. In some cases, as sycamore
or castor oil (fig. 4), in place of there being only a single midrib there
are several large veins (ribs) of nearly equal size, which diverge from
the point where the blade joins the petiole or stem, giving off lateral
veins. The leaf in this case is multicostate and the venation palmate.
The primary veins give off secondary veins, and these in their turn
give off tertiary veins, and so on until a complete network of vessels
is produced, and those veins usually project on the under surface of
the leaf. To a distribution of veins such as this the name of reticu-
lated or netted venation has been applied. I n the leaves of some plants
there exists a midrib with large veins running nearly parallel to it
from the base to the apex of the lamina, as in grasses (fig. 5) ; or
with veins diverging from the base of the lamina in more or less
324
LEAF
parallel lines, as in fan palms (fig. 6), or with veins coming off
from it throughout its whole course, and running parallel to each
other in a straight or curved direction towards the margin of the leaf,
as in plantain and banana. In these cases the veins are often united
by cross veinlets, which do not, however, form an angular network.
Such leaves are said to be parallel-veined. The leaves of Mono-
cotyledons have generally this kind of venation, while reticulated
venation most usually occurs amongst Dicotyledons. Some plants,
which in most points of their struc-
ture are monocotyledonous, yet have
reticulated venation ; as in Smilax
and Dioscorea. In vascular acotyle-
donous plants there is frequently a
tendency to fork exhibited by the
nbro-vascular bundles in the leaf;
and when this is the case we have
^ork-veined leaves. This is well seen
in many ferns. The distribution of
the system of vessels in the leaf is
FIG. 5. — Stem of a Grass FIG. 6. — Leaf of a Fan Palm
(Poo) with leaf. The sheaths (Chamaerops), showing the veins
ending in a process /, called running from the base to the mar-
a ligule; the blade of the gin, and not forming an angular
leaf, /. network.
usually easily traced, but in the case of succulent plants, as Hoya,
agave, stonecrop and mesembryanthemum, the veins are obscure.
The function of the veins which consist of vessels and fibres is to
form a rigid framework for the leaf and to conduct liquids.
In all plants, except Thallophytes, leaves are present at some
period of their existence. In Cuscuta (Dodder) (q.v.), however,
we have an exception. The forms assumed by leaves vary much,
not only in different plants, but in the same plant. It is only
amongst the lower classes of plants — Mosses, Characeae, &c. —
that all the leaves on a plant are similar. As we pass up the
scale of plant life we find them becoming more and more variable.
The structures in ordinary language designated as leaves are
considered so par excellence, and they are frequently spoken of
as foliage leaves. In relation to their production on the stem we
may observe that when they are small they are always produced
in great number, and as they increase in size their number
diminishes correspondingly. The cellular process from the
axis which develops into a leaf is simple and undivided; it
rarely remains so, but in progress of growth becomes segmented
in various ways, either longitudinally or laterally, or in both
ways. By longitudinal segmentation we have a leaf formed
consisting of sheath, stalk and blade; or one or other of these
may be absent, and thus stalked, sessile, sheathing, &c., leaves
are produced. Lateral segmentation affects the lamina, pro-
ducing indentations, lobings or fissuring of its margins. In
this way two marked forms of leaf are produced — (i) Simple
form, in which the segmentation, however deeply it extends into
the lamina, does not separate portions of the lamina which
become articulated with the midrib or petiole; and (2) Com-
pound form, where portions of the lamina are separated as
detached leaflets, which become articulated with the midrib or
petiole. In both simple and compound leaves, according to the
amount of segmentation and the mode of development of the
parenchyma and direction of the fibre-vascular bundles, many
forms are produced.
Simple Leaves. — When the parenchyma'is developed symmetrically
on each side of the midrib or stalk, the leaf is equal; if otherwise,
„. . the leaf is unequal or oblique (fig. 3). If the margins are
leaves even anc* Prese.nt no divisions, the leaf is entire (fig. 7) ;
if there are slight projections which are more or less
pointed, the leaf is dentate or toothed; when the projections lie
regularly over each other, like the teeth of a saw, the leaf is serrate
(fig. 3); when they are rounded the leaf is crenate. If the divisions
extend more deeply into the lamina than the margin, the leaf receives
different names according to the nature of the segments; thus, when
the divisions extend about half-way down (fig. 8), it is cleft; when the
divisions extend nearly to the base or to the midrib the leaf is partite.
If these divisions take place in a simple feather-veined leaf it becomes
either pinnatifid (fig. 9), when the segments extend to about the
middle, or pinnatipartite, when the divisions extend nearly to the
midrib. These primary divisions may be again subdivided in a
similar manner, and thus a feather-veined leaf will become bi-
pinnatifid or bipinnatipartite ; still further subdivisions give origin
to tripinnatifid and laciniated leaves. The same kinds of divisions
FIG. 7.
FIG. 9.
FIG. 8.
FIG. 7. — Ovate acute leaf of Corio.ro, myrtifolia. Besides the mid-
rib there are two intra-marginal ribs which converge to the apex.
The leaf is therefore tricostate.
FIG. 8. — Runcinate leaf of Dandelion. It is a pinnatifid leaf, with
the divisions pointing towards the petiole and a large triangular
apex.
FIG. 9. — Pinnatifid leaf of Valeriana dioica.
taking place in a simple leaf with palmate or radiating venation, give
origin to lobed, cleft and partite forms. The name palmate or palmatifid
(fig. 4) is the general term applied to leaves with radiating venation,
in which there are several lobes united by a broad expansion of
parenchyma, like the palm of the hand, as in the sycamore, castor-
oil plant, &c. The divisions of leaves with radiating venation may
extend to near the base of the leaf, and the names bipartite, tripartite,
quinquepartite, &c., are given according as the partitions are two,
three, five or more. The term dissected is applied to leaves with
radiating venation, having
numerous narrow divisions, as
in Geranium dissectum.
When in a radiating leaf there
are three primary partitions,
and the two lateral lobes are
again cleft, as in hellebore (fig.
n), the leaf is called pedate or
pedalifid, from a fancied resem-
FlG. 10.-
of Aconite.
FIG. ii. — Pedate leaf of Stinking
Hellebore (Helleborus foetidus). The
venation is radiating. It is a palm-
ately-partite leaf, in which the lateral
lobes are deeply divided. When the
-Five-partite leaf leaf hangs down it resembles the foot
of a bird, and hence the name.
blance to the claw of a bird. In all the instances already alluded
to the leaves have been considered as flat expansions, in which the
ribs or veins spread out on the same plane with the stalk. In some
cases, however, the veins spread at right' angles to the stalk, form-
ing a peltate leaf aa.in Indian cress (fig. 12).
The form of the leaf shows a very great variety ranging from the
narrow linear form with parallel sides, as in grasses or the needle-like
leaves of pines and firs to more or less rounded or orbicular — descrip-
tions of these will be found in works on descriptive botany — a few
LEAF
325
examples are illustrated here (figs. 7, 13, 14, 15). The apex also
varies considerably, being rounded, or obtuse, sharp or acute (fig. 7)1
notched (fig. 15), &c. Similarly the shape of the base may vary,
when rounded lobes are formed, as in dog-violet, the leaf is cordate
or heart-shaped ; or kidney-shaped or reniform (fig. 16), when the apex
is rounded as in ground ivy. When the lobes are prolonged down-
wards and are acute, the leaf is sagittate (fig. 17) ; when they proceed
at right angles, as in Rumex Acetosella, the leaf is hastate or halbert-
shaped. When a simple leaf is divided at the base into two leaf-like
appendages, it is called auriculate. When the development of
parenchyma is such that it more than fills up the spaces between
the veins, the margins become wavy, crisp or undulated, as in Rumex
crispus and Rheum undulatum. By cultivation the cellular tissue is
often much increased, giving rise to the curled leaves of greens,
savoys, cresses, lettuce, &c.
Compound leaves are those in which the divisions extend to the
midrib or petiole, and the sepa-
* rated portions become each arti-
culated with it, arid receive the
name of leaflets. The midrib, or petiole, has
thus the appearance of a branch with
FIG. 13. — Lanceolate
FIG. 12. — Peltate leaves of Indian Cress leaf of a species of
(Tropaeolum majus). Senna.
separate leaves attached to it, but it is considered properly as one
leaf, because in its earliest state it arises from the axis as a single
piece, and its subsequent divisions in the form of leaflets are all in
one plane. The leaflets are either sessile (fig. 1 8) or have stalks,
called petiolules (fig. 19). Compound leaves are pinnate (fig. 19) or
palmate (fig. 18) according to the arrangement of leaflets. When
a pinnate leaf ends in a pair of pinnae it is equally or abruptly pinnate
(paripinnate) ; when there is a single terminal leaflet (fig. 19), the leaf
is unequally pinnate (imparipinnate) ; when the leaflets or pinnae are
placed alternately on either side of the midrib, and not directly opposite
to each other, the leaf is alternately pinnate; and when the pinnae are
of different sizes, the leaf is interruptedly pinnate, When the division
FIG. 14. FIG. is. FIG. 16. FIG. 17.
FIG. 14. — Oblong leaf of a species of Senna.
FIG. 15. — Emarginate leaf of a species of Senna. The leaf in its
contour is somewhat obovate, or inversely egg-shaped, and its base
is oblique.
FIG. 16. — Reniform leaf of Nepeta Glechoma, margin crenate.
FIG. 17. — Sagittate leaf of Convolvulus.
is carried into the second degree, and the pinnae of a compound
leaf are themselves pinnately compound, a bipinnate leaf is formed.
The petiole or leaf-stalk is the part which unites the limb or blade
of the leaf to the stem. It is absent in sessile leaves, and this is also
Petiole frequently the case when a sheath is present, as in grasses
(fig- 5)- It consists of the fibro-vascular bundles with a
varying amount of cellular tissue. When the vascular bundles reach
the base of the lamina they separate and spread out in various ways,
as already described under venation. The lower part of the petiole
is often swollen (fig. 20, p), forming the pulvinus, formed of cellular
tissue, the cells of which exhibit the phenomenon of irritability.
In Mimosa pudica (fig. 20) a sensitiveness is located in the pulvinus
which upon irritation induces a depression of the whole bipinnate
leaf, a similar property exists in the pulvini at the base of the leaflets
which fold upwards. The petiole varies in length, being usually
shorter than the lamina, but sometimes much longer. In some
palms it is 15 or 20 ft. long, and is so firm as to be used for poles or
walking-sticks. In general, the petiole is more or less rounded in its
form, the upper surface being flattened or grooved. Sometimes it is
compressed laterally, as in the aspen, and to this peculiarity the
trembling of the leaves of this tree is due. In aquatic plants the leaf-
stalk is sometimes distended with air, as in Pontederia and Trapa,
so as to float the leaf. At other times it is
winged, and is either leafy, as in the orange
(fig. 21, p_), lemon and Dionaea, or pitcher-
like, as in Sarracenia (fig. 22). In some
Australian acacias, and in some species of
Oxalis and Bupleurum, the petiole is flattened
in a vertical direction, the vascular bundles
separating immediately after quitting the
stem and running nearly parallel from base
to apex. This kind of petiole (fig. 23, p)
has been called a phyttode. In these plants
the laminae or blades of the leaves are pin-
nate or bipinnate. and are produced at the (
FIG. 19. — Imparipinnate
(unequally pinnate) leaf of
Robinia. There are nine pairs
of shortly-stalked leaflets
(foliola, pinnae), and an odd
FIG. 1 8. — Palmately compound one at the extremity. At the
leaf of the Horse-chestnut (Acs- base of the leaf the spiny
culus Hippocastanum). stipules are seen,
extremities of the phyllodes in a horizontal direction; but in
many instances they are not developed, and the phyllode serves
the purpose of a leaf. These phyllodes, by their vertical posi-
tion and their peculiar form, give a remarkable aspect to vegetation.
On the same acacia there occur leaves with the petiole and lamina
perfect; others having the petiole slightly expanded or winged, and
the lamina imperfectly developed; and others in which there is no
lamina, and the petiole becomes large and broad. Some petioles
are long, slender and sensitive to contact, and function as tendrils
by means of
which the plant
climbs; as in the
n a s t u rtiums
(Tropaeolum),
clematis and'
others; and in
compound leaves
the midrib and
some of the leaf-
lets may similarly
be transformed
into tendrils, as in
the pea and vetch.
The leaf base
is often de-
veloped as a
sheath (vagina) ,
which embraces Fic.2O.— Branch and leaves of the Sensitive plant
(Mimosa pudica), showing the petiole in its erect
state, a, and in its depressed state, b; also the
~, . leaflets closed, c, and the leaflets expanded, d.
5 Irritability resides in the pulvinus, p.
paratively rare in dicotyledons, but is seen in umbelliferous plants.
It is much more common amongst monocotyledons. In sedges the
sheath forms a complete investment of the stem, whilst in reafta*e.
grasses it is split on one side. In the latter plants there is
also a membranous outgrowth, the ligule, at right angles to the
median plane of the leaf from the point where the sheath passes
into the lamina, there being no petiole (fig. 5, /).
In leaves in which no sheath is produced we not infrequently
find small foliar organs, stipules^, at the base of the petiole (fig. 24, s).
The stipules are generally two in number, and they are important as
supplying characters in certain natural orders. Thus they occur
the whole or part
of the circumfer-
ence of the stem
sheath is
326
LEAF
r
in the pea and bean family, in rosaceous plants and the family
Rubiaceae. They are not common in dicotyledons with opposite
leaves. Plants having stipules are called stipulate; those having
none are exstipulate. Stipules may be large or small, entire or divided,
deciduous or persistent. They are not usually of the same form as the
ordinary foliage leaves of the plant, from which they are distinguished
by their lateral position at the base of the petiole. In the pansy
(fig. 24) the true
leaves are stalked
and crenate, while
the stipules s are
large, sessile and pin-
natifid. InLathyrus
Aphaca and some
other plants the true
pinnate leaves are
abortive, the petiole
forms a tendril, and
the stipules alone are
developed, perform-
ing the office of
leaves. When sti-
pulate leaves are op-
posite to each other,
at the same height
on the stem, it occa-
FIG. 21. — Leaf of FIG. 22. — Pitcher sionally happens
Orange (Citrus Auran- (ascidium) of a species that the stipules on
tium), showing a of Side-saddle plant the two sides unite
winged leafy petiole p, (Sarracenia purpurea). wholly or partially,
which is articulated The pitcher is formed so as to form an in-
to the lamina /. from the petiole, which terpetiolary or inter-
is prolonged. foliar stipule, as in
members of the
family Rubiaceae. In the case of alternate leaves, the stipules at
the base of each leaf are sometimes united to the petiole and to each
other, so as to form an adnate, adherent or petiolary stipule, as in the
rose, or an axillary stipule, as in Houttuynia cordata. In other in-
stances the stipules unite together on the side of the stem opposite
the leaf forming an ocrea, as in the dock family (fig. 25).
In the development of the leaf the stipules frequently play a most
important part. They begin
to be formed after the origin
of the leaves, but grow much
more rapidly than the leaves,
and in this way they arch over
the young leaves and form
protective chambers wherein
the parts of the leaf may de-
velop. In the figs, magnolia
and pondweeds they are very
large and completely envelop
the young leaf-bud. The sti-
pules are sometimes so minute
as to be scarcely distinguish-
able without the aid of a lens,
and so fugacious as to be
visible only in the very young
state of the leaf. They may
assume a hard and spiny char-
acter, as in Robinia Pseud-
acacia (fig. 19), or may be cir-
rose, as in Smilax, where each
stipule is represented by a
tendril. At the base of the
leaflets of a compound leaf,
small stipules (stipels) are
occasionally produced.
Variations in the structure
and forms of leaves and leaf-
stalks are produced
by the increased
development of cel-
lular tissue, by the abortion or
degeneration of parts, by the
multiplication or repetition of
FIG. 23.-Leaf of an Acacia (Acacia Parts and by adhesion When
heterophylla), showing a flattened j* "ulafr tlsfsuet » %£&£ to
leaf-like petiole p, calfed aphyllode, a great C1xtent-, leaves ecome
SS lamia"1 ™**' ***** ~ a £*
pearance. Such changes take
place naturally, but they are
often increased by the art of the gardener, and the object of
many horticultural operations is to increase the bulk and suc-
culence of leaves. It is in this way that cabbages and savoys
are rendered more delicate and nutritious. By a deficiency in
development of parenchyma and an increase in the mechanical
tissue, leaves are liable to become hardened and spinescent.
The leaves of barberry and of some species of Astragalus, and the
Modifica
tions.
stipules of the false acacia (Robinia) are spiny. To the same
cause is due the spiny margin of the holly-leaf. When two lobes
at the base of a leaf are prolonged beyond the stem and unite (fig. 26),
the leaf is perfoliate, the stem appearing to pass through it, as in
Bupleurum perfoliatum and Chlora perfoliata ; when two leaves unite
by their bases they become connate (fig. 27), as in Lonicera Capri-
folium; and when leaves adhere to the stem, forming a sort of
winged or leafy ap-
pendage, they are
decurrenl, as in
thistles. The for-
mation of peltate
leaves has been
traced to the union
of the lobes of a cleft
leaf. In the leaf of
the Victoria regia the
transformation may
be traced during
germination. The
first leaves produced , .... .... ,-.
by the young plant \\N \U\\lf O—
are linear,the second
are sagittate and
hastate, the third
are rounded-cordate
and the next are
orbicular. The cleft
indicating the union FIG. 24- — Leaf
of the lobes remains of Pansy, s, Sti-
in the large leaves. Pules-
FIG. 25. — Leaf of Poly-
gonum, with part of stem.
o, Ocrea.
The parts of the leaf are frequently transformed into tendrils, with the
view of enabling the plants to twine round others for support. In
Leguminous plants (the pea tribe) the pinnae are frequently modified
to form tendrils, as in Lathyrus Aphaca, in which the stipules perform
the function of true leaves. In Flagellaria indica, Gloriosa superba
FIG. 27. — Connate leaves of
a species of Honeysuckle
FlG. 26. — Perfoliate leaf
of a species of Hare's-ear
(Bupleurum rotundifolium).
The two lobes at the base
of the leaf are united, so
that the stalk appears to (Lonicera Caprifolium). Two
come through the leaf. leaves are united by their bases,
and others, the midrib of the leaf ends in a tendril. In Smilax there
are two stipulary tendrils.
The vascular bundles and cellular tissue are sometimes developed
in such a way as to form a circle, with a hollow in the centre, and thus
give rise to what are called fistular or hollow leaves, as in the onion,
and to ascidia or pitchers. Pitchers are
formed either by petioles or by laminae, and
they are composed of one or more leaves.
In Sarracenia (fig. 22) and Heliamphora the
pitcher is composed of the petiole of the leaf.
In the pitcher plant, Nepenthes, the pitcher
is a modification of the lamina, the petiole
often plays the part of a tendril, while the
leaf base is flat and leaf-like (fig. 28).
In Utricularia bladder-like sacs are formed
by a modification of leaflets on the sub-
merged leaves.
In some cases the leaves are reduced to
mere scales — cataphyllary leaves; they are
produced abundantly upon underground
shoots. In parasites (Lathraea, Orobanche)
and in plants growing on decaying vegetable
matter (saprophytes), in which no chloro-
phyll is formed, these scales are the only
leaves produced. In Pinus the only leaves
produced on the main stem and the lateral Of
shoots are scales, the acicular leaves of the pitcher-plant (Hep-
tree growing from axillary shoots. In Cycas enthes distillatona) .
whorls of scales alternate with large pinnate
leaves. In many plants, as already noticed, phyllodia or stipules
perform the function of leaves. The production of leaf-buds from
28.— Pitcher
species of
LEAF
327
leaves sometimes occurs as in Bryophyllum, and many plants of the
order Gesneraceae. The leaf of Venus's fly-trap (Dionaea muscipula)
when cut off and placed in damp moss, with a pan of water under-
neath and a bell-glass for a cover, has produced buds from which
young plants were obtained. Some species of saxifrage and of
ferns also produce buds on their leaves and fronds. In Nymphaea
micrantha buds appear at the upper part of the petiole.
Leaves occupy various positions on the stem and branches,
and have received different names according to their situation.
Thus leaves arising from the crown of the root, as in
'tax's" t'le primrose> are called radical; those on the stem are
cauline; on flower-stalks, floral leaves (see FLOWER).
The first leaves developed are known as seed leaves or cotyledons.
The arrangement of the leaves on the axis and its appendages
is called phyllotaxis.
In their arrangement leaves follow a definite order. The points
on the stem at which leaves appear are called nodes; the part
of the stem between the nodes is the internode. When two leaves
are produced at the same node, one on each side of the stem or axis,
and at the same level, they are opposite (fig. 29) ; when more than
two are produced they are verticillate, and the circle of leaves is then
called a verticil or whorl.
When leaves are opposite,
each successive pair may be
placed at right angles to the
pair immediately preceding.
They are then said to decus-
sate, following thus a law of
alternation (fig. 29). The
same occurs in the verticillate
arrangement, the leaves of
each whorl rarely being super-
posed on those of the whorl
next it, but usually alterna-
ting so that each leaf in a
whorl occupies the space be-
tween two leaves of the whorl
next to it. There are con-
siderable irregularities, how-
ever, in this respect, and the
number of leaves in different
whorls is not always uniform,
as may be seen in Lysimachia
FlG. 30. — A iiulgaris. When a single leaf
stem with alter- is produced at a node, and
leaves. The pairs nate leaves, ar- the nodes are separated so
are placed at right ranged in a pen- that each leaf is placed at a
angles alternately, tastichous or different height on the stem,
or in what is called quincuncial man- the leaves are alternate (fig.
a decussate man- ner. The sixth 30). A plane passing through
leaf is directly the point of insertion of the
above the first, leaf in the node, dividing
and commences the leaf into similar halves,
at the back; in the the second cycle, is the median plane of the
second pair the The fraction of leaf ; and when the leaves are
leaves are placed the circumference arranged alternately on an
of the stem ex- axis so that their median
pressing the di- planes coincide they form a
vergence of the straight row or orthostichy.
leaves is two- On every axis there are usually
fifths. two or more orthostichies. In
fig. 31, leaf I arises from a
node n • leaf 2 is separated from it by an internode m, and is placed
to the right or left; while leaf 3 is situated directly above leaf I. In
this case, then, there are two orthostichies, and the arrangement is
said to be distichous. When the fourth leaf is directly above the first,
the arrangement is tristichous. The same arrangement continues
throughout the branch, so that in the latter case the 7th leaf is above
the 4th, the loth above the 7th; also the 5th above the 2nd, the
6th above the 3rd and so on. The size of the angle between the
median planes of two consecutive leaves in an alternate arrangement
is their divergence; and it is expressed in fractions of the circum-
ference of the axis which is supposed to be a circle. In a regularly-
formed straight branch covered with leaves, if a thread is passed
from one to the other, turning always in the same direction, a spiral
is described, and a certain number of leaves and of complete turns
occur before reaching the leaf directly above that from which the
enumeration commenced. If this arrangement is expressed by a
fraction, the numerator of which indicates the number of turns, and
the denominator the number of internodes in the spiral cycle, the
fraction will be found to represent the angle of divergence of the
consecutive leaves on the axis. Thus, in fig. 32, a, b, the cycle con-
sists of five leaves, the 6th leaf being placed vertically over the 1st,
the 7th over the 2nd and so on; while the number of turns between
the 1st and 6th leaf is two; hence this arrangement is indicated by
the fraction f. In other words, the distance or divergence between
the first and second leaf, expressed in parts of a circle, is f of a circle
or 36o°X£ =144°. In fig. 31, a, b, the spiral is J, i.e. one turn and
FIG. 29. — Astern
with opposite
ner. In the lowest
pair one leaf is in
front and the other
laterally,
on.
and
two leaves; the third leaf being placed vertically over the first,
and the divergence between the first and second leaf being one-half
the circumference of a circle, 36o°Xj = l8o°. Again, in a tristichous
arrangement the number is I, or one turn and three leaves, the angular
divergence being 120°.
By this means we have a convenient mode of expressing on paper
the exact position of the leaves upon an axis. And in many cases
such a mode of expression is of excellent service in enabling us
readily to understand
the relations of the
leaves. The divergences
may also be represented
diagrammatically on a
horizontal projection of
the vertical axis, as in
fig- 33- Here the outer-
most circle represents a
section of that portion
of the axis bearing the
lowest leaf, the inner-
most represents the
highest. The bro'ad
dark lines represent the
leaves, and they are
numbered according to
their age and position.
It will be seen at once
that the leaves are ar- „
ranged in orthostichies FlG-. 31— Portion of a branch of a Lime
marked I -V. and that tree, with four leavesarranged madistichous
these divide the circum- manner. or in two rows, a, The branch with
ference into five equal l^e 'eaves numbered in their order, n being
portions. But the t'le n°de and m the internode; b is a mag-
divergence between leaf n'ned representation of the branch, show-
I and leaf 2 is equal to '"8 tne points of insertion of the leaves and
§ths of the circumfer- their spiral arrangement, which is expressed
ence, and the same by the fraction J, or one turn of the spiral
is the case, bet ween 2 for two internodes.
and 3, 3 and 4, &c. The divergence, then, is |, and from this
we learn that, starting from any leaf on the axis, we must pass
twice round the stem in a spiral through five leaves before reaching
one directly over that with which we started. The line which, wind-
ing round an axis either to the right or to the left, passes through the
points of insertion of all the leaves on the axis is termed the genetic
or generating spiral; and that margin of each leaf which is towards
the direction from which the spiral proceeds is the kathodic side, the
other margin facing the point
whither the spiral passes being
the anodic side.
In cases where the internodes
are very short and the leaves are
closely applied to each other, as
in the house-leek, it is difficult
to trace the generating spiral.
Thus, in fig. 34 there are thirteen
leaves which are numbered in
their order, and five turns of the
spiral marked by circles in the
centre(^ indicating the arrange-
ment) ; but this could not be
detected at once. So also in fir
cones (fig. 35), which are com-
posed of scales or modified leaves,
the generating spiral cannot be
determined easily. But in such
cases a series of secondary spirals
or parastichies are seen running
parallel with each other both
right and left, which to a certain
extent conceal the genetic spiral. Cherry with six leaves, the sixth
The spiral is not always con- being placed vertically over the
stant throughout the whole first, after two turns of the spiral,
length of an axis. The angle of This is expressed by two-fifths,
divergence may alter either a. The branch, with the leaves
abruptly or gradually, and the numbered in order; b, a magnified
phyllotaxis thus becomes very representation of the branch,
complicated. This change may showing the points of insertion of
be brought about by arrest of the leaves and their spiral arrange-
development, by increased de- ment.
velopment of parts or by a tor-
sion of the axis. The former are exemplified in many Crassulaceae and
aloes. The latter is seen well in the ecrew-pine (Pandanus). In the
bud of the screw-pine the leaves are arranged in three orthostichies
with the phyllotaxis \, but by torsion the developed leaves become
arranged in three strong spiral rows running round the stem. These
causes of change in phyllotaxis are also well exemplified in the altera-
tion of an opposite or verticillate arrangement to an alternate, and vice
versa; thus the effect of interruption of growth, in causing alternate
leaves to become opposite and verticillate, can be distinctly shown in
Rhododendron ponticum. The primitive or generating spiral may
FIG. 32. — Part of a branch of a
328
LEAF
pass either from right to left or from left to right. It sometimes
follows a different direction in the branches from that pursued in the
stem. When it follows the same course in the stem and branches,
they are homodromous ; when the direction differs, they are hetero-
dromous. In different species of the same genus the phyllotaxis
frequently varies.
All modifications of leaves follow the same laws of arrangement
as true leaves — a fact which is of importance in a morphological point
of view. In dicotyledonous plants the first leaves produced (the
cotyledons) are opposite. This arrangement often continues during
the life of the plant, but at other times it changes, passing into
distichous and spiral forms. Some tribes of plants are distinguished
by their opposite or ver-
ticillate, others by their
alternate, leaves. Labiate
plants have decussate
leaves, while Boragin-
aceae have alternate
leaves, and Tiliaceae usu-
ally have distichous
leaves ; Rubiaceae have
opposite leaves. Such
arrangements as |, f , ^
and j?f are common in
Dicotyledons. The first
of these, called a quin-
cunx, is met with in the
apple, pear and cherry
(fig. 32); the second, in
the bay, holly, Plantago
media; the third, in the
cones of Picea alba (fig.
FlG. 33. — Diagram of a phyllotaxis repre- 35) ; and the fourth in
sented by the fraction }. those of the silver fir.
In monocotyledonous
plants there is only one seed-leaf or cotyledon, and hence
the arrangement is at first alternate; and it generally continues
so more or less, rarely being verticillate. Such arrangements as £,
J and jj are common in Monocotyledons, as in grasses, sedges and
lilies. It has been found in general that, while the number 5 occurs
in the phyllotaxis of Dicotyledons, 3 is common in that of Mono-
cotyledons.
In the axil of previously formed leaves leaf-buds arise. These
leaf-buds contain the rudiments of a shoot, and consist of leaves
covering a growing point. The buds of trees of temperate climates,
which lie dormant during the winter, are protected by scale leaves.
These scales or protective appendages of the bud consist either of
13
FIG. 35. — Cone of Picea alba
with the scales or modified
leaves numbered in the order
of their arrangement on the
axis of the cone. The lines
indicate a rectilinear series of
scales and two lateral second-
ary spirals, one turning from
left to right, the other from
right to left.
FIG. 34. — Cycle of thirteen leaves
placed closely together so as to form
a rosette, as in Sempervivum. A is
the very short axis to which the
leaves are attached. The leaves are
numbered in their order, from below
upwards. The circles in the centre
indicate the five turns of the spiral,
and show the insertion of each of the
leaves. The divergence is expressed
by the .fraction ^ths.
the altered laminae or of the enlarged petiolary sheath, or of stipules,
as in the fig and magnolia, or of one or two of these parts combined.
These are often of a coarse nature, serving a temporary purpose,
and then falling off when the leaf is expanded. They are frequently
covered with a resinous matter, as in balsam-poplar and horse-
chestnut, or by a thick downy covering as in the willow. In plants
of warm climates the buds have often no protective appendages, and
are then said to be naked.
The arrangement of the leaves in the bud is termed vernation or
prefoliation. In considering vernation we must take into account
both the manner in which each individual leaf is folded and also the
arrangement of the leaves in relation to each other. These vary in
different plants, but in each species they follow a regular law. The
leaves in the bud are either placed simply in apposition, as in the
mistletoe, or they are folded or rolled up longitudinally or laterally,
giving rise to different kinds of vernation, as delineated in figs. 36
to 45, where the folded or curved lines represent the leaves, the
thickened part being the midrib. The leaf taken individually is
either folded longitudinally from apex to base, as in the tulip-tree,
and called reclinate or replicate; or rolled up in a circular manner
from apex to base, as in ferns (fig. 36), and called circinate; or folded
laterally, conduplicate (fig. 37), as in oak; or it has several folds
like a fan, plicate or plaited (fig. 38), as in vine and sycamore, and in
leaves with radiating vernation, where the ribs mark the foldings;
or it is rolled upon itself, convolute (fig. 39), as in banana and apricot ;
or its edges are rolled inwards, involute (fig. 40), as in violet; or
FIG. 36.
FIG. 37.
FIG. 38.
FIG. 39. FIG. 40. FIG. 41.
FlG. 36. — Circinate vernation.
FIG. 37. — Transverse section of a conduplicate leaf.
FIG. 38. — Transverse section of a plicate or plaited leaf.
FlG. 39. — Transverse section of a convolute leaf.
FIG. 40. — Transverse section of an involute leaf.
FIG. 41. — Transverse section of a revolute leaf.
outwards, revolute (fig. 41), as in rosemary. The different divisions
of a cut leaf may be folded or rolled up separately, as in ferns,
while the entire leaf may have either the same or a different kind of
vernation. The leaves have a definite relation to each other in the
bud, being either opposite, alternate or verticillate ; and thus different
kinds of vernation are produced. Sometimes they are nearly in a
circle at the same level, remaining flat or only slightly convex
externally, and placed so as to touch each other by their edges, thus
giving rise to valvate_ vernation. At other times they are at different
levels, and are applied over each other, so as to be imbricated, as in
lilac, and in the outer scales of sycamore; and occasionally the
margin of one leaf overlaps that of another, while it in its turn is
overlapped by a third, so as to be twisted, spiral or contortive. When
leaves are applied to each other face to face, without being folded or
FIG. 42. FIG. 43. FIG. 44. FIG. 45.
FIG. 42. — Transverse section of a bud, in which the leaves are
arranged in an accumbent manner.
FIG. 43. — Transverse section of a bud, in which the leaves are
arranged in an equitant manner.
FIG. 44. — Transverse section of a bud, showing two leaves folded
in an obvolute manner. Each is conduplicate, and one embraces
the edge of the other.
FIG. 45. — Transverse section of a bud, showing two leaves arranged
in a supervolute manner.
rolled together, they are oppressed. When the leaves are more com-
pletely folded they either touch at their extremities and are accumbent
or opposite (fig. 42), or are folded inwards by their margin and become
induplicate; or a conduplicate leaf covers another similarly folded,
which in turn covers a third, and thus the vernation is equitant
(fig. 43), as in privet; or conduplicate leaves are placed so that the
half of the one covers the halt of another, and thus they become
half-equitant or obvolute (fig. 44), as in sage. When in the case ot
convolute leaves one leaf is rolled up within the other, it is s,uPer~
volute (fig. 45). The scales of a bud sometimes exhibit one kind of
vernation and the leaves another. The same modes of arrangement
occur in the flower-buds.
Leaves, after performing their functions for a certain time, witt
and die. In doing so they frequently change colour, and hence arise
the beautiful and varied tints of the autumnal foliage. This change
LEAF-INSECT—LEAMINGTON
329
of colour is chiefly occasioned by the diminished circulation in the
leaves, and the higher degree of oxidation to which their chlorophyll
has been submitted.
Leaves which are articulated with the stem, as in the walnut and
horse-chestnut, fall and leave a scar, while those which are con-
tinuous with it remain attached for some time after they have lost
their vitality. Most of the trees of Great Britain have deciduous
leaves, their duration not extending over more than a few months,
while in trees of warm climates the leaves often remain for two or
more years. In tropical countries, however, many trees lose their
leaves in the dry season. The period of defoliation varies in different
countries according to the nature of their climate. Trees which are
called evergreen, as pines and evergreen-oak, are always deprived
of a certain number of leaves at intervals, sufficient being left, how-
ever, to preserve their green appearance. The cause of the fall of
the leaf in cold climates seems to be deficiency of light and heat in
winter, which causes a cessation in the functions of the cells of the
leaf. The fall is directly caused by the formation of a layer of tissue
across the base of the leaf-stalk; the cells of this layer separate
from one another and the leaf remains attached only by the fibres
of the veins until it becomes finally detached by the wind or frost.
Before its fall the leaf has become dry owing to loss of water and the
removal of the protoplasm and food substances to the stem for use
next season; the red and yellow colouring matters are products
of decomposition of the chlorophyll. Inorganic and other waste
matters are stored in the leaf-tissue and thus got rid of by the plant.
The leaf scar is protected by a corky change (suberization) in the
walls of the exposed cells. (A. B. R.)
LEAF-INSECT, the name given to orthopterous insects of the
family Phasmidae, referred to the single genus Phyllium and
characterized by the presence of lateral laminae upon the legs
and abdomen, which, in association with an abundance of
green colouring-matter, impart a broad and leaf -like appearance
to the whole insect. In the female this deceptive resemblance
is enhanced by the large size and foliaceous form of the front
wings which, when at rest edge to edge on the abdomen, forcibly
suggest in their neuration the midrib and costae of an ordinary
leaf. In this sex the posterior wings are reduced and functionless
so far as flight is concerned; in the male they are ample,
membranous and functional, while the anterior wings are small
and not leaf-like. The freshly hatched young are reddish in
colour; but turn green after feeding for a short time upon leaves.
Before death a specimen has been observed to pass through the
various hues of a decaying leaf, and the spectrum of the green
colouring matter does not differ from that of the chlorophyll
of living leaves. Since leaf-insects are purely vegetable feeders
and not predaceous like mantids, it is probable that their re-
semblance to leaves is solely for purposes of concealment from
enemies. Their egg capsules are similarly protected by their like-
ness to various seeds. Leaf-insects range from India to the
Seychelles on the one side, and to the Fiji Islands on the
other. (R. I. P.)
LEAGUE, i. (Through Fr. ligue, Ital. llga, from Lat. ligare,
to bind), an agreement entered into by two or more parties for
mutual protection or joint attack, or for the furtherance of some
common object, also the body thus joined or " leagued " to-
gether. The name has been given to numerous confederations,
such as the Achaean League (<?.».), the confederation of the
ancient cities of Achaia, and especially to the various holy
leagues (ligues saintes), of which the better known are those
formed by Pope Julius II. against Venice in 1508, often known
as the League of Cambrai, and against France in 1511. "The
League," in French history, is that of the Catholics headed by the
Guises to preserve the Catholic religion against the Huguenots
and prevent the accession of Henry of Navarre to the throne
(see FRANCE: History). " The Solemn League and Covenant "
was the agreement for the establishment of Presbyterianism in
both countries entered into by England and Scotland in 1643
(see COVENANTERS). Of commercial leagues the most famous
is that of the Hanse towns, known as the Hanseatic League
(q.v.). The word has been adopted by political associations,
such as the Anti-Corn Law League, the Irish Land League, the
Primrose League and the United Irish League, and by numerous
social organizations. " League " has also been applied to a
special form of competition in athletics, especially in Association
football. In this system clubs " league " together in a com-
petition, each playing every other member of the association
twice, and the order of merit is decided by the points gained during
the season, a win counting two and a draw one.
2. (From the late Lat. leuga, or leuca, said to be a Gallic word;
the mod. Fr. lieue comes from the O. Fr. Hue; the Gaelic leac,
meaning a flat stone posted as a mark of distance on a road,
has been suggested as the origin), a measure of distance, prob-
ably never in regular use in England, and now only in poetical
or rhetorical language. It was the Celtic as opposed to the
Teutonic unit, and was used in France, Spain, Portugal and Italy.
In all the countries it varies with different localities, and the
ancient distance has never been fixed. The kilometric league
of France is fixed at four kilometres. The nautical league is
equal to three nautical miles.
LEAKE, WILLIAM MARTIN (1777-1860), British anti-
quarian and topographer, was born in London on the i4th of
January 1777. After completing his education at the Royal
Military Academy, Woolwich, and spending four years in the
West Indies as lieutenant of marine artillery, he was sent by the
government to Constantinople to instruct the Turks in this branch
of the service. A journey through Asia Minor in 1800 to join the
British fleet at Cyprus inspired him with an interest in anti-
quarian topography. In 1801, after travelling across the desert
with the Turkish army to Egypt, he was, on the expulsion
of the French, employed in surveying the valley of the Nile
as far as the cataracts; but having sailed with the ship engaged to
convey the Elgin marbles from Athens to England, he lost all his
maps and observations when the vessel foundered off Cerigo.
Shortly after his arrival in England he was sent out to survey
the coast of Albania and the Morea, with the view of assisting
the Turks against attacks of the French from Italy, and of this
he took advantage to form a valuable collection of coins and
inscriptions and to explore ancient sites. In 1807, war having
broken out between Turkey and England, he was made prisoner
at Salonica; but, obtaining his release the same year, he was
sent on a diplomatic mission to AH Pasha of lannina, whose
confidence he completely won, and with whom he remained
for more than a year as British representative. In 1810 he was
granted a yearly sum of £600 for his services in Turkey. In 1815
he retired from the army, in which he held the rank of colonel,
devoting the remainder of his life to topographical and anti-
quarian studies, the results of which were given to the world in
the following volumes: Topography of Athens (1821); Journal of
a Tour in Asia Minor (1824); Travels in the Morea (1830), and
a supplement, Peloponnesiaca (1846); Travels in Northern
Greece (1835); and Numismata Hellenica (1854), followed by a
supplement in 1859. A characteristic of the researches of Leake
was their comprehensive minuteness, which was greatly aided
by his mastery of technical details. His Topography of Athens,
the first attempt at a scientific treatment of the subject, is still
authoritative in regard to many important points (see ATHENS).
He died at Brighton on the 6th of January 1860. The marbles
collected by him in Greece were presented to the British Museum;
his bronzes, vases, gems and coins were purchased by the uni-
versity of Cambridge after his death, and are now in the Fitz-
william Museum. He was elected F.R.S. and F.R.G.S., received
the honorary D.C.L. at Oxford (1816), and was a member of the
Berlin Academy of Sciences and correspondent of the Institute
of France.
See Memoir by J. H. Marsden (1864) ; the Architect for the 7th of
October 1876; E. Curtius in the Preussische Jahrbiicher (Sept., 1876) ;
J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Classical Scholarship, iii. (1908), p. 442.
LEAMINGTON, a municipal borough and health resort of
Warwickshire, England, on the river Leam near its junction
with the Avon, 98 m. N.W. from London, served by the
Great Western and London & North Western railways. Pop.
(1901) 26,888. The parliamentary boroughs of Leamington
and Warwick were joined into one constituency in 1885, re-
turning one member. The centres of the towns are 2 m.
apart, Warwick lying to the west, but they are united by the
intermediate parish of New Milverton. There are three saline
springs, and the principal pump-rooms, baths and pleasant
gardens lie on the right bank of the river. The chief public
330
LEANDRE— LEATHER
buildings are the town hall (1884), containing a free library
and school of art; and the Theatre Royal and assembly room.
The parish church of All Saints is modernized, and the other
churches are entirely modern. The S. Warwickshire hospital
and Midland Counties Home for incurables are here. Leamington
High School is an important school for girls. There is a municipal
technical school. Industries include iron foundries and brick-
works. The town lies in a well-wooded and picturesque country,
within a few miles of such interesting towns as Warwick, Kenil-
worth, Coventry and Stratford-on-Avon. It is a favourite hunt-
ing centre, and, as a health resort, attracts not only visitors
but residents. The town is governed by a mayor, 8 aldermen,
and 24 councillors. Area, 2817 acres.
Leamington was a village of no importance until about 1786,
when baths were first erected, though the springs were noticed by
Camden, writing about 1586. The population in 1811 was only 543,
The town was incorporated in 1875. The name in former use was
Leamington Priors, in distinction from Leamington Hastings, a
village on the upper Learn. By royal licence granted in 1838 it was
called Royal Leamington Spa.
LEANDRE, CHARLES LUCIEN (1862- ), French carica-
turist and painter, was born at Champsecret (Orne), and studied
painting under Bin and Cabanel. From 1887 he figured among
the exhibitors of the Salon, where he showed numerous portraits
and genre pictures, but his popular fame is due to his comic
drawings and caricatures. The series of the " Gotha des
souverains," published in Le Rire, placed him in the front rank
of modern caricaturists. Besides his contributions to Le Rire,
Le Figaro and other comic journals, he published a series of
albums: Nocturnes, Le Musee des souverains, and Paris et la
province. Leandre produced admirable work in lithography,
and designed many memorable posters, such as the "Yvette
Guilbert." " Les nouveaux maries," " Joseph Prudhomme,"
" Les Lutteurs," and " La Femme au chien." He was created
a knight of the Legion of Honour.
LEAP-YEAR (more properly known as bissextile), the name
given to the year containing 366 days. The astronomers of
Julius Caesar, 46 B.C., settled the solar year at 365 days 6 hours.
These hours were set aside and at the end of four years made a
day which was added to the fourth year. The English name
for the bissextile year is an allusion to the result of the inter-
position of the extra day; for after the zgth of February a date
" leaps over " the day of the week on which it would fall in
ordinary years. Thus a birthday on the loth of June, a Monday,
will in the next year, if a leap-year, be on the loth of June, 'a
Wednesday. Of the origin of the custom for women to woo,
not be wooed, during leap-year no satisfactory explanation has
ever been offered. In 1 288 a law was enacted in Scotland that
" it is statut and ordaint that during the rein of hir maist blissit
Megeste, for ilk yeare knowne as lepe yeare, ilk mayden ladye of
bothe highe and lowe estait shall hae liberte to bespeke ye man
she likes, albeit he refuses to taik hir to be his lawful wyfe, he
shall be mulcted in ye sum ane pundis or less, as his estait may be;
except and awis gif he can make it appeare that he is betrothit
ane ither woman he then shall be free." A few years later a like
law was passed in France, and in the isth century the custom
was legalized in Genoa and Florence.
LEAR, EDWARD (1812-1888), English artist and humorist, was
born in London on the i2th of May 1812. His earliest drawings
were ornithological. When he was twenty years old he published
a brilliantly coloured selection of the rarer Psittacidae. Its
power attracted the attention of the I3th earl of Derby, who
employed Lear to draw his Knowsley menagerie. He became
a permanent favourite with the Stanley family; and Edward,
15th earl, was the child for whose amusement the first Book of
Nonsense was composed. From birds Lear turned to landscape,
his earlier efforts in which recall the manner of J. D. Harding;
but he quickly acquired a more individual style. About 1837
he set up a studio at Rome, where he lived for ten years, with
summer tours in Italy and Sicily, and occasional visits to England.
During this period he began to publish his Illustrated Journals
of a Landscape Painter: charmingly written reminiscences of
wandering, which ultimately embraced Calabria, the Abruzzi,
Albania, Corsica, &c. From 1848-1845 he explored Greece,
Constantinople, the Ionian Islands, Lower Egypt, the wildest
recesses of Albania, and the desert of Sinai. He returned to
London, but the climate did not suit him. In 1854-1855 he
wintered on the Nile, ana migrated successively to Corfu, Malta
and Rome, finally building himself a villa at San Remo. From
Corfu Lear visited Mount Athos, Syria, Palestine, and Petra;
and when over sixty, by the assistance of Lord Northbrook,
then Govenor-General, he saw the cities and scenery of greatest
interest within a large area of India. From first to last he was,
in whatever circumstances of difficulty or ill-health, an in-
domitable traveller. Before visiting new lands he studied their
geography and literature, and then went straight for the mark;
and wherever he went he drew most indefatigably and most
accurately. His sketches are not only the basis of more finished
works, but an exhaustive record in themselves. Some defect
of technique or eyesight occasionally left his larger oil painting,
though nobly conceived, crude or deficient in harmony; but
his smaller pictures and more elaborate sketches abound in
beauty, delicacy, and truth. Lear modestly called himself a
topographical artist; but he included in the term the perfect
rendering of all characteristic graces of form, colour, and atmo-
sphere. The last task he set himself was to prepare for popular
circulation a set of some 200 drawings, illustrating from his travels
the scenic touches of Tennyson's poetry; but he did not live
to complete the scheme, dying at San Remo on the 3oth of
January 1888. Until sobered by age, his conversation was
brimful of humorous fun. The paradoxical originality and
ostentatiously uneducated draughtsmanship of his numerous
nonsense books won him a more universal fame than his serious
work. He had a true artist's sympathy with art under all forms,
and might have become a skilled musician had he not been a
painter. Swainson, the naturalist, praised young Lear's great
red and yellow macaw as " equalling any figure ever painted
by Audubon in grace of design, perspective, and anatomical
accuracy." Murchison, examining his sketches, complimented
them as rigorously embodying geological truth. Tennyson's
lines " To E.L. on his Travels in Greece," mark the poet's genuine
admiration of a cognate spirit in classical art. Ruskin placed
the Book of Nonsense first in the list of a hundred delectable
volumes of contemporary literature, a judgment endorsed by
English-speaking children all over the world.
See Letters of Edward Lear to Chichester Forlescue, Lord Carlingford,
and Frances, Countess Waldegrave (1907), edited by Lady Strachey,
with an introduction by Henry Strachey. (F. L.*)
LEASE (derived through the Fr. from the Lat.toare, to loosen),
a certain form of tenure, or the contract embodying it, of land,
houses, &c. ; see LANDLORD AND TENANT.
LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages;
cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. lader, and in such Celtic
forms as Welsh llader), an imputrescible substance prepared
from the hides or skins of living creatures, both cold and warm
blooded, by chemical and mechanical treatment. Skins in the
raw and natural moist state are readily putrescible, and are
easily disintegrated by bacterial or chemical action, and if dried
in this condition become harsh, horny and intractable. The art
of the leather manufacturer is principally directed to overcoming
the tendency to putrefaction, securing suppleness in the material,
rendering it impervious to and unalterable by water, and increas-
ing the strength of the skin and its power to resist wear and tear.
Leather is made by three processes or with three classes of
substances. Thus we have (i) tanned leather, in which the
hides and skins are combined with tannin or tannic acid; (2)
tawed leather, in which the skins are prepared with mineral salts;
(3) chamoised (shamoyed) leather, in which the skins are rendered
imputrescible by treatment with oils and fats, the decomposition
products of which are the actual tanning agents.
Sources and Qualities of Hides and Skins. — The hides used
in heavy leather manufacture may be divided into
three classes: (i) ox and heifer, (2) cow, (3) bull. Oxen leathers.
and heifer hides produce the best results, forming a
tough, tight, solid leather. Cow hides are thin, the hide itself
LEATHER
331
being fibrous, but still compact, and by reason of its spread or
area is us,ed chiefly for dressing purposes in the bag and port-
manteau manufacture and work of a similar description. Bull
hides are fibrous; they are largely used for heel lifts, and for
cheap belting, the thicker hides being used in the iron and steel
industry.
A second classification now presents itself, viz. the British
home supply, continental (Europe), British colonial, South
American, East Indian, Chinese, &c.
In the British home supply there are three chief breeds:
(i) Shorthorns (Scotch breed), (2) Herefords (Midland breed),
(3) Lowland, or Dutch class. From a tanner's standpoint, the
shorthorns are the best hides procurable. The cattle are exposed
to a variable climate in the mountainous districts of Scotland,
and nature, adapting herself to circumstances, provides them
with a thicker and more compact hide; they are well grown,
have short necks and small heads. The Hereford class are
probably the best English hide; they likewise have small heads
and horns, and produce good solid sole leather. The Lowland
hides come chiefly from Suffolk, Kent and Surrey; the animals
have long legs, long necks and big heads. The hides are usually
thin and spready. The hides of the animals killed for the
Christmas season are poor. The animals being stall-fed for the
beef, the hides become distended, thin and surcharged with fat,
which renders them unsuitable for first-class work.
The continental supply may be divided into two classes:
(i) Hides from hilly regions, (2) hides from lowlands. All
animals subject to strong winds and a wide range of temperatures
have a very strong hide, and for this reason those bred in hilly
and mountainous districts are best. The hides coming under
heading No. i are of this class, and include those from the
Swiss and Italian Alps, Bavarian Highlands and Pyrenees, also
Florence, Oporto and Lisbon hides. They are magnificent hides,
thick, tightly-built, and of smooth grain. The butt is long and
the legs short. A serious defect in some of these hides is a
thick place on the neck caused by the yoke; this part of the
hide is absolute waste. Another defect, specially noticeable in
Lisbon and Oporto hides, is goad marks on the rump, barbed
wire scratches and warbles, caused by the gadfly. Those hides
coming under heading No. 2 are Dutch, Rhine valley, Danish,
Swedish, Norwegian, Hungarian, &c. The first three hides are
very similar; they are spready, poorly grown, and are best used
for bag and portmanteau work. Hungarian oxen are immense
animals, and supply a very heavy bend. Swedish and Norwegian
hides are evenly grown and of good texture; they are well
flayed, and used a great deal for manufacturing picker bands,
which require an even leather.
New Zealand, Australian and Queensland hides resemble good
English. A small quantity of Canadian steers are imported;
these are generally branded.
Chinese hides are exported dry, and they have generally
suffered more or less from peptonization in the storing and
drying; this cannot be detected until they are in the pits, when
they fall to pieces.
Anglos are imported as live-stock, and are killed within forty-
eight hours. They come to Hull, Birkenhead, Avonmouth
and Deptford from various American ports, and usually give
a flatter result than English, the general quality depending
largely on whether the ship has had a good voyage or not.
Among South American hides, Liebig's slaughter supply the
best; they are thoroughly clean and carefully trimmed and
flayed. They come to London, Antwerp and Havre, and except
for being branded are of first-class quality. Second to the
Liebig slaughter come the Uruguay hides.
East Indian hides are known as kips, and are supposed to be,
and should be, the hides of yearling cattle. They are now dressed
to a large extent in imitation of box calf, being much cheaper.
They come from a small breed of ox, and have an extremely
tight grain ; the leather is not so soft as calf.
Calf-skins are largely supplied by the continent. They are soft
and pliant, and have a characteristically fine grain, are tight in
texture and quite apart from any other kind of skin.
The most valuable part of a sheep-skin is the wool, and the
value of the pelt is inversely as the value of the wool. Pure
Leicester and Norfolk wools are very valuable, and next
is the North and South Downs, but the skins, i.e. the
pelts, of these animals are extremely poor. Devon
and Cheviot cross-bred sheep supply a fair pelt, and sometimes
these sheep are so many times crossed that it is quite impossible
to tell what the skin is. Welsh skins also supply a good tough
pelt, though small. Indian and Persian sheep-skins are very
goaty, the herds being allowed to roam about together so much.
The sheep-skin is the most porous and open-textured skin in
existence, as also the most greasy one; it is flabby and soft,
with a tight, compact grain, but an extremely loose flesh. Still-
born lambs and lambs not over a month old are worth much
more than when they have lived for three months; they are
used for the manufacture of best kid gloves, and must be milk
skins. Once the lambs have taken to grass the skins supply a
harsher leather.
The best goat-skins come from the Saxon and Bavarian
Highlands, Swiss Alps, Pyrenees, Turkey, Bosnia, Southern
Hungary and the Urals. The goats being exposed to all winds
yield fine skins. A good number come from Argentina and from
Abyssinia, the Cape and other parts of Africa. Of all light
leathers the goat has the toughest and tightest grain ; it is, there-
fore, especially liked for fancy work. The grain is rather too
bold for glace work, for which the sheep is largely used.
The seal-skin, used largely for levant work, is' the skin of the
yellow-hair seal, found in the Northern seas, the Baltic, Norway
and Sweden, &c. The skin has a large, bold, brilliant grain, and
being a large skin is much used for upholstery and coach work,
like the Cape goat. It is quite distinct from the fur seal.
Porpoise hide is really the hide of the white whale; it is
dressed for shooting, fishing and hunting boots. Horse hide is
dressed for light split and upper work; being so much stall-fed
it supplies only a thin, spready leather. The skins of other
Equidae, such as the ass, zebra, quagga, &c. are also dressed to
some small extent, but are not important sources.
Structure of Skin. — Upon superficial inspection, the hides and
skins of all mammalia appear to be unlike each other in general
structure, yet, upon closer examination, it is found that the anatomi-
cal structure of most skins is so similar that for all practical purposes
we may assume that there is no distinction (see SKIN AND Exo-
SKELETON). But from the practical point of view, as opposed to
the anatomical, there are great and very important differences, such
as those of texture, thickness, area, &c. ; and these differences
cause a great divergence in the methods of tanning used, almost
necessitating a distinct tannage for nearly every class of hide or
skin.
The skins of the lower animals, such as alligators, lizards, fish and
snakes, differ to a large extent from those of the mammalia, chiefly
in the epidermis, which is much more horny in structure and
forms scales.
The skin is divided into two distinct layers: (i) the epidermis
or epithelium, i.e. the cuticle, (2) the corium derma, or cutis, i.e.
the true skin. These two layers are not only different in structure,
but are also of entirely distinct origin. The epidermis again divides
itself into two parts, viz. the " horny layer " or surface skin, and the
rete Malpighi, named after the Italian anatomist who first drew
attention to its existence. The rete Malpighi is composed of living,
soft, nucleated cells, which multiply by division, and, as they
increase, are gradually pushed to the surface of the skin, becoming
flatter and drier as they near it, until they reach the surface as
dried scales. The epidermis is thus of cellular structure, and more
or less horny or waterproof. It must consequently be removed
together with the hair, wool o^ bristles before tannage begins,
but as it is very thin compared with the corium, this matters little.
The hair itself does not enter the corium, but is embedded in a
sheath of epidermic structure, which is part of and continuous with
the epidermis. It is of cellular structure, and the fibrous part is
composed of long needle-shaped cells which contain the pigment
with which the hair is coloured. Upon removal of the hair some of
these cells remain behind and colour the skin, and this colour does
not disappear until these cells are removed by scudding. Each hair
is supplied with at least two fat or sebaceous glands, which dis-
charge into the orifice of the hair sheath; these glands impart to
the hair that natural glossy appearance which is characteristic of
good health. The hair bulb (b, fig. i) consists of living nucleated
cells, which multiply rapidly, and, like the rete Malpighi, cause an
upward pressure, getting harder at the same time, thereby lengthen-
ing the hair.
332
LEATHER
The hair papilla (a, fig. i) consists of a globule of the corium or
true skin embedded in the hair bulb, which by means of blood-
vessels feeds and nourishes the hair. Connected with the lower
part of each hair is an oblique muscle known as the arrector or
erector pili, seen at k, fig. i ; this is an involuntary muscle, and is
contracted by sudden cold, heat or shock, with an accompanying
tightening of the skin, producing the phenomenon commonly known
as " goose flesh." This is the outcome of the contracted muscle
pulling on the base of the hair, thereby giving it a tendency to
approach the vertical, and producing the simultaneous effect of
making the " hair stand on end."
The sudoriferous or sweat glands (R, fig. i) consist of long spiral-
like capillaries, formed from the fibres of the connective tissue of
the corium. Thest glands discharge sometimes directly through
the epidermis, but more often into the orifice of the hair-sheath.
The epidermis is separated from the corium by a very important
and very fine membrane, termed the " hyaline " or " glassy layer,"
which constitutes the actual grain surface of a hide or skin. This
layer is chemically different from the corium, as if it is torn or
scratched during the process of tanning the colour of the underlying
parts is much lighter than that of the grain surface.
The corium, unlike the epidermis, is of fibrous, not cellular struc-
ture; moreover, the fibres do not multiply among themselves, but
are gradually developed as needed from the interfibrillar substance,
a semi-soluble gelatinous modification of the true fibre. This
interfibrillar sub-
stance consequently
has no structure,
and is prepared at
any time on com-
---» ing into contact with
tannin to form amor-
phous leather, which
fills what would in
the absence of this
substance be inter-
fibrillar spaces. The
more of this matter
there is present the
more completely will
the spaces be filled,
and the more water-
proof will be the
leather. An old bull,
as is well known,
supplies a very poor,
soft and spongy
leather, simply be-
cause the hide lacks
interfibrillar sub-
stance, which has
been sapped up by
the body. The fibres
are, therefore, separ-
ated by interfibrillar
spaces, which on
contact with water
absorb it with
avidity by capillary
attraction. But a
heifer hide or young
— R
FIG. i.
'1,
Hair papilla.
Hair bulb.
J,
k,
Sebaceous glands.
Erector pili.
Hair sheath show- m, Sweat ducts,
ing epidermic n and p, Epidermis,
structure. n, Rete Malpighi.
Dermic coat of hair p,
sheath. K,
Outer root sheath.
S,
Horny layer.
Sweat or sudori-
e. Outer root sheath. ferous gland.
/, Inner root sheath. S, Opening at sweat calf supplies the
g, Hair cuticle. duct. most tight and
h, Hair. waterproof leather
known, because the
animals are young, and having plenty of nourishment do not
require to draw upon and sap the interfibrillar substance with
which the skin is full to overflowing.
The corium obtains its food from the body by means of lymph
ducts, with which it is well supplied. It is also provided with
nodules of lymph to nourish the hair, and nodules of grease, which
increase in number as they near the flesh side, until the net skin,
panniculus adiposus, or that which separates the corium from meat
proper, is quite full with them.
The corium is coarse in the ce»tre of the skin where the fibres,
which are of the kind known as white connective tissue, and which
exist in bundles bound together with yellow elastic fibres, are
loosely woven, but towards the flesh side they become more com-
pact, and as the hyaline layer is neared the bundles of fibres get
finer and finer, and are much more tightly interwoven, until finally,
next the grain itself, the fibres no longer exist in bundles, but as
individual fibrils lying parallel with the grain. This layer is known
as the pars papillaris. The bundles of fibre interweave one another
in every conceivable direction. The fibrils are extremely minute,
and are cemented together with a medium rather more soluble
than themselves.
There are only two exceptions to this general structure which
need be taken into account. Sheep-skin is especially loosely woven
in the centre, so much so that any carelessness in the wet work or
sweating process enables one to split the skin in two by tearing.
This loosely-woven part is full of fatty nodules, and the skin is
generally split at this part, the flesh going for chamois leather
ind the grain for skivers. The other notable exception is the horse
iiide, which has a third skin over the loins just above the kidneys,
known as the crup; it is very greasy and tight in structure, and
is used for making a very waterproof leather for seamen's and
fishermen's boots. Pig-skin, perhaps, is rather peculiar, in the fact
that the bristles penetrate almost right through the skin.
Tanning Materials. — Tannin or tannic acid is abundantly formed
in a very large number of plants, and secreted in such diverse organs
and members as the bark, wood, roots, leaves, seed-pods, fruit, &c.
The number of tannins which exists has not been determined, nor
has the constitution of those which do exist been satisfactorily
settled. As used in the tanyard tannin is present both in the free
state and combined with colouring matter and accompanied by
decomposition products, such as gallic acid or phlobaphenes (an-
hydrides of the tannins), respectively depending upon the series to
which the tannin belongs. In whatever other points they differ,
they all have the common property of being powerfully astringent,
of forming insoluble compounds with gelatine or gelatinous tissue,
of being soluble in water to a greater or lesser extent, and of form-
ing blacks (greenish or bluish) with iron. Pyrogallol tannins give a
blue-black coloration or precipitate with ferric salts, and catechol
tannins a green-black; and whereas bromine water gives a pre-
cipitate with catechol tannins, it does not with pyrogallol tannins.
There are two distinctive classes of tannins, viz. catechol and
pyrogallol tannins. The materials belonging to the former series
are generally much darker in colour than those classified with the
latter, and moreover they yield reds, phlobaphenes or tannin an-
hydrides, which deposit on or in the leather. Pyrogallol tannins
include some of the lightest coloured and best materials known,
and, speaking generally, the leather produced by them is not so
harsh or hard as that produced with catechol tannins. They decom-
pose, yielding ellagic acid (known technically as " bloom ") and
gallic acid; the former has waterproofing qualities, because it fills
the leather, at the same time giving weight.
It has been stated, and perhaps with some truth, that leather
cannot be successf uljy made with catechol tannins alone ; pyrogallol
tannins, however, yield an excellent leather; but the finest results
are obtained by blending the two.
The classification of the chief tanning materials is as follows: —
Pyrofallols. Catechols.
Myrobalans (Terminalia Chfbula). Gambier (Uncaria Gambir).
Chestnut wood (Castanea vesca). Hemlock (Abies canadensis).
Divi-divi (Caesalpinia Coriarta). Quebracho (Quebracho Colorado}.
Algarobilla (Caesalpinia brcvijolia). Mangrove or Cutch (Rhizophora Mangle).
Sumach (Rhus Coriaria). Mimosa or Golden Wattle (Acacia Pycnantha).
Oakwood (Quercus family). Larch (Larix Europata).
Chestnut oak (Quercus Prims). Canaigre (Rumet Hymenoscpalum).
Galls (Quercus Injcctoria). Birch (Belula alba).
Willow (Salix arenaria). Cutch Catechu (Acacia Catechu).
Subsidiary.
Oakbark (Quercus Robur).
Valonia (Quercus Aegilops).
Myrobalans are the fruit of an Indian tree. There are several
different qualities, the order of which is as follows, the best being
placed first: Bhimley, Jubbalpore, Rajpore, Fair Coast Madras
and Vingorlas. They are a very light-coloured material, containing
from 27% to 38% of tannin; they deposit much " bloom," ferment
fairly rapidly, supplying acidity, and yield a mellow leather.
Chestnut comes on the market in the form of crude and decolorized
liquid extracts, containing about 27% to 31% of tannin, and
yields a good leather of a light-brown colour.
Oakwood reaches the market in the same form; it is a very
similar material, but only contains 24% to 27% of tannin, and
yields a slightly heavier and darker leather.
Divi-divi is the dried seed pods of an Indian tree containing
40% to 45% of tannin, and yielding a white leather; it might be
valuable but for the tendency to dangerous fermentation and de-
velopment of a dark-red colouring matter.
Algarobilla consists of the seeds of an Indian tree, containing
about 45% of tannin, and in general properties is similar to divi-
divi, but does not discolour so much upon fermentation.
Sumach is perhaps the best and most useful material known.
It is the ground leaves of a Sicilian plant, containing about 28% of
tannin, and yielding a nearly white and very beautiful leather. It
is used alone for tanning the best moroccos and finer leather, and
being so valuable is much adulterated, the chief adulterant being
Pislacia lentiscus (Stinko or Lentisco), an inferior and light-coloured
catechol tannin. Other but inferior sumachs are also used. There
is Venetian sumach (Rhus cotinus) and Spanish sumach (Colpoon
compressa) ; these are used to some extent in the countries bordering
on the Mediterranean. R. Glabra and R. Copallina are also used in
considerable quantities in America, where they are cultivated.
Galls are abnormal growths found upon oaks, and caused by the
gall wasp laying eggs in the plant. They are best harvested just
before the insect escapes. They contain from 50% to t>o% of
tannin, and are generally used for the commercial supply of tannic
acid, and not for tanning purposes.
Gambier, terra japonica or catechu, is the product of a shrub
cultivated in Singapore and the Malay Archipelago. It is made by
boiling the shrub and allowing the extract to solidify. It is a
LEATHER
333
peculiar material, and may be completely washed out of a leather
tanned with it. It mellows exceedingly, and keeps the leather fibre
open; it may be said that it only goes in the leather to prepare
and make easy the way for other tannins. Block gambier contains
from 35 % to 40 % and cube gambier from 50 % to 65 % of tannin.
Hemlock generally reaches the market as extract, prepared from
the bark of the American tree. It contains about 22 % of tannin,
has a pine-like odour, but yields a rather dark-coloured red leather.
Quebracho is imported mainly as solid extract, containing 63 %
to 70% of tannin; it is a harsh, light-red tannage, but darkens
rapidly on exposure to light. It is used for freshening up very
mellow liquors, but is rather wasteful, as it deposits an enormous
amount of its tannin as phlobaphenes.
Mangrove or cutch is a solid extract prepared from the mangrove
tree found in the swamps of Borneo and the Straits Settlements;
it contains upwards of 60% of a red tannin.
Mimosa is the bark of the Australian golden wattle (Acacia
pycnantha), and contains from 36% to 50% of tannin. It is a
rather harsh tannage, yielding a flesh-coloured leather, and is useful
for sharpening liquors. This bark is now successfully cultivated in
Natal. The tannin content of this Natal bark is somewhat inferior,
but the colour is superior to the Australian product.
Larch bark contains 9% to 10% of light-coloured tannin, and
is used especially for tanning Scotch basils.
Canaigre is the air-dried tuberous roots of a Mexican plant,
containing 25% to 30% of tannin and about 8% of starch. It
yields an orange-coloured leather of considerable weight and firm-
ness. Its cultivation did not pay well enough, so that it is little
used.
Cutch, catechu or " dark catechu," is obtained from the wood
of Indian acacias, and is not to be confounded with mangrove cutch.
It contains 60 % of tanning matter and a large proportion of catechin
similar to that contained in gambier, but much redder. It is used
for dyeing browns and blacks with chrome and iron mordants.
The willow and the white birch barks contain, respectively, 12%
to 14% and 2% to 5% of tannin. In combination they are used
to produce the,t famous Russia leather, whose insect-resisting odour
is due to the birch bark. In America this leather is imitated with
the American black birch bark (Betula lento), and also with the oil
obtained from its dry distillation.
In the list of materials two have been placed in a subsidiary class
because they are a mixture of catechol and pyrogallol tannin. Oak
bark produces the best leather known, proving that a blend of the
two classes of tannins gives the best results. It is the bark of the
coppice oak, and contains 12% to 14% of a reddish-yellow tannage.
Valonia is the acorn cup of the Turkish and Greek oak. The Smyrna
or Turkish valonia is best, and contains 32 % to 36 % of an almost
white tannin. Greek valonia is greyer in colour, and contains 26 %
to 30% of tannin. It yields a tough, firm leather of great weight,
due to the rapid deposition of a large amount of bloom.
Grinding and Leaching l Tanning Materials. — At first sight it would
not seem possible that science could direct such a clumsy process as
the grinding of tanning materials, and yet even here, the scientific
smashing " of tanning materials may mean the difference between
profit and loss to the tanner. In most materials the tannin exists
imprisoned in cells, and is also to some extent free, but with this
latter condition the science of grinding has nothing to do. If tanning
materials are simply broken by a series of clean cuts, only those cells
directly on the surfaces of the cuts will be ready to yield their tannin ;
therefore, if materials are ground by cutting, a proportion of the
total tannin is thrown away. Hence it is necessary to bruise, break
and otherwise sever the walls of all the cells containing the tannin ;
so that the machine wanted is one which crushes, twists and cuts
the material at the same time, turning it out of uniform size and with
little dust.
The apparatus in most common use is built on the same principle
as the coffee mill, which consists of a series of segmental cutters;
as the bark works down into the smaller cutters of the mill it is
twisted and cut in every direction. This is a very good form of mill,
but it requires a considerable amount of power and works slowly.
The teeth require constant renewal, and should, therefore, be
replaceable in rows, not, as in some forms, cast on the bell. The
disintegrator is another form of mill, which produces its effect by
violent concussion, obtained by the revolution in opposite directions
of from four to six large metal arms fitted with projecting spikes
inside a drum, the faces of which are also fitted with protruding
pieces of metal. The arms make from 2000 to 4000 revolutions per
minute. The chief objection to this apparatus is that it forms
much dust, which is caught in silken bags fitted to gratings in the
drum. The myrobalans crusher, a very useful machine for such
materials as myrobalans and valonia, consists of a pair of toothed
rollers above and a pair of fluted rollers beneath. The material is
dropped upon the toothed rollers first, where it is broken and crushed ;
then the crushing is finished and any sharp corners rounded off in
the fluted rollers.
It must not be thought that now the material is ground it is
necessarily ready for leaching. This may or may not be so, de-
pending upon whether the tanner is making light or heavy leathers.
~' See LYE.
If light leathers are being considered, it is ready for immediate
leaching, i.e. to be infused with water in preparation of a liquor.
If heavy leathers are in process of manufacture, he would be a very
wasteful tanner who would extract his material raw. It must be
borne in mind that when an infusion is made with fresh tanning
material, the liquor begins to deposit decomposition products after
standing a day or two, and the object of the heavy-feather tanner
is to get this material deposited in the leather, to fill the pores,
produce weight and make a firm, tough product. With this end in
view he dusts his hides with this fresh material in the layers, i.e.
he spreads a layer between each hide as it is laid down, so that the
strong liquors penetrate and deposit in the hides. When most of
this power to deposit has been usefully utilized in the layers, then
the material (which is now, perhaps, half spent) is leached. The
light-leather maker does not want a hard, firm leather, but a soft
and pliable product; hence he leaches his material fresh, and does
not trouble as to whether the tannin deposits in the pits or not.
Whether fresh or partially spent material is leached, the process
is carried out in the same way. There are several methods in vogue ;
the best method only will be described, viz. the " press leach "
system.
The leaching is carried out in a series of six square pits, each
holding about 3 to 4 tons of material. The method depends upon
the fact that when a weak liquor is forced over a stronger one they
do not mix, by reason of the higher specific gravity of the stronger
one; the weaker liquor, therefore, by its weight forces the stronger
liquor downwards, and as the pit in which it is contained is fitted
with a false bottom and side duct running over into the next pit,
the stronger liquor is forced upwards through this duct on to the
next stronger pit. There the process is repeated, until finally the
weak liquor or water, as the case may be, is run off the last vat as
a very strong infusion. As a concrete example let us take the six
pits shown in the figure.
4
5
6
3
2
i
No. 6 is the last vat, and the liquor, which is very strong, is about
to be run off. No. I is spent material, over which all six liquors
have passed, the present liquor having been pumped on as fresh
water. The liquor from No. 6 is run off into the pump well, and
liquor No. I is pumped over No. 2, thus forcing all liquors one
forward and leaving pit No. I empty; this pit is now cast and filled
with clean fishings and perhaps a little new material, clean water is
then pumped on No. 2, which is now the weakest pit, and all liquors
are thus forced forward one pit more, making No. I the strongest
pit. After infusing for some time this is run off to the pump well,
and the process repeated. It may be noted that the hotter the
water is pumped on the w.eakest pit, the better will the material
be spent, and the nearer the water is to boiling-point the better;
in fact, a well-managed tanyard should have the spent tan down
to between I % and 2 % of tannin, although this material is fre-
quently thrown away containing up to 10% and sometimes even
more. There is a great saving of time and labour in this method,
since the liquors are self-adjusting.
Testing Tan Liquors. — The methods by which the tanning value
of any substance may be determined are many, but few are at once
capable of simple application and minute accuracy. An old method
of ascertaining the strength of a tan liquor is by means of a hydro-
meter standardized against water, and called a barkometer. It
consists of a long graduated stem fixed to a hollow bulb, the opposite
end of which is weighted. It is placed in the liquor, the weighted
end sinks to a certain depth, and the reading is taken on the stem
at that point which touches " water mark." The graduations are
such that if the specific gravity is multiplied by 1000 and then 1000
is subtracted from the result, the barkometer strength of the liquor
is obtained. Thus 1029 specific gravity equals 29° barkometer.
This method affords no indication of the amount of tannin present,
but is useful to the man who knows his liquors by frequent analysis.
A factor which governs the quality of the leather quite as much
as the tannin itself is the acidity of the liquors. It is known that
gallic and tannic acids form insoluble calcium salts, and all the
other acids present as acetic, propionic, butyric, lactic, formic, &c.,
form comparatively soluble salts, so that an easy method of deter-
mining this important factor is as follows: —
Take a quantity, say 100 c.c., of tan liquor, filter till clear through
paper, then pipette 10 c.c. into a small beaker (about i| in. dia-
meter), place it on some printed paper and note how clear the
print appears through the liquor; now gradually add from a burette
a clear solution of saturated lime water until the liquor becomes
just cloudy, that is until it just loses its brilliancy. Now read off
the number of cubic centimetres required in the graduated stem of
the burette, and either read as degrees (counting each c.c. as one
degree), to which practice at once gives a useful signification, or
calculate out in terms of acetic acid per 100 c.c. of liquor, reckoning
saturated lime water as -fa normal.
The methods which deal with the actual testing for tannin itself
334
LEATHER
depend mostly upon one or other of two processes; either the
precipitation of the tannin by means of gelatin, or its absorption
by means of prepared hide. Sir Humphry Davy was the first to
propose a method for analysing tanning materials, and he pre-
cipitated the tannin by means of gelatin in the presence of alum,
then dried and weighed the precipitate, after washing free from
excess of reagents. This method was improved by Stoddart,
but cannot lay claim to much accuracy. Warington and Miiller
again modified the method, but their procedure being tedious
and difficult to work could not be regarded as a great advance.
Wagner then proposed precipitation by means of the alkaloids,
with special regard to cinchonine sulphate in the presence of
rosaniline acetate as indicator, but this method also proved useless.
After this many metallic precipitants were tried, used gravi-
metrically and volumetrically, but without success. The weighing
of precipitated tannates will never succeed, because the tannins are
such a diverse class of substances that each tannin precipitates
different quantities of the precipitants, and some materials contain
two or three different tannins. Then there are also the difficulties
of incomplete precipitation and the precipitation of colouring
matter, &c. Among this class of methods may be mentioned
Garland's, in which tartar emetic and sal ammoniac were employed.
It was improved by Richards and Palmer.
Another class of methods depends upon the destruction of the
tannin by some oxidizing agent, and the estimation of the amount
required. Terreil rendered the tannin alkaline, and after agitating
it with a known quantity of air, estimated the volume of oxygen
absorbed. The method was slow and subject to many sources of
error. Commaille oxidized with a known quantity of iodic acid and
estimated the excess of iodate. This process also was troublesome,
besides oxidizing the gallic acid (as do all the oxidation processes),
and entailing a separate estimation of them after the removal of
the tannin. Ferdinand Jean (1877) titrated alkaline tannin solution
with standard iodine, but the mixture was so dark that the end
reaction with starch could not be seen; in addition the gallic acid
had again to be estimated. Monier proposed permanganate as an
oxidizing agent, and Lowenthal made a very valuable improvement
by adding indigo solution to the tannin solution, which controlled
the oxidation and acted as indicator. This method also required
double titration because of the gallic acid present, the tanning
matters being removed from solution by means of gelatin and
acidified salt.
The indirect gravimetric hide-powder method first took form
about 1886. It was published in Der Gerber by Simand and Weiss,
other workers being Eitner and Meerkatz. Hammer, Muntz and
Ramspacher did some earlier work on similar lines, depending upon
the specific gravity of solutions. Professor H. R. Procter perfected
this method by packing a bell, similar in shape to a bottomless
bottle of about 2 oz. (liq.) capacity, with the hide-powder, and siphon-
ing the tan liquor up through the powder and over into a receiver.
This deprives the tan liquor of tannin, and a portion of this non-
tannin solution is evaporated to dryness and weighed till constant;
similarly a portion of the original solution containing non-tannins
and tannins is evaporated and weighed till constant; then the
weight of the non-tannins subtracted from the weight of the non-
tannins and tannins gives the weight of tannin, which is calculated
to percentage on original solutions. This method was adopted as
official by the International Association of Leather Trades Chemists
until September 1906, when its faults were vividly brought before
them by Gordon Parker of London and Bennett of Leeds, working
in collaboration, although other but not so complete work had been
previously done to the same end. The main faults of the method
were that the hide-powder absorbed non-tannins, and therefore
registered them as tannins, and the hide-powder was partially
soluble. This difficulty has now been overcome to a large extent
in the present official method of the I.A.L.T.C.
Meanwhile, Parker and Munro Payne proposed a new method
of analysis, the essence of which is as follows: — A definite excess
of lime solution is added to a definite quantity of tannin solution
and the excess of lime estimated; the tan solution is now deprived
of tannin by means of a soluble modification of gelatin, called
" collin," and the process is repeated. Thus we get two sets of
figures, viz. total absorption and acid absorption (i.e. acids other
than tan) ; the latter subtracted from the former gives tannin
absorption, and this is calculated out in percentage of original
liquor. The method failed theoretically, because a definite mole-
cular weight had to be assumed for tannins which are all different.
There are also several other objections, but though, like the hide-
powder method, it is quite empirical, it gives exceedingly useful
results if the rules for working are strictly adhered to.
The present official method of the I.A.L.T.C. is a modification of
the American official method, which is in turn a modification of a
method proposed by W. Eitner, of the Vienna Leather Research
Station. The hide-powder is very slightly chrome-tanned with a
basic solution of chromium chloride, 2 grammes of the latter being
used per loo grammes of hide-powder, and is then washed free from
soluble salts and squeezed to contain 70% of moisture, and is
ready for use. This preliminary chroming does away with the
difficulty of the powder being soluble, by rendering it quite in-
soluble; it also lessens the tendency to absorb non-tannins. Such
a quantity of this wet powder as contains 6'5 grammes of dry hide
is now taken, and water is added until this quantity contains exactly
20 grammes of moisture, i.e. 26-5 grammes in all; it is then agitated
for 15 minutes with 100 c.c. of the prepared tannin solution, which
is made up to contain tannin within certain definite limits, in a
mechanical rotator, and filtered. Of this non-tannin solution 50 c.c.
is then evaporated to dryness. The same thing is done with 50 c.c.
of original solution containing non-tannins and tannins, and both
residues are weighed. The tannin is thus determined by difference.
The method does all that science can do at present. The rules for
carrying out the analysis are necessarily very strict. The object in
view is that all chemists should get exactly concordant results,
and in this the I.A.L.T.C. has succeeded.
The work done by Wood, Trotman, Procter, Parker and others
on the alkaloidal precipitation of tannin deserves mention.
Heavy Leathers. — The hides of oxen are received in the lanyard
in four different conditions: (i) market or slaughter hides,
which, coming direct from the local abattoirs, are soft, moist and
covered with dirt and blood; (2) wet salted hides; (3) dry salted
hides; (4) sun-dried or " flint " hides — the last three forms
being the condition in which the imports of foreign hides are
made. The first operalion in Ihe tannery is to clean the hides
and bring them back as nearly as possible to the flaccid
condition in which they left the animal's back. The blood and
other matter on market hides must be removed as quickly as
possible, the blood being of itself a cause of dark stains and bad
grain, and with the other refuse a source of putrefaction. When
the hides are sound they are given perhaps two changes of water.
Salted hides need a longer soaking than market hides, as it is
not only essential to remove the salt from the hide, but also necessary
to plump and soften the fibre which has been partially dehydrated
and contracted by the salt. It must also be borne in mind that a
10% solution of salt dissolves hide substance, thereby causing an
undesirable loss of weight, and a weak solution prevents plumping,
especially when taken into the limes, and may also cause" buckling,"
which cannot easily be removed in after processes. Dried and dry
salted hides require a much longer soaking than any other variety.
Dried hides are always uncertain, as they may have putrefied before
drying, and also may have been dried at top high a temperature;
in the former case they fall to pieces in the limes, and in the latter
case it is practically impossible to soak them back, unless putrefactive
processes are used, and such are always dangerous and difficult to
work because of the Rivers Pollution Acts. Prolonged soaking in
cold water dissolves a serious amount of hide substance. Soaking
in brine may be advantageous, as it prevents putrefaction to some
extent. Caustic soda, sodium sulphide and sulphurous acid may
also be advantageously employed on account of their softening and
antiseptic action. In treating salted goods, the first wash water
should always be rapidly changed, because, as mentioned, strong
salt solutions dissolve hide; four changes of water should always
be given to these goods.
There are other and mechanical means of softening obstinate
material, viz. by stocking. The American hide mill, or double-
acting stocks, shown
diagrammatically in fig.
2, is a popular piece of
apparatus, but the goods
should never be sub-
jected to violent me-
chanical treatment until
soft enough to stand it,
else severe grain crack-
ing may result. Perhaps
the use of sodium sul-
phide or caustic soda in
conjunction with the
American wash wheel is
the safest method.
Whatever means are
used the ultimate object
is first to swell and open
up the fibres as much
as possible, and secondly
to remove putrefactive
refuse and dirt, which
FIG. 2. — Double-acting Stocks.
if left in is fixed by the lime in the process of depilation, and causes
a dirty buff.
After being thus brought as nearly as possible into a uniform
condition, all hides are treated alike. The first operation to
which they are subjected is depilation, which removes not only
the hair but also the scarf skin or epidermis. When the goods are
sent to the limes for depilation they are, first of all, placed in an
old lime, highly charged with organic matter and bacteria.
It is the common belief that the lime causes the hair to loosen and
fall out, but this is not so; in fact, pure lime has the opposite
LEATHER
335
effect of tightening the hair. The real cause of the loosening
of the hair is that the bacteria in the old lime creep down the
hair, enter the rete Malpighi and hair sheath, and attack and
decompose the soft cellular structure of the sheath and bulb,
also altering the composition of the rete Malpighi by means of
which the scarf skin adheres to the true skin. These products
of the bacterial action are soluble in lime, and immediately
dissolve, leaving the scarf skin and hair unbound and in a con-
dition to leave the skin upon scraping. In this first " green " lime
the action is mainly this destructive one, but the goods have yet
to be made ready to receive the tan liquor, which they must enter
in a plump, open and porous condition. Consequently, the
" green " lime is followed with two more, the second being less
charged with bacteria, and the third being, if not actually a new
one, a very near approach to it; in these two limes the bundles
of fibre are gradually softened, split up and distended, causing the
hide to swell, the interfibrillar substance is rendered soluble
and the whole generally made suitable for transference to the
tan liquors. The hide itself is only very slightly soluble; if care
is taken, the grease is transformed into an insoluble calcium
soap, and the hair is hardly acted upon at all.
The time the goods are in the limes and the method of making
new limes depends upon the quality of the leather to be turned
out. The harder and tougher the leather required the shorter
and fresher the liming. For instance, for sole leather where a
hard result is required, the time in the limes would be from
8 to 10 days, and a perfectly fresh top lime would be used,
with the addition of sodium sulphide to hasten the process.
Every tanner uses a different quantity of lime and sulphide,
but a good average quantity is 7 ft lime per hide and 10-15 ft>
sodium sulphide per pit of 100 hides. The lime is slaked with
water and the sulphide mixed in during the slaking; if it is added
to the pit when the slaking is finished the greater part of its
effect is lost, as it does not then enter into the same chemical
combinations with the lime, forming polysulphides, as when it is
added during the process of slaking.
For softer and more pliable leathers, such as are required
for harness and belting, a "lower" or mellower liming is given,
and the time in the limes is increased from 9 to 12 days. Some
of the old mellow liquor is added to the fresh lime in the making,
so as just to take off the sharpness. It would be made up as
for sole leather, but with less sulphide or none at all, and then
a dozen buckets of an old lime would be added. For lighter
leathers from 3 to 6 weeks' liming is given, and a fresh lime is
never used.
" Sweating " as a method of depilation is obsolete in England so
far as heavy leathers are concerned. It consists of hanging the goods
in a moist warm room until incipient putrefaction sets in. This
first attacks the more mucous portions, as the rete Malpighi, hair
bulb and sheath, and so allows the hair to be removed as before.
The method pulls down the hide, and the putrefaction may go
too far, with disastrous results, but there is much to recommend
it for sheepskins where the wool is the main consideration, the main
point being that while lime entirely destroys wool, this process
leaves it intact, only loosening the roots. It is consequently still
much used.
Another method of fellmongering (dewooling) sheepskins is to
paint the flesh side with a cream of lime made with a 10% solution
of sodium sulphide and lay the goods in pile flesh to flesh, taking
care that none of the solution comes in contact with the wool, which
is ready for pulling in from 4 to 8 hours. Although this process may
be used for any kind of skin, it is practically only used for sheep,
as if any other skin is depilated in this manner all plumping effect
is lost. Since this must be obtained in some way, it is an economy
of time and material to place the goods in lime in the first instance.
Sometimes, in the commoner classes of sole leather, the hair is
removed by painting the hair side with cream of lime and sulphide,
or the same effect Is produced by drawing the hides through a strong
solution of sulphide; this completely destroys the hair, actually
taking it into solution. But the hair roots remain embedded in the
skin, and for this reason such leather always shows a dirty buff.
Arsenic sulphide (realgar) is slaked with the lime for the pro-
duction of the finer light leathers, such as glace kid and glove kid.
This method produces a very smooth grain (the tendency of sodium
sulphide being to make the grain harsh and bold), and is therefore
very suitable for the purpose, but it is very expensive.
Sufficient proof of the fact that it is not the lime which causes
skins to unhair is found in the process of chemical liming patented
by Payne and Pullman. In this process the goods are first treated
with caustic soda and then with calcium chloride; in this manner
lime is formed in the skin by the reaction of the two salts, but
still the hair remains as tight as ever. If this process is to be used
for unhairing and liming effect, the goods must be first subjected
to a putrid soak to loosen the hair, and afterwards limed. Experi-
ments made by the present writer also prove this theory. A piece
of calf skin was subjected to sterilized lime for several months, at
the end of which time the hair was as tight as ever; then bacterial
influence was introduced, and the skin unhaired in as many days.
After liming it is necessary to unhair the goods. This is done
by stretching a hide over a tanner's beam (fig. 3), when with an
unhairing knife (a, fig. 4) the beamsman partially scrapes and
partially shaves off the hair and epidermis. Another workman,
a " flesher," removes the flesh or " net skin " (panniculus
adiposus), a fatty matter from the flesh side of the skin, with the
fleshing knife (two-
edged), seen in b, fig.
4. For these opera-
tions several
machines have been
adapted, working
mostly with revolv-
ing spiral blades or
vibrating cutters,
under which the
hides pass in a fully
extended state.
Among these may
be mentioned the
Leidgen unhairer,
which works on a
rubber bed, which
" gives " with the
irregularities of the FlG' 3-— Tanner s Beam,
hide, and the Wilson flesher, consisting of a series of knives
attached to a revolving belt, and which also " give " in contact
with irregularities.
At this stage the hide is divided into several parts, the process
being known as " rounding." The object of the division is this:
certain parts of the hide termed the " offal " are of less value
than the " butt," which consists of the prime part. The grain
of the butt is fine and close in texture, whereas the offal grain is
loose, coarse and open, and if the offal is placed in the same
superior liquors as the butt, being open and porous, it will
absorb the best of the tannin first; consequently the offal goes
to a set of inferior liquors, often consisting of those through
which the butts have passed. The hides are " rounded " with
a sharp curved butcher's knife; the divisions are seen in fig. 5_
The bellies, cheeks and
shoulders constitute the offal,
and are tanned separately al-
though the shoulder is not often
detached from the butt until
the end of the " suspenders,"
being of slightly better quality
than the bellies. The butt is
divided into two " bends."
This separation is not made
until the tanning of the butt FIG. 4.— Tanner's Knives and Pin.
is finished, when it is cut in
two, and the components sold as " bends," although as often as
not the butt is not divided. In America the hides are only
split down the ridge of the back, from head to tail, and tanned
as hides. Dressing hides are more frequently rounded after
tanning, the mode depending on the purpose for which the
leather is required.
The next step is to remove as much " scud " and lime as
possible, the degree of removal of the latter depending upon the
kind of leather to be turned out. " Scudding " consists of
working the already unhaired hide over the beam with an
unhairing knife with increased pressure, squeezing out the dirt,
which is composed of pigment cells, semi-soluble compounds of
lime, and hide, hair sacks and soluble hide substance, &c. This
exudes as a dirty, milky, viscid liquid, and mechanically brings the
LEATHER
FIG. 5.
lime out with it, but involves a great and undesirable loss
of hide substance, heavy leather being sold by weight. This
difficulty is now got over by giving the goods an acid bath first,
to delime the surface; the acid fixes this soluble hide substance
(which is only soluble in alkalies) and hardens it, thus preventing
its loss, and the goods may then be scudded clean with safety.
The surface of all heavy leathers must be delimed to obtain a
good coloured leather, the demand of the present day boot
manufacturer; it is also necessary to carry this further with
milder leathers than
sole, such as harness
and belly, &c., as
excess of lime causes
the leather to crack
when finished. Per-
haps the best
material for this
purpose is boracic
acid, using about
10 Ib per 100 butts,
and suspending the
goods. This acid
yields a character-
istic fine grain, and
because of its limited
solubility cannot be
used in excess. Other
acids are also used,
such as acetic, lac-
tic, formic, hydro-
chloric,with varying
success. Where the
water used is very
soft, it is only necessary to wash in water for a few hours, when
the butts are ready for tanning, but if the water is hard, the
lime is fixed in the hide by the bicarbonates it contains, in the
form of carbonate, and the result is somewhat disastrous.
After ell-liming, the butts are scudded, rinsed through water
or weak acid, and go off to the tan pits for tanning proper. Any
lime which remains is sufficiently removed by the acidity of the
early tan liquors.
The actual tanning now begins, and the operations involved
may be divided into a series of three: (i) colouring, (2) handling,
(3) laying away.
The colouring pits or " suspenders," perhaps a series of eight
pits, consist of liquors ranging from 16° to 40° barkometer, which
were once the strongest liquors in the yard, but have gradually
worked down, having had some hundreds of hides through them;
they now contain very little tannin, and consist mainly of
developed acids which neutralize the lime, plump the hide,
colour it off, and generally prepare it to receive stronger liquors.
The goods are suspended in these pits on poles, which are lifted
up and down several times a day to ensure the goods taking an
even colour; they are moved one pit forward each day into
slightly stronger liquors, and take about from 7 to 18 days to get
through the suspender stage.
The reason why the goods are suspended at this stage instead of
being laid flat is that it the latter course were adopted, the hides
would sink and touch one another, and the touch-marks, not being
accessible to the tan liquor, would not colour, and uneven colouring
would thus result; in addition the weight of the top hides would
flatten the lower ones and prevent their plumping, and this con-
dition would be exceedingly difficult to remedy in the after liquors.
Another question which might occur to the non-technical reader is,
why should not the process be hastened by placing the goods in
strong liquors ? The reason is simple. Strong tanning solutions
have the effect of " drawing the grain " of pelt, i.e. contracting the
fibres, and causing the leather to assume a very wrinkled appearance
which cannot afterwards be remedied; at the same time "case
tanning " results , i.e. the outside only gets tanned, leaving the
centre still raw hide, and once the outside is case-hardened it is
impossible for the liquor to penetrate and finish the tanning. This
condition being almost irremediable, the leather would thus be
rendered useless.
After the " suspenders " the goods are transferred to a series
FIG. 6. — Tanner's Hook
(without handle).
of " handlers " or " floaters," consisting of, perhaps, a dozen
pits containing liquors ranging from 30° to 55° barkometer.
These liquors contain an appreciable quantity of both tannin
and acid, once formed the " lay-aways," and are destined to
constitute the " suspenders." In these pits the goods, having
been evenly coloured off, are laid flat, handled every day in the
" hinder " (weaker) liquors and shifted forward, perhaps every
two days, at the tanner's convenience. The " handling "
consists of lifting the butts out of the pit by means of a tanner's
hook (fig. 6) , piling them on the side of the pit to drain , and return-
ing them to the pit, the top butt in
the one handler being returned as the
bottom in the next. This operation
is continued throughout the process,
only, as the hides advance, the neces-
sity for frequent handling decreases.
The top two handler pits are sometimes converted into
" dusters," i.e. when the hides have advanced to these pits,
as each butt is lowered, a small quantity of tanning material is
sprinkled on it.
Some tanners, now that the hides are set flat, put them in
suspension again before laying away; the method has its
advantages, but is not general. The goods are generally laid
away immediately. The layer liquors consist of leached liquors
from the fishings, strengthened with either chestnut or oakwood
extract, or a mixture of the two. The first layer is made up
to, say, 60° barkometer in this way, and as the hides are laid
down they are sprinkled with fresh tanning material, and remain
undisturbed for about one week. The second layer is a 70°
barkometer liquor, the hides are again sprinkled and allowed
to lie for perhaps two weeks. The third may be 80° barkometer
and the fourth 90°, the goods being " dusted " as before, and
lying undisturbed for perhaps three or four weeks respectively.
Some tanners give more layers, and some give less, some more or
less time, or greater or lesser strengths of liquor, but this tannage
is a typical modern one.
As regards " dusting " material, for mellow leather, mellow
materials are required, such as myrobalans being the mellowest
and mimosa bark the most astringent of those used in this
connexion. For harder leather, as sole leather, a much smaller
quantity of myrobalans is used, if any at all, a fair quantity of
mimosa bark as a medium, and much valonia, which deposits a
large amount of bloom, and is of great astringency. About 3 to
4 cwt. of a judicious mixture is used for each pit, the mellower
material predominating in the earlier liquors and the most
astringent in the later liquors.
The tanning is now finished, and the goods are handled out
of the pits, brushed free from dusting material, washed up in
weak liquor, piled and allowed to drip for 2 or 3 days so that the
tan may become set.
Finishing. — From this stage the treatment of sole leather
differs from that of harness, belting and mellower leathers.
As regards the first, it will be found on looking at the dripping
pile of leather that each butt is covered with a fawn-coloured
deposit, known technically as " bloom "; this disguises the under
colour of the leather, just like a coat of paint. The theory of the
formation of this bloom is this. Strong solutions of tannin, such
as are formed between the hides from dusting materials, are not
able to exist for long without decomposition, and consequently
the tannin begins to condense, and forms other acids and in-
soluble anhydrides; this insoluble matter separates in and on the
leather, giving weight, firmness, and rendering the leather water-
proof. It is known technically as bloom and chemically as
ellagic acid.
After dripping, the goods are scoured free from surface bloom in
a Wilson scouring machine, and are then ready for bleaching.
There are several methods by which this is effected, or, more correctly
several materials or mixtures are used, the method of application
being the same, viz. the goods are " vatted " (steeped)^ for some
hours in the bleaching mixture at a temperature of no" F. The
mixture may consist of either sumach and a light-coloured chestnut
extract made to 110° barkometer, and_ no" F., or some bleaching
extract made for the purpose, consisting of bisulphited liquid
quebracho, which bleaches by reason of the free sulphurous acid it
LEATHER
337
contains. The former method is best (though more expensive), as
it removes less weight, and the light shade of colour is more per-
manent than that obtained by using bisulphited extracts.
After the first vatting the goods are laid up in pile to drip;
meanwhile the liquor is again heated, and they are then returned for
another twenty-four hours, again removed and allowed to drip for
2 to 3 days, after which they are oiled with cod oil on the grain and
hung up in the sheds to dry in the dark. When they have dried to
an indiarubber-like condition, they are piled and allowed to heat
slightly until a greyish " bloom " rises to the surface, they are then
set out and stretched in a Wilson scouring machine; using brass
slickers instead of the stone ones used for scouring, " pinned " over
by hand (with the three-edged instrument seen in c, fig. 4, and
known as a " pin ") to remove any bloom not removed by the
machine, oiled and dried. When of a damp even colour they are
" rolled on " between two heavy rollers like a wringing machine, the
pressure being applied from above, hung up in the dark sheds again
until the uneven colour so produced has dried in, and then " rolled
off " through the same machine; the pressure being applied from
below. They are now dried right out, brushed on the grain to
produce a slight gloss, and are finished.
As regards the finishing of harness leather, &c., the goods,
after thorough dripping for a day or two, are brushed, lightly
scoured, washed up in hot sumach and extract to improve the
colour, and are again laid up in pile for two days; they are then
given a good coat of cod oil, sent to the sheds, and dried right
out. Only sufficient scouring is given to clean the goods, the
object of the tanner being to leave as much weight in as possible,
although all this superfluous tan has to be washed out by the
currier before he can proceed.
Currying. — When the goods are dried from the sheds they are
purchased by the currier. If, as is often the case, the tanner is
his own currier, he does not tan the goods so heavily, or trouble
about adding superfluous weight, but otherwise the after pro-
cesses, the art of the currier, are the same.
Currying consists of working oil and grease into the leather
to render it pliable and increase its strength. It was once thought
that this was a mere physical effect produced by the oil, but such
is not the case. Currying with animal oils is a second tannage
in itself; the oils oxidize in the fibres and produce aldehydes,
which are well-known tanning agents; and this double tannage
renders the leather very strong. Then there is the lubricating
effect, a very important physical action so far as the strength
of the leather is concerned. Mineral oils are much used, but
they do not oxidize to aldehydes, or, for the matter of that,
to anything else, as they are not subject to decomposition.
They, therefore, produce no second tannage, and their action
is merely the physical one of lubrication, and this is only more
or less temporary, as, except in the case of the heavier greases,
they slowly evaporate. Where animal fats and oils are used,
the lomger the goods are left in contact with the grease the better
and stronger will be the leather.
In the " Einbrennen " process (German for " burning in "),
the hides are thoroughly scoured, and when dry are dipped into
hot grease, which is then allowed to cool; when it is nearly set
the goods are removed and set out. This process is not much
used in Great Britain.
In hand-stuffing belting butts the goods are first thoroughly
soaked in water to which has been added some soda, and then
scoured and stretched by machine. They are then lightly shaved,
to take off the 'loose flesh and thin the neck. The whole of the
mechanically deposited tannin is removed by scouring, to make
room for the grease, and they are then put into a sumach vat
of 40° barkometer to brighten the colour, horsed up to drip,
and set out. If any loading, to produce fictitious weight, is to be
done, it is done now, by brushing the solution of either epsom
salts, barium chloride or glucose, or a mixture, into the flesh,
and laying away in pile for some days to allow of absorption,
when, perhaps, another coat is given. Whether this is done or
not, the goods are hung up until " tempered " (denoting a
certain degree of dryness), and then treated with dubbin. This
is manufactured by melting down tallow in a steam-jacketed pan,
and adding cod oil, the mixture being stirred continually; when
quite clear, it is cooled as rapidly as possible by running cold
water through the steam pan, the stirring being continued until
it has set. The tempered leather having been set out on a glass
table, to which the flesh side adheres, is given a thin coat of the
dubbin on the grain, turned, set out on the flesh, and given a
thick coat of dubbin. Then it is hung up in a wind shed, and as
the moisture dries out the grease goes in. After two or three
days the goods are " set out in grease " with a brass slicker,
given a coat of dubbin on the grain slightly thicker than the
first coat, then flesh dubbined, a slightly thinner coat being
applied than at first, and stoved at 70° F. The grease which is
slicked off when " setting out in grease " is collected and sold.
After hanging in the warm stove for 2 or 3 days the butts are
laid away in grease for a month; they are then slicked out
tight, flesh and grain, and buck tallowed. Hard tallow is first
rubbed on the grain, when a slight polish is induced by rubbing
with the smoothed rounded edge of a thick slab of glass; they are
then hung up in the stove or stretched in frames to dry. A
great deal of stuffing is now carried out by drumming the goods
in hot hard fats in previously heated drums; and in modern
times the tedious process of laying away in grease for a month is
either left undone altogether or very considerably shortened.
In the tanning and dressing of the commoner varieties of kips
arid dried hides, the materials used are of a poorer quality, and
the time taken for all processes is cut down, so that whereas the
time taken to dress the better class of leather is from 7 to 10
months, and in a few cases more, these cheaper goods are turned
out in from 3^ to 5 months.
A considerable quantity of the leather which reaches England,
such as East India tanned kips, Australian sides, &c., is bought up
and retanned, being sold then as a much better-class leather.
The first operation with such goods is to " strip " them of any
grease they may contain, and part of their original tannage.
This is effectually carried out by first soaking them thoroughly,
laying them up to drip, and drumming for half an hour in a weak
solution of soda; they are then washed by drumming in plenty of
water, the water is run off and replaced by very weak sulphuric
acid to neutralize any remaining soda; this is in turn run off and
replaced by weak tan liquor, and the goods are so tanned by
drumming for some days in a liquor of gradually increasing
strength. The liquor is made up as cheaply as possible with
plenty of solid quebracho and other cheap extract, which is
dried in with, perhaps, glucose, epsom salts, &c. to produce
weight. Sometimes a better tannage is given to goods of fair
quality, in which they are, perhaps, started in the drum and
finished in layers, slightly better materials being used all through,
and a longer time taken to complete the tannage.
The tannage of dressing hides for bag and portmanteau
work is rather different from the other varieties described,
in that the goods, after having had a rather longer liming,
are " bated " or " puered."
Bating consists of placing the goods in a wheel or paddle with hen
or pigeon excrement, and paddling for from a few hours to 2 or 3
days. In puering, dog manure is used, and this bting rather more
active, the process does not take so long. This baHng or puering is
carried out in warm liquors, and the actions involved are several.
From a practical point of view the action is the removal of the lime
and the solution of the hair sacs and a certain amount of inter-
fibrillar substance. In this way the goods are pulled down to a
soft flaccid condition, which allows of the removal of short hair,
hair sacs and other filth by scudding with an unhairing knife
upon the beam. The lime is partially taken into solution and
partially removed mechanically during the scudding. A large
quantity of hide substance^ semi-soluble and soluble, is lost by being
pressed out, but this matters little, as for dressing work, area, and
not weight, is the main consideration. Theoretically the action is
due to bacteria and bacterial products (organized ferments and
enzymes), unorganized ferments or vegetable ferments like the yeast
ferment, such as pancreadine, pepsin, &c. and chemicals, such as
ammonium and calcium salts and phosphates, all of which are
present in the manure. The evolved gases also play their part in
the action.
There are several bates upon the market as substitutes for dung
bate. A most popular one was the American " Tiffany " bate,
made by keeping a weak glue solution warm for some hours and
then introducing a piece of blue cheese to start fermentation ; when
fermenting, glucose was added, and the bate was then ready for
work. This and all other bates have been more or less supplanted by
" erodin," discovered after years of research by Mr Wood (Notting-
ham) and Drs Poppand Becker (Vienna). This is an artificial bate,
containing the main constituents of the dung bate. It is supplied
338
LEATHER
in the form of a bag of nutrient material for bacteria to thrive on
and a bottle of bacterial culture. The nutrient material is dissolved
in water and the bacterial culture added, and after allowing the
mixture to get working it is ready for use. Many tons of this bate
are now being used per annum. Its advantages are: (i) that it is
clean, (2) that it is under perfect control, and (3) that stains and
bate burns, which so often accompany the dung bate, are absolutely
absent. Bate burns are caused by not filtering the dung bate
through coarse sacking before use. The accumulation of useless
solid matter settles on the skins if they are not kept well in motion,
causing excessive action in these places.
After pulling down the goods to a soft, silky condition by
bating or puering, it is necessary, after scudding, to plump them
up again and bring them into a clean and fit condition for re-
ceiving the tan. This is done by " drenching " in a bran drench.
A quantity of bran is scalded and allowed to ferment. When the
fermentation has reached the proper stage the goods are placed,
together with the bran liquor, in a suitable pit or vat, and are
allowed to remain until they have risen three times; this rising
to the surface is caused by the gaseous products of the fermenta-
tion being caught by the skin. The plumping action of the bran
is due to the acids produced during fermentation and also in
part to the gases, and the cleansing action is due to the mechanical
action of the particles of bran rubbing against the grain of the
skins. After drenching, the goods are washed free from bran,
and are ready for the tanning process.
Drenching, now that all kinds of acids are available, is not so
much used for heavy hides as for light skins, it being found much
more convenient and cheaper to use acids. In fact, bating and
puering are being gradually replaced by acid baths in the case of
heavy leathers, the process being carried out as deliming for sole
leather, only much more thoroughly in the case of dressing leather.
The tanning of dressing hides, which are not rounded into butts
and offal, is briefly as follows. They first enter a series of colour-
ing pits or suspenders, and then a series of handlers, by which
time they should be plump and coloured through; in this con-
dition they are split either by means of a union or band-knife
splitting machine (fig. 7).
FIG. 7. — Band Knife Splitting Machine.
This latter is the most popular machine, and consists essentially
of an endless band knife a, which revolves at considerable speed
with its cutting edges close to the sides of a pair of rollers through
which the leather is fed and pressed against the knife. The lower
of these rollers is made of short segments or rings, each separately
capable of yielding so as to accommodate itself to the unequal
thicknesses of various parts of a hide. The thickness of the leather
to be cut is gauged to the utmost minuteness by means of the hand
screws b b which raise or lower the upper roller. The knife edge of
the cutter is kept keen by rubbing against revolving emery wheels
c as it passes round. So delicately can this machine effect its work
that slices of leather uniform throughout and as thin as paper can
be easily prepared by it, and by its aid it is quite common to split
hides into as many as three useful splits.
The dressing hides are usually split in two. Here we will leave
the split (flesh) for a time and continue with the treatment of the
grain. After splitting, they enter another series of handlers, are
then piled up for a day or two, and thrown into a large drum
with sumach mixed to a paste with hot water and a light-coloured
extract. They are drummed in this for one hour to brighten and
mellow the grain, washed up in tepid liquor, piled for two days,
and drummed with cod oil or some other suitable oil or mixture;
they are now piled for a day or two to absorb, dried out, flattened
on the grain, and flesh folded.
The splits are rinsed up in old sumach liquor and drummed
with cheap extracts and adulterants, such as size, glucose, barium
chloride, epsom salts, &c. after which they are piled up to drain,
dried to a " sammied " condition, rolled to make firm, and dried
right out.
In the dressing hide tannage very mellow materials are used.
Gambier and myrobalans form the main body of the tannage,
together with a little quebracho extract, mimosa bark, sumach
and extracts.
Upper Leather. — Under the head of upper leather are included
the thin, soft and pliable leathers, which find their principal,
but by no means exclusive, application in making the uppers
of boots and shoes, which may be taken as a type of a class of
leathers. They are made from such skins as East Indian kips,
light cow and horse hides, thin split hides, such as those described
under dressing leather, but split rather thinner, and calf. The
preparatory dressing of such skins and the tanning operations
do not differ essentially from those already described. In pro-
portion to the thinness of the skin treated, the processes are
more rapidly finished and less complex, the tannage is a little
lighter, heavy materials such as valonia being used sparsely
if at all. Generally speaking, the goods have a longer and
mellower liming and bating, the lime being more thoroughly
removed than for the leathers previously described, to produce
greater pliability, and everything must tend in this direction.
The heavier hides and kips are split as described under dressing
leather, and then tanned right out.
Currying of the Lighter Leathers. — The duty of the currier is
not solely directed towards heavier leathers; he is also entrusted
with the dressing and fitting of the lighter leathers for the
shoemaker, coachbuilder, saddler, &c. He has to pare the leather
down and reduce inequalities in thickness, to impregnate it with
fatty matter in order to render it soft and pliable, and to give it
such a surface dressing, colour and finish as will please the eye
and suit the purposes of ifs consumers. The fact that machinery
is used by some curriers for nearly every mechanical operation,
while others adhere to the manual system, renders it almost
impossible to give in brief an outline of operations which will be
consistent with any considerable number of curriers.
The following may be taken as a typical modern dressing of
waxed calf or waxed kips. The goods are first of all soaked down
and brought to a " sammied " condition for shaving. In the better-
class leathers hand-shaving is still adhered to, as it is maintained
that the drag of the shaving machine on the leather causes the
" nap " finish to be coarser. Hand-shaving is carried out on a
beam or strong frame of wood, supporting a stout plank faced with
lignum vitae, and set vertically, or nearly so. The knife (fig. 8) is
a double-edged rectangular blade about 12 in. by 5 in., girded on
either side along its whole length and down the centre with two
bars 3 in. wide, leaving each
blade protruding I in. be-
yond them; it has a straight
handle at one end and a cross
handle at the other in the
plane of the blade. The edges
of this knife are first made
very keen, and are then turned
over so as to form a wire edge,
by means of the thicker of the
two straight steel tools shown
in fig. 9. The wire edge is
FIG. 8. — Currying Knife.
preserved by drawing the thinner of the two steel tools along
the interior angle of the wire edge and then along the outside
of the turnover edge. The skin being thrown flesh uppermost
over the vertical beam, the shaver presses his body against it,
and leaning over the top holds the knife by its two handles almost
at right angles to the leather, and proceeds to shave it by a
scraping stroke downwards which the wire edge, being set at right
angles to the knife and almost parallel with the skin, turns into a
cut. The skin is shifted so as to bring all parts under the action of
the knife, the shaver frequently passing a fold between his finger
to test the progress of his work. After shaving, the goods are
thoroughly soaked, allowed to drip, and are ready for " scouring."
This operation has for its object the removal of bloom (ellagic acid)
and any other superfluous adherent matter. The scouring solution
consists of a weak solution of soft soap and borax. This is first
well brushed into the flesh of the leather, which is then " sleeked "
(slicked) out with a steel slicker shown at S fig. 9. The upper part
LEATHER
339
of the " slicker " is wooden, and into it a steel, stone, brass or
vulcanite blade is forced and fastened. The wooden part is grasped
in both hands, and the blade is half rubbed and half scraped over
the surface of the leather in successive strokes, the angle of the
slicker being a continuation of the angle which the thrust out arms
of the worker form with the body, perhaps 30° to 45°, with the
leather, depending upon the pressure to be applied, The soap and
borax solution is continually dashed on the leather to supply a body,
for the removal of the bloom with the steel slicker. The hide is now
turned, and the grain is scoured with a stone slicker and brush, with
soap and borax solution, it is then rinsed up, and sent to dry ; when
sammied, it is " set " i.e. the grain is laid smooth with^a brass or
steel slicker and dried right out. It is now ready for " stuffing,"
which is invariably done in the drum with a mixture of stearine and
" sod " oil, to which is sometimes added cod oil and wool fat; it is
then set out on the grain and " canked " on the flesh, the grain side
is glassed, and the
leather dried right
out. The goods are
now " rounded," i.e.
the lighter coloured
parts of the grain are
damped with a mix-
ture of dubbin and
water to bring them
to even colour, and
are then laid in pile
for a few days to mel-
low, when they are
FIG 9. — Currying Apparatus. C, pommel ;
R, raising board ; S, slicker.
ready for whitening. The goods are damped down and got to the
right temper with a weak soap and water solution, and are then
" whitened," an operation similar to shaving, carried out with a
turned edge slicker. By this means a. fine flesh surface is obtained
upon which to finish by waxing; after this they are " boarded"
with an arm board (R, fig. 9) to bring up the grain, or give a granular
appearance to the leather and make it supple, when they may be
turned flesh inwards and bruised, a similar operation to graining,
essentially to soften and make them pliant. At this stage the
goods are known as " finished russet," and are stored until ready
for waxing.
For waxing, the first operation is to black the goods. In England
this is generally done by hand, but machinery is much more used
in the United States. The process consists of well brushing into the
flesh side of the skins a black preparation made in one of two ways.
The older recipe is a mixture of lampblack, oil and perhaps a little
tallow; the newer recipe consists of soap, lampblack, logwood
extract and water. Either of these is brushed well into the flesh
side, which is then glassed up by means of a thick slab of glass, the
smooth rounded edges being used with a slicking motion, and the
goods are hung up to dry. When dry they are oiled with cod oil,
and are ready for sizing. Goods blacked with soap blacking are
sized once, those prepared with oil blacking are sized twice. The
size used for soap black skins may consist of a mixture of beeswax,
pitch, linseed oil, tallow, soap, glue and logwood extract. For oil
blacked skins the " bottom sizing " may be glue, soap, logwood
extract and water, after the application of which the goods are
dried and the " top sizing " applied; this consists of glue, cod oil,
beeswax, tallow, Venice turps, black dye and water. The sizings
having been applied with a sponge or soft brush, thoroughly rubbed
in with a glass slicker, crush marks are removed by padding with a
soft leather pad, and the goods, after being dried out, are ready
for the market.
In the dressing of waxed grain leathers, such as French calf, satin
leather, &c., the preparatory processes are much the same as for
waxed leathers described above as far as stuffing, after which the
grain is prepared to take the colour by light hand scouring with weak
soap and borax solution. The dye is now applied, and so that it
may take well on the grain of the greasy leather, a quantity of
either soap, turkey red oil or methylated spirit is added to the
solution. Acid colours are preferably used, and three coats are
given to the dry leather, which is then grained with an arm board,
and finished by the application of hard buck tallow to the grain
and brushing. The dye or stain may consist of aniline colours for
coloured leathers, or, in the case of blacks, consecutive applications
of logwood and iron solutions are given.
Finishing dressing Hides for Bag and Portmanteau Work. —
The hides as received from the tanner are soaked down, piled
to sammy, and shaved, generally by machine, after which
they are scoured, as under waxed leather, sumached and hung
up to dry; when just damp they are set out with a brass slicker
and dried right out. The grain is now filled by applying a solu-
tion of either Irish moss, linseed mucilage or any other mucilagin-
ous filling material, and the flesh is sized with a mixture of
mucilage and French chalk, after which the goods are brush-
stained with an aniline dye, to which has been added linseed
mucilage to give it body; two coats are applied to the sammied
leather. When the goods have sammied, after the last coat of
stain, they are " printed " with a brass roller in a " jigger," or
by means of a machine embosser. This process consists of im-
printing the grain by pressure from a brass roller, on which
the pattern is deeply etched. After printing, the flesh side is
sponged with a weak milk solution, lightly glassed and dried,
when the grain is sponged with weak linseed mucilage, almost
dried, and brushed by machine. The hides are now finished,
by the application either of pure buck tallow or of a mixture of
carnauba wax and soap; this is rubbed up into a slight gloss
with a flannel.
Light Leathers. — So far only the heavier leathers have been
dealt with; we will now proceed to discuss lighter calf, goat,
sheep, seal, &c.
In tanning light leathers everything must tend towards
suppleness and pliability in the finished leather, in contrast to the
firmness and solidity required in heavy leathers. Consequently,
the liming is longer and mellower; puering, bating or some
bacterial substitute always follows; the tannage is much shorter;
and mellow materials are used. A deposition of bloom in the
goods is not often required, so that very soon after they are
struck through they are removed as tanned. The materials
largely used are sumach, oak bark, gambier, myrobalans, mimosa
bark, willow, birch and larch barks.
As with heavy leathers, so also with light leathers, there are
various ways of tanning; and quality has much to do with the
elaboration or modification of the methods employed. The tan-
ning of all leathers will be dealt with first, dyeing and finishing
operations being treated later.
The vegetable-tanned leather de luxe is a bottle-tanned skin.
It is superior to every other class of vegetable-tanned leather
in every way, but owing to competition not a great deal is now
produced, as it is perhaps the most expensive leather ever put
on the market. The method of preparation is as follows.
The skins are usually hard and dry when received, so they are
at once soaked down, and when sufficiently soft are either milled
in the stocks, drummed in a lattice drum (American dash wheel,
fig. 10), or " broken down " over the beam by working on the
flesh with a blunt unhairing knife. They are next mellow limed
(about 3 weeks), sulphide being used if convenient, unhaired and
fleshed as described under heavy leathers, and are then ready
for puering. This process is carried through at about 80° F.,
when the goods are worked on the beam, rinsed, drenched in a
bran drench, scudded, and are ready for tanning. The skins
are now folded down the centre of the back from neck to butt
(tail end), flesh outwards, and the edges are tightly stitched all
round to form bags, leav-
ing an aperture at one of
the shanks for filling; they
are now turned grain out-
wards and filled with strong
sumach liquor and some
quantity of solid sumach
to fill up the interstices
and prevent leakage, after
which the open shank is
tied up, and they are
thrown into warm sumach
liquor, where they float
about like so many pigs,
being continually pushed
under the surface with a
FIG. io.— Dash Wheel.
dole. When struck through they are piled on a shelf above
the vat, and by their own weight the liquor is forced through
the skins. The tannage takes about 24 hours, and when finished
the stitching is ripped up, the skins are slicked out, " strained "
on frames and dried. " Straining " consists of nailing the skins
out on boards in a stretched condition, or the stretching in
frames by means of strings laced in the edge of the frame and
attached to the edge of the skin.
The commoner sumach-tanned skins (but still of very good
quality) are tanned in paddle wheels, a series of three being most
340
LEATHER
conveniently used in the same manner as the three-pit system
of liming, each wheel having three packs of skins through it
before being thrown away. This paddling tends to make a
bolder grain, as the skins are kept in continual motion, and work
over one another. Some manufacturers finish the tannage with
a mixture of sumach and oak bark; this treatment yields a less
porous product. Others, when the skins are strained and in a
semi-dry condition, apply neatsfoot or other oil, or a mixture
of glycerine and oil, to the grain to lubricate it and make it more
supple; the glycerine mixture is generally used for " chrome "
leather, and will be discussed later under that head.
The skins tanned as above are largely dressed as morocco.
Originally " morocco " was produced by the Moors in southern
Spain and Morocco, whence the industry spread to the Levant,
Turkey and the Mediterranean coast of Africa generally, where
the leather was made from a species of sumach. Peculiarly
enough, the dyeing was carried out before the tanning, with
Roman alum as " mordant " and kermes, which with the alum
produced a fine red colour. Such leather was peculiarly clear
in colour, elastic and soft, yet firm and fine in grain and texture,
and has long been much prized for bindings, being the material
in which most of the artistic work of the 16th-century binders
was executed. Now, in addition to the genuine morocco made
from goat skins, we have imitation or French moroccos, for
which split calf and especially sheep skins are employed, and as
the appearance of morocco is the result of the style of graining
and finish, which can now be imitated by printing or embossing
machines, morocco can be made from all varieties of thin leather.
Great quantities of " Persian " (East India tanned) sheep and
goat are now dressed as moroccos and for innumerable other purposes,
the method being as follows: The goods are tanned with turwar
bark and cassia bark, besides being impregnated with sesame oil,
even to the extent of 30%. The first operation is to " strip "
them of the oil and original tannage as far as possible, by drumming
in a solution of soda ; the soap thus formed is got rid of by thoroughly
washing the goods, when they are " soured " in a weak bath of
sulphuric acid to brighten the colour and remove iron stains, after
which they are washed up and re-tanned by drumming in warm
sumach, allowing about 4 oz. per skin. They are then slicked out,
dried and are ready for dyeing.
The tanning of sheep and lamb skins differs very essentially
from the tanning of goat and other leathers, mainly in the preparatory
processes. As the wool is completely destroyed by lime, other
methods have to be resorted to. The process usually practised is
known as " sweating "; this consists of hanging the moist skins up
in a warm, badly-ventilated chamber and allowing incipient putre-
faction to set in. The chamber is always kept warm and saturated
with moisture, either by means of a steam jet or water sprinklers.
During the process large quantities of ammoniacal vapours are
given off, and after two or three days the skins become slimy to the
touch, and the wool slips easily; at this stage the goods are removed,
for if the putrefaction goes too far the grain of the skin is irretriev-
ably ruined. The wool is now " pulled " by pullers, who throw it
into bins arranged to receive the different qualities; for one pelt
may have three different grades of wool on it.
Other methods of dewooling are to paint the flesh with a solution
of sodium sulphide, or cream of lime made with a solution of sodium
sulphide; in either case the goods are piled flesh to flesh for an hour
or so, and care is taken that the dewooling agent does not touch the
wool. The pelt is then pulled and rapidly swilled in a stream of
running water. The goods are now, in some yards, lightly limed
to plump them superficially, by paddling in a milk of lime, and at
this stage, or when the goods have been " struck through " with
tan liquor, they are " degreased " either by hydraulic pressure or
by benzene decreasing. This is to expel the oleaginous or fatty
matter with which sheep skins are richly impregnated ; the average
yield is about 4 oz. per skin. The tannage is carried out in much
the same way as for goat skins, the goods being started in old acid
bark liquors; the general tannage consists of sumach and bark.
Basils are sheep skins tanned in various ways. English basils
are tanned with oak bark, although, as in all other leathers,
inferior tannages are now common; Scotch basils are tanned
with larch bark, Australian and New Zealand basils with mimosa
bark and Turkish basils with galls. The last are the commonest
kind of skins imported into Great Britain, and are usually only
semi-tanned. Roans are sumach-tanned sheep skins.
Skivers are the grain splits of sheep skins, the fleshes of which
are finished for chamois leather. The goods are split in the limed
state, just as the grains are ready for tanning, and are sub-
sequently treated much as sumach-tanned goat skins, or in any
other convenient way; the fleshes, on the other hand, go back
into the limes, as it is necessary to get a large quantity of lime
into leather which is to be finished as chamois.
Russia Leather was originally a speciality of Russia, where it
was made from the hides of young cattle, and dressed either a
brownish red or black colour for upper leather, bookbinding,
dressing-cases, purses, &c. It is now made throughout Europe
and America, the best qualities being obtained from Austria.
The empyreumatic odour of the old genuine " Russia " leather
was derived from a long-continued contact with willow and the
bark of the white birch, which contains the odorous betulin oil.
Horse hides, calf, goat, sheep skins and even splits are now
dressed as " Russia leather," but most of these are of a decidedly
inferior quality, and as they are merely treated with birch bark
oil to give them something of the odour by which Russia leather
is ordinarily recognized, they scarcely deserve the name under
which they pass. The present-day genuine Russia leather is
tanned like other light leathers, but properly in willow bark,
although poplar and spruce fir barks are used. After tanning
and setting out the goods are treated with the empyreumatic oil
obtained by the dry distillation of birch bark. The red colour
commonly seen in Russia leather is now produced by aniline
colours, but was originally gained by the application of an in-
fusion of Brazil wood, which was rubbed over the grain with a
brush or sponge. Some time ago Russia leather got into disrepute
because of its rapid decay; this was owing to its being dyed with
a very acid solution of tin salts and cochineal, the acid completely
destroying the leather in a year or two. The black leather is
obtained by staining with logwood infusion and iron acetate.
The leather, if genuine quality, is very watertight and strong,
and owing to its impregnation with the empyreumatic oil, it
wards off the attacks of insects.
Seal Leathers, &*c. — The tannage of seal skins is now an
important department of the leather industry of the United
Kingdom. The skins form one of the items of the whaling
industry which principally centres in Dundee, and at that port,
as well as at Hull and Peterhead, they are received in large
quantities from the Arctic regions. This skin is that of the white
hair seal, and must not be confused with the expensive seal
fur obtained from Russian and Japanese waters. These white
hair seal skins are light but exceedingly close in texture, yielding
a very strong tough leather of large area and fine bold grain,
known as Levant morocco. The area of the skins renders them
suitable for upholstery work, and the flesh splits are dressed in
considerable quantity for " japanned " (" patent ") leather and
" bolsters," which are used to grain other skins on, the raised
buff affording a grip on the skin being grained and thus prevent-
ing slipping. When the skins arrive in the lanyard (generally
lightly salted) they are drummed in old drench liquors until soft,
dipped into warm water and " blubbered " with a sharp knife;
they are then alternately dipped in warm water and drummed
several times to remove fat, after which they are heavily limed,
as they are still very greasy, and after unhairing and fleshing they
are heavily puered for the same reason. The tannage takes about
a month, and is much the same as for other leathers, the skins
being split when " struck through."
Alligator leather is now produced to some extent both in the
United States and India. The belly and flanks alone are useful.
There are no special tanneries or processes for dressing the skins.
Layers are not given. The leather is used mostly for small fancy
goods, and is much imitated on sheepskin by embossing.
Snake and frog skins are also dressed to some extent, the latter
having formed a considerable item in the exports of Japan ; they
are dressed mostly for cigar cases and pocket books. The general
procedure is first to lime the goods and then to remove any scales
(in the case of snake skins) by scraping with an unhairing knife on
a small beam, after which the skins are bated and tanned in sumach
by paddling.
A considerable amount of leather is now produced in Australia
from the skins of kangaroo, wallaby and other marsupials. These
skins are both tanned and " tawed," the principal tanning agents
being mimosa bark, mallet bark and sugar bush, which abound in
Australia. The leather produced is of excellent quality, strong and
pliable, and rivals in texture and appearance the kid of Europe;
but the circumstance that the animals exist only in the wild state
renders them a limited and insecure source of leather.
LEATHER
Japan and Enamel Leathers. — Japanning is usually done on
flesh splits, whereas enamelling is done on the grain, and i
splits are used they are printed and boarded. The leathe
should be mellow, soft, free from grease, with a firm grain
and no inclination to stretch. It is first shaved very smooth
thoroughly scoured with a stone, sumached, washed, slickec
out tight and dried; when " sammied," the grain is buffed to
remove scratches and oiled, the goods are then whitened or fluffed
and if too hard, bruised by boarding; enamel goods are now
grained. The skins are now tightly nailed on boards and any holes
patched up with brown paper, so that the japan shall not touch
the flesh when the first thick coat of japan or the " daub " is
put on. This is applied so thickly that it cannot soak in, with
fine-toothed slicker, and then placed in a hot stove for twenty-
four hours until quite dry; the coating is then pumiced smooth
and the second thinner coat, termed " blanback," is applied
This is dried and pumiced, and a fine coating of japan or copa
varnish is finally given. This is dried and cooled, and if the
goods are for enamel they are boarded.
English japans sometimes contain light petroleum, but no turps.
The secret of successful japanning lies in the age of the oil used;
the older the linseed oil is, the better the result. To prepare the
ground coat, boil 10 gallons linseed oil for one hour with 2 Ib litharge
at 600° F. to jellify the oil, and then add 2 Ib prussian blue and boil
the whole for half an hour longer. Before application the mixture is
thinned with 10 gallons light petroleum. For the second coat, boil
10 gallons linseed oil for 2 hours with 2 Ib prussian blue and 2 ft
lampblack; when of a thin jelly consistency thin with 5 gallons of
benzine or light petroleum. For the finishing coat, boil 5 gallons of
linseed oil for I hour, then add I ft prussian blue, and boil for
another hour; thin with 10 gallons petroleum and apply with a
brush in a warm room. After drying, the goods are mellowed by
exposure to the sun for at least three days.
Tawing. — Wool rugs are, after the preliminary processes,
sometimes tanned in oak bark liquors by paddling, but are
generally " tawed," that is, dressed with alum and salt, and are
therefore more suitably dealt with under that head. Tawing
implies that the conversion of skins into leather is carried out
by means of a mixture of which the more important constituents
are mineral salts, such as alum, chrome and iron, which may or
may not be supplemented with fatty and albuminous matter,
both animal and vegetable.
As an example of alum tawing, calf kid may be taken as
characteristic of the process; glove kid is also treated on similar
lines. The goods are prepared for tawing in a manner similar
to the preparation of tanned leathers, arsenical limes being used
to ensure a fine grain. After being well drenched and washed
the goods are ready for the tawing process. On the continent
of Europe it is usual for the goods to be thrown into a tub with
the tawing paste and trodden with the bare feet, although this old-
fashioned method is gradually being driven out, and the drum
or tumbler is being used.
The tawing paste consists of a mixture of alum, salt, flour, egg
yolk and water; the quantities of each constituent diverge widely,
every dresser having his own recipe. The following has been used,
but cannot well be classed as typical: For 100 ft skin take 9 ft
alum, 5 ft salt, dissolve in water, and mix to a thin paste with
from 5 to 13 ft flour, using 4 to 6 egg yolks for every pound of flour
used. Olive oil is also mixed in sometimes. The skins are drummed
or trodden, at intervals, in the warm paste for some hours, removed,
allowed to drain, and dried rapidly, damped down or " sammied "
and " staked " by drawing them to and fro over a blunt knife fixed
in the top of a post, and known as a knee stake; this process softens
them very considerably. After staking, the goods are wet back and
shaved smooth, either with a moon knife, i.e. a circular concave
convex knife, the centre of which has been cut out, a piece of wood
bridging the cavity forming the grip, or with an ordinary currier's
shaving knife; the skins are now ready for dyeing and finishing.
Wool Rug Dressing. — Wool rugs are first thoroughly soaked,
well washed and clean-fleshed, scoured well by rubbing into the
wool a solution of soft soap and soda, and then leathered by
rubbing into the flesh of the wet skins a mixture consisting of
three parts of alum and two parts of salt until they are practically
dry; they are now piled up over-night, and the mixture is again
applied. After the second or third application the goods should
be quite leathered. Other methods consist of stretching the
skins in frames and painting the flesh with a solution of alum
and salt, or, better, with a solution of basic alum and salt, the
alum being made basic by the gradual addition of soda until
a permanent precipitate is produced.
The goods are now bleached, for even the most vigorous scouring
will not remove the yellow tint of the wool, especially at the tips.
There are several methods of bleaching, viz. by hydrogen peroxide
following up with a weak vitriol bath; by potassium permanganate!
following up with a bath of sulphurous acid; or by fumigating in
an air-tight chamber with burning sulphur. The last-named method
is the more general ; the wet skins are hung in the chamber, an iron
pot containing burning sulphur is introduced, and the exposure is
continued for several hours.
If the goods are to be finished white, they are now given a vitriol
sour, scoured, washed, retanned, dried, and when dry softened" by
working with a moon knife. If they are to be dyed, they must be
prepared for the dye solution by " chloring," which consists of
immersion in a cold solution of bleaching powder for some hours,
and then souring in vitriol.
The next step is dyeing. If basic dyes are to be used, it is neces-
sary to neutralize the acidity of the skins by careful addition of
soda, and to prevent the tips from being dyed a darker colour than
the roots. Glauber salts and acetic acid are added to the dye-bath.
The tendency of basic colours to rub off may be overcome by passing
the goods through a solution of tannin in the form of cutch, sumach,
quebracho, &c.; in fact, some of the darker-coloured materials
may be used as a ground colour, thus economizing dyestuff and
serving two purposes. If acid colours are used, it is necessary to
add sulphuric acid to the dye bath, and in either case colours which
will strike below 50° C. must be used, as at that temperature alum
leather perishes.
After being dyed, the goods are washed up, drained, and if neces-
sary retanned, the glossing finish is then produced by passing them
through a weak emulsion or "fat liquor" of' oil, soap and water,
after which they are dried, softened by working with a moon knife
and beating, when they are combed out, and are ready for the
market.
Blacks are dyed by immersing the goods alternately in solutions
of logwood and iron, or a one-solution method is used, consisting of
a mixture of these two, with, in either case, varying additions of
lactic acid and sumach, copper salts, potassium bichromate, &c. ;
the time of immersion varies from hours to days. After striking,
the goods are exposed to the air for some hours in order to oxidize
to a good black; they are then well scoured, washed, drained,
retanned, dried, softened and combed.
Chrome Tanning. — The first chrome tanning process was
described by Professor Knapp in 1858 in a paper on "Die Natur
und Wesen der Gerberie," but was first brought into commercial
prominence by Dr Heinzerling about 1878, and was worked
in a most persevering way by the Eglinton Chemical Company,
who owned the English patents, though all their efforts failed
to produce any lasting effects. Now chrome tanning is almost
the most important method of light leather dressing, and has
also taken a prominent place in the heavy department, more
especially in curried leathers and cases where greater tensile
itrength is needed. The leather produced is much stronger
than any other leather, and will also stand boiling water, whereas
vegetable-tanned leather is completely destroyed at 70° C. and
alum leather at 50° C.
The theory of chrome tanning is not perfectly understood, but in
general terms it consists of a partial chemical combination between
the hide fibre and the chrome salts, and a partial mechanical de-
position of chromium oxide in and on the fibre. The wet work, or
preparation for tanning, may be taken as much the same as for
any other leather.
,There are two distinct methods of chrome tanning, and several
different methods of making the solutions. The " two bath process "
consists of treating the skins with a bichromate in which the
•hromium is in the acidic state, and afterwards reducing it to the
>asic state by some reducing agent. The exact process is as
pllows: To prevent wrinkled or "drawn" grain the goods are
irst paddled for half an hour in a solution of vitriol and salt, when
they are piled or " horsed " up over night, and then, without washing,
placed in a solution consisting of 7 ft of potassium bichromate,
3J ft of hydrochloric acid to each loo ft of pelts, with sufficient
water to conveniently paddle in; it is recommended that 5% of
salt be added to this mixture. The goods are run in this for about
3 hours, or until struck through, when they are horsed up for some
hours, care being taken to cover them up, and are then ready for
he reducing bath. This consists of a 14% solution of plain " hypo,"
Jr hyposulphite of soda, to which, during the process of reduction,
requent additions of hydrochloric acid are made to free the sul-
phurous and thiosulphuric acids, which are the active reducing
agents. After about 3 hours' immersion, during which time the
goods will have changed in colour from bright yellow to bright
freen, one or two skins are cut in the thickest part, and if the green
has struck right through, the pack is removed as tanned, washed up,
nd allowed to drain.
342
LEATHER
The " single-bath process " consists of paddling, drumming, or
otherwise introducing into the skins a solution of a chrome salt,
usually chrome alum, which is already in the basic condition, and
therefore does not require reducing. The basic solutions are made
as follows: For 100 ft of pelts 9 Ib of chrome alum are dissolved
in 9 gallons of water, and 2j tb of washing soda already dissolved in
I gallon of water are gradually added, with constant stirring. One-
third of the solution is added to 80 gallons of water, to which is
added 7 ft of salt, and the skins are introduced; the other two-
thirds are introduced at intervals in two successive portions. Another
liquor, used in the same way, is made by dissolving 3 ft of potassium
bichromate in hot water, adding 5 gallon strong hydrochloric acid
and then, gradually, about ij ft of glucose or grape sugar; this
redifces the acidic chrome salt, vigorous effervescence ensuing. The
whole is made up to 2 gallons and 5% to 15% of salt is added.
In yet another method a chrome alum solution is rendered basic
by boiling with " hypo," and after the reaction has ceased the
solution is allowed to settle and the clear portion used.
After tanning, which takes from 8 hours to as many, and even
more, days, depending upon the method used and the class of skin
being dressed, the skins tanned by both methods are treated in a
similar manner, and are neutralized by drumming in borax solution,
when they are washed free from borax by drumming in warm
water, and are ready for dyeing, a process which will be dealt with
further on. The goods are sometimes tanned by suspension, but this
method is generally reserved for the tanning of the heavier leathers,
which are treated in much the same way, the several processes taking
longer.
Iron Tannage. — Before leaving mineral tanning, mention may be
made of iron tannage, although this has gained no prominent
position in commerce. Ferric salts possess powerful tanning pro-
perties, and were thoroughly investigated by Professor Knapp,
who took out several patents, but the tendency to produce a brittle
leather has never been entirely overcome, although it has been
greatly modified by the incorporation of organic matter, such as
blood, rosin, paraffin, urine, &c. Knapp's basic tanning liquor is
made as follows: A strong solution of ferrous sulphate is boiled
and then oxidized to the ferric state by the careful addition of
nitric acid. Next, to destroy excess of nitric acid, ferrous sulphate
is added until effervescence ceases and the resulting clear orange-
coloured solution is concentrated to a varnish-like consistency. It
does not crystallize or decompose on concentration. The hides or
skins are prepared for tanning in the usual way, and then handled
or otherwise worked in solutions of the above iron salt, the solutions,
which are at first weak, being gradually strengthened.
The tannage occupies from 2 to 8 days, and the goods are then
stuffed in a ventilated drum with greases, or soap. If the latter is
used, an insoluble iron soap is precipitated on the fibres of the
leather, which may then be finally impregnated with stearin and
paraffin, and finished in the usual manner as described under Curried
Leathers. A very fair leather may also be manufactured by using
iron alum and salt in the same manner as described under ordinary
alum and salt.
Combination Tannages. — Leathers tanned by mixtures or
separate baths of both mineral and vegetable tanning agents
have now taken an important position in commerce. Such
leathers are the Swedish and Danish glove leathers, the United
States " dongola leather," and French glazed kid. The useful-
ness of such a combination will be evident, for while vegetable
tanning produces fullness, plumpness and resistance to water,
the mineral dressing produces a softness unnatural to vegetable
tannages without the use of large quantities of oils and fats.
It may also be noted that once a leather has been thoroughly
tanned with either mineral or vegetable materials, although it
will absorb large quantities of the material which has not been
first used, it will retain in the main the characteristics of the
tannage first applied. The principle had long been used in the
manufacture of such tough and flexible leathers as " green
leather," " combing leather " and " picker bands," but was first
applied to the manufacture of imitation glazed kid by Kent in
America, who, about 1878, discovered the principle of " fatliquor-
ing," and named his product " dongola leather." The discovery
of this process revolutionized the manufacture of combination
leathers.
The Swedish and Danish glove leathers were first given a dressing
of alum and salt, with or without the addition of flour and egg, and
were then finished and coloured with vegetable materials, generally
with willow bark, although, in cases of scarcity, sumach, oak bark,
madder and larch were resorted to. The " green leathers " manu-
factured in England generally receive about a week's tannage in
gambler liquors, and are finished off in hot alum and salt liquors,
after which they are dried, have the crystallized salts slicked off,
are damped back, and heavily stuffed with moellon, degras or sod
oil. Kent, in the manufacture of his dongola leather, used mixed
liquors of gambier alum and salt, and when tanned, washed the
goods in warm water to remove excess of tanning agent, piled up to
samm, and fatliquored. In making alum combinations it must be
borne in mind that alum leather will not glaze, and if a glazed
finish is required, a fairly heavy vegetable tannage should be first
applied. For dull finishes the mineral tannage may advantageously
precede the vegetable.
Very excellent chrome combination leather is also manufactured
by the application of the above principles, gambier always being in
great favour as the vegetable agent. The use of other materials
deprives the leather of its stretch, although they may be advantage-
ously used where the latter property is objectionable.
Oil Tanning. — Under the head of oil tanning is included
" buff leather," " buck leather," " piano leather," " chamois
leather," and to a greater or lesser extent, " Preller's crown or
helvetia leather." The process of oil tanning dates back to
antiquity, and was known as " shamoying," now spelt " chamois-
ing." Chamoising yields an exceedingly tough, strong and durable
leather, and forms an important branch of the leather industry.
The theory of the process is the same as the theory of currying,
which is nothing more or less than chamoising, viz. the lubrica-
tion of the fibres by the oil itself and the aldehyde tanning which
takes place, due to the oxidation and decomposition of the esters
of the fatty acids contained in the oil. The fact that an aldehyde
tannage takes place seems to have been first discovered by Payne
and Pullman, who took out a patent in 1898, covering formalde-
hyde and other aldehydes used in alkaline solutions. Their
product, " Kaspine " leather, found considerable application
in the way of military accoutrements. Chamois, buff, buck and
piano leathers are all manufactured by the same process slightly
modified to suit the class of hide used, the last three being heavy
leathers, the first light.
As regards the process used for chamois leather, the reader will
remember, from the account of the vegetable tannage of sheep
skins, that after splitting from the limes, the fleshes were thrown
back into the pits for another three weeks' liming (six weeks in all)
preparatory to being dressed as chamois leather. It is necessary to
lime the goods for oil dressing very thoroughly, and if the grain
has not been removed by splitting, as in the case of sheep skins,
it is " frized " off with a sharp knife over the beam. The goods are
now rinsed, scudded and drenched, dried out until stiff, and stocked
in the faller stocks with plenty of cod oil for 2 to 3 hours until they
show signs of heating, when they are hung up in a cool shed. This
process is repeated several times during a period of from 4 to 6 days,
the heat driving the water out of the skins and the oil replacing it.
At the end of this time the goods, which will have changed to a
brown colour, are hung up and allowed to become as dry as possible,
when they are hung in a warm stove for some hours, after which
they are piled to heat off, thrown into tepid water and put through
a wringing machine. The grease which is recovered from the
wringing machine is known commercially as " degras " or " moellon,"
and fetches a good price, as it is unrivalled for fatliquoring and
related processes, such as stuffing, producing a very soft product.
They next receive a warm soda lye bath, and are again wrung; this
removes more grease, which forms soap with the lye, and is re-
covered by treatment with vitriol, which decomposes the soap.
The grease which floats on top of the liquor is sold under the name
of " sod oil." This also is a valuable material for fatliquoring, &c.t
but not so good as degras.
After being wrung out, the goods are bleached by one of the
processes mentioned in the section on wool rug dressing, the per-
manganate method being in general use in England. In countries
where a fine climate prevails the soap bleach or " sun bleach " is
adopted; this consists of dipping the goods in soap solution and
exposing them to the sun's rays, the process being repeated three
or more times as necessary.
The next step is fatliquoring to induce softness, after which they
are dried out slowly, staked or " perched " with a moon knife,
fluffed on a revolving wheel covered with fine emery to produce the
fine " nap " or surface, brushed over with french chalk, fuller's earth
or china clay, and finally finished on a very fine emery wheel.
Preller's Helvetia or Crown Leather. — This process of leather
manufacture was discovered in 1850 by Theodor Klemm, a
cabinetmaker of Wiirttemberg, who being then in poor circum-
stances, sold his patent to an Englishman named Preller,
who manufactured it in Southwark, and adopted a crown as
his trade mark. Hence the name " crown " leather. The
manufacture then spread through Switzerland and Germany,
the product being used in the main for picker straps, belting
and purposes where waterproof goods were required, such as
hose pipes and military water bags. No taste is imparted to
the water by this leather.
LEATHER
343
The process of manufacture is as follows: The hides are unhaired
by short liming, painting with lime and sulphide, or sweating, and
cleansed by scudding and washing, after which they are coloured
in bark liquors, washed up through clean water, and hung up to
dry partially. When in a sammied condition the goods are placed
on a table and a thick layer of the tanning paste spread on the
flesh side. The tanning paste yaries with each manufacturer, but
the following is the mixture originally used by Preller: 100 parts
flour, 100 parts soft fat or horse tallow, 35 parts butter, 88 parts
ox brains, 50 parts milk, 15 parts salt or saltpetre.
The hides are now rolled in bundles, placed in a warm drum and
worked for 8 to 10 hours, after which they are removed and hung
up until half dry, when the process is repeated. Thus they are
tumbled 3 to 4 times, set out flesh and grain, rinsed through tepid
water, set out, sammied, and curried by coating with glycerin, oil,
tallow and degras. The table grease is now slicked off, and the
goods are set out in grease, grained and dried.
Transparent Leather. — Transparent leather is a rather horny
product, somewhat like raw hide, and has been used for stitching
belts and picker bands. The goods to be dressed are limed, un-
haired, very thoroughly delimed with acids, washed in water, scudded
and clean-fleshed right to the veins; they are now stretched in
frames, clean-fleshed with a moon knife, and brushed with warm
water, when several coats of glycerin, to which has been added
some antiseptic such as salicylic or picric acid, are applied; the
goods are then dried out, and another coat is applied, and when
semi-dry they are drummed in a mixture of glycerin, boracic acid,
alum and salt, with the addition of a little bichromate of potash to
stain them a yellow colour. After drumming for 2 to 3 hours
they are removed, washed up, lightly set out, and stretched in
frames to dry, when they are ready for cutting into convenient
lengths for use.
Parchment. — A certain class of sheep skin known as Hampshires
is generally used in the manufacture of this speciality. The skins
as received are first very carefully washed to remove all dirt, de-
wooled, limed for 3 to 4 weeks, they are then cleanly fleshed, un-
haired, rinsed up in water, and thickly split, the poorer hides being
ultilized for chamois; they are now re-split at the fatty strata so
that all fat may be easily removed, and while the grains are dressed
as skivers, the fleshes are tied in frames, watered with hot water,
scraped and coated on both sides with a cream consisting of whiting,
soda and water, after which they are dried out in a hot stove. In
the drying the whiting mixture absorbs the grease from the skins;
in fact, this method of degreasing is often employed in the manufac-
ture of wool rugs. When dry, both sides of the skins are flooded to
remove the whiting, and are then well rubbed over with a flat piece
of pumice-stone, swilled, dried, re-pumiced, again swilled, and
when sammied are rolled off with a wooden roller and dried out.
Tar and Peat Tanning. — Tar tanning was discovered by a French
chemist named Philippi, who started with the idea that, if coal was
a decomposition product of forests, it must still necessarily possess
the tanning properties originally present in the trees. However
far-fetched such an argument may seem, Philippi succeeded in pro-
ducing a leather from wood and coal tar at a fairly cheap rate, the
product being of excellent texture and strength, but rather below
the average in the finish, which was inclined to be patchy, showing
oily spots. His method consisted of impregnating the goods with
refined tar and some organic acid, but the product does not seem to
have taken any hold upon the market, and is not much heard of now.
Peat tanning was discovered by Payne, an English chemist, who
was also the co-discoverer of the Payne-Pullman formaldehyde tan-
ning process. His peat or humic acid tannage was patented by him
about 1905, and is now worked on a commercial scale. The humic
acid is first extracted from the peat by means of alkalis, and the
hides are treated with this solution, the humic acid being after-
wards precipitated in the hides by treatment with some stronger
organic or mineral acid.
Dyeing, Staining and Finishing. — These operations are
practised almost exclusively on the lighter leathers. Heavy
leathers, except coloured and black harness and split hides for
bag work, are not often dyed, and their finishing is generally
considered to be part of the tannage. In light leathers a great
business is done in buying up " crust " stock, i.e. rough tanned
stock, and then dyeing and finishing to suit the needs and
demands of the various markets. The carrying out of these
operations is a distinct and separate business from tanning,
although where possible the two businesses are carried on in the
same works.
Whatever the goods are and whatever their ultimate finish,
the first operation, upon receipt by the dyer of the crust stock,
is sorting, an operation requiring much skill. The sorter must
be familiar with the why and wherefore of all subsequent processes
through which the leather must go, so as to judge of the suitability
of the various qualities of leather for these processes, and to
know where any flaws that may exist will be sufficiently sup-
pressed or hidden to produce a saleable product, or will be rendered
entirely unnoticeable. The points to be considered in the sorting
are coarseness or fineness of texture, boldness or fineness of grain,
colour, flaws including stains and scratches, substance, &c.
Light-coloured and flawless goods are parcelled out for fine and
delicate shades, those of darker hue and few flaws are parcelled
out for the darker shades, such as maroons, greens (sage and
olive), dark blues, &c., and those which are so badly stained as to
be unsuitable for colours go for blacks. After sorting, the goods
are soaked back to a limp condition by immersion in warm
water, and are then horsed up to drip, having been given, perhaps,
a preliminary slicking out.
Up to this point all goods are treated alike, but the subsequent
processes now diverge according to the class of leather being
treated and the finish required.
Persian goods for glaces, moroccos, &c., require special pre-
paration for dyeing, being first re-tanned. As received, they are
sorted and soaked as above, piled to samm, and shaved. Shaving
consists of rendering the flesh side of the skins smooth by shaving
off irregularities, the skin, which is supported on a rubber roller
actuated by a foot lever, being pressed against a series of spiral
blades set on a steel roller, which is caused to revolve rapidly.
When shaved, the goods are stripped, washed up, soured,
sweetened and re-tanned in sumach, washed up, and slicked out,
and are then ready for dyeing.
There are three distinct methods of dyeing, with several minor
modifications. Tray dyeing consists of immersing the goods,
from 2 to 4 dozen at a time, in two separate piles, in the dye
solution at 60° C., contained in a flat wooden tray about
5 ft.X4 ft.Xi ft., and keeping them constantly moving by
continually turning them from one pile to the other. The
disadvantages of this method are that the bath rapidly cools,
thus dyeing rapidly at the beginning and slowly at the termination
of the operation; hence a large excess of dye is wasted, much
labour is required, and the shades obtained are not so level as
those obtained by the other methods. But the goods are under
observation the whole time, a very distinct advantage when
matching shades, and a white flesh may be preserved. The
paddle method of dyeing consists of paddling the goods in a large
volume of liquor contained in a semi-circular wooden paddle
for from half to three-quarters of an hour. The disadvantages
are that the liquor cools fairly rapidly, more dye is wasted than
in the tray method, and a white flesh cannot be preserved.
But larger packs can be dyed at the one operation, the goods are
under observation the whole time, and little labour is required.
The drum method of dyeing is perhaps best, a drum somewhat
similar to that used by curriers being preferable. The goods
are placed on the shelves inside the dry drum, the lid of which
is then fastened on, and the machinery is started; when the
drum is revolving at full speed, which should be about 12 to
15 revolutions per minute, the dye solution is added through
the hollow axle, and the dyeing continued for half an hour,
when, without stopping the drum, if desired, the goods may be
fatliquored by running in the fatliquor through the hollow axle.
The disadvantages are that the flesh is dyed and the goods cannot
be seen. The advantages are that little labour is required, a
large pack of skins may be treated, level shades are produced,
heat is retained, almost complete exhaustion of the dye-bath
is effected, and subsequent processes, such as fatliquoring,
may be carried out without stopping the drum.
Of the great number of £oal-tar dyes on the market comparatively
few can be used in leather manufacture. The four chief classes are:
(i) acid dyes; (2) basic or tannin dyes; (3) direct or cotton dyes;
(4) mordant (alizarine) dyes.
Acid dyes are not so termed because they have acid characteristics ;
the name simply denotes that for the development of the full shade
of colour it is necessary to add acid to the dye-bath. These dyes
are generally sodium salts of sulphonic acids, and need the addition
of an acid to free the dye, which is the sulphonic acid Although
theoretically any acid (stronger than the sulphonic acid present)
will do for this purpose, it is found in practice that only sulphuric
and formic acids may be employed, because others, such as acetic,
lactic, &c., do not develop the full shade of colour. Acid sodium
sulphate may also be successfully used.
344
LEATHER
Acid colours produce a full level shade without bronzing, and do
not accentuate any defects in the leather, such as bad grain, &c.
They are also moderately fast to light and rubbing. They are
generally applied to leather at a temperature between 50° and 60° C.,
with an equal weight of sulphuric acid. The quantity of dye used
varies, but generally, for goat, persians, &c., from 25 to 30 oz. are
used per ten dozen skins, and for calf half as much again, dissolved
in such an amount of water as is most convenient according to the
method being used. If sodium bisulphate is substituted for) sulphuric
acid twice as much must be used, and if formic acid three times as
much (by weight).
Basic dyes are salts of organic colour bases with hydrochloric or
some other suitable acid. Basic colours precipitate the tannins, and
thus, because of their affinity for them, dye very rapidly, tending to
produce uneven shades, especially if the tannin on the skin is un-
evenly distributed. They are much more intense in colour than
the acid dyes, have a strong tendency to bronze, and accentuate
weak and defective grain. They are also precipitated by hard
waters, so that the hardness should be first neutralized by the
addition of acetic acid, else the precipitated colour lake may produce
streakily dyed leather. To prevent rapid dyeing, acetic acid or
sodium bisulphate should always be added in small quantity to the
dye-bath, preferably the latter, as it prevents bronzing. The most
important point about the application of basic dyes to leather is
the previous fixation of the tannin on the surface of the leather to
prevent its bleeding into the dye-bath and precipitating the dye.
All soluble salts of the heavy metals will fix the tannin, but few
are applicable, as they form colour lakes, which are generally un-
desirable. Antimony and titanium salts are generally used, the
forms being tartar emetic (antimony potassium tartrate), antimonine
(antimony lactate), potassium titanium oxalate, and titanium
lactate. The titanium salts are economically used when dyeing
browns, as they produce a yellowish-brown shade; it is therefore
not necessary to use so much dye. About 2 oz. of tartar emetic and
8 oz. of salt is a convenient quantity for I dozen goat skins. The
bath is used at 30° to 40" C., and the goods are immersed for about
15 minutes, having been thoroughly washed before being dyed.
Iron salts are sometimes used by leather-stainers for saddening
(dulling) the shade of colour produced, iron tannate, a black salt,
being formed. It is often found economical to " bottom " goods
with acid, direct, or other colours, and then finish with basic colours;
this procedure forms a colour lake, and colour lakes are always faster
to light and rubbing than the colours themselves.
Direct cotton dyes produce shades of great delicacy, and are
used for the dyeing of pale and " art " shades. They are applied
in neutral or very slightly acid baths, formic and acetic acids being
most suitable with the addition of a quantity of sodium chloride or
sulphate. After dyeing, the goods are well washed to free from
excess of salt. The cosine colours, including erythrosine, phloxine,
rose Bengal, &c., are applied in a similar manner, and are specially
used for the beautiful fluorescent pink shades they produce; acid
and basic colours and mineral acids precipitate them.
The mordant colours, which include the alizarine and anthracene
colours, are extremely fast to light, and require a mordant to develop
the colour. They are specially applicable to chamois leather, al-
though a few may be used for chrome and alum leathers, and one
or two are successfully applied to vegetable-tanned leather without
a mordant.
Sulphur or sulphide colours, the first of which to appear were
the famous Vidal colours, are applied in sodium sulphide solution,
and are most successfully used on chrome leather, as they produce
a colour lake with chrome salts, the resulting colour being very fast
to light and rubbing. A very serious disadvantage in connexion
with them is that they must necessarily be applied in alkaline
solution, and the alkali has a disintegrating effect upon the fibre
of the leather, which cannot be satisfactorily overcome, although
formaldehyde and glycerin mixtures have been patented for the
purpose.
The Janus colours are perhaps worth mentioning as possessing
both acid and basic characteristics; they precipitate tannin, and
are best regarded as basic dyes from a leather-dyer's standpoint.
The goods after dyeing are washed up, slicked out on an
inclined glass table, nailed on boards, or hung up by the hind
shanks to dry out.
Coal-tar dyes are not much used for the production of blacks,
as they do not give such a satisfactory result as logwood with
an iron mordant. In the dyeing of blacks the preliminary
operation of souring is always omitted and that of sumaching
sometimes, but if much tan has been removed it will be found
necessary to use sumach, although cutch may be advantageously
and cheaply substituted. After shaving, the goods, if to be
dressed for " blue backs " (blue-coloured flesh), are dyed as
already described, with methyl violet or some other suitable
dye; they are then folded down the back and drawn through
a hot solution of logwood and fustic extracts, and then rapidly
through a weak, cold iron sulphate and copper acetate solution.
Immediately afterwards they are rinsed up and either drummed
in a little neatsfoot oil or oiled over with a pad, flesh and grain,
and dried. When dry the goods are damped back and staked,
dried out and re-staked.
After dry-staking, the goods are " seasoned," i.e. some suitable
mixture is applied to the grain to enable it to take the glaze.
The following is typical: 3 quarts logwood liquor, j pint
bullock's blood, £ pint milk, 3 gill ammonia, ^ gill orchil
and 3 quarts water. This season is brushed well into the grain,
and the goods are dried in a warm stove and glazed by machine.
The skins are glazed under considerable pressure, a polished
glass slab or roller being forced over the surface of the leather
in a series of rapid strokes, after which the goods are re-seasoned,
re-staked, fluffed, re-glazed, oiled over with a pad, dipped in
linseed oil and dried. They are now ready for market. If the
goods are to be finished dull they are seasoned with linseed
mucilage, casein or milk (many other materials are also used),
and rolled, glassed with a polished slab by hand, or ironed with
a warm iron.
Coloured glaces are finished in a similar manner to black
glaces, dye (instead of logwood and iron) being added to the
season, which usually consists of a simple mixture of dye,
albumen and milk.
Moroccos and grain leathers are boarded on the flesh side before
and after glazing, often being " tooth rolled " between the
several operations. Tooth rolling consists of forcing, under
pressure, a toothed roller over the grain; this cuts into the leather
and helps to produce many grains, which could not be produced
naturally by boarding, besides fixing them.
Many artificial grains and patterns are also given to leather
by printing and embossing, these processes being carried out by
passing the leather between two rollers, the top one upon which
the pattern is engraved being generally steam heated. This
impresses the pattern upon the grain of the leather.
The above methods will give a very general idea of the processes
in vogue for the dressing of goods for fancy work. The dressing
of chrome leathers for uppers is different in important particulars.
Chrome Box and Willow Calf. — Willow calf is coloured calf, box
calf is dressed black and grained with a " box " grain. A large
quantity of kips is now dressed as box calf; these goods are the
hides of yearling Indian cattle, and are dressed in an exactly similar
manner as calf. After tanning and boraxing to neutralize the
acidity of the chrome liquor, the goods are washed up, sammied,
shaved, and are ready for mordanting previous to dyeing. Very
few dyes will dye chrome leather direct, i.e. without mordanting.
Sulphide colours are not yet in great demand, nor are the alizarines
used as much as they might be. The ordinary acid and basic dyes
are more generally employed, and the goods consequently require
to be first mordanted. The mordanting is carried out by drumming
the goods in a solution containing tannin, and, except for pale
shades, some dyewood extract is used; for reds peachwood extract,
for browns fustic or gambier, and for dark browns a little logwood
is added. For all pale shades sumach is exclusively used. After
drumming in the warm tannin infusion for half an hour, if the goods
are to be dyed with basic colours the tannin is first fixed by drumming
in tartar emetic and salt, or titanium, as previously described; the
dyeing is also carried out as described for persians, except that a
slightly higher temperature may be maintained. If the goods are
to be dyed black they are passed through logwood and iron solutions.
After dyeing and washing up, &c., the goods are fatliquored by
placing them in a previously heated drum and drumming them
with a mixture known as a " fatliquor," of which the following
recipe is typical: Dissolve 3 Ib of soft soap by boiling with 3
gallons of water, then add 9 Ib of neatsfoot oil and boil for some
minutes; now place the mixture in an emulsifier and emulsify
until cooled to 35° C., then add the yolks of 5 fresh eggs and emulsify
fora further half hour. The fatliquor is added to the drum at 55° C.,
and the goods are drummed for half an hour, when all the fatliquor
should be absorbed; they are then slicked out and dried. After
drying, they are damped back, staked, dried, re-staked and seasoned
with materials similar to those used for persians; when dry they
are glazed, boarded on the flesh (" grained ") from neck to butt
and belly to belly to give them the box grain, fluffed, reseasoned,
reglazed and rcgrained.
Finishing of Bag Hides.— The goods are first soaked back, piled
to samm, split or shaved, scoured by machine, finished off by hand,
washed up and retanned by drumming in warm sumach and ex-
tract, after which they are washed up, struck out, hung up to
samm, and " set." " Setting " consists of laying the grain flat and
smooth by striking out with a steel or sharp brass slicker. They
are then dried out, topped with linseed mucilage, and again dried.
LEATHER— LEAVENWORTH
345
This brushing over with linseed mucilage prevents the dye from
sinking too far into the leather; gelatine, Irish moss, starch and
gums are also used for the same purpose. These materials are also
added to the staining solution to thicken it and further prevent its
sinking in.
When dry, the goods are stained by applying a J% (usually)
solution of a suitable basic dye, thickened with linseed, with a brush.
Two men are usually employed on this work; one starts at the
right-hand flank and the other at the left-hand shank, and they
work towards each other, staining in sections; much skill is needed
to obviate markings where the sections overlap. The goods may
advantageously be bottomed with an acid dye or a dye-wood extract,
and then finished with basic dyes. Whichever method is used,
two to three coats are given, drying between each. After the last
coat of stain, and while the goods are still in a sammied condition,
a mixture of linseed mucilage and French chalk is applied to the
flesh and glassed off wet, to give it a white appearance, and then
the goods are printed with any of the usual bag grains by machine
or hand, and dried out. For a bright finish the season may consist
of a solution of 15 parts carnauba wax, 10 parts curd soap and
100 parts water boiled together; this is sponged into the grain,
dried and the hides are finished by either glassing or brushing. For
a duller finish the grain is simply rubbed over with buck tallow
and brushed. Hide bellies for small work are treated in much the
same manner.
Glove Leathery. — As these goods were tanned in alum, salt, flour
and egg, any undue immersion in water removes the tannage; for
this reason they are generally stained like bag hides, one man only
being employed on the same skin. The skins are first thoroughly
soaked in warm water and then drummed for some minutes in a
fresh supply, when they are re-egged to replace that which has been
lost. This is best done by drumming them for about i| hours in
40 to 50 egg yolks and 5 Ib of salt for every hundred skins; they
are then allowed to be in pile for 24 hours, and are set out on the
table ready for mordanting. The mordants universally used are
ammonia or alkaline soft soap; I in 1000 of the former or a I %
solution of the latter. When the goods have partially dried in,
bottoming follows, and usually the natural wood dyestuffs are used
for this operation, such as fustic, Brazil wood, peachwood, logwood
and turmeric. After application of these colours the goods are
sammied and topped with a I % solution of an acid dye, to which
has been added 20% of methylated spirit to prevent frothing with
the egg yolk; they are then dried out slowly, staked, pulled in
shape, fluffed and brushed by machine. The season, which is
sponged on, may consist of I part dye, I part albumen, 2 parts
dextrine and j part glycerine, made up to 100 parts with water;
when it has been applied, the goods are sammied, brushed and
ironed with a warm flat iron such as is used in laundry work.
Bookbinding Leathers. — A committee of the Society of Arts
(London) has investigated the question of leather for bookbinding,
attention having been drawn to this subject by the rotten and
decayed condition often observed in bindings less than fifty years
old. This committee engaged in research work extending over
several years, and the report in which its results were given was
edited for the Society of Arts and the Leathersellers' Company
(which also did much important work in connexion with it) by Lord
Cobham, chairman of the committee, and Sir Henry Trueman
Wood, secretary of the society. The essence of the report, so far as
leather manufacture is concerned, is as follows: The goods should
be soaked and limed in fresh liquors, and bating and puering should
be avoided, weak organic acids or erodine being used ; they should
also be tanned with pyrogallol tanning materials, and preferably
with sumach. In shaving, they should only be necked and backed,
i.e. only irregularities should be removed, as further shaving has a
considerable weakening effect on the fibre. The striking out should
not be heavy enough to lay the fibre. In dyeing, acid dyes and a
few direct colours only are permissible, and in connexion with the
former the use of sulphuric acid is strongly condemned, as it ab-
solutely disintegrates the fibre; the use of formic, acetic and lactic
acids is permitted. The use of salts of mineral acids is to be avoided,
and in finishing, tight setting out and damp glazing is not to be
recommended ; oil may be advantageously used.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — H. G. Bennett, The Manufacture of Leather
(1909); S. R. Trotman, Leather Trades Chemistry (1908); M. C.
Lamb, Leather Dressing (1907); A. Watt, Leather Manufacture
(1906); H. R. Procter, Principles of Leather Manufacture (1903),
and LealJier Industries Laboratory Book (1908); L. A. Flemming,
Practical Tanning (1910); A. M. Villon, Practical Treatise on the
Leather Industry^ (1901); C. T. Davis, Manufacture of Leather (1897).
German works include J. Borgman, Die Rotlederfabrikation (Berlin,
1904-1905), and Feinlederfabrikation (1901); J. Jettmar, Handbuch
der Chromgerbung (Leipzig, 1900); J. von Schroeder, Gerberei-
chemie (Berlin, 1898). (J. G. P.*)
LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL. Under the name of artificial
leather, or of American leather cloth, large quantities of a
material having, more or less, a leather-like surface are used,
principally for upholstery purposes, such as the covering of
chairs, lining the tops of writing desks and tables, &c. There
is considerable diversity in the preparation of such materials.
A common variety consists of a web of calico coated with boiled
linseed oil mixed with dryers and lamp-black or other pigment.
Several coats of this mixture are uniformly spread, smoothed
and compressed on the cotton surface by passing it between
metal rollers, and when the surface is required to possess a
glossy enamel-like appearance, it receives a finishing coat of
copal varnish. A grained morocco surface is given to the material
by passing it between suitably embossed rollers. Preparations
of this kind have a close affinity to cloth waterproofed with
indiarubber, and to such manufactures as ordinary waxcloth.
An artificial leather which has been patented and proposed
for use as soles for boots, &c., is composed of powdered scraps
and cuttings of leather mixed with solution of guttapercha dried
and compressed. In place of the guttapercha solution, oxidized
linseed oil or dissolved resin may be used as the binding medium
for the leather powder.
LEATHERHEAD, an urban district in the Epsom parliamentary
division of Surrey, England, 18 m. S.S.W. of London, on the
London, Brighton & South Coast and the London & South-
western railways. Pop. (1901) 4694. It lies at the foot of the
North Downs in the pleasant valley of the river Mole. The
church of St Mary and St Nicholas dates from the i4th century.
St John's Foundation School, opened in London in 1852, is
devoted to the education of sons of poor clergymen. Leatherhead
has brick-making and brewing industries, and the district is
largely residential.
LEATHES, STANLEY (1830-1900), English divine and
Orientalist, was born at Ellesborough, Bucks, on the 2ist of
March 1830, and was educated at Jesus College, Cambridge,
where he graduated B.A. in 1852, M.A. 1853. In 1853 he was
the first Tyrwhitt's Hebrew scholar. He was ordained priest
in 1 85 7, and after serving several curacies was appointed professor
of Hebrew at King's College, London, in 1863. In 1868-1870 he
was Boyle lecturer (The Witness of the Old Testament to Christ),
in 1873 Hulsean lecturer (The Gospel its Own Witness), in 1874
Bampton Lecturer (The Religion of the Christ) and from 1876
to 1880 Warburtonian lecturer. He was a member of the Old
Testament revision committee from 1870 to 1885. In 1876 he
was elected prebendary of St Paul's Cathedral, and he was rector
of Cliffe-at-Hoo near Gravesend (1880-1889) and of Much
Hadham, Hertfordshire (1880-1900). The university of Edin-
burgh gave him the honorary degree of D.D. in 1878, and his
own college made him an honorary fellow in 1885. Besides the
lectures noted he published Studies in Genesis (1880), The
Foundations of Morality (1882) and some volumes of sermons.
He died in May 1900.
His son, Stanley Mordaunt Leathes (b. 1861), became a
fellow of Trinity, Cambridge, and lecturer on history, and was
one of the editors of the Cambridge Modern History; he was
secretary to the Civil Service Commission from 1903 to 1907,
when he was appointed a Civil Service Commissioner.
LEAVEN (in Mid. Eng. levain, adapted from Fr. levain, in
same sense, from Lat. levamen, which is only found in the sense
of alleviation, comfort, levare, to lift up), a substance which
produces fermentation, particularly in the making of bread,
properly a portion of already fermented dough added to other
dough for this purpose (see BREAD). The word is used figura-
tively of any element, influence or agency which effects a subtle
or secret change. These figurative usages are mainly due to
the comparison of the kingdom of Heaven to leaven in Matt. xiii.
33, and to the warning against the leaven of the Pharisees in
Matt. xvi. 6. In the first example the word is used of a good
nfluence, but the more usual significance is that of an evil agency.
There was among the Hebrews an association of the idea of
fermentation and corruption, which may have been one source
of the prohibition of the use of leavened bread in sacrificial
offerings. For the usage of unleavened bread at the feasts of the
Passover and of Mass&th, and the connexion of the two, see
PASSOVER.
LEAVENWORTH, a city and the county-seat of Leavenworth
county, Kansas, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Missouri river.
346
LEBANON
Pop. (1900) 20,735, of whom 3402 were foreign-born and 2925
were negroes; (1910 census) 19,363. It is one of the most
important railway centres west of the Missouri river, being
served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chicago, Bur-
lington & Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the
Chicago Great Western, the Missouri Pacific, the Union Pacific
and the Leavenworth & Topeka railways. The city is laid out
regularly in the bottom-lands of the river, and its streets are
named after Indian tribes. Rolling hills surround it on three
sides. The city has many handsome public buildings, and contains
the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, Leavenworth being
the see of a Roman Catholic bishop. The public institutions
include the Kansas State Protective Home (1889) for negroes,
an Old Ladies' Rest (1892), St Vincent's Orphans' Asylum (1886,
open to all sects) and a Guardian Angels' Home (1889), for
negroes — all private charities aided by the state; also St John's
Hospital (1879), Gushing Hospital (1893) and Leavenworth
Hospital (1900), which are training schools for nurses. There
is also a branch of the National Home for Disabled Volunteer
Soldiers. In the suburbs there are state and United States
penitentiaries. Leavenworth is a trading centre and has various
manufactures, the most important being foundry and machine
shop and flouring and grist-mill products, and furniture. The
city's factory products increased in value from $3,251,460 in
1900 to $4,151,767 in 1905, or 27-7%. There are valuable coal
mines in Leavenworth and the immediate vicinity. About
3 m. N. of the city, on a reservation of about 6000 acres, is Fort
Leavenworth, an important United States military post,
associated with which are a National Cemetery and Service
Schools of the U.S. Army (founded in 1881 as the U.S. Infantry
and Cavalry School and in 1901 developed into a General Service
and Staff College). In 1907 there were three general divisions
of these schools: the Army School of the Line, for officers (not
below the grade of captain) of the regular army and for militia
officers recommended by the governors of their respective states
or territories, offering courses in military art, engineering, law
and languages; the Army Signal School, also open to regular
and militia officers, and having departments of field signalling,
signal engineering, topography and languages; and the Army
Staff College, in which the students are the highest graduates
from the Army School of the Line, and the courses of instruction
are included in the departments of military art, engineering, law,
languages and care of troops. The course is one year in each
school. At Fort Leavenworth there is a colossal bronze statue
of General U. S. Grant erected in 1889. A military prison was
established at Fort Leavenworth in 1875; it was used as a civil
prison from 1895 to 1906, when it was re-established as a military
prison. Its inmates were formerly taught various trades, but
owing to the opposition of labour organizations this system was
discontinued, and the prisoners are now employed in work on
the military reservation.
The fort, from which the city took its name, was built in 1827,
in the Indian country, by Colonel Henry Leavenworth (1783-1834)
of the 3rd Infantry, for the protection of traders plying between
the Missouri river and Sante F6. The town site was claimed by
Missourians from Weston in June 1854, Leavenworth thus being
the oldest permanent settlement in Kansas; and during the contest
in Kansas between the anti-slavery and pro-slavery settlers, it was
known as a pro-slavery town. It was first incorporated by the
Territorial legislature in 1855; a new charter was obtained in 1881 ;
and in 1908 the city adopted the commission plan of government.
On the 3rd of April 1858 a free-state convention adopted the Leaven-
worth Constitution here; this constitution, which was as radically
anti-slavery as the Lecompton Constitution was pro-slavery, was
nominally approved by popular vote in May 1858, and was later
submitted to Congress, but never came into effect. During the Civil
War Leavenworth enjoyed great prosperity, at the expense of
more inland towns, partly owing to the proximity of the fort, which
gave it immunity from border raids from Missouri and was an
important depflt of supplies and a place for mustering troops into
and out of the service. Leavenworth was, in Territorial days and
until after 1880, the largest and most thriving commercial city of
the state, and rivalled Kansas City, Missouri, which, however, finally
got the better of it in the struggle for railway facilities.
LEBANON (from Semitic laban, " to be white," or " whitish,"
probably referring not to snow, but to the bare white walls of
chalk or limestone which form the characteristic feature of the
whole range), in its widest sense is the central mountain mass of
Syria, extending for about 100 m. from N.N.E. to S.S.W. It is
bounded W. by the sea, N. by the plain Jun Akkar, beyond
which rise the mountains of the Ansarieh, and E. by the inland
plateau of Syria, mainly steppe-land. To the south Lebanon
ends about the point where the river Litany bends westward,
and at Banias. A valley narrowing towards its southern end,
and now called the Buka'a, divides the mountainous mass into
two great parts. That lying to the west is still called Jebel
Libnan; the greater part of the eastern mass now bears the name
of the Eastern Mountain (Jebel el-Sharki). In Greek the western
range was called Libanos, the eastern Antilibanos. The southern
extension of the latter, Mount Hermon (q.v.), may in many
respects be treated as a separate mountain.
Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon have many features in common ;
in both the southern portion is less arid and barren than the
northern, the western valleys better wooded and more fertile
than the eastern. In general the main elevations of the two
ranges form pairs lying opposite one another; the forms of both
ranges are monotonous, but the colouring is splendid, especially
when viewed from a distance; when seen close at hand only a
few valleys with perennial streams offer pictures of landscape
beauty, their rich green contrasting pleasantly with the bare
brown and yellow mountain sides. The finest scenery is found
in N. Lebanon, in the Maronite districts of Kesrawan and
Bsherreh, where the gorges are veritable canyons, and the villages
are often very picturesquely situated. The south of the chain
is more open and undulating. Anti-Lebanon is the barest and
most inhospitable part of the system.
The district west of Lebanon, averaging about 2O m. in breadth,
slopes in an intricate series of plateaus and terraces to the Medi-
terranean. The coast is for the most part abrupt and rocky, often
leaving room for only a narrow path along the shore, and when
viewed from the sea it does not suggest the extent of country lying
between its cliffs and the lofty summits behind. Most of the moun-
tain spurs run from east to west, but in northern Lebanon the pre-
vailing direction of the valleys is north-westerly, and in the south
some ridges run parallel with the principal chain. The valleys have
for the most part been deeply excavated by mountain streams;
the apparently inaccessible heights are crowned by numerous villages,
castles or cloisters embosomed among trees. The chief perennial
streams, beginning from the north, are the Nahr Akkar, N. Arka,
N. el-Barid, N. Kadisha, " the holy river " (the valley of which
begins in the immediate neighbourhood of the highest summits,
and rapidly descends in a series of great bends till the river reaches
the sea at Tripoli), Wadi el-Joz (falling into the sea at Batrun),
Wadi Fidar, Nahr Ibrahim (the ancient Adonis, having its source
in a recess of the great mountain amphitheatre where the famous
sanctuary Apheca, the modern Afka, lay), Nahr el-Kelb (the ancient
Lycus), Nahr Beirut (the ancient Magoras, entering the sea at
Beirut), Nahr Damur (ancient Tamyras), Nahr el-'Auwali (the ancient
Bostrenus, which in the upper part of its course is joined by the
Nahr el-Baruk). The 'Auwali and the Nahr el-Zaherani, the only
other considerable streams before we reach the Litany, flow north-
east to south-west, in consequence of the interposition of a ridge
subordinate and parallel to the central chain. On the north, where the
mountain bears the special name of Jebel Akkar, the main ridge
of. Lebanon rises gradually from the plain. A number of valleys run
to the north and north-east, among them that of the Nahr el-Kebir,
the Eleutherus of the ancients, which rises in the Jebel el-Abiag" on
the eastern slope of Lebanon, and afterwards, skirting the district,
flows westward to the sea. South of Jebel el-Abiad, beneath the
main ridge, which as a rule falls away suddenly towards the east,
occur several small elevated terraces having a southward slope;
among these are the Wadi en-Nusur (" vale of eagles "), and the basin
of the lake Yammuna, with its intermittent spring Neb 'a el-Arba'in.
Of the streams which descend into the Buka'a, the Berdani rises in
Jebel Sunnin, and enters the plain by a deep and picturesque moun-
tain cleft at Zaljleh.
The most elevated summits occur in the north, but even these
are of very gentle gradient. The " Cedar block " consists of a double
line of four and three summits respectively, ranged from north to
south, with a deviation of about 35°. Those to the east are 'Uyun
Urghush, Makmal, Muskiyya (or Naba' esh-Shemaila) and Ras
Zahr el-Kazib; fronting the sea are Karn Sauda or Timarun,
Fumm el-Mizab and Zahr el-Kandil. The height of Zahr el-Kazib,
by barometric measurement, is 10,018 ft.; that of the others does
not reach 10,000 ft. South from them is the pass (8351 ft.) which
leads from Baalbek to Tripoli; the great mountain amphitheatre
on the west side of its summit is remarkable. Farther south is a
second group of lofty summits — the snow-capped Sunnin. visible
LEBANON
347
from Beirut; its height is 8482 ft. Between this group and the
more southerly Jebel Keniseh (about 6700 ft.) lies the pass (4700 ft.)
traversed by the French post road between Beirut and Damascus.
Among the Dare summits still farther south are the long ridge of
Jebel el-Baruk (about 7000 ft.), the Jebel Niha, with the Tau'amat
Niha (about 6100 ft.) near which is a pass to Sidon, and the Jebel
Rihan (about 5400 ft.).
The Buka'a the broad valley which separates Lebanon from
Anti-Lebanon is watered by two rivers having their watershed near
Baalbek, at an elevation of about 3600 ft., and separated only by
a short mile at their sources. That flowing northwards, El-'Asi, is
the ancient Orontes (</.i>.) ; the other is the Litany. In the lower part
of its course the lacter has scooped out a deep and narrow rocky
bed; at Burghuz it is spanned by a great natural bridge. Not far
from the point where it suddenly trends to the west lie, immediately
above the romantic valley, at an elevation of 1500 ft., the imposing
ruins of the old castle Kal'at esh-Shakif, near one of the passes to
Sidon. In its lower part the Litany bears the name of Nahr el-
Kasimiya. Neither the Orontes nor the Litany has any important
affluent.
-The Buka'a used to be known as Coelesyria (Strabo. xvi. 2, 21);
but that word as employed by the ancients had a much more ex-
tensive application. At present its full name is Buka'a el-'Aziz
(the dear Buka'a), and its northern portion is known as Sahlet
Ba'albek (the plain of Baalbek). The valley is from 4 to 6 m.
broad, with an undulating surface.
The Anti-Lebanon chain has been less fully explored than that
of Lebanon. Apart from its southern offshoots it is 67 m. long,
while its width varies from 16 to 13! m. It rises from the plain of
Hasya-Homs, and in its northern portion is very arid. The range
has not so many offshoots as occur on the west side of Lebanon;
under its precipitous slopes stretch table-lands and broad plateaus,
which, especially on the east side looking towards the steppe,
steadily increase in width. Along the western side of northern
Anti-Lebanon stretches the Khasha'a, a rough red region lined with
juniper trees, a succession of the hardest limestone crests and ridges,
bristling with bare rock and crag that shelter tufts of vegetation,
and are divided by a succession of grassy ravines. On the eastern
side the parallel valley of 'Asal el-Ward deserves special mention;
the descent towards the plain eastwards, as seen for example at
Ma'lula, is singular — first a spacious amphitheatre and then two
deep very narrow gorges. Few perennial streams take their rise in
Anti-Lebanon; one of the finest and best watered valleys is that of
Helbun, the ancient Chalybon, the Helbon of Ezek. xxvii. 18. The
highest points of the range, reckoning from the north, are Halimat
el-Kabu (8257 ft.), which has a splendid view; the Fatli block,
including Tal'at Musa (8721 ft.) and the adjoining Jebel Nebi Baruh
(7900 ft.) ; and a third group near Bludan, in which the most promi-
nent names are Shakif, Akhyar and Abu'1-Hin (8330 ft.). Of
the valleys descending westward the first to claim mention is the
Wadi Yafufa; a little farther south, lying north and south, is the
rich upland valley of Zebedani, where the Barada has its highest
sources. Pursuing an easterly course, this stream receives the
waters of the romantic 'Ain Fije (which doubles its volume), and
bursts out by a rocky gateway upon the plain of Damascus, in the
irrigation of which it is the chief agent. It is the Abana of 2 Kings
v. 12; the portion of Anti-Lebanon traversed by it was also called
by the same name (Canticles iv. 8). From the point where the
southerly continuation of Anti-Lebanon begins to take a more
westerly direction, a low ridge shoots out towards the south-west,
trending farther and farther away from the eastern chain and
narrowing the Buka'a; upon the eastern side of this ridge lies the
elevated valley or hilly stretch known as Wadi et-Teim. In the
north, beside 'Ain Faluj, it is connected by a low watershed with
the Buka'a; from the gorge of the Litany it is separated by the
ridge of Jebel ed-Dahr. At its southern end it contracts and merges
into the plain of Banias, thus enclosing Mount Hermon on its
north-west and west sides; eastward from the Hasbany branch of
the Jprdan lies the meadow-land Merj 'lyun, the ancient Ijon
(i Kings xv. 20).
Vegetation. — The western slope of Lebanon has the common
characteristics of the flora of the Mediterranean coast, but the
Anti-Lebanon belongs to the poorer region of the steppes, and the
Mediterranean species are met with only sporadically along the
water-courses. Forest and pasture land do not properly exist:
the place of the first is for the most part taken by a low brushwood ;
grass is not plentiful, and the higher ridges maintain alpine plants
only so long as patches of snow continue to lie. The rock walls
harbour some rock plants, but many absolutely barren wildernesses
of stone occur. (l) On the western slope, to a height of 1600 ft.,
is the coast region, similar to that of Syria in general and of the
south of Asia Minor. Characteristic trees are the locust tree and
the stone pine; in Melia Azedarach and Ficus Sycomorus (Beirut)
is an admixture of foreign and partially subtropical elements. The
great mass of the vegetation, however, is of the low-growing type
(maquis or garrigue of the western Mediterranean), with small and
stiff leaves, and frequently thorny and aromatic, as for example the
ilex (Quercus coccifera), Smilax, Cistus, Lentiscus, Calycotome, &c.
(2) Next comes, from 1600 to 6500 ft., .the mountain region, which
may also be called the forest region, still exhibiting sparse woods
and isolated trees wherever shelter, moisture and the inhabitants
have permitted their growth. From 1600 to 3200 ft. is a zone of
dwarf hard-leaved oaks, amongst which occur the Oriental forms
Fontanesia phillyraeoides, Acer syriacum and the beautiful red-
stemmed Arbutus Andrachne. Higher up, between 3700 and 4200 ft.,
a tall pine, Pinus Brutia, is characteristic. Between 4200 and 6200 ft.
is the region of the two most interesting forest trees of Lebanon, the
cypress and the cedar. The former still grows thickly, especially
in the valley of the Kadisha; the horizontal is the prevailing
variety. In the upper Kadisha valley there is a cedar grove of
about three hundred trees, amongst which five are of gigantic size.
(See also CEDAR.) The cypress and cedar zone exhibits a variety
of other leaf -bearing and coniferous trees; of the first may be
mentioned several oaks — Quercus subalpina (Kotschy), Q. Cerris
and the hop-hornbeam (Ostrya) ; of the second class the rare Cilician
silver fir (Abies_ cilicica) may be noticed. Next come the junipers,
sometimes attaining the size of trees (Juniperus excelsa, J. rufescens
and, with fruit as large as plums, J. drupacea). But the chief orna-
ment of Lebanon is the Rhododendron ponticum, with its brilliant
purple flower clusters; a peculiar evergreen, Vinca libanotica, also
adds beauty to this zone. (3) Into the alpine region (6200 to
10,400 ft.) penetrate a few very stunted oaks (Quercus subalpina),
the junipers already mentioned and a barberry (Berberis cretica),
which sometimes spreads into close thickets. Then follow the low,
dense, prone, pillow-like dwarf bushes, thorny and grey, common
to the Oriental highlands — Astragalus and the peculiar Acantholimon.
They are found to within 300 ft. of the highest summits.
Upon the exposed mountain slopes a species of rhubarb (Rheum
Ribes) is noticeable, and also a vetch ( Vicia canescens) excellent for
sheep. The spring vegetation, which lasts until July, appears to be
rich, especially as regards showy plants, such as Corydalis, Gagea,
Colchicum, Puschkinia, Geranium, Ornithogalum , &c. The flora of
the highest ridges, along the edges of the snow patches, exhibits
no forms related to the northern alpine flora, but suggestions of it
are found in a Draba, an Androsace, an Alsine and a violet, occurring,
however, only in local species. Upon the highest summits are found
Saponaria Pumilio (resembling our Silene acaulis) and varieties
of Galium, Euphorbia, Astragalus, Veronica, Jurinea, Festuca,
Scrophularia, Geranium, Asphodeline, Allium, Asperula; and, on
the margins of the snow fields, a Taraxacum and Ranunculus demissus.
The alpine flora of Lebanon thus connects itself directly with the
Oriental flora of lower altitudes, and is unrelated to the glacial flora
of Europe and northern Asia.
Zoology. — There is nothing of special interest about the fauna of
Lebanon. Bears are no longer numerous; the panther and the
ounce are met with; the wild hog, hyaena, wolf and fox are by
no means rare ; jackals and gazelles are very common. The polecat
and hedgehog also occur. As a rule there are not many birds, but
the eagle and the vulture may occasionally be seen; of eatable
kinds partridges and wild pigeons are the most abundant.
Population. — In the following sections the Lebanon proper
will alone be considered, without reference to Anti-Lebanon,
because the peculiar political status of the former range since
1864 has effectually differentiated it; whereas the Anti-Lebanon
still forms an integral part of the Ottoman province of Syria
(q.v.), and neither its population nor its history is readily dis-
tinguishable from those of the surrounding districts.
The total population in the Lebanon proper is about 400,000,
and is increasing faster than the development of the province
will admit. There is consequently much emigration, the Christian
surplus going mainly to Egypt, and to America, the Druses to the
latter country and to the Hauran. The emigrants to America,
however, usually return after making money, build new houses
and settle down. The singularly complex population is com-
posed of Christians, Maronites, and Orthodox Eastern and
Uniate; of Moslems, both Sunni and Shiah (Metawali); and
of Druses.
(a) Maronites (q.v.} form about three-fifths of the whole and have
the north of the Mountain almost to themselves, while even in the
south, the old Druse stronghold, they are now numerous. Feudalism
is practically extinct among them and with the decline of the Druses,
and the great stake they have acquired in agriculture, they have
laid aside much of their warlike habL together with their arms.
Even their instinct of nationality is being sensibly impaired by
their gradual assimilation to the Papal Church, whose agents exercise
from Beirut an increasing influence on their ecclesiastical elections
and church government. They are strong also in the Buka'a, and
have colonies in most of the Syrian cities.
(b) Orthodox Eastern form a little more than one-eighth of the
whole, and are strongest in S. Lebanon (Metn and Kurah districts).
Syrians by race and Arab-speaking, they are descendants of those
" Melkites " who took the side of the Byzantine church in the time
of Justinian II. against the Moslems and eventually the Maronites.
They are among the most progressive of the Lebanon elements.
(c) Greek Uniate are less numerous, forming little more than
348
LEBANON
one-twelfth, but are equally progressive. Their headquarters is
Zahleh; but they are found also in strength in Metn and Jezzin,
where they help to counterbalance Druses. They sympathize with
the Maronites against the Orthodox Eastern, and, like both, are of
Syrian race, and Arab speech.
(d) Sunnite Moslems are a weak element, strongest in Shuf and
Kurah, and composed largely of Druse renegades and " Druse "
families, which, like the Shehab, were of Arab extraction and never
conformed to the creed of Hamza.
(e) Shiite Moslems outnumber the Sunni, and make about one
twenty-fifth of the whole. They are called Metawali and are strongest
in North Lebanon (Kesrawan and Batrun), but found also in the
south, in Buka'a and in the coast-towns from Beirut to Acre. They
are said to be descendants of Persian tribes; but the fact is very
doubtful, and they may be at least as aboriginal as the Maronites,
and a remnant of an old Incarnationist population which did not
accept Christianity, and kept its heretical Islam free from those
influences which modified Druse creed. They own a chief sheikh,
resident at Jeba'a, and have the reputation, like most heretical
communities in the Sunni part of the Moslem world, of being ex-
ceedingly fanatical and inhospitable. It is undoubtedly the case
that they are suspicious of strangers and defiant of interference.
Another small body of Shiites, the Ismailites (Assassins (q.v.) of the
crusading chronicles), also said to be of Persian origin, live about
Kadmus at the extreme N. of Lebanon, but outside the limits of
the privileged province. They are about 9000 strong.
m Druses (q.v.), now barely an eighth of the whole and confined
to Shuf and Metn in S. Lebanon, are tending to emigrate or conform
to Sunni Islam. Since the establishment of the privileged province
they have lost the Ottoman support which used to compensate for
their numerical inferiority as compared with the Christians; and
they are fast losing also their old habits and distinctiveness. No
longer armed or wearing their former singular dress, the remnant of
them in Lebanon seems likely ere long to be assimilated to the
" Osmanli " Moslems. Their feud with the Maronites, whose
accentuation in the middle of the igth century was largely due to
the tergiversations of the ruling Shehab family, now reduced to low
estate, is dying away, but they retain something of their old clan
feeling and feudal organization, especially in Shut.
The mixed population, as a whole, displays the usual charac-
teristics of mountaineers, fine physique and vigorous independent
spirit; but its ancient truculence has given way before strong
government action since the middle igth century, and the
great increase of agricultural pursuits, to which the purely
pastoral are now quite secondary. The culture of the mulberry
and silk, of tobacco, of the olive and vine, of many kinds of
fruits and cereals, has expanded enormously, and the Lebanon
is now probably the most productive region in Asiatic Turkey
in proportion to its area. It exports largely through Beirut
and Saida, using both the French railway which crosses S.
Lebanon on its way to Damascus, and the excellent roads and
mule-paths made since 1883. Lebanon has thick deposits of
lignite coal, but of inferior quality owing to the presence of
iron pyrites. The abundant iron is little worked. Manufactures
are of small account, the raw material going mostly to the
coast; but olive-oil is made, together with various wines, of which
the most famous is the vino d'oro, a sweet liqueur-like beverage.
This wine is not exported in any quantity, as it will not bear
a voyage well and is not made to keep. Bee-keeping is general,
and there is an export of eggs to Egypt.
History. — The inhabitants of Lebanon have at no time played
a conspicuous part in history. There are remains of prehistoric
occupation, but we do not even know what races dwelt there
in the historical period of antiquity. Probably they belonged
chiefly to the Aramaean group of nationalities; the Bible mentions
Hivites (Judges iii. 3) and Giblites (Joshua xiii. 5). Lebanon
was included within the ideal boundaries of the land of Israel,
and the whole region was well known to the Hebrews, by whose
poets its many excellences are often praised. How far the
Phoenicians had any effective control over it is unknown; the
absence of their monuments does not argue much real jurisdiction .
Nor apparently did the Greek Seleucid kingdom have much
to do with the Mountain. In the Roman period the district
of Phoenice extended to Lebanon. In the 2nd century, with
the inland districts, it constituted a subdivision of the province
of Syria, having Emesa (Horns) for its capital. From the time
of Diocletian there was a Phoenice ad Libanum, with Emesa
as capital, as well as a Phoenice Marilima of which Tyre was
the chief city. Remains of the Roman period occus through-
out Lebanon. By the 6th century it was evidently virtually
independent again; its Christianization had begun with the
immigration of Monothelite sectaries, flying from persecution
in the Antioch district and Orontes valley. At all times Lebanon
has been a place of refuge for unpopular creeds. Large part
of the mountaineers took up Monothelism and initiated the
national distinction of the Maronites, which begins to emerge
in the history of the 7th century. The sectaries, after helping
Justinian II. against the caliph Abdalmalik, turned on the
emperor and his Orthodox allies, and were named Mardaites
(rebels). Islam now began to penetrate S. Lebanon, chiefly
by the immigration of various more or less heretical elements,
Kurd, Turkoman, Persian and especially Arab, the latter
largely after the break-up of the kingdom of Hira; and early
in the nth century these coalesced into a nationality (see
DRUSES) under the congenial influence of the Incarnationist
creed brought from Cairo by Ismael Darazi and other emissaries
of the caliph Hakim and his vizier Hamza. The subsequent
history of Lebanon to the middle of the igth century will be
found under DRUSES and MARONITES, and it need only be stated
here that Latin influence began to be felt in N. Lebanon during
the Frank period of Antioch and Palestine, the Maronites being
inclined to take the part of the crusading princes against the
Druses and Moslems; but they were still regarded as heretic
Monothelites by Abulfaragius (Bar-Hebraeus) at the end of the
1 3 th century; nor is their effectual reconciliation to Rome
much older than 1736, the date of the mission sent by the pope
Clement XII., which fixed the actual status of their church.
An informal French protection had, however, been exercised
over them for some time previously, and with it began the feud
of Maronites and Druses, the latter incited and spasmodically
supported by Ottoman pashas. The feudal organization of
both, the one under the house of Khazin, the other under those
of Maan and Shehab successively, was in full force during the
1 7th and i8th centuries; and it was the break-up of this in the
first part of the ipth century which produced the anarchy that
culminated after 1840 in the civil war. The Druses renounced
their Shehab amirs when Beshir al-Kassim openly joined the
Maronites in 1841, and the Maronites definitely revolted from
the Khazin in 1858. The events of 1860 led to the formation
of the privileged Lebanon province, finally constituted in 1864.
It should be added, however, that among the Druses of Shuf,
feudalism has tended to re-establish itself, and the power is
now divided between the Jumblat and Yezbeki families, a leading
member of one of which is almost always Ottoman kaimakam
of the Druses, and locally called amir.
The Lebanon has now been constituted a sanjak or mutessariflik,
dependent directly on the Porte, which acts in this case in consulta-
tion with the six great powers. This province extends about 93 m.
from N. to S. (from the boundary of the sanjak of Tripoli to that of
the caza of Saida), and has a mean breadth of about 28 m. from
one foot of the chain to the other, beginning at the edge of the
littoral plain behind Beirut and ending at the W. edge of the Buka'a :
but the boundaries are ill-defined, especially on the E. where the
original line drawn along the crest of the ridge has not been adhered
to, and the mountaineers have encroached on the Buka'a. The
Lebanon is under a military governor (m«ifct>)who must bea Christian
in the service of the sultan, approved by the powers, and has,
so far, been chosen from the Roman Catholics owing to the great
preponderance of Latin Christians in the province. He resides at
Deir al-Kamar, an old seat of the Druse amirs. At first appointed
for three years, then for ten, his term has been fixed since 1892
at five years, the longer term having aroused the fear of the Porte,
lest a personal domination should become established. Under the
fovernor are seven kaimakams, all Christians except a Druse in
huf, and forty-seven mudirs, who all depend on the kaimakams
except one in the home district of Deir al-Kamar. A central mejliss
or Council of twelve members is composed of four Maronites, three
Druses, one Turk, two Greeks (Orthodox), one Greek Uniate and
one Metawali. This was the original proportion, and it has not
been altered in spite of the decline of the Druses and increase of
the Maronites. The members are elected by the seven cazas. In
each mudirieh there is also a local mejliss. The. old feudal and
mukataji (see DRUSES) jurisdictions are abolished, i.e. they often
persist under Ottoman forms, and three courts of First Instance,
under the mejliss, and superior to the petty courts of the mudirs
and the village sheikhs, administer justice. Judges are appointed
by the governor, but sheikhs by the villages. Commercial cases, and
litigation in which strangers are concerned, are carried to Beirut.
The police is recruited locally, and no regular troops appear in the
LEBANON— LEBEL
349
province except on special requisition. The taxes are collected
directly, and must meet the needs of the province, before any sum
is remitted to the Imperial Treasury. The latter has to make
deficits good. Ecclesiastical jurisdiction is exercised only over the
clergy, and all rights of asylum are abolished.
This constitution has worked well on the whole, the only serious
hitches having been due to the tendency of governors-general and
kaimakams to attempt to supersede the mejliss by autocratic action,
and to impair the freedom of elections. The attention of the porte
was called to these tendencies in 1892 and again in 1902, on the
appointments of new governors. Since the last date there has been
no complaint. Nothing now remains of the former French pre-
dominance in the Lebanon, except a certain influence exerted by
the fact that the railway is French, and by the precedence in ecclesi-
astical functions still accorded by the Maronites to official repre-
sentatives of France. In the Lebanon, as in N. Albania, the tradi-
tional claim of France to protect Roman Catholics in the Ottoman
Empire has been greatly impaired by the non-religious character
of the Republic. Like Italy, she is now regarded by Eastern
Catholics with distrust as an enemy of the Holy Father.
See DRUSES. Also V. Cuinet, Syrie, Liban et Palestine (1896);
N. Verney and G. Dambmann, Puissances etrangeres en Syrie, &c.
(1900) ; G. Young, Corps de droit ottoman, vol. i. (1905) ; G. E.
Post, Flora of Syria, &c. (1896); M. von Oppenheim, Vom Mittel-
meer, &c. (1899). (A. So. ; D. G. H.)
LEBANON, a city of Saint Clair county, Illinois, U.S.A.,
on Silver Creek, about 24 m. E. of Saint Louis, Missouri. Pop.
(1910) 1907. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio South-Western
railroad and by the East Saint Louis & Suburban Electric line.
It is situated on a high tableland. Lebanon is the seat of
McKendree College, founded by Methodists in 1828 and one of
the oldest colleges in the Mississippi valley. It was called
Lebanon Seminary until 1830, when the present name was
adopted in honour of William McKendree (1757-1835), known
as the " Father of Western Methodism," a great preacher, and
a bishop of the Methodist Church in 1808-1835, who had en-
dowed the college with 480 acres of land. In 1835 the college
was chartered as the " McKendreean College," but in 1839 the
present name was again adopted. There are coal mines and
excellent farming lands in the vicinity of Lebanon. Among the
city's manufactures are flour, planing-mill products, malt
liquors, soda and farming implements. The municipality owns
and operates its electric-lighting plant. Lebanon was chartered
as a city in 1874.
LEBANON, a city and the county-seat of Lebanon county,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., in the fertile Lebanon Valley, about 25 m.
E. by N. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1900) 17,628, of whom 618
were foreign-born, (1910 census) 19,240. It is served by the
Philadelphia & Reading, the Cornwall and the Cornwall &
Lebanon railways. About 5 m. S. of the city are the Cornwall
(magnetite) iron mines, from which about 18,000,000 tons of
iron ore were taken between 1740 and 1902, and 804,848 tons
in 1906. The ore yields about 46% of iron, and contains about
2-5% of sulphur, the roasting of the ores being necessary —
ore-roasting kilns are more extensively used here than in any
other place in the country. The area of ore exposed is about
4000 ft. long and 400 to 800 ft. wide, and includes three hills;
it has been one of the most productive magnetite deposits in
the world. Limestone, brownstone and brick-clay also abound
in the vicinity; and besides mines and quarries, the city has
extensive manufactories of iron, steel, chains, and nuts and bolts.
In 1905 its factory products were valued at $6,978,458. The
municipality owns and operates its water-works.
The first settlement in the locality was made about J73O, and
twenty years later a town was laid out by one of the landowners,
George Steitz, and named Steitztown in his honour. About 1760
the town became known as Lebanon, and under this name it was
incorporated as a borough in 1821 and chartered as a city in 1885.
LE BARGY, CHARLES GUSTAVE AUGUSTE (1858- ),
French actor, was born at La Chapelle (Seine). His talent both
as a comedian and a serious actor was soon made evident, and
he became a member of the Comedie Francaise, his chief successes
being in such plays as Le Duel, L'£nigme, Le Marquis de Priola,
L'Autre Danger and Le Dedale. His wife, Simone le Bargy nee
Benda, an accomplished actress, made her debut at the Gymnase
in 1902, and in later years had a great success in La Rafale and
other plays. In 1910 he had differences with the authorities
of the Comedie Francaise and ceased to be a societaire.
LE BEAU, CHARLES (1701-1778), French historical writer,
was born at Paris on the i5th of October 1701, and was educated
at the College de Sainte-Barbe and the College du Plessis; at
the latter he remained as a teacher until he obtained the chair
of rhetoric in the College des Grassins. In 1 748 he was admitted
a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and in 1752 he was
nominated professor of eloquence in the College de France.
From 1755 he held the office of perpetual secretary to the
Academy of Inscriptions, in which capacity he edited fifteen
volumes (from the 25th to the 39th inclusive) of the Histoire
of that institution. He died at Paris on the i3th of March 1778.
The only work with which the name of Le Beau continues to be
associated is his Histoire du Bas-Empire, en commenfant d Constanlin
le Grand, in 22 vols. I2mo (Paris, 1756-1779), being a continuation
of C. Rollin's Histoire Romaine and J. B. L. Crevier's Histoire des
empereurs. Its usefulness arises entirely from the fact of its being
a faithful resumfi of the Byzantine historians, for Le Beau had no
originality or artistic power of his own. Five volumes were added
by H. P. Ameilhon (1781-1811), which brought the work down to
the fall of Constantinople. A later edition, under the care of M. de
Saint-Martin and afterwards of Brosset, has had the benefit of
careful revision throughout, and has received considerable additions
from Oriental sources.
See his " Eloge " in vol. xlii. of the Histoire de I'Academie des
Inscriptions (1786), pp. 190-207.
LEBEAU, JOSEPH (1794-1865), Belgian statesman, was born
at Huy on the 3rd of January 1794. He received his early
education from an uncle who was parish priest of Hannut, and
became a clerk. By dint of economy he raised money to study
law at Liege, and was called to the bar in 1819. At Liege he
formed a fast friendship with Charles Rogier and Paul Devaux,
in conjunction with whom he founded at Liege in 1824 the
Mathieu Laensbergh, afterwards Le politique, a journal which
helped to unite the Catholic party with the Liberals in their
opposition to the ministry, without manifesting any open
disaffection to the Dutch government. Lebeau had not con-
templated the separation of Holland and Belgium, but his hand
was forced by the revolution. He was sent by his native district
to the National Congress, and became minister of foreign affairs
in March 1831 during the interim regency of Surlet de Chokier.
By proposing the election of Leopold of Saxe-Coburg as king
of the Belgians he secured a benevolent attitude on the part of
Great Britain , but the restoration to Holland of part of the duchies
of Limburg and Luxemburg provoked a heated opposition to
the treaty of London, and Lebeau was accused of treachery
to Belgian interests. He resigned the direction of foreign affairs
on the accession of King Leopold, but in the next year became
minister of justice. He was elected deputy for Brussels in 1833,
and retained his seat until 1848. Differences with the king led
to his retirement in 1834. He was subsequently governor of
the province of Namur (1838), ambassador to the Frankfort
diet (1839), and in 1840 he formed a short-lived Liberal ministry.
From this time he held no office of state, though he continued
his energetic support of liberal and anti-clerical measures. He
died at Huy on the igth of March 1865.
Lebeau published La Belgigue depuis 1847 (Brussels, 4 vols., 1852),
Lettres aux electeurs beiges (8 vols., Brussels, 1853-1856). His
Souvenirs personnels et correspondance diplomatique 1824-1841
(Brussels, 1883) were edited by A. Prison. See an article by A.
Freson in the Biographie nationale de Belgigue; and T. Juste,
Joseph Lebeau (Brussels, 1865).
LEBEL, JEAN (d. 1370), Belgian chronicler, was born near
the end of the I3th century. His father, Gilles le Beal des
Changes, was an alderman of Liege. Jean entered the church
and became a canon of the cathedral church, but he and his
brother Henri followed Jean de Beaumont to England in 1327,
and took part in the border warfare against the Scots. His will
is dated 1369, and his epitaph gives the date of his death as 1370.
Nothing more is known of his life, but Jacques de Hemricourt,
author of the Miroir des nobles de Hesbaye, has left a eulogy of
his character, and a description of the magnificence of his attire,
his retinue and his hospitality. Hemricourt asserts that he was
eighty years old or more when he died. For a long time Jean
Lebel (or le Bel) was only known as a chronicler through a
reference by Froissart, who quotes him in the prologue of his
first book as one of his authorities. A fragment of his work,
35°
LEBER— LE BLANC
in the MS. of Jean d'Outremeuse's Mireur des istores, was dis-
covered in 1847; and the whole of his chronicle, preserved in
the library of Chalons-sur-Marne, was edited in 1863 by L.
Polain. Jean Lebel gives as his reason for writing a desire to
replace a certain misleading rhymed chronicle of the wars of
Edward III. by a true relation of his enterprises down to the
beginning of the Hundred Years' War. In the matter of style
Lebel has been placed by some critics on the level of Froissart.
His chief merit is his refusal to narrate events unless either he
himself or his informant had witnessed them. This scrupulous-
ness in the acceptance of evidence must be set against his limita-
tions. He takes on the whole a similar point of view to Froissart 's ;
he has no concern with national movements or politics; and,
writing for the public of chivalry, he preserves no general notion
of a campaign, which resolves itself in his narrative into a series
of exploits on the part of his heroes. Froissart was considerably
indebted to him, and seems to have borrowed from him some
of his best-known episodes, such as the death of Robert the Bruce,
Edward III. and the countess of Salisbury, and the devotion
of the burghers of Calais. The songs and virelais, in the art of
writing which he was, according to Hemricourt, an expert,
have not come to light.
See L. Polain, Les Vraies Chrpniques de messire Jehanle Bel (1863) ;
Kervyn de Lettenhove, Bulletin de la societk d 'emulation de Bruges,
series ii. vols. vii. and ix. ; and H. Pirenne in Biographic nationale
de Belgique.
LEBER, JEAN MICHEL CONSTANT (1780-1859), French
historian and bibliophile, was born at Orleans on the 8th of
May 1780. His first work was a poem on Joan of Arc (1804);
but he wrote at the same time a Grammaire general synthetique,
which attracted the attention of J. M. de Gerando, then
secretary-general to the ministry of the interior. The latter
found him a minor post in his department, which left him leisure
for his historical work. He even took him to Italy when Napoleon
was trying to organize, after French models, the Roman states
which he had taken from the pope in 1809. Leber however did
not stay there long, for he considered the attacks on the temporal
property of the Holy See to be sacrilegious. On his return to
Paris he resumed his administrative work, literary recreations
and historical researches. While spending a part of his time
writing vaudevilles and comic operas, he began to collect old
essays and rare pamphlets by old French historians. His office
was preserved to him by the Restoration, and Leber put his
literary gifts at the service of the government. When the question
of the coronation of Louis XVIII. arose, he wrote, as an answer
to Volney, a minute treatise on the Ceremonies du sacre, which
was published at the time of the coronation of Charles X. To-
wards the end of Villele's ministry, when there was a movement
of public opinion in favour of extending municipal liberties,
he undertook the defence of the threatened system of centraliza-
tion, and composed, in answer to Raynouard, an Histoire critique
du pouvoir municipal depuis I'origine de la monarchic jusqu'a
nos jours (1828). He also wrote a treatise entitled De I'etat
reel de la presse el des pamphlets depuis Francois I" jusqu'a
Louis XIV (1834), in which he refuted an empty paradox
of Charles Nodier, who had tried to prove that the press had
never been, and could never be, so free as under the Grand
Monarch. A few years later, Leber retired (1839), and sold to
the library of Rouen the rich collection of books which he had
amassed during thirty years of research. The catalogue he made
himself (4 vols., 1839 to 1852). In 1840 he read at the Academic
des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres two dissertations, an " Essai
sur 1'appreciation de la fortune privee au moyen age," followed by
an " Examen critique des tables de prix du marc d'argent depuis
1'epoque de Saint Louis "; these essays were included by the
Academy in its Recueil de memoires pr£senles par divers savants
(vol. i., 1844), and were also revised and published by Leber
(1847). They form his most considerable work, and assure him
a position of eminence in the economic history of France. He
also rendered good service to historians by the publication of
his Collection des meilleures dissertations, notices el traitis relatifs
d I'histoire de France (20 vols., 1826-1840); in the absence of
an index, since Leber did not give one, an analytical table of
contents is to be found in Alfred Franklin's Sources de I'histoire
jde France (1876, pp. 342 sqq.). In consequence of the revolution
of 1848, Leber decided to leave Paris. He retired to his native
town, and spent his last years in collecting old engravings.
He died at Orleans on the 22nd of December 1859.
In 1832 he had been elected as a member of the Societe des Anti-
quaires de France, and in the Bulletin of this society (vol. i., 1860)
is to be found the most correct and detailed account of his life's
works.
LEBEUF, JEAN (1687-1760), French historian, was born on
the 7th of March 1687 at Auxerre, where his father, a councillor
in the parlement, was receveur des consignations. He began his
studies in his native town, and continued them in Paris at
the College Ste Barbe. He soon became known as one of the
most cultivated minds of his time. He made himself master
of practically every branch of medieval learning, and had a
thorough knowledge of the sources and the bibliography of his
subject. His learning was not drawn from books only; he was
also an archaeologist, and frequently went on expeditions in
France, always on foot, in the course of which he examined the
monuments of architecture and sculpture, as well as the libraries,
and collected a number of notes and sketches. He was in
correspondence with all the most learned men of the day. His
correspondence with President Bouhier was published in 1885
by Ernest Petit; his other letters have been edited by the
Societe des sciences historiques et naturelles de I'Yonne (2 vols.,
1866-1867). He also wrote numerous articles, and, after his
election as a member of the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-
Lettres (1740), a number of Memoires which appeared in the
Recueil of this society. He died at Paris on the loth of April
1760. His most important researches had Paris as their subject.
He published first a collection of Dissertations sur I'histoire civile
et ecclesiastique de Paris (3 vols., 1739-1743), then an Histoire de la
mile et de tout le diocese de Paris (15 vols., 1745—1760), which is a
mine of information, mostly taken from the original sources. In view
of the advance made by scholarship in the igth century, it was
found necessary to publish a second edition. The work of reprinting
it was undertaken by H. Cocheris, but was interrupted (1863) before
the completion of vol. iv. Adrien Augier resumed the work, giving
Lebeuf's text, though correcting the numerous typographical errors
of the original edition (5 vols., 1883), and added a sixth volume con-
taining an analytical table of contents. Finally, Fernand Bournon
completed the work by a volume of Rectifications et additions
(1890), worthy to appear side by side with the original work.
The bibliography of Lebeuf's writings is, partly, in various numbers
of the Bibliotheque des ecrivains de Bourgogne (1716-1741). His
biography is given by Lebeau in the Histoire de I'Academie royale des
Inscriptions (xxix., 372, published 1764), and by H. Cocheris,
in the preface to his edition.
LE BLANC, NICOLAS (1742-1806), French chemist, was
born at Issoudun, Indre, in 1742. He made medicine his profes-
sion and in 1780 became surgeon to the duke of Orleans, but
he also paid much attention to chemistry. About 1787 he was
attracted to the urgent problem of manufacturing carbonate
of soda from ordinary sea-salt. The suggestion made in 1789
by Jean Claude de la Metherie (1743-1817), the editor of the
Journal de physique, that this might be done by calcining with
charcoal the sulphate of soda formed from salt by the action of
oil of vitriol, did not succeed in practice because the product
was almost entirely sulphide of soda, but it gave Le Blanc, as
he himself acknowledged, a basis upon which to work. He soon
made the crucial discovery — which proved the foundation of the
huge inrtustry of artificial alkali manufacture — that the desired
end was to be attained by adding a proportion of chalk to the
mixture of charcoal and sulphate of soda. Having had the
soundness of this method tested by Jean Darcet (1725-1801),
the professor of chemistry at the College de France, the duke of
Orleans in June 1791 agreed to furnish a sum of 200,000 francs for
the purpose of exploiting it. In the following September Le
Blanc was granted a patent for fifteen years, and shortly afterwards
a factory was started at Saint-Denis, near Paris. But it had not
long been in operation when the Revolution led to the confiscation
of the duke's property, including the factory, and about the same
time the Committee of Public Safety called upon all citizens
who possessed soda-factories to disclose their situation and
capacity and the nature of the methods employed. Le Blanc
LE BLANC— LE BRUN
had no choice but to reveal the secrets of his process, and he had
the misfortune to see his factory dismantled and his stocks of
raw and finished materials sold. By way of compensation for
the loss of his rights, the works were handed back to him in 1800,
but all his efforts to obtain money enough to restore them and
resume manufacturing on a profitable scale were vain, and,
worn out with disappointment, he died by his own hand at
Saint-Denis on the i6th of January 1806.
Four years after his death, Michel Jean Jacques Dize (1764-1852),
who had been preparateur to Darcet at the time he examined the
process and who was subsequently associated with Le Blanc in its
exploitation, published in the Journal de physique a paper claiming
that it was he himself who had first suggested the addition of chalk;
but a committee of the French Academy, which reported fully on the
question in 1856, came to the conclusion that the merit was entirely
Le Blanc's (Com. rend., 1856, p. 553).
LE BLANC, a town of central France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment, in the department of Indre, 44 m. W.S.W. of Chateauroux
on the Orleans railway between Argenton and Poitiers. Pop.
(1906) 4719. The Creuse divides it into a lower and an upper
town. The church of St Genitour dates from the 1 2th, i3th and
1 5th centuries, and there is an old castle restored in modern
times. It is the seat of a subprefect, and has a tribunal of first
instance and a communal college. Wool-spinning, and the
manufacture of linen goods and edge-tools are among the
industries. There is trade in horses and in the agricultural and
other products of the surrounding region.
Le Blanc, which is identified with the Roman Oblincum, was in the
middle ages a lordship belonging to the house of Naillac and a
frontier fortress of the province of Berry.
LEBCEUF, EDMOND (1809-1888), marshal of France, was
born at Paris on the sth of November 1809, passed through the
Ecole Polytechnique and the school of Metz, and distinguished
himself as an artillery officer in Algerian warfare, becoming
colonel in 1852. He commanded the artillery of the ist French
corps at the siege of Sebastopol, and was promoted in 1854 to
the rank of general of brigade, and in 1857 to that of general of
division. In the Italian War of 1859 he commanded the artillery,
and by his action at Solferino materially assisted in achieving
the victory. In September 1866, having in the meantime
become aide-de-camp to Napoleon III., he was despatched
to Venetia to hand over that province to Victor Emmanuel.
In 1869, on the death of Marshal Niel, General Lebceuf became
minister of war, and earned public approbation by his vigorous
reorganization of the War Office and the civil departments of the
service. In the spring of 1870 he received the marshal's baton.
On the declaration of war with Germany Marshal Lebceuf
delivered himself in the Corps Legislatif of the historic saying,
" So ready are we, that if the war lasts two years, 'not a gaiter
button would be found wanting." It may be that he intended
this to mean that, given time, the reorganization of the War
Office would be perfected through experience, but the result
inevitably caused it to be regarded as a mere boast, though it
is now known that the administrative confusion on the frontier
in July 1870 was far less serious than was supposed at the time.
Lebceuf took part in the Lorraine campaign, at first as chief of
staff (major-general) of the Army of the Rhine, and afterwards,
when Bazaine became commander-in-chief, as chief of the III.
corps, which he led in the battles around Metz. He distinguished
himself, whenever engaged, by personal bravery and good
leadership. Shut up with Bazaine in Metz, on its fall he was
confined as a prisoner in Germany. On the conclusion of peace
he returned to France and gavs evidence before the commission
of inquiry into the surrender of that stronghold, when he strongly
denounced Bazaine. After this he retired into private life to
the Chateau du Moncel near Argentan, where he died on the
7th of June 1888.
LE BON, JOSEPH (1765-1795), French politician, was born
at Arras on the 2gth of September 1765. He became a priest in
the order of the Oratory, and professor of rhetoric at Beaune.
He adopted revolutionary ideas, and became a cure of the
Constitutional Church in the department of Pas-de-Calais,
where he was later elected a.s a. depute suppleanl to the Convention.
He became maire of Arras and administraleur of Pas-de-Calais,
and on the 2nd of July 1793 took his seat in the Convention.
He was sent as a representative on missions into the departments
of the Somme and Pas-de-Calais, where he showed great severity
in dealing with offences against revolutionaries (Sth Brumaire,
year II. to 22nd Messidor, year II.; i.e. 29th October 1793 to
loth July 1794). In consequence, during the reaction which
followed the 9th Thermidor (27th July 1794) he was arrested
on the 22nd Messidor, year III. (loth July 1795). He was tried
before the criminal tribunal of the Somme, condemned to death
for abuse of his power during his mission, and executed at
Amiens on the 24th Vendemiaire in the year IV. (loth October
1795). Whatever Le Bon's offences, his condemnation was to a
great extent due to the violent attacks of one of his political
enemies, Armand Guffroy; and it is only just to remember that
it was owing to his courage that Cambrai was saved from falling
into the hands of the Austrians.
His son, £mile le Bon, published a Histoire de Joseph le Bon et des
tribunaux revolutionna-ires A' Arras et de Cambrai (2nd ed., 2 vols.,
Arras, 1864).
LEBRIJA, or LEBRIXA, a town of southern Spain, in the
province of Seville, near the left bank of the Guadalquivir,
and on the eastern edge of the marshes known as Las Marismas.
Pop. (1900) 10,997. Lebrija is 44 m. S. by W. of Seville, on the
Seville-Cadiz railway. Its chief buildings are a ruined Moorish
castle and the parish church, an imposing structure in a variety
of styles — Moorish, Gothic, Romanesque — dating from the i4th
century to the i6th, and containing some early specimens of the
carving of Alonso Cano (1601-1667). There are manufactures of
bricks, tiles and earthenware, for which clay is found in the
neighbourhood; and some trade in grain, wine and oil.
Lebrija is the Nabrissa or Nebrissa, surnamed Veneria, of the
Romans; by Silius Italicus (iii. 393), who connects it with the
worship of Dionysus, the name is derived from the Greek veftpls
(a " fawn-skin," associated with Dionysiac ritual). Nebrishah
was a strong and populous place during the period of Moorish
domination (from 711); it was taken by St Ferdinand in 1249,
but again lost, and became finally subject to the Castilian crown
only under Alphonso the Wise in 1264. It was the birthplace
of Elio Antonio de Lebrija or Nebrija (1444-1522), better known
as Nebrissensis, one of the most important leaders in the revival
of learning in Spain, the tutor of Queen Isabella, and a colla-
borator with Cardinal Jimenes in the preparation of the Com-
plutensian Polyglot (see ALCALA DE HENARES).
LE BRUN, CHARLES (1619-1690), French painter, was born
at Paris on the 24th of February 1619, and attracted the notice
of Chancellor Seguier, who placed him at the age of eleven in
the studio of Vouet. At fifteen he received commissions from
Cardinal Richelieu, in the execution of which he displayed an
ability which obtained the generous commendations of Poussin,
in whose company Le Brun started for Rome in 1642. In Rome
he remained four years in the receipt of a pension due to the
liberality of the chancellor. On his return to Paris Le Brun
found numerous patrons, of whom Superintendent Fouquet
was the most important. Employed at Vaux le Vicomte, Le
Brun ingratiated himself with Mazarin, then secretly pitting
Colbert against Fouquet. Colbert also promptly recognized
Le Brun's powers of organization, and attached him to his
interests. Together they founded the Academy of Painting and
Sculpture (1648), and the Academy of France at Rome (1666),
and gave a new development to the industrial arts. In 1660
they established the Gobelins, which at first was a great school
for the manufacture, not of tapestries only, but of every class
of furniture required in the royal palaces. Commanding the
industrial arts through the Gobelins — of which he was director —
and the whole artist world through the Academy — in which he
successively held every post — Le Brun imprinted his own
character on all that was produced in France during his lifetime,
and gave a direction to the national tendencies which endured
after his death. The nature of his emphatic and pompous
talent was in harmony with the taste of the king, who, full of
admiration at the decorations designed by Le Brun for his
triumphal entry into Paris (1660), commissioned him to execute
352
LEBRUN, C. F.— LE CARON
a series of subjects from the history of Alexander. The first
of these, " Alexander and the Family of Darius," so delighted
Louis XIV. that he at once ennobled Le Brun (December, 1662),
who was also created first painter to his majesty with a pension
of 12,000 livres, the same amount as he had yearly received
in the service of the magnificent Fouquet. From this date all
that was done in the royal palaces was directed by Le Brun.
The works of the gallery of Apollo in the Louvre were interrupted
in 1677 when he accompanied the king to Flanders (on his return
from Lille he painted several compositions in the Chateau of
St Germains), and finally — for they remained unfinished at
his death — by the vast labours of Versailles, where he reserved
for himself the Halls of War and Peace, the Ambassadors'
Staircase, and the Great Gallery, other artists being forced
to accept the position of his assistants. At the death of Colbert,
Louvois, who succeeded him in the department of public works,
showed no favour to Le Brun, and in spite of the king's con-
tinued support he felt a bitter change in his position. This
contributed to the illness which on the 22nd of February 1690
ended in his death in the Gobelins. Besides his gigantic labours
at Versailles and the Louvre, the number of his works for religious
corporations and private patrons is enormous. He modelled
and engraved with much facility, and, in spite of the heaviness
and poverty of drawing and colour, his extraordinary activity
and the vigour of his conceptions justify his claim to fame.
Nearly all his compositions have been reproduced by celebrated
engravers.
LEBRUN, CHARLES FRANC.OIS, due de Plaisance (1739-
1824), French statesman, was born at St-Sauveur-Lendelin
(Manche) on the igth of March 1739, and in 1762 made his first
appearance as a lawyer at Paris. Refilled the posts successively
of censeur royale (1766) and of inspector general of the domains
oi the crown (1768); he was also one of the chief advisers of
the chancellor Maupeou, took part in his struggle against the
parlements, and shared in his downfall in 1774 He then devoted
himself to literature, translating Tasso's Gerusalemme liberata
(1774), and the Iliad (1776). At the outset of the Revolution
he foresaw its importance, and in the Voix du citoyen, which
he published in 1789, predicted the course which events would
take. In the Constituent Assembly, where he sat as deputy
for Dourdan, he professed liberal views, and was the proposer
of various financial laws. He then became president of the
directory of Seine-et-Oise, and in 1795 was elected as a deputy
to the Council of Ancients. After the coup d'etat of the i8th
Brumaire in the year VIII. (gth November 1799), Lebrun was
made third consul. In this capacity he took an active part in
the reorganization of finance and of the administration of the
departments of France. In 1804 he was appointed arch-
treasurer of the empire, and in 1805-1806 as governor-general
of Liguria effected its annexation to France. He opposed
Napoleon's restoration of the noblesse, and in 1808 only re-
luctantly accepted the title of due de Plaisance (Piacenza).
He was next employed in organizing the departments which
were formed in Holland, of which he was governor-general from
1811 to 1813. Although to a certain extent opposed to the
despotism of the emperor, he was not in favour of his deposition,
though he accepted the fait accompli of the Restoration in April
1814. Louis XVIII. made him a peer of France; but during
the Hundred Days he accepted from Napoleon the post of
Grand Master of the university. On the return of the Bourbons
in 1815 he was consequently suspended from the House of Peers,
but was recalled in 1819. He died at St Mesmes (Seine-et-Oise)
on the i6th of June 1824. He had been made a member of
the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in 1803.
See M. de Caumont la Force, L'A rchitresorier Lebrun (Paris, 1907) ;
M. Marie du Mesnil, Memoire sur le prince Le Brun, due de Plaisance
(Paris, 1828); Opinions, rapports et choix d'ecrits politiques de C. F.
Lebrun (1829), edited, with a biographical notice, by his son Anne-
Charles Lebrun.
LEBRUN, PIERRE ANTOINE (1785-1873), French poet,
was born in Paris on the 29th of November 1785. An Ode d la
grande armee, mistaken at the time for the work of Ecouchard
Lebrun, attracted Napoleon's attention, and secured for the
author a pension of 1200 francs. Lebrun's plays, once famous,
are now forgotten. They are: Ulysse (1814), Marie Stuart
(1820), which obtained a great success, and Le Cid d'Andalousie
(1825). Lebrun visited Greece in 1820, and on his return to
Paris he published in 1822 an ode on the death of Napoleon
which cost him his pension. In 1825 he was the guest of Sir
Walter Scott at Abbotsford. The coronation of Charles X. in
that year inspired the verses entitled La Vallee de Champrosay,
which have, perhaps, done more to secure his fame than his more
ambitious attempts. In i828appearedhismostimportantpoem,
La Gre.ce, and in the same year he was elected to the Academy.
The revolution of 1830 opened up for him a public career; in
1831 he was made director of the Imprimerie Royale, and sub-
sequently filled with distinction other public offices, becoming
senator in 1853. He died on the 27th of May 1873.
See Sainte-Beuve, Portraits contemporains, vol. ii.
LEBRUN, PONCE DENIS ECOUCHARD (1720-1807), French
lyric poet, was born in Paris on the nth of August 1729, in
the house of the prince de Conti, to whom his father was valet.
Young Lebrun had among his schoolfellows a son of Louis Racine
whose disciple he became. In 1755 he published an Ode sur
les desastres de Lisbon. In 1759 he married Marie Anne de
Surcourt, addressed in his Elegies as Fanny. To the early years
of his marriage belongs his poem Nature. His wife suffered
much from his violent temper, and when in 1774 she brought
an action against him to obtain a separation, she was supported
by Lebrun's own mother and sister. He had been secretaire
des commandemenls to the prince de Conti, and on his patron's
death was deprived of his occupation. He suffered a further
misfortune in the loss of his capital by the bankruptcy of the
prince de Guemene. To this period belongs a long poem, the
Veillies des Muses, which remained unfinished, and his ode
to Buffon, which ranks among his best works. Dependent on
government pensions he changed his politics with the times.
Calonne he compared to the great Sully, and Louis XVI. to
Henry IV., but the Terror nevertheless found in him its official
poet. He occupied rooms in the Louvre, and fulfilled his obliga-
tions by shameless attacks on the unfortunate king and queen.
His excellent ode on the Vengeur and the Ode nationale centre
A ngleterre on the occasion of the projected invasion of England
are in honour of the power of Napoleon. This " versatility "
has so much injured Lebrun's reputation that it is difficult
to appreciate his real merit. He had a genius for epigram,
and the quatrains and dizaines directed against his many
enemies have a verve generally lacking in his odes. The one
directed against La Harpe is called by Sainte-Beuve the " queen
of epigrams." La Harpe has said that the poet, called by his
friends, perhaps with a spice of irony, Lebrun-Pindare, had
written many fine strophes but not one good ode. The critic
exposed mercilessly the obscurities and unlucky images which
occur even in the ode to Buffon, and advised the author to
imitate the simplicity and energy that adorned Buffon's prose.
Lebrun died in Paris on the 3ist of August 1807.
His works were published by his friend P. L. Ginguenfi in 1811.
The best of them are included in Prosper Poitevin's " Petits poetes
franfais," which forms part of the " Pantheon litteraire."
LE CARON, HENRI (whose real name was THOMAS MILLER
BEACH) (1841-1894), British secret service agent, was born at
Colchester, on the 26th of September 1841. He was of an
adventurous character, and when nineteen years old went to
Paris, where he found employment in business connected with
America. Infected with the excitement of the American Civil
War, he crossed the Atlantic in 1861 and enlisted in the Northern
army, taking the name of Henri Le Caron. In 1864 he married
a young lady who had helped him to escape from some Confederate
marauders; and by the end of the war he rose to be major.
In 1865, through a companion in arms named O'Neill, he was
brought into contact with Fenianism, and having learnt of the
Fenian plot against Canada, he mentioned the designs when
writing home to his father. Mr Beach told his local M.P., who
in turn told the Home Secretary, and the latter asked Mr Beach
to arrange for further information. Le Caron, inspired (as all
the evidence shows) by genuinely patriotic feeling, from that
LE GATEAU— LE CHAPELIER
353
time till 1889 acted for the British government as a paid military
spy. He was a proficient in medicine, among other qualifica-
tions for this post, and he remained for years on intimate terms
with the most extreme men in the Fenian organization under
ill its forms. His services enabled the British government
to take measures which led to the fiasco of the Canadian invasion
of 1870 and Kiel's surrender in 1871, and he supplied full details
concerning the various Irish-American associations, in which
he himself was a prominent member. He was in the secrets of
the " new departure " in 1879-1881, and in the latter year had
an interview with Parnell at the House of Commons, when the
Irish leader spoke sympathetically of an armed revolution in
Ireland. For twenty-five years he lived at Detroit and other
places in America, paying occasional visits to Europe, and all
the time carrying his life in his hand. The Parnell Commission
of 1889 put an end to this. Le 'Caron was subpoenaed by The
Times, and in the witness-box the whole story came out, all the
efforts of Sir Charles Russell in cross-examination failing to shake
his testimony, or to impair the impression of iron tenacity and
absolute truthfulness which his bearing conveyed. His career,
however, for good or evil, was at an end. He published the
story of his life, Twenty-five Years in the Secret Service, and
it had an immense circulation. But he had to be constantly
guarded, his acquaintances were hampered from seeing him, and
he was the victim of a painful disease, of which he died on the
ist of April 1894. The report of the Parnell Commission is his
monument.
LE CATEAU, or CATEAU-CAMBRESIS, a town of northern
France, in the department of Nord, on the Selle, 15 m. E.S.E.
of Cambrai by road. Pop. (1906) 10,400. A church of the early
1 7th century and a town-hall in the Renaissance style are its
chief buildings. Its institutions include a board of trade-
arbitration and a communal college, and its most important
industries are wool-spinning and weaving. Formed by the union
of the two villages of Peronne and Vendelgies, under the pro-
tection of a castle built by the bishop of Cambrai, Le Cateau
became the seat of an abbey in the nth century. In the isth
it was frequently taken and retaken, and in 1556 it was burned
by the French, who in 1559 signed a celebrated treaty with Spain
in the town. It was finally ceded to France by the peace of
Nijmwegen in 1678.
LECCE (anc. Lupiae), a town and archiepiscopal see of Apulia,
Italy, capital of the province of Lecce, 24 m. S.E. of Brindisi
by rail. Pop. (1906) 35,179. The town is remarkable for the
number of buildings of the i7th century, in the rococo style,
which it contains; among these are the cathedral of S. Oronzo,
and the churches of S. Chiara, S. Croce, S. Domenico, &c., the
Seminario, and the Prefettura (the latter contains a museum,
with a collection of Greek vases, &c.). Buildings of an earlier
period are not numerous, but the fine portal of the Romanesque
church of SS. Nicola e Cataldo, built by Tancred in 1180, may
be noted. Another old church is S. Maria di Cerrate, near the
town. Lecce contains a large government tobacco factory,
and is the centre of a fertile agricultural district. To the E.
7! m. is the small harbour of S. Cataldo, reached by electric
tramway. Lecce is quite close to the site of the ancient
Lupiae, equidistant (25 m.) from Brundusium and Hydruntum,
remains of which are mentioned as existing up to the i sthcentury.
A colony was founded there in Roman times, and Hadrian made
a harbour — no doubt at S. Cataldo. Hardly a mile* west was
Rudiae, the birthplace of the poet Ennius, spoken of by Silius
Italicus as worthy of mention for that reason alone. Its site
was marked by the now deserted village of Rugge. The name
Lycea, or Lycia, begins to appear in the 6th century. The
city was for some time held by counts of Norman blood, among
whom the most noteworthy is Bohemond, son of Robert Guiscard.
It afterwards passed to the Orsini. The rank of provincial
capital was bestowed by Ferdinand of Aragon in acknowledgment
of the fidelity of Lecce to his cause. (T. As.)
See M. S. Briggs, In the Heel of Italy (1910).
LECCO, a town of Lombardy, in the province of Como, 32 m.
by rail N. by E. of Milan, and reached by steamer from Como,
XVI. 12
673 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 10,352. It is situated
near the southern extremity of the eastern branch of the Lake of
Como, which is frequently distinguished as the Lake of Lecco.
At Lecco begins the line (run by electricity) to Colico, whence
there are branches to Chiavenna and Sondrio; and another
line runs to Bergamo. To the south the Adda is crossed by a
fine bridge originally constructed in 1335, and rebuilt in 1609
by Fuentes. Lecco, in spite of its antiquity, presents a modern
appearance, almost the only old building being its castle, of which
a part remains. Its schools are particularly good. Besides
iron-works, there are copper-works, brass-foundries, olive-oil
mills and a manufacture of wax candles; and silk-spinning,
cotton-spinning and wood-carving. In the neighbourhood
is the villa of Caleotto, . the residence of Alessandro Manzoni,
who in his Promessi Sposi has left a full description of the district.
A statue has been erected to him.
In the nth century Lecco, previously the seat of a marquisate,
was presented to the bishops of Como by Otto II.; but in the
i2th century it passed to the archbishops of Milan, and in 1127
it assisted the Milanese in the destruction of Como. During the
1 3th century it was struggling for its existence with the metro-
politan city; and its fate seemed to be sealed when the Visconti
drove its inhabitants across the lake to Valmadrera, and forbade
them to raise their town from its ashes. But in a few years
the people returned; Azzone Visconti made Lecco a strong
fortress, and in 1335 united it with the Milanese territory by a
bridge across the Adda. During the isth and i6th centuries
the citadel of Lecco was an object of endless contention. In
1 647 the town with its territory was made a countship. Morone,
Charles V.'s Italian chancellor, was born in Lecco.
See A. L. Apostolo, Lecco ed il suo territorio (Lecco, 1855).
LECH (Licus), a river of Germany in the kingdom of Bavaria,
177 m. long, with a drainage basin of 2550 sq. m. It rises in
the Vorarlberg Alps, at an altitude of 6120 ft. It winds out of
the gloomy limestone mountains, flows in a north-north-easterly
direction, and enters the plains at Fussen (2580 ft.), where it
forms rapids and a fall, then pursues a northerly course past
Augsburg, where it receives the Wertach, and joins the Danube
from the right just below Donauworth (1330 ft.). It is not
navigable, owing to its torrential character and the gravel beds
which choke its channel. More than once great historic events
have been decided upon its banks. On the Lechfeld, a stony
waste some miles long, between the Lech and the Wertach, the
emperor Otto I. defeated the Hungarians in August 955. Tilly,
in attempting to defend the passage of the stream at Rain against
the forces of Gustavus Adolphus, was fatally wounded, on the
5th of April 1632. The river was formerly the boundary between
Bavaria and Swabia.
LE CHAMBON, or LE CHAMBON-FEUGEROLLES, a town of
east-central France in the department of Loire, 75 m. S.W.
of St Etienne by rail, on the Ondaine, a tributary of the Loire.
Pop. (1906) town, 7525; commune, 12,011. Coal is mined in
the neighbourhood, and there are forges, steel works, manu-
factures of tools and other iron goods, and silk mills. The feudal
castle of Feugerolles on a hill to the south-east dates in part
from the nth century.
Between Le Chambon and St Etienne is La Ricamarie (pop.
of town 5289) also of importance for its coal-mines. Many
of the galleries of a number of these mines are on fire, probably
from spontaneous combustion. According to popular tradition
these fires date from the time of the Saracens; more authenti-
cally from the i sth century.
LE CHAPELIER, ISAAC RENfi GUY (1754-1794), French
politician, was born at Rennes on the i2th of June 1754, his
father being bdtonnier of the corporation of lawyers in that town.
He entered his father's profession, and had some success as an
orator. In 1789 he was elected as a deputy to the States General
by the Tiers-Etat of the senechaussee of Rennes. He adopted
advanced opinions, and was one of the founders of the Breton
Club (see JACOBIN CLUB); his influence in the Constituent
Assembly was considerable, and on the 3rd of August 1789 he
was elected its president. Thus he presided over the Assembly
354-
LECHLER— LE CLERC
during the important period following the 4th of August; he
took an active part in the debates, and was a leading member
of the committee which drew up the new constitution; he
further presented a report on the liberty of theatres and on
literary copyright. He was also conspicuous as opposing Robes-
pierre when he proposed that members of the Constituent
Assembly should not be eligible for election to the proposed new
Assembly. After the flight of the king to Varennes (aoth of June
1792), his opinions became more moderate, and on the zpth of
September he brought forward a motion to restrict the action
of the clubs. This, together with a visit which he paid to England
in 1792 made him suspect, and he was denounced on his return
for conspiring with foreign nations. He went into hiding, but
was discovered in consequence of a pamphlet which he published
to defend himself, arrested and condemned to death by the
Revolutionary Tribunal. He was executed at Paris on the
2 2nd of April 1794.
See A. Aulard, Les Oraieurs de la constituante (2nd ed., Paris,
1905) ; R. Kerviler, Recherches el notices sur les deputes de la Bretagne
aux etats generaux (2 vols., Rennes, 1888-1889); P- J- Levot,
Biographic bretonne (2 vols., 1853-1857).
LECHLER, GOTTHARD VICTOR (1811-1888), German
Lutheran theologian, was born on the i8th of April 1811 at
Kloster Reichenbach in Wurttemberg. He studied at Tubingen
under F. C. Baur, and became in 1858 pastor of the church of
St Thomas, professor ordinarius of historical theology and
superintendent of the Lutheran church of Leipzig. He died
on the 26th of December 1888. A disciple of Neander, he
belonged to the extreme right of the school of mediating theo-
logians. He is important as the historian of early Christianity
and of the pre-Reformation period. Although F. C. Baur was
his teacher, he did not attach himself to the Tubingen school;
in reply to the contention that there are traces of a sharp con-
flict between two parties, Paulinists and Petrinists, he says that
" we find variety coupled with agreement, and unity with differ-
ence, between Paul and the earlier apostles; we recognize the
one spirit in the many gifts." His Das apostolische und das
nachapostolische Zeilalter (1851), which developed out of a prize
essay (1849), passed through three editions in Germany (3rd
ed., 1885), and was translated into English (2 vols., 1886). The
work which in his own opinion was his greatest, Johann von
Wiclif und die Vorgeschichle der Reformation (2 vols., 1873),
appeared in English with the title John Wiclif and his English
Precursors (1878, new ed., 1884). An earlier work, Geschichte
des engl. Deismus (1841), is still regarded as a valuable con-
tribution to the study of religious thought in England.
Lechler's other works include Geschichte der Presbyterial- und
Synodal-verfassung (1854), Urkundenfunde zur Geschichte des christl.
Allertums (1886), and biographies of Thomas Bradwardine (1862)
and Robert Grosseteste (1867). He wrote part of the commentary
on the Acts of the Apostles in J. P. Lange's Bibelwerk. From 1882
he edited with F. W. Dibelius the Beitrage zur sdchsischen Kirchen-
geschichte. Johannes Hus (1890) was published after his death.
LECKY, WILLIAM EDWARD HARTPOLE (1838-1903),
Irish historian and publicist, was born at Newtown Park, near
Dublin, on the 26th of March 1838, being the eldest son of
John Hartpole Lecky, whose family had for many generations
been landowners in Ireland. He was educated at Kingstown,
Armagh, and Cheltenham College, and at Trinity College, Dublin,
where he graduated B.A. in 1859 and M.A. in 1863, and where,
with a view to becoming a clergyman in the Irish Protestant
Church, he went through a course of divinity. In 1860 he
published anonymously a small book entitled The Religious
Tendencies of the Age, but on leaving college he abandoned his
first intention and turned to historical work. In 1861 he pub-
lished Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland, a brief sketch of the
lives and work of Swift, Flood, Grattan and O'Connell, which
gave decided promise of his later admirable work in the same
field. This book, originally published anonymously, was repub-
lished in 1871; and the essay on Swift, rewritten and amplified,
appeared again in 1897 as an introduction to a new edition of
Swift's works. Two learned surveys of certain aspects of history
followed: A History of the Rise and Influence of Rationalism
in Europe (2 vols., 1865), and A History of European Morals
from Augustus to Charlemagne (2 vols., 1869). Some criticism
was aroused by these books, especially by the last named, with
its opening dissertation on " the natural history of morals,"
but both have been generally accepted as acute and suggestive
commentaries upon a wide range of facts. Lecky then devoted
himself to the chief work of his life, A History of England during
the Eighteenth Century, vols. i. and ii. of which appeared in
1878, and vols. vii. and viii. (completing the work) in 1890.
His object was " to disengage from the great mass of facts those
which relate to the permanent forces of the nation, or which
indicate some of the more enduring features of national life,"
and in the carrying out of this task Lecky displays many of the
qualities of a great historian. The work is distinguished by the
lucidity of its style, but the fulness and extent of the authorities
referred to, and, above all, by the judicial impartiality maintained
by the author throughout. These qualities are perhaps most
conspicuous and most valuable in the chapters which deal
with the history of Ireland, and in the cabinet edition of 1892,
in 12 vols. (frequently reprinted) this part of the work is separated
from the rest, and occupies five volumes under the title of A
History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century. A volume of
Poems, published in 1891, was characterized by a certain frigidity
and by occasional lapses into commonplace, objections which
may also be fairly urged against much of Lecky's prose-writing.
In 1896 he published two volumes entitled Democracy and
Liberty, in which he considered, with special reference to Great
Britain, France and America, some of the tendencies of modern
democracies. The somewhat gloomy conclusions at which he
arrived provoked much criticism both in Great Britain and
America, which was renewed when he published in a new edition
(1899) an elaborate and very depreciatory estimate of Gladstone,
then recently dead. This work, though essentially different
from the author's purely historical writings, has many of their
merits, though it was inevitable that other minds should take
a different view of the evidence. In The Map of Life (1900)
he discussed in a popular style some of the ethical problems
which arise in everyday life. In 1903 he published a revised
and greatly enlarged edition of Leaders of Public Opinion in
Ireland, in two volumes, from which the essay on Swift was
omitted and that on O'Connell was expanded into a complete
biography of the great advocate of repeal of the Union. Though
always a keen sympathizer with the Irish people in their mis-
fortunes and aspirations, and though he had criticized severely
the methods by which the Act of Union was passed, Lecky, who
grew up as a moderate Liberal, was from the first strenuously
opposed to Gladstone's policy of Home Rule, and in 1895 he
was returned to parliament as Unionist member for Dublin
University. In 1897 he was made a privy councillor, and among
the coronation honours in 1902 he was nominated an original
member of the new Order of Merit. His university honours
included the degree of LL.D. from Dublin, St Andrews and
Glasgow, the degree of D.C.L. from Oxford and the degree of
Litt.D. from Cambridge. In 1894 he was elected corresponding
member of the Institute of France. He contributed occasionally
to periodical literature, and two of his addresses, The Political
Value of History (1892) and The Empire, its Value and its Growth
(1893), were published. He died in London on the 22nd of
October 1903. He married in 1871 Elizabeth, baroness de
Dedem, daughter of baron de Dedem, a general in the Dutch
service, but had no children. Mrs Lecky contributed to various
reviews a number of articles, chiefly on historical and political
subjects. A volume of Lecky's Historical and Political Essays
was published posthumously (London, 1908).
LE CLERC [CLERICUS], JEAN (1657-1736), French Protestant
theologian, was born on the igth of March 1657 at Geneva,
where his father, Stephen Le Clerc, was professor of Greek.
The family originally belonged to the neighbourhood of Beauvais
in France, and several of its members acquired some name in
literature. Jean Le Clerc applied himself to the study of phil-
osophy under J. R. Chouet (1642-1731) the Cartesian, and
attended the theological lectures of P. Mestrezat, Franz Turretin
and Louis Tronchin (1629-1705). In 1678-1679 he spent some
LECOCQ— LE CONTE
355
time at Grenoble as tutor in a private family; on his return to
Geneva he passed his examinations and received ordination.
Soon afterwards he went to Saumur, where in 1679 were pub-
lished Liberii de Sanclo Amore Epistolae Theologicae (Irenopoli:
Typis Philalethianis), usually attributed to him; they deal with
the doctrine of the Trinity, the hypostatic union of the two
natures in Jesus Christ, original sin, and the like, in a manner
sufficiently far removed from that of the conventional orthodoxy
of the period. In 1682 he went to London, where he remained
six months, preaching on alternate Sundays in the Walloon
church and in the Savoy chapel. Passing to Amsterdam he was
introduced to John Locke and to Philip v. Limborch, professor
at the Remonstrant college; the acquaintance with Limborch
soon ripened into a close friendship, which strengthened his
preference for the Remonstrant- theology, already favourably
known to him by the writings of his grand-uncle, Stephan Curcel-
laeus (d. 1645) and by those of Simon Episcopius. A last attempt
to live at Geneva, made at the request of relatives there, satisfied
him that the theological atmosphere was uncongenial, and in
1684 he finally settled at Amsterdam, first as a moderately
successful preacher, until ecclesiastical jealousy shut him out
from that career, and afterwards as professor of philosophy,
belles-lettres and Hebrew in the Remonstrant seminary. This
appointment, which he owed to Limborch, he held from 1684,
and in 1712 on the death of his friend he was called to occupy
the chair of church history also. His suspected Socinianism
was the cause, it is said, of his exclusion from the chair of dog-
matic theology. Apart from his literary labours, Le Clerc's
life at Amsterdam was uneventful. In 1691 he married a
daughter of Gregorio Leti. From 1728 onward he was subject
to repeated strokes of paralysis, and he died on the 8th of January
1736-
A full catalogue of the publications of Le Clerc will be found,
with biographical material, in E. and E. Haag's France Protestante
(where seventy-three works are enumerated), or in J. G. de Chauffe-
pie's Dictionnaire. Only the most important of these can be men-
tioned here. In 1685 he published Sentimens de quelques theologiens
de Hollands sur Vhistoire critique du Vieux Testament composee par
le P. Richard Simon, in which, while pointing out what he believed
to be the faults of that author, he undertook to make some positive
contributions towards a right understanding of the Bible. Among
these last may be noted his argument against the Mosaic author-
ship of the Pentateuch, his views as to the manner in which the
five books were composed, his opinions (singularly free for the time
in which he lived) on the subject of inspiration in general, and
particularly as to the inspiration of Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes,
Canticles. Richard Simon's Reponse (1686) elicited from Le Clerc
a Defense des sentimens in the same year, which was followed by a new
Reponse (1687). In 1692 appeared his Logica sive Ars Ratiocinandi,
and also Ontologia et Pneumatologia; these, with the Physica
(1695), are incorporated with the Opera Philosophica, which have
passed through several editions. In 1693 his series of Biblical
commentaries began with that on Genesis; the series was not com-
pleted until 1731. The portion relating to the New Testament
books included the paraphrase and notes of Henry Hammond
(1605-1660). Le Clerc's commentary had a great influence in
breaking up traditional prejudices and showing the necessity for a
more scientific inquiry into the origin and meaning of the biblical
books. It was on all sides hotly attacked. His Ars Critica appeared
in 1696, and, in continuation, Epistolae Criticae et Ecclesiasticae in
1700. Le Clerc's new edition of the Apostolic Fathers of Johann
Cotelerius (1627-1686), published in 1698, marked an advance in
the critical study of these documents. But the greatest literary
influence of Le Clerc was probably that which he exercised over
his contemporaries by means of the serials, or, if one may so call
them, reviews, of which he was editor. These were the Bibliotheque
•universelle et historique (Amsterdam, 25 vols. 12 mo., 1686-1693),
begun with J. C. de la Croze; the Bibliotheque choisie (Amsterdam,
28 vols., 1703-1713); and the Bibliotheque ancienne et moderne,
(29 vols., 1714-1726).
See Le Clerc's Parrhasiana ou pensees sur des matieres de critique,
d'histoire, de morale, et de politique: avec la defense de divers outrages
de M. L. C. par Theodore Parrhase (Amsterdam, 1699) ; and Vita et
opera ad annum MDCCXL, amid ejus opusculum, philosophicis
Clerici operibus subjiciendum, also attributed to himself. The
supplement to Hammond's notes was translated into English in
1699, Parrhasiana, or Thoughts on Several Subjects, in 1700, the
Harmony of the Gospels in 1701, and Twelve Dissertations out of M,
Le Clerc's Genesis in 1696.
t LECOCQ, ALEXANDRE CHARLES (1832- ), French
nusical composer, was born in Paris, on the 3rd of June 1832.
*
He was admitted into the Conservatoire in 1849, being already
an accomplished pianist. He studied under Bazin, Halevy and
Benoist, winning the first prize for harmony in 1850, and the
second prize for fugue in 1852. He first gained notice by dividing
with Bizet the first prize for an operetta in a competition in-
stituted by Offenbach. His operetta, Le Docteur miracle, was
performed at the Bouffes Parisiens in 1857. After that he wrote
constantly for theatres, but produced nothing worthy of mention
until Fleur de the (1868), which ran for more than a hundred
nights. Les Cent merges (1872) was favourably received also,
but all his previous successes were cast into the shade by La
Fille de Madame Angot (Paris, 1873; London, 1873), which was
performed for 400 nights consecutively, and has since gained and
retained enormous popularity. After 1873 Lecocq produced a
large number of comic operas, though he never equalled his early
triumph in La Fille de Madame Angot. Among the best of his
pieces are Girofle-Girofla (Paris and London, 1874); Les Pres
Sainl-Gervais (Paris and London, 1874); La Petite Mariee
(Paris, 1875; London, 1876, revived as The Scarlet Feather, 1897);
Le Petit Due (Paris, 1878; London, as The Little Duke, 1878);
La Petite Mademoiselle (Paris, 1879; London, 1880); Le Jour
et la Nuit (Paris, 1881; London, as Manola, 1882); LeCceuret
la main (Paris, 1882; London, as Incognita, 1893); La Princesse
des Canaries (Paris, 1883; London, as Pepita, 1888). In 1899
a ballet by Lecocq, entitled Le Cygne, was staged at the Opera
Comique, Paris; and in 1903 Yetta was produced at Brussels.
LECOINTE-PUYRAVEAU, MICHEL MATHIEU (1764-1827),
French politician, was born at Saint-Maixent (Deux-Sevres)
on the I3th of December 1764. Deputy for his department to
the Legislative Assembly in 1792, and to the Convention in the
same year, he voted for " the death of the tyrant." His associa-
tion with the Girondins nearly involved him in their fall, in
spite of his vigorous republicanism. He took part in the revolu-
tion of Thermidor, but protested against the establishment of
the Directory, and continually pressed for severer measures
against the emigres, and even their relations who had remained
in France. He was secretary and then president of the Council
of Five Hundred, and under the Consulate a member of the
Tribunate. He took no part in public affairs under the Empire,
but was lieutenant-general of police for south-east France
during the Hundred Days. After Waterloo he took ship from
Toulon, but the ship was driven back by a storm and he narrowly
escaped massacre at Marseilles. After six weeks' imprisonment
in the Chateau d'lf he returned to Paris, escaping, after the
proscription of the regicides, to Brussels, where he died on the
1 5th of January 1827.
LE CONTE, JOSEPH (1823-1901), American geologist, of
Huguenot descent, was born in Liberty county, Georgia, on the
26th of February 1823. He was educated at FrankJin College,
Georgia, where he graduated (1841); he afterwards studied
medicine and received his degree at the New York College of
Physicians and Surgeons in 1845. After practising for three
or four years at Macon, Georgia, he entered Harvard, and studied
natural history under L. Agassiz. An excursion made with
Professors J. Hall and Agassiz to the Helderberg mountains of
New York developed a keen interest in geology. After graduating
at Harvard, Le Conte in 1851 accompanied Agassiz on an
expedition to study the Florida reefs. On his return he became
professor of natural science in Oglethorpe University, Georgia;
and from 1852 to 1856 professor of natural history and geology
in Franklin College. From 1857 to 1869 he was professor of
chemistry and geology in South Carolina College, and he was
then appointed professor of geology and natural history in the
university of California, a post which he held until his death.
He published a series of papers on monocular and binocular
vision, and also on psychology. His chief contributions, how-
ever, related to geology, and in all he wrote he was lucid and
philosophical. He described the fissure-eruptions in western
America, discoursed on earth-crust movements and their causes
and on the great features of the earth's surface. As separate
works he published Elements of Geology (1878, sth ed. 1889);
Religion and Science (1874); and Evolution: its History, its
356
LECONTE DE LISLE— LECOUVREUR
Evidences, and its Relation to Religious Thought (1888). He was
president of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science in 1892, and of the Geological Society of America in
1896. He died in the Yosemite Valley, California, on the 6th
of June 1901.
See Obituary by J. J. Stevenson, Annals of New York Acad. of
Sciences, vol. xiv. (1902), p. 150.
LECONTE DE LISLE, CHARLES MARIE REN6 (1818-1894),
French poet, was born in the island of Reunion on the 22nd of
October 1818. His father, an army surgeon, who brought him
up with great severity, sent him to travel in the East Indies
with a view to preparing him for a commercial life. After this
voyage he went to Rennes to complete his education, studying
especially Greek, Italian and history. He returned once or
twice to Reunion, but in 1846 settled definitely in Paris. His
first volume, La Venus de Milo, attracted to him a number
of friends many of whom were passionately devoted to classical
literature. In 1873 ne was made assistant librarian at the
Luxembourg; in 1886 he was elected to the Academy in succes-
sion to Victor Hugo. His Poemes antiques appeared in 1852;
Poemes et poesies in 1854; Le Chemin de la croix in 1859; the
Poemes barbares, in their first form, in 1862; Les Erinnyes,
a tragedy after the Greek model, in 1872; for which occasional
music was provided by Jules Massenet; the Poemes tragiques
in 1884; L'Apollonide, another classical tragedy, in 1888;
and two posthumous volumes, Derniers poemes in 1899, and
Premieres poesies et letlres intimes in 1902. In addition to his
original work in verse, he published a series of admirable prose
translations of Theocritus, Homer, Hesiod, Aeschylus, Sophocles,
Euripides, Horace. He died at Voisins, near Louveciennes
(Seine-et-Oise), on the i8th of July 1894.
In Leconte de Lisle the Parnassian movement seems to
crystallize. His verse is clear, sonorous, dignified, deliberate
in movement, classically correct in rhythm, full of exotic local
colour, of savage names, of realistic rhetoric. It has its own
kind of romance, in its " legend of the ages," so different from
Hugo's, so much fuller of scholarship and the historic sense,
yet with far less of human pity. Coldness cultivated as a kind
of artistic distinction seems to turn all his poetry to marble,
in spite of the fire at its heart. Most of Leconte de Lisle's poems
are little chill epics, in which legend is fossilized. They have
the lofty monotony of a single conception of life and of the
universe. He sees the world as what Byron called it, " a glorious
blunder," and desires only to stand a little apart from the
throng, meditating scornfully. Hope, with him, becomes no
more than this desperate certainty: —
" Tu te tairas, 6 voix sinistre des vivants! "
His only prayer is to Death, " divine Death," that it may gather
its children to its breast: —
" Affranchis-nou? du temps, du nombre et de 1'espace,
Et rends-nous le repos que la vie a trouble!"
The interval which is his he accepts with something of the
defiance of his own Cain, refusing to fill it with the triviality
of happiness, waiting even upon beauty with a certain inflexible
austerity. He listens and watches, throughout the world, for
echoes and glimpses of great tragic passions, languid with fire
in the East, a tumultuous conflagration in the middle ages,
a sombre darkness in the heroic ages of the North. The burning
emptiness of the desert attracts him, the inexplicable melancholy
of the dogs thai: bark at the moon; he would interpret the
jaguar's dreams, the sleep of the condor. He sees nature with
the same wrathful impatience as man, praising it for its destruc-
tive energies, its haste to crush out human life before the stars
fall into chaos, and the world with them, as one of the least
of stars. He sings the " Dies Irae " exultingly; only seeming
to desire an end of God as well as of man, universal nothingness.
He conceives that he does well to be angry, and this anger is
indeed the personal note of his pessimism; but it leaves him
somewhat apart from the philosophical poets, too fierce for
wisdom and not rapturous enough for poetry. (A. SY.)
See J. Dornis, Leconte de Lisle intime (1895); F. Calmette, Un
Demi siecle litteraire, Leconte de Lisle et ses amis (1902) ; Paul Bourget,
I Nouveaux essais de psychologie contemporaine (1885); F. Brunetiere,
L'Uvolution de la poesie lyrique en France au XIX' siecle (1894);
Maurice Spronck, Les Artistes litteraires (1880); J. Lemaitre, Les
Contemporains (and series, 1886) ; F. Brunetiere, Nouveaux essais
sur la lilt, contemp. (1895).
LE COQ, ROBERT (d. 1373), French bishop, was born at
Montdidier, although he belonged to a bourgeois family of
Orleans, where he first attended school before coming to Paris.
In Paris he became advocate to the parlement (1347); then
King John appointed him master of requests, and in 1351,
a year during which he received many other honours, he became
bishop of Laon. At the opening of 1354 he was sent with the
cardinal of Boulogne, Pierre I., duke of Bourbon, and Jean VI.,
count of Vendome, to Mantes to treat with Charles the Bad,
king of Navarre, who had caused the constable, Charles of Spain,
to be assassinated, and from this time dates his connexion with
this king. At the meeting of the estates which opened in Paris
in October 1356 Le Coq played a leading role and was one of
the most outspoken of the orators, especially when petitions
were presented to the dauphin Charles, denouncing the bad
government of the realm and demanding the banishment of
the royal councillors. Soon, however, the credit of the estates
having gone down, he withdrew to his diocese, but at the request
of the bourgeois of Paris he speedily returned. The king of
Navarre had succeeded in escaping from prison and had entered
Paris, where his party was in the ascendant; and Robert le Coq
became the most powerful person in his council. No one dared
to contradict him, and he brought into it whom he pleased.
He did not scruple to reveal to the king of Navarre secret delibera-
tions, but his fortune soon turned. He ran great danger at the
estates of Compiegne in May 1358, where his dismissal was
demanded, and he had to flee to St Denis, where Charles the
Bad and Etienne Marcel came to find him. After the death
of Marcel, he tried, unsuccessfully, to deliver Laon, his episcopal
town, to the king of Navarre, and he was excluded from the
amnesty promised in the treaty of Calais (1360) by King John
to the partisans of Charles the Bad. His temporalities had
been seized, and he was obliged to flee from France. In 1363,
thanks to the support of the king of Navarre, he was given the
bishopric of Calahorra in the kingdom of Aragon, which he
administered until his death in 1373.
See L. C. Douet d'Arcq, " Acte d'accusation centre Robert le Coq,
eveque de Laon " in Bibliotheque de I'Ecole des Charles, 1st series, t. it.,
pp. 350-387; and R. Delachenal, " La Bibliotheque d'un avocat du
XIV" siecle, inventaire estimatif des livres de Robert le Coq," in
Nouvelle revue historique de droitfran^ais et etr anger ( 1 887) , pp. 524-537.
LECOUVREUR, ADRIENNE (1692-1730), French actress,
was born on the sth of April 1692, at Damery, Marne, the
daughter of a hatter, Robert Couvreur. She had an unhappy
childhood in Paris. She showed a natural talent for declamation
and was instructed by La Grand, societaire of the Comedie
Francaise, and with his help she obtained a provincial engage-
ment. It was not until 1717, after a long apprenticeship, that
she made her Paris debut as Electre, in Cr^billon's tragedy
of that name, and Angelique in Moliere's George Dandin. Her
success was so great that she was immediately received into
the Com6die Francaise, and for thirteen years she was the
queen of tragedy there, attaining a popularity never before
accorded an actress. She is said to have played no fewer than
1184 times in a hundred roles, of which she created twenty-two.
She owed her success largely to her courage in abandoning the
stilted style of elocution of her predecessors for a naturalness
of delivery and a touching simplicity of pathos that delighted
and moved her public. In Baron, who returned to the stage at
the age of sixty-seven, she had an able and powerful coadjutor
in changing the stage traditions of generations. The jealousy
she aroused was partly due to her social successes, which were
many, in spite of the notorious freedom of her manner of life.
She was on visiting and dining terms with half the court, and her
salon was frequented by Voltaire and all the other notables
and men of letters. She was the mistress of Maurice de Saxe
from 1721, and sold her plate and jewels to supply him with
funds for his ill-starred adventures as duke of Courland. By
him she had a daughter, her third, who was grandmother of
LE CREUSOT— LECTISTERNIUM
357
the father of George Sand. Adrienne Lecouvreur died on
the 2oth of March 1730. She was denied the last rites of the
Church, and her remains were refused burial in consecrated
ground. Voltaire, in a fine poem on her death, expressed his
indignation at the barbarous treatment accorded to the woman
whose " friend, admirer, lover " he was.
Her life formed the subject of the well-known tragedy (1849),
by Eugene Scribe and Ernest Legouve.
LE CREUSOT, a town of east-central France in the department
of Sa6ne-et-Loire, 55 m. S.W. of Dijon on the Paris-Lyon
railway. Pop. (1006), town, 22,535; commune, 33,437. Situated
at the foot of lofty hills in a district rich in coal and iron, it has
the most extensive iron works in France. The coal bed of
Le Creusot was discovered in the i3th century; but it was not
till 1774 that the first workshops were founded there. The royal
crystal works were transferred from Sevres to Le Creusot in
1787, but this industry came to an end in 1831. Meanwhile
two or three enterprises for the manufacture of metal had ended
in failure, and it was only in 1836 that the foundation of iron
works by Adolphe and Eugene Schneider definitely inaugurated
the industrial prosperity of the place. The works supplied large
quantities of war material to the French armies during the
Crimean and Franco-German wars. Since that time they have
continuously enlarged the scope of their operations, which now
embrace the manufacture of steel, armour-plate, guns, ordnance-
stores, locomotives, electrical machinery and engineering material
of every description. A net- work of railways about 37 m. in
length connects the various branches of the works with each
other and with the neighbouring Canal du Centre. Special
attention is paid to the welfare of the workers who, not including
the miners, number about 12,000, and good schools have been
established. In 1897 the ordnance-manufacture of the Societe
des Forges et Chantiers de la Mediterranee at Havre was acquired
by the Company, which also has important branches at Chalon-
sur-Sa6ne, where ship-building and bridge-construction is carried
on, and at Cette (Herault).
LECTERN (through O. Fr. leilrun, from Late Lat. leclrum, or
leclrinum, legere, to read; the French equivalent is lairing
Ital. leggio; Ger. Lesepult), in the furniture of certain Christian
churches, a reading-desk, used more especially for the reading
of the lessons and in the Anglican Church practically confined
to that purpose. In the early Christian Church this was done
from the ambo (q.v.), but in the isth century, when the books
were often of great size, it became necessary to provide a lectern
to hold them. These were either in wood or metal, and many
fine examples still exist; one at Detling in wood, in which there
are shelves on all four sides to hold books, is perhaps the most
elaborate. Brass lecterns, as in the colleges of Oxford and
Cambridge, are common; in the usual type the book is supported
on the outspread wings of an eagle or pelican, which is raised
on a moulded stem, carried on three projecting ledges or feet
with lions on them. In the example in Norwich cathedral,
the pelican supporting the book stands on a rock enclosed with
a rich cresting of Gothic tabernacle work; the central stem or
pillar, on which this rests, is supported by miniature projecting
buttresses, standing on a moulded base with lions on it.
LECTION, LECTIONARY. The custom of reading the books
of Moses in the synagogues on the Sabbath day was a very ancient
one in the Jewish Church. The addition of lections (i.e. readings)
from the prophetic books had been made afterwards and was in
existence in our Lord's time, as may be gathered from such
passages as St Luke iv. 16-20, xvi. 29. This element in
synagogue worship was taken over with others into the Christian
divine service, additions being made to it from the writings
of the apostles and evangelists. We find traces of such additions
within the New Testament itself in such directions as are con-
tained in Col. iv. 16; i Thess. v. 27.
From the 2nd century onwards references multiply, though
the earlier references do not prove the existence of a fixed
lectionary or order of lessons, but rather point the other way.
Justin Martyr, describing divine worship in the middle of the
2nd century says: " On the day called Sunday all who live in
cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the
memoirs of the Apostles, or the writings of the Prophets are
read as long as time permits " (Apol. i. cap. 67). Tertullian
about half a century later makes frequent reference to the reading
of Holy Scripture in public worship (Apol. 39; De praescript.
36; De amina, 9).
In the canons of Hippolytus in the first half of the 3rd century
we find this direction: " Let presbyters, subdeacons and readers,
and all the people assemble daily in the church at time of cock-
crow, and betake themselves to prayers, to psalms and to the
reading of the Scriptures, according to the command of the
Apostles, until I come attend to reading " (canon xxi.).
But there are traces of fixed lessons coming into existence in
the course of this century; Origen refers to the book of Job
being read in Holy Week (Commentaries on Job, lib. i.). Allusions
of a similar kind in the 4th century are frequent. John Cassian
(c. 380) tells us that throughout Egypt the Psalms were divided
into groups of twelve, and that after each group there followed
two lessons, one from the Old, orte from the New Testament
(De caenob. inst. ii. 4), implying but not absolutely stating that
there was a fixed order of such lessons just as there was of the
Psalms. St Basil the Great mentions fixed lessons on certain
occasions taken from Isaiah, Proverbs, St Matthew and Acts
(Horn. xiii. De bapt.). From Chrysostom (Horn. Ixiii. in Act.
&c.), and Augustine (Tract, vi. in Joann. &c.) we learn that
Genesis was read in Lent, Job and Jonah in Passion Week, the
Acts of the Apostles in Eastertide, lessons on the Passion on
Good Friday and on the Resurrection on Easter Day. In the
Apostolical Constitutions (ii. 57) the following service is described
and enjoined. First come two lessons from the Old Testament
by a reader, the whole of the Old Testament being made use of
except the books of the Apocrypha. The Psalms, of David are
then to be sung. Next the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles
of Paul are to be read, and finally the four Gospels by a deacon
or a priest. Whether the selections were ad libitum or according
to a fixed table of lessons we are not informed. Nothing in the
shape of a lectionary is extant older than the 8th century,
though there is evidence that Claudianus Mamercus made one
for the church at Vienne in 450, and that Musaeus made one for
the church at Marseilles c. 458. The Liber comitis formerly
attributed to St Jerome must be three, or nearly three, centuries
later than that saint, and the Luxeuil lectionary, or Leclionarium
Gallicanum, which Mabillon attributed to the 7th, cannot be
earlier than the 8th century; yet the oldest MSS. of the Gospels
have marginal marks, and sometimes actual interpolations,
which can only be accounted for as indicating the beginnings
and endings of liturgical lessons. The third council of Carthage
in 397 forbade anything but Holy Scripture to be read in church;
this rule has been adhered to so far as the liturgical epistle and
gospel, and occasional additional lessons in the Roman missal
are concerned, but in the divine office, on feasts when nine
lessons are read at matins, only the first three lessons are taken
from Holy Scripture, the next three being taken from the sermons
of ecclesiastical writers, and the last three from expositions of
the day's gospel; but sometimes the lives or Passions of the
saints, or of some particular saints, were substituted for any or
all of these breviary lessons. (F. E. W.)
LECTISTERNIUM (from Lat. lectum sternere, "to spread a
couch "; orpajjuceu in Dion. Halic. xii. 9), in ancient Rome,
a propitiatory ceremony, consisting of a meal offered to gods
and goddesses, represented by their busts or statues, or by
portable figures of wood, with heads of bronze, wax or marble,
and covered with drapery. Another suggestion is that the
symbols of the gods consisted of bundles of sacred herbs, tied
together in the form of a head, covered by a waxen mask so as
to resemble a kind of bust (cf. the straw puppets called Argei).
These symbols were laid upon a couch (lectus), the left arm
resting on a cushion (pulvinus, whence the couch itself was often
called puhinar) in the attitude of reclining. In front of the
couch, which was placed in the open street, a meal was set out
on a table. It is definitely stated by Livy (v. 13) that the
ceremony took place " for the first time " in Rome in the year
LECTOR— LE DAIM
399 B.C., after the Sibylline books had been consulted by their
keepers and interpreters (duumviri sacris faciendis), on the
occasion of a pestilence. Three couches were prepared for
three pairs of gods — Apollo and Latona, Hercules and Diana,
Mercury and Neptune. The feast, which on that occasion lasted
for eight (or seven) days, was also celebrated by private in-
dividuals; the citizens kept open house, quarrels were forgotten,
debtors and prisoners were released, and everything done to
banish sorrow. Similar honours were paid to other divinities
in subsequent times — Fortuna, Saturnus, Juno Regina of the
Aventine, the three Capitoline deities (Jupiter, Juno, Minerva),
and in 217, after the defeat of lake Trasimenus, a lectisternium
was held for three days to six pairs of gods, corresponding to the
twelve great gods of Olympus — Jupiter, Juno, Neptune, Minerva,
Mars, Venus, Apollo, Diana, Vulcan, Vesta; Mercury, Ceres.
In 205, alarmed by unfavourable prodigies, the Romans were
ordered to fetch the Great Mother of the gods from Pessinus in
Phrygia; in the following year the image was brought to Rome,
and a lectisternium held. In later times, the lectisternium
became of constant (even daily) occurrence, and was celebrated
in the different temples. Such celebrations must be distinguished
from those which were ordered, like the earlier lectisternia, by
the Sibylline books in special emergencies. Although un-
doubtedly offerings of food were made to the gods in very early
Roman times on such occasions as the ceremony of confarreatio,
and the epulum Jovis (often confounded with the lectisternium),
it is generally agreed that the lectisternia were of Greek origin.
In favour of this may be mentioned : the similarity of the Greek
Qfo^tvia, in which, however, the gods played the part of hosts;
the gods associated with it were either previously unknown to
Roman religion, though often concealed under Roman names,
or were provided with a new cult (thus Hercules was not wor-
shipped as at the Ara Maxima, where, according to Servius on
Aeneid, viii. 176 and Cornelius Balbus, ap. Macrobius, Sat. iii. 6,
a lectisternium was forbidden); the Sibylline books, which
decided whether a lectisternium was to be held or not, were of
Greek origin; the custom of reclining at meals was Greek.
Some, however, assign an Etruscan origin to the ceremony, the
Sibylline books themselves being looked upon as old Italian
" black books." A probable explanation of the confusion
between the lectisternia and genuine old Italian ceremonies is
that, as the lectisternia became an almost everyday occurrence
in Rome, people forgot their foreign origin and the circumstances
in which they were first introduced, and then the word pulvinar
with its associations was transferred to times in which it had no
existence. In imperial times, according to Tacitus (Annals, xv.
44), chairs were substituted for couches in the case of goddesses,
and the lectisternium in their case became a sellisternium (the
reading, however, is not certain). This was in accordance with
Roman custom, since in the earliest times all the members of a
family sat at meals, and in later times at least the women and
children. This is a point of distinction between the original
practice at the lectisternium and the epulum Jovis, the goddesses
at the latter being provided with chairs, whereas in the lecti-
sternium they reclined. In Christian times the word was used for
a feast in memory of the dead (Sidonius Apollinaris, Epistulae,
iv. 15).
See article by A. Bouche-Leclercq in Daremberg and Saglio,
Dictionnaire des antiquites; Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung,
iii. 45, 187 (1885); G. Wissowa, Religion und Kuitus der Romer,
P- 355 »eq-; monograph by Wackermann (Hanau, 1888); C. Pascal,
Studii di anlichita e mitologia (1896).
LECTOR, or READER, a minor office-bearer in the Christian
Church. From an early period men have been set apart, under
the title of anagnostae, leclores, or readers, for the purpose of
reading Holy Scripture in church. We do not know what the
custom of the Church was in the first two centuries, the earliest
reference to readers, as an order, occurring in the writings of
Tertullian (De praescript. haeret. cap. 41); there are frequent
allusions to them in the writings of St Cyprian and afterwards.
Cornelius, bishop of Rome in A.D. 251-252, in a well-known letter
mentions readers among the various church orders then existing
at Rome. In the Apostolic Church Order (canon 19), mention
is made of the qualifications and duties of a reader, but no
reference is made to their method of ordination. In the Apostolic
Didascalia there is recognition of three minor orders of men,
subdeacons, readers and singers, in addition to two orders of
women, deaconesses and widows. A century later, in the Apos-
tolic Constitutions, we find not only a recognition of readers, but
also a form of admission provided for them, consisting of the
imposition of hands and prayer (lib. viii. cap. 22). In Africa the
imposition of hands was not in use, but a Bible was handed to
the newly appointed reader with words of commission to read it,
followed by a prayer and a benediction (Fourth Council of
Carthage, can. 8). This is the ritual of the Roman Church of
to-day. With regard to age, the novels of Justinian (No. 123)
forbade any one to be admitted to the office of reader under the
age of eighteen. (F. E. W.)
LECTOURE, a town of south-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Gers, 21 m. N. of Auch on
the Southern railway between that city and Agen. Pop. (1906),
town, 2426; commune, 4310. It stands on the right bank of the
Gers, overlooking the river from the summit of a steep plateau.
The church of St Gervais and St Protais was once a cathedral.
The massive tower which flanks it on the north belongs to the
i5th century; the rest of the church dates from the I3th, I5th,
1 6th and iyth centuries. The hotel de ville, the sous-prefecture
and the museum occupy the palace of the former bishops,
which was once the property of Marshal Jean Lannes, a native
of the town. A recess in the wall of an old house contains the
Fontaine de Houndelie, a spring sheltered by a double archway
of the i3th century. At the bottom of the hill a church of the
1 6th century marks the site of the monastery of St Geny.
Lectoure has a tribunal of first instance and a communal college.
Its industries include distilling, the manufacture of wooden shoes
and biscuits, and market gardening; it has trade in grain, cattle,
wine and brandy. ,
Lectoure, capital of the Iberian tribe of the Lactorates and for a
short time of Novempopulania, became the seat of a bishopric in
the 4th century. In the nth century the counts of Lomagne made
it their capital, and on the union of Lomagne with Armagnac, in
1325, it became the capital of the counts of Armagnac. In 1473
Cardinal Jean de Jouffroy besieged the town on behalf of Louis XI.
and after its fall put the whole pupulation to the sword. In 1562
it again suffered severely at the hands of the Catholics under Blaise
de Montluc.
LEDA, in Greek mythology, daughter of Thestius, king of
Aetolia, and Eurythemis (her parentage is variously given).
She was the wife of Tyndareus and mother of Castor and Pollux,
Clytaemnestra and Helen (see CASTOR AND POLLUX). In another
account Nemesis was the mother of Helen (q.v.) whom Leda
adopted as her daughter. This led to the identification of Leda
and Nemesis. In the usual later form of the story, Leda herself,
having been visited by Zeus in the form of a swan, produced
two eggs, from one of which came Helen, from the other Castor
and Pollux.
See Apollodorus iii. 10; Hyginus, Fab. 77; Homer, Iliad,
iii. 426, Od. xi. 298; Euripides, Helena, 17; Isocrates, Helena, 59;
Ovid, Heroides, xvii. 55; Horace, Ars poetica, 147; Stasinus in
Athenaeus viii. 334 c. ; for the representations of Leda and the
swan in art, J. A. Overbeck, Kunstmythologie, i., and Atlas to the
same; also article in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie.
LE DAIM (or LE DAIN), OLIVIER (d. 1484), favourite of
Louis XI. of France, was born of humble parentage at Thielt
near Courtrai in Flanders. Seeking his fortune at Paris, he
became court barber and valet to Louis XL, and so ingratiated
himself with the king that in 1474 he was ennobled under the title
Le Daim and in 1477 made comte de Meulant. In the latter year
he was sent to Burgundy to influence the young heiress of Charles
the Bold, but he was ridiculed and compelled to leave Ghent.
He thereupon seized and held Tournai for the French. Le Daim
had considerable talent for intrigue, and, according to his enemies,
could always be depended upon to execute the baser designs of
the king. He amassed a large fortune, largely by oppression
and violence, and was named gentleman-in-waiting, captain of
Loches, and governor of Saint-Quentin. He remained in
favour until the death of Louis XL, when the rebellious lords
were able to avenge the slights and insults they had suffered at
LEDBURY— LEDRU-ROLLIN
359
the hands of the royal barber. He was arrested on charges,
the nature of which is uncertain, tried before the parlement of
Paris, and on the 2ist of May 1484 hanged at Montfaucon without
the knowledge of Charles VIII., who might have heeded his
father's request and spared the favourite. Le Daim's property
was given to the duke of Orleans.
See the memoirs of the time, especially those of Ph. de Commines
(ed. Mandrot, 1901-1903, Eng. trans, in Bohn Library) ; Robt.
Gaguin, Compendium de origine et gestis Francprum (Paris, 1586) —
it was Gaguin who made the celebrated epigram concerning Le
Daim: " Eras judex, lector, et exitium "; De Reiffenberg, Olivier le
Dain (Brussels, 1829); Delanone, Le Barbier de Louis XI. (Paris,
1832); G. Picot, " Proces d'Olivier le Dain," in the Comptes rendus
de I Academic des sciences morales et politiques, viii. (1877), 485-537.
The memoirs of the time are uniformly hostile to Le Daim.
LEDBURY, a market town in the Ross parliamentary division
of Herefordshire, England, 14! hi. E. of Hereford by the Great
Western railway, pleasantly situated on the south-western slope
of the Malvern Hills. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3259.
Cider and agricultural produce are the chief articles of trade,
and there are limestone quarries in the neighbouring hills. The
town contains many picturesque examples of timbered houses,
characteristic of the district, the principal being the Market
House (1633) elevated on massive pillars of oak. The fine
church of St Michael exhibits all the Gothic styles, the most
noteworthy features being the Norman chancel and west door,
and the remarkable series of ornate Decorated windows on the
north side. Among several charities is the hospital of St
Catherine, founded by Foliot, bishop of Hereford, in 1232. Hope
End, 2 m. N.E. of Ledbury, was the residence of Elizabeth
Barrett Browning during her early life. A clock-tower in the
town commemorates her.
Wall Hills Camp, supposed to be of British origin, is the earliest
evidence of a settlement near Ledbury (Liedeburge, Lidebury).
The manor was given to the see of Hereford in the nth century;
but in 1561-1562 became crown property. As early as 1170-1171
an episcopal castle existed in Ledbury. The town was not incor-
porated, but was early called a borough; and in 1295 and 1304-
1305 returned two members to parliament. A fair on the day of
the decollation of John the Baptist was granted to the bishop in
1249. Of fairs which survived in 1792 those of the days of St
Philip and St James and St Barnabas were granted in 1584-1585;
those held on the Monday before Easter and St Thomas's day were
reputed ancient, but not those of the 1 2th of May, the 22nd of
June, the 2nd of October and the 2 1st of December. Existing fairs
are on the second Tuesday in every month and in October. A weekly
market, granted to the bishop by Stephen, John and Henry III.,
was obsolete in 1584-1585, when the present market of Tuesday was
authorized. The wool trade was considerable in the I4th century;
later Ledbury was inhabited by glovers and clothiers. The town
was deeply involved in the operations of the Civil Wars, being
occupied both by the royalist leader Prince Rupert and by the
Parliamentarian Colonel Birch.
LEDGER (from the English dialect forms liggen or leggen,
to lie or lay; in sense adapted from the Dutch substantive
legger), properly a book remaining regularly in one place, and so
used of the copies of the Scriptures and service books kept in
a church. The New English Dictionary quotes from Charles
Wriothesley's Chronicle, 1538 (ed. Camden Soc., 1875, by W. D.
Hamilton), "the curates should provide a booke of the bible
in Englishe, of the largest volume, to be a lidger in the same
church for the parishioners to read on." It is an application of
this original meaning that is found in the commercial usage
of the term for the principal book of account in a business house
(see BOOK-KEEPING). Apart from these applications to various
forms of books, the word is used of the horizontal timbers in a
scaffold (q.v.) lying parallel to the face of a building, which support
the "put logs"; of a flat stone to cover a grave; and of a
stationary form of tackle and bait in angling. In the form
" lieger " the term was formerly frequently applied to a " resi-
dent," as distinguished from an "extraordinary" ambassador.
LEDOCHOWSKI, MIECISLAUS JOHANN, COUNT (1822-1902),
Polish cardinal, was born on the 2gth of October 1822 in Gorki
(Russian Poland), and received his early education at the
gymnasium and seminary of Warsaw. After finishing his studies
at the Jesuit Accademia dei Nobili Ecclesiastici in Rome, which
strongly influenced his religious development and his attitude
towards church affairs, he was ordained in 1845. From 1856 to
1858 he represented the Roman See in Columbia, but on the
outbreak of the Columbian revolution had to return to Rome.
In 1861 Pope Pius IX. made him his nuncio at Brussels, and in
1865 he was made archbishop of Gnesen-Posen. His preconiza-
tion followed on the 8th of January 1866. This date marks the
beginning of the second period in Ledochowski's life; for during
the Prussian and German Kulturkampf he was one of the most
declared enemies of the state. It was only during the earliest
years of his appointment as archbishop that he entertained a
different view, invoking, for instance, an intervention of Prussia
in favour of the Roman Church, when it was oppressed by the
house of Savoy. On the i2th of December 1870 he presented
an effective memorandum on the subject at the headquarters
at Versailles. In 1872 the archbishop protested against the
demand of the government that religious teaching should be given
only in the German language, and in 1873 he addressed a circular
letter on this subject to the clergy of his diocese. The govern-
ment thereupon demanded a statement from the teachers of
religion as to whether they intended to obey it or the archbishop,
and on their declaring for the archbishop, dismissed them. The
count himself was called upon at the end of 1873 to lay aside his
office. On his refusing to do so, he was arrested between 3 and
4 o'clock in the morning on the 3rd of February 1874 by Standi,
the director of police, and taken to the military prison of Ostrowo.
The pope made him a cardinal on the i3th of March, but it was
not till the 3rd of February 1876 that he was released from prison.
Having been expelled from the eastern provinces of Prussia,
he betook himself to Cracow, where his presence was made
the pretext for anti-Prussian demonstrations. Upon this he
was also expelled from Austria, and went to Rome, whence,
in spite of his removal from office, which was decreed on the i5th
of April 1874, he continued to direct the affairs of his diocese,
for which he was on several occasions from 1877 to 1879 con-
demned in absentia by the Prussian government for " usurpation
of episcopal rights." It was not till 1885 that Ledochowski re-
solved to resign his archbishopric, in which he was succeeded by
Dinder at the end of the year. Ledochowski's return in 1884
was forbidden by the Prussian government (although the
Kulturkampf had now abated) , on account of his having stirred
up anew the Polish nationalist agitation. He passed the closing
years of his life in Rome. In 1892 he became prefect of the
Congregation of the Propaganda, and he died in Rome on the
22nd of July 1902.
See Ograbiszewski, Deulschlands Episkopat in Lebensbildern
(1876 and following years); Holtzmann-Zoppfel, Lexikpn fur
Theohgie und Kirchenwesen (2nd ed., 1888); Vapereau, Dictionnaire
universe! des contemporains (6th ed., 1893); Briick, Geschichte der
katholischen Kirche in Deutschland im neunzehnten Jahrhundert
vol. 4 (1901 and 1908) ; Lauchert, Biographisches Jahrbuch, vol.
7 (1905). a- HN.)
LEDRU-ROLLIN, ALEXANDRE AUGUSTE (1807-1874),
French politician, was the grandson of Nicolas Philippe Ledru,
the celebrated quack doctor known as " Comus " under Louis
XIV., and was born in a house that was once Scarron's, at
Fontenay-aux-Roses (Seine), on the 2nd of February 1807. He
had just begun to practise at the Parisian bar before the revolu-
tion of July, and was retained for the Republican defence in
most of the great political trials of the next ten years. In 1838
he bought for 330,000 francs Desire Dalloz's place in the Court
of Cassation. He was elected deputy for Le Mans in 1841 with
hardly a dissentient voice; but for the violence of his electoral
speeches he was tried at Angers and sentenced to four months'
imprisonment and a fine, against which he appealed successfully
on a technical point. He made a rich and romantic marriage in
1843, and in 1846 disposed of his charge at the Court of Cassation
to give his time entirely to politics. He was now the recognized
leader of the working-men of France. He had more authority
in the country than in the Chamber, where the violence of his
oratory diminished its effect. He asserted that the fortifications
of Paris were directed against liberty, not against foreign invasion,
and he stigmatized the law of regency (1842) as an audacious
usurpation. Neither from official Liberalism nor from the press
did he receive support; even the Republican National was
36°
LEDYARD— LEE, F.
opposed to him because of his championship of labour. He
therefore founded La Reforme in which to advance his propa-
ganda. Between Ledru-Rollin and Odilon Barrot with the other
chiefs of the " dynastic Left " there were acute differences,
hardly dissimulated even during the temporary alliance which
produced the campaigh of the banquets. It was the speeches
of Ledru-Rollin and Louis Blanc at working-men's banquets in
Lille, Dijon and Chalons that really heralded the revolution.
Ledru-Rollin prevented the appointment of the duchess of
Orleans as regent in 1848. He and Lamartine held the tribune
in the Chamber of Deputies until the Parisian populace stopped
serious discussion by invading the Chamber. He was minister
of the interior in the provisional government, and was also a
member of the executive committee1 appointed by the Con-
stituent Assembly, from which Louis Blanc and the extremists
were excluded. At the crisis of the isth of May he definitely
sided with Lamartine and the party of order against the pro-
letariat. Henceforward his position was a difficult one. He1
never regained his influence with the working classes, who
considered they had been betrayed; but to his short ministry
belongs the credit of the establishment of a working system of
universal suffrage. At the presidential election in December
he was put forward as the Socialist candidate, but secured only
370,000 votes. His opposition to the policy of President Louis
Napoleon, especially his Roman policy, led to his moving the
impeachment of the president and his ministers. The motion
was defeated, and next day (June 13, 1849) he headed what he
called a peaceful demonstration, and his enemies armed insurrec-
tion. He himself escaped to London where he joined the execu-
tive of the revolutionary committee of Europe, with Kossuth and
Mazzini among his colleagues. He was accused of complicity
in an obscure attempt (1857) against the life of Napoleon III.,
and condemned in his absence to deportation. Emile Ollivier
removed the exceptions from the general amnesty in 1870, and
Ledru-Rollin returned to France after twenty years of exile.
Though elected in 1871 in three departments he refused to sit in
the National Assembly, and took no serious part in politics
until 1874 when he was returned to the Assembly as member for
Vaucluse. He died on the 3ist of December of that year.
Under Louis Philippe he made large contributions to French
jurisprudence, editing the Journal du palais, 1791-1837 (27 vols.,
1837), and 1837-1847 (17 yols.), with a commentary Repertoire general
de la jurisprudence fran^aise (8 vols., 1843-184^8), the introduction to
which was written by himself. His later writings were political in
character. See Ledru-Rollin, ses discours el ses ecrits politiques
(2 vols., Paris, 1879), edited by his widow.
LEDYARD, JOHN (1751-1789), American traveller, was born
in Groton, Connecticut, U.S.A. After vainly trying law and
theology, Ledyard adopted a seaman's life, and, coming to
London, was engaged as corporal of marines by Captain Cook
for his third voyage (1776). On his return (1778) Ledyard had
to give up to the Admiralty his copious journals, but afterwards
published, from memory, a meagre narrative of his experiences —
herein giving the only account of Cook's death by an eye-witness
(Hartford, U.S.A., 1783). He continued in the British service
till 1782, when he escaped, off Long Island. In 1784 he revisited
Europe, to organize an expedition to the American North-West.
Having failed in his attempts, he decided to reach his goal by
travelling across Europe and Asia. Baffled in his hopes of
crossing the Baltic on the ice (Stockholm to Abo), he walked
right round from Stockholm to St Petersburg, where he arrived
barefoot and penniless (March 1 787). Here he made friends with
Pallas and others, and accompanied Dr Brown, a Scotch physician
in the Russian service, to Siberia. Ledyard left Dr Brown at
Barnaul, went on to Tomsk and Irkutsk, visited Lake Baikal,
and descended the Lena to Yakutsk (i8th of September 1787).
With Captain Joseph Billings, whom he had known on Cook's
" Resolution," he returned to Irkutsk, where he was arrested,
deported to the Polish frontier, and banished from Russia for
ever. Reaching London, he was engaged by Sir Joseph Banks
and the African Association to explore overland routes from
Alexandria to the Niger, but in Cairo he succumbed to a dose
1 Arago, Garnier-Pages, Marie, Lamartine, and Ledru-Rollin.
of vitriol (i7th of January 1789). Though a born explorer,
little resulted from his immense but ill-directed activities.
See Memoirs of the Life and Travels of John Ledyard, by Tared
Sparks (1828).
LEE, ANN (1736-1784), English religious visionary, was born in
Manchester, where she was first a factory hand and afterwards a
cook. She is remembered by her connexion with the sect known as
Shakers (q.v.). She died at Watervliet, near Albany, New York.
LEE, ARTHUR (1740-1792), American diplomatist, brother
of Richard Henry Lee, was born at Stratford, Westmoreland
county, Virginia, on the 2oth of December 1740. He was
educated at Eton, studied medicine at Edinburgh, practised as
a physician in Williamsburg, Virginia, read law at the Temple,
London, in 1766-1770, and practised law in London in 1770-1776.
He was an intimate of John Wilkes, whom he aided in one of his
London campaigns. In 1770-1775 he served as London agent
for Massachusetts, second to Benjamin Franklin, whom he
succeeded in 1775. At that time he had shown great ability as
a pamphleteer, having published in London The Monitor (1768),
seven essays previously printed in Virginia; The Political
Detection: or the Treachery and Tyranny of Administration, both
at Home and Abroad (1770), signed " Junius Americanus "; and
An Appeal to the Justice and Interests of the People of Great
Britain in the Present Disputes -with America (1774), signed
"An Old Member of Parliament." In December 1775 the
Committee of Secret Correspondence of Congress chose him its
European agent principally for the purpose of ascertaining the
views of France, Spain, and other European countries regarding
the war between the colonies and Great Britain. In October
1776 he was appointed, upon the refusal of Jefferson, on the
commission with Franklin and Silas Deane to negotiate a treaty
of alliance, amity and commerce with France, and also to
negotiate with other European governments. His letters to
Congress, in which he expressed his suspicion of Deane's business
integrity and criticized his accounts, resulted in Deane's recall;
and other letters impaired the confidence of Congress in Franklin,
of whom he was especially jealous. Early in 1777 he went to
Spain as American commissioner, but received no official
recognition, was not permitted to proceed farthe/ than Burgos,
and accomplished nothing; until the appointment of Jay,
however, he continued to act as commissioner to Spain, held
various conferences with the Spanish minister in Paris, and in
January 1778 secured a promise of a loan of 3,000,000 livres,
only a small part of which (some 170,000 livres) was paid. In
June 1777 he went to Berlin, where, as in Spain, he was not
officially recognized. Although he had little to do with the
negotiations, he signed with Franklin and Deane in February
1778 the treaties between the United States and France. Having
become unpopular at the courts of France and Spain, Lee was
recalled in 1779, and returned to the United States in September
1780. He was a member of the Virginia House of Delegates in
1781 and a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1782-1785.
With Oliver Wolcott and Richard Butler he negotiated a treaty
with the Six Nations, signed at Fort Stanwix on the 22nd of
October 1784, and with George Clark and Richard Butler a
treaty with the Wyandot, Delaware, Chippewa and Ottawa
Indians, signed at Ft. Mclntosh on the 2ist of January 1785.
He was a member of the treasury board in 1784-1789. He
strongly opposed the constitution, and after its adoption retired
to his estate at Urbana, Virginia, where he died on the I2th of
December 1792.
See R. H. Lee, Life of Arthur Lee (2 vols., Boston, 1829), and C. H.
Lee, A Vindication of Arthur Lee (Richmond, Virginia, 1894), both
partisan. Much of Lee's correspondence is to be found in Wharton's
Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence (Washington, 1889).
Eight volumes of Lee's MSS. in the Harvard University Library are
described and listed in Library of Harvard University, Bibliographical
Contributions, No. 8 (Cambridge, 1882).
LEE, FITZHUGH (1835-1905), American cavalry general,
was born at Clermont, in Fairfax county, Virginia, on the igth
of November 1835. He was the grandson of "Light Horse
Harry" Lee, and the nephew of Robert E. Lee. His father,
Sydney Smith Lee, was a fleet captain under Commodore Perry
n Japanese waters and rose to the rank of commodore; his
LEE, G. A.— LEE, N.
361
mother was a daughter of George Mason. Graduating from
West Point in 1856, he was appointed to the 2nd Cavalry,
which was commanded by Colonel Albert Sidney Johnston,
and in which his uncle, Robert E. Lee, was lieutenant-colonel.
As a cavalry subaltern he distinguished himself by his gallant
conduct in actions with the Comanches in Texas, and was severely
wounded in 1859. In May 1860 he was appointed instructor
of cavalry at West Point, but resigned on the secession of
Virginia. Lee was at once employed in the organization of the
forces of the South, and served at first as a staff officer to General
R. S. Ewell, and afterwards, from September 1861, as lieutenant-
colonel, and from April 1862 as colonel of the First Virginia
Cavalry in the Army of Northern Virginia. He became brigadier-
general on General J. E. B. Stuart's recommendation on the
25th of July 1862, and served- under that general throughout
the Virginian campaigns of 1862 and 1863, becoming major-
general on the 3rd of September 1863. He conducted the cavalry
action of Beverly Ford (tyth March 1863) with skill and success.
In the Wilderness and Petersburg campaigns he was constantly
employed as a divisional commander under Stuart, and, after
Stuart's death, under General Wade Hampton. He took part
in Early's campaign against Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley,
and at Winchester (igth Sept. 1864) three horses were shot under
him and he was severely wounded. On ' General Hampton's
being sent to assist General Joseph E. Johnston in North
Carolina, the command of the whole of General Lee's cavalry
devolved upon Fitzhugh Lee early in 1865, but the surrender
of Appomattox followed quickly upon the opening of the
campaign. Fitzhugh Lee himself led the last charge of the
Confederates on the gth of April that year at Farmville.
After the war he devoted himself to farming in Stafford
county, Virginia, and was conspicuous in his efforts to reconcile
the Southern people to the issue of the war, which he regarded as
a final settlement of the questions at issue. In 1875 he attended
the Bunker Hill centenary at Boston, Mass., and delivered a
remarkable address. In 1885 he was a member of the board of
visitors of West Point, and from 1886 to 1890 was governor of
Virginia. In April 1896 he was appointed by President Cleveland
consul-general at Havana, with duties of a diplomatic and
military character added to the usual consular business. In this
post (in which he was retained by President McKinley) he was
from the first called upon to deal with a situation of great diffi-
culty, which culminated with the destruction of the " Maine " (see
SPANISH- AMERICAN WAR) . Upon the declaration of war between
Spain and the United States he re-entered the army. He was
one of the three ex-Confederate general officers who were made
major-generals of United States Volunteers. Fitzhugh Lee
commanded the VII. army corps, but took no part in the actual
operations in Cuba. He was military governor of Havana and
Pinar del Rio in 1899, subsequently commanded the department
of the Missouri, and retired as a brigadier-general U.S. Army
in 1901. He died in Washington on the 28th of April 1905.
He wrote Robert E. Lee (1894) in the " Great Commanders "
series, and Cuba's Struggle Against Spain (1899).
LEE, GEORGE ALEXANDER (1802-1851), English musician,
was born in London, the son of Henry Lee, a pugilist and inn-
keeper. He became " tiger " to Lord Barrymore, and his singing
led to his being educated for the musical profession. After
appearing as a tenor at the theatres in Dublin and London,
he joined in producing opera at the Tottenham Street theatre
in 1829, and afterwards was connected with musical productions
at Drury Lane and Covent Garden. He married Mrs Waylett,
a popular s.inger. Lee composed music for a number of plays,
and also many songs, including the popular " Come where the
Aspens quiver," and for a short time had a music-selling business
in the Quadrant. He died on the 8th of October 1851.
LEE, HENRY (1756-1818), American general, called " Light
Horse Harry," was born near Dumfries, Virginia, on the 29th
of January 1756. His father was first cousin to Richard Henry
Lee. With a view to a legal career he graduated (1773) at
Princeton, but soon afterwards, on the outbreak of the War of
Independence, he became an officer in the patriot forces. He
served with great distinction under Washington, and in 1778
was promoted major and given the command of a small irregular
corps, with which he won a great reputation as a leader of light
troops. His services on the outpost line of the army earned for
him the soubriquet of " Light Horse Harry." His greatest
exploit was the brilliant surprise of Paulus Hook, N.J., on the
igth of August 1779; for this feat he received a gold medal,
a reward given to no other officer below general's rank in the
whole war. He was promoted lieutenant-colonel 1780, and sent
with a picked corps of dragoons to the southern theatre of
war. Here he rendered invaluable services in victory and defeat,
notably at Guilford Court House, Camden and Eutaw Springs.
He was present at Cornwallis's surrender at Yorktown, and after-
wards left the army owing to ill-health. From 1786 to 1788 he
was a delegate to the Confederation Congress, and in the last-
named year in the Virginia convention he favoured the adoption
of the Federal constitution. From 1789 to 1791 he served in
the General Assembly, and from 1791 to 1794 was governor of
Virginia. In 1794 Washington sent him to help in the suppres-
sion of the " Whisky Insurrection " in western Pennsylvania.
A new county of Virginia was named after him during his
governorship. He was a major-general in 1798-1800. From
1799 to 1801 he served in Congress. He delivered the address
on the death of Washington which contained the famous phrase,
" first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his
countrymen." Soon after the War of 1812 broke out, Lee,
while helping to resist the attack of a mob on his friend, A. C.
Hanson, editor of the Baltimore Federal Republican, which had
opposed the war, received grave injuries, from which he never
recovered. He died at the house of General Nathanael Greene
on Cumberland Island, Georgia, on the 25th of March 1818.
Lee wrote valuable Memoirs of the War in the Southern Department
(1812; 3rd ed., with memoir by Robert E. Lee, 1869).
LEE, JAMES PRINCE (1804-1869), English divine, was born
in London on the 28th of July 1804, and was educated at St
Paul's school and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he dis-
played exceptional ability as a classical scholar. After taking
orders in 1830 he served under Thomas Arnold at Rugby school,
and in 1838 was appointed head-master of King Edward's
school, Birmingham, where he had among his pupils E. W.
Benson, J. B. Lightfoot and B. F. Westcott. In 1848 Lord
John Russell nominated him as first bishop of the newly-con-
stituted see of Manchester. His pedagogic manner bore some-
what irksomely on his clergy. He is best remembered for
his splendid work in church extension; during his twenty-one
years' tenure of the see he consecrated 130 churches. He took
a foremost part in founding the Manchester free library, and
bequeathed his own valuable collection of books to Owens
College. He died on the 24th of December 1869.
A memorial sermon was preached by Archbishop E. W. Benson,
and was published with biographical details by J. F. Wickenden and
others.
LEE, NATHANIEL (c. 1653-1692), English dramatist, son of
Dr Richard Lee, a Presbyterian divine, was born probably in
1653. His father was rector of Hatfield, and held many prefer-
ments under the Commonwealth. He was chaplain to General
Monk, afterwards duke of Albemarle, and after the Restoration
he conformed to the Church of England, abjuring his former
opinions, especially his approval of Charles I.'s execution.
Nathaniel Lee was educated at Westminster school, and at
Trinity College, Cambridge, taking his B.A. degree in 1668.
Coming to London under the patronage, it is said, of the duke
of Buckingham, he tried to earn his living as an actor, but though
he was an admirable reader, his acute stage fright made acting
impossible. His earliest play, Nero, Emperor of Rome, was acted
in 1675 at Drury Lane. Two tragedies written in rhymed
heroic couplets, in imitation of Dryden, followed in 1676 —
Sophonisba, or Hannibal's Overthrow and Gloriana, or the Court
of Augustus Caesar. Both are extravagant in design and treat-
ment. Lee made his reputation in 1677 with a blank verse
tragedy, The Rival Queens, or the Death of Alexander the Great.
The play, which treats of the jealousy of Alexander's first wife,
Roxana, for his second wife, Statira, was, in spite of much
362
LEE, R. H. — LEE, R. E.
bombast, a favourite on the English stage down to the days of
Edmund Kean. Mithridates, King of Pontus (acted 1678),
Theodosius, or the Force of Love (acted 1680), Caesar Borgia
(acted 1680) — an imitation of the worst blood and thunder
Elizabethan tragedies — Lucius Junius Brutus, Father of His
Country (acted 1681), and Constantine the Great (acted 1684)
followed. The Princess of Cleve (1681) is a gross adaptation of
Madame de La Fayette's exquisite novel of that name. The
Massacre of Paris (published 1690) was written about this time.
Lee had given offence at court by his Lucius Junius Brutus,
which had been suppressed after its third representation for some
lines on Tarquin's character that were taken to be a reflection on
Charles II. He therefore joined with Dryden, who had already
admitted him as a collaborator in an adaptation of Oedipus,
in The Duke of Guise (1683), a play which directly advocated
the Tory point of view. In it part of the Massacre of Paris
was incorporated. Lee was now thirty years of age, and had
already achieved a considerable reputation. But he had lived
in the dissipated society of the earl of Rochester and his associates,
and imitated their excesses. As he grew more disreputable,
his patrons neglected him, and in 1684 his mind was completely
unhinged. He spent five years in Bethlehem Hospital, and
recovered his health. He died in a drunken fit in 1692, and was
buried in St Clement Danes, Strand, on the 6th of May.
Lee's Dramatic Works were published in 1784. In spite of their
extravagance, they contain many passages of great beauty.
LEE, RICHARD HENRY (1732-1794), American statesman
and orator, was born at Stratford, in Westmoreland county,
Virginia, on the 2oth of January 1732, and was one of six dis-
tinguished sons of Thomas Lee (d. 1750), a descendant of an
old Cavalier family, the first representative of which in America
was Richard Lee, who was a member of the privy council, and
early in the reign of Charles I. emigrated to Virginia. Richard
Henry Lee received an academic education in England, then
spent a little time in travel, returned to Virginia in 1752, having
come into possession of a fine property left him by his father,
and for several years applied himself to varied studies. When
twenty-five he was appointed justice of the peace of Westmore-
land county, and in the same year was chosen a member of the
Virginia House of Burgesses, in which he served from 1758 to
1775. He kept a diffident silence during two sessions, his first
speech being in strong opposition to slavery, which he proposed
to discourage and eventually to abolish, by imposing a heavy
tax on all further importations. He early allied himself with
the Patriot or Whig element in Virginia, and in the years immedi-
ately preceding the War of Independence was conspicuous as an
opponent of the arbitrary measures of the British ministry.
In 1768, in a letter to John Dickinson of Pennsylvania, he sug-
gested a private correspondence among the friends of liberty
in the different colonies, and in 1773 he became a member of the
Virginia Committee of Correspondence.
Lee was one of the delegates from Virginia to the first Con-
tinental Congress at Philadelphia in 1774, and prepared the
address to the people of British America, and the second address
to the people of Great Britain, which are among the most
effective papers of the time. In accordance with instructions
given by the Virginia House of Burgesses, Lee introduced in
Congress, on the 7th of June 1776, the following famous resolu-
tions: (i) " that these united colonies are, and of right ought
to be, free and independent states, that they are absolved from
all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political con-
nexion between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought
to be, totally dissolved "; (2) " that it is expedient to take the
most effectual measures for forming foreign alliances "; and
(3) " that a plan of confederation be prepared and transmitted
to the respective colonies for their consideration and approba-
tion." After debating the first of these resolutions for three
days, Congress resolved that the further consideration of it
should be postponed until the ist of July, but that a committee
should be appointed to prepare a declaration of independence.
The illness of Lee's wife prevented him from being a member of
that committee, but his first resolution was adopted on the 2nd
of July, and the Declaration of Independence, prepared princi-
pally by Thomas Jefferson, was adopted two days later. Lee
was in Congress from 1 7 74 to 1780, and was especially prominent
in connexion with foreign affairs. He was a member of the
Virginia House of Delegates in 1777, 1780-1784 and 1786-1787;
was in Congress again from 178410 1787, being president in 1784-
1786; and was one of the first United States senators chosen
from Virginia after the adoption of the Federal constitution.
Though strongly opposed to the adoption of that constitution,
owing to what he regarded as its dangerous infringements upon
the independent power of the states, he accepted the place
of senator in hope of bringing about amendments, and proposed
the Tenth Amendment in substantially the form in which it
was adopted. He became a warm supporter of Washington's
administration, and his prejudices against the constitution were
largely removed by its working in practice. He retired from
public life in 1792, and died at Chantilly, in Westmoreland
county, on the igth of June 1794.
See the Life (Philadelphia, 1825), by his grandson, R. H. Lee; and
Letters (New York, 1910), edited by J. C. Ballagh.
His brother, WILLIAM LEE (1739-1795), was a diplomatist
during the War of Independence. He accompanied his brother,
Arthur Lee (<?.».), to England in 1766 to engage in mercantile
pursuits, joined the Wilkes faction, and in 1775 was elected
an alderman of London, then a life-position. In April 1777,
however, he received notice of his appointment by the Committee
of Secret Correspondence in America to act with Thomas Morris
as commercial agent at Nantes. He went to Paris and became
involved in his brother's opposition to Franklin and Deane. In
May 1777 Congress chose William Lee commissioner to the courts
of Vienna and Berlin, but he gained recognition at neither.
In September 1778, however, while at Aix-la-Chapelle, he
negotiated a plan of a treaty with Jan de Neufville, who
represented Van Berckel, pensionary of Amsterdam. It was a
copy of this proposed treaty which, on falling into the hands of
the British on the capture of Henry Laurens, the duly appointed
minister to the Netherlands, led to Great Britain's declaration
of war against the Netherlands in December 1780. Lee was
recalled from his mission to Vienna and Berlin in June 1779,
without being required to return to America. He resigned his
post as an alderman of London in January 1780, and returned
to Virginia about 1784.
See Letters of William Lee, edited by W. C. Ford (Brooklyn, 1891 ).
Another brother, FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE (1734-1797),
was a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses in 1770-1775.
In 1775-1779 he was a delegate to the Continental Congress,
and as such signed the Declaration of Independence. He served
on the committee which drafted the Articles of Confederation,
and contended that there should be no treaty of peace with
Great Britain which did not grant to the United States both
the right to the Newfoundland fisheries and the free navigation
of the Mississippi. After retiring from Congress he served in
1780-1782 in the Virginia Senate.
LEE, ROBERT EDWARD (1807-1870), American soldier,
general in the Confederate States army, was the youngest son
of major-general Henry Lee, called " Light Horse Harry." He
was born at Stratford, Westmoreland county, Virginia, on the
1 9th of January 1807, and entered West Point in 1825. Graduat-
ing four years later second in his class, he was given a commission
in the U.S. Engineer Corps. In 1831 he married Mary, daughter
of G. W. P. Custis, the adopted son of Washington and the grand-
son of Mrs Washington. In 1836 he became first lieutenant,
and in 1838 captain. In this rank he took part in tlje Mexican
War, repeatedly winning distinction for conduct and bravery.
He received the brevets of major for Cerro Gordo, lieut.-
colonel for Contreras-Churubusco and colonel for Chapultepec.
After the war he was employed in engineer work at Washington
and Baltimore, during which time, as before the war, he resided
on the great Arlington estate, near Washington, which had come
to him through his wife. In 1852 he was appointed super-
intendent of West Point, and during his three years here he
carried out many important changes in the academy. Under him
LEE, R.— LEE, S.
as cadets were his son G. W. Custis Lee, his nephew, Fitzhugh I
Lee and J. E. B. Stuart, all of whom became general officers in
the Civil War. In 1855 he was appointed as lieut. -colonel
to the 2nd Cavalry, commanded by Colonel Sidney Johnston,
with whom he served against the Indians of the Texas border.
In 1859, while at Arlington on leave, he was summoned to com-
mand the United States troops sent to deal with the John
Brown raid on Harper's Ferry. In March 1861 he was made
colonel of the ist U.S. Cavalry; but his career in the old army
ended with the secession of Virginia in the following month.
Lee was strongly averse to secession, but felt obliged to conform
to the action of his own state. The Federal authorities offered
Lee the command of the field army about to invade the
South, which he refused. Resigning his commission, he made
his way to Richmond and was. at once made a major-general in
the Virginian forces. A few weeks later he became a brigadier-
general (then the highest rank) in the Confederate service.
The military operations with which the great Civil War opened
in 1 86 1 were directed by President Davis and General Lee.
Lee was personally in charge of the unsuccessful West Virginian
operations in the autumn, and, having been made a full general
on the 3ist of August, during the winter he devoted his ex-
perience as an engineer to the fortification and general defence
of the Atlantic coast. Thence, when the well-drilled Army of
the Potomac was about to descend upon Richmond, he was
hurriedly recalled to Richmond. General Johnston was wounded
at the battle of Fair Oaks (Seven Pines) on the 3ist of May 1862,
and General Robert E. Lee was assigned to the command of the
famous Army of Northern Virginia which for the next three
years " carried the rebellion on its bayonets." Little can be said
of Lee's career as a commander-in-chief that is not an integral
part of the history of the Civil War. His first success was the
" Seven Days' Battle " (q.v.) in which he stopped McClellan's
advance; this was quickly followed up by the crushing defeat
of the Federal army under Pope, the invasion of Maryland and
the sanguinary and indecisive battle of the Antietam (q.v.).
The year ended with another great victory at Fredericksburg
(qv.). Chancellorsville (see WILDERNESS), won against odds
of two to cne, and the great three days' battle of Gettysburg
(q.v.), where for the first time fortune turned decisively against
the Confederates, were the chief events of 1863. In the autumn
Lee fought a war of manoeuvre against General Meade. The
tremendous struggle of 1864 between Lee and Grant included
the battles of the Wilderness (q.v.), Spottsylvania, North Anna,
Cold Harbor and the long siege of Petersburg (q.v.), in which,
almost invariably, Lee was locally successful. But the steady
pressure of his unrelenting opponent slowly wore down his
strength. At last with not more than one man to oppose to
Grant's three he was compelled to break out of his Petersburg
lines (April 1865). A series of heavy combats revealed his
purpose, and Grant pursued the dwindling remnants of Lee's
army to the westward. Headed off by the Federal cavalry,
and pressed closely in rear by Grant's main body, General Lee
had no alternative but to surrender. At Appomattox Court
House, on the gth of April, the career of the Army of Northern
Virginia came to an end. Lee's farewell order was issued on the
following day, and within a few weeks the Confederacy was at
an end. For a few months Lee lived quietly in Powhatan county,
making his formal submission to the Federal authorities and
urging on his own people acceptance of the new conditions. In
August he was offered, and accepted, the presidency of Washing-
ton College, Lexington (now Washington and Lee University), a
post which he occupied until his death on the i2th of October
1870 He was buried in the college grounds.
For the events of Lee's military career briefly indicated
in this notice the reader is referred to the articles AMERICAN
CIVIL WAR, &c. By his achievements he won a high place
amongst the great generals of history. Though hampered by
lack of materials and by political necessities, his strategy was
daring always, and he never hesitated to take the gravest risks.
On the field of battle he was as energetic in attack as he was
constant in defence, and his personal influence over the men
whom he led was extraordinary. No student of the American
Civil War can fail to notice how the influence of Lee dominated
the course of the struggle, and his surpassing ability was never
more conspicuously shown than in the last hopeless stages of
the contest. The personal history of Lee is lost in the history
of the great crisis of America's national life; friends and foes
alike acknowledged the purity of his motives, the virtues of his
private life, his earnest Christianity and the unrepining loyalty
with which he accepted the ruin of his party.
See A. L. Long, Memoirs of Robert E. Lee (New York, 1 886) ; Fitzhugh
Lee, General Lee (New York, 1894, " Great Commanders " series);
R. A. Brock, General Robert E. Lee (Washington, 1904) ; R. E. Lee,
Recollections and Letters of General R. E. Lee (London, 1904) ; H. A.
White, Lee (" Heroes of the Nations") (1897) ; P. A. Bruce, Robert E.
Lee (1907) ; T. N. Page, Lee (1909) ; W.H.Taylor, Four Years with Gen-
eral Lee; J. W. Jones, Personal Reminiscences of Robert E. Lee (1874).
LEE (or LEGH) ROWLAND (d. 1543), English bishop, belonged
to a Northumberland family and was educated at Cambridge.
Having entered the Church he obtained several livings owing
to the favour of Cardinal Wolsey; after Wolsey's fall he rose
high in the esteem of Henry VIII. and of Thomas Cromwell,
serving both king and minister in the business of suppressing
the monasteries, and he is said to have celebrated Henry's secret
marriage with Anne Boleyn in January 1533. Whether this
be so or not, Lee took part in preparing for the divorce pro-
ceedings against Catherine of Aragon, and in January 1534
he was elected bishop of Coventry and Lichfield, or Chester
as the see was often called, taking at his consecration the new
oath to the king as head of the English Church and not seeking
confirmation from the pope. As bishop he remained in Henry's
personal service, endeavouring to establish the legality of his
marriage with Anne, until May 1534, when he was appointed
lord president of the council in the marches of Wales. At this
time the Welsh marches were in a very disorderly condition.
Lee acted in a stern and energetic fashion, holding courts,
sentencing many offenders to death and overcoming the hostility
of the English border lords. After some years of hard and
successful work in this capacity, " the last survivor of the old
martial prelates, fitter for harness than for bishops' robes, for
a court of justice than a court of theology," died at Shrewsbury
in June 1 543. Many letters from Lee to Cromwell are preserved
in the Record Office, London; these throw much light on the
bishop's career and on the lawless condition of the Welsh marches
in his time.
One of his contemporaries was EDWARD LEE (c. 1482-1544) arch-
bishop of York, famous for his attack on Erasmus, who replied to
him in his Epistolae aliquot ertid/torum virorum. Like Rowland,
Edward was useful to Henry VIII. in the matter of the divorce of
Catherine of Aragon, and was sent by the king on embassies to the
emperor Charles V. and to Pope Clement VII. In 1531 he became
archbishop of York, but he came under suspicion as one who dis-
liked the king's new position as head of the English Church. At
Pontefract in 1536, during the Pilgrimage of Grace, the archbishop
was compelled to join the rebels, but he did not sympathize with
the rising and in 1539 he spoke in parliament in favour of the six
articles of religion. Lee, who was the last archbishop of York to
coin money, died on the I3th of September 1544.
LEE, SIDNEY (1859- ), English man of letters, was born
in London on the 5th of December 1859. He was educated
at the City of London school, and at Balliol College, Oxford,
where he graduated in modern history in 1882. In the next
year he became assistant-editor of the Dictionary of National
Biography. In 1890 he was made joint-editor, and on the
retirement of Sir Leslie Stephen in 1891 succeeded him as editor.
He was himself a voluminous contributor to the work, writing
some 800 articles, mainly on Elizabethan authors or statesmen.
While he was still at Balliol he wrote two articles on Shake-
spearian questions, which were printed in the Gentleman's
Magazine, and in 1884 he published a book on Stratford-on-Avon.
His article on Shakespeare in the fifty-first volume (1897) of the
Dictionary of National Biography formed the basis of his Life
of William Shakespeare (1898), which reached its fifth edition
in 1905. Mr Lee edited in 1902 the Oxford facsimile edition of
the first folio of Shakespeare's Comedies, Histories and Tragedies,
followed in 1902 and 1904 by supplementary volumes giving
details of extant copies, and in 1906 by a complete edition of
364
LEE, SOPHIA— LEECH, JOHN
Shakespeare's Works. Besides editions of English classics his
works include a Life of Queen Victoria (1902), Great Englishmen
of the Sixteenth Century (1904), based on his Lowell Institute
lectures at Boston, Mass., in 1903, and Shakespeare and the
Modern Stage (1906).
LEE, SOPHIA (1750-1824), English novelist and dramatist,
daughter of John Lee (d. 1781), actor and theatrical manager,
was born in London. Her first piece, The Chapter of Accidents,
a one-act-opera based on Diderot's Pere defamille, was produced
by George Colman at the Haymarket Theatre on the 5th of
August 1780. The proceeds were spent in establishing a school
at Bath, where Miss Lee made a home for her sisters. Her
subsequent productions included The Recess, or a Tale of other
Times (1785), a historical romance; and Almeyda, Queen of
Grenada (1796), a tragedy in blank verse; she also contributed
to her sister's Canterbury Tales (1797). She died at her house
near Clifton on the i3th of March 1824.
Her sister, HARRIET LEE (1757-1851), published in 1786 a
novel written in letters, The Errors of Innocence. Clara Lennox
followed in 1797. Her chief work is the Canterbury Tales (1797-
1805), a series of twelve stories which became very popular.
Lord Byron dramatized one pf the tales, " Kruitzner," as Werner,
or the Inheritance. She died at Clifton on the ist of August 1851.
LEE, STEPHEN DILL (1833-1908), Confederate general in
the American Civil War, came of a family distinguished in the
history of South Carolina, and was born at Charleston, S.C.,
on the 22nd of September 1833. Graduating from West Point
in 1854, he served for seven years in the United States army
and resigned in 1861 on the secession of South Carolina. He
was aide de camp to General Beauregard in the attack on Fort
Sumter, and captain commanding a light battery in General
Johnston's army later in the year 1861. Thereafter, by succes-
sive steps, each gained by distinguished conduct on the field
of battle, he rose to the rank of brigadier-general in November
1862, being ordered to take command of defences at Vicks-
burg. He served at this place with great credit until its surrender
to General Grant in July 1863, and on becoming a prisoner of
war, he was immediately exchanged and promoted major-general.
His regimental service had been chiefly with artillery, but he
had generally worked with and at times commanded cavalry,
and he was now assigned to command the troops of that arm
in the south-western theatre of war. After harassing, as far
as his limited numbers permitted, the advance of Sherman's
column on Meridian, he took General Folk's place as commander
of the department of Missiisippi. In June 1864, on Hood's
promotion to command the Army of Tennessee, S. D. Lee was
made a lieutenant-general and assigned to command Hood's
old corps in that army. He fought at Atlanta and Jonesboro
and in the skirmishing and manceuvring along middle
Tennessee which ended in the great crisis of Nashville and the
" March to the Sea." Lee's corps accompanied Hood in the
bold advance to Nashville, and fought in the battles of Franklin
and Nashville, after which, in the rout of the Confederate army
Lee kept his troops closed up and well in hand, and for three
consecutive days formed the fighting rearguard of the otherwise
disintegrated army. Lee was himself wounded, but did not
give up the command until an organized rearguard took over
the post of danger. On recovery he joined General J. E. Johnston
in North Carolina, and he surrendered with Johnston in April
1865. After the war he settled in Mississippi, which was his
wife's state and during the greater part of the war his own
territorial command, and devoted himself to planting. He
was president of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of
Mississippi from 1880 to 1899, took some part in state politics
and was an active member— at the time of his death commander-
in-chief — of the " United Confederate Veterans " society. He
died at Vicksburg on the 28th of May 1908.
LEE, a township of Berkshire county, in western Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A. Pop. (1900) 3596; (1905) 3972; (1910) 4106.
The township is traversed by the New York, New Haven &
Hartford railway, covers an area of 22 J sq. m., and includes the
village of Lee, 10 m. S. of Pittsfield, East Lee, adjoining it on
the S.E., and South Lee, about 3 m. to the S.W. Lee and South
Lee are on, and East Lee is near, the Housatonic river. The
eastern part of the township is generally hilly, reaching a maxi-
mum altitude of about 2200 ft., and there are two considerable
bodies of water — Laurel Lake in the N.W. (partly in Lenox)
and Goose Pond, in the S.E. (partly in Tyringham). The
region is healthy as well as beautiful, and is much frequented as a
summer resort. Memorial Hall was built in memory of the
soldiers from Lee who died during the Civil War. The chief
manufactures are paper and wire, and from the quarries near the
village of Lee is obtained an excellent quality of marble; these
quarries furnished the marble for the extension of the Capitol
at Washington, for St Patrick's cathedral in New York City
and for the Lee High School and the Lee Public Library (1908).
Lime is quarried in the township. Lee was formerly a paper-
manufacturing place of great importance. The first paper mill
in the township was built in South Lee in 1806, and for a time
more paper was made in Lee than in any other place in the
United States; the Housatonic Mill in Lee was probably the first
(1867) in the United States to manufacture paper from wood pulp.
The first settlement within the present township of Lee was
made in 1760. The township was formed from parts of Great
Barrington and Washington, was incorporated in 1777 and was
named in honour of General Charles Lee (1731-1782). In the
autumn of 1786 there was an encounter near the village of East
Lee between about 250 adherents of Daniel Shays (many of them
from Lee township) and a body of state troops under General
John Paterson, wherein the Shays contingent paraded a bogus
cannon (made of a yarn beam) with such effect that the state
troops fled.
See Amory Gale, History of the Town of Lee (Lee, 1854), and Lee,
The Centennial Celebration and Centennial History of tlie Town oj
Lee (Springfield, Mass., 1878), compiled by Charles M. Hyde and
Alexander Hyde.
LEE. (i) (In 0. Eng. hleo; cf. the pronunciation lew-ward of
" leeward "; the word appears in several Teutonic languages;
cf. Dutch lij, Dan. lae), properly a shelter or protection, chiefly
used as a nautical term for that side of a ship, land, &c., which
is farthest from the wind, hence a " lee shore," land under the
lee of a ship, i.e. one on which the wind blows directly and which
is unsheltered. A ship is said to make " leeway " when she
drifts laterally away from her course. (2) A word now always
used in the plural " lees," meaning dregs, sediment, particularly
of wine. It comes through the O. Fr. lie from a Gaulish Lat. lia,
and is probably of Celtic origin.
LEECH, JOHN (1817-1864), English caricaturist, was born in
London on the 2gth of August 1817. His father, a native of
Ireland, was the landlord of the London Coffee House on Ludgate
Hill, " a man," on the testimony of those who knew him, "of
fine culture, a profound Shakespearian, and a thorough gentle-
man." His mother was descended from the family of the
famous Richard Bentley. It was from his father that Leech
inherited his skill with the pencil, which he began to use at a
very early age. When he was only three, he was discovered by
Flaxman, who had called on his parents, seated on his mother's
knee, drawing with much gravity. The sculptor pronounced
his sketch to be wonderful, adding, " Do not let him be cramped
with lessons in drawing; let his genius follow its own bent; he
will astonish the world " — an advice which was strictly followed.
A mail-coach, done when he was six years old, is already full
of surprising vigour and variety in its galloping horses. Leech
was educated at Charterhouse, where Thackeray, his lifelong
friend, was his schoolfellow, and at sixteen he began to study for
the medical profession at St Bartholomew's Hospital, where he
won praise for the accuracy and beauty of his anatomical draw-
ings. He was then placed under a Mr Whittle, an eccentric
practitioner, the original of " Rawkins " in Albert Smith's
Adventures of Mr Ledbury, and afterwards under Dr John
Cockle; but gradually the true bent of the youth's mind asserted
itself, and he drifted into the artistic profession. He was eighteen
when his first designs were published, a quarto of four pages,
entitled Etchings and Sketchings by A. Pen, Esq., comic character
LEECH
365
studies from the London streets. Then he drew some political
lithographs, did rough sketches for Bell's Life, produced an
exceedingly popular parody on Mulready's postal envelope, and,
on the death of Seymour, applied unsuccessfully to illustrate
the Pickwick Papers. In 1840 Leech began his contributions
to the magazines with a series of etchings in Bentley's Miscellany,
where Cruikshank had published his splendid plates to Jack
Sheppard and Oliver Twist, and was illustrating Guy Faivkes in
sadly feebler fashion. In company with the elder master Leech
designed for the Ingoldsby Legends and Stanley Thorn, and till
1847 produced many independent series of etchings. These
cannot be ranked with his best work; their technique is exceed-
ingly imperfect; they are rudely bitten, with the light and shade
out of relation; and we never feel that they express the artist's
individuality, the Richard Savage plates, for instance, being
strongly reminiscent of Cruikshank, and " The Dance at Stamford
Hall " of Hablot Browne. In 1845 Leech illustrated Si Giles and
St James in Douglas Jerrold's newly started Shilling Magazine,
with plates more vigorous and accomplished than those in Bentley,
but it is in subjects of a somewhat later date, and especially in
those lightly etched and meant to be printed with colour, that
we see the artist's best powers with the needle and the acid.
Among such of his designs are four charming plates to Dickens's
Christmas Carol (1844), the broadly humorous etchings in the
Comic History of England (1847-1848), and the still finer illustra-
tions to the Comic History of Rome (1852) — which last, particu-
larly in its minor woodcuts, shows some exquisitely graceful
touches, as witness the fair faces that rise from the surging water
in " Cloelia and her Companions Escaping from the Etruscan
Camp." Among the other etchings which deserve very special
reference are those in Young Master Troublesome or Master
Jacky's Holidays, and the frontispiece to Hints on Life, or How
to Rise in Society (1845) — a series of minute subjects linked
gracefully together by coils of smoke, illustrating the various
ranks and conditions of men, one of them — the doctor by his
patient's bedside — almost equalling in vivacity and precision
the best of Cruikshank 's similar scenes. Then in the 'fifties
we have the numerous etchings of sporting scenes, contributed,
together with woodcuts, to the Handley Cross novels.
Turning to Leech's lithographic work, we have, in 1841, the
Portraits of the Children of the Mobility, an important series dealing
with the humorous and pathetic aspects of London street Arabs,
which were afterwards so often and so effectively to employ the
artist's pencil. Amid all the squalor which they depict, they are
full of individual beauties in the delicate or touching expression
of a face, in the graceful turn of a limb. The book is scarce in its
original form, but in 1875 two reproductions of the outline
sketches for the designs were published — a lithographic issue
of the whole series, and a finer photographic transcript of six
of the subjects, which is more valuable than even the finished
illustrations of 1841, in which the added light and shade is
frequently spotty and ineffective, and the lining itself has not the
freedom which we find in some of Leech's other lithographs,
notably in the Fly Leaves, published at the Punch office, and in
the inimitable subject of the nuptial couch of the Caudles, which
also appeared, in woodcut form, as a political cartoon, with Mrs
Caudle, personated by Brougham, disturbing by untimely
loquacity the slumbers of the lord chancellor, whose haggard
cheek rests on the woolsack for pillow.
But it was in work for the wood-engravers that Leech was
most prolific and individual. Among the earlier of such designs
are the illustrations to the Comic English and Latin Grammars
(1840), to Written Caricatures (1841), to Hood's Comic Annual,
(1842), and to Albert Smith's Wassail Bowl (1843), subjects
mainly of a small vignette size, transcribed with the best skill
of such woodcutters as Orrin Smith, and not, like the larger and
later Punch illustrations, cut at speed by several engravers
working at once on the subdivided block. It was in 1841 that
Leech's connexion with Punch began, a connexion which sub-
sisted till his death on the 2gth of October 1864, and resulted
in the production of the best-known and most admirable of his
designs. His first contribution appeared in the issue of the 7th
of August, a full-page illustration — entitled " Foreign Affairs " —
of character studies from the neighbourhood of Leicester Square.
His cartoons deal at first mainly with social subjects, and are
rough and imperfect in execution, but gradually their method
gains in power and their subjects become more distinctly political,
and by 1849 the artist is strong enough to produce the splendidly
humorous national personification which appears in " Disraeli
Measuring the British Lion." About 1845 we have the first of
that long series of half-page and quarter-page pictures of life
and manners, executed with a hand as gentle as it was skilful,
containing, as Ruskin has said, " admittedly the finest definition
and natural history of the classes of our society, the kindest
and subtlest analysis of its foibles, the tenderest flattery of its
pretty and well-bred ways," which has yet appeared. In addition
to his work for the weekly issue of Punch, Leech contributed
largely to the Punch almanacks and pocket-books, to Once a
Week from 1859 till 1862, to the Illustrated London News, where
some of his largest and best sporting scenes appeared, and to
innumerable novels and miscellaneous volumes besides, of which
it is only necessary to specify A Little Tour in Ireland (1859),
which is noticeable as showing the artist's treatment of pure
landscape, though it also contains some of his daintiest figure-
pieces, like that of the wind-blown girl, standing on the summit
of a pedestal, with the swifts darting around her and the breadth
of sea beyond.
In 1862 Leech appealed to the public with a very successful
exhibition of some of the most remarkable of his Punch drawings.
These were enlarged by a mechanical process, and coloured in
oils by the artist himself, with the assistance and under the
direction of his friend J. E. Millais.
Leech was a singularly rapid and indefatigable worker. Dean
Hole tells us, when he was his guest, " I have known him send off
from my house three finished drawings on the wood, designed,
traced, and rectified, without much effort as it seemed, between
breakfast and dinner." The best technical qualities of Leech's
art, his unerring precision, his unfailing vivacity in the use of the
line, are seen most clearly in the first sketches for his woodcuts, and
in the more finished drawings made on tracing-paper from these
first outlines, before the chiaroscuro was added and the designs were
transcribed by the engraver. Turning to the mental qualities of
his art, it would be a mistaken criticism which ranked him as a
comic draughtsman. Like Hogarth he was a true humorist, a student
of human life, though he observed humanity mainly in its whimsical
aspects,
" Hitting all he saw with shafts
With gentle satire, kin to charity,
That harmed not."
The earnestness and gravity of moral purpose which is so constant
a note in the work of Hogarth is indeed far less characteristic of
Leech, but there are touches of pathos and of tragedy in such of
the Punch designs as the " Poor Man's Friend " (1845), and " General
Fevrier turned Traitor " (1855), a"d in " The Queen of the Arena "
in the first volume of Once a Week, which are sufficient to prove
that more solemn powers, for which his daily work afforded no scope,
lay dormant in their artist. The purity and manliness of Leech's
own character are impressed on his art. We find in it little of the
exaggeration and grotesqueness, and none of the fierce political
enthusiasm, of which the designs of Gillray are so full. Compared
with that of his great contemporary George Cruikshank, his work
is restricted both in compass of subject and in artistic dexterity.
Biographies of Leech have been written by John Brown (1882).
and Frith (1891); see also "John Leech's Pictures of Life and
Character," by Thackeray, Quarterly Review (December 1854) ;
letter by John Ruskin, Arrows of the Chace, vol. i. p. 161; " Un
Humoriste Anglais," by Ernest Chesneau, Gazette des Beaux Arts
(1875). (J- M. G.)
LEECH, the common name of members of the Hirudinea,
a division of Chaetopod worms. It is doubtful whether the
medicinal leech, Hirudo medicinalis, which is rarer in England
than on the continent of Europe, or the horse leech, Aulastoma
gulo, often confused with it, has the best right to the original pos-
session of this name. But at present the word " leech " is applied
to every member of the group Hirudinea, for the general structure
and classification of which see CHAETOPODA. There are many
genera and species of leeches, the exact definitions of which are
still in need of a more complete survey. They occur in all parts
of the world and are mostly aquatic, though sometimes terrestrial,
in habit. The aquatic forms frequent streams, ponds and
marshes, and the sea. The members of this group are always
366
LEEDS, DUKE OF
carnivorous or parasitic, and prey upon both vertebrates and
invertebrates. In relation to their parasitic habit one or two
suckers are always developed, the one at the anterior and the
other at the posterior end of the body. In one subdivision of
the leeches, the Gnathobdellidae, the mouth has three chitinous
jaws which produce a triangular bite, though the action has been
described as like that of a circular saw. Leeches without biting
jaws possess a protrusible proboscis, and generally engulf their
prey, as does the horse leech when it attacks earthworms. But
some of them are also ectoparasites. The leech has been used
in medicine from remote antiquity as a moderate blood-letter;
and it is still so used, though more rarely than formerly. As
unlicensed blood-letters, certain land-leeches are among the most
unpleasant of parasites that can be encountered in a tropical
jungle. A species of Haemadipsa of Ceylon attaches itself to
the passer-by and draws blood with so little irritation that the
sufferer is said to be aware of its presence only by the trickling
from the wounds produced. Small leeches taken into the mouth
with drinking-water may give rise to serious symptoms by attach-
ing themselves to the fauces and neighbouring parts and thence
sucking blood. The effects of these parasites have been mistaken
for those of disease All leeches are very extensile and can
contract the body to a plump, pear-shaped form, or extend
it to a long and worm-like shape. They frequently progress
after the fashion of a " looper " caterpillar, attaching themselves
alternately by the anterior and the posterior sucker. Others
swim with eel-like curves through the water, while one land-leech,
at any rate, moves in a gliding way like a land Planarian, and
leaves, also like the Planarian, a slimy trail behind it. Leeches
are usually olive green to brown in colour, darker patches and
spots being scattered over a paler ground. The marine parasitic
leech Pontobdella is of a bright green, as is also the land-leech
Trocheta.
The term " leech," as an old English synonym for physician,
is from a Teutonic root meaning " heal," and is etymologically
distinct from the name (0. Eng. lyce) of the Hirudo, though
the use of the one by the other has helped to assimilate the two
words. (F. E. B.)
LEEDS, THOMAS OSBORNE, ist DUKE OF (1631-1712),
English statesman, commonly known also by his earlier title of
EARL OF DANBY, son of Sir Edward Osborne, Bart., of Kiveton,
Yorkshire, was born in 1631. He was great-grandson of Sir
Edward Osborne (d. 1591), lord mayor of London, who, according
to the accepted account, while apprentice to Sir William Hewett,
clothworker and lord mayor in 1559, made the fortunes of the
family by leaping from London Bridge into the river and rescuing
Anne (d. 1585), the daughter of his employer, whom he afterwards
married.1 Thomas Osborne, the future lord treasurer, succeeded
to the baronetcy and estates in Yorkshire on his father's death
in 1647, and after unsuccessfully courting his cousin Dorothy
Osborne, married Lady Bridget Bertie, daughter of the earl of
Lindsey. He was introduced to public life and to court by his
neighbour in Yorkshire, George', 2nd duke of Buckingham,
was elected M.P. for York in 1665, and gained the " first step
in his future rise " by joining Buckingham in his attack on
Clarendon in 1667. In 1668 he was appointed joint treasurer
of the navy with Sir Thomas Lyttelton, and subsequently
sole treasurer. ^He succeeded Sir William Coventry as com-
missioner for the state treasury in 1669, and in 1673 was appointed
a commissioner for the admiralty. He was created Viscount
Osborne in the Scottish peerage on the 2nd of February 1673,
and a privy councillor on the 3rd of May. On the igth of June,
on the resignation of Lord Clifford, he was appointed lord treasurer
and made Baron Osborne of Kiveton and Viscount Latimer in
the peerage of England, while on the 27th of June 1674 he was
created earl of Danby, when he surrendered his Scottish peerage
of Osborne to his second son Peregrine Osborne. He was
appointed the same year lord-lieutenant of the West Riding of
Yorkshire, and in 1677 received the Garter.
Danby was a statesman of very different calibre from the
1 Chronicles of London Bridge, by R. Thomson (1827), 313, quoting
Stow.
leaders of the Cabal ministry, Buckingham and Arlington. His
principal aim was no doubt the maintenance and increase of his
own influence and party, but his ambition corresponded with
definite political views. A member of the old cavalier party,
a confidential friend and correspondent of the despotic Lauder-
dale, he desired to strengthen the executive and the royal
authority. At the same time he was a keen partisan of the
established church, an enemy of both Roman Catholics and dis-
senters, and an opponent of all toleration. In 1673 he opposed
the Indulgence, supported the Test Act, and spoke against the
proposal for giving relief to the dissenters. In June 1675 he
signed the paper of advice drawn up by the bishops for the king,
urging the rigid enforcement of the laws against the Roman
Catholics, their complete banishment from the court, and the
suppression of conventicles,2 and a bill introduced by him impos-
ing special taxes on recusants and subjecting Roman Catholic
priests to imprisonment for life was only thrown out as too
lenient because it secured offenders from the charge of treason.
The same year he introduced a Test Oath by which all holding
office or seats in either House of Parliament were to declare
resistance to the royal power a crime, and promise to abstain
from all attempts to alter the government of either church or
state; but this extreme measure of retrograde toryism was
successfully opposed by wiser statesmen. The king himself
as a Roman Catholic secretly opposed and also doubted the
wisdom and practicability of this " thorough " policy of repression.
Danby therefore ordered a return from every diocese of the
numbers of dissenters, both Romanist and Protestant, in order
by a proof of their insignificance to remove the royal scruples.3
In December 1676 he issued a proclamation for the suppression
of coffee-houses because of the " defamation of His Majesty's
Government " which took place in them, but this was soon
withdrawn. In 1677, to secure Protestantism in case of a Roman
Catholic succession, he introduced a bill by which ecclesiastical
patronage and the care of the royal children were entrusted to
the bishops; but this measure, like the other, was thrown out.
In foreign affairs Danby showed a stronger grasp of essentials.
He desired to increase English trade, credit and power abroad.
He was a determined enemy both to Roman influence and to
French ascendancy. He terminated the war with Holland in
1674, and from that time maintained a friendly correspondence
with William; while in 1677, after two years of tedious negotia-
tions, he overcame all obstacles, and in spite of James's opposi-
tion, and without the knowledge of Louis XIV., effected the
marriage between William and Mary that was the germ of the
Revolution and the Act of Settlement. This national policy,
however, could only be pursued, and the minister could only
maintain himself in power, by acquiescence in the king's personal
relations with the king of France settled by the disgraceful
Treaty of Dover in 1670, which included Charles's acceptance
of a pension, and bound him to a policy exactly opposite to
Danby's, one furthering French and Roman ascendancy.
Though not a number of the Cabal ministry, and in spite of his
own denial, Danby must, it would seem, have known of these
relations after becoming lord treasurer. In any case, in 1676,
together with Lauderdale alone, he consented to a treaty between
Charles and Louis according to which the foreign policy of both
kings was to be conducted in union, and Charles received an
annual subsidy of £100,000. In 1678 Charles, taking advantage
of the growing hostility to France in the nation and parliament,
raised his price, and Danby by his directions demanded through
Ralph Montagu (afterwards duke of Montagu) six million livres
a year (£300,000) for three years. Simultaneously Danby
guided through parliament a bill for raising money for a war
against France; a league was concluded with Holland, and
troops were actually sent there. That Danby, in spite of these
compromising transactions, remained in intention faithful
to the national interests, appears clearly from the hostility with
which he was still regarded by France. In 1676 he is described
2 Cal. of St Pap. Dom. (1673-1675), p. 449.
3 Letter of Morley, Bishop of Winchester, to Danby (June 10,
1676). (Hist. MSS. Com. xi. Rep. pt. vii. 14.)
LEEDS, DUKE OF
367
by Ruvigny to Louis XIV. as intensely antagonistic to France
and French interests, and as doing his utmost to prevent the
treaty of that year.1 In 1678, on the rupture of relations
between Charles and Louis, a splendid opportunity was afforded
Louis of paying off old scores by disclosing Danby's participation
in the king's demands for French gold.
Every circumstance now conspired to effect his fall. Although
both abroad and at home his policy had generally embodied
the wishes of the ascendant party in the state, Danby had never
obtained the confidence of the nation. His character inspired
no respect, and he could not reckon during the whole of his
long career on the support of a single individual. Charles is
said to have told him when he made him treasurer that he had
only two friends in the world, himself and his own merit.2 He
was described to Pepys on his acquiring office as " one of a broken
sort of people that have not much to lose and therefore will
venture all," and as " a beggar having £1100 or £1200 a year,
but owes above £10,000." His office brought him in £20,000
a year,3 and he was known to be making large profits by the sale
of offices; he maintained his power by corruption and by
jealously excluding from office men of high standing and ability.
Burnet described him as " the most hated minister that had
ever been about the king." Worse men had been less detested,
but Danby had none of the amiable virtues which often counter-
act the odium incurred by serious faults. Evelyn, who knew
him intimately from his youth, describes him as " a man of
excellent natural parts but nothing of generous or grateful."
Shaftesbury, doubtless no friendly witness, speaks of him as
an inveterate liar, "proud, ambitious, revengeful, false, prodigal
and covetous to the highest degree,"4 and Burnet supports his
unfavourable judgment to a great extent. His corruption,
his mean submission to a tyrant wife, his greed, his pale face
and lean person, which had succeeded to the handsome features
and comeliness of earlier days,5 were the subject of ridicule,
from the witty sneers of Halifax to the coarse jests of the anony-
mous writers of innumerable lampoons. By his championship
of the national policy he had raised up formidable foes abroad
without securing a single friend or supporter at home,6 and
his fidelity to the national interests was now, through a very
mean and ignoble act of personal spite, to be the occasion of his
downfall.
Danby in appointing a new secretary of state had preferred
Sir W. Temple, a strong adherent of the anti-French policy,
to Montagu. The latter, after a quarrel with the duchess of
Cleveland, was dismissed from the king's employment. He
immediately went over to the opposition, and in concert with
Louis XIV. and Barillon, the French ambassador, by whom
he was supplied with a large sum of money, arranged a plan
for effecting Danby's ruin. He obtained a seat in parliament;
and in spite of Danby's endeavour to seize his papers by an order
in council, on the 2oth of December 1678 caused two of the
incriminating letters written by Danby to him to be read aloud
to the House of Commons by the Speaker. The House im-
mediately resolved on Danby's impeachment. At the foot
of each of the letters appeared the king's postscripts, " I approve
of this letter. C.R.," in his own handwriting; but they were
not read by the Speaker, and were entirely neglected in the
proceedings against the minister, thus emphasizing the con-
stitutional principle that obedience to the orders of the sovereign
can be no bar to an impeachment. He was charged with having
encroached to himself royal powers by treating matters of peace
and war without the knowledge of the council, with having
promoted the raising of a standing army on pretence of a war
with France, with having obstructed the assembling of parlia-
1 Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland, by Sir J. Dairy mple
1773). i- app. 104.
2 Letters to Sir Joseph Williamson (Camden Soc., 1874), i. 64.
3 Halifax note-book in Devonshire House collection, quoted in
Foxcrpft's Life of Halifax, ii. 63, note.
4 Life of Shaftesbury, by W. D. Christie (1871), ii. 312.
6 Macky's Memoirs, 46; Pepys's Diary, viii. 143.
6 See the description of his position at this time by Sir W. Temple
in Lives of Illustrious Persons (1714), 40.
ment, with corruption and embezzlement in the treasury.
Danby, while communicating the "Popish Plot" to the parlia-
ment, had from the first expressed his disbelief in the so-called
revelations of Titus Gates, and his backwardness in the matter
now furnished an additional charge of having "traitorously
concealed the plot." He was voted guilty by the Commons;
but while the Lords were disputing whether the accused peer
should have bail, and whether the charges amounted to more
than a misdemeanour, parliament was prorogued on the 3oth
of December and dissolved three weeks later. In March 1679
a new parliament hostile to Danby was returned, and he was
forced to resign the treasurership; but he received a pardon
from the king under the Great Seal, and a warrant for a mar-
quessate.7 His proposed advancement in rank was severely
reflected upon in the Lords, Halifax declaring it in the king's
presence the recompense of treason, " not to be borne "; and
in the Commons his retirement from office by no means appeased
his antagonists. The proceedings against him were revived,
a committee of privileges deciding on the igth of March 1679
that the dissolution of parliament was no abatement of an im-
peachment. A motion was passed for his committal by the
Lords, who, as in Clarendon's case, voted his banishment.
This was, however, rejected by the Commons, who now passed
an act of attainder. Danby had removed to the country, but
returned on the 2ist of April to avoid the threatened passing
by the Lords of the attainder, and was sent to the Tower. In
his written defence he now pleaded the king's pardon, but on
the 5th of May 1679 it was pronounced illegal by the Commons.
This declaration was again repeated by the Commons in 1689
on the occasion of another attack made upon Danby in that
year, and was finally embodied in the Act of Settlement in 1701.
The Commons now demanded judgment against the prisoner
from the Lords. Further proceedings, however, were stopped
by the dissolution of parliament again in July; but for nearly
five years Danby remained a prisoner in the Tower. A number
of pamphlets asserting the complicity of the fallen minister
in the Popish Plot, and even accusing him of the murder of Sir
Edmund Berry Godfrey, were published in 1679 and 1680;
they were answered by Danby's secretary, Edward Christian,
in Reflections; and in May 1681 Danby was actually indicted
by the Grand Jury of Middlesex for Godfrey's murder on the
accusation of Edward FitzHarris. His petition to the king
for a trial by his peers on this indictment was refused, and an
attempt to prosecute the publishers of the false evidence in
the king's bench was unsuccessful. For some time all appeals
to the king, to parliament, and to the courts of justice were
unavailing; but on the i2th of February 1684 his application
to Chief Justice Jeffreys was at last successful, and he was set
at liberty on finding bail to the amount of £40,000, to appear
in the House of Lords in the following session. He visited the
king at court the same day; but took no part in public affairs
for the rest of the reign.
After James's accession Danby was discharged from his bail
by the Lords on the igth of May 1685, and the order declaring
a dissolution of parliament to be no abatement of an impeach-
ment was reversed. He again took his seat in the Lords as a
leader of the moderate Tory party. Though a strong Tory
and supporter of the hereditary principle, James's attacks on
Protestantism soon drove him into opposition. He was visited
by Dykvelt, William of Orange's agent; and in June 1687 he
wrote to William assuring him of his support. On the 3Oth of
June 1688 he was ope of the seven leaders of the Revolution who
signed the invitation to William. In November he occupied
York in the prince's interest, returning to London to meet
William on the 26th of December. He appears to have thought
that William would not claim the crown,8 and at first supported
the theory that the throne having been vacated by James's
flight the succession fell as of right to Mary; but as this met
with little support, and was rejected both by William and by
Mary herself, he voted against the regency and joined with
' Add. MSS. 28094, f- 47-
8 Boyer's Annals (1722), 433.
368
LEEDS
Halifax and the Commons in declaring the prince and princess
joint sovereigns.
Danby had rendered extremely important services to William's
cause. On the 2oth of April 1689 he was created marquess of
Carmarthen and was made lord-lieutenant of the three ridings of
Yorkshire. He was, however, still greatly disliked by the Whigs,
and William, instead of reinstating him in the lord treasurership,
only appointed him president of the council in February 1689.
He did not conceal his vexation and disappointment, which
were increased by the appointment of Halifax to the office of
lord privy seal. The antagonism between the " black " and
the " white marquess " (the latter being the nickname given to
Carmarthen in allusion to his sickly appearance), which had
been forgotten in their common hatred to the French policy
and to Rome, revived in all its bitterness. He retired to the
country and was seldom present at the council. In June and
July new motions were made in parliament for his removal;
but notwithstanding his great unpopularity, on the retirement
of Halifax in 1690 he again acquired the chief power in the
state, which he retained till 1695 by bribery in parliament and by
the support of the king and queen. In 1690, during William's
absence in Ireland, he was appointed Mary's chief adviser.
In 1691, desiring to compromise Halifax, he discredited himself
by the patronage of an informer named Fuller, soon proved
an impostor. He was absent in 1692 when the Place Bill was
thrown out. In 1693 he presided in great state as lord high
steward at the trial of Lord Mohun; and on the 4th of May 1694
he was created duke of Leeds.1 The same year he supported the
Triennial Bill, but opposed the new treason bill as weakening
the hands of the executive. Meanwhile fresh attacks had been
made upon him. He was accused unjustly of Jacobitism. In
April 1695 he was impeached once more by the Commons for
having received a bribe of 5000 guineas to procure the new
charter for the East India Company. In his defence, whilst
denying that he had received the money and appealing to his
past services, he did not attempt to conceal the fact that according
to his experience bribery was an acknowledged and universal
custom in public business, and that he himself had been instru-
mental in obtaining money for others. Meanwhile his servant,
who was said to have been the intermediary between the duke
and the Company in the transaction, fled the country; and no
evidence being obtainable to convict, the proceedings fell to the
ground. In May 1695 he had been ordered to discontinue his
attendance 'at the council. He returned in October, but was
not included among the lords justices appointed regents during
William's absence in this year. In November he was created
D.C.L. by the university of Oxford; in December he became
a commissioner of trade, and in December 1696 governor of the
Royal Fishery Company. He opposed the prosecution of Sir
John Fenwick, but supported the action taken by members of
both Houses in defence of William's rights in the same year.
On the 23rd of April 1698 he entertained the tsar, Peter the Great,
at Wimbledon. He had for some time lost the real direction of
affairs, and in May 1699 he was compelled to retire from office
and from the lord-lieutenancy of Yorkshire.
In Queen Anne's reign, in his old age, he is described as " a
gentleman of admirable natural parts, great knowledge and
experience in the affairs of his own country, but of no reputation
with any party. He hath not been regarded, although he took
his place at the council board."2 The veteran statesman, how-
ever, by no means acquiesced in his enforced retirement, and
continued to take an active part in politics. As a zealous
churchman and Protestant he still possessed a following. In 1705
he supported a motion that the church was in danger, and in
1710 in Sacheverell's case spoke in defence of hereditary right.'
In November of this year he obtained a renewal of his pension
of £3500 a year from the post office which he was holding in
1 The title was taken, not from Leeds in Yorkshire, but from
Leeds in Kent, 4$ m. from Maidstone, which in the 1 7th century was
a more important place than its Yorkshire namesake.
1 Memoirs of Sir John Macky (Roxburghe Club, 1895), 46.
8 Boyer's Annals, 219, 433.
1 694,* and in 1711 at the age of eighty was a competitor for
the office of lord privy seal.6 His long and eventful career,
however, terminated soon afterwards by his death on the 26th of
July 1712.
In 1710 the duke had published Copies am} Extracts of some
letters written to and from the Earl of Danby . . . in the years 1676,
1677 and 1678, in defence of his conduct, and this was accompanied
by Memoirs relating to the Impeachment of Thomas, Earl of Danby.
The original letters, however, of Danby to Montagu have now been
published (by the Historical MSS. Commission from the MSS. of
J. Eliot Hodgkin), and are seen to have been considerably garbled
by Danby for the purposes of publication, several passages being
obliterated and others altered by his own hand.
See the lives, by Sidney Lee in the Diet. Nat. Biography (1895);
by T. P. Courtenay in Lardner's Encyclopaedia, " Eminent British
Statesmen," vol. v. (1850); in Lodge's Portraits, vii. ; and Lives
and Characters of . . . Illustrious Persons, by I. le Neve (1714).
Further material for his biography exists in Add. MSS., 26040-
95 (56 vols., containing his papers) ; in the Duke of Leeds MSS. at
Hornby Castle, calendered in Hist. MSS. Comm. llth Rep. pt. vii.
pp. 1-43; MSS. of Earl of Lindsay and J. Eliot Hodgkin; and
Calendars of State Papers Dom. See also Add. MSS. 1894-1899,
Index and Calendar; Hist. MSS. Comm. nth Rep. pt. ii., House of
Lords MSS. ; Gen. Cat. British Museum for various pamphlets.
(P. C. Y.)
Later Dukes of Leeds.
The duke's only surviving son, Peregrine (1659-1729), who
became 2nd duke of Leeds on his father's death, had been a
member of the House of Lords as Baron Osborne since 1690, but
he is better known as a naval officer; in this service he attained
the rank of a vice-admiral. He died on the 25th of June 1729,
when his son Peregrine Hyde (1691-1731) became 3rd duke.
The 4th duke was the latter's son Thomas (1713-1789), who was
succeeded by his son Francis.
Francis Osborne, 5th duke of Leeds (1751-1799), was bom
on the 2gth of January 1751 and was educated at Westminster
school and at Christ Church, Oxford. He was a member of parlia-
ment in 1774 and 1775; in 1776 he became a peer as Baron
Osborne, and in 1777 lord chamberlain of the queen's household.
In the House of Lords he was prominent as a determined foe
of the prime minister, Lord North, who, after he had resigned his
position as chamberlain, deprived him of the office of lord-
lieutenant of the East Riding of Yorkshire in 1780. He regained
this, however, two years later. Early in 1783 the marquess of
Carmarthen, as he was called, was selected as ambassador to
France, but he did not take up this appointment, becoming
instead secretary for foreign affairs under William Pitt in
December of the same year. As secretary he was little more
than a cipher, and he left office in April 1791. Subsequently
he took some slight part in politics, and he died in London on the
3ist of January 1799. His Political Memoranda were edited by
Oscar Browning for the Camden Society in 1884, and there are
eight volumes of his official correspondence in the British Museum.
His first wife was Amelia (1754-1784), daughter of Robert Darcy,
4th earl of Holdernesse, who became Baroness Conyers in her
own right in 1778. Their elder son, George William Frederick
(1775-1838), succeeded his father as duke of Leeds and his
mother as Baron Conyers. These titles were, however, separated
when his son, Francis Godolphin Darcy, the 7th Duke (1798-
1859 ), died without sons in May 1859. The barony passed to his
nephew, Sackville George Lane-Fox (1827-1888), falling into
abeyance on his death in August 1888, and the dukedom passed
to his cousin, George Godolphin Osborne (1802-1872), a son of
Francis Godolphin Osborne (1777-1850), who was created Baron
Godolphin in 1832. In 1895 George's grandson George Godolphin
Osborne (b. 1862) became loth duke of Leeds. The name of
Godolphin, which is borne by many of the Osbornes, was intro-
duced into the family through the marriage of the 4th duke with
Mary (d. 1764), daughter and co-heiress of Francis Godolphin,
2nd earl of Godolphin, and grand-daughter of the great duke of
Marlborough.
LEEDS, a city and municipal county and parliamentary
borough in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 185 m.
4 Harleian MSS. 2264, No. 239.
6 Boyer's Annals, 515.
LEEDS
369
N.N.W. from London. Pop. (1891) 367,505; (1901) 428,968.
It is served by the Great Northern railway (Central station),
the Midland (Wellington station), North-Eastern and London
& North- Western (New station), and Great Central and Lanca-
shire & Yorkshire railways (Central station). It lies nearly in
the centre of the Riding, in the valley of the river Aire.
The plan of the city is in no way regular, and the numerous
handsome public buildings are distributed among several streets,
principally on the north side of the narrow river. The town
hall is a fine building in Grecian style, well placed in a square
between Park Lane and Great George Street. It is of oblong
shape, with a handsome facade over which rises a domed clock-
tower. The principal apartment is the Victoria Hall, a richly
ornamented chamber measuring 161 ft. in length, 72 in breadth
and 75 in height. It was opened in 1858 by Queen Victoria.
Immediately adjacent to it are the municipal offices (1884) in
Italian style. The Royal Exchange (1872) in Boar Lane is an
excellent Perpendicular building. In ecclesiastical architecture
Leeds is not rich. The church of St John, however, is an interest-
ing example of the junction of Gothic traditions with Renaissance
tendencies in architecture. It dates from 1634 and contains
some fine contemporary woodwork. St Peter's parish church
occupies an ancient site, and preserves a very early cross from
the former building. The church was rebuilt in 1840 at the
instance of the vicar, Dr Walter Farquhar Hook (1798-1875),
afterwards dean of Chichester, whose work here in a poor and
ill-educated parish brought him fame. The church of All Souls
(1880) commemorates him. It may be noted that the vicarage
of Leeds has in modern times commonly formed a step to the
episcopal bench. There are numerous other modern churches
and chapels, of which the Unitarian chapel in Park Row is note-
worthy. Leeds is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, with
a pro-cathedral dedicated to St Anne. There is a large free
library in the municipal offices, and numerous branch libraries
are maintained. The Leeds old library is a private institution
founded in 1768 by Dr Priestley, who was then minister of the
Unitarian chapel. It occupies a building in Commercial Street.
The Philosophical and Literary Society, established in 1820,
possesses a handsome building in Park Row, known as the
Philosophical Hall, containing a laboratory, scientific library,
lecture room, and museum, with excellent natural history,
geological and archaeological collections. The City Art Gallery
was completed in 1888, and contains a fine permanent collection,
while exhibitions are also held. The University, incorporated in
1904, grew out of Yorkshire College, established in 1875 for the
purpose of supplying instruction in the arts and sciences which
are applicable to the manufactures, engineering, mining and
agriculture of the county. In 1887 it became one of the con-
stituent colleges of Victoria University, Manchester, and so
remained until its separate incorporation. The existing building
was completed in 1885, and contains a hall of residence, a central
hall and library, and complete equipments in all departments
of instruction. New departments have been opened in extension
of the original scheme, such as the medical department (1894).
A day training college is a branch of the institution. The
Mechanics' Institute (1865) occupies a handsome Italian building
in Cookridge Street near the town hall. It comprises a lecture
room, library, reading and class rooms; and day and evening
classes and an art school are maintained. The grammar school,
occupying a Gothic building (1858) at Woodhouse Moor, dates
its foundation from 1552. It is largely endowed, and possesses
exhibitions tenable at Oxford, Cambridge and Durham uni-
versities. There is a large training college for the Wesleyan
Methodist ministry in the suburb of Headingley. The Yorkshire
Ladies' Council of Education has as its object the promotion of
female education, and the instruction of girls and women of the
artisan class in domestic economy, &c. The general infirmary
in Great George Street is a Gothic building of brick with stone
dressings with a highly ornamental exterior by Sir Gilbert Scott,
of whose work this is by no means the only good example in
Leeds. The city possesses further notable buildings in its market-
halls, theatres, clubs, &c.
Among open spaces devoted by the corporation to public use
that of Woodhouse Moor is the principal one within the city,
but 3 m. N.E. of the centre is Roundhay Park, a tract of 700
acres, beautifully laid out and containing a picturesque lake.
In 1889 there came into the possession of the corporation the
ground, lying 3 m. up the river from the centre of the city,
containing the celebrated ruins of Kirkstall Abbey. The remains
of this great foundation, of the middle of the i2th century, are
extensive, and so far typical of the usual arrangement of Cistercian
houses as to be described under the heading ABBEY. The ruins
are carefully preserved, and form a remarkable contrast with the
surrounding industrial district. Apart from Kirkstall there are
few antiquarian remains in the locality. In Guildford Street,
near the town hall, is the Red Hall, where Charles I. lay during
his enforced journey under the charge of the army in 1647.
For manufacturing and commercial purposes the situation of
Leeds is highly advantageous. It occupies a central position
in the railway system of England. It has communication with
Liverpool by the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, and with Goole
and the Humber by the Aire and Calder Navigation. It is
moreover the centre of an important coal and iron district.
Though regarded as the capital of the great manufacturing
district of the West Riding, Leeds is not in its centre but on
its border. Eastward and northward the country is agricultural,
but westward and southward lies a mass of manufacturing towns.
The characteristic industry is the woollen manufacture. The
industry is carried on in a great number of neighbouring town-
ships, but the cloth is commonly finished or dressed in the city
itself, this procedure differing from that of the wool manufacturers
in Gloucestershire and the west of England, who carry out the
entire process in one factory. Formerly much of the business
between manufacturer and merchant was transacted in the cloth
halls, which formed a kind of market, but merchants now order
goods directly from the manufacturers. Artificial silk is import-
ant among the textile products. Subsidiary to these leading
industries is the production of machine-made clothing, hats and
caps. The leather trade of Leeds is the largest in England, though
no sole leather is tanned. The supply comes chiefly from British
India. Boots and shoes are extensively manufactured. The
iron trade in its different branches rivals the woollen trade in
wealth, including the casting of metal, and the manufacture of
steam engines, steam wagons, steam ploughs, machinery, tools,
nails, &c. Leeds was formerly famed for the production of
artistic pottery, and specimens of old Leeds ware are highly
prized. The industry lapsed about the end of the 1 8th century,
but has been revived in modern times. Minor and less specialized
industries are numerous.
The parliamentary borough is divided into five divisions
(North, Central, South, East and West), each returning one
member. The county borough was created in 1888. Leeds was
raised to the rank of a city in 1893. The municipal borough is
under a lord mayor (the title was conferred in 1897 on the
occasion of Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee), 16 aldermen
and 48 councillors. Area, 21,572 acres.
Leeds (Loidis, Ledes) is mentioned by Bede as the district where
the Northumbrian kings had a royal vill in 627, and where Oswy,
king of Northumbria, defeated Penda, king of the Mercians, in 665.
Before the Norman Conquest seven thanes held it of Edward the
Confessor as seven manors, but William the Conqueror granted the
whole to Ilbert de Lacy, and at the time of the Domesday Survey
it was held of him by Ralph Paganel, who is said to have raised
Leeds castle, possibly on the site of an earlier fortification. In
1207 Maurice Paganel constituted the inhabitants of Leeds free
burgesses, granting them the same liberties as Robert de Lacy had
granted to Pontefract, including the right of selling burgher land to
whom they pleased except to religious houses, and freedom from
toll. He also appointed as the chief officer of the town a reeve who
was to be chosen by the lord of the manor, the burgesses being " more
eligible if only they would pay as much as others for the office."
The town was incorporated by Charles I. in 1626 under the title
of an alderman, 7 principal burgesses and 24 assistants. A second
charter granted by Charles II. in 1661 appointed a mayor, 12 alder-
men and 24 assistants, and is still the governing charter of the
borough. The woollen manufacture is said to have been introduced
into Leeds in the I4th century, and owing to the facilities for trade
afforded by its position on the river Aire soon became an important
37°
LEEK— LEEUWARDEN
industry. Camden, writing about 1590, says, " Leeds is rendered
wealthy by its woollen manufactures," and the incorporation
charter of 1626 recites that " the inhabitants have for a long tim<
exercised the art of making cloth." The cloth was then, as it L
now, made in the neighbouring villages and only finished and sole
in the town. A successful attempt was made in the beginning o
the igth century by Mr William Hirst to introduce goods of a
superior quality which were made and finished in his own factory
Other manufacturers followed his example, but their factories are
now only used for the finishing process. The worsted trade which
was formerly carried on to some extent has now almost disappeared
The spinning of flax by machinery was introduced early in the igth
century by Mr John Marshall, a Holbeck manufacturer, who was
one of the first to apply Sir Richard Arkwright's water frame
invented for cotton manufacture, to the spinning of linen yarn
The burgesses were represented in parliament by one member during
the Commonwealth, but not again until by the Reform Act of 1832
they were allowed to return two members. In 1867 they were
granted an additional member.
See James Wardell, The Municipal History of the Borough of Leeds
('846); J. D. Whitaker, Loidis and Elmete: or an Attempt to illus-
trate_ the Districts described in these words by Bede (1816); D. H
Atkinson, Ralph Thoresby, the Topographer; his Town (Leeds) anc
Times (1885-1887).
LEEK, a market town in the Leek parliamentary division oi
Staffordshire, England, 157 m. N.W. from London, on the
Churnet Valley branch of the North Staffordshire railway.
Pop. of urban district (1901) 15,484. The town lies high in
a picturesque situation near the head of the river Churnet.
The church of St Edward the Confessor is mainly Decorated,
and stands in a churchyard commanding a beautiful view from
an elevation of some 640 ft. There is here a curious pillar of
Danish work ornately carved. An institute contains a free library,
lecture hall, art gallery and school of art. A grammar school
was established in 172,3. In the vicinity are ruins of the Cis-
tercian abbey De la Croix, or Dieulacresse, erected in 1214
by Ralph de Blundevill, earl of Chester. The slight remains are
principally embodied in a farm-house. The silk manufacture
includes sewing silk, braids, silk buttons, &c. Cloud Hill, rising
to 1190 ft. W. of the town, causes a curious phenomenon in the
height of summer, the sun sinking behind one flank to reappear
beyond the other, and thus appearing to set twice.
Leek (Lee, Leike, Leeke) formed part of the great estates of
/Elfgar, earl of Mercia; it escheated to William the Conqueror
who held it at the time of the Domesday Survey. Later it
passed to the earls Palatine of Chester, remaining in their hands
until Ralph de Blundevill, earl of Chester, gave it to the abbey
of Dieulacresse, which continued to hold it until its dissolution.
The same earl in a charter which he gave to the town (temp.
John) calls it a borough and grants to his free burgesses various
privileges, including freedom from toll throughout Cheshire.
These privileges were confirmed by Richard,abbot of Dieulacresse,
but the town received no royal charter and failed to establish
its burghal position. The Wednesday market which is still
held dates from a grant of John to the earl of Chester: in the
1 7th century it was very considerable. A fair, also granted by
John, beginning on the third day before the Translation of
Edward the Confessor is still held. The silk manufacture which
can be traced to the latter part of the i7th century is thought
to have been aided by the settlement in Leek of some Huguenots
after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. In the i;th and
i8th centuries the town was famous for its ale. Prince Charles
Edward passed through Leek on his march to Derby (1745)
and again on his return journey to Scotland. A story in con-
nexion with the Civil Wars is told to explain the expression
"Now thus" occurring on the tombstone of a citizen, who by
this meaningless answer to all questions sought escape on the
plea of insanity.
LEEK, the Allium Porrum of botanists, a plant now con-
sidered as a mere variety of Allium Ampeloprasum, wild leek,
produced by cultivation. The plant is probably of Eastern
origin, since it was commonly cultivated in Egypt in the time
of the Pharaohs, and is so to the present day; while as regards
its first appearance in England both Tusser and Gerard — two
of the earliest writers on this class of subjects, the former of
whom flourished in the early part and the latter in the later part
of the i6th century— speak of it as being then commonly culti-
vated and used.1 The Romans, it would appear, made great
use of the leek for savouring their dishes, as seems proved by
the number of recipes for its use referred to by Celsius. Hence
it is more than probable that it was brought to England by the
Romans. Italy was celebrated for leeks in the time of Pliny
(H.N. xix. c. 6), according to whom they were brought into
great esteem through the emperor Nero, derisively surnamed
"Porrophagus," who used to eat them for several days in every
month to clear his voice. The leek is very generally cultivated
in Great Britain as an esculent, but more especially in Scotland
and in Wales, being esteemed as an excellent and wholesome
vegetable, with properties very similar to those of the onion,
but of a milder character. In America it is not much cultivated
except by market gardeners in the neighbourhood of large cities.
The whole plant, with the exception of the fibrous roots, is
used in soups and stews. The sheathing stalks of the leaves lap
over each other, and form a thickish stem-like base, which is
blanched, and is the part chiefly preferred. These blanched
stems are much employed in French cookery. They form an
important ingredient in Scotch winter broth, and particularly
in the national dish cock-a-leekie, and are also largely used boiled,
and served with toasted bread and white sauce, as in the case
of asparagus. Leeks are sown in the spring, earlier or later
according to the soil and the season, and are planted out for
the summer, being dropped into holes made with a stout dibble
and left unfilled in order to allow the stems space to swell. When
they are thus planted deeply the holes gradually fill up, and
the base of the stem becomes blanched and prepared for use,
a process aided by drawing up the earth round about the stems
as they elongate. The leek is one of the most useful vegetables
the cottager can grow, as it will supply him with a large amount
of produce during the winter and spring. It is extremely hardy,
and presents no difficulty in its cultivation, the chief point,
as with all succulent esculents, being that it should be grown
quickly upon well-enriched soil. The plant is of biennial dura-
tion, flowering the second year, and perishing after perfecting
its seeds. The leek is the national symbol or badge of the Welsh,
who wear it in their hats on St David's Day. The origin of this
custom has received various explanations, all of which are
more or less speculative.
LEER, a town and river port in the Prussian province of
Hanover, lying in a fertile plain on the right bank of the
Leda near its confluence with the Ems, and at the junction of
railways to Bremen, Emden and Munster. Pop. (1905) 12,347.
The streets are broad, well paved, and adorned with many elegant
buildings, among which are Roman Catholic, Lutheran and
Calvinist churches, and a new town hall with a tower 165 ft.
high. Among its educational establishments are a classical
school and a school of navigation. Linen and woollen fabrics,
hosiery, paper, cigars, soap, vinegar and earthenware are manu-
factured, and there are iron-foundries, distilleries, tanneries
and shipbuilding yards. Many markets for horses and cattle
are held. The transit trade from the regions traversed by the
Westphalian and Oldenburg railways is considerable. The
irincipal exports are cattle, horses, cheese, butter, honey, wax,
lour, paper, hardware and Westphalian coal. Leer is one of
he principal ports for steamboat communication with the
STorth Sea watering-places of Borkum and Norderney. Leer
s a very old place, although it only obtained municipal privileges
n 1823. Near the town is the Plitenberg, formerly a heathen
>lace of sacrifice.
LEEUWARDEN, the capital of the province of Friesland,
lolland, on the canal between Harlingen and Groningen, 33 m.
by rail W. of Groningen. Pop (1901) 32,203. It is one of the
most prosperous towns in the country. To the name of the
Trisian Hague, it is entitled as well by similarity of history as
>y similarity of appearance. As the Hague grew up round
he court of the counts of Holland, so Leeuwarden round the
1 Tusser, in his verse for the month of March, writes: —
" Now leckes are in season, for pottage ful good,
And spareth the milck cow, and purgeth the blood,
These hauving with peason, for pottage in Lent,
Thou spareth both otemel and bread to be spent."
LEEUWENHOEK— LE FANU
court of the Frisian stadtholders; and, like the Hague, it is an
exceptionally clean and attractive town, with parks, pleasure
grounds, and drives. The old gates have been somewhat ruth-
lessly cleared away, and the site of the town walls on the north
and west competes with the park called the Prince's Garden
as a public pleasure ground. The Prince's Garden was originally
laid out by William Frederick of Nassau in 1648, and was
presented to the town by King William I. in 1819. The royal
palace, which was the seat of the Frisian court from 1603 to
1 747, is now the residence of the royal commissioner for Friesland.
It was restored in 1816 and contains a portrait gallery of the
Frisian stadtholders. The fine mansion called the Kanselary
was begun in 1502 as a residence for the chancellor of George
of Saxony (1539), governor of Friesland, but was only completed
in 1571 andservedasa court house until 1811. It was restored
at the end of the igth century to contain the important pro-
vincial library and national archives. Other noteworthy build-
ings are the picturesque weigh-house (1595), the town hall (1715),
the provincial courts (1850), and the great church of St Jacob,
once the church of the Jacobins, and the largest monastic church
in the Netherlands. The splendid tombs of the Frisian stadt-
holders buried here (Louis of Nassau, Anne of Orange, and
others) were destroyed in the revolution 1795. The unfinished
tower of Oldehove dates from 1529-1532. The museum of the
Frisian Society is of modern foundation and contains a collection
of provincial antiquities, including two rooms from Hindeloopen,
an ancient village of Friesland, some i6th-and 17th-century
portraits, some Frisian works in silver of the I7th and i8th
centuries, and a collection of porcelain and faience.
Leeuwarden is the centre of a flourishing trade, being easily
accessible from all parts of the province by road, rail and canal.
The chief business is in stock of every kind, dairy and agri-
cultural produce and fresh-water fish, a large quantity of which
is exported to France. The industries include boat-building and
timber yards, iron-foundries, copper and lead works, furniture,
organ, tobacco and other factories, and the manufacture of gold
and silver wares. The town is first mentioned in documents
of the i3th century.
LEEUWENHOEK, or LEUWENHOEK, ANTHONY VAN (1632-
1723), Dutch microscopist, was born at Delft on the 24th of
October 1632. For a short time he was in a merchant's office
in Amsterdam, but early devoted himself to the manufacture
of microscopes and to the study of the minute structure of
organized bodies by their aid. He appears soon to have found
that single lenses of very short focus were preferable to the
compound microscopes then in use; and it is clear from the
discoveries he made with these that they must have been of
very excellent quality. His discoveries were for the most part
made public in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society, to the notice of which body he was introduced by R.
de Graaf in 1673, and of which he was elected a fellow in 1680.
He was chosen a corresponding member of the Paris Academy
of Sciences in 1697. He died at his native place on the 26th of
August 1723. Though his researches were not conducted on
any definite scientific plan, his powers of careful observation
enabled him to make many interesting discoveries in the minute
anatomy of man, the higher animals and insects. He confirmed
and extended M. Malpighi's demonstration of the blood capillaries
in 1668, and six years later he gave the first accurate description
of the red blood corpuscles, which he found to be circular in man
but oval in frogs and fishes. In 1677 he described and illustrated
the spermatozoa in dogs and other animals, though in this
discovery Stephen Hamm had anticipated him by a few months;
and he investigated the structure of the teeth, crystalline lens,
muscle, &c. In 1680 he noticed that yeast consists of minute
globular particles, and he described the different structure of
the stem in monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants.
His researches in the life-history of various of the lower forms of
animal life were in opposition to the doctrine that they could be
" produced spontaneously, or bred from corruption." Thus he
showed that the weevils of granaries, in his time commonly sup-
posed to be bred from wheat, as well as in it, are grubs hatched
from eggs deposited by winged insects. His chapter on the flea,
in which he not only describes its structure, but traces out the
whole history of its metamorphoses from its first emergence from
the egg, is full of interest — not so much for the exactness of his
observations, as for its incidental revelation of the extraordinary
ignorance then prevalent in regard to the origin and propagation of
" this minute and despised creature," which some asserted to be
produced from sand, others from dust, others from the dung of
pigeons, and others from urine, but which he showed to be "en-
dowed with as great perfection in its kind as any large animal,"
and proved to breed in the regular way of winged insects. He even
noted the fact that the pupa of the flea is sometimes attacked and
fed upon by a mite — an observation which suggested the well
known lines of Swift. His attention having been drawn to the
blighting of the young shoots of fruit-trees, which was commonly
attributed to the ants found upon them, he was the first to find the
Aphides that really do the mischief; and, upon searching into the
history of their generation, he observed the young within the bodies
of their parents. He carefully studied also the history of the ant
and was the first to show that what had been commonly reputed
to be " ants' eggs " are really their pupae, containing the perfect
insect nearly ready for emersion, whilst the true eggs are far smaller,
and give origin to " maggots " or larvae. Of the sea-mussel, again,
and other shell-fish, he argued (in reply to a then recent defence of
Aristotle's doctrine by F. Buonanni, a learned Jesuit of Rome)
that they are not generated out of the mud or sand found on the
seashore or the beds of rivers at low water, but from spawn, by the
regular course of generation; and he maintained the same to be
true of the fresh-water mussel (Unio), whose ova he examined so
carefully that he saw in them the rotation of the embryo, a pheno-
menon supposed to have been first discovered long afterwards. In
the same spirit he investigated the generation of eels, which were at
that time supposed, not only by the ignorant vulgar, but by " re-
spectable and learned men," to be produced from dew without the
ordinary process of generation. Not only was he the first discoverer
of the rotifers, but he showed " how wonderfully nature has provided
for the preservation of their species," by their tolerance of the
drying-up of the water they inhabit, and the resistance afforded to
the evaporation of the fluids of their bodies by the impermeability
of the casing in which they then become enclosed. " We can now
easily conceive," he says, " that in all rain-water which is collected
from gutters in cisterns, and in all waters exposed to the air, animal-
cules may be found ; for they may be carried thither by the particles
of dust blown about by the winds."
Leeuwenhoek's contributions to the Philosophical Transactions
amounted to one hundred and twelve; he also published twenty-six
papers in the Memoirs of the Paris Academy of Sciences. Two
collections of his works appeared during his life, one in Dutch
(Leiden and Delft, 1685-1718), and the Bother in Latin (Opera omnia
s. Arcana naturae ope exactissimorum microscopiorum selecta, Leiden,
I7I5~i722); and a selection from them was translated by S. Hoole
and published in English (London, 1798-1781).
LEEWARD ISLANDS, a group in the West Indies. They
derive their name from being less exposed to the prevailing N.E.
trade wind than the adjacent Windward Islands. They are the
most northerly of the Lesser Antilles, and form a curved chain
stretching S.W. from Puerto Rico to meet St Lucia, the most
northerly of the Windward Islands. They consist of the Virgin
Islands, with St Kitts, Antigua, Montserrat, Guadeloupe,
Dominica, Martinique and their various dependencies. The
Virgin Islands are owned by Great Britain and Denmark,
Holland having St Eustatius, with Saba, and part of St Martin.
France possesses Guadeloupe, Martinique, St Bartholomew
and the remainder of St Martin. The rest of the islands are
British, and (with the exception of Sombrero, a small island used
only as a lighthouse-station) form, under one governor, a colony
divided into five presidencies, namely: Antigua (with Barbuda
and Redonda), St Kitts (with Nevis and Anguilla), Dominica,
Montserrat and the Virgin Islands. Total pop. (1901) 127,536.
There is one federal executive council nominated by the crown,
and one federal legislative council — ten nominated and ten
elected members. Of the latter, four are chosen by the unofficial
members of the local legislative council of Antigua, two by
those of Dominica, and four by the non-official members of the
local legislative council of St Kitts-Nevis. The federal legis-
lative council meets once annually, usually at St John, Antigua.
LE FANU, JOSEPH SHERIDAN (1814-1873), Irish journalist
and author, was born of an old Huguenot family at Dublin
on the 28th of August 1814. He entered Trinity College, Dublin,
in 1833. At an early age he had given proof of literary talent,
and in 1 83 7 he joined the staff of the Dublin University Magazine,
of which he became later editor and proprietor. In 1837 he
produced the Irish ballad Phaudhrig Croohore. which was
372
LEFEBVRE, P. F. J.— LEGACY
shortly afterwards followed by a second, Shamus O'Brien,
successfully recited in the United States by Samuel Lover.
In 1839 he became proprietor of the Warder, a Dublin newspaper,
and, after purchasing the Evening Packet and a large interest
in the Dublin Evening Mail, he combined the three papers under
the title the Evening Mail, a weekly reprint from which was
issued as the Warder. After the death of his wife in 1858 he
lived in retirement, and his best work was produced at this
period of his life. He wrote some clever novels, of a sensational
order, in which his vigorous imagination and his Irish love of
the supernatural have full play. He died in Dublin on the 7th
of February 1873. His best-known novels are The House by
the Churchyard (1863) and Uncle Silas, a Tale of Bartram Haugh
(1864). The Pur cell Papers, Irish stories dating from his college
days, were edited with a memoir of the author by A. P. Graves
in 1880.
LEFEBVRE, PIERRE FRANCOIS JOSEPH, duke of Danzig
(1755-1820), marshal of France, was born at Rouffach in Alsace
on the 20th of October 1755. At the outbreak of the Revolution
he was a sergeant in the Gardes franchises, and with many of
his comrades of this regiment took the popular side. He dis-
tinguished himself by bravery and humanity in many of the street
fights in Paris, and becoming an officer and again distinguishing
himself — this time against foreign invaders — he was made a
general of division in 1794. He took part in the Revolutionary
Wars from Fleurus to Stokach, always resolute, strictly obedient
and calm. At Stokach (1799) he received a severe wound and
had to return to France, where he assisted Napoleon during
the coup d'etat of 18 Brumaire. He was one of the first generals
of division to be made marshal at the beginning of the First
Empire. He commanded the guard infantry at Jena, conducted
the siege of Danzig 1806-1807 (from which town he received his
title in 1808), commanded a corps in the emperor's campaign
of 1808-1809 in Spain, and in 1809 was given the difficult task
of commanding the Bavarian contingent, which he led in the
containing engagements of Abensberg and Rohr and at the
battle of Eckmiihl. He commanded the Imperial Guard in
Russia, 1812, fought through the last campaign of the Empire,
and won fresh glory at Montmirail, Areis-sur-Aube and Champau-
bert. He was made a peer of France by Louis XVIII. but joined
Napoleon during the Hundred Days, and was only amnestied
and permitted to resume his seat in the upper chamber in 1819.
He died at Paris on the I4th of September 1820. Marshal
Lefebvre was a simple soldier, whose qualifications for high
rank, great as they were, came from experience and not from
native genius. He was incapable of exercising a supreme com-
mand, even of leading an important detachment, but he was
absolutely trustworthy as a subordinate, as brave as he was
experienced, and intensely loyal to his chief. He maintained
to the end of his life a rustic simplicity of speech and demeanour.
Of his wife (formerly a blanchisseuse to the Gardes Francaises)
many stories have been told, but in so far as they are to her
discredit they seem to be false, she being, like the marshal,
a plain " child of the people."
LEFEBVRE, TANNEGUY (TANAQUILLUS FABER) (1615-
1672), French classical scholar, was born at Caen. After complet-
ing his studies in Paris, he was appointed by Cardinal Richelieu
inspector of the printing-press at the Louvre. After Richelieu's
death he left Paris, joined the Reformed Church, and in 1651
obtained a professorship at the academy of Saumur, which he
filled with great success for nearly twenty years. His increasing
ill-health and a certain moral laxity (as shown in his judgment
on Sappho) led to a quarrel with the consistory, as a result of
which he resigned his professorship. Several universities were
eager to obtain his services, and he had accepted a post offered
him by the elector palatine at Heidelberg, when he died suddenly
on the 1 2th of September, 1672. One of his children was the
famous Madame Dacier. Lefebvre, who was by no means a
typical student in dress or manners, was a highly cultivated
man and a thorough classical scholar. He brought out editions
of various Greek and Latin authors — Longinus, Anacreon and
Sappho, Virgil, Horace, Lucretius and many others. His
most important original works are: Les Vies des po'etes Grecs
(1665); Mtthode pour commencer les humanites Grecques et
Latines (2nd ed., 1731), of which several English adaptations
have appeared; Epistolae Criticae (1659).
In addition to the Memoires pour ... /a vie de Tanneguy
Lefebvre, by F. Graverol (1686), see the article in the Nouvelle
biographie generate, based partly on the MS. registers of the Saumur
Academic.
LEFEBVRE-DESNOETTES, CHARLES, COMTE (1773-1822),
French cavalry general, joined the army in 1792 and served with
the armies of the North, of the Sambre-and-Meuse and Rhine-
and-Moselle in the various campaigns of the Revolution. Six
years later he had become captain and aide-de-camp to General
Bonaparte. At Marengo he won further promotion, and at
Austerlitz became colonel, serving also in the Prussian campaigns
of 1806-1807. In 1808 he was made general of brigade and
created a count of the Empire. Sent with the army into Spain,
he conducted the first and unsuccessful siege of Saragossa.
The battlefield of Tudela showed his talents to better advantage,
but towards the end of 1808 he was taken prisoner in the action
of Benavente by the British cavalry under Paget (later Lord
Uxbridge, and subsequently Marquis of Anglesey). For over two
years he remained a prisoner in England, living on parole at
Cheltenham. In 1811 he escaped, and in the invasion of Russia
in 1812 was again at the head of his cavalry. In 1813 and 1814
his men distinguished themselves in most of the great battles,
especially La Rothiere and Montmirail. He joined Napoleon in
the Hundred Days and was wounded at Waterloo. For his
part in these events he was condemned to death, but he escaped
to the United States, and spent the next few years farming in
Louisiana. His frequent appeals to Louis XVIII. eventually
obtained his permission to return, but the " Albion," the vessel
on which he was returning to France, went down off the coast of
Ireland with all on board on the 22nd of May 1822.
LE FEVRE, JEAN (c. 1395-1468), Burgundian chronicler and
seigneur of Saint Remy, is also known as Toison d'or from his
long connexion with the order of the Golden Fleece. Of noble
birth, he adopted the profession of arms and with other Bur-
gundians fought in the English ranks at Agincourt. In 1430,
on the foundation of the order of the Golden Fleece by Philip III.
the Good, duke of Burgundy, Le Fevre was appointed its king
of arms and he soon became a very influential person at the
Burgundian court. He frequently assisted Philip in conducting
negotiations with foreign powers, and he was an arbiter in
tournaments and on all questions of chivalry, where his wide
knowledge of heraldry was highly useful. He died at Bruges
on the 1 6th of June 1468.
Le Fevre wrote a Chronique, or Histoire de Charles VI., roy de
France. The greater part of this chronicle is merely a copy of the
work of Enguerrand de Monstrelet, but Le Fevre is an original
authority for the years between 1428 and 1436 and makes some
valuable additions to our knowledge, especially about the chivalry
of the Burgundian court. He is more concise than Monstrelet, but
is equally partial to the dukes of Burgundy. The Chronique has
been edited by F. Morand for the Soci6t6 de 1'histoire de France
(Paris, 1876). Le Fevre is usually regarded as the author of the
Livre des faites de Jacques de Lalaing.
LEG (a word of Scandinavian origin, from the Old Norwegian
leggr, cf. Swed. Idgg, Dan. laeg; the O. Eng. word was sceanca,
shank), the general name for those limbs in animals which
support and move the body, and in man for the lower limbs of
the body (see ANATOMY, Superficial and Artistic; SKELETON,
Appendicular; MUSCULAR SYSTEM). The word is in common
use for many objects which resemble the leg in shape or function.
As a slang term, " leg," a shortened form of " blackleg," has
been in use since the end of the i8th century for a swindler,
especially in connexion with racing or gambling. The term
" blackleg " is now also applied by trade-unionists to a workman
who, during a strike or lockout, continues working or is brought
to take the place of the withdrawn workers.
LEGACY (Lat. legatum), in English law, some particular thing
or things given or left by a testator in his will, to be paid or
performed by his executor or administrator. The word is
primarily applicable to gifts of personalty or gifts charged
LE GALLIENNE— LEGARE
373
upon real estate; but if there is nothing else to which it can
refer it may refer to realty; the proper word, however, for gifts
of realty is devise.
Legacies may be either specific, general or demonstrative.
A specific legacy is " something which a testator, identifying it
by a sufficient description and manifesting an intention that it
should be enjoyed in the state and condition indicated by that
description, separates in favour of a particular legatee from the
general mass of his personal estate," e.g. a gift of " my portrait
by X," naming the artist. A general legacy is a gift not so
distinguished from the general mass of the personal estate, e.g.
a gift of £100 or of a gold ring. A demonstrative legacy partakes
of the nature of both the preceding kinds of legacies, e.g. a gift
of £100 payable out of a named fund is a specific legacy so far
as the fund named is available to' pay the legacy; after the fund
is exhausted the balance of the legacy is a general legacy and
recourse must be had to the general estate to satisfy such
balance. Sometimes a testator bequeaths two or more legacies
to the same person; in such a case it is a question whether the
later legacies are in substitution for, or in addition to, the earlier
ones. In the latter case they are known as cumulative. In each
case the intention of the testator is the rule of construction;
this can often be gathered from the terms of the will or codicil,
but in the absence of such evidence the following rules are
followed by the courts. Where the same specific thing is be-
queathed twice to the same legatee or where two legacies of equal
amount are bequeathed by the same instrument the second
bequest is mere repetition; but where legacies of equal amounts
are bequeathed by different instruments or of unequal amounts
by the same instruments they are considered to be cumulative.
If the estate of the testator is insufficient to satisfy all the
legacies these must abate, i.e. be reduced rateably; as to this
it should be noticed that specific and demonstrative legacies have
a prior claim to be paid in full out of the specific fund before
general legacies, and that general legacies abate rateably inter se
in the absence of any provision to the contrary by the testator.
Specific legacies are liable to ademption where the specific thing
perishes or ceases to belong to the testator, e.g. in the instance
given above if the testator sells the portrait the legatee will get
nothing by virtue of the legacy. As a general rule, legacies
given to persons who predecease the testator do not take effect ;
they are said to lapse. This is so even if the gift be to A and his
executors, administrators and assigns, but this is not so if the
testator has shown a contrary intention, thus, a gift to A or his
personal representative will be effective even though A predecease
the testator; further, by the Wills Act 1837, devises of estates
tail and gifts to a child or other issue of the testator will not
lapse if any issue of the legatee survive the testator. Lapsed
legacies fall into and form part of the residuary estate. In the
absence of any indication to the contrary a legacy becomes due
on the day of the death of the testator, though for the convenience
of the executor it is not payable till a year after that date; this
delay does not prevent the legacy vesting on the testator's
death. It frequently happens, however, that a legacy is given
payable at a future date; in such a case, if the legatee dies after
the testator but prior to the date when the legacy is payable
it is necessary to discover whether the legacy was vested or
contingent, as in the former case it becomes payable to the
legatee's representative; in the latter, it lapses. In this, as in
other cases, the test is the intention of the testator as expressed
in the will; generally it may be said that a gift "payable"
or " to be paid " at a certain fixed time confers a vested interest
on the legatee, while a gift to A " at " a fixed time, e.g. twenty-one
years of age, only confers on A an interest contingent on his
attaining the age of twenty-one.
Legacy Duty is a duty charged by the state upon personal pro-
perty devolving upon the legatees or next of kin of a dead person,
either by virtue of his will or upon his intestacy. The duty was
first imposed in England in 1 780, but the principal act dealing with
the subject is the Legacy Duty Act 1 706. The principal points as
to the duty are these. The duty is charged on personalty only.
It is payable only where the person on whose death the property
passes was domiciled in the United Kingdom. The rate of duty
varies from i to 10% according to the relationship between the
testator and legatee. As between husband and wife no duty
is payable. The duty is payable by the executors and deducted
from the legacy unless the testator directs otherwise. Special
provisions as to valuation are in force where the gift is of an
annuity or is settled on various persons in succession, or the
legacy is given in joint tenancy and other cases. In some cases the
duty is payable by instalments which carry interest at 3%.
In various cases legacies are exempt from duty — the more im-
portant are gifts to a member of the royal family, specific
legacies under £20 (pecuniary legacies under £20 pay duty),
legacies of books, prints, &c., given to a body corporate for
preservation, not for sale, and legacies given out of an estate
the principal value of which is less than £100. Further, by the
Finance Act 1894, payment of the estate duty thereby created
absorbs the i % duty paid by lineal ancestors or descendants of
the deceased1 and the duty on a settled legacy, and, lastly, in
the event of estate duty being paid on an estate the total value
of which is under £1000, no legacy duty is payable. The legacy
duty payable in Ireland is now for all practical purposes assimi-
lated to that in Great Britain. The principal statute in thai
country is an act of 1814.
LE GALLIENNE, RICHARD (1866- ), English poet and
critic, was born in Liverpool on the 2oth of January 1866. He
started life in a business office in Liverpool, but abandoned this
to turn author. My Lady's Sonnets appeared at Liverpool in
1887, and in 1889 he became for a short time literary secretary
to Wilson Barrett. In the same year he published Volumes in
Folio, The Book Bills of Narcissus and George Meredith: some
Characteristics (new ed., 1900). He joined the staff of the Star
in 1891, and wrote for various papers over the signature of
" Logroller." English Poems (1892), R. L. Stevenson and other
Poems (1895), a paraphrase (1897) of the Rubdiyal of Omar
Khayyam, and Odes from the Divan of Hafiz (1903), contained
some light, graceful verse, but he is best known by the fantastic
prose essays and sketches of Prose Fancies (2 series, 1894-1896),
Sleeping Beauty and other Prose Fancies (1900), The Religion
of a Literary Man (1893), The Quest of the Golden Girl (1897),
The Life Romantic (1901), &c. His first wife, Mildred Lee, died
in 1894, and in 1897 he married Julie Norregard, subsequently
taking up his residence in the United States. In 1906 he trans-
lated, from the Danish, Peter Nansen's Love's Trilogy.
LEGARE, HUGH SWINTON (1797-1843), American lawyer
and statesman, was born in Charleston, South Carolina, on the
2nd of January 1797, of Huguenot and Scotch stock. Partly
on account of his inability to share in the amusements of his
fellows by reason of a deformity due to vaccine poisoning before
he was five (the poison permanently arresting the growth and
development of his legs), he was an eager student, and in 1814
he graduated at the College of South Carolina with the highest
rank in his class and with a reputation throughout the state for
scholarship and eloquence. He studied law for three years in
South Carolina, and then spent two years abroad, studying
French and Italian in Paris and jurisprudence at Edinburgh.
In 1820-1822 and in 1824-1830 he was a member of the South
Carolina legislature. In 1827, with Stephen Elliott (1771-1830),
the naturalist, he founded the Southern Review, of which he was
the sole editor after Elliott's death until 1834, when it was
discontinued, and to which he contributed articles on law,
travel, and modern and classical literature. In 1830-1832 he
was attorney-general of South Carolina, and, although a State's
Rights man, he strongly opposed nullification. During his
term of office he appeared in a case before the United States
Supreme Court, where his -knowledge of civil law so strongly
impressed Edward Livingston, the secretary of state, who was
himself an admirer of Roman Law, that he urged Legar6 to
devote himself to the study of this subject with the hope that he
might influence American law toward the spirit and philosophy
and even the forms and processes of Roman jurisprudence.
1 The Finance Bill 1909-1910 re-imposed this duty, and extended
it to husbands and wives as well as descendants and ancestors.
374
LEGAS— LEGATE
Through Livingston, Legare was appointed American chargi
d'affaires at Brussels, where from 1833 to 1836 he perfected
himself in civil law and in the German commentaries on civil
law. In 1837-1839, as a Union Democrat, he was a member of
the national House of Representatives, and there ably opposed
Van Buren's financial policy in spite of the enthusiasm in South
Carolina for the sub-treasury project. He supported Harrison
in the presidential campaign of 1840, and when the cabinet was
reconstructed by Tyler in 1841, Legare was appointed attorney-
general of the United States. On the gth of May 1843 he was
appointed secretary of state ad interim, after the resignation of
Daniel Webster. On the 2oth of June 1843 he died suddenly at
Boston. His great work, the forcing into common law of the
principles of civil law, was unaccomplished; but Story says " he
seemed about to accomplish [it]; for his arguments before the
Supreme Court were crowded with the principles of the Roman
Law, wrought into the texture of the Common Law with great
success." As attorney-general he argued the famous cases, the
United States v. Miranda, Wood v. the United States, and
Jewell v. Jewell.
See The Writings of Hugh Swinton Legare (2 vols., Charleston,
S.C., 1846), edited by his sister, Mrs Mary Bullen, who contributed
a biographical sketch; and two articles by B. J. Ramage in The
Sewanee Review, vol. x. (New York, 1902).
LEGAS, one of the Shangalla group of tribes, regarded as among
the purest types of the Galla race. They occupy the upper
Yabus valley, S.W. Abyssinia, near the Sudan frontier. The
Legas are physically distinct from the Negro Shangalla. They
are of very light complexion, tall and thin, with narrow hollow-
cheeked faces, small heads and high foreheads. The chiefs'
families are of more mixed blood, with perceptible Negro strain.
The Legas are estimated to number upwards of a hundred
thousand, of whom some 20,000 are warriors. They are, however,
a peaceful race, kind to their women and slaves, and energetic
agriculturists. Formerly independent, they came about IQOO
under the sway of Abyssinia. The Legas are pagans, but Mahom-
medanism has gained many converts among them.
LEGATE, BARTHOLOMEW (c. 1575-1612), English fanatic,
was born in Essex and became a dealer in cloth. About the
beginning of the I7th century he became a preacher among a sect
called the " Seekers," and appears to have held unorthodox
opinions about the divinity of Jesus Christ. Together with his
brother Thomas he was put in prison for heresy in 1611. Thomas
died in Newgate gaol, London, but Bartholomew's imprisonment
was not a rigorous one. James I. argued with him, and on
several occasions he was brought before the Consistory Court of
London, but without any definite result. Eventually, after
having threatened to bring an action for wrongful imprisonment,
Legate was tried before a full Consistory Court in February 1612,
was found guilty of heresy, and was delivered to the secular
authorities for punishment. Refusing to retract his opinions
he was burned to death at Smithfield on the i8th of March 1612.
Legate was the last person burned in London for his religious
opinions, and Edward Wightman, who was burned at Lichfield
in April 1612, was the last to suffer in this way in England.
See T. Fuller, Church History of Britain (1655) ; and S. R. Gardiner,
History of England, vol. ii. (London, 1904).
LEGATE (Lat. legalus, past part, of legare, to send as deputy),
a title now generally confined to the highest class of diplomatic
representatives of the pope, though still occasionally used, in
its original Latin sense, of any ambassador or diplomatic agent.
According to the Nova Compilatio Decretalium of Gregory IX.,
under the title " De offkio legati " the canon law recognizes two
sorts of legate, the legatus nalus and the legalus datus or missus.
The legatus datus (missus) may be either (i) delegalus, or (2)
nuncius apostolicus, or (3) legatus a later e (laterally, collateralis).
The rights of the legatus natus, which included concurrent juris-
diction with that of all the bishops within his province, have
been much curtailed since the i6th century, they were alto-
gether suspended in presence of the higher claims of a legatus
a latere, and the title is now almost quite honorary. It was
attached to the see of Canterbury till the Reformation and it
still attaches to the sees of Seville, Toledo, Aries, Reims, Lyons,
Gran, Prague, Gnesen-Posen, Cologne, Salzburg, among others.
The commission of the legalus delegates (generally a member
of the local clergy) is of a limited nature, and relates only to
some definite piece of work. The nuncius apostolicus (who has
the privilege of red apparel, a white horse and golden spurs)
possesses ordinary jurisdiction within the province to which he
has been sent, but his powers otherwise are restricted by the terms
of his mandate. The legalus a latere (almost invariably a cardinal,
though the power can be conferred on other prelates) is in the
fullest sense the plenipotentiary representative of the pope, and
possesses the high prerogative implied in the words of Gregory
VII., " nostra vice quae corrigenda sunt corrigat, quae statuend
constituat." He has the power of suspending all the bishops in
his province, and no judicial cases are reserved from his judg-
ment. Without special mandate, however, he cannot depose
bishops or unite or separate bishoprics. At present legati a
latere are not sent by the holy see, but diplomatic relations,
where they exist, are maintained by means of nuncios, inter-
nuncios and other agents.
The history of the office of papal legate is closely involved with
that of the papacy itself. If it were proved that papal legates
exercised the prerogatives of the primacy in the early councils,
it would be one of the strongest points for the Roman Catholic
view of the papal history. Thus it is claimed that Hosius of
Cordova presided over the council of Nicaea (325) in the name of
the pope. But the claim rests on slender evidence, since the first
source in which Hosius is referred to as representative of the
pope is Gelasius of Cyzicus in the Propontis, who wrote toward
the end of the 5th century. It is even open to dispute whether
Hosius was president at Nicaea, and though he certainly pre-
sided over the council of Sardica in 343, it was probably as
representative of the emperors Constans and Constantius, who
had summoned the council. Pope Julius I. was represented at
Sardica by two presbyters. Yet the fifth canon, which provides
for appeal by a bishop to Rome, sanctions the use of embassies
a latere. If the appellant wishes the pope to send priests from
his own household, the pope shall be free to do so, and to furnish
them with full authority from himself (" ut de latere suo presby-
tcros mittat . . . habentes ejus auctoritatem a quo destinati
sunt "). The decrees of Sardica, an obscure council, were later
confused with those of Nicaea and thus gained weight. In the
synod of Ephesus in 431, Pope Celestine I. instructed his repre-
sentatives to conduct themselves not as disputants but as judges,
and Cyril of Alexandria presided not only in his own name but
in that of the pope (and of the bishop of Jerusalem). Instances
of delegation of the papal authority in various degrees become
numerous in the sth century, especially during the pontificate
of Leo I. Thus Leo writes in 444 (Ep. 6) to Anastasius of
Thessalonica, appointing him his vicar for the province of
Illyria; the same arrangement, he informs us, had been made
by Pope Siricius in favour of Anysius, the predecessor of Anas-
tasius. Similar vicarial or legatine powers had been conferred
in 418 by Zosimus upon Patroclus, bishop of Aries. In 449 Leo
was represented at the " Robber Synod," from which his legates
hardly escaped with We; at Chalcedon, in 451, they were
treated with singular honour, though the imperial commissioners
presided. Again, in 453 the same pope writes to the empress
Pulcheria, naming Julianus of Cos as his representative in the
defence of the interests of orthodoxy and ecclesiastical discipline
at Constantinople (Ep. 112); the instructions to Julianus are
given in Ep. 113 (" hanc specialem curam vice mea functus
assumas "). The designation of Anastasius as vicar apostolic
over Illyria may be said to mark the beginning of the custom of
conferring, ex officio, the title of legatus upon the holders of
important sees, who ultimately came to be known as legati nati,
with the rank of primate; the appointment of Julianus at
Constantinople gradually developed into the long permanent
office of apocrisiarius or responsalis. Another sort of delegation
is exemplified in Leo's letter to the African bishops (Ep. 12),
in which he sends Potentius, with instructions to inquire in his
name, and to report (" vicem curae nostrae fratri et consacerdoti
nostro Potentio delegantes qui de episcopis, quorum culpabilis
LEGATION— LEGENDRE, A. M.
375
ferebatur electio, quid veritas haberet inquireret, nobisque
omnia fideliter indicaret "). Passing on to the time of Gregory the
Great, we find him sending two representatives to Gaul in 599,
to suppress simony, and one to Spain in 603. Augustine of
Canterbury is sometimes spoken of as legate, but it does not
appear that in his case this title was used in any strictly technical
sense, although the archbisHop of Canterbury afterwards attained
the permanent dignity of a legatus natus. Boniface, the apostle
of Germany, was in like manner constituted, according to Hinc-
mar (Ep. 30), a legate of the apostolic see by Popes Gregory II.
and Gregory III. According to Hefele (Cone. iv. 239), Rodoald
of Porto and Zecharias of Anagni, who were sent by Pope Nicolas
to Constantinople in 860, were the first actually called legali a
latere. The policy of Gregory VII. naturally led to a great
development of the legatine as distinguished from the ordinary
episcopal function. From the creation of the medieval papal
monarchy until the close of the middle ages, the papal legate
played a most important role in national as well as church
history. The further definition of his powers proceeded through-
out the 1 2th and i3th centuries. From the i6th century legates
a latere give way almost entirely to nuncios (?.».).
See P. Hinschius, Kirchenrecht, i. 498 ff.; G. Phillips, Kirchen-
recht, vol. vi. 680 ff.
LEGATION (Lat. legatio, a sending or mission), a diplomatic
mission of the second rank. The term is also applied to the build-
ing in which the minister resides and to the area round it covered
by his diplomatic immunities. See DIPLOMACY.
LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda,
things to be read, from legere, to read), in its primary meaning
the history or life-story of a saint, and so applied to portions of
Scripture and selections from the lives of the saints as read at
divine service. The statute of 3 and 4 Edward VI. dealing with
the abolition of certain books and images (1549), cap. 10, sect,
i, says that " all bookes . . . called processionalles, manuelles,
legends . . . shall be ... abolished." The " Golden Legend,"
or Aurea Legenda, was the name given to a book containing lives
of the saints and descriptions of festivals, written by Jacobus
de Voragine, archbishop of Genoa, in the i3th century. From
the original application of the word to stories of the saints con-
taining wonders and miracles, the word came«to be applied to
a story handed down without any foundation in history, but
popularly believed to be true. " Legend " is also used of a
writing, inscription, or motto on coins or medals, and in connexion
with coats of arms, shields, monuments, &c.
LEGENDRE, ADRIEN MARIE (1752-1833), French mathe-
matician, was born at Paris (or, according to some accounts,
at Toulouse) in 1752. He was brought up at Paris, where he
completed his studies at the College Mazarin. His first published
writings consist of articles forming part of the Traite de mecanique
(1774) of the Abbe Marie, who was his professor; Legendre's
name, however, is not mentioned. Soon afterwards he was
appointed professor of mathematics in the Ecole Militaire at
Paris, and he was afterwards professor in the Ecole Normale.
In 1782 he received the prize from the Berlin Academy fof his
" Dissertation sur la question de balistique," a memoir relating
to the paths of projectiles in resisting media. He also, about
this time, wrote his " Recherches sur la figure des planetes,"
published in the Memoires of the French Academy, of which he
was elected a member in succession to J. le Rond d'Alembert
in 1783. He was also appointed a commissioner for connecting
geodetically Paris and Greenwich, his colleagues being P. F. A.
Mechain and C. F. Cassini de Thury; General William Roy
conducted the operations on behalf of England. The French
observations were published in 1792 (Expose des operations
failes en France in 1787 pour la jonction des obseroatoires de
Paris et de Greenwich}. During the Revolution, he was one of
the three members of the council established to introduce the
decimal system, and he was also a member of the commission
appointed to determine the length of the metre, for which purpose
the calculations, &c., connected with the arc of the meridian
from Barcelona to Dunkirk were revised.. He was also associated
with G. C. F. M. Prony (1755-1839) in the formation of the great
French tables of logarithms of numbers, sines, and tangents,
and natural sines, called the Tables du Cadastre, in which the
quadrant was divided centesimally; these tables have never
been published (see LOGARITHMS). He was examiner in the
Ecole Polytechnique, but held few important state offices. He
died at Paris on the loth of January 1833, and the discourse
at his grave was pronounced by S. D. Poisson. The last of the
three supplements to his Traite des fonctions elliptiques was
published in 1832, and Poisson in his funeral oration remarked:
" M. Legendre a eu cela de commun avec la plupart des
geometres qui 1'ont precede, que ses travaux n'ont fini qu'avec
sa vie. Le dernier volume de nos memoires renferme encore
un memoire de lui, sur une question difficile de la theorie des
nombres; et peu de temps avant la maladie qui 1'a conduit
au tombeau, il se procura les observations les plus recentes des
cometes a courtes periodes, dont il allait se servir pour appliquer
et perfectionner ses methodes."
It will be convenient, in giving an account of his writings, to
consider them under the different subjects which are especially
associated with his name.
Elliptic Functions. — This is the subject with which Legendre's
name will always be most closely connected, and his researches upon
it extend over a period of more than forty years. His first published
writings upon the subject consist of two papers in the Memoires de
I'Academie Franqaise for 1786 upon elliptic arcs. In 1792 he pre-
sented to the Academy a memoir on elliptic transcendents. The
contents of these memoirs are included in the first volume of his
Exercices de calcul integral (1811). The third volume (1816) con-
tains the very elaborate and now well-known tables of the elliptic
integrals which were calculated by Legendre himself, with an ac-
count of the mode of their construction. In 1827 appeared the
Traite des fonctions elliptiques (2 vols., the first dated 1825, the
second 1826); a great part of the first volume agrees very closely
with the contents of the Exercices; the tables, &c., are given in the
second volume. Three supplements, relating to the researches of
N. H. Abel and C. G. J. Jacobi, were published in 1828-1832, and
form a third volume. Legendre had pursued the subject which
would now be called elliptic integrals alone from 1786 to 1827, the
results of his labours having been almost entirely neglected by his
contemporaries, but his work had scarcely appeared in 1827 when
the discoveries which were independently made by the two young
and as yet unknown mathematicians Abel and Jacobi placed the
subject on a new basis, and revolutionized it completely. The
readiness with which Legendre, who was then seventy-six years of
age, welcomed these important researches, that quite overshadowed
his own, and included them in successive supplements to his work,
does the highest honour to him (see FUNCTION).
Eulerian Integrals and Integral Calculus. — The Exercices de
calcul integral consist of three volumes, a great portion of the first
and the whole of the third being devoted to elliptic functions. The
remainder of the first volume relates to the Eulerian integrals and
to quadratures. The second volume (1817) relates to the Eulerian
integrals, and to various integrals and series, developments, mechani-
cal problems, &c., connected with the integral calculus; this volume
contains also a numerical table of the values of the gamma function.
The latter portion of the second volume of the Traite des fonctions
elliptiques (1826) is also devoted to the Eulerian integrals, the
table being reproduced. Legendre's researches connected with the
" gamma function " are of importance, and are well known; the
subject was also treated by K. F. Gauss in his memoir Disquisitiones
generates circa series infinitas (1816), but in a very different manner.
The results given in the second volume of the Exercices are of too
miscellaneous a character to admit of being briefly described. In
1788 Legendre published a memoir on double integrals, and in 1809
one on definite integrals.
Theory of Numbers. — Legendre's Theorie des nombres and Gauss's
Disquisitiones arithmetical. (1801) are still standard works upon
this subject. The first edition of the former appeared in 1798 under
the title Essai sur la theorie des nombres; there was a second
edition in 1808; a first supplement was published in 1816, and a
second in 1825. The third edition, under the title Theorie des
nombres, appeared in 1830 in two volumes. The fourth edition
appeared in 1900. To Legendre is due the theorem known as the
law of quadratic reciprocity, the most important general result in
the science of numbers which has been discovered since the time of
P. de Fermat, and which was called by Gauss the " gem of arith-
metic." It was first given by Legendre in the Memoires of the
Academy for 1785, but the demonstration that accompanied it was
incomplete. The symbol (alp) which is known as Legendre's sym-
bol, and denotes the positive or negative unit which is the remainder
when ai"*"1' is divided by a prime number p, does not appear in this
memoir, but was first used in the Essai sur la theorie des nombres.
Legendre's formula x: (log x-i -08366) for the approximate number
of Forms inferior to a given number x was first given by him also in
this work (2nd ed., p. 394) (see NUMBER).
LEGENDRE, L.— LEGGE, H.
Attractions of Ellipsoids. — Legendre was the author of four im-
portant memoirs on this subject. In the first of these, entitled
" Recherches sur 1'attraction des spheroides homogenes," published
in the Memoires of the Academy for 1785, but communicated to it
at an earlier period, Legendre introduces the celebrated expressions
which, though frequently called Laplace's coefficients, are more
correctly named after Legendre. The definition of the coefficients
is that if (l-2h cos <t>+h?)~* be expanded in ascending powers of h,
and if the general term be denoted by Pnhn, then Pn is of the Legen-
drian coefficient of the rath order. In this memoir also the function
which is now called the potential was, at the suggestion of Laplace,
first introduced. Legendre shows that Maclaurin's theorem with
respect to confocal ellipsoids is true for any position of the external
point when the ellipsoids are solids of revolution. Of this memoir
Isaac Todhunter writes: " We may affirm that no single memoir
in the history of our subject can rival this in interest and importance.
During forty years the resources of analysis, even in the hands of
d'Alembert, Lagrange and Laplace, had not carried the theory of
the attraction of ellipsoids beyond the point which the geometry
of Maclaurin had reached. The introduction of the coefficients
now called Laplace's, and their application^ commence a new era
in mathematical physics." Legendre's second memoir was com-
municated to the Academic in 1784, and relates to the conditions of
equilibrium of a mass of rotating fluid in the form of a figure of
revolution which does not deviate much from a sphere. The third
memoir relates to Laplace's theorem respecting confocal ellipsoids.
Of the fourth memoir Todhunter writes: " It occupies an important
position in the history of our subject. The most striking addition
which is here made to previous researches consists in the treatment
of a planet supposed entirely fluid; the general equation for the
form of a stratum is given for the first time and discussed. For
the first time we have a correct and convenient expression for
Laplace's nth coefficient." (See Todhunter's History of the Mathe-
matical Theories of Attraction and the Figure of the Earth (1873), the
twentieth, twenty-second, twenty-fourth, and twenty-fifth chapters
of which1 contain a full and complete account of Legendre's four
memoirs. See also SPHERICAL HARMONICS.)
Geodesy. — Besides the work upon the geodetical operations con-
necting Paris and Greenwich, of which Legendre was one of the
authors, he published in the Memoires de I'Academie for 1787 two
papers on trigonometrical operations depending upon the figure of
the earth, containing many theorems relating to this subject. The
best known of these, which is called Legendre's theorem, is usually
given in treatises on spherical trigonometry ; by means of it a small
spherical triangle may be treated as a plane triangle, certain correc-
tions being applied to the angles. Legendre was also the author of
a memoir upon triangles drawn upon a spheroid. Legendre's
theorem is a fundamental one in geodesy, and his contributions to
the subject are of the greatest importance.
Method of Least Squares. — In 1806 appeared Legendre's Nouvelles
Methodes pour la determination des orbites des cometes, which is
memorable as containing the first published suggestion of the method
of least squares (see PROBABILITY). In the preface Legendre re-
marks: " La methode qui me paroit la plus simple et la plus generale
consiste a rendre minimum la somme des quarres des erreurs, . . .
et que j'appelle methode des moindres quarres " ; and in an appendix
in which the application of the method is explained his words are:
" De tous les prmcipes qu'on peut proposer pour cet objet, je pense
qu'il n'en est pas de plus general, de plus exact, ni d'une application
plus facile que celui dont nous avons fait usage dans les recherches
precedentes, et qui consiste a rendre minimum la somme des quarres
des erreurs." The method was proposed by Legendre only as a
convenient process for treating observations, without reference to
the theory of probability. It had, however, been applied by Gauss
as early as 1795, and the method was fully explained, and the law
of facility for the first time given by him in 1809. Laplace also
justified the method by means of the principles of the theory of
probability; and this led Legendre to republish the part of his
Nouvelles Methodes which related to it in the Memoires de I'Academie
for 1810. Thus, although the method of least squares was first
formally proposed by Legendre, the theory and algorithm and
mathematical foundation of the process are due to Gauss and
Laplace. Legendre published two supplements to his Nouvelles
Methodes in 1806 and 1820.
The Elements of Geometry. — Legendre's name is most widely
known on account of his Elements de geometrie, the most successful
of the numerous attempts that have been made to supersede Euclid
as a text-book on geometry. It first appeared in 1794, and went
through very many editions, and has been translated into almost
all languages. An English translation, by Sir David Brewster,
from the eleventh French edition, was published in 1823, and is
well known in England. The earlier editions did not contain the
trigonometry. In one of the notes Legendre gives a proof of the
irrationality of ir. This had been first proved by J. H. Lambert
in the Berlin Memoirs for 1768. Legendre's proof is similar in prin-
ciple to Lambert's, but much simpler. On account of the objections
urged against the treatment of parallels in this work, Legendre
was induced to publish in 1803 his Nouvelle Theorie des paralKles.
His Geometrie gave rise in England also to a lengthened discussion
on the difficult question of the treatment of the theory of parallels.
It will thus be seen that Legendre's works have placed him in the
very foremost rank in the widely distinct subjects of elliptic func-
tions, theory of numbers, attractions, and geodesy, and have given
him a conspicuous position in connexion with the integral calculus
and other branches of mathematics. He published a memoir on
the integration of partial differential equations and a few others
which have not been noticed above, but they relate to subjects with
which his name is not especially associated. A good account of the
principal works of Legendre is given in the Bibliothegue universelle
de Geneve for 1833, pp. 45-82.
See Elie de Beaumont, " Memoir de Legendre," translated by
C. A. Alexander, Smithsonian Report (1874). (J. W. L. G.)
LEGENDRE, LOUIS (1752-1797), French revolutionist, was
born at Versailles on the 22nd of May 1752. When the Revolu-
tion broke out, he kept a butcher's shop in Paris, in the rue
des Boucheries St Germain. He was an ardent supporter of
the ideas of the Revolution, a member of the Jacobin Club,
and one of the founders of the club of the Cordeliers. In spite
of the incorrectness of his diction, he was gifted with a genuine
eloquence, and well knew how to carry the populace with him.
He was a prominent actor in the taking of the Bastille (i4th
of July 1789), in the massacre of the Champ de Mars (July 1791),
and in the attack on the Tuileries (loth of August 1792). Deputy
from Paris to the Convention, he voted for the death of Louis
XVI., and was sent on mission to Lyons (27th of February
1793) before the revolt of that town, and was on mission from
August to October 1793 in Seine-Inferieure. He was a member
of the Comile de S&rete Generale, and contributed to the downfall
of the Girondists. When Danton was arrested, Legendre at
first defended him, but was soon cowed and withdrew his defence.
After the fall of Robespierre, Legendre took part in the reactionary
movement, undertook the closing of the Jacobin Club, was
elected president of the Convention, and helped to bring about
the impeachment of J. B. Carrier, the perpetrator of the noyades
of Nantes. He was subsequently elected a member of the
Council of Ancients, and died on the i3th of December 1797.
See F. A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention
(2nd ed., Paris, 1906, 2 vols.) ; " Correspondance de Legendre " in
the Revolution fran^aise (vol. xl., 1901).
LEGERDEMAIN (Fr. leger -de-main, i.e. light or sleight of
hand), the name given specifically to that form of conjuring in
which the performer relies on dexterity of manipulation rather
than on mechanical apparatus. See CONJURING.
LEGGE, afterwards BILSON-LEGGE, HENRY (1708-1764),
English statesman, fourth son of William Legge, ist earl of
Dartmouth (1672-1750), was born on the 2gth of May 1708.
Educated at Christ Church, Oxford, he became private secretary
to Sir Robert Walpole, and in 1739 was appointed secretary of
Ireland by the lord-lieutenant, the 3rd duke of Devonshire;
being chosen member of parliament for the borough of East
Looe in 1740, and for Orford, Suffolk, at the general election
in the succeeding year. Legge only shared temporarily in the
downfall of Walpole, and became in quick succession surveyor-
general of woods and forests, a lord of the admiralty, and a lord
of the treasury. In 1748 he was sent as envoy extraordinary to
Frederick the Great, and although his conduct in Berlin was
sharply censured by George II., he became treasurer of the navy
soon after his return to England. In April 1754 he joined the
ministry of the duke of Newcastle as chancellor of the exchequer,
the king consenting to this appointment although refusing to
hold any intercourse with the minister; but Legge shared the
elder Pitt's dislike of the policy of paying subsidies to the land-
grave of Hesse, and was dismissed from office in November 1755.
Twleve months later he returned to his post at the exchequer
in the administration of Pitt and the 4th duke of Devonshire,
retaining office until April 1757 when he shared both the dismissal
and the ensuing popularity of Pitt. When in conjunction with
the duke of Newcastle Pitt returned to power in the following
July, Legge became chancellor of the exchequer for the 'third
time. He imposed new taxes upon houses and windows, and he
appears to have lost to some extent the friendship of Pitt, while
the king refused to make him a peer. In 1759 he obtained the
sinecure position of surveyor of the petty customs and subsidies
in the port of London, and having in consequence to resign his
seat in parliament he was chosen one of the members for
LEGGE, J.— LEGHORN
Hampshire, a proceeding which greatly incensed the earl of Bute,
who desired this seat for one of his friends. Having thus incurred
Bute's displeasure Legge was again dismissed from the exchequer
in March 1761, but he continued to take part in parliamentary
debates until his death at Tunbridge Wells on the 23rd of August
1764. Legge appears to have been a capable financier, but the
position of chancellor of the exchequer was not at that time a
cabinet office. He took the additional name of Bilson on succeed-
ing to the estates of a relative, Thomas Bettersworth Bilson,
in 1754. Pitt called Legge, " the child, and deservedly the
favourite child, of the Whigs." Horace Walpole said he was
" of a creeping, underhand nature, and aspired to the lion's
place by the manoeuvre of the mole," but afterwards he spoke
in high terms of his talents. Legge married Mary, daughter
and heiress of Edward, 4th and. last Baron Stawel (d. 1755).
This lady, who in 1 760 was created Baroness Stawel of Somerton,
bore him an only child, Henry Stawel Bilson-Legge (1757-1820),
who became Baron Stawel on his mother's death in 1780. When
Stawel died without sons his title became extinct. His only
daughter, Mary (d. 1864), married John Button, 2nd Baron
Sherborne.
See John Butler, bishop of Hereford, Some Account of the Character
of the late Rt. Hon. H. Bilson-Legge (1765) ; Horace Walpole, Memoirs
of the Reign of George II. (London, 1847); and Memoirs of the Reign
of George III., edited by G. F. R. Barker (London, 1894); W. E. H.
Lecky, History of England, vol. ii. (London, 1892); and the memoirs
and collections of correspondence of the time.
LEGGE, JAMES (1815-1897), British Chinese scholar, was
born at Huntly, Aberdeenshire, in 1815, and educated at King's
College, Aberdeen. After studying at the Highbury Theological
College, London, he went in 1839 as a missionary to the Chinese,
but, as China was not yet open to Europeans, he remained at
Malacca three years, in charge of the Anglo-Chinese College
there. The College was subsequently moved to Hong-Kong,
where Legge lived for thirty years. Impressed with the necessity
of missionaries being able to comprehend the ideas and culture
of the Chinese, he began in 1841 a translation in many volumes
of the Chinese classics, a monumental task admirably executed
and completed a few years before his death. In 1870 he was
made an LL.D. of Aberdeen and in 1884 of Edinburgh University.
In 1875 several gentlemen connected with the China trade
suggested to the university of Oxford a Chair of Chinese Language
and Literature to be occupied by Dr Legge. The university
responded liberally, Corpus Christi College contributed the
emoluments of a fellowship, and the chair was constituted in
1876. In addition to his other work Legge wrote The Life and
Teaching of Confucius (1867); The Life and Teaching of Mencius
(1875); The Religions of China (1880); and other books on
Chinese literature and religion. He died at Oxford on the
29th of November 1897.
LEGHORN (Ital. Livorno, Fr. Livourne), a city of Tuscany,
Italy, chief town of the province of the same name, which con-
sists of the commune of Leghorn and the islands of Elba and
Gorgona. The town is the seat of a bishopric and of a large
naval academy — the only one in Italy — and the third largest
commercial port in the kingdom, situated on the west coast,
12 m. S.W. of Pisa by rail, 10 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901)
78,308 (town), 96,528 (commune). It is built along the sea-
shore upon a healthy and fertile tract of land, which forms,
as it were, an oasis in a zone of Maremma. Behind is a range
of hills, the most conspicuous of which, the Monte Nero, is
crowned by a frequented pilgrimage church and also by villas
and hotels, to which a funicular railway runs. The town itself
is almost entirely modern. The 16th-century Fortezza Vecchia,
guarding the harbour, is picturesque, and there is a good bronze
statue of the grand duke Ferdinand I. by Pietro Tacca (1577-
1640), a pupil of Giovanni da Bologna. The lofty Torre del
Marzocco, erected in 1423 by the Florentines, is fine. The
facade of the cathedral was designed by Inigp Jones. The old
Protestant cemetery contains the tombs of Tobias Smollett
(d. 1771) and Francis Horner (d. 1817). There is also a large
synagogue founded in 1581. The exchange, the chamber of
commerce and the clearing-house (one of the oldest in the
377
world, dating from 1764) are united under one roof in the Palazzo
del Commercio, opened in 1907.. Several improvements have
been carried out in the city and port, and the place is developing
rapidly as an industrial centre. The naval academy, formerly
established partly at Naples and partly at Genoa, has been
transferred to Leghorn. Some of the navigable canals which
connected the harbour with the interior of the city have been
either modified or filled up. Several streets have been widened,
and a road along the shore has been transformed into a fine
and shady promenade. Leghorn is the principal sea-bathing
resort in this part of Italy, the season lasting from the end of
June to the end of August. A spa for the use of the Acque della
Salute has been constructed. Leghorn is on the main line from
Pisa to Rome; another line runs to Colle Salvetti. A con-
siderable number of important steamship lines call here. The
new rectilinear mole, sanctioned in 1881, has been built out
into the sea for a distance of 600 yds. from the old Vegliaia
lighthouse, and the docking basin has been lengthened to 490 ft.
Inside the breakwater the depth varies from 10 to 26 ft. The
total trade of the port increased from £3,853,593 in 1897 to
£5,675,285 in 1005 and £7,009,758 in 1906 (the large increase
being mainly due to a rise of over £1,000,000 in imports —
mainly of coal, building materials and machinery), the average
ratio of imports to exports being as three to two. The imports
consist principally of machinery, coal, grain, dried fish, tobacco
and hides, and the exports of hemp, hides, olive oil, soap, coral,
candied fruit, wine, straw hats, boracic acid, mercury, and
marble and alabaster. In 1885 the total number of vessels that
entered the port was 4281 of 1,434,000 tons; of these, 1251
of 750,000 tons were foreign; 688,000 tons of merchandise
were loaded and unloaded. In 1906, after considerable fluctua-
tions during the interval, the total number that entered was
4623 vessels of 2,372,551 tons; of these, 935 of 1,002,119 tons
were foreign; British ships representing about half this tonnage.
In 1906 the total imports and exports amounted to 1,470,000
tons including coasting trade. A great obstacle to the develop-
ment of the port is the absence of modern mechanical appliances
for loading and unloading vessels, and of quay space and dock
accommodation. The older shipyards have been considerably
extended, and shipbuilding is actively carried on, especially
by the Orlando yard which builds large ships for the Italian
navy, while new industries — namely, glass-making and copper
and brass-founding, electric power works, a cement factory,
porcelain factories, flour-mills, oil-mills, a cotton yarn spinning
factory, electric plant works, a ship-breaking yard, a motor-
boat yard, &c. — have been established. Other important firms,
Tuscan wine-growers, oil-growers, timber traders, colour manu-
facturers, &c., have their head offices and stores at Leghorn, with
a view to export. The former British " factory " here was of
great importance for the trade with the Levant, but was closed
in 1825. The two villages of Ardenza and Antignano, which
form part of the commune, have acquired considerable im-
portance, the former in part for sea-bathing.
The earliest mention of Leghorn occurs in a document of
891, relating to the first church here; in 1017 it is called a castle.
In the i3th century the Pisans tried to attract a population to
the spot, but it was not till the i4th that Leghorn became a
rival of Porto Pisano at the mouth of the Arno, which it was
destined ultimately to supplant. It was at Leghorn that Urban V.
and Gregory XI. landed on their return from Avignon. When
in 1405 the king of France sold Pisa to the Florentines he kept
possession of Leghorn; but he afterwards (1407) sold it for
26,000 ducats to the Genoese, and from the Genoese the Floren-
tines purchased it in 1421. In 1496 the city showed its devotion
to its new masters by a successful defence against Maximilian
and his allies, but it was still a small place; in 1551 there were
only 749 inhabitants. With the rise of the Medici came a rapid
increase of prosperity; Cosmo, Francis and Ferdinand erected
fortifications and harbour works, warehouses and churches,
with equal liberality, and the last especially gave a stimulus
to trade by inviting " men of the East and the West, Spanish
and Portuguese, Greeks, Germans, Italians, Hebrews, Turks,
378
LEGION— LEGITIMACY AND LEGITIMATION
Moors, Armenians, Persians and others," to settle and traffic
in the city, as it became in .1606. Declared free and neutral
in 1691, Leghorn was permanently invested with these privileges
by the Quadruple Alliance in 1718; but in 1796 Napoleon seized
all the hostile vessels in its port. It ceased to be a free city
by the law of 1867. (T. As.)
LEGION (Lat. legio), in early Rome, the levy of citizens
marching out en masse to war, like the citizen-army of any other
primitive state. As Rome came to need more than one army
at once and warfare grew more complex, legio came to denote
a unit of 4000-6000 heavy infantry (including, however, at first
some light infantry and at various times a handful of cavalry)
who were by political status Roman citizens and were distinct
from the " allies," auxilia, and other troops of the second class.
The legionaries were regarded as the best and most characteristic
Roman soldiers, the most trustworthy and truly Roman;
they enjoyed better pay and conditions of service than the
" auxiliaries." In A.D. 14 (death of Augustus) there were 25
such legions: later, the number was slightly increased; finally
about A.D. 290 Diocletian reduced the size and greatly increased
the number of the legions. Throughout, the dominant features
of the legions were heavy infantry and Roman citizenship.
They lost their importance when the Barbarian invasions altered
the character of ancient warfare and made cavalry a more
important arm than infantry, in the late 3rd and 4th centuries
A.D. In the middle ages the word " legion " seems not to have
been used as a technical term. In modern times it has been
employed for organizations of an unusual or exceptional character,
such as a corps of foreign volunteers or mercenaries. See
further ROMAN ARMY. (F. J. H.)
The term legion has been used to designate regiments or corps
of all arms in modern times, perhaps the earliest example of this
being the Provincial Legions formed in France by Francis I. (see
INFANTRY). Napoleon, in accordance with this precedent, employed
the word to designate the second-line formations which he main-
tained in France and which supplied the Grande Armee with drafts.
The term " Foreign Legion " is often used for irregular volunteer
corps of foreign sympathizers raised by states at war, often by
smaller states fighting for independence. Unlike most foreign
legions the " British Legion " which, raised in Great Britain and
commanded by Sir de Lacy Evans (q.v.), fought in the Carlist wars,
was a regularly enlisted and paid force. The term " foreign legion "
is colloquially but incorrectly applied to-day to the Regiments
etrangers in the French service, which are composed of adventurous
spirits of all nationalities and have been employed in many arduous
colonial campaigns.
The most famous of the corps that have borne the name of legion
in modern times was the King's German Legion (see Beamish's
history of the corps). The electorate of Hanover being in 1805
threatened by the French, and no effective resistance being con-
sidered possible, the British government wished to take the greater
part of the Hanoverian army into its service. But the acceptance
by the Hanoverian government of this offer was delayed until too
late, and it was only after the French had entered the country and
the army as a unit had been disbanded that the formation of the
" King's German Regiment," as it was at first called, was begun in
England. This enlisted not only ex-Hanoverian soldiers, but other
Germans as well, as individuals. Lieut.-Colonel von der Decken and
Major Colin Halkett were the officers entrusted with the formation
of the new corps, which in January 1805 had become a corps of all
arms with the title of King s German Legion. It then consisted of
a dragoon and a hussar regiment, five batteries, two light and four
line battalions and an engineer section, all these being afterwards
increased. Its services included the abortive German expedition
of November 1805, the expedition to Copenhagen in 1807, the
minor sieges and combats in Sicily 1808-14, the Walcheren
expedition of 1809, the expedition to Sweden under Sir John Moore
in 1808, and the campaign of 1813 in north Germany. But its
title to fame is its part in the Peninsular War, in which from first
to last it was an acknowledged corps d'elite — its cavalry especially,
whose services both on reconnaissance and in battle were of the
highest value. The exploit of the two dragoon regiments of the
Legion at Garcia Hernandez after the battle of Salamanca, where
they charged and broke up two French infantry squares and captured
some 1400 prisoners, is one of the most notable incidents in the
history of the cavalry arm (see Sir E. Wood's Achievements of
Cavalry). A general officer of the Legion, Charles Alten (q.v.),
commanded the British Light Division in the latter part of the war.
It should be said that the Legion was rarely engaged as a unit.
It was considered rather as a small army of the British type, most of
which served abroad by regiments and battalions while a small
portion and depot units were at home, the total numbers under
arms being about 25,000. In 1815 the period of service of the corps
had almost expired when Napoleon returned from Elba, but its
members voluntarily offered to prolong their service. It lost
heavily at Waterloo, in which Baring's battalion of the light infantry
distinguished itself by its gallant defence of La Haye Sainte. The
strength of the Legion at the time of its disbandment was noo
officers and 23,500 men. A short-lived " King's German Legion "
was raised by the British government for service in the Crimean
War. Certain Hanoverian regiments of the German army to-day
represent the units of the Legion and carry Peninsular battle-
honours on their standards and colours.
LEGITIM, or BAIRN'S PART, in Scots law, the legal share of the
movable property of a father due on his death to his children.
If a father dies leaving a widow and children, the movable
property is divided into three equal parts; one-third part is
divided equally among all the children who survive, although
they may be of different marriages (the issue of predeceased
children do not share); another third goes to the widow as her
jus relictae, and the remaining third, called " dead's part,"
may be disposed of by the father by will as he pleases. If the
father die intestate the dead's part goes to the children as
next of kin. Should the father leave no widow, one-half of
the movable estate is legitim and one-half dead's part. In
claiming legitim, however, credit must be given for any
advance made by the father out of his movable estate during
his lifetime.
LEGITIMACY, and LEGITIMATION, the status derived by
individuals in consequence of being born in legal wedlock, and
the means by which the same status is given to persons not so
born. Under the Roman or civil law a child born before the
marriage of the parents was made legitimate by their subsequent
marriage. This method of legitimation was accepted by the
canon law, by the legal systems of the continent of Europe,
of Scotland and of some of the states of the United States.
The early Germanic codes, however, did not recognize such legiti-
mation, nor among the Anglo-Saxons had the natural-born child
any rights of inheritance, or possibly any right other than that
of protection, even when acknowledged by its father. The
principle of the civil and canon law was at one time advocated
by the clergy of England, but was summarily rejected by the
barons at the parliament of Merton in 1 236, when they replied
Nolumus leges Angliae mutare.
English law takes account solely of the fact that marriage
precedes the birth of the child; at whatever period the birth
happens after the marriage, the offspring is prima facie legitimate.
The presumption of law is always in favour of the legitimacy of
the child of a married woman, and at one time it was so strong
that Sir Edward Coke held that " if the husband be within the
four seas, i.e. within the jurisdiction of the king of England,
and the wife hath issue, no proof shall be admitted to prove
the child a bastard unless the husband hath an apparent im-
possibility of procreation." It is now settled, however, that the
presumption of legitimacy may be rebutted by evidence showing
non-access on the part of the husband, or any other circumstance
showing that the husband could not in the course of nature have
been the father of his wife's child. If the husband had access,
or the access be not clearly negatived, even though others at the
same time were carrying on an illicit intercourse with the wife,
a child born under such circumstances is legitimate. If the
husband had access intercourse must be presumed, unless there
is irresistible evidence to the contrary. Neither husband or wife
will be permitted to prove the non-access directly or indirectly.
Children born after a divorce a mensa et thoro will, however, be
presumed to be bastards unless access be proved. A child born
so long after the death of a husband that he could not in the
ordinary course of nature have been the father is illegitimate.
The period of gestation is presumed to be about nine calendar
months; and if there were any circumstances from which an
unusually long or short period of gestation could be inferred,
special medical testimony would be required.
A marriage between persons within the prohibited degrees
of affinity was before 1835 not void, but only voidable, and
the ecclesiastical courts were restrained from bastardizing
the issue after the death of either of the parents. Lord
LEGITIMISTS— LEGNANO
379
Lyndhurst's act (1835) declared all such existing marriages
valid, but all subsequent marriages between persons within the
prohibited degrees of consanguinity or affinity were made null
and void and the issue illegitimate (see MARRIAGE). By the
Legitimacy Declaration Act 1858, application may be made to
the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Court (in Scotland, to the
Court of Session by action of declarator) for a declaration of
legitimacy and of the validity of a marriage. The status of
legitimacy in any country depending upon the fact of the child
having been born in wedlock, it may be concluded that any
question as to the legitimacy of a child turns either on the
validity of the marriage or on whether the child has been born
in wedlock.
Legitimation effected by the subsequent marriage of the parents
of the illegitimate child is technically known as legitimation
per subsequens malrimonium. This adoption of the Roman
law principle is followed by most of the states of the continent
of Europe (with distinctions, of course, as to certain illegitimate
children, or as to the forms of acknowledgment by the parent or
parents), in the Isle of Man, Guernsey, Jersey, Lower Canada,
St Lucia, Trinidad, Demerara, Berbice, Cape Colony, Ceylon,
Mauritius; it has been adopted in New Zealand (Legitimation
Act 1894), South Australia (Legitimation Act 1898, amended
1902), Queensland (Legitimation Act 1899), New South Wales
{Legitimation Act 1902), and Victoria (Registration of Births,
Deaths and Marriages Act 1903). It is to be noted, however,
that in these states the mere fact of the parents marrying does
not legitimate the child; indeed, the parents may marry, yet
the child remain illegitimate. In order to legitimate the child
it is necessary for the father to make application for its registra-
tion; in South Australia, the application must be made by both
parents; so also in Victoria, if the mother is living, if not,
application by the father will suffice. In New Zealand, Queens-
land and New South Wales, registration may be made at any time
after the marriage; in Victoria, within six months from the date
of the marriage; in South Australia, by the act of 1898, registra-
tion was permissible only within thirty days before or after the
marriage, but by the amending act of 1902 it is allowed at any
time more than thirty days after the marriage, provided the
applicants prove before a magistrate that they are the parents
of the child. In all cases the legitimation is retrospective, taking
effect from the birth of the child. Legitimation by subsequent
marriage exists also in the following states of the American
Union: Maine, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Michigan, Iowa, Minnesota,
California, Oregon, Nevada, Washington, N. and S. Dakota,
Idaho, Montana and New Mexico. In Massachusetts, Vermont,
Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, Nebraska, Maryland, Virginia,
West Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, Arkansas, Texas, Colorado,
Idaho, Wyoming, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Arizona,
in addition to the marriage the father must recognize or acknow-
ledge the illegitimate child as his. In New Hampshire, Con-
necticut and Louisiana both parents must acknowledge the child,
either by an authentic act before marriage or by the contract of
marriage. In some states (California, Nevada, N. and S.
Dakota and Idaho) if the father of an illegitimate child receives
it into his house (with the consent of his wife, if married), and
treats it as if it were legitimate, it becomes legitimate for all
purposes. In other states (N. Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia and
New Mexico) the putative father can legitimize the child by
process in court. Those states of the United States which have
not been mentioned follow the English common law, which also
prevails in Ireland, some of the West Indies and part of Canada.
In Scotland, on the other hand, the principle of the civil law is
followed. In Scotland, bastards could be legitimized in two ways:
either by the subsequent intermarriage of the mother of the child
with the father, or by letters of legitimation from the sovereign.
With respect to the last, however, it is to be observed that
letters of legitimation, be their clauses ever so strong, could not
enable the bastard to succeed to his natural father; for the
sovereign could not, by any prerogative, cut off the private
right of third parties. But by a special clause in the letters of
legitimation, the sovereign could renounce his right to the
bastard's succession, failing legitimate descendants, in favour of
him who would have been the bastard's heir had he been born in
lawful wedlock, such renunciation encroaching upon no right
competent to any third person.
The question remains, how far, if at all, English law recognizes
the legitimacy of a person born out of wedlock. Strictly speak-
ing, English law does not recognize any such person as legiti-
mate (though the supreme power of an act of parliament can,
of course, confer the rights of legitimacy), but under certain
circumstances it will recognize, for purposes of succession to
property, a legitimated person as legitimate. The general
maxim of law is that the status of legitimacy must be tried by
the law of the country where it originates, and where the law
of the father's domicile at the time of the child's birth, and of
the father's domicile at the time of the subsequent marriage,
taken together, legitimize the child, English law will recognize
the legitimacy. For purposes of succession to real property,
however, legitimacy must be determined by the lex loci rei
sitae; so that, for example, a legitimized Scotsman would be
recognized as legitimate in England, but not legitimate so far
as to take lands as heir (Birtwhistle v. Vardill, 1840). The con-
flict of laws on the subject yields some curious results. Thus, a
domiciled Scotsman had a son born in Scotland and then married
the mother in Scotland. The son died possessed of land in
England, and it was held that the father could not inherit from
the son. On the other hand, where an unmarried woman, domi-
ciled in England died intestate there, it was held that her
brother's daughter, born before marriage, but whilst the father
was domiciled in Holland, and legitimized by the parents'
marriage while they were still domiciled in Holland, was entitled
to succeed to the personal property of her aunt (In re Goodman's
Trusts, 1880). In re Grey's Trusts (1892) decided that, where
real estate was bequeathed to the children of a person domi-
ciled in a foreign country and these children were legitimized
by the subsequent marriage in that country of their father
with their mother, that they were entitled to share as legiti-
mate children in a devise of English realty. It is to be noted
that this decision does not clash with that of Birtwhistle v.
Vardill.
See J. A. Foote, Private International Law, A. V. Dicey, Conflict
of Laws; L. von Bar, Private International Law, Story, Conflict
of Laws; J. Westlake, International Law.
LEGITIMISTS (Fr. legitimises, from legilime, lawful, legiti-
mate), the name of the party in France which after the revolution
of 1830 continued to support the claims of the elder line of the
house of Bourbon as the legitimate sovereigns " by divine
right." The death of the comte de Chambord in 1883 dissolved
the parti Ugitimiste, only an insignificant remnant, known as
the Blames d'Espagne, repudiating the act of renunciation of
Philip V. of Spain and upholding the rights of the Bourbons
of the line of Anjou. The word Ugitimiste was not admitted
by the French Academy until 1878; but meanwhile it had
spread beyond France, and the English word legitimist is now
applied to any supporter of monarchy by hereditary right as
against a parliamentary or other title.
LEGNAGO, a fortified town of Venetia, Italy, in the province
of Verona, on the Adige, 29 m. by rail E. of Mantua, 52 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1906) 2731 (town), 17,000 (commune).
Legnago is one of the famous Quadrilateral fortresses. The
present fortifications were planned and made in 1815, the older
defences having been destroyed by Napoleon I. in 1801. The
situation is low and unhealthy, but the territory is fertile, rice,
cereals and sugar being grown. Legnago is the birthplace of
G. B. Cavalcaselle, the art historian (1827-1897). A branch
line runs hence to Rovigo.
LEGNANO, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of
Milan, 17 m. N.W. of that city by rail, 682 ft. above sea-level.
Pop. (1881) 7153, (1901) 18,285. The church of S. Magno,
built in the style of Bramante by G. Lampugnano (1504-1529),
contains an altar-piece considered one of Luini's best works.
There are also remains of a castle of the Visconti. Legnano
is the seat of important cotton and silk industries, with
38o
LEGOUVE— LEGROS
machine-shops, boiler-works, and dyeing and printing of
woven goods, and thread. Close by, the Lombard League
defeated Frederick Barbarossa in 1176; a monument in com-
memoration of the battle was erected on the field in 1876,
while there is another by Butti erected in 1900 in the Piazza
Federico Barbarossa.
LEGOUVE, GABRIEL JEAN BAPTISTS ERNEST WILFRID
(1807-1903), French dramatist, son of the poet Gabriel Legouve
(1764-1812), who wrote a pastoral La Mart d' Abel (1793) and a
tragedy of Epicharis et Neron, was born in Paris on the sth of
February 1807. His mother died in 1810, and almost im-
mediately afterwards his father was removed to a lunatic
asylum. The child, however, inherited a considerable fortune,
and was carefully educated. Jean Nicolas Bouilly (1763-1842)
was his tutor, and early instilled into the young Legouve a
passion for literature, to which the example of his father and
of his grandfather, J. B. Legouve (1729-1783), predisposed him.
As early as 1829 he carried away a prize of the French Academy
for a poem on the discovery of printing; and in 1832 he published
a curious little volume of verses, entitled Les Marts Bizarres.
In those early days Legouve brought out a succession of novels,
of which Edith de Falsen enjoyed a considerable success. In
1847 he began the work by which he is best remembered, his
contributions to the development and education of the female
mind, by lecturing at the College of France on the moral history
of women: these discourses were collected into a volume in
1848, and enjoyed a great success. Legouve wrote considerably
for the stage, and in 1849 he collaborated with A. E. Scribe in
Adrienne Lecouvreur. In 1855 he brought out his tragedy of
Mtdee, the success of which had much to do with his election
to the French Academy. He succeeded to the fauteuil of J. A.
Ancelot, and was received by Flourens, who dwelt on the plays
of Legouve as his principal claim to consideration. As time
passed on, however, he became less prominent as a playwright,
and more so as a lecturer and propagandist on woman's rights
and the advanced education of children, in both of which direc-
tions he was a pioneer in French society. His La Femme en France
au XIX"" siecle (1864), reissued, much enlarged, in 1878; his
Messieurs les enfants (1868), his Conferences Parisiennes (1872),
his Nos filles et nos fils (1877), and his Une Education de jeune
fille (1884) were works of wide-reaching influence in the moral
order. In 1886-1887 he published, in two volumes, his Soixante
ans de souvenirs, an excellent specimen of autobiography. He
was raised in 1887 to the highest grade of the Legion of Honour,
and held for many years the post of inspector-general of female
education in the national schools. Legouve was always an
advocate of physical training. He was long accounted one
of the best shots in France, and although, from a conscientious
objection, he never fought a duel, he made the art of fencing
his lifelong hobby. After the death of Desire Nisard in 1888,
Legouve became the " father " of the French Academy. He
died on the i4th of March 1903.
LEGROS, ALPHONSE (1837- ), painter and etcher, was
born at Dijon on the Sth of May 1837. His father was an
accountant, and came from the neighbouring village of Veronnes.
Young Legros frequently visited the farms of his relatives, and
the peasants and landscapes of that part of France are the
subjects of many of his pictures and etchings. He was sent to
the art school at Dijon with a view to qualifying for a trade,
and was apprenticed to Maitre Nicolardo, house decorator and
painter of images. In 1851 Legros left for Paris to take another
situation; but passing through Lyons he worked for six months
as journeyman wall-painter under the decorator Beuchot, who
was painting the chapel of Cardinal Bonald in the cathedral.
In Paris he studied with Cambon, scene-painter and decorator
of theatres, an experience which developed a breadth of touch
such as Stanfield and Cox picked up in similar circumstances.
At this time he attended the drawing-school of Lecoq de Bois-
baudran. In 1855 Legros attended the evening classes of the
Ecole des Beaux Arts, and perhaps gained there his love of
drawing from the antique, some of the results of which may be
seen in the Print Room of the British Museum. He sent two
portraits to the Salon of 1857: one was rejected, and formed
part of the exhibition of protest organized by Bonvin in his
studio; the other, which was accepted, was a profile portrait
of his father. This work was presented to the museum at Tours
by the artist when his friend Cazin was curator. Champfleury
saw the work in the Salon, and sought out the artist to enlist
him in the small army of so-called " Realists," comprising (round
the noisy glory of Courbet) all those who raised protest against
the academical trifles of the degenerate Romantics. In 1859
Legros's " Angelus " was exhibited, the first of those quiet
church interiors, with kneeling figures of patient women, by
which he is best known as a painter. " Ex Vote," a work of
great power and insight, painted in 1861, now in the museum
at Dijon, was received by his friends with enthusiasm, but it
only obtained a mention at the Salon. Legros came to England
in 1863, and in 1864 married Miss Frances Rosetta Hodgson.
At first he lived by his etching and teaching. He then became
teacher of etching at the South Kensington School of Art, and
in 1876 Slade Professor at University College, London. He
was naturalized as an Englishman in 1881, and remained at
University College seventeen years. His influence there was
exerted to encourage a certain distinction, severity and truth
of character in the work of his pupils, with a simple technique
and a respect for the traditions of the old masters, until then some-
what foreign to English art. He would draw or paint a torso
or a head before the students in an hour or even less, so that the
attention of the pupils might not be dulled. As students had
been known to take weeks and even months over a single drawing,
Legros ordered the positions of the casts in the Antique School
to be changed once every week. In the painting school he
insisted upon a good outline, preserved by a thin rub in of
umber, and then the work was to be finished in a single painting,
" premier coup." Experiments in all varieties of art work were
practised; whenever the professor saw a fine example in the
museum, or when a process interested him in a workshop, he
never rested until he had mastered the technique and his students
were trying their 'prentice hands at it. As he had casually
picked up the art of etching by watching a comrade in Paris
working at a commercial engraving, so he began the making
of medals after a walk in the British Museum, studying the
masterpieces of Pisanello, and a visit to the Cabinet des Medailles
in Paris. Legros considered the traditional journey to Italy
a very important part of artistic training, and in order that
his students should have the benefit of such study he devoted
a part of his salary to augment the income available for a travel-
ling studentship. His later works, after he resigned his pro-
fessorship in 1892, were more in the free and ardent manner
of his early days — imaginative landscapes, castles in Spain,
and farms in Burgundy, etchings like the series of " The Triumph
of Death," and the sculptured fountains for the gardens of the
duke of Portland at Welbeck.
Pictures and drawings by Legros, besides those already
mentioned, may be seen in the following galleries and museums:
" Amende Honorable," " Dead Christ," bronzes, medals and
twenty-two drawings, in the Luxembourg, Paris; "Landscape,"
" Study of a Head," and portraits of Browning, Burne-Jones,
Cassel, Huxley and Marshall, at the Victoria and Albert Museum,
Kensington; " Femmes en priere," National Gallery of British
Art; " The Tinker," and six other works from the lonides Collection,
bequeathed to South Kensington; " Christening," " Barricade,"
" The Poor at Meat," two portraits and several drawings and
etchings, collection of Lord Carlisle; " Two Priests at the Organ,"
"Landscape" and etchings, collection of Rev. Stopfprd Brooke;
" Head of a Priest," collection of Mr Vereker Hamilton; "'The
Weed-burner," some sculpture and a large collection of etchings
and drawings, Mr Guy Knowles; " Psyche," collection of Mr L. W.
Hodson; "Snow Scene," collection of Mr G. F. Watts, R.A. ;
thirty-five drawings and etchings, the Print Room, British Museum ;
" Jacob's Dream " and twelve drawings of the antique, Cambridge;
" Saint Jerome," two studies of heads and some drawings, Man-
chester; " The Pilgrimage " and " Study made before the Class,"
Liverpool Walker Art Gallery; " Study of Heads," Peel Park
Museum, Salford.
See Dr Hans W. Singer, " Alphonse Legros," Die graphischen
Ktinste (1898); L6once B6n6dite, "Alphonse Legros, Revue de
I'art (Paris, 1900) ; Cosmo Monkhouse, " Professor Legros,"
Magazine of Art (1882). (C. H.*)
LEGUMINOSAE
LEGUMINOSAE, the second largest family of seed-plants,
containing about 430 genera with 7000 species. It belongs to
the series Resales of the Dicotyledons, and contains three well-
marked suborders, Papilionatae, Mimosoideae and Caesalpini-
oideae. The plants are trees, shrubs or herbs of very various
habit. The British representatives, all of which belong to the
suborder Papilionatae, include a few shrubs, such as
Ulex (gorse, furze), Cytisus (broom) and Genista, but
the majority, and this applies to the suborder as a
whole, are herbs, such as the clovers, Medicago, Meli-
lotus, &c., sometimes climbing by aid of tendrils which
are modified leaf-structures, as in Lathyrus and the
vetches ( Vicia). Scarlet runner (Phaseolus multiflorus)
has a herbaceous twining stem. Woody climbers
(lianes) are represented by species of Bauhinia (Caesal-
pinioideae), which with their curiously flattened twisted
stems are characteristic features of tropical forests,
and Entada scandens (Mimosoideae) also common in
the tropics; these two suborders, which are confined to
the warmer parts of the earth, consist chiefly of trees
and shrubs such as Acacia and Mimosa belonging to the
Mimosoideae, and the Judas tree of southern Europe
(Cercis) and tamarind belonging to the Caesalpinioideae.
The so-called acacia of European gardens (Robinia
are tendrils; in Robinia the stipules are spiny and persist after
leaf-fall. In some acacias (q.v.) the thorns are hollow, and
inhabited by ants as in A. sphaerocephala, a central American
plant (fig. 2) and others. In some species of Astragalus, Ono-
brychis and others, the leaf-stalk persists after the fall of the
leaf and becomes hard and spiny.
From Strasburger's Lthrbuck der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 2. — Acacia sphaerocephala.
I, Leaf and part of stem ; D, hollow II, Single pinnule with food-body,
Pseudacacia) and laburnum are examples of the tree thorns in which the ants live; F, food F. (Somewhat enlarged.)
habit in the Papilionatae. Water plants are rare, bodiesattheapicesofthelowerpinnules;
but are represented by Aeschynomene and Neptunia, N> nectary °n the petiole. (Reduced.)
tropical genera. The roots of many species bear nodular swellings
(tubercles), the cells of which contain bacterium-like bodies
which have the power of fixing the nitrogen of the atmosphere
in such a form as to make it available for plant food. Hence
the value of these plants as a crop on poor soil or as a member
of a series of rotation of crops, since they enrich the soil by the
nitrogen liberated by the decay of their roots or of the whole
plant if ploughed in as green manure.
The leaves are alternate in arrangement and generally com-
pound and stipulate. A common form is illustrated by the
trefoil or clovers, which
have three leaflets springing
from a common point (digi-
tately trifoliate) ; pinnate
leaves are also frequent as
in laburnum and Robinia.
In Mimosoideae the leaves
are generally bipinnate
(figs, i, 2, 3). Rarely are
the leaves simple as in
Bauhinia. Various depart-
ures from the usual leaf-
type occur in association
with adaptations to different
functions or environments.
In leaf-climbers, such as pea
or vetch, the end of the rachis
and one or more pairs of
leaflets are changed into
tendrils. In gorse the leaf
is reduced to a slender spine-
like structure, though the
leaves of the seedling have
one to three leaflets. In
many Australian acacias the
leaf surface in the adult plant
is much reduced, the petiole
being at the same time flat-
FIG. I. -Leaf of an Acacia (A. 'ened and eunlfged (fif
heterophylla) showing flattened leaf- frequently the leaf is reduced
like petiole (phyllode), p, and bipin- to a petiole flattened in the
vertical plane; by this
nate blade.
means a minimum surface
s exposed to the intense sunlight. In the garden pea the
stipules are large and foliaceous, replacing the leaflets, which
Leaf-movements occur in many of the genera. Such are the sleep-
movement in the clovers, runner bean (Phaseolus), Robinia and
acacia, where the leaflets assume a vertical position at nightfall.
Spontaneous movements are exemplified in the telegraph-plant
(Desmodium gyrans), native of tropical Asia, where the small lateral
leaflets move up and down every few minutes. The sensitive plant
(Mimosa pudica) is an example of movement in response to contact,
the leaves assuming a sleep-position if touched. The seat of the
movement is the swollen base of the leaf -stalk, the so-called pulvinus
(fig. 3)-
The stem of the lianes shows some remarkable deviations from
the normal in form and structure. In Papilionatae anomalous
secondary thickening arises from the production of new cambium
zones outside the original ring (Mucuna, Wistaria) forming concentric
rings or transverse or broader strands; where, as in Rhyncosia the
successive cam-
biums are active
only at two op-
posite points, a
flat ribbon - like
stem is produced.'
The climbing
Bauhinias (Caes-
alpi nioideae)
have a flattened
stem with basin-
like undulations;
in some growth
in thickness is
normal, in others
new cambium-
zones are found
while in others FIG-3- — Branch with two leaves of the Sensitive
new and distinct ?lant (Mimosa pudica), showing the petiole in
growth-centres 'ts erect state> a< an<* m 'ts depressed state, b;
each with its a'so tne 'eaflets closed, c, and the leaflets ex-
cambium-zone, Pfnded, d; p, pulvinus, the seat of the movement
arise outside the of the Petwle.
primary zone. The climbing Mimosoideae show no anomalous
growth in thickness, but in some cases the stem becomes strongly
winged. Gum passages in the pith and medullary rays occur, especi-
ally in species of acacia and Astragalus; gum-arabic is an exuda-
tion from the branches of Acacia Senegal, gum-tragacanth from
Astragalus gummifer and other species. Logwood is the coloured
hfartwood of Haematoxylon campechianum; red sandalwood of
Pterocarpus santalinus.
The flowers are arranged in racemose inflorescences, such as
the simple raceme (Laburnum, Robinia), which is condensed
to a head in Trifolium; in Acacia and Mimosa the flowers are
densely crowded (fig. 4). The flower is characterized by a
hypogynous or slightly perigynous arrangement of parts, the
anterior position of the odd sepal, the free petals, and the single
median carpel with a terminal style, simple stigma and two
382
LEGUMINOSAE
alternating rows of ovules on the ventral suture of the ovary
which faces the back of the flower.
The arrangement of the petals and the number and cohesion ol
the stamens vary in the three suborders. In Mimosoideae, the
smallest of the three, the flower is regular (fig. 4 [3]), and the sepals
and petals have a valvate aestivation, and are generally pentamerous
but 3-6-merous flowers also occur. The sepals are more or less
united into a cup (fig. 4 [2]), and the petals sometimes cohere at
the base. The stamens vary widely in number and cohesion; in
Acacia (fig. 4) they are indefinite and free, in the tribe Ingeae, inde-
finite and monadelphous, in other tribes as many or twice as many
as the petals. Frequently, as in Mimosa, the long yellow stamens
are the most conspicuous feature of the flower. In Caesalpinioideae
(fig. 5) the flowers are zygomorphic in a median plane and generally
pentamerous. The sepals are free, or the two upper ones united as
in tamarind, and imbricate in aestivation, rarely as in the Judas-
tree (fig. 5 [2]), valvate. The corolla shows great variety in form;
it is imbricate in aestivation, the posterior petal being innermost.
In Cercis (fig. 5) it clearly resembles the papilionaceous type; the
odd petal stands erect, the median pair are reflexed and wing-like,
and the lower pair enclose the essential organs. In Cassia all five
petals are subequal and spreading; in Amherstia the anterior pair
are small or absent while the three upper ones are large ; in Krameria,
FIG. 4. — Acacia obscura, flowering branch about i natural size.
I, Part of stem with leaf and its 2, Flower, much enlarged.
subtended inflorescence,
about natural size.
Floral diagram of Acacia lati-
jolia. (After Eichler.)
the anterior pair are represented by glandular scales, and in Tamarin-
dus are suppressed. Apetalous flowers occur in Copaifera and
Ceratonia. The stamens, generally ten in number, are free, as in
Cercis (fig. 5) or more or less united as in Amherstia, where the
posterior one is free and the rest are united. In tamarind only
three stamens are fertile. The largest suborder, Papilionatae, has a
flower zygomorphic in the median plane (figs. 6, 7). The five sepals
are generally united (figs. 7, 9), and have an ascending imbricate
arrangement (fig. 6); the calyx is often two-lipped (fig. 9 [i]). The
corolla has five unequal petals with a descending imbricate arrange-
ment; the upper and largest, the standard (vexillum), stands erect,
the lateral pair, the wings or alae, are long-clawed, while the anterior
pair cohere to form the keel or carina, in which are enclosed the
stamens and pistil. The ten stamens are monadelphous as in gorse
or broom (fig. o), or diadelphous as in sweet pea (fig. 8) (the posterior
one being free), or almost or quite free; these differences are associ-
ated with differences in the methods of pollination. The ten stamens
here, as in the last suborder, though arranged in a single whorl,
arise in two series, the five opposite the sepals arising first.
The carpel is sometimes stalked and often surrounded at the base
by a honey-secreting disk; the style is terminal and in the zygomor-
phic flowers is often curved and somewhat flattened with a definite
back and front. Sometimes as in species of Trifolium and Medicago
the ovules are reduced to one. The pod or legume splits along both
sutures (fig. 10) into a pair of membranous, leathery or sometimes
fleshy valves, bearing the seeds on the ventral suture. Dehiscence
is often explosive, the valves separating elastically and twisting
spirally, thus shooting out the seeds, as in gorse, broom and others.
In Desmodium, Entada and others the pod is constricted between
each seed, and breaks up into indehiscent one-seeded parts; it is
then called a lomentum (fig. 11); in Astragalus it is divided by a
longitudinal septum.
The pods show a very great variety in form and size. Thus in the
st
FIG. 5.— Flowering branch of Judas-tree (Cercis siliquastrum) reduced,
i, Flower, natural size. 2, Floral diagram.
clovers they are a small fraction of an inch, while in the common
tropical climber Entada scandens they are woody structures more
than a yard long and several inches wide. They are generally more
or less flattened, but sometimes round and rod-like, as in species of
Cassia, or are spirally coiled as in Medicago. Indehiscent one-
seeded pods occur in species of clover and in Medicago, also in
Dalbergta and allied genera, where they are winged. In Colutea,
the bladder-senna of gardens, the pod forms an inflated bladder
which bursts under pressure; it often becomes detached and is
blown some distance before bursting. An arillar outgrowth is often
developed on the funicle, and is sometimes brightly coloured,
rendering the seed conspicuous and favouring dissemination by
birds; in such
cases the seed-
coat is hard. In
other cases the
hard seed-coat it-
self is bright-
coloured as in the
scarlet seeds of
Abrus precatorius,
the so-called FIG. 6. — Diagram of
weather-plant. Flower of Sweet Pea ,. . „.
Animals also act (Lathyrus), showing Pea (Pisum sativum),
as the agents of five sepals, i, two are showing a papiliona-
distribution in the superior, one inferior, ceous corolla, with one
case of fleshy and two lateral; five petal superior, st, the
edible pods con- petals, p, one superior, standard (vexillum),
taining seeds with two inferior, and two two inferior, car, the
a hard smooth lateral; ten stamens in keel (carina), and two
testa, which will two rows, a, and one lateral, a, wings (alae).
pass uninjured carpel, c. The calyx is marked c,
through the body,
as in tamarind and the fruit of the carob-tree (Ceratonia). In
the ground-nut (Arachis hypogaea), Trifolium subterraneum and
others, the flower-stalks grow downwards after fertilization of the
ovules and bury the fruit in the earth. In the suborders Mimosoideae
and Papilionatae the embryo fills the seed or a small quantity of
endosperm occurs, chiefly round the radicle. In Caesalpinioideae
endosperm is absent, or present forming a thin layer round the
;mbryo as in the tribe Bauhinieae, or copious and cartilaginous as
n the Cassieae. The embryo has generally flat leaf-like or fleshy
•otyledons with a short radicle.
Insects play an important part in the pollination of the
flowers. In the two smaller suborders the stamens and stigma
FIG. 7. — Flower
LEGYA
383
are freely exposed and the conspicuous coloured stamens serve
as well as the petals to attract insects; in Mimosa and Acacia
the flowers are crowded in conspicuous heads or spikes. The
relation of insects to the flower has been carefully studied in
the Papilionatae, ghiefly in European species. Where honey is
present it is secreted on the inside of the base of the stamens and
accumulated in the base of the
tube formed by the united fila-
ments round the ovary. It is
accessible only to insects with
long probosces, such as bees. In
these cases the posterior stamen
is free, allowing access to the
honey. The flowers stand more
or less horizontally; the large
FIG. 8. — Stamens and Pistil
of Sweet Pea (Lathyrus). The
stamens are diadelphous, nine of erect white or coloured standard
them being unicecl by their fila- renders them conspicuous, the
ments f, while the uppermost wjngs form a platform on which
one («) ,s free; st, st.gma, c, ^ ingect regts and the ked
encloses the stamens and pistil,
protecting them from rain and the attacks of unbidden pollen-
eating insects. In his book on the fertilization of flowers, Hermann
Miiller distinguishes four types of papilionaceous flowers accord-
ing to the way in which the pollen is applied to the bee:
(l) Those in which the stamens and stigma return within the
carina and thus admit of repeated visits, such are the clovers,
Melilotus and laburnum. (2) Explosive flowers where stamens
FIG. 9. — Broom (Cytisus scoparius), half natural size. (2-7 slightly
reduced.)
1, Calyx. 3, Wing. 5, Monadelphous stamens 6, Pistil.
2, Standard. 4, Keel. and style. 7, Pod.
anci style are confined within the keel under tension and the pressure
of the insect causes their sudden release and the scattering of the
pollen, as in brcom and Genista; these contain no honey but are
visited for the sake of the pollen. (3) The piston-mechanism as in
bird's-foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) , Anthyllis, OnonisandLupinus,
where the pressure of the bee upon the carina while probing for
honey squeezes a narrow ribbon of pollen through the opening at
the tip. The pollen has been shed into the cone-like tip of the
carina, and the heads of the five outer stamens form a piston beneath
Papi-
by
but
Papi-
FIG. 1 1 . — Lomentum
or lomentaceous le-
gume of a species of
FromVines'sSftafeato'TV*. Desmodium. _ Each
Book of Botany, by permis- se£d IS contained in a
sion of Swan, Sonnenschein separate cavity by the
& Co- folding inwards of the
FIG. 10. — Drydehis- walls of the legume at
cent Fruit. The pod equal intervals; the
legume, when ripe.sepa-
rates transversely into
single-seeded portions
or mericarps.
(legume) of the Pea.
r,The dorsal suture ; b,
the ventral ; c, calyx ; s,
seeds.
it, pushing it out at the tip when pressure is exerted on the keel;
a further pressure causes the protrusion of the stigma, which is thus
brought in contact with the insect's belly. (4) The style bears a
brush of hairs which sweeps small quantities of pollen out of the
tip of the carina, as in Lathyrus, Pisum, Vicia and Phaseolus.
Leguminosae is a cosmopolitan order, and often affords a
characteristic feature of the vegetation. Mimosoideae and
Caesalpinioideae are richly developed in the tropical rain forests,
where Papilion-
atae are less con-
spicuous and
mostly herb-
aceous; in sub-
tropical forests
arborescent forms
of all three sub-
orders occur. In
the temperate
regions, tree-
forms are rare — •
thus Mimosoideae
are unrepresented
in Europe; Caes-
alpinioideae are
represented by
species of Cercis,
Gymnocladus and
Gleditschia;
lionat ae
Robinia;
herbaceous
lionatae abound
and penetrate to
the limit of growth
of seed-plants in arctic and high alpine regions. Shrubs and under-
shrubs, such as Ulex, Genista, Cy'asus are a characteristic feature
in Europe and the Mediterranean area. Acacias are an important
component of the evergreen bush-vegetation of Australia,
together with genera of the tribe Podalyrieae of Papilionatae
(Chorizema, Oxylobium, &c.). Astragalus, Oxytropis, Hedysarum,
Onobrychis, and others are characteristic of the steppe-formations
of eastern Europe and western Asia.
The order is a most important one economically. The seeds,
which are rich in starch and proteids, form valuable foods, as in pea,
the various beans, vetch, lentil, ground-nut (Arachis) and others;
seeds of Arachis and others yield oils; those of Physosligma veneno-
sum, the Calabar ordeal bean, contain a strong poison. Many are
useful fodder-plants, as the clovers (Trifolium) (q.v.), Medicago (e.g.
M. saliva, lucerne (q.v.), or alfalfa) ; Melilotus, Vicia, Onobrychis
(0. saliva is sainfoin, q.v.); species of Trifolium, lupine and others
are used as green manure. Many of the tropical trees afford useful
timber; Crotalaria, Sesbania, Aeschynomene and others yield fibre;
species of Acacia and Astragalus yield gum; Copaifera, Hymenaea
and others balsams and resins; dyes are obtained from Genista
(yellow), Indigofera (blue) and others; Haematoxylon campechianum
is logwood; of medicinal value are species of Cassia (senna leaves)
and Astragalus; Tamarindus indica is tamarind, Glycyrrhiza glabra
yields liquorice root. Well-known ornamental trees and shrubs are
Cercis (C. siliquastrum is the Judas-tree), Gleditschia, Genista, Cytisus
(broom), Colutea (C. arborescens is bladder-senna), Robinia and
Acacia; Wistaria sinensis, a native of China, is a well-known
climbing shrub; Phaseolus multiflorus is the scarlet runner; Lathy-
rus (sweet and everlasting peas), Lupinus, Galega (goat's-rue) and
others are herbaceous garden plants. Ceratonia Siliqua is the carob-
tree of the Mediterranean, the pods of which (algaroba or St John's
bread) contain a sweet juicy pulp and are largely used for feeding
stock.
The order is well represented in Britain. Thus Genista tinctoria
is dyers' greenweed, yielding a yellow dye; G. anglica is needle furze;
other shrubs are Ulex (U. europaeus, gorse, furze or whin, U. nanus,
a dwarf species) and Cytisus scoparius, broom. Herbaceous plants
are Ononis spinosa (rest-harrow), Medicago (medick), Melilotus
(melilot) , Trifolium (the clovers), A nthyllis Vulneraria (kidney- vetch),
Lotus corniculatus (bird's-foot trefoil), Astragalus (milk- vetch),
Vicia (vetch, tare) and Lathyrus.
LEGYA. called by the Shans LAI-HKA, a state in the central
division of the southern Shan States of Burma, lying approxi-
mately between 20° 15' and 21° 30' N. and 97° 50' and 98° 30'
E., with an area of 1433 sq. m. The population was estimated
at 30,000 in 1881. On the downfall of King Thibaw civil war
LEH— LEHRS
broke out, and reduced the population to a few hundreds. In
1901 it had risen again to 25,811. About seven-ninths of the
land under cultivation consists of wet rice cultivation. A certain
amount of upland rice is also cultivated, and cotton, sugar-cane
and garden produce make up the rest; recently large orange
groves have been planted in the west of the state. Laihka,
the capital, is noted for its iron-work, both the iron and the
implements made being produced at Pang Long in the west
of the state. This and lacquer-ware are the chief exports, as
also a considerable amount of pottery. The imports are chiefly
cotton piece-goods and salt. The general character of the state
is that of an undulating plateau, with a broad plain near the
capital and along the Nam Teng, which is the chief river, with
a general altitude of a little under 3000 ft.
LEH, the capital of Ladakh, India, situated 4 m. from the
right bank of the upper Indus 11,500 ft. above the sea, 243 m.
from Srinagar and 482 m. from Yarkand. It is the great emporium
of the trade which passes between India, Chinese Turkestan
and Tibet. Here meet the routes leading from the central
Asian khanates, Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan and Lhasa. The
two chief roads from Leh to India pass via Srinagar and through
the Kulu valley respectively. Under a commercial treaty with
the maharaja of Kashmir, a British officer is deputed to Leh
to regulate and control the traders and the traffic, conjointly
with the governor appointed by the Kashmir state. Lying
upon the western border of Tibet, Leh has formed the starting-
point of many an adventurous journey into that country, the
best-known route being that called the Janglam, the great
trade route to Lhasa and China, passing by the Manasarowar
lakes and the Mariam La pass into the valley of the Tsanpo.
Pop. ( 1901 ) 2079. A Moravian mission has long been established
here, with an efficient little hospital. There is also a meteoro-
logical observatory, the most elevated in Asia, where the average
mean temperature ranges from 19-3° in January to 64-4° in
July. The annual rainfall is only 3 in.
LEHMANN, JOHANN GOTTLOB (P-I76?), German miner-
alogist and geologist, was educated at Berlin where he took his
degree of doctor of medicine. He became a teacher of mineralogy
and mining in that city, and was afterwards (1761) appointed
professor of chemistry and director of the imperial museum at
St Petersburg. While distinguished for his chemical and miner-
alogical researches, he may also be regarded as one of the pioneers
in geological investigation. Although he accepted the view of a
universal deluge, he gave in 1756 careful descriptions of the
rocks and stratified formations in Prussia, and introduced the
now familiar terms Zechstein and Rothes Todtliegendes (Roth-
liegende) for subdivisions of the strata since grouped as Permian.
His chief observations were published in Versuch einer Geschichte
von Flotz-Gebiirgen, betreffend deren Entstehung, Lage, darinne
befindliche Metatten, Miner alien und Fossilien (1756). He died
at St Petersburg on the 22nd of January 1767.
LEHMANN, PETER MARTIN ORLA (1810-1870), Danish
statesman, was born at Copenhagen on the isth of May 1810.
Although of German extraction his sympathies were with the
Danish national party and he contributed to the liberal journal
the Kjobenhavnsposlen while he was a student of law at the
university of Copenhagen, and from 1839 to 1842 edited, with
Christian N. David, the Fiidrelandet. In 1842 he was condemned
to three months' imprisonment for a radical speech. He took
a considerable part in the demonstrations of 1848, and was
regarded as the leader of the " Eiderdanen," that is, of the party
which regarded the Eider as the boundary of Denmark, and the
duchy of Schleswig as an integral part of the kingdom. He
entered the cabinet of Count A. W. Moltke in March 1848, and
was employed on diplomatic missions to London and Berlin in
connexion with the Schleswig-Holstein question. He was for
some months in 1849 a prisoner of the Schleswig-Holsteiners at
Gottorp. A member of the Folkething from 1851 to 1853, of
the Landsthing from 1854 to 1870, and from 1856 to 1866 of the
Reichsrat, he became minister of the interior in 1861 in the
cabinet of K. C. Hall, retiring with him in 1863. He died at
Copenhagen on the I3th of September 1870. His book On the
Causes of the Misfortunes of Denmark (1864) went through many
editions, and his posthumous works were published in 4 vols.,
1872-1874.
See Reinhardt, Orla Lehmann og hans samtid (Copenhagen, 1871);
J. Clausen, Af O. Lehmanns Papirer (Copenhagen, 1903).
LEHNIN, a village and health resort of Germany, in the
Prussian province of Brandenburg, situated between two lakes,
which are connected by the navigable Emster with the Havel,
12 m. S.W. from Potsdam, and with a station on the main line
Berlin-Magdeburg, and a branch line to Grosskreuz. Pop. (1900)
2379. It contains the ruins of a Cistercian monastery called
Himmelpfort am See, founded in 1180 and dissolved in 1542;
a handsome parish church, formerly the monasterial chapel,
restored in 1872-1877; and a fine statue of the emperor
Frederick III. Boat-building and saw-milling are the chief .
industries.
See Heffter, Geschichte des Klosters Lehnin (Brandenburg, 1851);
and Sello, Lehnin, Beitrage zur Geschichte von Kloster und Ami
(Berlin, 1881).
The LEHNIN PROPHECY (Lehninsche Weissagung, Vaticinium
Lehninense), a poem in 100 Leonine verses, reputed to be from
the pen of a monk, Hermann of Lehnin, who lived about the
year 1300, made its appearance about 1690 and caused much
controversy. This so-called prophecy bewails the extinction of
the Ascanian rulers of Brandenburg and the rise of the Hohen-
zollern dynasty to power; each successive ruler of the latter
house down to the eleventh generation is described, the date of
the extinction of the race fixed, and the restoration of the Roman
Catholic Church foretold. But as the narrative is only exact in
details down to the death of Frederick William, the great
elector, in 1688, and as all prophecies of the period subsequent to
that time were falsified by events, the poem came to be regarded
as a compilation and the date of its authorship placed about
the year 1684. Andreas Fromm (d. 1685), rector of St Peter's
church in Berlin, an ardent Lutheran, is commonly believed to
have been the forger. This cleric, resisting certain measures
taken by the great elector against the Lutheran pastors, fled the
country in 1668 to avoid prosecution, and having been received
at Prague into the Roman Catholic Church was appointed canon
of Leitmeritz in Bohemia, where he died. During the earlier
part of the igth century the poem was eagerly scanned by the
enemies of the Hohenzollerris, some of whom believed that the
race would end with King Frederick William III., the repre-
sentative of the eleventh generation of the family.
The " Vaticinium " was first published in Lilienthal's Gelehrtes
Preussen (Konigsberg, 1723), ana has been many times reprinted.
See Boost, Die Weissagungen des Monchs Hermann zu Lehnin
(Augsburg, 1848); Hilgenfeld, Die Lehninische Weissagung (Leipzig,
!875); Sabell, Literatur der sogenannten Lehninschen Weissagung
(Heilbronn, 1879) and Kampers, Die Lehninsche Weissagung iiber
das Haus Hohenzollern (Miinster, 1897).
LEHRS, KARL (1802-1878), German classical scholar, was born
at Konigsberg on the 2nd of June 1802. He was of Jewish
extraction, but in 1822 he embraced Christianity. In 1845 he
was appointed professor of ancient Greek philology in Konigsberg
University, which post he held till his death on the gth of June
1878. His most important works are: De Aristarchi Studiis
Homericis (1833, 2nd ed. by A. Ludwich, 1882), which laid a new
foundation for Homeric exegesis (on the Aristarchean lines of
explaining Homer from the text itself) and textual criticism;
Quaestiones Epicae (1837); De Asclepiade Myrleano (1845);
Herodiani Scripta Tria emendation (1848); Popular e Aufsdtze
aus dem Altertum (1856, 2nd much enlarged ed., 1875), his best-
known work; Horatius Flaccus (1869), in which, on aesthetic
grounds, he rejected many of the odes as spurious; Die Pindar-
scholien (1873). Lehrs was a man of very decided opinions, " one
of the most masculine of German scholars "; his enthusiasm for
everything Greek led him to adhere firmly to the undivided
authorship of the Iliad; comparative mythology and the sym-
bolical interpretation of myths he regarded as a species of sacrilege.
See the exhaustive article by L. Friedlander in Allgemeine Deutsche
Biographie, xviii.; E. Kammer in C. Bursian's Jahresbericht (1879);
A. Jung, Zur Erinnerung an Karl Lehrs (progr. Meseritz, 1880);
A. Ludwich edited Lehrs' select correspondence (1894) and his
Kleine Schriften (1902).
LEIBNITZ
385
LEIBNITZ (LEIBNIZ), GOTTFRIED WILHELM (1646-1716),
German philosopher, mathematician and man of affairs, was
born on the ist of July 1646 at Leipzig, where his father was
professor of moral philosophy. Though the name Leibniz,
Leibnitz or Lubeniecz was originally Slavonic, his ancestors
were German, and for three generations had been in the employ-
ment of the Saxon government. Young Leibnitz was sent to
the Nicolai school at Leipzig, but, from 1652 when his father
died, seems to have been for the most part his own teacher.
From his father he had acquired a love of historical study. The
German books at his command were soon read through, and
with the help of two Latin books — the Thesaurus Chronologicus
of Calvisius and an illustrated edition of Livy — he learned Latin
at the age of eight. His father's library was now thrown open
to him, to his great joy, with the permission, " Tolle, lege."
Before he was twelve he could read Latin easily and had begun
Greek; he had also remarkable facility in writing Latin verse.
He next turned to the study of logic, attempting already to
reform its doctrines, and zealously reading the scholastics and
some of the Protestant theologians.
At the age of fifteen, he entered the university of Leipzig as
a law student. His first two years were devoted to philosophy
under Jakob Thomasius, a Neo-Aristotelian, who is looked upon
as having founded the scientific study of the history of philosophy
in Germany. It was at this time probably that he first made
acquaintance with the modern thinkers who had already revolu-
tionized science and philosophy, Francis Bacon, Cardan and
Campanella, Kepler, Galileo and Descartes; and he began to
consider the difference between the old and new ways of regarding
nature. He resolved to study mathematics. It was not, how-
ever, till the summer of 1663, which he spent at Jena under E.
Weigel, that he obtained the instructions of a mathematician of
repute; nor was the deeper study of mathematics entered upon
till his visit to Paris and acquaintance with Huygens many years
later.
The next three years he devoted to legal studies, and in 1666
applied for the degree of doctor of law, with a view to obtaining
the post of assessor. Being refused on the ground of his youth
he left his native town for ever. The doctor's degree refused him
there was at once (November 5, 1666) conferred on him at
Altdorf — the university town of the free city of Nuremberg —
where his brilliant dissertation procured him the immediate
offer of a professor's chair. This, however, he declined, having,
as he said, " very different things in view."
Leibnitz, not yet twenty-one years of age, was already the
author of several remarkable essays. In his bachelor's disserta-
tion De principio individui (1663), he defended the nominalistic
doctrine that individuality is constituted by the whole entity
or essence of a thing; his arithmetical tract De complexionibus ,
published in an extended form under the title De arte combinatoria
(1666), is an essay towards his life-long project of a reformed
symbolism and method of thought; and besides these there are
our juridical essays, including the Nova methodus docendi
discendique juris, written in the intervals of his journey from
Leipzig to Altdorf. This last essay is remarkable, not only for
the reconstruction it attempted of the Corpus Juris, but as
containing the first clear recognition of the importance of the
historical method in law. Nuremberg was a centre of the
Rosicrucians, and Leibnitz, busying himself with writings of
the alchemists, soon gained such a knowledge of their tenets
that he was supposed to be one of the secret brotherhood, and
was even elected their secretary. A more important result of
his visit to Nuremberg was his acquaintance with Johann
Christian von Boyneburg (1622-1672), formerly first minister
to the elector of Mainz, and one of the most distinguished
German statesmen of the day. By his advice Leibnitz printed
his Nova methodus in 1667, dedicated it to the elector, and,
going to Mainz, presented it to him in person. It was thus that
Leibnitz entered the service of the elector of Mainz, at first as
an assistant in the revision of the statute-book, afterwards on
more important work.
The policy of the elector, which the pen of Leibnitz was now
xvi. 13
called upon to promote, was to maintain the security of the
German empire, threatened on the west by the aggressive power
of France, on the east by Turkey and Russia. Thus when in
1669 the crown of Poland became vacant, it fell to Leibnitz to
support the claims of the German candidate, which he did in his
first political writing, Specimen demonstrationum politicarum pro
rege Polonorum eligendo, attempting, under the guise of a Catholic
Polish nobleman, to show by mathematical demonstration that
it was necessary in the interest of Poland that it should have the
count palatine of Neuburg as its king. But neither the diplo-
matic skill of Boyneburg, who had been sent as plenipotentiary
to the election at Warsaw, nor the arguments of Leibnitz were
successful, and a Polish prince was elected to fill the vacant
throne.
A greater danger threatened Germany in the aggressions of
Louis XIV. (see FRANCE: History). Though Holland was in
most immediate danger, the seizure of Lorraine in 1670 showed
that Germany too was threatened. It was in this year that
Leibnitz wrote his Thoughts on Public Safety f in which he urged
the formation of a new " Rheinbund " for the protection of
Germany, and contended that the states of Europe should
employ their power, not against one another, but in the conquest
of the non-Christian world, in which Egypt, " one of the best
situated lands in the world," would fall to France. The plan
thus proposed of averting the threatened attack on Germany
by a French expedition to Egypt was discussed with Boyneburg,
and obtained the approval of the elector. French relations with
Turkey were at the time so strained as to make a breach im-
minent, and at the close of 1671, about the time when the war
with Holland broke out, Louis himself was approached by a
letter from Boyneburg and a short memorial from the pen of
Leibnitz, who attempted to show that Holland itself, as a
mercantile power trading with the East, might be best attacked
through Egypt, while nothing would be easier for France or
would more largely increase her power than the conquest of
Egypt. On February 12, 1672, a request came from the French
secretary of state, Simon Arnauld de Pomponne (1618-1699), tnat
Leibnitz should go to Paris. Louis seems still to have kept the
matter in view, but never granted Leibnitz the personal inter-
view he desired, while Pomponne wrote, " I have nothing
against the plan of a holy war, but such plans, you know, since
the days of St Louis, have ceased to be the fashion." Not yet
discouraged, Leibnitz wrote a full account of his project for the
king,2 and a summary of the same3 evidently intended for
Boyneburg. But Boyneburg died in December 1672, before
the latter could be sent to him. Nor did the former ever reach its
destination. The French quarrel with the Porte was made up,
and the plan of a French expedition to Egypt disappeared from
practical politics till the time of Napoleon. The history of this
scheme, and the reason of Leibnitz's journey to Paris, long
remained hidden in the archives of the Hanoverian library.
It was on his taking possession of Hanover in 1803 that Napoleon
learned, through the Consilium Aegyptiacum, that the idea of a
French conquest of Egypt had been first put forward by a
German philosopher. In the same year there was published in
London an account of the Justa dissertatio 4 of which the British
Government had procured a copy in 1799. But it was only with
the appearance of the edition of Leibnitz's works begun by Onno
Klopp in 1864 that the full history of the scheme was made known.
Leibnitz had other than political ends in view in his visit to
France. It was as the centre of literature and science that Paris
chiefly attracted him. Political duties never made him lose
sight of his .philosophical and scientific interests. At Mainz
he was still busied with the question of the relation between
the old and new methods in philosophy. In a letter to Jakob
1 Bedenken, welchergestalt securitas publica internet et externa und
status praesens jetzigen Umstdnden nach im Reich auf festen Fuss zu
stellen.
2 De expeditione Aegyptiaca regi Franciae proponenda justa dis-
sertatio.
3 Consilium Aegyptiacum.
1 A Summary Account of Leibnitz's Memoir addressed to Lewis we
Fourteenth, &c. [edited by Granville Penn], (London, 1803).
386
LEIBNITZ
Thomasius (1669) he contends that the mechanical explanation
of nature by magnitude, figure and motion alone is not incon-
sistent with the doctrines of Aristotle's Physics, in which he
finds more truth than in the Meditations of Descartes. Yet these
qualities of bodies, he argues in 1668 (in an essay published
without his knowledge under the title Confessio naturae contra
atheislas), require an incorporeal principle, or God, for their
ultimate explanation. He also wrote at this time a defence of the
doctrine of the Trinity against Wissowatius (1669), and an essay
on philosophic style, introductory to an edition of the Anti-
barbarus of Nizolius (1670). Clearness and distinctness alone,
he says, are what makes a philosophic style, and no language is
better suited for this popular exposition than the German.
In 1671 he issued a Hypothesis physica nova, in which, agreeing
with Descartes that corporeal phenomena should be explained
from motion, he carried out the mechanical explanation of nature
by contending that the original of this motion is a fine aether,
similar to light, or rather constituting it, which, penetrating all
bodies in the direction of the earth's axis, produces the pheno-
mena of gravity, elasticity, &c. The first part of the essay, on
concrete motion, was dedicated to the Royal Society of London,
the second, on abstract motion, to the French Academy.
At Paris Leibnitz met with Arnauld, Malebranche and, more
important still, with Christian Huygens. This was pre-eminently
the period of his mathematical and physical activity. Before
leaving Mainz he was able to announce ' an imposing list of dis-
coveries, and plans for discoveries, arrived at by means of his
new logical art, in natural philosophy, mathematics, mechanics,
optics, hydrostatics, pneumatics and nautical science, not to
speak of new ideas in law, theology and politics. Chief among
these discoveries was that of a calculating machine for performing
more complicated operations than that of Pascal — multiplying,
dividing and extracting roots, as well as adding and subtracting.
This machine was exhibited to the Academy of Paris and to the
Royal Society of London, and Leibnitz was elected a fellow of the
latter society in April 1673." In January of this year he had gone
to London as an attache on a political mission from the elector
of Mainz, returning in March to Paris, and while in London
had become personally acquainted with Oldenburg, the secretary
of the Royal Society, with whom he had already corresponded,
with Boyle the chemist and Pell the mathematician. It is from
this period that we must date the impulse that directed him
anew to mathematics. By Pell he had been referred to Mercator's
Logarithmotechnica as already containing some numerical
observations which Leibnitz had thought original on his own
part ; and, on his return to Paris, he devoted himself to the study
of higher geometry under Huygens, entering almost at once upon
the series of investigations which culminated in his discovery
of the differential and integral calculus (see INFINITESIMAL
CALCULUS).
Shortly after his return to Paris in 1673, Leibnitz ceased to
be in the Mainz service any more than in name, but in the same
year entered the employment of Duke John Frederick of Bruns-
wick-Luneburg, with whom he had corresponded for some time.
In 1676 he removed at the duke's request to Hanover, travelling
thither by way of London and Amsterdam. At Amsterdam
he saw and conversed with Spinoza, and carried away with him
extracts from the latter's unpublished Ethica.
For the next forty years, and under three successive princes,
Leibnitz was in the service of the Brunswick family, and his
headquarters were at Hanover, where he had charge of the
ducal library. Leibnitz thus passed into a political atmosphere
formed by the dynastic aims of the typical German state (see
HANOVER; BRUNSWICK). He supported the claim of Hanover
to appoint an ambassador at the congress of Nimeguen (1676) 3
to defend the establishment of primogeniture in the Liineburg
branch of the Brunswick family; and, when the proposal was
1 In a letter to the duke of Brunswick-Luneburg (autumn 1671),
Werke, ed. Klopp, iii. 253 sq.
1 He was made a foreign member, of the French Academy in 1700.
* Caesarini Furstenerh tractatus de jure supremalus ac legationis
principum Germaniae (Amsterdam, 1677); Entretiens de Philarete el
d'Eugene sur le droit d'ambassade (Duisb., 1677).
made to raise the duke of Hanover to the electorate, he had to
show that this did not interfere with the rights of the duke
of Wurttemberg. In 1692 the duke of Hanover was made
elector. Before, and with a view to this, Leibnitz had been
employed by him to write the history of the Brunswick-Luneburg
family, and, to collect material for his history, had undertaken
a journey through Germany and Italy in 1687-1690, visiting and
examining the records in Marburg, Frankfort-on-the-Main,
Munich, Vienna (where he remained nine months), Venice,
Modena and Rome. At Rome he was offered the custodianship
of the Vatican library on condition, of his joining the Catholic
Church.
About this time, too, his thoughts and energies were partly
taken up with the scheme for the reunion of the Catholic and
Protestant Churches. At Mainz he had joined in an attempt
made by the elector and Boyneburg to bring about a reconcilia-
tion, and now, chiefly through the energy and skill of the
Catholic Royas de Spinola, and from the spirit of moderation
which prevailed among the theologians he met with at Hanover
in 1683, it almost seemed as if some agreement might be arrived
at. In 1686 Leibnitz wrote his Systema theologicum,4 in which
he strove to find common ground for Protestants and Catholics
in the details of their creeds. But the English revolution of
1688 interfered with the scheme in Hanover, and it was soon
found that the religious difficulties were greater than had at one
time appeared. In the letters to Leibnitz from Bossuet, the
landgrave of Hessen-Rheinfels, and Madame de Brinon, the
aim is obviously to make converts to Catholicism, not to arrive
at a compromise with Protestantism, and when it was found that
Leibnitz refused to be converted the correspondence ceased.
A further scheme of church union in which Leibnitz was engaged,
that between the Reformed and Lutheran Churches, met with
no better success.
Returning from Italy in 1690, Leibnitz was appointed librarian
at Wolfenbiittel by Duke Anton of Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel.
Some years afterwards began his connexion with Berlin through
his friendship with the electress Sophie Charlotte of Brandenburg
and her mother the princess Sophie of Hanover. He was invited
to Berlin in 1700, and on the nth July of that year the academy
(Akademie der Wissenschaften) he had planned was founded,
with himself as its president for life. In the same year he was
made a privy councillor of justice by the elector of Brandenburg.
Four years before he had received a like honour from the elector
of Hanover, and twelve years afterwards the same distinction
was conferred upon him by Peter the Great, to whom he gave a
plan for an academy at St Petersburg, carried out after the czar's
death. After the death of his royal pupil in 1705 his visits
to Berlin became less frequent and less welcome, and in 1711
he was there for the last time. In the following year he undertook
his fifth and last journey to Vienna, where he stayed till 1714.
An attempt to found an academy of science there was defeated
by the opposition of the Jesuits, but he now attained the honour
he had coveted of an imperial privy councillorship (1712), and,
either at this time or on a previous occasion (1709), was made
a baron of the empire (Reichsfreiherr). Leibnitz returned to
Hanover in September 1714, but found the elector George Louis
had already gone to assume the crown of England. Leibnitz
would gladly have followed him to London, but was bidden
to remain at Hanover and finish his history of Brunswick.
During the last thirty years Leibnitz had been busy with many
matters. Mathematics, natural science,6 philosophy, theology,
history jurisprudence, politics (particularly the French wars
with Germany, and the question of the Spanish succession),
economics and philology, all gained a share of his attention;
almost all of them he enriched with original observations.
His genealogical researches in Italy — through which he
established the common origin of the families of Brunswick and
4 Not published till 1819. It is on this work that the assertion
has been founded that Leibnitz was at heart a Catholic — a supposition
clearly disproved by his correspondence.
• 6 In his Protogaea (1691) he developed the notion of the historical
genesis of the present condition of the earth's surface. Cf. O.
Peschel, Gesch. d. Erdkunde (Munich, 1865), pp. 615 sq.
LEIBNITZ
Este — -were not only preceded by an immense collection of
historical sources, but enabled him to publish materials for a
code of international law.1 The history of Brunswick itself was
the last work of his life, and had covered the period from 768
to 1005 when death ended his labours. But the government,
in whose service and at whose order the work had been carried
out, left it in the archives of the Hanover library till it was
published by Pertz in 1843.
It was in the years between 1690 and 1716 that Leibnitz's
chief philosophical works were composed, and during the first
ten of these years the accounts of his system were, for the most
part, preliminary sketches. Indeed, he never gave a full and
systematic account of his doctrines. His views have to be
gathered from letters to friends, from occasional articles in the
Ada Eruditorum, the Journal des- Savants, and other journals,
and from one or two more extensive works. It is evident,
however, that philosophy had not been entirely neglected in
the years in which his pen was almost solely occupied with other
matters. A letter to the duke of Brunswick, and another to
Arnauld, in 1671, show that he had already reached his new
notion of substance; but it is in the correspondence with Antoine
Arnauld, between 1686 and 1690, that his fundamental ideas
and the reasons for them are for the first time made clear. The
appearance of Locke's Essay in 1690 induced him (1696) to note
down his objections to it, and his own ideas on the same subjects.
In 1703-1704 these were worked out in detail and ready for
publication, when the death of the author whom they criticized
prevented their appearance (first published by Raspe, 1765).
In 1710 appeared the only complete and systematic philosophical
work of his life-time, Essais de The.od.icee sur la bonte de Dieu,
la liberte de I'homme, et I'origine du mat, originally undertaken
at the request of the late queen of Prussia, who had wished a
reply to Bayle's opposition of faith and reason. In 1714 he
wrote, for Prince Eugene of Savoy, a sketch of his system under
the title of La Monadologie, and in the same year appeared his
Principes de la nature et de la grace. The last few years of his
life were perhaps more occupied with correspondence than any
others, and, in a philosophical regard, were chiefly notable for
the letters, which, through the desire of the new queen of England,
he interchanged with Clarke, sur Dieu, I'dme, I'espace, la durie.
Leibnitz died on the i4th of November 1716, his closing years
enfeebled by disease, harassed by controversy, embittered by
neglect; but to the last he preserved the indomitable energy
and power of work to which is largely due the position he holds as,
more perhaps than any one in modern times, a man of almost
universal attainments and almost universal genius. Neither
at Berlin, in the academy which he had founded, nor in London,
whither his sovereign had gone to rule, was any notice taken of
his death. At Hanover, Eckhart, his secretary, was his only
mourner; " he was buried," says an eyewitness, " more like
a robber than what he really was, the ornament of his country." *
Only in the French Academy was the loss recognized, and a
worthy eulogium devoted to his memory (November 13, 1717).
The 2ooth anniversary of his birth was celebrated in 1846, and
in the same year were opened the Koniglichsachsische Gesell-
schaft der Wissenschaften and the Kaiserliche Akademie der
Wissenschaften in Leipzig and Vienna respectively. In 1883,
a statue was erected to him at Leipzig.
Leibnitz possessed a wonderful power of rapid and continuous
work. Even in travelling his time was employed 'in solving
mathematical problems. He is described as moderate in his
habits, quick of temper but easily appeased, charitable in his
judgments of others, and tolerant of differences of opinion,
though impatient of contradiction on small matters. He is
also said to have been fond of money to the point of covetousness;
he was certainly desirous of honour, and felt keenly the neglect
in which his last years were passed.
Philosophy.— The central point in the philosophy of Leibnitz
was only arrived at after many advances and corrections in his
1 Codex juris gentium diplomatics (1693) ; Mantissa codicis juri
gentium diplomatici (1700).
1 Memoirs of John Ker of Ker stand, by himself (1726), i. 118.
opinions. This point is his new doctrine of substance (p. 702),*
and it is through it that unity is given to the succession of occasional
writings, scattered over fifty years", in which he explained his views.
More inclined to agree than to differ with what he read (p. 425),
and borrowing from almost every philosophical system, his own
standpoint is yet most closely related to that of Descartes, partly
as consequence, partly by way of opposition. Cartesianism, Leibnitz
often asserted, is the ante-room of truth, but the ante-room only.
Descartes's separation of things into two heterogeneous substances
only connected by the omnipotence of God, and the more logical
absorption of both by Spinoza into the one divine substance, followed
from an erroneous conception of what the true nature of substance is.
Substance, the ultimate reality, can only be conceived as force.
Hence Leibnitz's metaphysical view of the monads as simple, per-
cipient, self-active beings, the constituent elements of all things, his
physical doctrines of the reality and constancy of force at the same
time that space, matter and motion are merely phenomenal, and
his psychological conception of the continuity and development of
consciousness. In the closest connexion with the same stand his
logical principles of consistency and sufficient reason, and the
method he developed from them, his ethical end of perfection, and
his crowning theological conception of the universe as the best
possible world, and of God both as its efficient cause and its final
harmony.
The ultimate elements of the universe are, according to Leibnitz,
individual centres of force or monads. Why they should be in-
dividual, and not manifestations of one world-force, he never
clearly proves.4 His doctrine of individuality seems to have been
arrived at, not by strict deduction from the nature of force, but
rather from the empirical observation that it is by the manifesta-
tion of its activity that the separate existence of the individual
becomes evident; for his system individuality is as fundamental
as activity. " The monads," he says, " are the very atoms of nature
• — in a word, the elements of things," but, as centres of force, they
have neither parts, extension nor figure (p. 705). Hence their
distinction from the atoms of Democritus and the materialists.
They are metaphysical points or rather spiritual beings whose very
nature it is to act. As the bent bow springs back of itself, so the
monads naturally pass and are always passing into action without
any aid but the absence of opposition (p. 122). Nor do they, like
the atoms, act upon one another (p. 680); the action of each ex-
cludes that of every other. The activity of each is the result of its
own past state, the determinator of its own future (pp. 706, 722).
" The monads have no windows by which anything may go in or
out " (p. 705).
Further, since all substances are of the nature of force, it follows
that — " in imitation of the notion which we have of souls " — they
must contain something analogous to feeling and appetite. It is the
nature of the monad to represent the many in one, and this is per-
ception, by which external events are mirrored internally (p. 438).
Through their own activity the monads mirror the universe (p. 725),
but each in its own way and from its own point of view, that is,
with a more or less perfect perception (p. 127) ; for the Cartesians
were wrong in ignoring the infinite grades of perception, and identi-
fying it with the reflex cognizance of it which may be called apper-
ception. Every monad is thus a microcosm, the universe in little,*
and according to the degree of its activity is the distinctness of its
representation of the universe (p. 709). Thus Leibnitz, borrowing
the Aristotelian term, calls the monads entelechies, because they
have a certain perfection (T& lvre\es) and sufficiency (afrreipictia)
which make them sources of their internal actions and, so to speak,
incorporeal automata (p. 706). That the monads are not pure
entelechies is shown by the differences amongst them. Excluding
all external limitation, they are yet limited by their own nature.
All created monads contain a passive element or •materia prima
(pp. 440, 687, 725), in virtue of which their perceptions are more or
less confused. As the activity of the monad consists in perception,
this is inhibited by the passive principle, so that there arises in the
monad an appetite or tendency to overcome the inhibition and
become more perceptive, whence follows the change from one
perception to another (pp. 706, 714). By the proportion of activity
to passivity in it one monad is differentiated from another. The
greater the amount of activity or of distinct perceptions the more
perfect is the monad; the stronger the element of passivity, the
more confused its perceptions, the less perfect is it (p. 709). The
soul would be a divinity had it nothing but distinct perceptions
(p. 520).
The monad is never without a perception; but, when it has a
number of little perceptions with no means of distinction, a state
similar to that of being stunned ensues, the monade nue being per-
petually in this state (p. 707). Between this and the most distinct
perception there is room for an infinite diversity of nature among
the monads themselves. Thus no one monad is exactly the same
as another; for, were it possible that there should be two identical,
there would be no sufficient reason why God, who brings them into
3 When not otherwise stated, the references are to Erdmann s
edition of the Opera philosophica.
* See Considerations sur la doctrine d'un esprit universel (1702).
6 Cf. Opera, ed. Dutens, II. ii. 20.
388
LEIBNITZ
actual existence, should put one of them at one definite time and
place, the other at a different time and place. This is Leibnitz's
principle of the identity of indiscernibles (pp. 277, 755); by it his
early problem as to the principle of individuation is solved by the
distinction between genus and individual being abolished, and every
individual made sui generis. The principle thus established is
formulated in Leibnitz's law of continuity, founded, he says, on
the doctrine of the mathematical infinite, essential to geometry, and
of importance in physics (pp. 104, 105), in accordance with which
there is neither vacuum nor break in nature, but " everything
takes place by degrees " (p. 392), the different species of creatures
rising by insensible steps from the lowest to the most perfect form
(p- 312).
As in every monad each succeeding state is the consequence of the
preceding, and as it is of the nature of every monad to mirror or
represent the universe, it follows (p. 774) that the perceptive con-
tent of each monad is in " accord or correspondence with that of
every other (cf. p. 127), though this content is represented with
infinitely varying degrees of perfection. This is Leibnitz's famous
doctrine of pre-established harmony, in virtue of which the infinitely
numerous independent substances of which the world is composed
are related to each other and form one universe. It is essential to
notice that it proceeds from the very nature of the monads as per-
cipient, self-acting beings, and not from an arbitrary determination
of the Deity.
From this harmony of self-determining percipient units Leibnitz
has to explain the world of nature and mind. As everything that
really exists is of the nature of spiritual or metaphysical points
(p. 126), it follows that space and matter in the ordinary sense can
only have a phenomenal existence (p. 745), being dependent not on
the nature of the monads themselves but on the way in which they
are perceived. Considering that several things exist at the same
time and in a certain order of coexistence, and mistaking this con-
stant relation for something that exists outside of them, the mind
forms the confused perception of space (p. 768). But space and
time are merely relative, the former an order of coexistences, the
latter of successions (pp. 682, 752). Hence not only the secondary
qualities of Descartes and Locke, but their so-called primary qualities
as well, are merely phenomenal (p. 445). The monads are really
without position or distance from each other; but, as we perceive
several simple substances, there is for us an aggregate or extended
mass. Body is thus active extension (pp. 110, in). The unity of
the aggregate depends entirely on our perceiving the monads com-
posing it together. There is no such thing as an absolute vacuum
or empty space, any more than there are indivisible material units
or atoms from which all things are built up (pp. 126, 186, 277).
Body, corporeal mass, or, as Leibnitz calls it, to distinguish it from
the materia prima of which every monad partakes (p. 440), materia
secunda, is thus only a " phenomenon bene fundatum " (p. 436).
It is not a substantia but substantiae or substantiation (p. 745).
While this, however, is the only view consistent with Leibnitz's
fundamental principles, and is often clearly stated by himself, he
also speaks at other times of the materia secunda as itself a composite
substance, and of a real metaphysical bond between soul and body.
But these expressions occur chiefly in the letters to des Bosses, in
which Leibnitz is trying to reconcile his views with the doctrines of
the Roman Catholic Church, especially with that of the real presence
in the Eucharist, and are usually referred to by him as doctrines of
faith or as hypothetical (see especially p. 680). The true vinculum
substantiate is not the materia secunda, which a consistent develop-
ment of Leibnitz's principles can only regard as phenomenal, but the
materia prima, through which the monads are individualized and
distinguished and their connexion rendered possible. And Leibnitz
seems to recognize that the opposite assumption is inconsistent
with his cardinal metaphysical view of the monads as the only
realities.
From Leibnitz's doctrine of force as the ultimate reality it follows
that his view of nature must be throughout dynamical. And though
his project of a dynamic, or theory of natural philosophy, was never
carried put, the outlines of his own theory and his criticism of the
mechanical physics of Descartes are known to us. The whole dis-
tinction between the two lies in the difference between the mechanical
and the dynamical views of nature. Descartes started from the
reality of extension as constituting the nature of material substance,
and found in magnitude, figure and mption the explanation of the
material universe. Leibnitz, too, admitted the mechanical view of
nature as giving the laws of corporeal phenomena (p. 438), applying
also to everything that takes place in animal organisms,1 even the
human body (p. 777). But, as phenomenal, these laws must find
their explanation in metaphysics, and thus in final causes (p. 155).
All things, he says (in his Specimen Dynamicum), can be explained
either by efficient or by final causes. But the latter method is not
appropriate to individual occurrences,* though it must be applied
when the laws of mechanism themselves need explanation (p. 678).
For Descartes's doctrine of the constancy of the quantity of motion
1 The difference between an organic and an inorganic body con-
sists, he says, in this, that the former is a machine even in its smallest
parts.
2 Opera, ed. Dutens, iii. 321.
(i.e. momentum) in the world Leibnitz substitutes the principle
of the conservation of vis viva, and contends that the Cartesian
position that motion is measured by velocity should be superseded
by the law that moving force (vis matrix) is measured by the square
of the velocity (pp. 192, 193). The long controversy raised by this
criticism was really caused by the ambiguity of the terms employed.
The principles held by Descartes and Leibnitz were both correct,
though different, and their conflict only apparent. Descartes's
principle is now enunciated as the conservation of momentum, that
of Leibnitz as the conservation of energy. Leibnitz further criticizes
the Cartesian view that the mind can alter the direction of motion
though it cannot initiate it, and contends that the quantity of " vis
directiva," estimated between the same parts, is constant (p. 108) —
a position developed in his statical theorem for determining geome-
trically the resultant of any number of forces acting at a point.
Like the monad, body, which is its analogue, has a passive and an
active element. The former is the capacity of resistance, .and
includes impenetrability and inertia; the latter is active force
(pp. 250, 687). Bodies, too, like the monads, are self-contained
activities, receiving no impulse from without — it is only by an
accommodation to ordinary language that we speak of them as doing
so — but moving themselves in harmony with each other (p. 250).
The psychology of Leibnitz is chiefly developed in the Nouveaux
essais sur Ventendement humain, written in answer to Locke's
famous Essay, and criticizing it chapter by chapter. In these essays
he worked out a theory of the origin and development of knowledge
in harmony with his metaphysical views, and thus without Locke's
implied assumption of the mutual influence of soul and body.
When one monad in an aggregate perceives the others so clearly
that they are in comparison with it bare monads (monades nues), it
is said to be the ruling monad of the aggregate, not because it actu-
ally does exert an influence over the rest, but because, being in close
correspondence with them, and yet having so much clearer percep-
tion, it seems to do so (p. 683). This monad is called the entelechy
or soul of the aggregate or body, and as such mirrors the aggregate
in the first place and the universe through it (p. 710). Each soul
or entelechy is surrounded by an infinite number of monads forming
its body (p. 714); soul and body together make a living being, and,
as their laws are in perfect harmony — a harmony established be-
tween the whole realm of final causes and that of efficient causes
(p. 714) — we have the same result as if one influenced the other.
This is further explained by Leibnitz in his well-known illustration
of the different ways in which two clocks may keep exactly the same
time. The machinery of the one may actually move that of the
other, or whenever one moves the mechanician may make a similar
alteration in the other, or they may have been so perfectly con-
structed at first as to continue to correspond at every instant with-
out any further influence (pp. 133, 134). The first way represents the
common (Locke's) theory of mutual influence, the second the
method of the occasionalists, the third that of pre-established
harmony. Thus the body does not act on the soul in the production
of cognition, nor the soul on the body in the production of motion.
The body acts just as if it had no soul, the soul as if it had no body
(p. 711). Instead, therefore, of all knowledge coming to us directly
or indirectly through the bodily senses, it is all developed by the
soul's own activity, and sensuous perception is itself but a confused
kind of cognition. Not a certain select class of our ideas only (as
Descartes held), but all pur ideas, are innate, though only worked
up into actual cognition in the development of knowledge (p. 212).
To the aphorism made use of by Locke, " Nihil est in intellectu
quod non prius fuerit in sensu," must be added the clause, " nisi
intellectus ipse " (p. 223). The soul at birth is not comparable to
a tabula rasa, but rather to an unworked block of marble, the hidden
veins of which already determine the form it is to assume in the
hands of the sculptor (p. 196). Nor, again, can the soul ever be
without perception; for it has no other nature than that of a
percipient active being (p. 246). Apparently dreamless sleep is
to be accounted for by unconscious perception (p. 223) ; and it is by
such insensible perceptions that Leibnitz explains his doctrine of
pre-established harmony (p. 197).
In the human soul perception is developed into thought, and there
is thus an infinite though gradual difference between it and the mere
monad (p. 464). As all knowledge is implicit in the soul, it follows
that its perfection depends on the efficiency of the instrument by
which it is developed. Hence the importance, in Leibnitz's system,
of the logical principles and method, the consideration of which
occupied him at intervals throughout his whole career.
There are two kinds of truths — (i) truths of reasoning, and (2)
truths of fact (pp. 83, 99, 707). The former rest on the principle
of identity (or contradiction) or of possibility, in virtue of which
that is false which contains a contradiction, and that true which
is contradictory to the false. The latter rest on the principle of
sufficient reason or of reality (compossibilite) , according to which no
fact is true unless there be a sufficient reason why it should be so and
not otherwise (agreeing thus with the principtum melioris or final
cause). God alone, the purely active monad, has an a priori know-
ledge of the latter class of truths; they have their source in the
human mind only in so far as it mirrors the outer world, i.e. in
its passivity, whereas the truths of reason have their source in our
mind in itself or in its activity.
LEIBNITZ
389
Both kinds of truths fall into two classes, primitive and deriva-
tive. The primitive truths of fact are, as Descartes held, those of
internal experience, and the derivative truths are inferred from them
in accordance with the principle of sufficient reason, by their agree-
ment with our perception of the world as a whole. They are thus
reached by probable arguments — a department of logic which Leib-
nitz was the first to bring into prominence (pp. 84, 164, 168, 169, 343).
The primitive truths of reasoning are identical (in later terminology,
analytical) propositions, the derivative truths being deduced from
them by the principle of contradiction. The part of his logic on
which Leibnitz laid the greatest stress was the separation of these
rational cognitions into their simplest elements — for he held that
the root-notions (cogitationes primae) would be found to be few in
number (pp. 92, 93) — and the designation of them by universal
characters or symbols,1 composite notions being denoted by the
formulae formed by the union of several definite characters, and
judgments by the relation of aequipollence among these formulae,
so as to reduce the syllogism to a calculus. This is the main idea
of Leibnitz's " universal characteristic," never fully worked out
by him, which he regarded as one of the greatest discoveries of
the age. An incidental result of its adoption would be the intro-
duction of a universal symbolism of thought comparable to the
symbolism of mathematics and intelligible m all languages (cf. p.
356). But the great revolution it would effect would chiefly consist
in this, that truth and falsehood would be no longer matters of
opinion but of correctness or error in calculation,2 (pp. 83, 84,89, 93).
The old Aristotelian analytic is not to be superseded; but it is to be
supplemented by this new method, for of itself it is but the ABC of
logic.
But the logic of Leibnitz is an art of discovery (p. 85) as well as
of proof, and, as such, applies both to the sphere of reasoning and to
that of fact. In the former it has by attention to render explicit
what is otherwise only implicit, and by the intellect to introduce
order into the a priori truths of reason, so that one may follow from
another and they may constitute together a monde intellectuel. To
this art of orderly combination Leibnitz attached the greatest im-
portance, and to it one of his earliest writings was devoted. Similarly,
m the sphere of experience, it is the business of the art of discovery
to find out and classify the primitive facts or data, referring every
other fact to them as its sufficient reason, so that new truths of
experience may be brought to light.
As the perception of the monad when clarified becomes thought,
so the appetite of which all monads partake is raised to will, their
spontaneity to freedom, in man (p. 669). The will is an effort or
tendency to that which one finds good (p. 251), and is free only in
the sense of being exempt from external control3 (pp. 262, 513, 521),
for it must always have a sufficient reason for its action determined
by what seems good to it. The end determining the will is pleasure
(p. 269), and pleasure is the sense of an increase of perfection (p.
670). A will guided by reason will sacrifice transitory and pursue
constant pleasures or happiness, and in this weighing of pleasures
consists true wisdom. Leibnitz, like Spinoza, says that freedom
consists in following reason, servitude in following the passions
(p. 669), and that the passions proceed from confused perceptions
(pp. 188, 269). In love one finds joy in the happiness of another;
and from love follow justice and law. " Our reason," says Leibnitz,4
" illumined by the spirit of God, reveals the law of nature," and
with it positive law must not conflict. Natural law rises from the
strict command to avoid offence, through the maxim of equity
which gives to each his due, to that of probity or piety (honeste
yivere), — the highest ethical perfection,— which presupposes a belief
in God, providence and a future life.5 Moral immortality — not
merely the simple continuity which belongs to every monad — comes
from God having provided that the changes of matter will not make
man lose his individuality (pp. 126, 466).
Leibnitz thus makes the existence of God a postulate of morality
as well as necessary for the realization of the monads. It is in the
Theodicee that his theology is worked out and his view of the universe
as the best possible world defended. In it he contends that faith
and reason are essentially harmonious (pp. 402, 479), and that
nothing can be received as an article of faith which contradicts an
eternal truth, though the ordinary physical order may be superseded
by a higher.8
The ordinary arguments for the being of God are retained by
Leibnitz in a modified form (p. 375). Descartes's ontological proof
is supplemented by the clause that God as the ens a se must either
1 Different symbolic systems were proposed by Leibnitz at
different periods; cf. Kvet, Leibnitzens Logik (1857), p. 37.
2 The places at which Leibnitz anticipated the modern theory of
logic mainly due to Boole are pointed out in Mr Venn's Symbolic
Logic (1881).
* Hence the difference of his determinism from that of Spinoza,
though Leibnitz too says in one place that " it is difficult enough
to distinguish the actions of God from those of the creatures "
(Werke, ed. Pertz, 2nd ser. vol. i. p. 160).
4 Opera omnia, ed. Dutens, IV. lii. 282.
5 Ibid. IV. iii. 295. Cf. Bluntschli, Gesch. d. allg. Staatsrechts u.
Politik (1864), pp. 143 sqq.
6 P. 480; cf. Werke. ed. Pertz, 2nd ser. vol. i. pp. 158,159.
exist or be impossible (pp. 80, 177, 708); in the cosmological proof
he passes from the infinite series of finite causes to their sufficient
reason which contains all changes in the series necessarily in itself
(pp. 147, 708) ; and he argues ideologically from the existence of
harmony among the monads without any mutual influence to God
as the author of this harmony (p. 430).
In these proofs Leibnitz seems to have in view an extramundane
power to whom the monads owe their reality, though such a concep--
tion evidently breaks the continuity and harmony of his system;
and can only be externally connected with it. But he also speaks
in one place at any rate7 of God as the " universal harmony "; and
the historians Erdmann and Zeller are of opinion that this is the
only sense in which his system can be consistently theistic. Yet
it would seem that to assume a purely active and therefore perfect
monad as the source of all things is in accordance with the principle
of continuity and with Leibnitz's conception of the gradation of
existences. In this sense he sometimes speaks of God as the first or
highest of the monads (p. 678), and of created substances proceeding
from Him continually by " figurations " (p. 708) or by " a sort of
emanation as we produce our thoughts."8
The positive properties or perfections of the monads, Leibnitz
holds, exist eminenter, i.e. without the limitation that attaches td
created monads (p. 716), in God — their perception as His wisdom or
intellect, and their appetite as His absolute will or goodness (p. 654) ';
while the absence of all limitation is the divine independence or
power, which again consists in this, that the possibility of things'
depends on His intellect, their reality on His will (p. 506). The
universe in its harmonious order is thus the realization of the divine
end, and as such must be the best possible (p. 506). The teleology
of Leibnitz becomes necessarily a Theodicee. God created a world
to manifest and communicate His perfection (p. 524), and, in chops-
ing this world out of the infinite number that exist in the region
of ideas (p. 515), was guided by the principium melioris (p. 506).
With this thoroughgoing optimism Leibnitz has to reconcile the
existence of evil in the best of all possible worlds.9 With this end
in view he distinguishes (p. 655) between (i) metaphysical evil or
imperfection, which is unconditionally willed by God as essential
to created beings; (2) physical evil, such as pain, which is con-
ditionally willed by God as punishment or as a means to greater
good (cf. p. 510); and (3) moral evil, in which the great difficulty
lies, and which Lejbnitz makes various attempts to explain. He says
that it was merely permitted not willed by God (p. 655), and, that
being obviously no explanation, adds that it was permitted becaus^
it was foreseen that the world with evil would nevertheless be better
than any other possible world (p. 350). He also speaks of the evil
as a mere set-off to the good in the world, which it increases by con-
trast (p. 149), and at other times reduces moral to metaphysical evil
by giving it a merely negative existence, or says that their evil
actions are to be referred to men alone, while it is only the power
of action that comes from God, and the power of action is good
(p. 658). , '
The great problem of Leibnitz's Theodicee thus remains unsolved.
The suggestion that evil consists in a mere imperfection, like his
idea of the monads proceeding from God by a continual emanation,
was too bold and too inconsistent with his immediate apologetic
aim to be carried out by him. Had he done so his theory would
have transcended the independence of the monads with which it
started, and found a deeper unity in the world than that resulting
from the somewhat arbitrary assertion that the monads reflect the
universe.
The philosophy of Leibnitz, in the more systematic and abstract
form it received at the hands of Wolf, ruled the schools of Germany
for nearly a century, and largely determined the character of the
critical philosophy by which it was superseded. On it Baumgarteri
laid the foundations of a science of aesthetic. Its treatment 'of
theological questions heralded the German Aufkldrung. And on
many special points — in its physical doctrine of the conservation of
force, its psychological hypothesis of unconscious perception, its
attempt at a logical symbolism — it has suggested ideas fruitful for
the progress of science.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — (i) Editions: Up to 1900 no attempt had beeri
made to publish the complete works. Several editions existed, but
a vast mass of MSS. (letters, &c.) remained only roughly classified
in the Hanover library. The chief editions were: (i) L. Dutens
(Geneva, 1768), called Opera Omnia, but far from complete r (2)
G. H. Pertz, Leibnizens gesammelte Werke (Berlin, 1843-1863)
(ist ser. History, 4 vols. ; 2nd ser. Philosophy, vol. i. correspondence:
with Arnauld, &c., ed. C. L. Grotefend; 3rd ser. Mathematics,
7 vols., ed. C. J. Gerhardt); (3) Foucher de Careil (planned in
20 vols., 7 published, Paris, 1859-1875), the same editor having
previously published Lettres et opuscules inedits de Leibniz (Paris,
1854-1857); (4) Onno Klopp, Die Werke von Leibniz gemass seinent
Handschriftlichen Nachlasse in der Koniglichen Bibliothek zu Hannover
(ist series, Historico-Political and Political, 10 vols., 1864-1877).
The (Euvres de Leibnitz, by A. Jacques (2 vols., Paris, 1846) also
7 Werke, ed. Klopp, iii. 259; cf. Op. phil., p. 716.
8 Werke, ed. Pertz, 2nd ser. vol. i. p. 167.
9 " Si c'est ici le meilleur des mondes possibles, que sont done les
autres? " — Voltaire, Candide, ch. vi.
39°
LEICESTER, EARLS OF
deserves mention. The philosophical writings had been published
by Raspe (Amsterdam and Leipzig, 1765), by J. E. Erdmann,
Leibnitii opera philos. quae extant Latina, Gallica, Germanica, omnia
(Berlin, 1840), by P. Janet (2 vols., Paris, 1866, 2nd ed. 1900),
and the fullest by C. J. Gerhardt, Die Philosophischen Schriften von
G. W. Leibniz (7 vols., 1875-1890); cf. also Die kleineren philos.
wichtigeren Schriften (trans, with commentary, J. H. von Kirchmann,
1879). The German works had also been partly published separately ;
G. E. Guhrauer (Berlin, 1838-1840). Of the letters various collec-
tions had been published up to 1900, e.g.: C. J. Gerhardt (Halle,
1860) and Der Briefwechsel von G. W. Leibnitz mil Mathemalikern
(1899); Corrispondenza tra L. A. Muratori e G. Leibnitz (1899);
and cf . Neue Beitrage zum Briefwechsel zwischen D. E. Jablonsky
und G. W. Leibnitz (1899).
In 1900 it was decided by scholars in Berlin and Paris that a
really complete edition should be published, and with this object
four German and four French critics were entrusted with the pre-
liminary task of correlating the MSS. in the royal library at Hanover.
This process resulted in the preparation of the Kritischer Katalog
der Leibnitz-Handschriften zur Vorbereitung der interakademischen
Leibnitz- Ausgabe unternemmen (1908), and also in certain other
preliminary publications, e.g. L. Couturat, Opuscules et fragments
inedits (1903); E. Gerland, Leibnizens nachgelassene Schriften
physikalischen, mechanischen und technischen Inhalts (1906); Jean
Baruzi, Leibniz (1909), containing unedited MSS. and a sketch-
biography; cf. the same author's Leibniz et V organisation religieuse
de la terre (1907).
Translations. — Of the Sy sterna Theologicum (1850, C. W. Russell),
of the correspondence with Clarke (1717); Works, by G. M. Duncan
(New Haven, 1890); of the Nouveaux Essais, by A. G. Langley
(London, 1894); the Monadology and other Writings, by R. Latta
(Oxford, 1898).
Biographical. — The materials for the life of Leibnitz, in addition
to his own works, are the notes of Eckhart (not published till 1779)1
the Eloge by Fontenelle (read to the French Academy in 1717), the
" Eulogium," by Wolf, in the Acta Eruditorium for July 1717, and
the " Supplementum " to the same by Feller, published m his
Otium Hannover anum (Leipzig, 1718). The best biography is that of
G. E. Guhrauer, G. W. Freiherr von Leibnitz (2 vols., Breslau, 1842;
Nachlrage, Breslau, 1846). A shorter Life of G. W. von Leibnitz, on
the Basis of the German Work of Guhrauer, has been published by J. M.
Mackie (Boston, 1845). More recent works are those of L. Grote,
Leibniz und seine Zeit (Hanover, 1869); E. Pfleiderer, Leibniz als
Patriot, Staatsmann, und Bttdungstrager (Leipzig, 1870); the
slighter volume of F. Kirchner, G. W. Leibniz: sein Leben und
Denken (Kothen, 1876); Kuno Fischer, vol. iii. in Gesch. der neuern
Philosophic (4th ed., 1902).
Critical.— -The monographs and essays on Leibnitz are too numer-
ous to mention, but reference may be made to Feuerbach, Darstettung,
Entwicklung, und Kritik der Leibnitz' schen Phil. (2nded., Leipzig,
1844); Nourrisson, La Philosophic de Leibniz (Paris, 1860); R.
Zimmermann, Leibnitz und Herbart: eine Vergleichung ihrer Mona-
dologieen (Vienna, 1849); O. Caspari, Leibniz' Philosophic beleuchtet
vom Gesichtspunkt der physikalischen Grundbegriffe von Kraft und
Staff (Leipzig, 1870); G. Hartenstein, "Locke's Lehre von der
menschl. Erk. in Vergl. mit Leibniz's Kritik derselben dargestellt,"
in the Abhandl. d. philol.-hist. Cl. d. K. Sachs. Gesetts. d. Wiss.,
vol. iv. (Leipzig, 1865); G. Class, Die metaph. Voraussetzungen des
Leibnitzischen Determinismus (Tubingen, 1874); F. B. KvSt, Leib-
nitzens Logik (Prague, 1857); the essays on Leibnitz in Trendelen-
burg's Beitrage, vols. ii. and iii. (Berlin, 1855, 1867); L. Neff, Leibniz
als Sprachforscher (Heidelberg, 1870-1871); J. Schmidt, Leibniz
und Baumgarten (Halle, 1875); D. Nolen, La Critique de Kant et
la Metaphysique de Leibniz (Paris, 1875); and the exhaustive work
of A. Pichler, D ie Theologie des Leibniz (Munich, 1869-1870). Among
the more recent works are: C. Braig, Leibniz: sein Leben und die
Bedeutung seiner Lehre (1907); E. Cassirer, Leibniz' System in seinem
wissenschaftlichen Grundlagen (1902); L. Couturat, La Logique de
Leibniz d'apres des documents inedits (1901); L. Davilld, Leibniz
historien (1909); Kuno Fischer, G. W. Leibniz (1889); R. B.
Frenzel, Der Associationsbegriff bei Leibniz (1898); R. Herbertz,
Die Lehre vom Unbewussten im System des Leibniz (1905); H. Hoff-
mann, Die Leibniz' sche Religions-philosophic in ihrer geschichtlichen
Stellung (1903); W. Kabitz, Die Philosophic des jungen Leibniz
(1909), a study of the development of the Leibnitzian system;
H. L. Koch, Materie und Organismus bei Leibniz (1908); G. Niel,
L'Optimisme de Leibniz (1888); Bertrand A. W. Russell, A Critical
Exposition of the Philosophy of Leibniz (1900) ; F. Schmoger, Leibniz
in seiner Stellung zur tellurischen Physik (1901); A. Silberstein,
Leibnizens Apriorismus in Verhdltnis zu seiner Metaphysik (1904);
Stein, Leibniz und Spinoza (1890); F. Thilly, Leibnizens Streit gegen
Locke in Ansehung der angeborenen Ideen (1891); R. Urbach,
Leibnizens Rechtferligung des Uebels in der besten Welt (1901); W.
Werckmeister, Der Leibnizsche Substanzbegriff (1899); F. G. F.
VVernicke, Leibniz' Lehre von der Freiheit des menschlichen Willens
(1890). (W. R. So.)
LEICESTER, EARLS OF. The first holder of this English
earldom belonged to the family of Beaumont, although a certain
Saxon named Edgar has been described as the ist earl of Leicester.
Robert de Beaumont (d. 1118) is frequently but erroneously
considered to have received the earldom from Henry I., about
1107; he had, however, some authority in the county of Leicester
and his son Robert was undoubtedly earl of Leicester in 1131.
The 3rd Beaumont earl, another Robert, was also steward of
England, a dignity which was attached to the earldom of
Leicester from this time until 1399. The earldom reverted to
the crown when Robert de Beaumont, the 4th earl, died in
January 1204.
In 1207 Simon IV., count of Montfort (q.v.), nephew and heir
of Earl Robert, was confirmed in the possession of the earldom
by King John, but it was forfeited when his son, the famous
Simon de Montfort, was attainted and was killed at Evesham in
August 1265. Henry III.'s son Edmund, earl of Lancaster, was
also earl of Leicester and steward of England, obtaining these
offices a few months after Earl Simon's death. Edmund's sons,
Thomas and Henry, both earls of Lancaster, and his grandson
Henry, duke of Lancaster, in turn held the earldom, which then
passed to a son-in-law of Duke Henry, William V., count of
Holland (c. 1327-1389), and then to another and more celebrated
son-in-law, John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. When in 1399
Gaunt's son became king as Henry IV. the earldom was merged
in the crown.
In 1564 Queen Elizabeth created her favourite, Lord Robert
Dudley, earl of Leicester. The new earl was a son of John Dudley,
duke of Northumberland; he left no children, or rather none of
undoubted legitimacy, and when he died in September 1588 the
title became extinct.
In 1618 the earldom of Leicester was revived in favour of
Robert Sidney, Viscount Lisle, a nephew of the late earl and a
brother of Sir Philip Sidney; it remained in this family until
the death of Jocelyn (1682-1743), the 7th earl of this line, in
July 1743. Jocelyn left no legitimate children, but a certain
John Sidney claimed to be his son and consequently to be 8th
earl of Leicester.
In 1744, the year after Jocelyn's death, Thomas Coke, Baron
Lovel (c. 1695-1759), was made earl of Leicester, but the title
became extinct on his death in April 1759. The next family to
hold the earldom was that of Townshend, George Townshend
(1755-1811) being created earl of Leicester in 1784. In 1807
George succeeded his father as 2nd marquess Townshend, and
when his son George Ferrars Townshend, the 3rd marquess
(1778-1855), died in December 1855 the earldom again became
extinct. Before this date, however, another earldom of Leicester
was in existence. This was created in 1837 in favour of Thomas
William Coke, who had inherited the estates of his relative
Thomas Coke, earl of Leicester. To distinguish his earldom from
that held by the Townshends Coke was ennobled as earl of
Leicester of Holkham; his son Thomas William Coke (1822-
1909) became 2nd earl of Leicester in 1842, and the latter's
son Thomas William (b. 1848) became 3rd earl.
See G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage, vol. v. (1893).
LEICESTER, ROBERT DUDLEY, EARL OF (c. 1531-1588).
This favourite of Queen Elizabeth came of an ambitious family.
They were not, indeed, such mere upstarts as their enemies
loved to represent them; for Leicester's grandfather — the
notorious Edmund Dudley who was one of the chief instruments
of Henry VII. 's extortions— was descended from a younger
branch of the barons of Dudley. But the love of power was a
passion which seems to have increased in them with each succeed-
ing generation, and though the grandfather was beheaded by
Henry VIII. for his too devoted services in the preceding reign,
the father grew powerful enough in the days of Edward VI.
to trouble the succession to the crown. This was that John
Dudley, duke of Northumberland, who contrived the marriage
of Lady Jane Grey with his own son Guildford Dudley, and
involved both her and her husband in a common ruin with
himself. Robert Dudley, the subject of this article, was an elder
brother of Guildford, and shared at that time in the misfortunes ,
of the whole family. Having taken up arms with them against
Queen Mary, he was sent to the Tower, and was sentenced to
death; but the queen not only pardoned and restored him to
LEICESTER, EARLS OF
391
liberty, but appointed him master of the ordnance. On the
accession of Elizabeth he was also made master of the horse. He
was then, perhaps, about seven-and-twenty, and was evidently
rising rapidly in the queen's favour. At an early age he had been
married to Amy, daughter of Sir John Robsart. The match had
been arranged by his father, who was very studious to provide in
this way for the future fortunes of his children, and the wedding
was graced by the presence of King Edward. But if it was not a
love match, there seems to have been no positive estrangement
between the couple. Amy visited her husband in the Tower
during his imprisonment; but afterwards when, under the new
queen, he was much at court, she lived a good deal apart from
him. He visited her, however, at times, in different parts of the
country, and his expenses show that he treated her liberally.
In September 1560 she was staying at Cumnor Hall in Berkshire,
the house of one Anthony Forster, when she met her death
under circumstances which certainly aroused suspicions of foul
play. It is quite clear that her death had been surmised some
time before as a thing that would remove an obstacle to Dudley's
marriage with the queen, with whom he stood in so high favour.
We may take it, perhaps, from Venetian sources, that she was
then in delicate health, while Spanish state papers show further
that there were scandalous rumours of a design to poison her;
which were all the more propagated by malice after the event.
The occurrence, however, was explained as owing to a fall down
stairs in which she broke her neck; and the explanation seems
perfectly adequate to account for all we know about it. Certain
it is that Dudley continued to rise in the queen's favour. She
made him a Knight of the Garter, and bestowed on him the castle
of Kenilworth, the lordship of Denbigh and other lands of very
great value in Warwickshire and in Wales. In September 1564
she created him baron of Denbigh, and immediately afterwards
earl of Leicester. In the preceding month, when she visited
Cambridge, she at his request addressed the university in Latin.
The honours shown him excited jealousy, especially as it was
well known that he entertained still more ambitious hopes,
which the queen apparently did not altogether discourage. The
earl of Sussex, in opposition to him, strongly favoured a match
with the archduke Charles of Austria. The court was divided,
and, while arguments were set forth on the one side against the
queen's marrying a subject, the other party insisted strongly
on the disadvantages of a foreign alliance. The queen, however,
was so far from being foolishly in love with him that in 1 564 she
recommended him as a husband for Mary Queen of Scots. But
this, it was believed, was only a blind, and it may be doubted
how far the proposal was serious. After his creation as earl of
Leicester great attention was paid to him both at home and
abroad. The university of Oxford made him their chancellor,
and Charles IX. of France sent him the order of St Michael.
A few years later he formed an ambiguous connexion with the
baroness dowager of Sheffield, which was maintained by the lady,
if not with truth at least with great plausibility, to have been a
valid marriage, though it was concealed from the queen. Her
own subsequent conduct, however, went far to discredit her
statements; for she married again during Leicester's life, when
he, too, had found a new conjugal partner. Long afterwards,
in the days of James I., her son, Sir Robert Dudley, a man of
extraordinary talents, sought to establish his legitimacy; but
his suit was suddenly brought to a stop, the witnesses discredited
and the documents connected with it sealed up by an order of
the Star Chamber.
In J575 Queen Elizabeth visited the earl at Kenilworth, where
she was entertained for some days with great magnificence.
The picturesque account of the event given by Sir Walter Scott
has made every one familiar with the general character of the
scene. Next year Walter, earl of Essex, died in Ireland, and
Leicester's subsequent marriage with his widow again gave
rise to very serious imputations against him. For report said
that he had had two children by her during her husband's
absence in Ireland, and, as the feud between the two earls was
notorious, Leicester's many enemies easily suggested that he
lad poisoned his rival. .This marriage, at all events, tended
to Leicester's discredit and was kept secret at first; but it was
revealed to the queen in 1579 by Simier, an emissary of the duke
of Alenfon, to whose projected match with Elizabeth the earl
seemed to be the principal obstacle. The queen showed great
displeasure at the news, and had some thought, it is said, of
committing Leicester to the Tower, but was dissuaded from
doing so by his rival the earl of Sussex. He had not, indeed,
favoured the Alengon marriage, but otherwise he had sought
to promote a league with France against Spain. He and Bur-
leigh had listened to proposals from France for the conquest
and division of Flanders, and they were in the secret about
the capture of Brill. When Alencon actually arrived, indeed,
in August 1579, Dudley being in disgrace, snowed himself for
a time anti-French; but he soon returned to his former policy.
He encouraged Drake's piratical expeditions against the Spaniards
and had a share in the booty brought home. In February 1582
he, with a number of other noblemen and gentlemen, escorted
the duke of Alengon on his return to Antwerp to be invested
with the government of the Low Countries. In 1584 he in-
augurated an association for the protection of Queen Elizabeth
against conspirators. About this time there issued from the
press the famous pamphlet, supposed to have been the work
of Parsons the Jesuit, entitled Leicester's Commonwealth, which
was intended to suggest that the English constitution was
subverted and the government handed over to one who was
at heart an atheist and a traitor, besides being a man of in-
famous life and morals. The book was ordered to be suppressed
by letters from the privy council, in which it was declared
that the charges against the earl were to the queen's certain
knowledge untrue; nevertheless they produced a very strong
impression, and were believed in by some who had no sympathy
with Jesuits long after Leicester's death. In 1585 he was ap-
pointed commander of an expedition to the Low Countries
in aid of the revolted provinces, and sailed with a fleet of fifty
ships to Flushing, where he was received with great enthusiasm.
In January following he was invested with the government
of the provinces, but immediately received a strong reprimand
from the queen for taking upon himself a function which she
had not authorized. Both he and the states general were obliged
to apologize; but the latter protested that they had no intention
of giving him absolute control of their affairs, and that it would
be extremely dangerous to them to revoke the appointment.
Leicester accordingly was allowed to retain his dignity; but
the incident was inauspicious, nor did affairs prosper greatly
under his management. The most brilliant achievement of the
war was. the action at Zutphen, in which his nephew Sir Philip
Sidney was slain. But complaints were made by the states
general of the conduct of the whole campaign. He returned to
England for a time, and went back in 1587, when he made an
abortive effort to raise the siege of Sluys. Disagreements
increasing between him and the states, he was recalled by the
queen, from whom he met with a very good reception; and
he continued in such favour that in the following summer (the
year being that of the Armada, 1 588) he was appointed lieutenant-
general of the army mustered at Tilbury to resist Spanish in-
vasion. . After the crisis was past he was returning homewards
from the court to Kenilworth, when he was attacked by a sudden
illness and died at his house at Cornbury in Oxfordshire, on the
4th September.
Such are the main facts of Leicester's life. Of his character
it is more difficult to speak with confidence, but some features
of it are indisputable. Being in person tall and remarkably
handsome, he improved these advantages by a very ingratiating
manner. A man of no small ability and still more ambition,
he was nevertheless vain, and presumed at times upon his
influence with the queen to a degree that brought upon him a
sharp rebuff. Yet Elizabeth stood by him. That she was ever
really in love with him, as modern writers have supposed, is
extremely questionable; but she saw in him some valuable
qualities which marked him as the fitting recipient of high
favours. He was a man of princely tastes, especially in architec-
ture. At court he became latterly the leader of the Puritan party.
392
LEICESTER, EARLS OF
and his letters were pervaded by expressions of religious feeling
which it is hard to believe were insincere. Of the darker sus-
picions against him it is enough to say that much was cer-
tainly reported beyond the truth; but there remain some facts
sufficiently disagreeable, and others, perhaps, sufficiently mys-
terious, to make a just estimate of the man a rather perplexing
problem.
No special biography of Leicester has yet been written except
in biographical dictionaries and encyclopaedias. A general account
of him will be found in the Memoirs of the Sidneys prefixed to
Collins's Letters and Memorials of State • but the fullest yet published
is Mr Sidney Lee's article in the Dictionary of National Biography
(London, 1888) where the sources are given. Leicester's career nas
to be made out from documents and state papers, especially from
the Hatfield MSS. and Major Hume's Calendar of documents from
the Spanish archives bearing on the history of Queen Elizabeth.
This last is the most recent source. Of others the principal are
Digges's Compleat Ambassador (1655), John Nichols's Progresses of
Queen Elizabeth and the Leycester Correspondence edited by J. Bruce
for the Camden Society. The death of Dudley's first wife has
been a fruitful source of literary controversy. The most recent
addition to the evidences, which considerably alters their com-
plexion, will be found in the English Historical Review, xiii. 83,
giving the full text (in English) of De Quadra's letter of Sept. 1 1 ,
1560, on which so much has been built. (J. GA.)
LEICESTER, ROBERT SIDNEY, EARL OF (1563-1626),
second son of Sir Henry Sidney (<?.».), was born on the igth of
November 1563, and was educated at Christ Church, Oxford,
afterwards travelling on the Continent for some years between
11578 and 1583. In 1585 he was elected member of parliament
if or Glamorganshire; and in the same year he went with his
jelder brother Sir Philip Sidney (q.v.) to the Netherlands, where
he , served in the war against Spain under his uncle Robert
Dudley, earl of Leicester. He was present at the engagement
where Sir Philip Sidney was mortally wounded, and remained
with his brother till the latter's death in October 1586. After
visiting Scotland on a diplomatic mission in 1588, and France
on a similar errand in 1593, he returned to the Netherlands in
1596, where he rendered distinguished service in the war for the
pext two years. He had been appointed governor of Flushing
in 1588, and he spent much time there till 1603, when, on the
(accession of James I., he returned to England. James raised
him at once to the peerage as Baron Sidney of Penshurst, and
he was appointed chamberlain to the queen consort. In 1605
he was created Viscount Lisle, and in 1618 earl of Leicester,
the latter title having become extinct in 1 588 on the death of his
uncle, whose property he had inherited (see LEICESTER, EARLS
or). Leicester was a man of taste and a patron of literature,
whose cultured mode of life at his country seat, Penshurst,
was celebrated in verse by Ben Jonson. The earl died at Pens-
hurst on the I3th of July 1626. He was twice married; first
to Barbara, daughter of John Gamage, a Glamorganshire gentle-
man; and secondly to Sarah, daughter of William Blount, and
widow of Sir Thomas Smythe. By his first wife he had a large
family. His eldest son having died unmarried in 1613, Robert,
the second son (see below), succeeded to the earldom; one of
hjs daughters married Sir John Hobart, ancestor of the earls
qf Buckinghamshire.
•.ROBERT SIDNEY, and earl of Leicester of the 1618 creation
(1595-1677), was born on the ist of December 1595, and was
educated at Christ Church, Oxford; he was called to the bar
in 1618, having already served in the army in the Netherlands
during his father's governorship of Flushing, and having entered
parh'ament as member for Wilton in 1614. In 1616 he was given
command of an English regiment in the Dutch service; and
having succeeded his father as earl of Leicester in 1626, he was
employed on diplomatic business in Denmark in 1632, and in
France from 1636 to 1641. He was then appointed lord-lieuten-
ant of Ireland in place of the earl of Strafford, but he waited
in vain for instructions from the king, and in 1643 he was com-
pelled to resign the office without having set foot in Ireland.
He shared the literary and cultivated tastes of his family, without
possessing the statesmanship of his uncle Sir Philip Sidney;
his character was lacking in decision, and, as commonly befalls
men of moderate views in times of acute party strife, he failed
to win the confidence of either of the opposing parties. His
sincere protestantism offended Laud, without being sufficiently
extreme to please the puritans of the parliamentary faction;
his fidelity to the king restrained him from any act tainted
with rebellion, while his dislike for arbitrary government pre-
vented him giving whole-hearted support to Charles I. When,
therefore, the king summoned him to Oxford in November
1642, Leicester's conduct bore the appearance of vacillation,
and his loyalty of uncertainty. Accordingly, after his resignation
of the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland at the end of 1643, he retired
into private life. In 1649 the younger children of the king were
for a time committed tc his care at Penshurst. He took no part
in public affairs during the Commonwealth; and although at
the Restoration he took his seat in the House of Lords and was
sworn of the privy council, he continued to live for the most
part in retirement at Penshurst, where he died on the 2nd of
November 1677. Leicester married, in 1616, Dorothy, daughter
of Henry Percy, gth earl of Northumberland, by whom he had
fifteen children. Of his nine daughters, the eldest, Dorothy,
the " Sacharissa " of the poet Waller, married Robert Spencer,
2nd earl of Sunderland; and Lucy married John Pelham, by
whom she was the ancestress of the iSth-century statesmen,
Henry Pelham, and Thomas Pelham, duke of Newcastle. Alger-
non Sidney (q.v.), and Henry Sidney, earl of Romney (q.v.),
were younger sons of the earl.
Leicester's eldest son, Philip, 3rd earl (1610-1698), known
for most of his life as Lord Lisle, took a somewhat prominent
part during the civil war. Being sent to Ireland in 1642 in
command of a regiment of horse, he became lieutenant-general
under Ormonde; he strongly favoured the parliamentary cause,
and in 1647 he was appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland by the
parliament. Named one of Charles I.'s judges, he refused to
take part in the trial; but he afterwards served in Cromwell's
Council of State, and sat in the Protector's House of Lords.
Lisle stood high in Cromwell's favour, but nevertheless obtained
a pardon at the Restoration. He carried on the Sidney family
tradition by his patronage of men of letters; and, having suc-
ceeded to the earldom on his father's death in 1677, he died in
1698, and was succeeded in the peerage by his son Robert, 4th
earl of Leicester (1640-1702), whose mother was Catherine,
daughter of William Cecil, 2nd earl of Salisbury.
See Sydney Papers, edited by A. Collins (2 vols., London, 1746);
Sydney Papers, edited by R. W. Blencowe (London, 1825). con-
taining the 2nd earl of Leicester's journal; Lord Clarendon
History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England (8 vols, Oxford,
1826); S. R. Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War (3 vols.,
London, 1886-1891). (R. J. M.)
LEICESTER, THOMAS WILLIAM COKE, EARL or (1754-
1842), English agriculturist, known as Coke of Norfolk, was
the eldest son of Wenman Roberts, who assumed the name of
Coke in 1750. In 1759 Wenman Coke's maternal uncle Thomas
Coke, earl of Leicester, died leaving him his estates, subject,
however, to the life-interest of his widow, Margaret, Baroness
de Clifford in her own right. This lady's death in 1775 was
followed by that of Wenman Coke in 1776, when the latter's
son, Thomas William, born on the 6th of May 1754, succeeded
to his father's estates at Holkham and elsewhere. From 1776
to 1784, from 1790 to 1806, and again from 1807 to 1832 Coke
was member of parliament for Norfolk; he was a friend and
supporter of Charles James Fox and a sturdy and aggressive
Whig, acting upon the maxim taught him by his lather " never
to trust a Tory." Coke's chief interests, however, were in the
country, and his fame is that of an agriculturist. His land
around Holkham in Norfolk was poor and neglected, but he
introduced many improvements, obtained the best expert
advice, and in a few years wheat was grown upon his farms,
and the breed of cattle, sheep and pigs greatly improved. It
has been said that " his practice is really the basis of every
treatise on modern agriculture." Under his direction the rental
of the Holkham estate is said to have increased from £2200 to
over £20,000 a year. In 1837 Coke was created earl of Leicester
of Holkham. Leicester, who was a strong and handsome man
and a fine sportsman, died at Longford Hall in Derbyshire on
LEICESTER— LEICESTERSHIRE
393
the 3oth of June 1842. He was twice married, and Thomas
William, his son by his second marriage, succeeded to his
earldom.
See A. M. W. Stirling, Coke of Norfolk and his Friends (1907).
LEICESTER, a municipal county and parliamentary borough,
and the county town of Leicestershire, England; on the river
Soar, a southern tributary of the Trent. Pop. (1891) 174,624,
(1901) 211,579. It is 99 m- N.N.W. from London by the
Midland railway, and is served by the Great Central and branches
of the Great Northern and London and North- Western railways,
and by the Leicester canal.
This was the Roman Ratae (Ratae Coritanorum), and Roman
remains of high interest are preserved. They include a portion
of Roman masonry known as the Jewry Wall; several pavements
have been unearthed; and in the museum, among other remains,
is a milestone from the Fosse Way, marking a distance of 2 m.
from Ratae. St Nicholas church is a good example of early
Norman work, in the building of which Roman bricks are used.
St Mary de Castro church, with Norman remains, including
sedilia, shows rich Early English work in the tower and elsewhere,
and has a Decorated spire and later additions. All Saints
church has Norman remains. St Martin's is mainly Early English,
a fine cruciform structure. St Margaret's, with Early English
nave, has extensive additions of beautiful Perpendicular work-
manship. North of the town are slight remains of an abbey of
Black Canons founded in 1143. There are a number of modern
churches. Of the Castle there are parts of the Norman hall,
modernized, two gateways and other remains, together with
the artificial Mount on which the keep stood. The following
public buildings and institutions may be mentioned — municipal
buildings (1876), old town hall, formerly the gild-hall of Corpus
Christi; market house, free library, opera house and other
theatres and museum. The free library has several branches;
there are also a valuable old library founded in the I7th
century, a permanent h'brary and a literary and philosophical
society. Among several hospitals are Trinity hospital, founded
in 1331 by Henry Plantagenet, earl of Lancaster and of Leicester,
and Wyggeston's hospital (1513). The Wyggeston schools
and Queen Elizabeth's grammar school are amalgamated, and
include high schools for boys and girls; there are also Newton's
greencoat school for boys, and municipal technical and art
schools. A memorial clock tower was erected in 1868 to Simon
de Montfort and other historical figures connected with the town.
The Abbey Park is a beautiful pleasure ground; there are also
Victoria Park, St Margaret's Pasture and other grounds. The
staple trade is hosiery, an old-established industry; there are
also manufactures of elastic webbing, cotton and lace, iron-works,
mailings and brick-works. Leicester became a county borough
in 1888, and the bounds were extended and constituted one
civil parish in 1892. It is a suffragan bishopric hi the diocese
of Peterborough. The parliamentary borough returns two
members. Area, 8586 acres.
The Romano-British town of Ratae Coritanorum, on the Fosse
Way, was a municipality in A.D. 120-121. Its importance,
both commercial and military, was considerable, as is attested
by the many remains found here. Leicester (Ledecestre, Lege-
cestria, Leyrcestria) was called a " burh " in 918, and a city in
Domesday. Until 874 it was the seat of a bishopric. In 1086
both the king and Hugh de Grantmesnil had much land in
Leicester; by noi the latter's share had passed to Robert
of Meulan, to whom the rest of the town belonged before his
death. Leicester thus became the largest mesne borough.
Between 1103 and 1118 Robert granted his first charter to the
burgesses, confirming their merchant gild. The portmanmote
was confirmed by his son. In the I3th century the town
developed its own form of government by a mayor and 24 jurats.
In 1464 Edward IV. made the mayor and 4 of the council justices
of the peace. In 1489 Henry VII. added 48 burgesses to the
council for certain purposes, and made it a close body; he granted
another charter in 1505. In 1589 Elizabeth incorporated the
town, and gave another charter in 1 599. James I. granted charters
in 1605 and 1610; and Charles I. in 1630. In 1684 the charters
were surrendered; a new one granted by James II. was rescinded
by proclamation in 1688.
Leicester has been represented in parliament by two members
since 1295. It has had a prescriptive market since the I3th
century, now held on Wednesday and Saturday. Before 1228-
1229 the burgesses had a fair from July 31 to August 14; changes
were made in its date, which was fixed in 1360 at September 26
to October 2. It is now held on the second Thursday in October
and three following days. In 1473 another fair was granted on
April 27 to May 4. It is now held on the second Thursday in
May and the three following days. Henry VIII. granted two
three-day fairs beginning on December 8 and June 26; the first
is now held on the second Friday in December; the second Was
held in 1888 on the last Tuesday in June. In 1307 Edward III.
granted a fair for seventeen days after the feast of the Holy
Trinity. This would fall in May or June, and may have merged
in other fairs. In 1794 the corporation sanctioned fairs on
January 4, June i, August i, September 13 and November 2.
Other fairs are now held on the second Fridays in March and
July and the Saturdays next before Easter and in Easter week.
Leicester has been a centre for brewing and the manufacture
of woollen goods since the I3th century. Knitting frames for
hosiery were introduced about 1680. Boot manufacture became
important in the I9th century.
See Victoria County History, Leicester; M. Bateson, Records' of
Borough of Leicester (Cambridge, 1899).
LEICESTERSHIRE, a midland county of England, bounded N.
by Nottinghamshire, E. by Lincolnshire and Rutland, S.E, by
Northamptonshire, S.W. by Warwickshire, and N.W. by Derby-
shire, also touching Staffordshire on the W. The area is 823-6
sq. m. The surface of the county is an undulating tableland;
the highest eminences being the rugged hills of Charnwood
Forest (q.v.) in the north-west, one of which, Bardon Hill, has
an elevation of 91 2 ft. The county belongs chiefly to the basin of
the Trent, which forms for a short distance its boundary with
Derbyshire. The principal tributary of the Trent in Leicester-
shire is the Soar, from whose old designation the Leire the county
is said to derive its name, and which rises near Hinckley in the
S.E., and forms the boundary with Nottinghamshire for some
distance above its junction with the Trent. The Wreak, which,
under the name of the Eye, rises on the borders of Rutland, flows
S.W. to the Soar. Besides the Soar the other tributaries of the
Trent are the Anker, touching the boundary with Warwickshire,
the Devon and the Mease. A portion of the county in the S.
drains to the Avon, which forms part of the boundary with
Northamptonshire, and receives the Swift. The Welland forms
for some distance the boundary with Northamptonshire. . •
Geology. — The oldest rocks in the county belong to the Charnian
System, a Pre-Cambrian series of volcanic ashes, grits and slates,1
into which porphyroid and syenite were afterwards intruded.
These rocks emerge from the plain formed by the Keuper Marls of
the Triassic System as a group of isolated hills and peaks (known as
Charnwood Forest) ; these are the tops of an old mountain-range,
the lower slopes of which are still buried under the surrounding
Keuper Marls. West of this district lies the Leicestershire coalfield,
where the poor state of development of the Carboniferous Limestone
shows that the Charnian rocks formed shoals or islands in the Car-
boniferous Limestone sea. The Millstone Grit just enters : the1
county to the north of the same region, while the Coal Measures1
occupy a considerable area round Ashby-de-la-Zouch and contain
valuable coal-seams. The rest of the county is almost equally
divided between the red Keuper Marls of the Trias on the west and,
the grey limestones and shales of the Lias on the east. The former
were deposited in lagoons into which the land was gradually lowered
after a prolonged period of desert conditions. The Rhaetic beds
which follow the Keuper mark the incoming of the sea and introduce
the fossiliferous Liassic deposits. On the eastern margin of the
county a few small outliers of the Inferior Oolite sands and limestones
are present. The Glacial Period has left boulder-clay, gravel and
erratic blocks scattered over the surface, while later gravels, with
remains of mammoth, reindeer, &c., border some of the present
streams.
Slates, honestones, setts and roadstone from the Charnian rocks,
limestone and cement from the Carboniferous and Lias, and coal
from the Coal Measures are the chief mineral products.
Agriculture. — The climate is mild, and, on account of the inland
position of the county, and the absence of any very high elevations,
Mie rainfall is very moderate. The soil is of a loamy character; 'the
394
LEICESTERSHIRE
richest district being that east of the Soar, which is occupied by
pasture, while the corn crops are grown chiefly on a lighter soil
resting above the Red Sandstone formation. About nine-tenths of
the total area is under cultivation. The proportion of pasture
land is large and increasing. It is especially rich along the river-
banks. Dairy-farming: is extensively carried on, the famous Stilton
cheese being produced near Melton Mowbray. Cattle are reared in
large numbers, while of sheep the New Leicester breed is well known.
It was introduced by Robert Bakewell the agriculturist, who was
born near Loughborough inxi725. He also improved the breed of
horses by the importation of mares from Flanders.
The county is especially famed for fox-hunting, Leicester and
Melton Mowbray being favourite centres, while the kennels of the
Quorn hunt are located at Quorndon near Mount Sorrel. For this
reason Leicestershire is rich in good riding horses.
Other Industries. — Coal is worked in the districts about Moira,
Coleorton and Cpalville. Limestone is worked in various parts,
freestone is plentiful, gypsum is found, 'and a kind of granite, ex-
tensively used for paving, is obtained in the Charnwood district,
as at Bardon and Mount Sorrel, and at Sapcote and Stoney Stanton
in the south-west. Apart from the mining industries, the staple
manufacture of Leicestershire is hosiery, Tor which the wool is
obtained principally from home-bred sheep. Its principal seats are
Leicester, Loughborough, Hinckley and Castle Donington. Cotton
hose are likewise made, and other industries include the manufacture
of boots and shoes, as at Market Harborough, elastic webbing, and
bricks, also iron founding. Melton Mowbray gives name to a well-
known manufacture of pork pies.
Communications. — The main line of the Midland railway serves
Market Harborough, Leicester, and Loughborough, having an
important junction at Trent (on that river) for Derby and Notting-
ham. Branches radiate from Leicester to Melton Mowbray, to
Coalville, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Moira and Burton-upon-Trent, with
others through the mining district of the N.W., which is also served
by the branch of the London & North- Western railway from
Nuneaton to Market Bosworth, Coalville and Loughborough. This
company serves Market Harborough from Rugby, and branches of
the Great Northern serve Market Harborough, Leicester and Melton
Mowbray. The main line of the Great Central railway passes
through Lutterworth, Leicester and Loughborough. The principal
canals are the Union and Grand Union, with which various branches
are connected with the Grand Junction, and the Ashby-de-la-Zouch
canal, which joins the Coventry canal at Nuneaton. The Lough-
borough canal serves that town, connecting with the river Soar.
Population and Administration. — The area of the ancient county
is 527,123 acres; r*>p. (1891) 373,584, (1901) 434-°'9- The area
of the administrative county is 532,788 acres. The county con-
tains six hundreds. The municipal boroughs are: Leicester, the
county town and a county borough (pop. 211,579), Loughborough
(21,508). The urban districts are : Ashby-de-la-Zouch (4726), Ashby
Woulds (2799), Coalville (15,281), Hinckley (11,304), Market Har-
borough (7735), Melton Mowbray (7454), Quorndon (2173), Shepshed
(5293), Tnurmaston (1732), Wigston Magna (8404). The county is
in the Midland circuit, has one court of quarter sessions, and is
divided into 9 petty sessional divisions. The county borough of
Leicester has a separate court of quarter sessions and a separate
commission of the peace. There are 327 civil parishes. The county
is divided into four parliamentary divisions (Eastern or Melton,
Mid or Loughborough, Western or Bosworth, Southern or Har-
borough), each returning one member; and the parliamentary
borough of Leicester returns 2 members. The county is in the
diocese of Peterborough, with the exception of small parts in those
of Southwell and Worcester; and contains 255 ecclesiastical parishes
or districts, wholly or in part.
History. — The district which is now Leicestershire was reached
in the 6th century by Anglian invaders who, making their way
across the Trent, penetrated Charnwood Forest as far as Leicester,
the fall of which may be dated at about 556. In 679 the district
formed the kingdom of the Middle Angles within the kingdom
of Mercia, and on the subdivision of the Mercian see in that year
was formed into a separate bishopric having its see at Leicester.
In the gth century the district was subjugated by the Danes, and
Leicester became one of the five Danish boroughs. It was re-
covered by ^Ethelflaed in 918, but the Northmen regained their
supremacy shortly after, and the prevalence of Scandinavian
place-names in the county bears evidence of the extent of their
settlement.
Leicestershire probably originated as a shire in the icth century,
and at the time of the Domesday Survey was divided into the
four wapentakes of Guthlaxton, Framland, Goscote and Gartree.
The Leicestershire Survey of the 1 2th century shows an additional
grouping of the vills into small local hundreds, manorial rather
than administrative divisions, which have completely disappeared.
In the reign of Edward I. the divisions appear as hundreds, and
in the reign of Edward III. the additional hundred of Sparkenhoe
was formed out of Guthlaxton. Before the i7th century Goscote
was divided into East and West Goscote, and since then the
hundreds have undergone little change. Until 1566 Leicester-
shire and Warwickshire had a common sheriff, the shire-court for
the former being held at Leicester.
Leicestershire constituted an archdeaconry within the diocese
of Lincoln from 1092 until its transference to Peterborough in
1837. In 1291 it comprised the deaneries of Akeley, Leicester
(now Christianity), Framland, Gartree, Goscote, Guthlaxton and
Sparkenhoe. The deaneries remained unaltered until 1865.
Since 1894 they have been as follows: East, South and West
Akeley, Christianity, Framland (3 portions), Sparkenhoe (2
portions), Gartree (3 portions), Goscote (2 portions), Guthlaxton
(3 portions).
Among the earliest historical events connected with the
county were the siege and capture of Leicester by Henry II.
in 1173 on the rebellion of the earl of Leicester; the surrender
of Leicester to Prince Edward in 1264; and the parliament
held at Leicester in 1414. During the Wars of the Roses Leicester
was a great Lancastrian stronghold. In 1485 the battle of
Bosworth was fought in the county. In the Civil War of the
1 7th century the greater part of the county favoured the parlia-
ment, though the mayor and some members of the corporation
of Leicester sided with the king, and in 1642 the citizens of
Leicester on a summons from Prince Rupert lent Charles £500.
In 1645 Leicester was twice captured by the Royalist forces.
Before the Conquest large estates in Leicestershire were held
by Earls Ralf, Morcar, Waltheof and Harold, but the Domesday
Survey of 1086 reveals an almost total displacement of English
by Norman landholders, only a few estates being retained by
Englishmen as under-tenants. The first lay-tenant mentioned
in the survey is Robert, count of Meulan, ancestor of the Beau-
mont family and afterwards earl of Leicester, to whose fief was
afterwards annexed the vast holding of Hugh de Grantmesnil,
lord high steward of England. Robert de Toeni, another Domes-
day tenant, founded Belvoir Castle and Priory. The fief of
Robert de Buci was bestowed on Richard Basset, founder of
Laund Abbey, in the reign of Henry I. Loughborough was an
ancient seat of the Despenser family, and Brookesby was the seat
of the Villiers and the birthplace of George Villiers, the famous
duke of Buckingham. Melton Mowbray was named from its
former lords, the Mowbrays, descendants of Nigel de Albini, the
founder of Axholme Priory. Lady Jane Grey was born at
Bradgate near Leicester, and Bishop Latimer was born at
Thurcaston.
The woollen industry flourished in Leicestershire in Norman
times, and in 1343 Leicestershire wool was rated at a higher
value than that of most other counties. Coal was worked at
Coleorton in the early isth century and at Measham in the I7th
century. The famous blue slate of Swithland has been quarried
from time immemorial, and the limestone quarry at Barrow-on-
Soar is also of very ancient repute, the monks of the abbey of
St Mary de Pr6 formerly enjoying the tithe of its produce. The
staple manufacture of the county, that of hosiery, originated
in the I7th century, the chief centres being Leicester, Hinckley
and Loughborough, and before the development of steam-driven
frames in the igth century hand framework knitting of hose and
gloves was carried on in about a hundred villages. Wool-
carding was also an extensive industry before 1840.
In 1290 Leicestershire returned two members to parliament,
and in 1295 Leicester was also represented by two members.
Under the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned four members
in two divisions until the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885,
under which it returned four members in four divisions.
Antiquities. — Remains of monastic foundations are slight, though
there were a considerable number of these. There are traces of
Leicester Abbey and of Gracedieu near Coalville, while at Ulvers-
croft in Charnwood, where there was an Augustinian priory of the
1 2th century, there are fine Decorated remains, including a tower.
The most noteworthy churches are found in the towns, as at Ashby-
de-la-Zouch, Hinckley, Leicester, Loughborough, Lutterworth,
Market Bosworth, Market Harborough, and Melton Mowbray
LEIDEN— LEIDY
395
(qq.v.). The principal old castle is that of Ashby-de-la-Zouch,
while at Kirby Muxloe there is a picturesque fortified mansion of
Tudor date. There are several good Elizabethan mansions, as that
at Laund in the E. of the county. Among modern mansions that
of the dukes of Rutland, Belvoir Castle in the extreme N.E., is a
massive mansion of the early igth century, finely placed on the
summit of a hill.
See Victoria County History, Leicestershire; W. Burton, Descrip-
tion of Leicestershire (London, 1622; 2nd ed., Lynn, 1777); John
Nicholls, History and Antiquities of the County of Leicester (4 vols.,
London, 1795-1815); John Curtis, A Topographical History of the
County of Leicester (Ashby-de-la-Zouch, 1831).
LEIDEN or LEYDEN, a city in the province of South Holland,
the kingdom of the Netherlands, on the Old Rhine, and a junction
station 18 m. by rail S.S.W. of Haarlem. It is connected by steam
tramway with Haarlem and The Hague respectively, and with
the seaside resorts of Katwyk and Noordwyk. There is also
regular steamboat connexion with Katwyk, Noordwyk, Amster-
dam and Gouda. The population of Leiden which, it is estimated,
reached 100,000 in 1640, had sunk to 30,000 between 1796 and
1811, and in 1904 was 56,044. The two branches of the Rhine
which enter Leiden on the east unite in the centre of the town,
which is further intersected by numerous small and sombre
canals, with tree-bordered quays and old houses. On the south
side of the town pleasant gardens extend along the old Singel,
or outer canal, and there is a large open space, the Van der Werf
Park, named after the burgomaster, Pieter Andriaanszoon van
der Werf, who defended the town against the Spaniards in 1574.
This open space was formed by the accidental explosion of a
powdershipin 1807, hundreds of houses being demolished, includ-
ing that of the Elzevir family of printers. At the junction of the
two arms of the Rhine stands the old castle (De Burcht), a
circular tower built on an earthen mound. Its origin is unknown,
but some connect it with Roman days and others with the Saxon
Hengist. Of Leiden's old gateways only two — both dating from
the end of the i?th century — are standing. Of the numerous
churches the chief are the Hooglandsche Kerk, or the church
of St Pancras, built in the i5th century and restored in 1885-
1902, containing the monument of Pieter Andriaanszoon van der
Werf, and the Pieterskerk (1315) with monuments to Scaliger,
Boerhaave and other famous scholars. The most interesting
buildings are the town hall (Stadhuis), a fine example of 16th-
century Dutch building; the Gemeenlandshuis van Rynland
(1596, restored 1878); the weight-house built by Pieter Post
(1658); the former court-house, now a military storehouse;
and the ancient gymnasium (1599) and the so-called city timber-
house (Stads Timmerhuis) (1612), both built by Lieven de Key
(c. 1560-1627).
In spite of a certain industrial activity and the periodical
bustle of its cattle and dairy markets, Leiden remains essentially
an academic city. The university is a flourishing institution.
It was founded by William of Orange in 1575 as a reward for
the heroic defence of the previous year, the tradition being that
the citizens were offered the choice between a university and a
certain exemption from taxes. Originally located in the convent
of St Barbara, the university was removed in 1581 to the convent
of the White Nuns, the site of which it still occupies, though that
building was destroyed in 1616. The presence within half a
century of the date of its foundation of such scholars as Justus
Lipsius, Joseph Scaliger, Francis Gomarus, Hugo Grotius,
Jacobus Arminius, Daniel Heinsius and Guardas Johannes
Vossius, at once raised Leiden university to the highest European
fame, a position which the learning and reputation of Jacobus
Gronovius, Hermann Boerhaave, Tiberius Hemsterhuis and
David Ruhnken, among others, enabled it to maintain down
to the end of the i8th century. The portraits of many famous
professors since the earliest days hang in the university aula, one
of the most memorable places, as Niebuhr called it, in the history
of science. The university library contains upwards of 190,000
volumes and 6000 MSS. and pamphlet portfolios, and is very rich
in Oriental and Greek MSS. and old Dutch travels. Among the
institutions connected with the university are the national
institution for East Indian languages, ethnology and geography;
the fine botanical gardens, founded in 1587; the observatory
(1860); the natural history museum, with a very complete
anatomical cabinet; the museum of antiquities (Museum van
Oudheden), with specially valuable Egyptian and Indian depart-
ments; a museum of Dutch antiquities from the earliest times;
and three ethnographical museums, of which the nucleus was
P. F. von Siebold's Japanese collections. The anatomical and
pathological laboratories of the university are modern, and the
museums of geology and mineralogy have been restored. The
university has now five faculties, of which those of law and
medicine are the most celebrated, and is attended by about
1 200 students.
The municipal museum, founded in 1869 and located in the
old cloth-hall (Laeckenhalle) (1640), contains a varied collection
of antiquities connected with Leiden, as well as some paintings
including works by the elder van Swanenburgh, Cornelius Engel-
brechtszoon, Lucas van Leiden and Jan Steen, who were all
natives of Leiden. Jan van Goyen, Gabriel Metsu, Gerard Dou
and Rembrandt were also natives of this town. There is also a
small collection of paintings in the Meermansburg. The Thysian
library occupies an old Renaissance building of the year 1655,
and is especially rich in legal works and native chronicles.
Noteworthy also are the collection of the Society of Dutch
Literature (1766); the collections of casts and of engravings;
the seamen's training school; the Remonstrant seminary,
transferred hither from Amsterdam in 1873; the two hospitals
(one of which is private); the house of correction; and the
court-house.
Leiden is an ancient town, although it is not the Lugdunum
Batavorum of the Romans. Its early name was Leithen, and it was
governed until 1420 by burgraves, the representatives of the courts
of Holland. The most celebrated event in its history is its siege
by the Spaniards in 1574. Besieged from May until October, it was
at length relieved by the cutting of the dikes, thus enabling ships
to carry provisions to the inhabitants of the flooded town. The
weaving establishments (mainly broadcloth) of Leiden at the close
of the 1 5th century were very important, and after the expulsion of
the Spaniards Leiden cloth, Leiden baize and Leiden camlet were
familiar terms. These industries afterwards declined, and in the
beginning of the igth century the baize manufacture was altogether
given up. Linen and woollen manufactures are now the most
important industries, while there is a considerable transit trade in
butter and cheese.
Katwyk, or Katwijk, 6 m. N.W. of Leiden, is a popular seaside
resort and fishing village. Close by are the great locks constructed
in 1807 by the engineer, F. W". Conrad (d. 1808), through which the
Rhine (here called the Katwyk canal) is admitted into the sea at low
tide. The shore and the entrance to the canal are strengthened by
huge dikes. In 1520 an ancient Roman camp known as the Britten-
burg was discovered here. It was square in shape, each side measur-
ing 82 yds., and the remains stood about 10 ft. high. By the middle
of the l8th century it had been destroyed and covered by the sea.
See P. J. Blok, Eine hollandsche stad in de middeleeuwen (The
Hague, 1883); and for the siege see J. L. Motley, The Rise of the
Dutch Republic (1896).
LEIDY, JOSEPH (1823-1891), American naturalist and
palaeontologist, was born in Philadelphia on the gth of September
1823. He studied mineralogy and botany without an instructor,
and graduated in medicine at the university of Pennsylvania in
1844. Continuing his work in anatomy and physiolpgy, he
visited Europe in 1848, but both before and after this period of
foreign study lectured and taught in American medical colleges.
In 1853 he was appointed professor of anatomy in the university
of Pennsylvania, paying special attention to comparative
anatomy. In 1884 he promoted the establishment in the same
institution of the department of biology, of which he became
director, and meanwhile taught natural history in Swarthmore
College, near Philadelphia. His papers on biology and palae-
ontology were very numerous, covering both fauna and flora,
and ranging from microscopic forms of animal life to the higher
vertebrates. He wrote also occasional papers on minerals. He
was an active member of the Boston Society of Natural History
and of the American Philosophical Society; and was the recipient
of various American and foreign degrees and honours. His
Cretaceous Reptiles of the United Stales (1865) and Contributions
to the Extinct Vertebrate Fauna of the Western Territories (1873)
were the most important of his larger works; the best known
and most widely circulated was an Elementary Treatise on Human
396
LEIF ERICSSON— LEIGHTON, LORD
Anatomy (1860, afterwards revised in new editions). He died
in Philadelphia on the aoth of April 1891.
See Memoir and portrait in Amer. Geologist, vol. ix. (Jan. 1892)
and Bibliography in vol. viii. (Nov. 1891) and Memoir by H. C.
Chapman in Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. (Philadelphia, 1891), p. 342-
LEIF ERICSSON [LEIFR EIRIKSSON] (fl. 990-1000), Scandi-
navian explorer, of Icelandic family, the first known European
discoverer of " Vinland," " Vineland " or " Wineland, the Good,"
in North America. He was a son of Eric the Red (Eirikr hinn
raudi Thorvaldsson), the founder of the earliest Scandinavian
settlements — from Iceland — in Greenland (985). In 999 he
went from Greenland to the court of King Olaf Tryggvason in
Norway, stopping in the Hebrides on the way. On his departure
from Norway in 1000, the king commissioned him to proclaim
Christianity in Greenland. As on his outward voyage, Leif was
again driven far out of his course by contrary weather — this
time to lands (in America) " of which he had previously had no
knowledge," where " self-sown " wheat grew, and vines, and
" mosur " (maple?) wood. Leif took specimens of all these,
and sailing away came home safely to his father's home in
Brattahlid on Ericsfiord in Greenland. On his voyage from this
Vineland to Greenland, Leif rescued some shipwrecked men,
and from this, and his discoveries, gained his name of " The
Lucky " (hinn heppni). On the subsequent expedition of
Thorfinn Karlsefni for the further exploration and settlement of
the Far Western vine-country, it is recorded that certain Gaels,
incredibly fleet of foot, who had been given to Leif by Olaf
Tryggvason, and whom Leif had offered to Thorfinn, were put
on shore to scout.
Such is the account of the Saga of Eric the Red, supported by
a number of briefer references in early Icelandic and other
literature. The less trustworthy history of the Flatey Book
makes Biarni Heriulfsson in 985 discover Helluland (Labrador?)
as well as other western lands which he does not explore, not
even permitting his men to land; while Leif Ericsson follows
up Biarni's discoveries, begins the exploration of Helluland,
Markland and Vinland, and realizes some of the charms of the
last named, where he winters. But this secondary authority
(the Flatey Book narrative), which till lately formed the basis
of all general knowledge as to Vinland, abounds in contradictions
and difficulties from which Eric the Red Saga is comparatively
free. Thus (in Flatey) the grapes of Vinland are found in winter
and gathered in spring; the man who first finds them, Leif's
foster-father Tyrker the German, gets drunk from eating the
fruit ; and the vines themselves are spoken of as big trees afford-
ing timber. Looking at the record in Eric the Red Saga, it would
seem probable that Leif's Vinland answers to some part of
southern Nova Scotia. See VINLAND. (As to Helluland and
Markland see THORFINN KARLSEFNI.)
The MSS. of Eric the Red's Saga are Nos. 544 and 557 of the
Arne-Magnaean collection in Copenhagen; the MS. of the Flatey
Book, so called because it was long the property of a family living on
Flat Island in Broad Firth (Flatey in BreiSafjord [B-eidafj-d]), on the
north-west coast of Iceland, was presented in 1662 to the Royal Lib-
rary of Denmark, of which it is still one of the chief treasures. These
leading narratives are supplemented by Adam of Bremen, Gestc
Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum, chap. 38 (247 Lappenberg.
of book iv. (often separately entitled Descriptio Insularum Aquilonis
Adam's is the earliest extant reference to Vinland, c. 1070): we
have also notices of Vinland in the Libellus Islandorum of Ari Frod
(c. 1120), the oldest Icelandic historian; in the Kristni Saga (re
peated in Snorri Sturlason's Heimskringla) ; in Eyrbyggia Saga
(c. 1250); in Gretti Saga (c. 1290); and in an Icelandic chorography
of the I4th century, or earlier, partly derived from the famous
traveller Abbot Nicolas of Thing-eyrar (tn59)-
See Gustav Storm, " Studies on the Vineland Voyages," in th-
Memoir es de la Societe royale des Antiquaires du Nord (Copenhagen
1888); and Eiriks Saga Raudha (Copenhagen, 1891); A. M. Reeves
Finding of Wineland the Good: the History of the Icelandic Discovery
of America (London, 1890); in this work the original authentic
are given in full, with photographic facsimiles, English translation
and adequate commentary; Rafn's Antiquitates Americana
(Copenhagen, 1837) contains all the sources, but the editor's persona
views have in many cases failed to satisfy criticism; the Plate)
text is printed also by Vigfusson and Unger in Flateyjar-bok, vol. i
(Christiania, 1860). There are also translations of Flatey and Ret
Eric Saga in Beamish, Discovery of North America by the Northmen
(Lond., 1841); E. F. Slafter, Voyages of the Northmen (Boston, 1877)
J. F. de Costa, Pre-Columbian Discovery of America by the Northmen
Albany, 1901); and Original Narratives of Early American
Jistory; The Northmen, Columbus and Cabot, pp. 1-66 (New York,
906). See also C. Raymond Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography
J. 48-83 (London, 1901); Josef Fischer, Die Entdeckungen der Nor-
mannen in Amerika (Freiburg i. B., 1902); John Fiske, Discovery
f America, vol. i.; Juul Dieserud, " Norse Discoveries in America, '
n the Bulletin of the American Geographical Society (February, 1901);
3. Vigfusson, Origines Islandicoe (1905), which strangely expresses
a preference for the Flatey Book " account of the first sighting of
he American continent " by the Norsemen. (C. R. B.)
LEIGH, EDWARD (1602-1671), English Puritan and theo-
ogian, was born at Shawell, Leicestershire. He was educated at
Vlagdalen Hall, Oxford, from 1616, and subsequently became
a member of the Middle Temple. In 1636 he entered parliament
as member for Stafford, and during the Civil War held a colonelcy
n the parliamentary army. He has sometimes been confounded
with John Ley (1583-1662), and so represented as having sat
n the Westminster Assembly. The public career of Leigh ter-
minated with his expulsion from parliament with the rest of
he Presbyterian party in 1648. From an early age he had
studied theology and produced numerous compilations, the most
mportant being the Critica Sacra, containing Observations on
all the Radices of the Hebrew Words of the Old and the Greek of the
New Testament (1639-1644; new ed., with supplement, 1662),
for which the author received the thanks of the Westminster
Assembly, to whom it was dedicated. His other works include
Select and Choice Observations concerning the First Twelve Caesars
(1635); A Treatise of Divinity (1646-1651); Annotations upon
the New Testament (1650), of which a Latin translation by
Arnold was published at Leipzig in 1732; A Body of Divinity
(1654); A Treatise of Religion and Learning (1656); Annotations
of the Five Poetical Books of the Old Testament (1657). Leigh
died in Staffordshire in June 1671.
LEIGH, a market town and municipal borough in the Leigh
parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, n m. W. by
N. from Manchester by the London & North- Western railway.
Pop. (1891) 30,882, (1901) 40,001. The ancient parish church
of St Mary the Virgin was, with the exception of the tower,
rebuilt in 1873 in the Perpendicular style. The grammar school,
the date of whose foundation is unknown, received its principal
endowments in 1655, 1662 and 1681. The staple manufactures
are silk and cotton; there are also glass works, foundries,
breweries, and flour mills, with extensive collieries. Though the
neighbourhood is principally an industrial district, several fine
old houses are left near Leigh. The town was incorporated
in 1899, and the corporation consists of a mayor, 8 aldermen and
24 councillors. Area, 6358 acres.
LEIGHTON, FREDERICK LEIGHTON, BARON (1830-1896),
English painter and sculptor, the son of a physician, was born
at Scarborough on the 3rd of December 1830. His grandfather,
Sir James Leighton, also a physician, was long resident at the
court of St Petersburg. Frederick Leighton was taken abroad
at a very early age. In 1840 he learnt drawing at Rome under
Signor Meli. The family moved to Dresden and Berlin, where he
attended classes at the Academy. In 1843 he was sent to school
at Frankfort, and in the winter of 1844 accompanied his family
to Florence, where his future career as an artist was decided.
There he studied under Bezzuoli and Segnolini at the Accademia
delle Belle Arti, and attended anatomy classes under Zanetti;
but he soon returned to complete his general education at Frank-
fort, receiving no further direct instruction in art for five years.
He went to Brussels in 1848, where he met Wiertz and Gallait,
and painted some pictures, including " Cimabue finding Giotto,"
and a portrait of himself. In 1849 he studied for a few months
in Paris, w*iere he copied Titian and Correggio in the Louvre, and
then returned to Frankfort, where he settled down to serious
art work under Edward Steinle, whose pupil he declared he was
" in the fullest sense of the term." Though his artistic training
was mainly German, and his master belonged to the same school
as Cornelius and Overbeck, he loved Italian art and Italy, and
the first picture by which he became known to the British public
was " Cimabue's Madonna carried in Procession through the
LEIGHTON, LORD
397
Streets of Florence," which appeared at the Royal Academy
in 1855. At this time the works of the Pre-Raphaelites almost
absorbed public interest in art — it was the year of Holman Hunt's
" Light of the World," and the " Rescue," by Millais. Yet
Leighton's picture, painted in quite a different style, created a
sensation, and was purchased by Queen Victoria. Although,
since his infancy, he had only visited England once (in 1851, when
he came to see the Great Exhibition), he was not quite unknown
in the cultured and artistic world of London, as he had made
many friends during a residence in Rome of some two years
or more after he left Frankfort in 1852. Amongst these were
Giovanni Costa, Robert Browning, James Knowles, George
Mason and Sir Edward Poynter, then a youth, whom he allowed
to work in his studio. He also met Thackeray, who wrote from
Rome to the young Millais: " Here is a versatile young dog,
who will run you close for the presidentship one of these days."
During these years he painted several Florentine subjects —
"Tybalt and Romeo," " The Death of Brunelleschi," a cartoon
of " The Pest in Florence according to Boccaccio," and " The
Reconciliation of the Montagues and the Capulets." He now
turned his attention to themes of classic legend, which at first
he treated in a " Romantic spirit." His next picture, exhibited in
1856, was " The Triumph of Music: Orpheus by the Power of his
Art redeems his Wife from Hades." It was not a success, and
he did not again exhibit till 1858, when he sent a little picture
of " The Fisherman and the Syren " to the Royal Academy, and
" Samson and Delilah " to the Society of British Artists in
Suffolk Street. In 1 858 he visited London and made the acquaint-
ance of the leading Pre-Raphaelites — Rossetti, Holman Hunt and
Millais. In the spring of 1859 he was at Capri, always a favourite
resort of his, and made many studies from nature, including a
very famous drawing of a lemon tree. It was not till 1860 that
he settled in London, when he took up his quarters at 2 Orme
Square, Bayswater, where he stayed till, in 1866, he moved to
his celebrated house in Holland Park Road, with its Arab hall
decorated with Damascus tiles. There he lived till his death.
He now began to fulfil the promise of his " Cimabue," and by such
pictures as " Paolo e Francesca," " The Star of Bethlehem,"
" Jezebel and Ahab taking Possession of Naboth's Vineyard,"
" Michael Angelo musing over his Dying Servant," " A Girl
feeding Peacocks," and " The Odalisque," all exhibited in 1861-
1863, rose rapidly to the head of his profession. The two latter
pictures were marked by the rhythm of line and luxury of colour
which are among the most constant attributes of his art, and may
be regarded as his first dreams of Oriental beauty, with which
he afterwards showed so great a sympathy. In 1864 he exhibited
"Dante in Exile" (the greatest of his Italian pictures), "Orpheus
and Eurydice " and " Golden Hours." In the winter of the same
year he was elected a-n Associate of the Royal Academy. After
this the main effort of his life was to realize visions of beauty
suggested by classic myth and history. If we add to pictures of
this class a few Scriptural subjects, a few Oriental dreams, one
or two of tender sentiment like " Wedded " (one of the most
popular of his pictures, and well known by not only an engraving,
but a statuette modelled by an Italian sculptor), a number of
studies of very various types of female beauty, " Teresina,"
" Biondina," " Bianca," " Moretta," &c., and an occasional
portrait, we shall nearly exhaust the two classes into which Lord
Leighton's work (as a painter) can be divided.
Amongst the finest of his classical pictures were — " Syracusan
Bride leading Wild Beasts in Procession to the Temple of Diana "
(1866), " Venus disrobing for the Bath " (1867), " Electra at the
Tomb of Agamemnon," and "Helios and Rhodos " (1869),
" Hercules wrestling with Death for the Body of Alcestis "
(1871), " Clytemnestra " (1874), " The Daphnephoria " (1876),
" Nausicaa " (1878), " An Idyll " (1881), two lovers under a
spreading oak listening to the piping of a shepherd and gazing
on the rich plain below; " Phryne " (1882), a nude figure stand-
ing in the sun; " Cymon and Iphigenia " (1884), " Captive
Andromache " (1888), now in the Manchester Art Gallery; with
the " Last Watch of Hero " (1887), " The Bath of Psyche "
(1890), now in the Chantrey Bequest collection; " The Garden
of the Hesperides " (1892), " Perseus and Andromeda "and" The
Return of Persephone," now in the Leeds Gallery (1891); and
" Clyde," his last work (1896). All these pictures are char-
acterized by nobility of conception, by almost perfect draughts-
manship, by colour which, if not of the highest quality, is always
original, choice and effective. They often reach distinction and
dignity of attitude and gesture, and occasionally, as in the
" Hercules and Death, "the" Electra "and the" Clytemnestra,"
a noble intensity of feeling. Perhaps, amidst the great variety of
qualities which they possess, none is more universal and more
characteristic than a rich elegance, combined with an almost
fastidious selection of beautiful forms. It is the super-eminence
of these qualities, associated with great decorative skill, that
make the splendid pageant of the " Daphnephoria " the most
perfect expression of his individual genius. Here we have his com-
position, his colour, his sense of the joy and movement of life,
his love of art and nature at their purest and most spontaneous,
and the result is a work without a rival of its kind in the British
School.
Leighton was one of the most thorough draughtsmen of his
day. His sketches and studies for his pictures are numerous
and very highly esteemed. They contain the essence of his
conceptions, and much of their spiritual beauty and subtlety
of expression was often lost in the elaboration of the finished
picture. He seldom succeeded in retaining the freshness of
his first idea more completely than in his last picture — " Clytie "
— which was left unfinished on his easel. He rarely painted
sacred subjects. The most beautiful of his few pictures of this
kind was the " David musing on the Housetop" (1865). Others
were " Elijah in the Wilderness " (1879), " Elisha raising the
Son of the Shunammite " (1881) and a design intended for the
decoration of the dome of St Paul's Cathedral, " And the Sea
gave up the Dead which were in it " (1892), now in the Tate
Gallery, and the terrible " Rizpah " of 1893. His diploma
picture was " St Jerome," exhibited in 1869. Besides these
pictures of sacred subjects, he made some designs for Dalziel's
Bible, which for force of imagination excel the paintings. The
finest of these are " Cain and Abel," and " Samson with the
Gates of Gaza."
Not so easily to be classed, but among the most individual
and beautiful of his pictures, are a few of which the motive was
purely aesthetic. Amongst these may specially be noted " The
Summer Moon," two Greek girls sleeping on a marble bench,
and "The Music Lesson," in which a lovely little girl is seated
on her lovely young mother's lap learning to play the lute. With
these, as a work produced without any literary suggestion,
though very different in feeling, may be associated the " Eastern
Slinger scaring Birds in the Harvest-time: Moon-rise " (1875),
a nude figure standing on a raised platform in a field of wheat.
Leighton also painted a few portraits, including those of
Signer Costa, the Italian landscape painter, Mr F. P. Cockerell,
Mrs Sutherland Orr (his sister), Amy, Lady Coleridge, Mrs
Stephen Ralli and (the finest of all) Sir Richard Burton, the
traveller and Eastern scholar, which was exhibited in 1876 and
is now in the National Portrait Gallery.
Like other painters of the day, notably G. F. Watts, Lord
Leighton executed a few pieces of sculpture. His " Athlete
struggling with a Python " was exhibited at the Royal Academy
in 1877, and was purchased for the Chantrey Bequest collectio'n.
Another statue, " The Sluggard," of equal merit, was exhibited
in 1886; and a charming statuette of a nude figure of a girl
looking over her shoulder at a frog, called " Needless Alarms,"
was completed in the same year, and presented by the artist
to Sir John Millais in acknowledgment of the gift by the latter
of his picture, " Shelling Peas." He made the beautiful design
for the reverse of the Jubilee Medal of 1887. It was also his
habit to make sketch models in wax for the figures in his pictures,
many of which are in the possession of the Royal Academy.
As an illustrator in black and white he also deserves to be remem-
bered, especially for the cuts to Dalziel's Bible, already mentioned,
and his illustrations to George Eliot's Romola, which appeared
in the Cornhill Magazine. The latter are full of the spirit of
LEIGHTON, R.
Florence and the Florentines, and show a keen sense of humour,
elsewhere excluded from his work. Of his decorative paintings,
the best known are the elegant compositions (in spirit fresco)
on the walls of the Victoria and Albert Museum, representing
" The Industrial Arts of War and Peace." There, also, is the
refined and spirited figure of " Cimabue " in mosaic. In Lynd-
hurst church are mural decorations to the memory of Mr Pepys
Cockerell, illustrating " The Parable of the Wise and Foolish
Virgins."
Leighton's life was throughout marked by distinction, artistic
and social. Though not tall, he had a fine presence and manners,
at once genial and courtly. He was welcomed in all societies,
from the palace to the studio. He spoke German, Italian and
French, as well as English. He had much taste and love for
music, and considerable gifts as an orator of a florid type. His
Presidential Discourses (published, London, 1806) were full
of elegance and' culture. For seven years (1876-1883) he com-
manded the 2oth Middlesex (Artists) Rifle Volunteers, retiring
with the rank of honorary colonel, and subsequently receiving
the Volunteer Decoration. Yet no social attractions or successes
diverted him from his devotion to his profession, the welfare
of his brethren in art or of the Royal Academy. As president
he was punctilious in the discharge of his duties, ready to give
help and encouragement to artists young and old, and his tenure
of the office was marked by some wise and liberal reforms. He
frequently went abroad, generally to Italy, where he was well
known and appreciated. He visited Spain in 1866, Egypt in
1868, when he went up the Nile with Ferdinand de Lesseps
in a steamer lent by the Khedive. He was at Damascus for a
short time in 1873. It was his custom on all these trips to make
little lively sketches of landscape and buildings. These fresh
little flowers of his leisure used to decorate the walls of his studio,
and at the sale of its contents after his death realized considerable
prices. It was when he was in the full tide of his popularity
and success, and apparently in the full tide of his personal vigour
also, that he was struck with angina pectoris. For a long time
he struggled bravely with this cruel disease, never omitting
except from absolute necessity any of his official duties except
during a brief period of rest abroad, which failed to produce
the desired effect. His death occurred on the 25th of January
1896.
Leighton was elected an Academician in 1868, and succeeded
Sir Francis Grant as President in 1878, when he was knighted.
He was created a baronet in 1886, and was raised to the peerage
in 1896, a few days before his death. He held honorary degrees
at the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, Dublin, Edinburgh
and Durham, was an Associate of the Institute of France; a
Commander of the Legion of Honour, and of the Order of
Leopold. He was a Knight of the Coburg Order, " Dem Ver-
dienste," and of the Prussian Order, " Pour le Merite," and a
member of at least ten foreign Academies. In 1859 he won a
medal of the second class at the Paris Salon, and at the Exposi-
tion Universelle of 1889 a gold medal. As a sculptor he was
awarded a medal of the first class in 1878 and the Grand Prix
in 1889.
See Art Annual (Mrs A. Lang), 1884; Royal Academy Cata-
logue, Winter Exhibition, 1897; National Gallery of British Art
Catalogue; C. Monkhouse, British Contemporary Artists (London,
1899); Ernest Rhys, Frederick, Lord Leighton (London, 1898,
1900). (C. Mo.)
LEIGHTON, ROBERT (1611-1684), archbishop of Glasgow,
was born, probably in London (others say at Ulishaven, Forfar-
shire), in 1611, the eldest son of Dr Alexander Leighton, the
author of Zion's Plea against the Prelacie, whose terrible sufferings
for having dared to question the divine right of Episcopacy,
under the persecution of Laud, form one of the most disgraceful
incidents of the reign of Charles I. Dr Leighton is said to have
been of the old family of Ulishaven in Forfarshire. From his
earliest childhood, according to Burnet, Robert Leighton was
distinguished for his saintly disposition. In his sixteenth year
(1627) he was sent to the university of Edinburgh, where, after
studying with distinguished success for four years, he took the
degree of M.A. in 1631. His father then sent him to travel
abroad, and he is understood to have spent several years in
France, where he acquired a complete mastery of the French
language. While there he passed a good deal of time with
relatives at Douai who had become Roman Catholics, and with
whom he kept up a correspondence for many years afterwards.
Either at this time or on some subsequent visit he had also a
good deal of intercourse with members of the Jansenist party.
This intercourse contributed to the charity towards those who
differed from him in religious opinion, which ever afterwards
formed a feature in his character. The exact period of his
return to Scotland has not been ascertained; but in 1641 he
was ordained Presbyterian minister of Newbattle in Midlothian.
In 1652 he resigned his charge and went to reside in Edinburgh.
What led him to take this step does not distinctly appear.
The account given is that he had little sympathy with the fiery
zeal of his brother clergymen on certain political questions, and
that this led to severe censures on their part.
Early in 1653 he was appointed principal of the university
of Edinburgh, and primarius professor of divinity. In this post
he continued for seven or eight years. A considerable number
of his Latin prelections and other addresses (published after
his death) are remarkable for the purity and elegance of their
Latinity, and their subdued and meditative eloquence. They are
valuable instructions in the art of living a holy life rather than
a body of scientific divinity. Throughout, however, they bear
the marks of a deeply learned and accomplished mind, saturated
with both classical and patristic reading, and like all his works
they breathe the spirit of one who lived very much above the
world. His mental temper was too unlike the temper of his time
to secure success as a teacher.
In 1661, when Charles II. had resolved to force Episcopacy
once more upon Scotland, he fixed upon Leighton for one of his
bishops (see SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF). Leighton, living very much
out of the world, and being somewhat deficient in what may be
called the political sense, was too open to the persuasions used
to induce him to enter a sphere for which he instinctively felt
he was ill qualified. The Episcopacy which he contemplated
was that modified form which had been suggested by Archbishop
Ussher, and to which Baxter and many of the best of the English
Nonconformists would have readily given their adherence. It
is significant that he always refused to be addressed as " my
lord," and it is stated that when dining with his clergy on one
occasion he wished to seat himself at the foot of the table.
Leighton soon began to discover the sort of men with whom
he was to be associated in the episcopate. He travelled with
them in the same coach from London towards Scotland, but
having become, as he told Burnet, very weary of their company
(as he doubted not they were of his), and having found that
they intended to make a kind of triumphal entrance into
Edinburgh, he left them at Morpeth and retired to the earl of
Lothian's at Newbattle. He very soon lost all hope of being
able to build up the church by the means which the government
had set on foot, and his work, as he confessed to Burnet, " seemed
to him a fighting against God." He did, however, what he could,
governing his diocese (that of Dunblane) with the utmost
mildness, as far as he could, preventing the persecuting measures
in active operation elsewhere, and endeavouring to persuade
the Presbyterian clergy to come to an accommodation with their
Episcopal brethren. After a hopeless struggle of three or four
years to induce the government to put a stop to their fierce
persecution of the Covenanters, he determined to resign his
bishopric, and went up to London in 1665 for this purpose.
He so far worked upon the mind of Charles that he promised
to enforce the adoption of milder measures, but it does not appear
that any material improvement took place. In 1669 Leighton
again went to London and made fresh representations on the
subject, but little result followed. The slight disposition,
however, shown by the government to accommodate matters
appears to have inspired Leighton with so much hope that in
the following year he agreed, though with a good deal of hesitation,
to accept the archbishopric of Glasgow. In this higher sphere
he redoubled his efforts with the Presbyterians to bring about
LEIGHTON BUZZARD— LEIPZIG
399
some degree of conciliation with Episcopacy, but the only result
was to embroil himself with the hot-headed Episcopal party
as well as with the Presbyterians. In utter despair, therefore,
of being able to be of any further service to the cause of religion,
he resigned the archbishopric in 1674 and retired to the house
of his widowed sister, Mrs Lightmaker, at Broadhurst in Sussex.
Here he spent the remaining ten years, probably the happiest
of his life, and died suddenly on a visit to London in 1684.
It is difficult to form a just or at least a full estimate of Leighton's
character. He stands almost alone in his age. In some respects
he was immeasurably superior both in intellect and in piety to most
of the Scottish ecclesiastics of his time; and yet he seems to have
had almost no influence in moulding the characters or conduct of
his contemporaries. So intense was his absorption in the love of
God that little room seems to have been left in his heart for human
sympathy or affection. Can it be that there was after all something
to repel in his outward manner? Burnet tells us that he had never
seen him laugh, and very seldom even smile. In other respects,
too, he gives the impression of standing aloof from human interests
and ties. It may go for little that he never married, but -'t was
surely a curious idiosyncrasy that he habitually cherished the wish
(which was granted him) that he might die in an inn. In fact, holy
meditation seems to have been the one absorbing interest of his life.
At Dunblane tradition preserved the memory of " the good bishop,"
silent and companionless, pacing up and down the sloping walk
by the river's bank under the beautiful west window of his cathedral.
And from a letter of the earl of Lothian to his countess it appears
that, whatever other reasons Leighton might have had for resigning
his charge at Newbattle, the main object which he had in view
was to be left to his own thoughts. It is therefore not very wonderful
that he was completely misjudged and even disliked both by the
Presbyterian and by the Episcopal party.
It was characteristic of him that he could never be made to
understand that anything which he wrote possessed the smallest
value. None of his works were published by himself, and it is stated
that he left orders that all his MSS. should be destroyed after his
death. But fortunately for the world this charge was disregarded.
Like all the best writing, it seems to flow without effort; it is the
easy unaffected outcome of his saintly nature. Throughout, how-
ever, it is the language of a scholar and a man of perfect literary
taste ; and with all its spirituality of thought there are no mystical
raptures, such as are often found mingled with the Scottish practical
theology of the 1 7th century. It was a common reproach against
Leighton that he had leanings towards Roman Catholicism, and
perhaps this is so far true that he had formed himself in some degree
upon the model of some of the saintly persons of that faith, such as
Pascal and Thomas a Kempis.
The best account of Leighton's character is that of Bishop Burnet
in Hist, of his Own Times (1723-1734). No perfectly satisfactory
edition of Leighton's works exists. After his death his Commentary
on Peter and several of his other works were published under the
editorship of his friend Dr Fall, and those early editions may be
said to be, with some drawbacks, by far the best. His later editors
have been possessed by the mania of reducing his good archaic and
nervous language to the bald feebleness of modern phraseology. It
is unfortunately impossible to exempt from this criticism even the
edition, in other respects very valuable and meritorious, published
under the superintendence of the Rev. W. West (7 vols., London,
1869-1875); see also volume of selections (with biography) by Dr
Blair of Dunblane (1883), who also contributed " Bibliography of
Archbishop Leighton " to the British and Foreign Evangelical Review
(July 1883); Andrew Lang, History of Scotland (1902).
LEIGHTON BUZZARD, a market town in the southern parlia-
mentary division of Bedfordshire, England, 40 m. N.W. of London
by the London & North- Western railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901) 6331. It lies in the flat valley of the Ouzel, a tributary
of the Ouse, sheltered to east and west by low hills. The river
here forms the county boundary with Buckinghamshire. The
Grand Junction canal follows its course, and gives the town
extensive water-communications. The church of All Saints
is cruciform, with central tower and spire. It is mainly Early
English, and a fine example of the style; but some of the windows
including the nave clerestory, and the beautiful carved wooden
roof, are Perpendicular. The west door has good early iron-
work; and on one of the tower-arch pillars are some remarkable
early carvings of jocular character, one of which represents a
man assaulted by a woman with a ladle. The market cross is
of the I4th century, much restored, having an open arcade
supporting a pinnacle, with flying buttresses. The statues in
its niches are modern, but the originals are placed on the exterior
of the town hall. Leighton has a considerable agricultural
trade, and some industry in straw-plaiting. Across the Ouzel in
Buckinghamshire, where Leighton railway station is situated,
is the urban district of Linslade (pop. 2157).
LEININGEN, the name of an old German family, whose lands
lay principally in Alsace and Lorraine. The first count of
Leiningen ab6ut whom anything certain is known was a certain
Emicho (d. 1117), whose family became extinct in the male
line when Count Frederick, a Minnesinger, died about 1220.
Frederick's sister, Liutgarde, married Simon, count of Saar-
briicken, and Frederick, one of their sons, inheriting the lands
of the counts of Leiningen, took their arms and their name.
Having increased its possessions the Leiningen family was
divided about 1317 into two branches; the elder of these, whose
head was a landgrave, died out in 1467. On this event its lands
fell to a female, the last landgrave's sister Margaret, wife of
Reinhard, lord of Westerburg, and their descendants were known
as the family of Leiningen-Westerburg. Later this family was
divided into two branches, those of Alt-Leiningen- Westerburg
and Neu-Leiningen-Westerburg, both of which are represented
to-day.
Meanwhile the younger branch of the Leiningens, known
as the family of Leiningen-Dagsburg, was flourishing, and in
1560 this was divided into the lines of Leiningen-Dagsburg-
Hartenburg, founded by Count John Philip (d. 1562), and
Leiningen-Dagsburg-Heidesheim or Falkenburg, founded by
Count Emicho (d. 1593). In 1779 the head of the former line
was raised to the rank of a prince of the Empire. In 1801 this
family was deprived of its lands on the left bank of the Rhine
by France, but in 1803 it received ample compensation for these
losses. A few years later its possessions were mediatized, and
they are now included mainly in Baden, but partly in Bavaria
and in Hesse. A former head of this family, Prince Emich
Charles, married Maria Louisa Victoria, princess of Saxe-Coburg;
after his death in 1814 the princess married George III.'s son,
the duke of -Kent, by whom she became the mother of Queen
Victoria. In 1910 the head of the family was Prince Emich
(b. 1866).
The family of Leiningen-Dagsburg-Heidesheim was divided
into three branches, the two senior of which became extinct
during the i8th century. At present it is represented by the
counts of Leiningen-Guntersblum and Leiningen-Heidesheim,
called also Leiningen-Billigheim and Leiningen-Neidenau.
See Brinckmeier, Genealogische Geschichte des Houses Leiningen
(Brunswick, 1890-1891).
LEINSTER, a province of Ireland, occupying the middle and
south-eastern portion of the island, and extending to the left
bank of the Shannon. It includes counties Longford, West-
meath, Meath, Louth, King's County, Kildare, Dublin, Queen's
County, Carlow, Wicklow, Kilkenny and Wexford (q.v. for
topography, &c.). Leinster (Laighen) was one of the early
Milesian provinces of Ireland. Meath, the modern county of
which is included in Leinster, was the name of a separate province
created in the 2nd century A.D. The kings of Leinster retained
their position until 1171, and their descendants maintained
independence within a circumscribed territory as late as the i6th
century. In 1170 Richard Strongbow married Aoife, daughter
of the last king Diarmid, and thus acquired the nominal right to
the kingdom of Leinster. Henry II. confirmed him in powers
of jurisdiction equivalent to those of a palatinate. His daughter
Isabel married William Marshal, earl of Pembroke. Their five
daughters shared the territory of Leinster, which was now divided
into five liberties carrying the same extensive privileges as
the undivided territory, namely, Carlow, Kilkenny, Wexford,
Kildare and Leix. The history of Leinster thereafter passes
to the several divisions which were gradually organized into the
present counties.
LEIPZIG, a city of Germany, the second town of the kingdom
of Saxony in size and the first in commercial importance, 70 m.
N.W. of Dresden and mm. S.W. of Berlin by rail, and 6 m.
from the Prussian frontier. It lies 350 ft. above the sea-level,
in a broad and fertile plain, just above the junction of three
small rivers, the Pleisse, the Parthe and the Elster, which flow
in various branches through or round the town and afterwards.
400
LEIPZIG
under the name of the Elster, discharge themselves into the
Saale. The climate, though not generally unhealthy, may be
inclement in winter and hot in summer.
Leipzig is one of the most enterprising and prosperous of
German towns, and in point of trade and industries' ranks among
German cities immediately after Berlin and Hamburg. It
possesses the third largest German university, is the seat of the
supreme tribunal of the German empire and the headquarters
of the XIX. (Saxon) army corps, and forms one of the most
prominent literary and musical centres in Europe. Its general
aspect is imposing, owing to the number of new public buildings
erected during the last 20 years of the igth century. It consists
of the old, or inner city, surrounded by a wide and pleasant
promenade laid out on the site of the old fortifications, and of
the very much more extensive inner and outer suburbs. Many
thriving suburban villages, such as Reudnitz, Volkmarsdorf,
Gohlis, Eutritzsch, Plagwitz and Lindenau, have been incorpor-
ated with the city, and with these accretions the population in
1905 amounted to 502,570. On the north-west the town is
bordered by the fine public park and woods of the Rosenthal,
and on the west by the Johanna Park and by pleasant groves
leading along the banks of the Pleisse.
The old town, with its narrow streets and numerous houses
of the i6th and I7th centuries, with their high-pitched roofs,
preserves much of its quaint medieval aspect. The market square,
lying almost in its centre, is of great interest. Upon it the four
main business streets, the Grimmaische-, the Peters-, the Hain-
and the Katharinen-strassen, converge, and its north side is
occupied by the beautiful old Rathaus, a Gothic edifice built by
the burgomaster Hieronymus Lotter in 1556, and containing
life-size portraits of the Saxon rulers. Superseded by the new
Rathaus, it has been restored and accommodates a municipal
museum. Behind the market square and the main street lie a
labyrinth of narrow streets interconnected by covered courtyards
and alleys, with extensive warehouses and cellars. The whole,
in the time of the great fairs, when every available place is packed
with merchandise and thronged with a motley crowd, presents
the semblance of an oriental bazaar. Close to the old Rathaus is
Auerbach's Hof, built about 1530 and interesting as being immor-
talized in Goethe's Faust. It has a curious old wine vault
(Keller) which contains a series of mural paintings of the i6th
century, representing the legend on which the play is based.
Near by is the picturesque Konigshaus, for several centuries
the palace of the Saxon monarchs in Leipzig and in which King
Frederick Augustus I. was made prisoner by the Allies after the
battle of Leipzig in October 1813. At the end of the Petersstrasse,
in the south-west corner of the inner town and on the promenade,
lay the Pleissenburg, or citadel, modelled, according to tradition,
on that of Milan, and built early in the I3th century. Here
Luther in 1519 held his momentous disputation. The round
tower was long used as an observatory and the building as a
barrack. With the exception of the tower, which has been
encased and raised to double its former height — to 300 ft. — the
citadel has been removed and its site is occupied by the majestic
pile of the new Rathaus in Renaissance style, with the tower as
its central feature. The business of Leipzig is chiefly concen-
trated in the inner city, but the headquarters of the book trade
lie in the eastern suburb. Between the inner town and the
latter lies the magnificent Augustusplatz, one of the most
spacious squares in Europe. Upon it, on the side of the inner
town and included within it, is the Augusteum, or main building
of the university, a handsome edifice containing a splendid hall
(1900), lecture rooms and archaeological collections; adjoining
it is the Paulinerkirche, the university church. The other sides
of the square are occupied by the new theatre, an imposing
Renaissance structure, designed by C. F. Langhans, the post
office and the museum of sculpture and painting, the latter faced
by the Mende fountain. The churches of Leipzig are compara-
tively uninteresting. The oldest, in its present form, is the Paul-
inerkirche, built in 1229-1240, and restored in 1900, with a
curiously grooved cloister; the largest in the inner town is the
Thomaskirche, with a high-pitched roof dating from 1496, and
memorable for its association with J. Sebastian Bach, who was
organist here. Among others may be mentioned the new Gothic
Petrikirche, with a lofty spire, in the south suburb. On the.
east is the Johanniskirche, round which raged the last conflict
in the battle of 1813, when it suffered severely from cannon shot.
In it is the tomb of Bach, and outside that of the poet Gellert.
Opposite its main entrance is the Reformation monument, with
bronze statues of Luther and Melanchthon, by Johann Schilling,
unveiled in 1883. In the Johanna Park is the Lutherkirche
(1886), and close at hand the Roman Catholic and English
churches. To the south-west of the new Rathaus, lying beyond
the Pleisse and between it and the Johanna Park, is the new
academic quarter. Along the fine thoroughfares, noticeable
among which is the Karl Tauchnitz Strasse, are closely grouped
many striking buildings. Here is the new Gewandhaus, or
Konzerthaus, built in 1880-1884, in which the famous concerts
called after its name are given, the old Gewandhaus, or Drapers'
Hall, in the inner town having again been devoted to commercial
use as a market hall during the fairs. Immediately opposite to
it is the new university library, built in 1891, removed hither
from the old monasterial buildings behind the Augusteum, and
containing some 500,000 volumes and 5000 MSS. Behind that
again is the academy of art, one wing of which accommodates
the industrial art school; and close beside it are the school of
technical arts and the conservatoire of music. Between the
university library and the new Gewandhaus stands a monument
of Mendelssohn (1892). Immediately to the east of the school
of arts rises the grand pile of the supreme tribunal of the German
empire, the Reichsgericht, which compares with the Reichstag
building in Berlin. It was built in 1888-1895 from plans by
Ludwig Hoffmann, and is distinguished for the symmetry and
harmony of its proportions. It bears an imposing dome, 225 ft.
high, crowned by a bronze figure of Truth by O. Lessing, 18 ft.
high. Opposite, on the outer side of the Pleisse, are the district
law-courts, large and substantial, though not specially imposing
edifices. In the same quarter stands the Grassi Museum (1893-
1896) for industrial art and ethnology, and a short distance away
are the palatial buildings of the Reichs and Deutsche Banks.
Farther east and lying in the centre of the book-trade quarter
stand close together the Buchhandlerhaus (booksellers' exchange),
the great hall decorated with allegorical pictures by Sascha
Schneider, and the Buchgewerbehaus, a museum of the book
trade, both handsome red brick edifices in the German Renais-
sance style, erected in 1886-1890. South-west of these buildings,
on the other side of the Johannisthal Park, are clustered the
medical institutes and hospitals of the university — the infirmary,
clinical and other hospitals, the physico-chemical institute,
pathological institute, physiological institute, ophthalmic
hospital, pharmacological institute, the schools of anatomy,
the chemical laboratory, the zoological institute, the physico-
mineralogical institute, the botanical garden and also the
veterinary schools, deaf and dumb asylum, agricultural college
and astronomical observatory. Among other noteworthy
buildings in this quarter must be noted the Johannisstift, an
asylum for the relief of the aged poor, with a handsome front
and slender spire. On the north side of the inner town and on
the promenade are the handsome exchange with library, and the
reformed church, a pleasing edifice in late Gothic.
Leipzig has some interesting monuments; the Siegesdenkmal,
commemorative of the wars of 1866 and 1870, on the market
square, statues of Goethe, Leibnitz, Gellert, J. Sebastian
Bach, Robert Schumann, Hahnemann, the homeopathist, and
Bismarck. There are also many memorials of the battle of
Leipzig, including an obelisk on the Randstadter-Steinweg, on the
site of the bridge which was prematurely blown up, when Prince
Poniatowski was drowned ; a monument of cannon balls collected
after the battle; a " relief " to Major Friccius, who stormed
the outer Grimma gate; while on the battle plain itself and
close to " Napoleonstein," which commemorates Napoleon's
position on the last day of the battle, a gigantic obelisk sur-
rounded by a garden has been planned for dedication on the
hundredth anniversary of the battle (October 19, 1913).
LEIPZIG
401
The University and Education. — The university of Leipzig,
founded in 1409 by a secession of four hundred German students
from Prague, is one of the most influential universities in the
world. It was a few years since the most numerously attended
of any university in Germany, but it has since been outstripped
by those of Berlin and of Munich. Its large revenues, derived
to a great extent from house property in Leipzig and estates in
Saxony, enable it, in conjunction with a handsome state sub-
vention, to provide rich endowments for the professorial chairs.
To the several faculties also belong various collegiate buildings,
notably, to the legal, that of the Collegium beatae Virginis in
the Petersstrasse, and to the philosophical the Rothe Haus
on the promenade facing the theatre. The other educational
institutions of Leipzig include the Nicolai and Thomas gymnasia,
several " Realschulen," a commercial academy (Handelsschule),
high schools for girls, and a large number of public and private
schools of all grades.
Art and Literature. — The city has a large number of literary,
scientific and artistic institutions. One of the most important
is the museum, which contains about four hundred modern
paintings, a large number of casts, a few pieces of original sculp-
ture and a well-arranged collection of drawings and engravings.
The collection of the historical society and the ethnographical
and art-industrial collections in the Grassi Museum are also of
considerable interest. The museum was erected with part of
the munificent bequest made to the city by Dominic Grassi in
1 88 1. As a musical centre Leipzig is known all over the world
for its excellent conservatorium, founded in 1843 by Mendelssohn.
The series of concerts given annually in the Gewandhaus is
also of world-wide reputation, and the operatic stage of Leipzig
is deservedly ranked among the finest in Germany. There
are numerous vocal and orchestral societies, some of which have
brought their art to a very high pitch of perfection. The promin-
ence of the publishing interest has attracted to Leipzig a large
number of gifted authors, and made it a literary centre of con-
siderable importance. Over five hundred newspapers and
periodicals are published here, including several of the most
widely circulated in Germany. Intellectual interests of a high
order have always characterized, Leipzig, and what Karl von
Holtei once said of it is true to-day: " There is only one city
in Germany that represents Germany; only a single city where
one can forget that he is a Hessian, a Bavarian, a Swabian, a
Prussian or a Saxon; only one city where, amid the opulence
of the commercial world with which science is so gloriously allied,
even the man who possesses nothing but his personality is
honoured and esteemed; only one city, in which, despite a
few narrownesses, all the advantages of a great, I may say a
world-metropolis, are conspicuous ! This city is, in my opinion,
and in my experience, Leipzig."
Commerce, Fairs. — The outstanding importance of Leipzig
as a commercial town is mainly derived from its three great
fairs, which annually attract an enormous concourse of merchants
from all parts of Europe, and from Persia, Armenia and other
Asiatic countries. The most important fairs are held at Easter
and Michaelmas, and are said to have been founded as markets
about 1170. The smaller New Year's fair was established in
1458. Under the fostering care of the margraves of Meissen,
and then of the electors of Saxony they attained great popularity.
In 1 268 the margrave of Meissen granted a safe-conduct to all
frequenters of the fairs, and in 1497 and 1507 the emperor
Maximilian I. greatly increased their importance by prohibiting
the holding of annual markets at any town within a wide radius of
Leipzig. During the Thirty Years' War, the Seven Years' War
and the troubles consequent upon the French Revolution, the
trade of the Leipzig fairs considerably decreased, but it re-
covered after the accession of Saxony to the German Customs
Union (Zollverein) in 1834, and for the next twenty years rapidly
and steadily increased. Since then, owing to the greater facilities
of communication, the transactions at the fairs have diminished
in relative, though they have increased in actual, value. Wares
that can be safely purchased by sample appear at the fairs in
steadily diminishing quantities, while others, such as hides,
furs and leather, which require to be actually examined, show
as marked an increase. The value of the sales considerably
exceeds £10,000,000 sterling per annum. The principal com-
modity is furs (chiefly American and Russian), of which about
one and a quarter million pounds worth are sold annually;
other articles disposed of are leather, hides, wool, cloth, linen
and glass. The Leipzig wool-market, held for two days in June,
is also important.
In the trades of bookselling and publishing Leipzig occupies
a unique position, not only taking the first place in Germany,
but even surpassing London and Paris in the number and total
value of its sales. There are upwards of nine hundred pub-
lishers and booksellers in the town, and about eleven thousand
firms in other parts of Europe are represented here. Several
hundred booksellers assemble in Leipzig every year, and settle
their accounts at their own exchange (Buchhandler-Borse).
Leipzig also contains about two hundred printing-works, some
of great extent, and a corresponding number of type-foundries,
binding-shops and other kindred industries.
The book trades give employment to over 15,000 persons,
and since 1878 Leipzig has grown into an industrial town of the
first rank. The iron and machinery trades employ 4500 persons ;
the textile industries, cotton and yarn spinning and hosiery,
6000; and the making of scientific and musical instruments,
including pianos, 2650. Other industries include the manufac-
ture of artificial flowers, wax-cloth, chemicals, ethereal oils and
essences, beer, mineral waters, tobacco and cigars, lace, india-
rubber wares, rush-work and paper, the preparation of furs
and numerous other branches. These industries are mostly
carried on in the suburbs of Plagwitz, Reudnitz, Lindena\i,
Gohlis, Eutritzsch, Konnewitz and the neighbouring town of
Markranstadt.
Communications. — Leipzig lies at the centre of a network
of railways giving it direct communication with all the more
important cities of Germany. There are six main line railway
stations, of which the Dresden and the Magdeburg lie side
by side in the north-east corner of the promenade, the Thur-
ingian and Berlin stations further away in the northern suburb;
in the eastern is the Eilenburg station (for Breslau and the east)
and in the south the Bavarian station. The whole traffic of
these stations is to be directed into a vast central station (the
largest in the world), lying on the sites of the Dresden, Magde-
burg and Thuringian stations. The estimated cost, borne by
Prussia, Saxony and the city of Leipzig, is estimated at 6 million
pounds sterling. The city has an extensive electric tramway
system, bringing all the outlying suburbs into close connexion
with the business quarters of the town.
Population. — The population of Leipzig was quintupled within
the igth century, rising from 31,887 in 1801 to 153,988 in 1881,
to 455,089 in 1900 and to 502,570 in 1905.
History. — Leipzig owes its origin to a Slav settlement between
the Elster and the Pleisse, which was in existence before the year
1000, and its name to the Slav word lipa, a lime tree. There was
also a German settlement near this spot, probably round a castle
erected early in the loth century by the German king, Henry the
Fowler. The district was part of the mark of Merseburg, and the
bishops of Merseburg were the lords of extensive areas around the
settlements. In the nth century Leipzig is mentioned as a fortified
place and in the I2th it came into the possession of the margrave
of Meissen, being granted some municipal privileges by the mar-
grave, Otto the Rich, before 1190. Its favourable situation in the
midst of a plain intersected by the principal highways of central
Europe, together with the fostering care of its rulers, now began
the work of raising Leipzig to the position of a very important
commercial town. Its earliest trade was in the salt produced at
Halle, and its enterprising inhabitants constructed roads and bridges
to lighten the journey of the traders and travellers whose way Ted
to the town. Soon Leipzig was largely used as a depot by the
merchants of Nuremberg, who carried on a considerable trade with
Poland. Powers of self-government were acquired by the council
(Rat) of the town, the importance of which was enhanced during
the isth century by several grants of privileges from the emperors.
When Saxony was divided in 1485 Leipzig fell to the Albertme, or
ducal branch of the family, whose head Duke George gave new
rights to the burghers. This duke, however, at whose instigation
the famous discussion between Luther and Johann von Eck took
place in the Pleissenburg of Leipzig, inflicted some injury upon the
402
LEIRIA— LEISNIG
town's trade and also upon its university by the harsh treatment
which he meted out to the adherents of the new doctrines; but
under the rule of his successor, Henry, Leipzig accepted the teaching
of the reformers. In 1547 during the war of the league of Schmal-
kalden the town was besieged by the elector of Saxony, John
Frederick I. It was not captured, although its suburbs were de-
stroyed. These and the Pleissenburg were rebuilt by the elector
Maurice, who also strengthened the fortifications. Under the elector
Augustus I. emigrants from the Netherlands were encouraged to
settle in Leipzig and its trade with Hamburg and with England
was greatly extended.
During the Thirty Years' War Leipzig suffered six sieges and on
four occasions was occupied by hostile troops, being retained by
the Swedes as security for the payment of an indemnity from
1648 to 1650. After 1650 its fortifications were strengthened; its
finances were put on a better footing; and its trade, especially with
England, began again to prosper; important steps being taken
with regard to its organization. Towards the end of the 1 7th century
the publishing trade began to increase very rapidly, partly because
the severity of the censorship at Frankfort-on-the-Main caused
many booksellers to remove to Leipzig. During the Seven Years'
War Frederick the Great exacted a heavy contribution from Leipzig,
but this did not seriously interfere with its prosperity. In 1784
the fortifications were pulled down. The wars in the first decade
of the igth century were not on the whole unfavourable to the
commerce of Leipzig, but in 1813 and 1814, owing to the presence
of enormous armies in the neighbourhood, it suffered greatly.
Another revival, however, set in after the peace of 1815, and this
was aided by the accession of Saxony to the German Zollverein in
1834, and by the opening of the first railway a little later. In 1831
the town was provided with a new constitution, and in 1837 a scheme
for the reform of the university was completed. A riot in 1845,
the revolutionary movement of 1848 and the Prussian occupation
of 1866 were merely passing shadows. In 1879 Leipzig acquired a
new importance by becoming the seat of the supreme court of the
German empire.
The immediate neighbourhood of Leipzig has been the scene of
several battles, two of which are of more than ordinary importance.
These are the battles of Breitenfeld, fought on the 1 7th of September
1631, between the Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus and the im-
perialists, and the great battle of Leipzig, known in Germany as the
Volkerschlacht, fought in October 1813 between Napoleon and the
allied forces of Russia, Prussia and Austria.
Towards the middle of the i8th century Leipzig was the seat of
the most influential body of literary men in Germany, over whom
Johann Christoph Gottsched, like his contemporary, Samuel Johnson,
in England, exercised a kind of literary dictatorship. Then, if ever,
Leipzig deserved the epithet of a " Paris in miniature " (Klein Parts)
assigned to it by Goethe in his Faust. The young Lessing produced
his first play in the Leipzig theatre, and the university counts
Goethe, Klopstock, Jean Paul Richter, Fichte and Schelling among
its alumni. Schiller and Gellert also resided for a time in Leipzig,
and Sebastian Bach and Mendelssohn filled musical posts here.
Among the celebrated natives of the town are the philosopher
Leibnitz and the composer Wagner.
AUTHORITIES. — For the history of Leipzig see E. Hasse, Die
Stadt Leipzig und ihre Umgebung, geographisch und statistisch be-
schrieben (Leipzig, 1878); K. Grosse, Geschichte der Stadt Leipzig
(Leipzig, 1897-1898); Rachel, Veruialtungsorganisation und Amter-
wesen der Stadt Leipzig bis 1627 (Leipzig, 1902); G. Wustmann,
Aus Leipzig! Vergangenheit (Leipzig, 1898); Bilderbuch aus der
Geschichte der Stadt Leipzig (Leipzig, 1897); Leipzig durch drei
Jahrhunderte, Atlas zur Geschichte des Leipziger Stadtbildes (Leipzig,
1891); Quellen zur Geschichte Leipzig! (Leipzig, 1889-1895); and
Geschichte der Stadt Leipzig (Leipzig, 1905); F. Seifert, Die Re-
formation in Leipzig (Leipzig, 1883); G. Buchwald, Reformations-
geschichte der Stadt Leipzig (Leipzig, 1900); Geffcken and Tyko-
cinski, Stiftungsbuch der Stadt Leipzig (Leipzig, 1905); the Urkun-
denbuch der Sladt Leipzig, edited by C. F. Posern-Klett and Forste-
mann (Leipzig, 1870-1895); and the Schriften des Vereins fur die
Geschichte Leipzigs (Leipzig, 1872-1904). For other aspects of the
town's life see Hirschfeld, Leipzigs Grossindustrie und Grosshandel
(Leipzig, 1887); Hassert, Die geographische Lage und Entwickelung
Leipzigs (Leipzig, 1899); Helm, Heimatkunde von Leipzig (Leipzig,
1903); E. Friedberg, Die Universitdt Leipzig in Vergangenheit und
Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1897); F. Zarncke, Die Statutenbucher der
Universitat Leipzig (Leipzig, 1861); E. Hasse, Geschichte der Leip-
ziger Messen (Leipzig, 1885); Tille, Die Anfdnge der hohen Land-
strasse (Gptha, 1906) ; Biedermann, Geschichte der Leipziger Kramerin-
nung (Leipzig, 1881); and Mpltke, Die Leipziger Kramerinnung im
15 und 1 6 Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1901).
LEIRIA, an episcopal city and the capital of the district of
Leiria, formerly included in Estremadura, Portugal; on the
river Liz and on the Lisbon-Figueria da Foz railway. Pop.
(1900) 4459. The principal buildings of Leiria are the ruined
citadel, which dates from 1135, and the cathedral, a small
Renaissance building erected in 1571 but modernized in the
1 8th century. The main square of the city is named after the
poet Francisco Rodrigues Lobo, who was born here about 1500.
Between Leiria and the Atlantic there are extensive pine woods
known as the Pinhal de Leiria, which were planted by King
Diniz (1279-1325) with trees imported from the Landes in
France, in order to give firmness to the sandy soil. In the
neighbourhood there are glass and iron foundries, oil wells and
mineral springs. Leiria, the Roman Calippo, was taken from
the Moors in 1135 by Alphonso I. (Affonso Henriques). King
Diniz made it his capital. In 1466 the first Portuguese printing-
press was established here; in 1545 the 'city was made an
episcopal see. The administrative district of Leiria coincides
with the north and north-west of the ancient province of
Estremadura (q.v.); pop. (1900) 238,755; area 1317 sq. m.
LEISLER, JACOB (c. 1635-1691), American political agitator,
was born probably at Frankfort-on-Main, Germany, about 1635.
He went to New Netherland (New York) in 1660, married a
wealthy widow, engaged in trade, and soon accumulated a
fortune. The English Revolution of 1688 divided the people
of New York into two well-defined factions. In general the small
shop-keepers, small farmers, sailors, poor traders and artisans
were arrayed against the patroons, rich fur-traders, merchants,
lawyers and crown officers. The former were led by Leisler, the
latter by Peter Schuyler (1657-1724), Nicholas Bayard (c. 1644-
1 707), Stephen van Cortlandt (1643-1 700), William Nicolls (1657-
1723) and other representatives of the aristocratic Hudson Valley
families. The " Leislerians " pretended greater loyalty to the
Protestant succession. When news of the imprisonment of Gov.
Andros in Massachusetts was received, they took possession on
the 3ist of May 1689 of Fort James (at the southern end of
Manhattan Island) , renamed it Fort William and announced their
determination to hold it until the arrival of a governor commis-
sioned by the new sovereigns. The aristocrats also favoured the
Revolution, but preferred to continue the government under
authority from James II. rather than risk the danger of an inter-
regnum. Lieutenant-Governor Francis Nicholson sailed for Eng-
land on the 24th of June, a committee of safety was organized by
the popular party, and Leisler was appointed commander-in-chief.
Under authority of a letter from the home government addressed
to Nicholson, " or in his absence, to such as for the time being
takes care for preserving the peace and administering the laws
in His Majesty's province of New York," he assumed the title
of lieutenant-governor in December 1689, appointed a council
and took charge of the government of the entire province. He
summoned the first Intercolonial Congress in America, which met
in New York on the ist of May 1690 to plan concerted action
against the French and Indians. Colonel Henry Sloughter was
commissioned governor of the province on the 2nd of September
1689 but did not reach New York until the igth of March 1691.
In the meantime Major Richard Ingoldsby and two companies of
soldiers had landed (January 28, 1691) and demanded possession
of the fort. Leisler refused to surrender it, and after some con-
troversy an attack was made on the I7th of March in which
two soldiers were killed and several wounded. When Sloughter
arrived two days later Leisler hastened to give over to him the
fort and other evidences of authority. He and his son-in-law,
Jacob Milborne, were charged with treason for refusing to sub-
mit to Ingoldsby, were convicted, and on the i6th of May 1691
were executed. There has been much controversy among
historians with regard both to the facts and to the significance
of Leisler's brief career as ruler in New York.
See J. R. Brodhead, History of the State of New York (vol. 2, New
York, 1871). For the documents connected with the controversy
see E. B. O'Callaghan, Documentary History of the State of New
York (vol. 2, Albany, 1850).
LEISNIG, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, prettily situated
on the Freiberger Mulde, 7 m. S. of Grimma by the railway
from Leipzig to Dresden via Dobeln. Pop. (1905) 8147. On a
high rock above the town lies the old castle of Mildenstein,
now utilized as administrative offices. The industries include
the manufacture of cloth, furniture, boots, buttons, cigars,
beer, machinery and chemicals. Leisnig is a place of considerable
LEITH
403
antiquity. About 1080 it passed into the possession of the
counts of Groitzsch, but was purchased in 1157 by the emperor
Frederick I., who committed it to the charge of counts. It fell
to' Meissen in 1365, and later to Saxony.
LEITH, a municipal and police burgh, and seaport, county of
Midlothian, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 77,439- It is situated
on the south shore of the Firth of Forth, i| m. N.N.E. of
Edinburgh, of which it is the port and with which it is connected
by Leith Walk, practically a continuous street. It has stations
on the North British and Caledonian railways, and a branch
line (N.B.R.) to Portobello. Lying at the mouth of the Water
of Leith, which is crossed by several bridges and divides it into
the parishes of North and South Leith, it stretches for 3$ m.
along the shore of the Firth from Seafield in the east to near
Granton in the west. There is tramway communication with
Edinburgh and Newhaven.
The town is a thriving centre of trade and commerce. St
Mary's in Kirkgate, the parish church of South Leith, was
founded in 1483, and was originally cruciform but, as restored
in 1852, consists of an aisled nave and north-western tower.
Here David Lindsay (1531-1613), its minister, James VI.'s
chaplain and afterwards bishop of Ross, preached before the
king the thanksgiving sermon on the Gowrie conspiracy (1600).
John Logan, the hymn-writer and reputed author of " The Ode
to the Cuckoo," was minister for thirteen years; and in its
graveyard lies the Rev. John Home, author of Douglas, a native
of Leith. Near it in Constitution Street is St James's Episcopal
church (1862-1869), in the Early English style by Sir Gilbert
Scott, with an apsidal chancel and a spire 160 ft. high. The
parish church of North Leith, in Madeira Street, with a spire
158 ft. high, is one of the best livings in the Established Church
of Scotland. St Thomas's, at the head of Shirra Brae, in the
Gothic style, was built in 1843 by Sir John Gladstone of Fasque,
who — prior to his removal to Liverpool, where his son, W. E.
Gladstone, was born — had been a merchant in Leith. The public
buildings are wholly modern, the principal being of classic
design. They include the custom house (1812) in the Grecian
style; Trinity House (1817), also Grecian, containing Sir Henry
Raeburn's portrait of Admiral Lord Duncan, David Scott's
" Vasco da Gama Rounding the Cape " and other paintings;
the markets (1818); the town hall (1828), with an Ionic facade
on Constitution Street and a Doric porch on Charlotte Street;
the corn exchange (1862) in the Roman style; the assembly
rooms; exchange buildings; the public institute (1867) and
Victoria public baths ( 1 899) . Trinity House was founded in 1 5 5 5
as a home for old and disabled sailors, but on the decline of its
revenues it became the licensing authority for pilots, its humane
office being partly fulfilled by the sailors' home, established
about 1840 in a building adjoining the Signal Tower, and re-
housed in a handsome structure in the Scottish Baronial style
in 1883-1884. Other charitable institutions include the hospital,
John Watt's hospital and the smallpox hospital. The high
school, built in 1806, for many years a familiar object on the
west margin of the Links, gave way to the academy, a hand-
some and commodious structure, to which are drafted senior
pupils from the numerous board schools for free education in
the higher branches. Here also is accommodated the technical
college. Secondary instruction is given also in Craighall Road
school. A bronze statue of Robert Burns was unveiled in 1898.
Leith Links, one of the homes of golf in Scotland, is a popular
resort, on Lochend Road are situated Hawkhill recreation
grounds, and Lochend Loch is used for skating and curling.
There are small links at Newhaven, and in Trinity are Starbank
Park and Cargilfield playing ground. The east pier (1177 yds.
long) and the west pier (1041 yds.) are favourite promenades.
The waterway between them is the entrance to the harbour.
Leith cemetery is situated at Seafield and the Eastern cemetery
in Easter Road.
The oldest industry is shipbuilding, which dates from 1313.
Here in 1511 James IV. built the"St Michael," "aneverrie
monstruous great ship, whilk tuik sae meikle timber that schee
waisted all the woodis in Fyfe, except Falkland wood, besides
the timber that cam out of Norroway." Other important
industries are engineering, sugar-refining (established 1757),
meat-preserving, flour-milling, sailcloth-making, soap-boiling,
rope and twine-making, tanning, chemical manures-making,
wood-sawing, hosiery, biscuit-baking, brewing, distilling and
lime-juice making. Of the old trade of glass-making, which
began in 1682, scarcely a trace survives. As a distributing
centre, Leith occupies a prominent place. It is the headquarters
of the whisky business in Great Britain, and stores also large
quantities of wine from Spain, Portugal and France. This
pre-eminence is due to its excellent dock and harbour accom-
modation and capacious warehouses. The two old docks
(1801-1807) cover io| acres; Victoria Dock (1852) 5 acres;
Albert Dock (1863-1869) iof acres; Edinburgh Dock (1874-
1881) i6f acres; and the New Dock (1892-1901) 60 acres.
There are several dry docks, of which the Prince of Wales Graving
Dock (1858), the largest, measures 370 ft. by 60 ft. Space can
always be had for more dock room by reclaiming the east sands,
where in the I7th and i8th centuries Leith Races were held,
the theme of a humorous descriptive poem by Robert Fergusson.
Apart from coasting trade there are constant sailings to the
leading European ports, the United States and the British
colonies. In 1908 the tonnage of ships entering the harbour
was (including coastwise trade) 1,975,457; that of ships clearing
the harbour 1,993,227. The number of vessels registered at the
port was 213 (net tonnage 146,799). The value of imports
was £12,883,890, of exports £5,377,188. In summer there are
frequent excursions to the Bass Rock and the Isle of May,
North Berwick, Elie, Aberdour, Alloa and Stirling. Leith Fort,
built in North Leith in 1779 for the defence of the harbour, is
now the headquarters of the Royal Artillery in Scotland. Leith
is the head of a fishery district. The town, which is governed by
a provost, bailies and council, unites with Musselburgh and
Portobello to send one member to parliament.
Leith figures as Inverleith in the foundation charter of Holyrood
Abbey (1128). In 1329 Robert I. granted the harbour to the
magistrates of Edinburgh, who did not always use their power
wisely. They forbade, for example, the building of streets wide
enough to admit a cart, a regulation that accounted for the number
of narrow wynds and alleys in the town. Had the overlords been
more considerate incorporation with Edinburgh would not have
been so bitterly resisted. Several of the quaint bits of ancient
Leith yet remain, and the appearance, of the shore as it was in the
1 7th and i8th centuries, and even at a later date, was picturesque
in the extreme. During the centuries of strife between Scotland
and England its situation exposed the port to attack both by sea
and land. At least twice (in 1313 and 1410) its shipping was burned
by the English, who also sacked the town in 1544 — when the 1st
earl of Hertford destroyed the first wooden pier — and 1547. In
the troublous times that followed the death of James V., Leith
became the stronghold of the Roman Catholic and French party
from 1548 to 1560, Mary of Guise, queen regent, not deeming herself
secure in Edinburgh. In 1549 the town was walled and fortified by
Montalembert, sieur d'Ess6, the commander of the French troops,
and endured an ineffectual siege in 1560 by the Scots and their
English allies. A house in Coalhill is thought to be the " handsome
and spacious edifice " erected for her privy council by Mary of
Guise. D'Esse's wall, pierced by six gates, was partly dismantled
on the death of the queen regent, but although rebuilt in 1571, not
a trace of it exists. The old tolbooth, in which William Maitland of
Lethington, Queen Mary's secretary, poisoned himself in 1573,
to avoid execution for adhering to Mary s cause, was demolished in
1819. Charles I. is said to have received the first tidings of the
Irish rebellion while playing golf on the links in 1641. Cromwell
in his Scottish campaign built the Citadel in 1650 and the mounds
on the links, known as "Giant's Brae" and "Lady Fife's Brae,"
were thrown up by the Protector as batteries. In 1698 the sailing
of the first Darien expedition created great excitement. In 1715
William Mackintosh of Borlum (1662-1743) and his force of Jacobite
Highlanders captured the Citadel, of which only the name of Citadel
Street and the archway in Couper Street have preserved the memory.
A mile S.E. of the links lies the ancient village of RESTALRIG,
the home of the Logans, from whom the superiority of Leith was
purchased in 1553 by the queen regent. Sir Robert Logan (d. 1606)
was alleged to have been one of the Gowrie conspirators and to have
arranged to imprison the king in Fast Castle. This charge, how-
ever, was. not made until three years after his death, when his
bones were exhumed for trial. He was then found guilty of high
treason and sentence of forfeiture pronounced; but there is reason
to suspect that the whole case was trumped up. The old church
escaped demolition at the Reformation and even the fine east
4°4
LEITMERITZ— LEIXOES
window was saved. In the vaults repose Sir Robert and other
Logans, besides several of the lords Balmerino, and Lord Brougham's
father lies in the kirkyard. The well of St Triduana, which was
reputed to possess wonderful curative powers, vanished when the
North British railway was constructed.
LEITMERITZ (Czech, Litomefice), a town and episcopal see of
Bohemia, 45 m. N. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 13,075, mostly
German. It lies on the right bank of the Elbe, which becomes
here navigable for steamers and is spanned by an iron bridge
1700 ft. in length. The fine cathedral, founded in 1057, was
built in 1671 and contains some valuable paintings. The library
of the episcopal palace, built between 1694 and 1 701 , possesses the
oldest maps of Bohemia made in 1518 by Nicolaus Claudianus
of Jung-Bunzlau. Of the other churches that of All Saints dates
from the i3th century. The town-hall, with its remarkable
bell tower, dates from the 1 5th century. Leitmeritz is situated in
the midst of a very fertile country, called the " Bohemian
Paradise," which produces great quantities of corn, fruit, hops
and wines. The beer brewed here enjoys a high reputation.
On the opposite bank of the river, where the Eger discharges
itself into the Elbe, lies Theresienstadt (pop. 7046), an important
garrison town. It was formerly an important fortress, erected
in 1780 by the emperor Joseph II. and named after his mother
Maria Theresa, but the fortress was dismantled in 1882.
Leitmeritz was originally the castle of a royal count and is first
mentioned, in 993, in the foundation charter of the convent of St
Margaret near Prague. In 1248 it received a town charter, and was
governed by the laws of Magdeburg until the time of Ferdinand I.,
having a special court of jurisdiction over all the royal towns where
this law obtained. The town reached its highest degree of prosperity
under Charles IV., who bestowed upon it large tracts of forest,
agricultural land and vineyards. In the Hussite wars, after its
capture by the utraquist, Leitmeritz remained true to " the Chalice,"
shared also in the revolt against Ferdinand I., and suffered in con-
sequence. It was still more unfortunate during the Thirty Years'
War, in the course of which most of the Protestant inhabitants left
it; the property of the Bohemian refugees being given to German
immigrants. The present bishopric was established in 1655.
LEITNER, GOTTLIEB WILHELM (1840-1899), Anglo-Hun-
garian orientalist, was born at Budapest in 1840. He was the son
of a physician, and was educated at Malta Protestant college.
At the age of fifteen he acted as an interpreter in the Crimean
War. He entered King's College, London, in 1858, and in
1861 was appointed professor of Arabic and Mahommedan law.
He became principal of the government college at Lahore in
1864, and there originated the term " Dardistan " for a portion
of the mountains on the north-west frontier, which was subse-
quently recognized to be a purely artificial distinction. He
collected much valuable information on Graeco-Buddhist art
and the origins of Indian art. He spoke, read and wrote twenty-
five languages. He founded an oriental institute at Woking,
and for some years edited the Asiatic Quarterly Review. He died
at Bonn in 1899.
See J. H. Stocqueler, Life and Labours of Dr Leitner (1875).
LEITRIM, a county of Ireland in the province of Connaught,
bounded N.W. by Donegal Bay, N.E. by Fermanagh, E. by
Cavan, S.E. b*y Longford, S.W. by Roscommon and W. by
Sligo. The area is 392,381 acres, or about 613 sq. m. The
northern portion of the county consists of an elevated table-land,
of which the highest summits belong to the Truskmore Hills,
reaching 1712 ft.; with Benbo, 1365 ft. and Lackagh, 1446 ft.
In the southern part the country is comparatively level, and
is generally richly wooded. The county touches the south coast
of Donegal Bay, but the coast-line is only about 3 m. The
principal river is the Shannon, which, issuing from Lough Allen,
forms the south-western boundary of the county with Ros-
common. The Bonnet rises in the north-west and flows to Lough
Gill, and the streams of Drones and Duff separate Leitrim from
Donegal and Sligo. Besides Lough Allen, which has an area of
8900 acres, the other principal lakes in the county are Lough
Macnean, Lough Scur, Lough Garadice and Lough Melvin.
The scenery of the north is wild and attractive, while in the
neighbourhood of the Shannon it is of great beauty. Lough
Melvin and the coast rivers afford rod fishing, the lough being
noted for its gillaroo trout.
This varied county has in general a floor of Carboniferous
Limestone, which forms finely scarped hills as it reaches the
sea in Donegal Bay. The underlying sandstone appears at Lough
Melvin, and again on the margin of a Silurian area in the extreme
south. The Upper Carboniferous series, dipping gently south-
ward, form mountainous country round Lough Allen, where the
name of Slieve Anierin records the abundance of clay-ironstone
beneath the coal seams. The sandstones and shales of this series
scarp boldly towards the valley of the Bonnet, across which rises,
in picturesque contrast, the heather-clad ridge of ancient gneiss
which forms, in Benbo, the north-east end of the Ox Mountains.
The ironstone was smelted in the upland at Creevelea down
to 1859, and the coal is worked in a few thin seams.
The climate is moist and unsuitable for grain crops. On the
higher districts the soil is stiff and cold, and, though abounding
in stones, retentive of moisture, but in the valleys there are
some fertile districts. Lime, marl and similar manures are
abundant, and on the coast seaweed is plentiful. The proportion
of tillage to pasture is roughly as i to 3. Potatoes are grown,
but oats, the principal grain crop, are scanty. The live stock
consists chiefly of cattle, pigs and poultry. Coarse linens for
domestic purposes are manufactured and coarse pottery is also
made. The Sligo, Leitrim and Northern Counties railway,
connecting Sligo with Enniskillen, crosses the northern part of
the county, by way of Manor Hamilton; the Mullingar and
Sligo line of the Midland Great Western touches the south-
western boundary of the county, with a station at Carrick-on-
Shannon; while connecting with this line at Dromod is the
Cavan and Leitrim railway to Ballinamore and Arigna, and to
Belturbet in county Cavan.
The population (78,618 in 1891; 69,343 in 1901) decreases
owing to emigration, the decrease being one of the most serious
shown by any Irish county. It includes nearly 90% of Roman
Catholics. The only towns are Carrick-on-Shannon (pop. 1118)
and Manor Hamilton (993). The county is divided into five
baronies. It is within the Connaught circuit, and assizes are held
at Carrick-on-Shannon, and quarter sessions at Ballinamore,
Carrick-on-Shannon and Manor Hamilton. It is in the Protestant
diocese of Kilmore, and the Roman Catholic dioceses of Ardagh
and Kilmore. In the Irish House of Commons two members
were returned for the county and two for the boroughs of Carrick-
on-Shannon and Jamestown, but at the Union the boroughs were
disfranchised. The county divisions are termed the North and
South, each returning one member.
With the territory which afterwards became the county Cavan,
Leitrim formed part of Brenny or Breffny, which was divided
into two principalities, of which Leitrim, under the name of
Hy Bruin-Brenny, formed the western. Being for a long time
in the possession of the O'Rourkes, descendants of Roderick,
king of Ireland, it was also called Brenny O'Rourke. This
family long maintained its independence; even in 1579, when
the other existing counties of Connaught were created, the
creation of Leitrim was deferred, and did not take place until
1583. Large confiscations were made in the reigns of Elizabeth
and James I., in the Cromwellian period, and after the Revolu-
tion of 1688.
There are " druidical " remains near Fenagh and at Letter-
fyan, and important monastic ruins at Creevelea near the
Bonnet, with several antique monuments, and in the parish of
Fenagh. There was a flourishing Franciscan friary at James-
town. The abbeys of Mohill, Annaduff and Drumlease are
converted into parish churches. Among the more notable old
castles are Manor Hamilton Castle, originally very extensive,
but now in ruins, and Castle John on an island in Lough Scur.
There is a small village named Leitrim about 4 m. N. of Carrick-
on-Shannon, which was once of enough importance to give its
name to a barony and to the county, and is said to have been
the seatjjf an early bishopric.
LEIXOES, a seaport and harbour of refuge of northern
Portugal; in 41° 9' 10" N., 8° 40' 35" W., 3 m. N. of the mouth
of the Douro. Leixoes is included in the parish of Matozinhos
(pop. 1900, 7690) and constitutes the main port of the city of
LEJEUNE— LELAND, J.
405
Oporto (q.v.), with which it is connected by an electric tramway.
The harbour, of artificial construction, has an area of over 220
acres, and admits vessels of any size, the depth at the entrance
being nearly 50 ft. The transference of cargo to and from ships
lying in the Leixoes basin is effected entirely by means of lighters
from Oporto. In addition to wine, &c., from Oporto, large
numbers of emigrants to South America are taken on board here.
The trade of the port is mainly in British hands, and large
numbers of British ships call at Leixoes on the voyage between
Lisbon and Liverpool, London or Southampton.
LEJEUNE, LOUIS FRANCOIS, BARON (1776-1848), French
general, painter, and lithographer, was born at Versailles. As
aide-de-camp to General^Berthier he took an active part in many
of the Napoleonic campaigns, which he made the subjects of an
important series of battle-pictures. The vogue he enjoyed is
due to the truth and vigour of his work, which was generally
executed from sketches and studies made on the battlefield.
When his battle-pictures were shown at the Egyptian Hall in
London, a rail had to be put up to protect them from the eager
crowds of sightseers. Among his chief works are " The Entry
of Charles X. into Paris, 6 June 1825 " at Versailles; " Episode
of the Prussian War, October 1807 " at Douai Museum;
" Marengo " (1801) ; "Lodi," " Thabor," " Aboukir " (1804) ; " The
Pyramids " (1806); " Passage of the Rhine in 1795 " (1824), and
" Moskawa " (1812). The German campaign of 1806 brought
him to Munich, where he visited the workshop of Senef elder,
the inventor of lithography. Lejeune was so fascinated by the
possibilities of the new method that he then and there made the
drawing on stone of his famous " Cossack " (printed by C. and
T. Senefelder, 1806). Whilst he was taking his dinner, and with
his horses harnessed and waiting to take him back to Paris,
one hundred proofs were printed, one of which he subse-
quently submitted to Napoleon. The introduction of litho-
graphy into France was greatly due to the efforts of Lejeune.
Many of his battle-pictures .were engraved by Coiny and
Bovinet.
See Fournier-SarlovSze, Le General Lejeune (Paris, Libraire de
Vart).
LEKAIN, the stage name of Henri Louis Cain (1728-1778),
French actor, who was born in Paris on the i4th of April 1728,
the son of a silversmith . He was educated at the College Mazarin ,
and joined an amateur company of players against which the
Comedie Franchise obtained an injunction. Voltaire supported
him for a time and enabled him to act in his private theatre
and also before the duchess of Maine. Owing to the hostility
of the actors it was only after a struggle of seventeen months
that, by the command of Louis XV., he was received at the
Comedie Franchise. His success was immediate. Among his
best parts were Herod in Mariamne, Nero in Britannicus and
similar tragic roles, in spite of the fact that he was short and
stout, with irregular and rather common features. His name is
connected with a number of important scenic reforms. It was
he who had the benches removed on which privileged spectators
formerly sat encumbering the stage, Count Lauragais paying
for him an excessive indemnity demanded. Lekain also protested
against the method of sing-song declamation prevalent, and
endeavoured to correct the costuming of the plays, although
unable to obtain the historic accuracy at which Talma aimed.
He died in Paris on the 8th of February 1778.
His eldest son published his Memoiret (1801) with his correspond-
nce with Voltaire, Garrick and others. They were reprinted with
i preface by Talma in Memoires sur I'art dramatique (1825).
LELAND, CHARLES GODFREY (1824-1903), American
author, son of a merchant, was born at Philadelphia on the isth
of August 1824, and graduated at Princeton in 1845. He after-
wards studied at Heidelberg, Munich and Paris. He was in
Paris during the revolution of 1848, and took an active part in it.
He then returned to Philadelphia, and after being admitted to
the bar in 1851, devoted himself to contributing to periodicals,
editing various magazines and writing books. At the opening of
the Civil War he started at Boston the Continental Magazine,
which advocated emancipation. In 1868 he became known as
the humorous author of Hans Breilmann's Party and Ballads,
which was followed by other volumes of the same kind, collected
in 187 1 with the title of Hans Breitmann's Ballads. These dialect
poems, burlesquing the German American, at once became
popular. In 1869 he went to Europe, and till 1880 was occupied,
chiefly in London, with literary work; after returning to Phila-
delphia for six years, he again made his home in Europe,
generally at Florence, where he died on the 2oth of March 1903.
Though his humorous verses were most attractive to the public,
Leland was a serious student of folk-lore, particularly of the
gipsies, his writings on the latter (The English Gypsies and their
Language, 1872; The Gypsies, 1882; Gypsy Sorcery and Fortune-
telling . . . , 1891, &c.) being recognized as valuable contribu-
tions to the literature of the subject. He was president of the
first European folk-lore congress, held in Paris in 1889.
His other publications include Poetry and Mystery of Dreams
(1855), Meister Karl's Sketch-book (1855), Pictwes of Travel
(1856), Sunshine in Thought (1862), Heine's Book of Songs (1862),
The Music Lesson of Confucius (1870), Egyptian Sketch-book
(1873), Abraham Lincoln (1879), The Minor Arts (1880),
Algonquin Legends of New England (1884), Songs of the Sea and
Lays of the Land (1895), Hans Breitmann in Tyrol (1895), One
Hundred Profitable Acts (1897), Unpublished Legends of Vergil
(1899), Kuloskap the Master, and other Algonquin Poems (1903,
with J. Dyneley Prince).
See his Memoirs (2 vols., 1893), and E. R. Pennell, C. G. Leland
(1906).
LELAND (LEYLAND or LAYLONDE), JOHN (c. 1506-1552),
English antiquary, was born in London on the i3th of September,
probably in 1506. He owed his education at St Paul's school
under William Lilly, and at Christ's College, Cambridge, to the
kindness of a patron, Thomas Myles. He graduated at Cambridge
in 1521, and subsequently studied at All Souls College, Oxford,
and in Paris under Francois Dubois (Sylvius). On his return to
England he took holy orders. He had been tutor to Lord Thomas
Howard, son of the 3rd duke of Norfolk, and to Francis Hastings,
afterwards earl of Huntingdon. Meanwhile his learning had
recommended him to Henry VIII., who presented him to the
rectory of Peuplingues in the marches of Calais in 1530. He
was already librarian and chaplain to the king, and in 1533 he
received a novel commission under the great seal as king's
antiquary, with power to search for records, manuscripts and
relics of antiquity in all the cathedrals, colleges and religious
houses of England. Probably from 1534, and definitely from
1536 onwards to 1542, he was engaged on an antiquarian tour
through England and Wales. He sought to preserve the MSS.
scattered at the dissolution of the monasteries, but his powers did
not extend to the actual collection of MSS. Some valuable
additions, however, he did procure for the king's library, chiefly
from the abbey of St Augustine at Canterbury. He had received
a special dispensation permitting him to absent himself from his
rectory of Peuplingues in 1536, and on his return from his
itinerary he received the rectory of Haseley in Oxfordshire;
his support of the church policy of Henry and Cranmer being
further rewarded by a canonry and prebend of King's College
(now Christ Church), Oxford, and a prebend of Salisbury. In
a Strena Henrico1 (pr. 1546), addressed to Henry VIII. in
1545, he proposed to execute from the materials which he had
collected in his journeys a topography of England, an account
of the adjacent islands, an account of the British nobility, and a
great history of the antiquities of the British Isles. He toiled
over his papers at his house in the parish of St Michael le Querne,
Cheapside, London, but he was not destined to complete these
great undertakings, for he was certified insane in March 1550,
and died on the i8th of April 1552.
Leland was an exact observer, and a diligent student of local
chronicles. The bulk of his work remained in MS. at the time of
his death, and various copies were made, one by John Stowe in
1576. After passing through various hands the greater part of
1 Re-edited in 1549 by John Bale as The laboryeuse Journey and
Serche of J. Leylande for Englandes Antiquitees geven of him for a
Neu Yeares Gifte, &c., modern edition by W. A. Copinger (Man-
chester, 1895).
406
LELAND, J.— LELEGES
Leland's MSS. were deposited by William Burton, the historian of
Leicestershire, in the Bodleian at Oxford. They had in the mean-
time been freely used by other antiquaries, notably by John Bale,
William Camden and Sir William Dugdale. The account of his
journey in England and Wales in eight MS. quarto volumes received
its name The Itinerary of John Leland from Thomas Burton and
was edited by Thomas Hearne (9 vols., Oxford, 1710-1712; other
editions in 1745 and 1770). The scattered portions dealing with
Wales were re-edited by Miss L. Toulmin Smith in 1907. His other
most important work, the Collectanea, in four folio MS. volumes,
was also published by Hearne (6 vols., Oxford, 1715). His Com-
mentarii de scriptoribus Britannicis, which had been used and dis-
torted by his friend John Bale, was edited by Anthony Hall (2 vols.,
Oxford, 1709). Some of Leland's MSS., which formerly belonged to
Sir Robert Cotton, passed into the possession of the British Museum.
He was a Latin poet of some merit, his most famous piece being the
Cygnea Cantio (1545) in honour of Henry VIII. Many of his minor
works are included in Hearne's editions of the Itinerary and the
Collectanea.
For accounts of Leland see John Bale, Catalogus (1557); Anthony
a Wood, Athenae Oxonienses; W. Huddesford, Lives of those eminent
Antiquaries John Leland, Thomas Hearne and Anthony a Wood
(Oxford, 1772). A life of Leland, attributed to Edward Burton
(c. 1750), from the library of Sir Thomas Phillipps, printed in 1896
contains a bibliography. See also the biography by Sidney Lee, in
the Diet. Nat. Biog.
LELAND, JOHN (1691-1766), English Nonconformist divine,
was born at Wigan, Lancashire, and educated in Dublin, where
he made such progress that in 1716, without having attended
any college or hall, he was appointed first assistant and afterwards
sole pastor of a congregation of Presbyterians in New Row.
This office he continued to fill until his death on the i6th of
January 1766. He received the degree of D.D. from Aberdeen
in 1739. His first publication was A Defence of Christianity
(J733)> in reply to Matthew Tindal's Christianity as old as the
Creation', it was succeeded by his Divine Authority of the Old and
New Testaments asserted (1738), in answer to The Moral Philoso-
pher of Thomas Morgan; in 1741 he published two volumes,
in the form of two letters, being Remarks on [H. Dodwell's]
Christianity not founded on Argument; and in 1753 Reflexions
on the late Lord Bolingbroke's Letters on the Study and Use of
History. His View of the Principal Deistical Writers that have
appeared in England was published in 1754-1756. This is the
chief work of Leland — " most worthy, painstaking and common-
place of divines," as Sir Leslie Stephen called him — and in. spite
of many defects and inconsistencies is indispensable to every
student of the deistic movement of the i8th century.
His Discourses on various Subjects, with a Life prefixed, was
published posthumously (4 vols., 1768-1789).
LELAND STANFORD JR. UNIVERSITY, near Palo Alto,
California, U.S.A., in the beautiful Santa Clara valley, was
founded in 1885 by Leland Stanford l (1824-1893), and by his
wife Jane Lathrop Stanford (1825-1905), as a memorial to their
only child, Leland Stanford, Jr., who died in 1884 in his seven-
teenth year. The doors were opened in 1891 to 559 students.
The university campus consists of Stanford's former Palo Alto
farm, which comprises about 9000 acres. From the campus
there are charming views of San Francisco Bay, of the Coast
Range, particularly of Mount Hamilton some 30 m. E. with the
Lick Observatory on its summit, of mountain foothills, and of
the magnificent redwood forests toward Santa Cruz.
The buildings, designed originally by H. H. Richardson
and completed by his successors, Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge,
are of soft buff sandstone in a style adapted from the old Cali-
fornia mission (Moorish-Romanesque) architecture, being long
and low with wide colonnades, open arches and red tiled roofs.
An outer surrounds an inner quadrangle of buildings. The
'Stanford was born in Watervliet, New York; studied law in
Albany; removed to California in 1852 and went into business at
Michigan Bluff, Placer county, whence he removed to Sacramento
in 1856; was made president in 1 86 1 of the Central Pacific railroad
company, which built the first trans-continental railway line over
the Sierra Nevada; was governor of California in 1862-1863, and
United States senator in _ 1885-1 893; and was owner of the great
Vina farm (55,000 acres) in Tehama county, containing the largest
vineyard in the world (13,400 acres), the Gridley tract (22,000 acres)
in Butte county, and the Palo Alto breeding farm, which was the
home of his famous thoroughbred racers, Electioneer, Arion, Snoot,
Palo Alto and Advertiser.
inner quadrangle, about a court which is 586 by 246 ft. and is
faced by a continuous open arcade and adorned with large
circular beds of tropical plants and flowers, consists of twelve
one-storey buildings and a beautiful memorial church. Of the
fourteen buildings of the outer quadrangle some are two storeys
high. A magnificent memorial arch (100 ft. high), adorned with
a frieze designed by John Evans, representing the " Progress
of Civilization in America," and forming the main gateway,
was destroyed by the earthquake of 1906. Outside the quad-
rangles are other buildings — a museum of art and archaeology,
based on collections made by Leland Stanford, Jr., chemical
laboratories, engineering work-shops, dormitories, a mausoleum
of the founders, &c. There is a fine arboretum (300 acres) and
a cactus garden. The charming views, the grace and harmonious
colours of the buildings, and the tropic vegetation make a campus
of wonderful beauty. The students in 1907-1908 numbered
1738, of whom 126 were graduates, 99 special students, and
500 women.2 The university library (with the library of the
law department) contained in 1908 about 107,000 volumes.
A marine biological laboratory, founded by Timothy Hopkins,
is maintained at Pacific Grove on the Bay of Monterey. The
university has an endowment from its founders estimated at
$30,000,000, including three great estates with 85,000 acres of
farm and vineyard lands, and several smaller tracts; but the
endowment was very largely in interest-bearing securities,
income from which was temporarily cut off in the early years
of the university's life by litigation. The founders wished the
university " to qualify students for personal success and direct
usefulness in life; to promote the public welfare by exercising
an influence in behalf of humanity and civilization, teaching
the blessings of liberty regulated by law, and inculcating love
and reverence for the great principles of government as derived
from the inalienable rights of man to life, liberty and the pursuit
of happiness." There are no inflexible entrance requirements
as to particular studies except English composition to ensure
a degree of mental maturity, the minimum amount of preparation
is fixed as that which should be given by four years in a secondary
school, leaving to the applicants a wide choice of subjects (35
in 1906) ranging from ancient history to woodworking and
machine shop. In the curriculum, liberty perhaps even greater
than at Harvard is allowed as to " electives." Work on some
one major subject occupies about one-third of the undergraduate
course; the remaining two-thirds (or more) is purely elective.
The influence of sectarianism and politics is barred from the
university by its charter, and by its private origin and private
support. At the same time in its policy it is practically a state
university of the most liberal type. Instruction is entirely free.
The president of the university has the initiative in all appoint-
ments and in all matters of general policy. Within the university
faculty power lies in an academic council, and, more particularly,
in an advisory board of nine professors, elected by the academic
council, to which all propositions of the president are submitted.
The growth of the university has been steady, and its conduct
careful. David Starr Jordan3 was its first president.
See O. H. Elliot and O. V. Eaton, Stanford University and there-
abouts (San Francisco, 1896), and the official publications of the
university.
LELEGES, the name applied by Greek writers to an early
people or peoples of which traces were believed to remain in
Greek lands.
i. In Asia Minor. — In Homer the Leleges are allies of the
Trojans, but they do not occur in the formal catalogue in Iliad,
2 The number of women attending the university as students in
any semester is limited by the founding grant to 500.
3 President Jordan was born in 1851 at Gainesville, New York;
was educated at Cornell, where he taught botany for a time; be-
came an assistant to the United States fish commission in 1872;
in 1885-1891 was president of the university of Indiana, where
from 1879 he had been professor of zoology; and in 1891 was
elected president of Leland Stanford Jr. University. An eminent
ichthyologist, he wrote, with Barton Warren Evermann (b. 1853),
of the United States Bureau of Fisheries, Fishes of North and Middle
America (4 vols., 1896-1900), and Food and Game Fishes of North
America (1902); and prepared A Guide to the Study of Fishes (1905).
LELEWEL— LELONG
407
bk. ii., and their habitat is not specified. They are distinguished
from the Carians, with whom some later writers confused them;
they have a king Altes, and a town Pedasus which was sacked
by Achilles. The name Pedasus occurs (i.) near Cyzicus, (ii.)
in the Troad on the Satnioeis river, (iii.) in Caria, as well as
(iv.) in Messenia. Alcaeus (7th-6th centuries B.C.) calls An-
tandrus in the Troad Lelegian, but Herodotus (sth century)
substitutes Pelasgian (q.v.). Gargara in the Troad also counted
as Lelegian. Pherecydes (sth century) attributed to Leleges
the coast land of Caria from Ephesus to Phocaea, with the islands
of Samos and Chios, placing the " true Carians " farther south
from Ephesus to Miletus. If this statement be from Pherecydes
of Leros (c. 480) it has great weight. In the 4th century, how-
ever, Philippus of Theangela in south Caria describes Leleges
still surviving as serfs of the true Carians, and Strabo, in the
ist century B.C., attributes to the Leleges a well-marked group
of deserted forts, tombs and dwellings which ranged (and can
still be traced) from the neighbourhood of Theangela and
Halicarnassus as far north as Miletus, the southern limit of
the " true Carians " of Pherecydes. Plutarch also implies the
historic existence of Lelegian serfs at Tralles in the interior.
2. In Greece and the Aegean. — A single passage in the Hesiodic
catalogue (fr. 136 Kinkel) places Leleges " in Deucalion's time,"
i.e. as a primitive people, in Locris in central Greece. Not until
the 4th century B.C. does any other writer place them anywhere
west of the Aegean. But the confusion of the Leleges with the
Carians (immigrant conquerors akin to Lydians and Mysians,
and probably to Phrygians) which first appears in a Cretan
legend (quoted by Herodotus, but repudiated, as he says, by
the Carians themselves) and is repeated by Callisthenes, Apollo-
dorus and other later writers, led easily to the suggestion of
Callisthenes, that Leleges joined the Carians in their (half
legendary) raids on the coasts of Greece. Meanwhile other
writers from the 4th century onwards claimed to discover them
inBoeotia, west Acarnania (Leucas), and later again in Thessaly,
Euboea, Megara, Lacedaemon and Messenia. In Messenia they
were reputed immigrant founders of Pylos, and were connected
with the seafaring Taphians and Teleboans of Homer, and
distinguished from the Pelasgians; in Lacedaemon and in Leucas
they were believed to be aboriginal. These European Leleges
must be interpreted in connexion with the recurrence of place
names like Pedasus, Physcus, Larymna and Abac, (a) in Caria,
and (b) in the " Lelegian " parts of Greece; perhaps this is the
result of some early migration; perhaps it is also the cause
of these Lelegian theories.
Modern speculations (mainly corollaries of Indo-Germanic theory)
add little of value to the Greek accounts quoted above. H. Kiepert
(" Uber den Volksstamm der Leleges," in Monatsber. Berl. Akad.,
1861, p. 114) makes the Leleges an aboriginal people akin to Al-
banians and Illyrians; K. W. Deimling, Die Leleger (Leipzig, 1862),
starts them in south-west Asia Minor, and brings them thence to
Greece (practically the Greek view); G. F. Unger, " Hellas in Thes-
salien," in Philologus, Suppl. ii. (1863), makes them Phoenician,
and derives their name from XaXdftix (cf . the names 0a.pf}apof,Walsche).
E. Curtius (History of Greece, i.) distinguished a " Lelegian " phase
of nascent Aegean culture. Most later writers follow Deimling.
For Strabo's " Lelegian " monuments, cf. Paton and Myres, Journal
of Hellenic Studies, xvi. 188-270. (J. L. M.)
LELEWEL, JOACHIM (1786-1861), Polish historian, geo-
grapher and numismatist, was born at Warsaw on the 22nd
of March 1786. His family came from Prussia in the early part
of the i Sth century; his grandfather was appointed physician
to the reigning king of Poland, and his father caused himself
to be naturalized as a Polish citizen. The original form of the
name appears to have been Lolhoffel. Joachim was educated
at the university of Vilna, and became in 1807 a teacher in a
school at Krzemieniec in Volhynia, in 1814 teacher of history
at Vilna, and in 1818 professor and librarian at the university
of Warsaw. He returned to Vilna in 1821. His lectures enjoyed
great popularity, and enthusiasm felt for him by the students
is shown in the beautiful lines addressed to him by Mickiewicz.
But this very circumstance made him obnoxious to the Russian
government, and at Vilna Novosiltsev was then all-powerful.
Lelewel was removed from his professorship in 1824, and returned
to Warsaw, where he was elected a deputy to the diet in 1829.
He joined the revolutionary movement with more enthusiasm
than energy, and though the emperor Nicholas I. distinguished
him as one of the most dangerous rebels, did not appear to
advantage as a man of action. On the suppression of the
rebellion he made his way in disguise to Germany, and sub-
sequently reached Paris in 1831. The government of Louis
Philippe ordered him to quit French territory in 1833 at the
request of the Russian ambassador. The cause of this expulsion
is said to have been his activity in writing revolutionary pro-
clamations. He went to Brussels, where for nearly thirty years
he earned a scanty livelihood by his writings. He died on the
2oth of May 1861 in Paris, whither he had removed a few days
previously.
Lelewel, a man of austere character, simple tastes and the
loftiest conception of honour, was a lover of learning for its
own sake. His literary activity was enormous, extending from
his Edda Skandinawska (1807) to his Geographic des Arabes
(2 vols., Paris, 1851). One of his most important publications
was La Geographic du moyen Age (5 vols., Brussels, 1852-1857),
with an atlas (1849) of fifty plates entirely engraved by himself,
for he rightly attached such importance to the accuracy of his
maps that he would not allow them to be executed by any one
else. His works on Polish history are based on minute and critical
study of the documents; they were collected under the title
Polska, dzieje i rzeczy jej rozpatrzyivane (Poland, her History
and Affairs surveyed), in 20 vols. (Posen, 1853-1876). He in-
tended to write a complete history of Poland on an extensive
scale, but never accomplished the task. His method is shown
in the little history of Poland, first published at Warsaw in
Polish in 1823, under the title Dzieje Polski, and afterwards
almost rewritten in the Histoire de Pologne (2 vols., Paris, 1844).
Other works on Polish history which may be especially mentioned
are La Pologne au moyen dge (3 vols., Posen, 1846-1851), an
edition of the Chronicle of Matthew Cholewa l (1811) and Ancient
Memorials of Polish Legislation (Ksiegi ustaiv polskich i mazo-
wieckich). He also wrote on the trade of Carthage, on Pytheas
of Marseilles, the geographer, and two important works on
numismatics {La Numismatique du moyen Age, Paris, a vols.,
1835; Etudes numismatiques, Brussels, 1840). While employed
in the university library of Warsaw he studied bibliography,
and the fruits of his labours may be seen in his Bibliograficznych
Ksiag dwoje (A Couple of Books on Bibliography) ( 2 vols., Vilna,
1823-1826). The characteristics of Lelewel as an historian are
great research and power to draw inferences from his facts;
his style is too often careless, and his narrative is not picturesque,
but his expressions are frequently terse and incisive.
He left valuable materials for a just comprehension of his career
in the autobiography (Adventures while Prosecuting Researches and
Inquiries on Polish Matters) printed in his Polska.
LELONG, JACQUES (1665-1721), French bibliographer, was
born at Paris on the igth of April 1665. He was a priest of the
Oratory, and was librarian to the establishment of the Order
in Paris, where he spent his life in seclusion. He died at Paris on
the i3th of August 1721. He first published a Bibliotheca sacra
(1709), an index of all the editions of the Bible, then a Biblio-
theque historique de la France (1719), a volume of considerable
size, containing 17,487 items to which Lelong sometimes appends
useful notes. His work is far from complete. He vainly hoped
that his friend and successor Father Desmolets, would continue
it; but it was resumed by Charles-Marie Fevret de Fontette,
a councillor of the parlement of Dijon, who spent fifteen
years of his life and a great deal of money in rewriting the
Bibliotheque historique. The first two volumes (1768 and 1769)
contained as many as 29,143 items. Fevret de Fontette died
on the 1 6th of February 1772, leaving the third volume almost
finished. It appeared in 1772, thanks to Barbaud de La Bruyere,
who later brought out the 4th and 5th volumes.(i775 and 1778).
1 I.e. the three first books of the Historia Polonica of Vincentius
(Kadlbek), bishop of Cracow (d. 1223), wrongly ascribed by Lelewel
to Matthaeus Cholewa, bishop of Cracow. See Potthast, Bibliotheca
hist. med. aev., s.v. " Vincentius."
408
LELY— LE MANS
In this new edition the Bibliotheque historique is a work of reference
of the highest order; it is still of great value.
LELY, SIR PETER (1617-1680) English painter, was born
at Soest, Westphalia, in 1617. His father, a military captain
and a native of Holland, was originally called van der Vaes;
the nickname of Le Lys or Lely, by which he was generally
known, was adopted by his son as a surname. After studying
for two years under Peter de Grebber, an artist of some note
at Haarlem, Lely, induced by the patronage of Charles I. for
the fine arts, removed to England in 1641. There he at first
painted historical subjects and landscape; he soon became so
eminent in his profession as to be employed by Charles to paint
his portrait shortly after the death of Vandyck. He afterwards
portrayed Cromwell. At the Restoration his genius and agreeable
manners won the favour of Charles II., who made him his state-
painter, and afterwards knighted him. He formed a famous
collection, the best of his time, containing drawings, prints and
paintings by the best masters; it sold by auction for no less
than £26,000. His great example, however, was Vandyck,
whom, in some of his most successful pieces, he almost rivals.
Lely's paintings are carefully finished, warm and clear in colour-
ing, and animated in design. The graceful posture of the heads,
the delicate rounding of the hands, and the broad folds of the
draperies are admired in many of his portraits. The eyes of
the ladies are drowsy with languid sentiment, and allegory
of a commonplace sort is too freely introduced. His most
famous work is a collection of portraits of the ladies of the court
of Charles II., known as " the Beauties," formerly at Windsor
Castle, and now preserved at Hampton Court Palace. Of his
few historical pictures, the best is " Susannah and the Elders,"
at Burleigh House. His " Jupiter and Europa," in the duke of
Devonshire's collection, is also worthy of note. Lely was nearly
as famous for crayon work as for oil-painting. Towards the close
of his life he often retired to an estate which he had bought at
Kew. He died of apoplexy in the Piazza, Covent Garden,
London, and was buried in Covent Garden church, where a
monument was afterwards erected to his memory. Pepys
characterized Lely as " a mighty proud man and full of state."
The painter married an English lady of family, and left a son
and daughter, who died young. His only disciples were J.
Greenhill and J. Buckshorn; he did not, however, allow them
to obtain an insight into his special modes of work. (W. M. R.)
LE MAQON (or LE MASSON), ROBERT (c. 1365-1443), chan-
cellor of France, was born at Chateau du Loir, Sarthe. He was
ennobled in March 1401 , and became six years later a councillor of
Louis II., duke of Anjou and king of Sicily. A partisan of the house
of Orleans, he was appointed chancellor to Isabella of Bavaria
on the 2Qth of January 1414, on the 2oth of July commissary
of the mint, and in June 1416 chancellor to the count of Ponthieu,
afterwards Charles VII. On the i6th of August he bought the
barony of Treves in Anjou, and henceforward bore the title of
seigneur of Treves. When Paris was surprised by the Burgundians
on the night of the 2gth of May 1418 he assisted Tanguy Duchatel
in saving the dauphin. His devotion to the cause of the latter
having brought down on him the wrath of John the Fearless,
duke of Burgundy, he was excluded from the political amnesty
known as the peace of Saint Maur des Fosses, though he retained
his seat on the king's council. He was by the dauphin's side
when John the Fearless was murdered at the bridge of Montereau
on the loth of September 1419. He resigned the seals at the
beginning of 1422; but he continued to exercise great influence,
and in 1426 he effected a reconciliation between the king and the
duke of Brittany. Having been captured by Jean de Langeac,
seneschal of Auvergne, in August of the same year, he was sfiut
up for three months in the chateau of Usson. When set at
liberty he returned to court, where he staunchly supported
Joan of Arc against all the cabals that menaced her. It was he
who signed the patent of nobility for the Arc family in December
1429. In 1430 he was once more entrusted with an embassy
to Brittany. Having retired from political life in 1436, he died
on the 28th of January 1443, and was interred at Treves, where
his epitaph may still be seen.
See C. Bourcier, " Robert le Masson," in the Revue historique de
I' Anjou (1873); and the Nouvelle biographic gen6rale, vol. xxx.
a- v.*)
LE MAIRE DE BELGES, JEAN (i473~c. 1525), French poet
and historiographer, was born at Bavai in Hainault. He was
a nephew of Jean Molinet, and spent some time with him at
Valenciennes, where the elder writer held a kind of academy of
poetry. Le Maire in his first poems calls himself a disciple of
Molinet. In certain aspects he does belong to the school of the
grands rhftoriqueurs, but his great merit as a poet is that he
emancipated himself from the affectations and puerilities of his
masters. This independence of the Flemish school he owed
in part perhaps to his studies at the university of Paris and to the
study of the Italian poets at Lyons, a centre of the French
renascence. In 1503 he was attached to the court of Margaret of
Austria, duchess of Savoy, afterwards regent of the Netherlands.
For this princess he undertook more than one mission to Rome;
he became her librarian and a canon of Valenciennes. To her
were addressed his most original poems, Epistres de I'amand verd,
the amant vert being a green parrot belonging to his patroness.
Le Maire gradually became more French in his sympathies,
eventually entering the service of Anne of Brittany. His prose
Illustrations des Gaules et singularity de Troye (1510-1512),
largely adapted from Benoit de Sainte More, connects the Bur-
gundian royal house with Hector. Le Maire probably died before
1525. Etienne Pasquier, Ronsard and Du Bellay all acknow-
ledged their indebtedness to him. In his love for antiquity, his
sense of rhythm, and even the peculiarities of his vocabulary he
anticipated the Pltiade.
His works were edited in 1882-1885 by J- Stecher, who wrote
the article on him in the Biographic nationale de Belgique.
LEMAfTRE, FRANCOIS ELIE JULES (1853- ), French
critic and dramatist, was born at Vennecy (Loiret) on the 27th
of April 1853. He became a professor at the university of
Grenoble, but he had already become known by his literary
criticisms, and in 1884 he resigned his position to devote himself
entirely to literature. He succeeded J. J. Weiss as dramatic
critic of the Journal des Dfbats, and subsequently filled the same
office on the Revue des Deux Mondes. His literary studies were
collected under the title of Les Contemporains (7 series, 1886-
1899), and his dramatic feuilletons as Impressions de ihtdtre
(10 series, 1888-1898). His sketches of modern authors are
interesting for the insight displayed in them, the unexpectedness
of the judgments and the gaiety and originality of their expression.
He published two volumes of poetry: Les Mfdaillons (1880)
and F 'elites orienlales (1883); also some volumes of conies,
among them En marge des vieux litres (1005). His plays are:
Revoltfe (1889), Le depute Leveau, and Le Manage blanc (1891),
Les Rois (1893), Le Pardon and L'Age difficile (1895), La
Massiere (1005) and Bertrade (1906). He was admitted to the
French Academy on the i6th of January 1896. His political
views were defined in La Campagne nationalist (1902), lectures
delivered in the provinces by him and by G. Cavaignac. He
conducted a nationalist campaign in the Echo de Paris, and was
for some time president of the Ligue de la Patrie Francaise, but
resigned in 1904, and again devoted himself to literature.
LE MANS, a town of north-western France, capital of the
department of Sarthe, 77 m. S.W. of Chartres on the railway
from Paris to Brest. Pop. (1906) town, 54,907, commune,
65,467. It is situated just above the confluence of the Sarthe
and the Huisne, on an elevation rising from the left bank of the
Sarthe. Several bridges connect the old town and the new
quarters which have sprung up round it with the more extensive
quarter of Pr£ on the right bank. Modern thoroughfares are
gradually superseding the winding and narrow streets of old
houses; a tunnel connects the Place des Jacobins with the river
side. The cathedral, built in the highest part of the town, was
originally founded by St Julian, to whom it is dedicated. The
nave dates from the nth and 1 2th centuries. In the I3th century
the choir was enlarged in the grandest and boldest style of that
period. The transepts, which are higher than the nave, were
rebuilt in the isth century, and the bell-tower of the south
LE MARCHANT— LEMBERG
409
transept, the lower part of which is Romanesque, was rebuilt
in the isth and i6th centuries. Some of the stained glass in
the nave, dating from the first half of the I2th century, is the
oldest in France; the west window, representing the legend of
St Julian, is especially interesting. The south lateral portal
(i2th century) is richly decorated, and its statuettes exhibit
many costumes of the period. The austere simplicity of the older
part of the building is in striking contrast with the lavish richness
of the ornamentation in the choir, where the stained glass is
especially fine. The rose- window (isth century) of the north
transept, representing the Last Judgment, contains many
historical figures. The cathedral also has curious tapestries and
some remarkable tombs, including that of Berengaria, queen of
Richard Coeur de Lion. Close to the western wall is a megalithic
monument nearly 15 ft. in height: The church of La Couture,
which belonged to an old abbey founded in the 7th century by
St Bertrand, has a porch of the I3th century with fine statuary;
the rest of the building is older. The church of Notre-Dame du
Pre, on the right bank of the Sarthe, is Romanesque in style.
The h6tel de ville was built in 1756 on the site of the former
castle of the counts of Maine; the prefecture (1760) occupies
the site of the monastery of La Couture, and contains the library,
the communal archives, and natural history and art collections;
there is also an archaeological museum. Among the old houses
may be mentioned the H6tel du Grabatoire of the Renaissance,
once a hospital for the canons and the so-called house of Queen
Berengaria (i6th century), meeting place of the historical and
archaeological society of Maine. A monument to General
Chanzy commemorates the battle of Le Mans (1871). Le Mans
is the seat of a bishopric dating from the $rd century, of a prefect,
and of a court of assizes, and headquarters of the IV. army corps.
It has also tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a council
of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, a branch of the
Bank of France, an exchange, a lycee for boys, training colleges,
a higher ecclesiastical seminary and a school of music. The
town has a great variety of industries, carried on chiefly in the
southern suburb of Pontlieue. The more important are the state
manufacture of tobacco, the preparation of preserved vegetables,
fish, &c., tanning, hemp-spinning, bell-founding, flour-milling,
the founding of copper and other metals, and the manufacture
of railway wagons, machinery and engineering material, agri-
cultural implements, rope, cloth and stained glass. The fatten-
ing of poultry is an important local industry, and there is trade in
cattle, wine, cloth, farm-produce, &c. The town is an important
railway centre.
As the capital of the Aulerci Cenomanni, Le Mans was called
Suindinum or Vindinum. The Romans built walls round it in
the 3rd century, and traces of them are still to be seen close to the
left bank of the river near the cathedral. In the same century
the town was evangelized by St Julian, who became its first
bishop. Ruled at first by his successors — notably St Aldric —
Le Mans passed in the middle ages to the counts of Maine (q.v.),
whose capital and residence it became. About the middle of
the nth century the citizens secured a communal charter, but in
1063 the town was seized by William the Conqueror, who deprived
them of their liberties, which were recovered when the countship
of Maine had passed to the Plantagenet kings of England.
Le Mans was taken by Philip Augustus in 1189, recaptured by
John, subsequently confiscated and later ceded to Queen Beren-
garia, who did much for its prosperity. It was several times
besieged in the isth and i6th centuries. In 1793 it was seized
by the Vendeans, who were expelled by the Republican generals
Marceau and Westermann after a stubborn battle in the streets.
In 1709 it was again occupied by the Chouans.
The battle of Le Mans (ioth-i2th January 1871) was the
culminating point of General Chanzy's fighting retreat into
western France after the winter campaign in Beauce and Perche
(see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR). The numerous, but ill-trained and
ill-equipped, levies of the French were followed up by Prince
Frederick Charles with the German II. Army, now very much
weakened but consisting of soldiers who had in six months'
active warfare acquired the self-confidence of veterans. The
Germans advanced with three army corps in first line and one
in reserve. On the pth of January the centre corps (III.) drove
an advanced division of the French from Ardenay (13 m. E. of
Le Mans). On the loth of January Chanzy's main defensive
position was approached. Its right wing was east of the Sarthe
and 3-5 m. from Le Mans, its centre on the heights of Anvours
with the river Huisne behind it, and its left scattered along the
western bank of the same river as far as Montfort (12 m. E.N.E.
of Le Mans) and thence northward for some miles. On the loth
there was a severe struggle for the villages along the front of
the French centre. On the nth Chanzy attempted a counter-
offensive from many points, but owing to the misbehaviour of
certain of his rawest levies, the Germans were able to drive him
back, and as their cavalry now began to appear beyond his
extreme left flank, he retreated in the night of the nth on Laval,
the Germans occupying Le Mans after a brief rearguard fight on
the 1 2th.
LE MARCHANT, JOHN GASPARD (1766-1812), English
major-general, was the son of an officer of dragoons, John Le
Marchant, a member of an old Guernsey family. After a some-
what wild youth, Le Marchant, who entered the army in 1781,
attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel in 1797. Two years
before this he had designed a new cavalry sword; and in 1801
his scheme for establishing at High Wycombe and Great Marlow
schools for the military instruction of officers was sanctioned
by Parliament, and a grant of £30,000 was voted for the " royal
military college," the two original departments being afterwards
combined and removed to Sandhurst. Le Marchant was the
first lieutenant-governor, and during the nine years that he held
this appointment he trained many officers who served with
distinction under Wellington in the Peninsula. Le Marchant
himself was given the command of a cavalry brigade in 1810, and
greatly distinguished himself in several actions, being killed
at the battle of Salamanca on the 22nd of July 1812, after the
charge of his brigade had had an important share in the English
victory. He wrote several treatises on cavalry tactics and other
military subjects, but few of them were published. By his wife,
Mary, daughter of John Carey of Guernsey, Le Marchant had
four sons and six daughters.
His second son, SIR DENIS LE MARCHANT, Bart. (1795-1874),
was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, and was
called to the bar in 1823. In 1830 he became secretary to Lord
Chancellor Brougham, and in the Reform Bill debates made
himself exceedingly useful to the ministers. Having been
secretary to the board of trade from 1836 to 1841, he was created
a baronet in 1841. He entered the House of Commons in 1846,
and was under secretary for the home department in the govern-
ment of Lord John Russell. He was chief clerk of the House of
Commons from 1850 to 1871. He published a Life of his father
in 1841, and began a Life of Lord Althorpe which was completed
after his death by his son; he also edited Horace Walpole's
Memoirs of the Reign of George III. (1845). Sir Denis Le
Marchant died in London on the 3Oth of October 1874.
The third son of General Le Marchant, SIR JOHN GASPARD
LE MARCHANT (1803-1874), entered the English army, and saw
service in Spain in the Carlist War of 1835-37. He was after-
wards lieutenant-governor of Newfoundland (1847-1852) and
of Nova Scotia (1852-1857); governor of Malta (1859-1864);
commander-in-chief at Madras (1865-1868). He was made K.C.B.
in 1865, and died on the 6th of February 1874.
See Sir Denis Le Marchant, Memoirs of General Le Marchant
(1841); Sir William Napier, History of the War in the Peninsula
(6 vols., 1828-1840).
LEMBERG (Pol. Lw6w, Lat. Leopolis), the capital of the
crownland of Galicia, Austria, 468 m. N.W. of Vienna by rail.
Pop. (1900) 159,618, of whom over 80% were Poles, 10%
Germans, and 8% Ruthenians; nearly 30% of the population
were Jews. According to population Lemberg is the fourth city
in the Austrian empire, coming after Vienna, Prague and Trieste.
Lemberg is situated on the small river Peltew, an affluent of the
Bug, in a valley in the Sarmatian plateau, and is surrounded
by hills. It is composed of the inner town and of four suburbs.
410
LEMERCIER— LEMERY
The inner town was formerly fortified, but the fortifications were
transformed into pleasure grounds in 1811. Lemberg is the
residence of Roman Catholic, Greek Catholic and Armenian
archbishops, and contains three cathedrals. The Roman
Catholic cathedral was finished by Casimir IV. in 1480 in Gothic
style; near it is a chapel (1609) remarkable for its architecture
and sculpture. The Greek cathedral, built in 1740-1779 in the
Basilica style, is situated on a height which dominates the town.
The Armenian cathedral was built in 1437 in the Armenian-
Byzantine style. The Dominican church, built in 1749 after
the model of St Peter's at Rome, contains a monument by
Thorvaldsen to the Countess Dunin-Borkowska; the Greek
St Nicholas church was built in 1292; and the Roman Catholic
St Mary church was built in 1363 by the first German settlers.
The town hall (1828-1837) with a tower 250 ft. high is situated
in the middle of a square. Also notable are the hall of the
estates (1877-1881), the industrial museum, the theatre, the
palace of the Roman Catholic archbishop and several educational
establishments. There are many beautiful private buildings,
broad and well-paved streets, numerous squares and public
gardens. At the head of the educational institutions stands the
university, founded in 1784 by Joseph II., transformed into a
lycee in 1803, and restored and reorganized in 1817. Since 1871
the language of instruction has been Polish, and in 1901 the
university had no lecturers, and was attended by 2060 students.
There are also a polytechnic, gymnasia— for Poles, Ruthenians
and Germans respectively — seminaries for priests, training
colleges for teachers, and other special and technical schools.
In Lemberg is the National Institute founded by Count Ossolinski,
which contains a library of books and manuscripts relating
chiefly to the history and literature of Poland, valuable anti-
quarian and scientific collections, and a printing establishment;
also the Dzieduszycki museum with collections of natural
history and ethnography relating chiefly to Galicia. Industrially
and commercially Lemberg is the most important city in Galicia,
its industries including the manufacture of machinery and iron
wares, matches, stearin candles and naphtha, arrack and liqueurs,
chocolate, chicory, leather and plaster of Paris, as well as brewing,
corn-milling and brick and tile making. It has important
commerce in linen, flax, hemp, wool and seeds, and a considerable
transit trade. Of the well-wooded hills which surround Lemberg,
the most important is the Franz- Josef-Berg to the N.E., with an
altitude of 1310 ft. Several beautiful parks have been laid
out on this hill.
Leopolis was founded about 1259 by the Ruthenian prince
Leo Danilowicz, who moved here his residence from Halicz in
1270. From Casimir the Great, who captured it in 1340, it
received the Magdeburg rights, and for almost two hundred
years the public records were kept in German. In 141 2 it became
the see of a Roman Catholic archbishopric, and from 1432 until
1772 it was the capital of the Polish province of Reussen (Terra
Russia). During the whole period of Polish supremacy it was
a most important city, and after the fall of Constantinople it
greatly developed its trade with the East. In 1648 and 1655 it
was besieged by the Cossacks, and in 1672 by the Turks. Charles
XII. of Sweden captured it in 1704. In 1848 it was bombarded.
LEMERCIER, LOUIS JEAN NEPOMUCENE (1771-1840),
French poet and dramatist, was born in Paris on the 2ist of
April 1771. His father had been intendant successively to the
due de Penthievre, the comte de Toulouse and the unfortunate
princesse de Lamballe, who was the boy's godmother. Lemercier
showed great precocity; before he was sixteen his tragedy
of Meliagre was produced at the Theatre Franqais. Clarissa
Harlowe (1792) provoked the criticism that the author was not
assez rout pour peindre les roueries. Le Tartufe revolutionnaire,
a parody full of the most audacious political allusions, was
suppressed after the fifth representation. In 1795 appeared
Lemercier's masterpiece Agamemnon, called by Charles Labitte
the last great antique tragedy in French literature. It was a
great success, but was violently attacked later by Geoffrey,
who stigmatized it as a bad caricature of Crebillon. Quatre
metamorphoses (1799) was written to prove that the most indecent
subjects might be treated without offence. The Pinto (1800) was
the result of a wager that no further dramatic innovations were
possible after the comedies of Beaumarchais. It is a historical
comedy on the subject of the Portuguese revolution of 1640.
This play was construed as casting reflections on the first consul,
who had hitherto been a firm friend of Lemercier. His extreme
freedom of speech finally offended Napoleon, and the quarrel
proved disastrous to Lemercier's fortune for the time. None
of his subsequent work fulfilled the expectations raised by
Agamemnon, with the exception perhaps of Fredegonde el
Brunehaut (1821). In 1810 he was elected to the Academy,
where he consistently opposed the romanticists, refusing to
give his vote to Victor Hugo. In spite of this, he has some
pretensions to be considered the earliest of the romantic school.
His Christophe Colomb (1809), advertised on the playbill as a
comedie shakespirienne (sic), represented the interior of a ship,
and showed no respect for the unities. Its numerous innovations
provoked such violent disturbances in the audience that one
person was killed and future representations had to be guarded
by the police. Lemercier wrote four long and ambitious epic
poems: Homere, Alexandre (1801), L' Atlanliade, ou la theogonie
newtonienne (1812) and Mo'ise (1823), as well as an extraordinary
Panhypocrisiade (1810-1832), a distinctly romantic production
in twenty cantos, which has the sub-title Spectacle infernal du
XVI' siecle. In it 16th-century history, with Charles V. and
Francis I. as principal personages, is played out on an imaginary
stage by demons in the intervals of their sufferings. Lemercier
died on the 7th of June 1840 in Paris.
LEMERY, NICOLAS (1645-1715), French chemist, was born at
Rouen on the I7th of November 1645. After learning pharmacy
in his native town he became a pupil of C. Glaser's in Paris, and
then went to Montpellier, where he began to lecture on chemistry.
He ne'xt established a pharmacy in Paris, still continuing his
lectures, but in 1683, being a Calvinist, he was obliged to retire
to England. In the following year he returned to France, and
turning Catholic in 1686 was able to reopen his shop and resume
his lectures. He died in Paris on the i9th of June 1715. Lemery
did not concern himself much with theoretical speculations,
but holding chemistry to be a demonstrative science, confined
himself to the straightforward exposition of facts and experiments.
In consequence, his lecture-room was thronged with people
of all sorts, anxious to hear a man who shunned the barren
obscurities of the alchemists, and did not regard the quest of
the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life as the sole end of his
science. Of his Cours de chymie (1675) he lived to see 13 editions,
and for a century it maintained its reputation as a standard
work. His other publications included Pharmacopee universelle
(1697), Traits universel des drogues simples (1698), Traits de
I'antimoine (1707), together with a number of papers contributed
to the French Academy, one of which offered a chemical and
physical explanation of underground fires, earthquakes, lightning
and thunder. He discovered that heat is evolved when iron
filings and sulphur are rubbed together to a paste with water,
and the artificial volcan de Lemery was produced by burying
underground a considerable quantity of this mixture, which
he regarded as a potent agent in the causation of volcanic
action.
His son Louis (1677-1743) was appointed physician at the
H6tel Dieu in 1710, and became demonstrator of chemistry at
the Jardin du Roi in 1731. He was the author of a Traite des
aliments (1702), and of a Dissertation sur la nature des os (1704),
as well as of a number of papers on chemical topics.
LEMERY, a town of the province of Batangas, Luzon, Philip-
pine Islands, on the Gulf of Balayan and the Pansipit river,
opposite Taal (with which it is connected by a bridge), and
about 50 m. S. of Manila. Pop. of the municipality (1903)
11,150. It has a fine church and convent. Lemery is situated
on a plain in a rich agricultural district, which produces rice,
Indian corn, sugar and cotton, and in which horses and cattle
are bred. It is also a port for coasting vessels, and has an
important trade with various parts of the archipelago. The
language is Tagalog.
LEMGO— LEMMING
411
LEMGO, a town of Germany, in the principality of Lippe,
in a broad and fertile plain, 9 m. N. from Detmold and on
the railway Hameln-Lage. Pop. (1900) 8840. Its somewhat
gloomy aspect, enhanced by the tortuous narrow lanes flanked
by gabled houses of the isth century, has gained for it among
countryfolk the sobriquet of the " Witches' nest " (Hexen-Nest).
It is replete with interest for the antiquarian. It has four
Evangelical churches, two with curiously leaning, lead-covered
spires; an old town-hall; a gymnasium; and several philan-
thropic and religious institutions. Among the latter is the
Jungfrauenstift, of which a princess of the reigning house of
Lippe-Detmold has always been lady superior since 1306. The
chief industry of Lemgo is the manufacture of meerschaum
pipes, which has attained here a high pitch of excellence; other
industries are weaving, brewing and the manufacture of leather
and cigars. The town was a member of the Hanseatic league.
LEMIERRE, ANTOINE MARIN (1733-1793), French drama-
tist and poet, was born in Paris on the i2th of January 1733.
His parents were poor, hut Lemierre found a patron in the
collector-general of taxes, Dupin, whose secretary he became.
Lemierre gained his first success on the stage with Hypermnestre
(1758); Teree (1761) and Idomenee (1764) failed on account of
the subjects. Artaxerce, modelled on Metastasio, and Guillaume
Tell were produced in 1766; other successful tragedies were
La Veuve de Malabar (1770) and Barnavell (1784). Lemierre
revived Guillaume Tell in 1786 with enormous success. After
the Revolution he professed great remorse for the production
of a play inculcating revolutionary principles, and there is no
doubt that the horror of the excesses he witnessed hastened his
death, which took place on the 4th of July 1793. He had been
admitted to the Academy in 1781. Lemierre published La
Peinture (1769), based on a Latin poem by the abbe de Marsy,
and a poem in six cantos, Les Pastes, ou les usages de I'annee
(1779), an unsatisfactory imitation of Ovid's Fasti,
His (Euvres (1810) contain a notice of Lemierre by R. Perrin. and
his (Euvres choisies (1811) one by F. Fayolle.
LEMIRE, JULES AUGUSTE (1853- ), French priest and
social reformer, was born at Vieux-Berquin (Nord) on the 23rd
of April 1853. He was educated at the college of St Francis of
Assisi, Hazebrouck, where he subsequently taught philosophy
and rhetoric. In 1897 he was elected deputy for Hazebrouck
and was returned unopposed at the elections of 1898, 1902 and
1906. He organized a society called La Ligue du coin de terre et
du foyer, the object of which was to secure, at the expense of the
state, a piece of land for every French family desirous of possess-
ing one. The abbe Lemire sat in the chamber of deputies as a
conservative republican and Christian Socialist. He protested
in 1893 against the action of the Dupuy cabinet in closing the
Bourse du Travail, characterizing it as the expression of " a
policy of disdain of the workers." In December 1893 he was
seriously injured by the bomb thrown by the anarchist Vaillant
from the gallery of the chamber.
LEMMING, the native name of a small Scandinavian rodent
mammal Lemmus norvegicus (or L. lemmus), belonging to the
mouse tribe, or Muridae, and nearly related, especially in the
structure of its cheek-teeth, to the voles. Specimens vary
considerably in size and colour, but the usual length is about
5 in., and the soft fur yellowish-brown, marked with spots of
dark brown and black. It has a short, rounded head, obtuse
muzzle, small bead-like eyes, and short rounded ears, nearly
concealed by the fur. The tail is very short. The feet are small,
each with five claws, those of the fore feet strongest, and fitted for
scratching and digging. The usual habitat of lemmings is the
high lands or fells of the great central mountain chain of Norway
and Sweden, from the southern branches of the Langfjeldene
in Christiansand stiff to the North Cape and the Varangerfjord.
South of the Arctic circle they are, under ordinary circumstances,
confined to the plateaus covered with dwarf birch and juniper
above the conifer-region, though in Tromso ami and in Finmarken
they occur in all suitable localities down to the level of the sea.
The nest, under a tussock of grass or a stone, is constructed of
short dry straws, and usually lined with hair. The number of
young in each nest is generally five, sometimes only three,
occasionally seven or eight, and at least two broods are produced
annually. Their food is entirely vegetable, especially grass roots
and stalks, shoots of dwarf birch, reindeer lichens and mosses,
in search of which they form, in winter, long galleries through the
turf or under the snow. They are restless, courageous and
pugnacious little animals. When suddenly disturbed, instead
of trying to escape they sit upright, with their back against a
stone, hissing and showing fight in a determined manner.
The circumstance which has given popular interest to the
lemming is that certain districts of the cultivated lands of Norway
and Sweden, where in ordinary circumstances they are unknown,
are, at uncertain intervals varying from five to twenty or more
years, overrun by an army of these little creatures, which
steadily and slowly advance, always in the same direction, and
regardless of all obstacles, swimming streams and even lakes of
several miles in breadth, and committing considerable devasta-
tion on their line of march by the quantity of food they consume.
In their turn they are pursued and harassed by crowds of beasts
The Norwegian Lemming (Lemmus Norvegicus).
and birds of prey, as bears, wolves, foxes, dogs, wild cats, stoats,
weasels, eagles, hawks and owls, and never spared by man;
even domestic animals, as cattle, goats and reindeer, join in the
destruction, stamping them to the ground with their feet, and
even eating their bodies. Numbers also die from diseases
produced apparently from overcrowding. None returns, and the
onward march of the survivors never ceases until they reach the
sea, into which they plunge, and swimming onwards in the same
direction perish in the waves. These sudden appearances of vast
bodies of lemmings, and their singular habit of persistently
pursuing the same onward course of migration, have given rise
to various speculations, from the ancient belief of the Norwegian
peasants, shared by Olaus Magnus, that they fall down from the
clouds, to the hypothesis that they are acting in obedience to
an instinct inherited from ancient times, and still seeking the
congenial home in the submerged Atlantis, to which their
ancestors of the Miocene period were wont to resort when driven
from their ordinary dwelling-places by crowding or scarcity of
food. The principal facts regarding these migrations seem to be
as follows. When any combination of circumstances has occa-
sioned an increase of the numbers of the lemmings in their
ordinary dwelling-places, impelled by the restless or migratory
instinct possessed in a less developed degree by so many of their
congeners, a movement takes place at the edge of the elevated
plateau, and a migration towards the lower-lying land begins.
The whole body moves forward slowly, always advancing in the
LEMNISCATE— LEMNOS
same general direction in which they originally started, but
following more or less the course of the great valleys. They only
travel by night; and, staying in congenial places for considerable
periods, with unaccustomed abundance of provender, notwith-
standing the destructive influences to which they are exposed,
they multiply excessively during their journey, having families
more numerous and frequent than in their usual homes. The
progress may last from one to three years, according to the
route taken, and the distance to be traversed until the sea-coast
is reached, which in a country so surrounded by water as the
Scandinavian peninsula must be the ultimate goal of such a
journey. This may be either the Atlantic or the Gulf of Bothnia,
according as the migration has commenced from the west or the
east side of the central elevated plateau. Those that finally
perish in the sea, committing what appears to be a voluntary
suicide, are only acting under the same blind impulse which has
led them previously to cross shallower pieces of water with safety.
In Eastern Europe, Northern Asia and North America the group
is represented by the allied L. obensis, and in Alaska, by L.
nigripes', while the circumpolar banded lemming, Dicrostonyx
torquatus, which turns white in winter, represents a second genus
taking its name from the double claws on one of the toes of the
forefeet.
For habits of lemmings, see R. Collett, Myodes lemmus, its habits
and migrations in Norway (Christiania Videnskabs-Selskabs For-
handlinger, 1895). (W. H. F.; R. L.*)
LEMNISCATE (from Gr. \rnu>i0Kos, ribbon), a quartic curve
invented by Jacques Bernoulli (Ada Eniditorum, 1694) and
afterwards investigated by Giulio Carlo Fagnano, who gave its
principal properties and applied it to effect the division of a
quadrant into 2-2m, 3- 2™ and 5-2m equal parts. Following
Archimedes, Fagnano desired the curve to be engraved on his
tombstone. The complete analytical treatment was first given
by Leonhard Euler. The lemniscate of Bernoulli may be defined
as the locus of a point which moves so that the product of its
distances from two fixed points is constant and is equal to the
square of half the distance between these points. It is therefore
a particular form of Cassini's oval (see OVAL). Its cartesian
equation, when the line joining the two fixed points is the axis
of x and the middle point of this line is the origin, is (x2 + :V2)2 =
2<i2(r!-;y2) and the polar equation is r2=2o2 cos 26. The curve
(fig. i) consists of two loops symmetrically placed about the
coordinate axes. The pedal equation is r3 = a2/>, which shows
o|o
FIG. i.
FIG. 2.
FIG. 3.
that it is the first positive pedal of a rectangular hyperbola with
regard to the centre. It is also the inverse of the same curve for
the same point. It is the envelope of circles described on the
central radii of an ellipse as diameters. The area of the complete
curve is 2a2, and the length of any arc may be expressed in the
form f(i-x*)~ldx, an elliptic integral sometimes termed the
lemniscatic integral.
The name lemniscate is sometimes given to any crunodal quartic
curve having only one real finite branch which is symmetric about
the axis. Such curves are given by the equation xi—y2 = axi +
bx'yt+cy*. If a be greater than 6 the curve resembles fig. 2 and
is sometimes termed the fishtail-lemniscate ; if a be less than b, the
curve resembles fig.
3. The same name
is also given to the
first positive pedal
of any central conic.
When the conic is a
rectangular hyper-
bola, the curve is
the lemniscate of
FIG. 4.
FIG. 5.
Bernoulli previously described. The elliptic lemniscate has for its
equation (x2+y2)2 = oV-|-62y2 or r2 = o2 cos29+62 sin2* (a>6). The
centre is a conjugate point (or acnode) and the curve resembles
fig. 4. The hyperbolic lemniscate has for its equation (x:2+y2)2 = o2x2
— Wy* or r2 = a2 cos20 — ft2 sin2 0. In this case the centre is a crunode
and the curve resembles fig. 5. These curves are instances of
unicursal bicircular quartics.
LEMNOS (mod. Limnos), an island in the northern part of
the Aegean Sea. The Italian form of the name, Stalimene,
i.e. is ryv A.TJ/J.VOV, is not used in the island itself, but is commonly
employed in geographical works. The island, which belongs
to Turkey, is of considerable size: Pliny says that the coast-line
measured 112! Roman miles, and the area has been estimated
at 150 sq. m. Great part is mountainous, but some very fertile
valleys exist, to cultivate which 2000 yoke of oxen are
employed. The hill-sides afford pasture for 20,000 sheep. No
forests exist on the island; all wood is brought from the coast
of Rumelia or from Thasos. A few mulberry and fruit trees
grow, but no olives. The population is estimated by some
as high as 27,000, of whom 2000 are Turks and the rest Greeks,
but other authorities doubt whether it reaches more than half
this number. The chief towns are Kastro on the western coast,
with a population of 4000 Greeks and 800 Turks, and Mudros on
the southern coast. Kastro possesses an excellent harbour, and
is the seat of all the trade carried on with the island. Greek,
English and Dutch consuls or consular agents were formerly
stationed there; but the whole trade is now in Greek hands.
The archbishops of Lemnos and Ai Strati, a small neighbouring
island with 2000 inhabitants, resides in Kastro. In ancient
times the island was sacred to Hephaestus, who as the legend
tells fell on Lemnos when his father Zeus hurled him headlong
out of Olympus. This tale, as well as the name Aethaleia,
sometimes applied to it, points to its volcanic character. It is
said that fire occasionally blazed forth from Mosychlos, one of
its mountains; and Pausanias (viii. 33) relates that a small
island called Chryse, off the Lemnian coast, was swallowed up
by the sea. All volcanic action is now extinct.
The most famous product of Lemnos is the medicinal earth, which
is still used by the natives. At one time it was popular over western
Europe under the name terra sigillata. This name, like the Gr.
\-rnivia. <r<t>payis, is derived from the stamp impressed on each piece
of the earth; in ancient times the stamp was the head of Artemis.
The Turks now believe that a vase of this earth destroys the effect
of any poison drunk from it — a belief which the ancients attached
rather to the earth from Cape Kolias in Attica. Galen went to see
the digging up of this earth (see Kuhn, Medic. Gr. Opera, xii. 172 sq.) ;
on one day in each year a priestess performed the due ceremonies,
and a waggon-load of earth was dug out. At the present time the
day selected is the 6th of August, the feast of Christ the Saviour.
Both the Turkish hodja and the Greek priest are present to perform
the necessary ceremonies; the whole process takes place before
daybreak. The earth is sold by apothecaries in stamped cubical
blocks. The hill from which the earth is dug is a dry mound, void of
vegetation, beside the village of Kotschinos, and about two hours
from the site of Hephaestia. The earth was considered in ancient
times a cure for old festering wounds, and for the bite of poisonous
snakes.
The name Lemnos is said by Hecataeus (ap. Steph. Byz.) to
have been a title of Cybele among the Thracians, and the earliest
inhabitants are said to have been a Thracian tribe, called by
the Greeks Sinties, i.e. " the robbers." According to a famous
legend the women were all deserted by their husbands, and in
revenge murdered every man on the island. From this barbarous
act, the expression Lemnian deeds, Arifivta. e/rya, became pro-
verbial. The Argonauts landing soon after found only women
in the island, ruled over by Hypsipyle, daughter of the old king
Thoas. From the Argonauts and the Lemnian women were
descended the race called Minyae, whose king Euneus, son of
Jason and Hypsipyle, sent wine and provisions to the Greeks
at Troy. The Minyae were expelled by a Pelasgian tribe who
came from Attica. The historical element underlying these
traditions is probably that the original Thracian people were
gradually brought into communication with the Greeks as
navigation began to unite the scattered islands of the Aegean
(see JASON); the Thracian inhabitants were barbarians in
comparison with the Greek mariners. The worship of Cybele
was characteristic of Thrace, whither it spread from Asia Minor
at a very early period, and it deserves notice that Hypsipyle
and Myrina (the name of one of the chief towns) are Amazon
names, which are always connected with Asiatic Cybele-worship.
Coming down to a better authenticated period, we find that
Lemnos was conquered by Otanes, one of the generals of Darius
LEMOINNE— LEMON
Hystaspis; but was soon reconquered by Miltiades, the tyrant
of the Thracian Chersonese. Miltiades afterwards returned to
Athens, and Lemnos continued an Athenian possession till the
Macedonian empire absorbed it. On the vicissitudes of its
history in the 3rd century B.C. see Kohler in MittheU. Inst.
Athen. i. 261 The Romans declared it free in 197 B.C., but
gave it over in 166 to Athens, which retained nominal possession
of it till the whole of Greece was made a Roman province. A
colony of Attic cleruchs was established by Pericles, and many
inscriptions on the island relate to Athenians. After the division
of the empire, Lemnos passed under the Byzantine emperors;
it shared in the vicissitudes of the eastern provinces, being
alternately in the power of Greeks, Italians and Turks, till
finally the Turkish sultans became supreme in the Aegean.
In 1476 the Venetians successfully defended Kotschinos against
a Turkish siege; but in 1657 Kastro was captured by the Turks
from the Venetians after a siege of sixty-three days. Kastro
was again besieged by the Russians in 1770.
Homer speaks as if there were one town in the island called
Lemnos, but in historical times there was no such place. There
were two towns, Myrina, now Kastro, and Hephaestia. The
latter was the chief town; its coins are found in considerable
number, the types being sometimes the Athenian goddess and
her owl, sometimes native religious symbols, the caps of the
Dioscuri, Apollo, &c. Few coins of Myrina are known. They
belong to the period of Attic occupation, and bear Athenian
types. A few coins are also known which bear the name, not
of either city, but of the whole island. Conze was the first to
discover the site of Hephaestia, at a deserted place named
Palaeokastro on the east coast. It had once a splendid harbour,
which is now filled up. Its situation on the east explains why
Miltiades attacked it first when he came from the Chersonese.
It surrendered at once, whereas Myrina, with its very strong
citadel built on a perpendicular rock, sustained a siege. It
is said that the shadow of Mount Athos fell at sunset on a bronze
cow in the agora of Myrina. Pliny says that Athos was 87 m.
to the north-west; but the real distance is about 40 English
miles. One legend localized in Lemnos still requires notice.
Philoctetes was left there by the Greeks on their way to Troy;
and there he suffered ten years' agony from his wounded foot,
until Ulysses and Neoptolemus induced him to accompany them
to Troy. He is said by Sophocles to have lived beside Mount
Hermaeus, which Aeschylus (Agam. 262) makes one of the
beacon points to flash the news of Troy's downfall home to
Argos.
See Rhode, Res Lemnicae ; Conze, Reise auf den Inseln des Thrak-
ischen Meeres (from which the above-mentioned facts about the
present state of the island are taken) ; also Hunt in Walpole's
Travels; Belon du Mans, Observations de plusieurs singularitez,
&c. ; Finlay, Greece under the Romans; von Hammer, Gesch. des
Osman. Reiches; Gott. Gel. Anz. (1837). The chief references in
ancient writers are Iliad i. 593, v. 138, xiv. 229, &c. ; Herod,
iv. 145; Str. pp. 124, 330; Plin. iv. 23, xxxvi. 13.
LEMOINNE, JOHN EMILE (1815-1892), French journalist,
was born of French parents, in London, on the i7th of October
1815. He was educated first at an English school and then in
France. In 1840 he began writing for the Journal des debats,
on English and other foreign questions, and under the empire
he held up to admiration the free institutions of England by
contrast with imperial methods. After 1871 he supported
Thiers, but his sympathies rather tended towards a liberalized
monarchy, until the comte de Chambord's policy made such a
development an impossibility, and he then ranged himself with
the moderate Republicans. In 1875 Lemoinne was elected to
the French Academy, and in 1880 he was nominated a life senator.
Distinguished though he was for a real knowledge of England
among the French journalists who wrote on foreign affairs, his
tone towards English policy greatly changed in later days,
and though he never shared the extreme French bitterness
against England as regards Egypt, he maintained a critical
attitude which served to stimulate French Anglophobia. He
was a frequent contributor to the Revue des deux mond.es,
and published several books, the best known of which is his
JLtudes critiques et biographiques (1862). He died in Paris on
the I4th of December 1892.
LEMON, MARK (1800-1870), editor of Punch, was born in
London on the 3oth of November 1809. He had a natural talent
for journalism and the stage, and, at twenty-six, retired from less
congenial business to devote himself to the writing of plays.
More than sixty of his melodramas, operettas and comedies were
produced in London. At the same time he contributed to a
variety of magazines and newspapers, and founded and edited
the Field. In 1841 Lemon and Henry Mayhew conceived the
idea of a humorous weekly paper to be called Punch, and when
the first number was issued, in July 1841, were joint-editors and,
with the printer and engraver, equal owners. The paper was
for some time unsuccessful, Lemon keeping it alive out of the
profits of his plays. On the sale of Punch Lemon became sole
editor for the new proprietors, and it remained under his control
until his death, achieving remarkable popularity and influence.
Lemon was an actor of ability, a pleasing lecturer and a success-
ful impersonator of Shakespearian characters. He also wrote
a host of novelettes and lyrics, over a hundred songs, a few
three-volume novels, several Christmas fairy tales and a volume
of jests. He died at Crawley, Sussex, on the 23rd of May 1870.
LEMON, the fruit of Citrus Limonum, which is regarded by
some botanists as a variety of Citrus medico,. The wild stock of
the lemon tree is said to be a native of the valleys of Kumaon
and Sikkim in the North-West provinces of India, ascending
to a height of 4000 ft., and occurring under several forms. Sir
George Watt (Dictionary of Economic Products of India, ii. 352)
regards the wild plants as wild forms of the lime or citron and
considers it highly probable that the wild form of the lemon has
not yet been discovered.
The lemon seems to have been unknown to the ancient
Greeks and Romans, and to have been introduced by the Arabs
FIG. i. — Lemon — Citrus Limonum.
1. Flowering shoot; j nat. size.
2, Flower with two petals and
two bundles of stamens re-
moved ; slightly enlarged.
3, Fruit; 5 nat. size.
4, Same cut across.
5, Seed; f nat. size.
6, Same cut lengthwise.
into Spain between the i2th and I3th centuries. In 1494 the
fruit was cultivated in the Azores, and largely shipped to England,
but since 1838 the exportation has ceased. As a cultivated plant
the lemon is now met with throughout the Mediterranean region,
in Spain and Portugal, in California and Florida, and in almost
all tropical and subtropical countries. Like the apple and pear,
it varies exceedingly under cultivation. Risso and Poiteau
enumerate forty-seven varieties of this fruit, although they
maintain as distinct the sweet lime, C. Limelta, with eight
varieties, and the sweet lemon, C. Lumia, with twelve varieties,
which differ only in the fruit possessing an insipid instead of an
acid juice.
The lemon is more delicate than the orange, although, according
to Humboldt, both require an annual mean temperature of 62° Fahr.
414
LEMON
Unlike the orange, which presents a fine close head of deep green
foliage, it forms a straggling bush, or small tree, 10 to 12 ft. high,
with paler, more scattered leaves, and short angular branches with
sharp spines in the axils. The flowers, which possess a sweet odour
quite distinct from that of the orange, are in part hermaphrodite
and in part unisexual, the outside of the corolla having a purplish
hue. The fruit, which is usually crowned with a nipple, consists of
an outer rind or peel, the surface of which is more or less rough
from the convex oil receptacles imbedded in it, and of a white inner
rind, which is spongy and nearly tasteless, the whole of the interior
of the fruit being filled with soft parenchymatous tissue, divided
into about ten to twelve compartments, each generally containing
two or three seeds. The white inner rind varies much in thickness
in different kinds, but is never so thick as in the citron. As lemons
are much more profitable to grow than oranges, on account of their
keeping properties, and from their being less liable to injury during
voyages, the cultivation of the lemon is preferred in Italy wherever
it will succeed. In damp valleys it is liable like the orange (q.v. )
to be attacked by a fungus sooty mould, the stem, leaves, and fruit
becoming covered with a blackish dust. This is coincident with or
subsequent to the attacks of a small oval brown insect, Chermes
hesperidum. Trees not properly exposed to sunlight and air suffer
most severely from these pests. Syringing with resin-wash or milk
of lime when the young insects are hatched, and before they have
fixed themselves to the plant, is a preventive. Since 1 875 this fungoid
disease has made great r.avages in Sicily among the lemon and citron
trees, especially around Catania and Messina. Heritte attributes
the prevalence of the disease to the fact that the growers have
induced an unnatural degree of fertility in the trees, permitting
them to bear enormous crops year after year. This loss of vitality
is in some measure met by grafting healthy scions of the lemon on
the bitter orange, but trees so grafted do not bear fruit until they
are eight or ten years old.
The lemon tree is exceedingly fruitful, a large one in Spain or
Sicily ripening as many as three thousand fruits in favourable
seasons. In the south of Europe lemons are collected more or
less during every month of the year, but in Sicily the chief
harvest takes place from the end of October to the end of
December, those gathered during the last two months of the year
being considered the best for keeping purposes. The fruit is
gathered while still green. After collection the finest specimens
are picked out and packed in cases, each containing about four
hundred and twenty fruits, and also in boxes, three of which are
equal to two cases, each lemon being separately packed in paper.
The remainder, consisting of ill-shaped or unsound fruits, are
reserved for the manufacture of essential oil and juice. The
whole of the sound lemons are usually packed in boxes, but those
which are not exported immediately are carefully picked over
and the unsound ones removed before shipment. The exporta-
tion is continued as required until April and May. The large
lemons with a rougher rind, which appear in the London market
in July and August, are grown at Sorrento near Naples, and are
allowed to remain on the trees until ripe. -
Candied lemon peel is usually made in England from a larger
variety of the lemon cultivated in Sicily on higher ground than
the common kind, from which it is distinguished by its thicker
rind and larger size. This kind, known as the Spadaforese
lemon, is also allowed to remain on the trees until ripe, and when
gathered the fruit is cut in half longitudinally and pickled in
brine, before being exported in casks. Before candying the
lemons are soaked in fresh water to remove the salt. Citrons
are also exported from Sicily in the same way, but these are
about six times as expensive as lemons, and a comparatively
small quantity is shipped. Besides those exported from Messina
and Palermo, lemons are also imported into England to a less
extent from the Riviera of Genoa, and from Malaga in Spain,
the latter being the most esteemed. Of the numerous varieties
the wax lemon, the imperial lemon and the Gaeta lemon are
considered to be the best. Lemons are also extensively grown
in California and Florida.
Lemons of ordinary size contain about 2 oz. of juice, of specific
gravity 1-039-1 -046, yielding on an average 32-5 to 42-53 grains of
citric acid per oz. The amount of this acid, according to Stoddart,
varies in different seasons, decreasing in lemons kept from February
to July, at first slowly and afterwards rapidly, until at the end of
that period it is all split up into glucose and carbonic acid — the
specific gravity of the juice being in February 1-046, in May 1-041
and in July 1-027, while the fruit is hardly altered in appearance.
It has been stated that lemons may be kept for some months with
scarcely perceptible deterioration by varnishing them with an
alcoholic solution of shellac — the coating thus formed being easily
removed when the 'fruit is required for household use by gently
kneading it in the hands. Besides citric acid, lemon juice contains
3 to 4% of gum and sugar^ albuminoid matters, malic acid and
% of in
2-28'
inorganic salts. Cossa has determined that the ash of
dried lemon juice contains 54 % of potash, besides 15 % of phosphoric
acid. In the white portion of the peel (in common with other fruits
of the genus) a bitter principle called hesperidin has been found. It
is very slightly soluble in boiling water, but is soluble in dilute
alcohol and in alkaline solutions, which it soon turns of a yellow or
reddish colour. It is also darkened by tincture of perchloride of
iron. Another substance named lemonin, crystallizing in lustrous
plates, was discovered in 1 879 by Palerno and Aglialoro in the seeds,
in which it is present in very small quantity, 15,000 grains of seed
yielding only 80 grains of it. It differs from hesperidin in dissolving
in potash without alteration. It melts at 275° F.
The simplest method of preserving lemon juice in small quantities
for medicinal or domestic use is to keep it covered with a layer of
olive or almond oil in a closed vessel furnished with a glass tap, by
which the clear liquid may be drawn off as required. Lemon juice
is largely used on shipboard as a preventive of scurvy. By the
Merchant Shipping Act 1867 every British ship going to other
countries where lemon or lime juice cannot be obtained was required
to take sufficient to give I oz. to every member of the crew daily.
Of this juice it requires about 13,000 lemons to yield I pipe (108
gallons). Sicilian juice in November yields about 9 oz. of crude
citric acid per gallon, but only 6 oz. if the fruit is collected in April.
The crude juice was formerly exported to England, and was often
adulterated with sea-water, but is now almost entirely replaced by
lime juice. A concentrated lemon juice for the manufacture of
citric acid is prepared in considerable quantities, chiefly at Messina
and Palermo, by boiling down the crude juice in copper vessels
over an open fire until its specific gravity is about 1-239, seven to
ten pipes of raw making only one of concentrated lemon juice.
" Lemon juice " for use on shipboard is prepared also from the
fruits of limes and Bergamot oranges. It is said to be sometimes
adulterated with sulphuric acid on arrival in England.
The lemon used in medicine is described in the British pharma-
copoeia as being the fruit of Citrus medico,, var. Limonum. The
preparations of lemon peel are of small importance. From the
fresh peel is obtained the oleum limonis (dose 5-3 minims), which
has the characters of its class. It contains a terpene known as
citrene or limonene, which also occurs in orange peel: and citral,
the aldehyde of geraniol, which is the chief constituent of oil of
roses. Of much importance is the succus limonis or lemon juice, I
oz. of which contains about 40 grains of free citric acid, besides
the citrate of potassium (-25 %) and malic acid, free and combined.
Ten per cent, of alcohol must be added to lemon juice if it is to be
kept. From it are prepared the syrupus limonis (dose J-2 drachms),
which consists of sugar, lemon juice and an alcoholic extract of
lemon peel, and also citric acid itself. Lemon juice is practically
impure citric acid (q.v.).
Essence or Essential Oil of Lemon. — The essential oil contained in
the rind of the lemon occurs in commerce as a distinct article. It
is manufactured chiefly in Sicily, at Reggio in Calabria, and at
Mentone and Nice in France. The small and irregularly shaped
fruits are employed while still green, in which state the yield of oil
is greater than when they are quite ripe. In Sicily and Calabria
the oil is extracted in November and December as follows. A
workman cuts three longitudinal slices off each lemon, leaving a
three-cornered central core having a small portion of rind at the apex
and base. These pieces are then divided transversely and cast on one
side, and the strips of peel are thrown in another place. Next day
the pieces of peel are deprived of their oil by pressing four or five
times successively the outer surface of the peel (zest or flavedo) bent
into a convex shape, against a flat sponge held in the palm of the
left hand and wrapped round the forefinger. The oil vesicles in
the rind, which are ruptured more easily in the fresh fruit than in
the state in which lemons are imported, yield up their oil to the
sponge, which when saturated is squeezed into an earthen vessel
furnished with a spout and capable of holding about three pints.
After a time the oil separates from the watery liquid which accom-
panies it, and is then decanted. By this process four hundred fruits
yield 9 to 14 oz. of essence. The prisms of pulp are afterwards
expressed to obtain lemon juice, and then distilled to obtain the
small quantity of volatile oil they contain. At Mentone and Nice
a different process is adopted. The lemons are placed in an tcuelle
d piquer, a shallow basin of pewter about 8| in. in diameter, having
a lip for pouring on one side and a closed tube at the bottom about
5 in. long and I in. in diameter. A number of stout brass pins stand
up about half an inch from the bottom of the vessel. The workman
rubs a lemon over these pins, which rupture the oil vesicles, and the
oil collects in the tube, which when it becomes full is emptied into
another vessel that it may separate from the aqueous liquid mixed
with it. When filtered it is known as Essence de citron au zeste, or,
in the English market, as perfumers' essence of lemon, inferior
qualities being distinguished as druggists' essence of lemon. An
additional product is obtained by immersing the scarified lemons in
warm water and separating the oil which floats off. Essence de
citron distillee is obtained by rubbing the surface of fresh lemons
LEMONNIER, A. L. C.
(or of those which have been submitted to the action of the ecuelle
d piquer) on a coarse grater of tinned iron, and distilling the grated
peel. The oil so obtained is colourless, and of -.inferior fragrance,
and is sold at a lower price, while that obtained by the cold processes
has a yellow colour and powerful odour.
Essence of lemon is chiefly brought from Messina and Palermo
packed in copper bottles holding 25 to 50 kilogrammes or more, and
sometimes in tinned bottles of smaller size. It is said to be rarely
found in a state of purity in commerce, almost all that comes into
the market being diluted with the cheaper distilled oil. This fact
may be considered as proved by the price at which the essence of
lemon is sold in England, this being less than it costs the manu-
facturer to make it. When long kept the essence deposits a white
greasy stearoptene, apparently identical with the bergaptene
obtained from the essential oil of the Bergamot orange. The chief
constituent of oil of lemon is the terpene, CjoHi6, "boiling at 348°-8
Fahr., which, like oil of turpentine, readily yields crystals of terpin,
CioHi63OH2, but differs in yielding the crystalline compound,
CioHn+2Cl, oil of turpentine forming one having the formula
CioHis+HCl. Oil of lemons also contains, according to Tilden,
another hydrocarbon, CioHie, boiling at 3-20° Fahr., a small amount
of cymene, and a compound acetic ether, CzHaO'CioHnO. The
natural essence of lemon not being wholly soluble in rectified spirit
of wine, an essence for culinary purposes is sometimes prepared by
digesting 6 pz. of lemon peel in one pint of pure alcohol of 95 %, and,
when the rind has become brittle, which takes place in about two
and a half hours, powdering it and percolating the alcohol through
it This article is known as " lemon flavour."
The name lemon is also applied to some other fruits. The Java
lemon is the fruit of Citrus javanica, the pear lemon of a variety
of C. Limetta, and the pearl lemon of C. margarita. The fruit of
a passion-flower, Passiflora laurifolia, is sometimes known as the
water-lemon, and that of a Berberidaceous plant, Podophyllum
peltatum, as the wild, lemon. In France and Germany the lemon
is known as the citron, and hence much confusion arises concern-
ing the fruits referred to in different works. The essential oil
known as oil of cedrat is usually a factitious article instead of
being prepared, as its name implies, from the citron (Fr. cedratier).
An essential oil is also prepared from C. Lumia, at Squillace in
Calabria, and has an odour like that of Bergamot but less
powerful.
The sour lime is Citrus acida, generally regarded as a var.
(acida) of C. medica. It is a native of India, ascending to about
4000 ft. in the mountains, and occurring as a small, much-branched
thorny bush. The small flowers are white or tinged with pink
FIG. 2. — Lime — Citrus medica, var. acida, f nat. size.
1, Flowering shoot. 5, Seed cut lengthwise.
2, Fruit. 6, Seed cut transversely.
3, Same cut transversely. 7, Superficial view of portion of
4, Seed. rind showing oil glands.
on the outside; the fruit is small and generally round, with a thin,
light green or lemon-yellow bitter rind, and a very sour, somewhat
bitter juicy pulp. It is extensively cultivated throughout the
West Indies, especially in Dominica, Montserrat and Jamaica,
the approximate annual value of the exports from these islands
being respectively £45,000, £6000 and £6000. The plants are
grown from seed in nurseries and planted out about 200 to the
4*5
acre. They begin to bear from about the third year, but full
crops are not produced until the trees are six or seven years old.
The ripe yellow fruit is gathered as it falls. The fruit is bruised
by hand in a funnel-shaped vessel known as an ecuelle, with a
hollow stem; by rolling the fruit on a number of points on the
side of the funnel the oil cells in the rind are broken and the oil
collects in the hollow stem — this is the essential oil or essence of
limes. The fruits are then taken to the mill, sorted, washed and
passed through rollers and exposed to two squeezings. Two-thirds
of the juice is expressed by the first squeezing, is strained at
once, done up in puncheons and exported as raw juice. The pro-
duct of the second squeezing, together with the juice extracted
by a subsequent squeezing in a press, is strained and evaporated
down to make concentrated juice; ten gallons of the raw juice
yield one gallon of the concentrated juice. The raw juice is
used for preparations of lime juice cordial, the concentrated for
manufactures of citric acid.
On some estates citrate of lime is now manufactured in place of
concentrated acid. Distilled oil of limes is prepared by distilling
the juice, but its value is low in comparison with the expressed oil
obtained by hand as described above. Green limes and pickled
limes preserved in brine are largely exported to the United States,
and more recently green limes have been exported to the United
Kingdom. Limalade or preserved limes is an excellent substitute
for marmalade. A spineless form of the lime appeared as a sport in
Dominica in 1892, and is now grown there and elsewhere on a
commercial scale. A form with seedless fruits has also recently been
obtained in Dominica and Trinidad independently. The young
leaves of the lime are used for perfuming the water in finger-glasses,
a few being placed in the water and bruised before use.
LEMONNIER, ANTOINE LOUIS CAMILLE (1844- ),
Belgian poet, was born at Ixelles, Brussels, on the 24th of March
1844. He studied law, and then took a clerkship in a government
office, which he resigned after three years. Lemonnier inherited
Flemish blood from both parents, and with it the animal force
and pictorial energy of the Flemish temperament. He published
a Salon de Bruxelles in 1863, and again in 1866. His early friend-
ships were chiefly with artists; and he wrote art criticisms
with recognized discernment. Taking a house in the hills near
Namur, he devoted himself to sport, and developed the intimate
sympathy with nature which informs his best work. Nos
Flamands (1869) and Croquis d'automne (1870) date from this
time. Paris-Berlin (1870), a pamphlet pleading the cause of
France, and full of the author's horror of war, had a great
success. His capacity as a novelist, in the fresh, humorous
description of peasant life, was revealed in Un Coin de village
(1879). In £/n Af<Jfe( 1 881) he achieved a different kind of success.
It deals with the amours of a poacher and a farmer's daughter,
with the forest as a background. Cachapres, the poacher,
seems the very embodiment of the wild life around him. The
rejection of Un Mdle by the judges for the quinquennial prize
of literature in 1883 made Lemonnier the centre of a school,
inaugurated at a banquet given in his honour on the 27th of May
1883. Le Mori (1882), which describes the remorse of two
peasants for a murder they have committed, is a masterpiece
in its vivid representation of terror. It was remodelled as a
tragedy in five acts (Paris, 1899) by its author. Ceux de la
glebe (1889), dedicated to the "children of the soil," was written
in 1885. He turned aside from local subjects for some time to
produce a series of psychological novels, books of art criticism,
&c., of considerable value, but assimilating more closely to
French contemporary literature. The most striking of his
later novels are: L' Hysterique (1885); Happe-chair (1886),
often compared with Zola's Germinal; Le Possfdt (1890);
La Fin des bourgeois (1892); L'Arcke, journal d'une maman
(1894), a quiet book, quite ciitferent from his usual work; La
Faute de Mme Charuet (1895); L'Homme en amour (1897); and,
with a return to Flemish subjects, Le Vent dans les moulins
(1901); Petit Homme de Dieu (1902), and Comme va le ruisseau
(1903). In 1888 Lemonnier was prosecuted in Paris for offending
against public morals by a story in Gil Bias-, and was condemned
to a fine. In a later prosecution at Brussels he was defended
by Edmond Picard, and acquitted; and he was arraigned for
a third time, at Bruges, for his Homme en amour, but again
416
LEMONNIER, P. C.— LEMUR
acquitted. He represents his own case in Les Deux consciences
(1902). L'lle merge (1897) was the first of a trilogy to be called
La Legende de la vie, which was to trace, under the fortunes of
the hero, the pilgrimage of man through sorrow and sacrifice to
the conception of the divinity within him. In Adam et Eve
(1899), and Au Caeur frais de la fortt (1900), he preached the
return to nature as the salvation not only of the individual but
of the community. Among his other more important works
are G. Courbet, et ses tzuvres (1878); L'Histoire des Beaux-Arts
en Belgique 1830-1887 (1887); En Allemagne (1888), dealing
especially with the Pinakothek at Munich; La Belgique (1888),
an elaborate descriptive work with many illustrations; La
Vie beige (1905) ; and Alfred Stevens et son ceuvre (1906).
Lemonnier spent much time in Paris, and was one of the early
contributors to the Mercure de France. He began to write at a
time when Belgian letters lacked style; and with much toil, and
some initial extravagances, he created a medium for the expression
of his ideas. He explained something of the process in a preface
contributed to Gustave Abel's Labeur de la prose (1902). His
prose is magnificent and sonorous, but abounds in neologisms
and strange metaphors.
See the Revue de Belgique (isth February 1903), which contains
the syllabus of a series of lectures on Lemonnier by Edmond Picard,
a bibliography of his works, and appreciations by various writers.
LEMONNIER, PIERRE CHARLES (1715-1799), French
astronomer, was born on the 23rd of November 1715 in Paris,
where his father was professor of philosophy at the college
d'Harcourt. His first recorded observation was made before
he was sixteen, and the presentation of an elaborate lunar map
procured for him admission to the Academy, on the 2ist of
April 1736, at the early age of twenty. He was chosen in the
same year to accompany P. L. Maupertuis and Alexis Clairault
on their geodetical expedition to Lapland. In 1738, shortly
after his return, he explained, in a memoir read before the
Academy, the advantages of J. Flamsteed's mode of determining
right ascensions. His persistent recommendation, in fact,
of Engh'sh methods and instruments contributed effectively
to the reform of French practical astronomy, and constituted
the most eminent of his services to science. He corresponded
with J. Bradley, was the first to represent the effects of nutation
in the solar tables, and introduced, in 1741, the use of the transit-
instrument at the Paris observatory. He visited England in
1748, and, in company with the earl of Morton and James Short
the optician, continued his journey to Scotland, where he observed
the annular eclipse of July 25. The liberality of Louis XV., in
whose favour he stood high, furnished him with the means of
procuring the best instruments, many of them by English
makers. Amongst the fruits of his industry may be mentioned
a laborious investigation of the disturbances of Jupiter by
Saturn, the results of which were employed and confirmed by
L. Euler in his prize essay of 1748; a series of lunar observations
extending over fifty years; some interesting researches in
terrestrial magnetism and atmospheric electricity, in the latter
of which he detected a regular diurnal period ; and the determina-
tion of the places of a great number of stars, including twelve
separate observations of Uranus, between 1765 and its discovery
as a planet. In his lectures at the college de France he first
publicly expounded the analytical theory of gravitation, and
his timely patronage secured the services of J. J. Lalande for
astronomy. His temper was irritable, and his hasty utterances
exposed him to retorts which he did not readily forgive. Against
Lalande, owing to some trifling pique, he closed his doors " during
an entire revolution of the moon's nodes." His career was arrested
by paralysis late in 1791, and a repetition of the stroke terminated
his life. He died at Heril near Bayeux on the 3ist of May 1799.
By his marriage with Mademoiselle de Cussy he left three
daughters, one of whom became the wife of J. L. Lagrange.
He was admitted in 1739 to the Royal Society, and was one of
the one hundred and forty-four original members of the Institute.
He wrote Histoire celeste (1741); Theorie des comeles (1743), a
translation, with additions of Halley's Synopsis; Institutions
astronomiques (1746), an improved translation of J. Keill's text-
book; Nouveau zodiaque (1755); Observations de la lune, Au soldi,
et des etoiles fixes (1751-1775); Lois du magnetisme (1776-1778), &c.
See J. J. Lalande, Bibl. astr., p. 819 (also in the Journal des
savants for 1801); F. X. von Zach, Allgemeine geog. Ephemeriden,
iii. 625; J. S. Bailly, Hist, de I'astr. moderne, iii. ; J. B. J. Delambre,
Hist, de I'astr. au XVIII'. siecle, p. 179; J. Madler, Geschichte der
Himmelskunde, ii. 6; R. Wolf, Geschichte der Astronomic, p. 480.
LEMOYNE, JEAN BAPTISTS (1704-1778), French sculptor,
was the pupil of his father, Jean Louis Lemoyne, and of Robert
le Lorrain. He was a great figure in his day, around whose
modest and kindly personality there waged opposing storms of
denunciation and applause. Although his disregard of the
classic tradition, and of the essentials of dignified sculpture,
as well as his lack of firmness and of intellectual grasp of the
larger principles of his art, lay him open to stringent criticism, de
Clarac's charge that he had delivered a mortal blow at sculpture
is altogether exaggerated. Lemoyne's more important works
have for the most part been destroyed or have disappeared.
The equestrian statue of " Louis XV." for the military school,
and the composition of " Mignard's daughter, Mme Feuquieres,
kneeling before her father's bust " (which bust was from the
hand of Coysevox) were subjected to the violence by which
Bouchardon's equestrian monument of Louis XIV. (q.v.) was
destroyed. The panels only have been preserved. In his
busts evidence of his riotous and florid imagination to a great
extent disappears, and we have a remarkable series of important
portraits, of which those of women are perhaps the best. Among
Lemoyne's leading achievements in this class are " Fontenelle "
(at Versailles), "Voltaire," " Latour " (all of 1748), "Due de
la Valiere" (Versailles), " Comte de St Florentin," and
"Crebillon" (Dijon Museum); " Mile Chiron" and "Mile
Dangeville," both produced in 1761 and both at the Theatre
Francais in Paris, and " Mme de Pompadour," the work of
the same year. Of the Pompadour he also executed a statue
in the costume of a nymph, very delicate and playful in its
air of grace. Lemoyne was perhaps most successful in his
training of pupils, one of the leaders of whom was Falconnet.
LEMPRIERE, JOHN (c. 1765-1824), English classical scholar,
was born in Jersey, and educated at Winchester and Pembroke
College, Oxford. He is chiefly known for his Bibliotheca Classics
or Classical Dictionary (1788), which, edited by various later
scholars, long remained a readable if not very trustworthy
reference book in mythology and classical history. In 1792, after
holding other scholastic posts, he was appointed f,o the head-
mastership of Abingdon grammar school, and later became the
vicar of that parish. While occupying this living, he published a
Universal Biography of Eminent Persons in all Ages and Countries
(1808). In 1809 he succeeded to the head-mastership of Exeter
free grammar school. On retiring from this, in consequence of
a disagreement with the trustees, he was given the living of Meeth
in Devonshire, which, together with that of Newton Petrock,
he held till his death in London on the ist of February 1824.
LEMUR (from Lat. lemures, " ghosts "), the name applied
by Linnaeus to certain peculiar Malagasy representatives of the
order PRIMATES (q.v.) which do not come under the designation
of either monkeys or apes, and, with allied animals from the same
island and tropical Asia and Africa, constitute the sub-order
Prosimiae, or Lemuroidea, the characteristics of which are given
in the article just mentioned. The typical lemurs include species
like Lemur mongoz and L. catta, but the English name " lemur "
is often taken to include all the members of the sub-order,
although the aberrant forms are often conveniently termed
" lemuroids." All the Malagasy lemurs, which agree in the
structure of the internal ear, are now included in the family
Lemuridae, confined to Madagascar and the Comoro Islands,
which comprises the great majority of the group. The other
families are the Nycticebidae, common to tropical Asia and
Africa, and the Tarsiidae, restricted to the Malay countries. In
the more typical Lemuridae there are two pairs of upper incisor
teeth, separated by a gap in the middle line; the premolars may
be either two or three, but the molars, as in the lower jaw, are
always three on each side. In the lower jaw the incisors and
canines are directed straight forwards, and are of small size
LENA— LENBACH
417
and nearly similar form; the function of the canine being
discharged by the first premolar, which is larger than the
other teeth of the same series. With the exception of the
second toe of the hind-foot, the digits have well-formed,
flattened nails as in the majority of monkeys. In the members
of the typical genus Lemur, as well as in the allied Hapalemur
and Lepidolemur, none of the toes or fingers are connected
by webs, and all have the hind-limbs of moderate length,
and the tail long. The maximum number of teeth is 36, there
being typically two pairs of incisors and three of premolars
in each jaw. In habits some of the species are nocturnal and
others diurnal; but all subsist on a mixed diet, which includes
birds, reptiles, eggs, insects and fruits. Most are arboreal, but
the ring-tailed lemur (L. catia) often dwells among rocks. The
species of the genus Lemur are diurnal, and may be recognized
by the length of the muzzle, and the large tufted ears. In some
cases, as in the black lemur (L. macaco) the two sexes are differ-
ently coloured; but in others, especially the ruffed lemur (L.
varius), there is much individual variation in this respect,
scarcely any two being alike. The gentle lemurs (Hapalemur)
have a rounder head, with smaller ears and a shorter muzzle,
and also a bare patch covered with spines on the fore-arm.
The sportive lemurs (Lepidolemur) are smaller than the typical
species of Lemur, and the adults generally lose their upper
incisors. The head is short and conical, the ears large, round
and mostly bare, and the tail shorter than the body. Like
the gentle lemurs they are nocturnal. (See AVAHI, AYE-AYE,
GALAGO, INDRI, LORIS, POTTO, SIFAKA and TARSIER.) (R. L.*)
LENA, a river of Siberia, rising in the Baikal Mountains,
on the W. side of Lake Baikal, in 54° 10' N. and 107° 55' E.
Wheeling round by the S., it describes a semicircle, then flows
N.N.E. and N.E., being joined by the Kirenga and the Vitim,
both from the right; from 113° E. it flows E.N.E as far as
Yakutsk (62° N., 127° 40' E.), where it enters the lowlands, after
being joined by the Olekma, also from the right. From Yakutsk
it goes N. until joined by its right-hand affluent the Aldan, which
deflects it to the north-west; then, after receiving its most
important left-hand tributary, the Vilyui, it makes its way
nearly due N. to the Nordenskjold Sea, a division of the Arctic,
disemboguing S.W. of the New Siberian Islands by a delta
10,800 sq. m. in area, and traversed by seven principal branches,
the most important being Bylov, farthest east. The total
length of the river is estimated at 2860 m. The delta arms
sometimes remain blocked with ice the whole year round. At
Yakutsk navigation is generally practicable from the middle of
May to the end of October, and at Kirensk, at the confluence of
the Lena and the Kirenga, from the beginning of May to about
the same time. Between these two towns there is during the
season regular steamboat communication. The area of the river
basin is calculated at 895,500 sq. m. Gold is washed out of the
sands of the Vitim and the Olekma, and tusks of the mammoth
are dug out of the delta.
See G. W. Melville, In the Lena Delta (1885).
LE NAIN, the name of three brothers, Louis, ANTOINE
and MATHIEU, who occupy a peculiar position in the history
of French art. Although they figure amongst the original
members of the French Academy, their works show no trace of
the influences which prevailed when that body was founded.
Their sober execution and choice of colour recall characteristics
of the Spanish school, and when the world of Paris was busy
with mythological allegories, and the " heroic deeds " of the
king, the three Le Nain devoted themselves chiefly to subjects
of humble life such as " Boys Playing Cards," " The Forge,"
or " The Peasants' Meal." These three paintings are now in the
Louvre; various others may be found in local collections, and
some fine drawings may be seen in the British Museum; but the
Nain signature is rare, and is never accompanied by initials
vhich might enable us to distinguish the work of the brothers.
"heir lives are lost in obscurity; all that can be affirmed is that
hey were born at Laon in Picardy towards the close of the i6th
atury. About 1629 they went to Paris; in 1648 the three
brothers were received into the Academy, and in the same year
xvi. 14
both Antoine and Louis died. Mathieu lived on till August 1677 ;
he bore the title of chevalier, and painted many portraits. Mary
of Medici and Mazarin were amongst his sitters, but these works
seem to have disappeared.
See Champfleury, Essai sur la vie el I'ceuvre des Le Nain (1850),
and Catalogue des tableaux des Le Nain (1861).
LENAU, NIKOLAUS, the pseudonym of NIKOLAUS FRANZ
NIEMBSCH VON STREHLENAU (1802-1850), Austrian poet, who
was born at Csatad, near Temesvar in Hungary, on the isth of
August 1802. His father, a government official, died at Budapest
in 1807, leaving his children to the care of an affectionate, but
jealous and somewhat hysterical, mother, who in 1811 married
again. In 1819 the boy went to the university of Vienna; he
subsequently studied Hungarian law at Pressburg and then spent
the best part of four years in qualifying himself in medicine. But
he was unable to settle down to any profession. He had early
begun to write verses; and the disposition to sentimental
melancholy acquired from his mother, stimulated by love dis-
appointments and by the prevailing fashion of the romantic
school of poetry, settled into gloom after his mother's death in
1829. Soon afterwards a legacy from his grandmother enabled
him to devote himself wholly to poetry. His first published
poems appeared in 1827, in J. G. Seidl's Aurora. In 1831 he
went to Stuttgart, where he published a volume of Gedichte
(1832) dedicated to the Swabian poet Gustav Schwab. Here he
also made the acquaintance of Uhland, Justinus Kerner, Karl
Mayer1 and others; but his restless spirit longed for change,
and he determined to seek for peace and freedom in America.
In October 1832 he landed at Baltimore and settled on a home-
stead in Ohio. But the reality of life in " the primeval forest "
fell lamentably short of the ideal he had pictured; he disliked
the Americans with their eternal " English lisping of dollars "
(englisches Talergelispel); and in 1833 he returned to Germany,
where the appreciation of his first volume of poems revived his
spirits. From now on he lived partly in Stuttgart and partly in
Vienna. In 1836 appeared his Faust, in which he laid bare his
own soul to the world; in 1837, Savonarola, an epic in which
freedom from political and intellectual tyranny is insisted upon
as essential to Christianity. In 1838 appeared his Neuere
Gedichte, which prove that Savonarola had been but the result
of a passing exaltation. Of these new poems, some of the finest
were inspired by his hopeless passion for Sophie von Lowenthal,
the wife of a friend, whose acquaintance he had made in 1833
and who " understood him as no other." In 1842 appeared
Die Albigenser, and in 1844 he began writing his Don Juan, a
fragment of which was published after his death. Soon after-
wards his never well-balanced mind began to show signs of
aberration, and in October 1844 he was placed under restraint.
He died in the asylum at Oberdobling near Vienna on the 22nd
of August 1850. Lenau's fame rests mainly upon his shorter
poems; even his epics are essentially lyric in quality. He is
the greatest modern lyric poet of Austria, and the typical repre-
sentative in German literature of that pessimistic Weltschmerz
which, beginning with Byron, reached its culmination in the
poetry of Leopardi.
Lenau's Samtliche Werke were published in 4 yols. by A. Griin
(1855); but there are several more modern editions, as those by
M.Koch in Kurschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur, vols.l 54-1 55 (1888),
and by E. Castle (2 vols., 1900). See A. Schurz, Lenaus Leben,
grosstenteils aus des Dichters eigenen Briefen (1855); L. A. Frank),
Zu Lenaus Biographie (1854, 2nd ed., 1885); A. Marchand, Les
Poetes lyriques de I'Autriche (1881) ; L. A. Frank!, Lenaus Tagebuch
und Briefe an Sophie Lowenthal (1891); A. Schlossar, Lenaus
Briefe an die Familie Reinbeck (1896); L. Roustan, Lenau et son
temps (1898); E. Castle, Lenau und die Familie Lowenthal (1906).
LENBACH, FRANZ VON (1836-1904), German painter,
was born at Schrobenhausen, in Bavaria, on the I3th of December
1836. His father was a mason, and the boy was intended to
follow his father's trade or be a builder. With this view he was
sent to school at Landsberg, and then to the polytechnic at
Augsburg. But after seeing Hofner, the animal painter, execut-
1 Karl Friedrich Hartmann Mayer (1786-1870), poet, and bio-
grapher of Uhland, was by profession a lawyer and government
official in Wurttemberg.
LENCLOS, ,NINON DE— LENNEP
ing some studies, he made various attempts at painting, which
his father's orders interrupted. However, when he had seen
the galleries of Augsburg and Munich, he finally obtained his
father's permission to become an artist, and worked for a short
time in the studio of Grafle, the painter; after this he devoted
much time to copying. Thus he was already accomplished in
technique when he became the pupil of Piloty, with whom he
set out for Italy in 1858. A few interesting works remain as
the outcome of this first journey — " A Peasant seeking Shelter
from Bad Weather " (1855), " The Goatherd " (1860, in the
Schack Gallery, Munich), and " The Arch of Titus " (in the
Palfy collection, Budapest). On returning to Munich, he was
at once called to Weimar to take the appointment of professor
at the Academy. But he did not hold it long, having made the
acquaintance of Count Schack, who commissioned a great
number of copies for his collection. Lenbach returned to Italy
the same year, and there copied many famous pictures. He
set out in 1867 for Spain, where he copied not only the famous
pictures by Velasquez in the Prado, but also some landscapes
in the museums of Granada and the Alhambra (1868). In the
previous year he had exhibited at the great exhibition at Paris
several portraits, one of which took a third-class medal. There-
after he exhibited frequently both at Munich and at Vienna,
and in 1000 at the Paris exhibition was awarded a Grand Prix
for painting. Lenbach, who died in 1904, painted many of the
most remarkable personages of his time.
See Berlepsch, " Lenbach," Velhagen und Klasin^s Monatshefte
(1891); Begouen, Les Portraits de Lenbach a ['exposition de Munich
(1899); K. Knackfuss, Lenbach, and Franz von Lenbach Bildnisse
(1900).
LENCLOS, NINON DE (1615-1705), the daughter of a gentle-
man of good position in Touraine, was born in Paris in November
1615. Her long and eventful life divides into two periods,
during the former of which she was the typical Frenchwoman
of the gayest and most licentious society of the i7th century,
during the latter the recognized leader of the fashion in Paris,
and the friend of wits and poets. All that can be pleaded in
defence of her earlier life is that she had been educated by her
father in epicurean and sensual beliefs, and that she retained
throughout the frank demeanour, and disregard of money, which
won from Saint fivremond the remark that she was an honnete
homme. She had a succession of distinguished lovers, among
them being Gaspard de Coligny, the marquis d'fistrees, La
Rochefoucauld, Conde and Saint fivremond. Queen Christina
of Sweden visited her, and Anne of Austria was powerless
against her. After she had continued her career for a pre-
posterous length of time, she settled down to the social leadership
of Paris. Among her friends she counted Mme de la Sabliere,
Mme de la Fayette and Mme de Maintenon. It became the
fashion for young men as well as old to throng round her, and
the best of all introductions for a young man who wished to
make a figure in society was an introduction to Mile de Lenclos.
Her long friendship with Saint fivremond must be briefly
noticed. They were of the same age, and had been lovers in
their youth, and throughout his long exile the wit seems to have
kept a kind remembrance of her. The few really authentic
letters of Ninon are those addressed to her old friend, and the
letters of both in the last few years of their equally long lives
are exceptionally touching, and unique in the polite compliments
with which they try to keep off old age. If Ninon owes part of
her posthumous fame to Saint fivremond, she owes at least as
much to Voltaire, who was presented to her as a promising boy
poet by the abbe de Chateauneuf. To him she left 2000 francs
to buy books, and his letter on her was the chief authority of
many subsequent biographers. Her personal appearance is,
according to Sainte-Beuve, best described in Clelie, a novel by
Mile de Scudery, in which she figures as Clarisse. Her distin-
guishing characteristic was neither beauty nor wit, but high
spirits and perfect evenness of temperament.
The letters of Ninon published after her death were, according
to Voltaire, all spurious, and the only authentic ones are those to
Saint Evrernond, which can be best studied in Dauxmesnil's edition
of Saint Evremond, and his notice on her. Sainte-Beuve has an
interesting notice of these letters in the Causeries duLundi,\o\. iv.
The Correspondence authentique was edited by E. Colombey in 1886.
See also Helen K. Hayes, The Real Ninon de VEnclos (1908) ; and
Mary C. Rowsell, Ninon de VEnclos and her century (1910).
LENFANT, JACQUES (1661-1728), French Protestant divine,
was born at Bazoche in La Beauce on the i3th of April 1661,
son of Paul Lenfant, Protestant pastor at Bazoche and after-
wards at Chatillon-sur-Loing until the revocation of the edict of
Nantes, when he removed to Cassel. After studying at Saumur
and Geneva, Lenfant completed his theological course at Heidel-
berg, where in 1684 he was ordained minister of the French
Protestant church, and appointed chaplain to the dowager
electress palatine. When the French invaded the Palatinate in
1688 Lenfant withdrew to Berlin, as in a recent book he had
vigorously attacked the Jesuits. Here in 1689 he was again
appointed one of the ministers of the French Protestant church ;
this office he continued to hold until his death, ultimately
adding to it that of chaplain to the king, with the dignity of
Consistorialrath. He visited Holland and England in 1707,
preached before Queen Anne, and, it is said, was invited to
become one of her chaplains. He was the author of many-
works, chiefly on church history. In search of materials he
visited Helmstadt in 1712, and Leipzig in 1715 and 1725. He
died at Berlin on the 7th of August 1728.
An exhaustive catalogue of his publications, thirty-two in all,
will be found in J. G. de Chauffepie's Dictionnaire. See also E.
and S. Haag's France Protestante. He is now best known by his
Histoire du concile de Constance (Amsterdam, 1714; 2nd ed., 1728;
English trans., 1730). It is of course largely dependent upon the
laborious work of Hermann von der Hardt (1660^1746), but has
literary merits peculiar to itself, and has been praised on all sides
for its fairness. It was followed by Histoire du concile de Pise
(1724), and (posthumously) by Histoire de la guerre des Hussites el
du concile de Basle (Amsterdam, 1731 ; German translation, Vienna,
1783-1784). Lenfant was one of the chief promoters of the Biblio-
theque Germanique, begun in 1720; and he was associated with
Isaac Beausobre (1659-1738) in the preparation of the new French
translation of the New Testament with original notes, published at
Amsterdam in 1718.
LENKORAN, a town in Russian Transcaucasia, in the govern-
ment of Baku, stands on the Caspian Sea, at the mouth of a
small stream of its own name, and close to a large lagoon. The
lighthouse stands in 38° 45' 38" N. and 48° 50' 18" E. Taken
by storm on New Year's day 1813 by the Russians, Lenkoran
was in the same year formally surrendered by Persia to Russia
by the treaty of Gulistan, along with the khanate of Talysh,
of which it was the capital. Pop. (1867) 15,933, (1897)
8768. The fort has been dismantled; and in trade the town
is outstripped by Astara, the customs station on the Persian
frontier.
The DISTRICT or LENKORAN (2117 sq. m.) is a thickly wooded
mountainous region, shut off from the Persian plateau by the
Talysh range (7000-8000 ft. high), and with a narrow marshy
strip along the coast. The climate is exceptionally moist and
warm (annual rainfall 52-79 in.; mean temperature in summer
75° F., in winter 40°), and fosters the growth of even Indian
species of vegetation. The iron tree (Parrotia persica), the silk
acacia, Carpinus betidus, Qucrcus iberica, the box tree and the
walnut flourish freely, as well as the sumach, the pomegranate,
and the Gledilschia caspica. The Bengal tiger is not unfre-
quently met with, and wild boars are abundant. Of the 131,361
inhabitants in 1897 the Talyshes (35,000) form the aboriginal
element, belonging to the Iranian family, and speaking an
independently developed language closely related to Persian.
They are of middle height and dark complexion, with generally
straight nose, small round skull, small sharp chin and large full
eyes, which are expressive, however, rather of cunning than
intelligence. They live exclusively on rice. In the northern half
of the district the Tatar element predominates (40,000) and
there are a number of villages occupied by Russian Raskolniks
(Nonconformists). Agriculture, bee-keeping, silkworm-rearing
and fishing are the principal occupations.
LENNEP, JACOB VAN (1802-1868), Dutch poet and novelist,
was born on the 24th of March 1802 at Amsterdam, where his
father, David Jacob van Lennep (1774-1853), a scholar and
LENNEP— LENNOX
poet, was professor of eloquence and the classical languages in
the Athenaeum. Lennep took the degree of doctor of laws at
Leiden, and then settled as an advocate in Amsterdam. His
first poetical efforts had been translations from Byron, of whom
he was an ardent admirer, and in 1826 he published a collection
of original Academische Idyllen, which had some success. He
first attained genuine popularity by the Nederlandsche Legenden
(2 vols., 1828) which reproduced, after the manner of Sir Walter
Scott, some of the more stirring incidents in the early history
of his fatherland. His fame was further raised by his patriotic
songs at the time of the Belgian revolt, and by his comedies
Het Dorp aan de Grenzen (1830) and Het Dorp over de Grenzen
(1831), which also had reference to the political events of 1830.
In 1833 he broke new ground with the publication of De Pleegzoon
(The Adopted Son), the first of a series of historical romances
in prose, which have acquired for him in Holland a position
somewhat analogous to that of Sir Walter Scott in Great Britain.
The series included De Roos van Dekama (2 vols., 1836), Onze
Voorouders (5 vols., 1838), De Lotgevallen van Ferdinand Huyck
(2 vols., 1840), Elizabeth Musch (3 vols., 1850), and De Lotgevallen
van Klaasje Zevenster (5 vols., 1865), several of which have been
translated into German and French, and two — The Rose of
Dekama (1847) and The Adopted Son (New York, 1847) — into
English. His Dutch history for young people (V oornaamsle
Geschiedenissen van Noord-Nederland aan mijne Kindern iierhaald,
4 vols., 1845) is attractively written. Apart from the two
comedies already mentioned, Lennep was an indefatigable
journalist and literary critic, the author of numerous dramatic
pieces, and of an excellent edition of Vondel's works. For some
years Lennep held a judicial appointment, and from 1853 to
1856 he was a member of the second chamber, in which he voted
with the conservative party. He died at Oosterbeek near
Arnheim on the 25th of August 1868.
There is a collective edition of his Poetische Werken (13 vols.,
1859-1872), and also of his Romantische Werken (23 vols., 1855-
1872). See also a bibliography by P. Knoll (1869); and Jan ten
Brink, Geschiedenis der Noord- Nederlandsche Letteren in de XIX'
Eeuw (No. iii.).
LENNEP, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province,
18 m. E. of Diisseldorf, and 9 m. S. of Barmen by rail, at a height
of looo ft. above the level of the sea. Pop. (1905) 10,323. It lies
in the heart of one of the busiest industrial districts in Germany,
and carries on important manufactures of the finer kinds of cloth,
wool, yarn and felt, and also of iron and steel goods. It has an
Evangelical and a Protestant church, a modern school and a
well-equipped hospital. Lennep, which was the residence of the
counts of Berg from 1226 to 1300, owes the foundation of its
prosperity to an influx of Cologne weavers during the i4th
century.
LENNOX, a name given to a large district in Dumbartonshire
and Stirlingshire, which was erected into an earldom in the latter
half of the i2th century. It embraced the ancient sheriffdom
of Dumbarton and nineteen parishes with the whole of the lands
round Loch Lomond, formerly Loch Leven, and the river of
that name which glides into the estuary of the Clyde at the
ancient castle of Dumbarton.
On this river Leven, at Balloch, was the seat of Alwin, first
earl of Lennox. It is probable that he was of Celtic descent, but
the records are silent as to his part in history; that he was earl
at all is only proved from the charters of his son, another Alwin,
and he died some time before 1217. The second Alwin was
father of ten sons, one of whom founded the clan Macfarlane,
famous in the annals of the district, while another was ancestor of
Walter of Farlane, who married the heiress of the 6th earl of
Lennox. Maldouen, the 3rd earl, eldest of the sons of Alwin the
younger, is an historical personage; he was a witness to the
treaty between Alexander II., king of Scotland, and his brother-
in-law the English king Henry III., at Newcastle in 1237,
concerning the much disputed northern counties of England.
His grandson, Malcolm, successor to the title, swore fealty to
Edward I. in 1296; it was apparently his son, another Malcolm,
the 5th earl, who was summoned by Edward to parliament
and entrusted with the important post of guarding the fords of
the river Forth. But the 5th earl soon after gave his services
to the party of Bruce, the cause of that family having been
embraced by his father as early as 1292. As a result the English
king bestowed the earldom on Sir John Menteith, who was
holding it in 1307 while the real earl was with King Robert
Bruce in his wanderings in the Lennox country. For his services
he was rewarded with a renewal of the earldom and the keeping
of Dumbarton Castle; he fell fighting for his country at Halidon
Hill in 1333. His son Donald, the 6th earl, an adherent of
King David II., left a daughter, Margaret, countess of Lennox,
who was married to her kinsman the above-mentioned Walter
of Farlane, nearest heir male of the Lennox family.
In 1392, on the marriage of their grand-daughter Isabella,
eldest daughter of Duncan, 8th earl, with Sir Murdoch Stewart,
afterwards duke of Albany, the earldom was resigned into the
hands of the king, who re-granted it to Earl Duncan, with
remainder to the heirs male of his body, with remainder to
Murdoch and Isabella and the heirs of their bodies begotten
between them, with eventual remainder to Earl Duncan's nearest
and lawful heirs. In 1424, when Murdoch, then duke of Albany,
succeeded in ransoming the poet king James I. from his long
English captivity, the aged Earl Duncan went with the Scottish
party to Durham. The next year, however, he suffered the fate
of Albany, being executed perhaps for no other reason than that
he was his father-in-law. The earldom was not forfeited, and the
widowed duchess of Albany, now also countess of Lennox, lived
secure in her island castle of Inchmurrin on Loch Lomond until
her death. Of her four sons, none of whom left legitimate issue,
the eldest died in 1421, the two next suffered their father's
fate at Stirling, while the youngest had to flee for his life to
Ireland. Her daughter Jsobel appears to have been the wife of
Sir Walter Buchanan of that ilk.
It was from Elizabeth, sister of the countess, that the next
holders of the title descended. She was married to Sir John
Stewart of Darnley (distinguished in the military history of
France as seigneur d'Aubigny), whose immediate ancestor was
brother of James, 5th high steward of Scotland. Their grandson,
another Sir John Stewart, created a lord of parliament as Lord
Darnley, was served heir to his great-grandfather Duncan, earl
of Lennox, in 1473, and was designated as earl of Lennox in
a charter under the great seal in the same year. Thereafter
followed disputes with John of Haldane, whose wife's great-grand-
mother had been another of the three daughters of Duncan, 8th
earl of Lennox, and in her right he contested the succession.
Lord Darnley, however, appears to have silenced all opposition
and for the last seven years of his life maintained his right to
the earldom undisputed. Three of his younger sons were greatly
distinguished in the French service, one being captain of Scotsmen-
at-arms, another premier homme d'armes, and a third ntarechal de
France. Their elder brother Matthew, 2nd earl of this line,
fell on Flodden Field, leaving by his wife Elizabeth, daughter of
James, earl of Arran, and niece of James III., a son and successor
John, who became one of the guardians of James V. and was
murdered in 1 5 26. His son Matthew, the 4th earl, played a great
part in the intrigues of his time, and by his marriage with Margaret
Douglas allied himself to the royal house of England as well as
strengthening the ties which bound his family to that of Scotland ;
because Margaret was the daughter and heir of the 6th earl of
Angus by his wife, Margaret Tudor, sister of King Henry VIII.
and widow of King James IV. Though his estates were forfeited
in 1545, Earl Matthew in 1564 not only had them restored but
had the satisfaction of getting his eldest son Henry married
to Mary, queen of Scots. The murder of Lord Darnley, now
created earl of Rosse, lord of Ardmanoch and duke of Albany,
took place in February 1567, and in July his only son James, by
Mary's abdication, became king of Scotland. The old earl of
Lennox, now grandfather of his sovereign, obtained the regency
in 1570, but in the next year was killed in the attack made on
the parliament at Stirling, being the third earl in succession to
meet with a violent death.
The title was now merged in the crown in the person of
42O
LENNOX, C.— LENO
James VI. the next heir, but was soon after granted to the king's
uncle Charles, who died in 1576, leaving an only child, the
unfortunate Lady Arabella Stewart.
Two years later the title was granted to Robert Stewart, the
king's grand-uncle, second son of John, the 3rd earl, but he in
1580 exchanged it for that of earl of March. On the same day
the earldom of Lennox was given to Esme Stewart, first cousin
of the king and grandson of the 3rd earl, he being son of John
Stewart (adopted heir of the marechal d'Aubigny) and his
French wife, Anne de la Queulle. In the following year Esme was
created duke of Lennox, earl of Darnley, Lord Aubigny, Tar-
boulton and Dalkeith, and other favours were heaped upon him,
but the earl of Ruthven sent him back to France where he died
soon after. His elder son, Ludovic, was thereupon summoned
to Scotland by James, who invested him with all his father's
honours and estates, and after his accession to the English throne
created him Lord Settrington and earl of Richmond (1613), and
earl of Newcastle-upon-Tyne and duke of Richmond (1623),
all these titles being in the peerage of England. After holding
many appointments the 2nd duke died without issue in 1624,
being succeeded in his Scottish titles by his brother Esme, who
had already been created earl of March and Lord Clifton of
Leighton Bromswold in the peerage of England (1619) and was
seigneur d'Aubigny in France. Of his sons, Henry succeeded
to Aubigny and died young at Venice; Ludovic, seigneur
d'Aubigny, entered the Roman Catholic Church and received a
cardinal's hat just before his death; while the three other younger
sons, George, seigneur d'Aubigny, John and Bernard, were all
distinguished as royalists in the Civil War. Each met a soldier's
death, George at Edgehill, John at Alresford and Bernard at
Rowton Heath. James, the eldest son and 4th duke of Lennox,
was created duke of Richmond in 1641, being like his brother a
devoted adherent of Charles I.
With the death of his little son Esme, the sth duke, in 1660,
the titles, including that of Richmond, passed to his first cousin
Charles, who had already been created Lord Stuart of Newbury
and earl of Lichfield, being likewise now seigneur d'Aubigny.
Disliked by Charles II., principally because of his marriage with
" la belle Stuart "- -" the noblest romance and example of a
brave lady that ever I read in my life," writes Pepys — he was
sent into exile as ambassador to Denmark, where he was drowned
in 1672. His wife had had the Lennox estates granted to her
for life, but his only sister Katharine, wife of Henry O'Brien,
heir apparent of the 7th earl of Thomond, was served heir to
him. Her only daughter, the countess of Clarendon, was
mother of Theodosia Hyde, ancestress of the present earls of
Darnley.
The Lennox dukedom, being to heirs male, now devolved
upon Charles II., who bestowed it with the titles of earl of Darnley
and Lord Tarbolton upon one of his bastards, Charles Lennox,
son of the celebrated duchess of Portsmouth, he having previously
been created duke of Richmond, earl of March and Lord Settring-
ton in the peerage of England. The ancient lands of the Lennox
title were also granted to him, but these he sold to the duke of
Montrose.
His son Charles, who inherited his grandmother's French
dukedom of Aubigny, was a soldier of distinction, as were the
3rd and 4th dukes. The wife of the last, Lady Charlotte Gordon,
as heir of her brother brought the ancient estates of her family
to the Lennoxes; the additional name of Gordon being taken
by the sth duke of Richmond and of Lennox on the death of his
uncle, the sth duke of Gordon. In the next generation further
honours were granted to the family in the person of the 6th
duke, who was rewarded for his great public services with the
titles of duke of Gordon and earl of Kinrara in the peerage
of the United Kingdom (1876).
See Scots Peerage, vol. v., for excellent accounts of these peerages
by the Rev. John Anderson, curator Historical Dept. H.M. Register
House; A. Francis Steuart and Francis J. Grant, Rothesay Herald.
See also The Lennox by William Fraser.
LENNOX, CHARLOTTE (1720-1804), British writer, daughter
of Colonel James Ramsay, lieutenant-governor of New York,
was born in 1720. She went to London in 1735, and, being left
unprovided for at her father's death, she began to earn her
living by writing. She made some unsuccessful appearances
on the stage and married in 1748. Samuel Johnson had an
exaggerated admiration for her. " Three such women," he
said, speaking of Elizabeth Carter, Hannah More and Fanny
Burney, " are not to be found; I know not where to find a
fourth, except Mrs Lennox, who is superior to them all." Her
chief works are: The Female Quixote; or the Adventures of
Arabella (1752), a novel; Shakespear illustrated; or the novels
and histories on which the plays . . . are founded (1753-1754),
in which she argued that Shakespeare had spoiled the stories
he borrowed for his plots by interpolating unnecessary intrigues
and incidents; The Life of Harriot Stuart (1751), a novel; and
The Sister, a comedy produced at Covent Garden (i8th February
1769). This last was withdrawn after the first night, after a
stormy reception, due, said Goldsmith, to the fact that its author
had abused Shakespeare.
LENNOX, MARGARET, COUNTESS OF (1515-1578), daughter
of Archibald Douglas, 6th earl of Angus, and Margaret Tudor,
daughter of Henry VII. of England and widow of James IV. of
Scotland, was born at Harbottle Castle, Northumberland, on
the Sth of October 1315- On account of her nearness to the
English crown, Lady Margaret Douglas was brought up chiefly
at the English court in close association with the Princess Mary,
who remained her fast friend throughout life. She was high
in Henry VIII. 's favour, but was twice disgraced; first for an
attachment to Lord Thomas Howard, who died in the Tower
in 1537, and again in 1541 for a similar affair with Sir Charles
Howard, brother of Queen Catherine Howard. In 1544 she
married a Scottish exile, Matthew Stewart, 4th earl of Lennox
(1516-1571), who was regent of Scotland in 1570-1571. During
Mary's reign the countess of Lennox had rooms in Westminster
Palace; but on Elizabeth's accession she removed to Yorkshire,
where her home at Temple Newsam became a centre for Catholic
intrigue. By a series of successful manoeuvres she married
her son Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley, to Mary, queen of Scots.
In 1566 she was sent to the Tower, but after the murder of
Darnley in 1567 she was released. She was at first loud in her
denunciations of Mary, but was eventually reconciled with her
daughter-in-law. In 1574 she again aroused Elizabeth's anger
by the marriage of her son Charles, earl of Lennox, with Elizabeth
Cavendish, daughter of the earl of Shrewsbury. She was sent
to the Tower with Lady Shrewsbury, and was only pardoned
after her son's death in 1577. Her diplomacy largely contributed
to the future succession of her grandson James to the English
throne. She died on the 7th of March 1578.
The famous Lennox jewel, made for Lady Lennox as a memento
of her husband, was bought by Queen Victoria in 1842.
LENO, DAN, the stage-name of George Galvin (1861-1004),
English comedian, who was born at Somers Town, London, in
February 1861. His parents were actors, known as Mr and Mrs
Johnny Wilde. Dan Leno was trained to be an acrobat, but
soon became a dancer, travelling with his brother as " the
brothers Leno," and winning the world's championship in clog-
dancing at Leeds in 1880. Shortly afterwards he appeared in
London at the Oxford, and in 1886-1887 at the Surrey Theatre.
In 1888-1889 he was engaged by Sir Augustus Harris to play
the Baroness in the Babes in the Wood, and from that time he
was a principal figure in the Drury Lane pantomimes. He was
the wittiest and most popular comedian of his day, and delighted
London music-hall audiences by his shop- walker, stores-proprietor,
waiter, doctor, beef-eater, bathing attendant, " Mrs Kelly,"
and other impersonations. In 1900 he engaged to give his
entire services to the Pavilion Music Hall, where he received
£100 per week. In November 1001 he was summoned to Sand-
ringham to do a " turn " before the king, and was proud from
that time to call himself the " king's jester." Dan Leno's
generosity endeared him to his profession, and he was the object
of much sympathy during the brain failure which recurred
during the last eighteen months of his life. He died on the 3ist
of October 1904.
LENORMANT— LENS
421
LENORMANT, FRANCOIS (1837-1883), French Assyriologist
and archaeologist, was born in Paris on the i-th of January
1837. His father, Charles Lenormant, distinguished as an
archaeologist, numismatist and Egyptologist, was anxious
that his son should follow in his steps. He made him begin
Greek at the age of six, and the child responded so well to this
precocious scheme of instruction, that when he was only fourteen
an essay of his, on the Greek tablets found at Memphis, appeared
in the Revue arehiologique. In 1856 he won the numismatic
prize of the Academic des Inscriptions with an essay entitled
Classification des monnaies des Lagides. In 1862 he became
sub-librarian of the Institute. In 1859 he accompanied his
father on a journey of exploration to Greece, during which
Charles Lenormant succumbed to fever at Athens (24th
November). Lenormant returned to Greece three times during
the next six years, and gave up all the time he could spare
from his official work to archaeological research. These peaceful
labours were rudely interrupted by the war of 1870, when
Lenormant served with the army and was wounded in the siege
of Paris. In 1874 he was appointed professor of archaeology at
the National Library, and in the following year he collaborated
with Baron de Witte in founding the Gazette archeologique.
As early as 1867 he had turned his attention to Assyrian studies;
he was among the first to recognize in the cuneiform inscriptions
the existence of a non-Semitic language, now known as Accadian.
Lenormant's knowledge was of encyclopaedic extent, ranging
over an immense number of subjects, and at the same time
thorough, though somewhat lacking perhaps in the strict
accuracy of the modern school. Most of his varied studies
were directed towards tracing the origins of the two great
civilizations of the ancient world, which were to be sought
in Mesopotamia and on the shores of the Mediterranean. He
had a perfect passion for exploration. Besides his early expedi-
tions to Greece, he visited the south of Italy three times with
this object, and it was while exploring in Calabria that he met
with an accident which ended fatally in Paris on the pth of
December 1883, after a long illness. The amount and variety
of Lenormant's work is truly amazing when it is remembered
that he died at the early age of forty-six. Probably the best
known of his books are Les Origines de I'histoire d'apres la Bible,
and his ancient history of the East and account of Chaldean
magic. For breadth of view, combined with extraordinary
subtlety of intuition, he was probably unrivalled.
LENOX, a township of Berkshire county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A. Pop. (1000) 2942, (1905) 3058; (1910) 3060. Area,
19-2 sq. m. The principal village, also named Lenox (or Lenox-
on-the-Heights), lies about 2 m. W. of the Housatonic river,
at an altitude of about 1000 ft., and about it are high hills —
Yokun Seat (2080 ft.), South Mountain (1200 ft.), Bald Head
(1583 ft.), and Rattlesnake Hill (1540 ft.). New Lenox and
Lenoxdale are other villages in the township. Lenox is a fashion-
able summer and autumn resort, much frequented by wealthy
people from Washington, Newport and New York. There are
innumerable lovely walks and drives in the surrounding region,
which contains some of the most beautiful country of the Berk-
shires — hills, lakes, charming intervales and woods. As early
as 1833 Lenox began to attract summer residents. In the next
decade began the creation of large estates, although the great
holdings of the present day, and the villas scattered over the
hills, are comparatively recent features. The height of the
season is in the autumn, when there are horse-shows, golf, tennis,
hunts and other outdoor amusements. The Lenox library
(1855) contained about 20,000 volumes in 1908. Lenox was
settled about 1750, was included in Richmond township in 1765,
and became an independent township in 1767. The names were
those of Sir Charles Lennox, third duke of Richmond and of
Lennox (1735-1806), one of the staunch friends of the American
colonies during the War of Independence. Lenox was the county-
seat from 1787 to 1868. It has literary associations with
Catherine M. Sedgwick (1789-1867), who passed here the second
half of her life; with Nathaniel Hawthorne, whose brief residence
here (1850-1851) was marked by the production of the House
J.
B
of the Seven Gables and the Wonder Book; with Fanny Kemble,
a summer resident from 1836-1853; and with Henry Ward
Beecher (see his Star Papers). Elizabeth (Mrs Charles) Sedgwick,
the sister-in-law of Catherine Sedgwick, maintained here from
1828 to 1864 a school for girls, in which Harriet Hosmer, the
sculptor, and Maria S. Cummins (1827-1866), the novelist,
were educated; and in Lenox academy (1803), a famous classical
school (now a public high school) were educated W. L. Yancey,
A. H. Stephens, Mark Hopkins and David Davis (1815-1886),
a circuit judge of Illinois from 1848 to 1862, a justice (1862-1877)
of the United States Supreme Court, a Republican member
of the United States Senate from Illinois in 1877-1883, and
president of the Senate from the 3151 of October 1881, when
he succeeded Chester A. Arthur, until the 3rd of March 1883.
There is a statue commemorating General John Paterson (1744-
1808) a soldier from Lenox in the War of Independence.
See R. de W. Mallary, Lenox and the Berkshire Highlands (1902) ;
. C. Adams, Nature Studies in Berkshire; C. F. Warner, Picturesque
erkshire (1890); and Katherine M. Abbott, Old Paths and Legends
of the New England Border (1907).
LENS, a town of Northern France, in the department of Pas-
de-Calais, 13 m. N.N.E. of Arras by rail on the Deule and on
the Lens canal. Pop. (1906) 27,692. Lens has important iron
and steel foundries, and engineering works and manufactories
of steel cables, and occupies a central position in the coalfields
of the department. Two and a half miles W.S.W. lies Lievin
(pop. 22,070), likewise a centre of the coalfield. In 1648 the
neighbourhood of Lens was the scene of a celebrated victory
gained by Louis II. of Bourbon, prince of Conde, over the
Spaniards.
LENS (from Lat. lens, lentil, on account of the similarity
of the form of a lens to that of a lentil seed), in optics, an
instrument which refracts the luminous rays proceeding from
an object in such a manner as to produce an image of the object.
It may be regarded as having four principal functions: (i) to
produce an image larger than the object, as in the magnifying
glass, microscope, &c.; (2) to produce an image smaller than
the object, as in the ordinary photographic camera; (3) to con-
vert rays proceeding from a point or other luminous source
into a definite pencil, as in light-house lenses, the engraver's
globe, &c.; (4) to collect luminous and heating rays into a
smaller area, as in the burning glass. A lens made up of two
or more lenses cemented together or very close to each other
is termed " composite " or " compound "; several lenses
arranged in succession at a distance from each other form a
" system of lenses," and if the axes be collinear a " centred
system." This article is concerned with the general theory
of lenses, and more particularly with spherical lenses. For
a special part of the theory of lenses see ABERRATION; the
instruments in which the lenses occur are treated under their
own headings.
The most important type of lens is the spherical lens, which
is a piece of transparent material bounded by two spherical
surfaces, the boundary at the edge being usually cylindrical or
conical. The line joining the centres, Ci, Ct (fig. i), of the
bounding surfaces is termed the axis; the points Si, Sj, at
FIG. i.
which the axis intersects the surfaces, are termed the," vertices "
of the !ens; and the distance between the vertices is termed
the " thickness." If the edge be everywhere equidistant from
the vertex, the lens is " centred."
Although light is really a wave motion in the aether, it is only
necessary, in the investigation of the optical properties of systems
of lenses, to trace the rectilinear path of the waves, i.e. the
direction of the normal to the wave front, and this can be done
422
LENS
by purely geometrical methods. It will be assumed that light,
so long as it traverses the same medium, always travels in
a straight line; and in following out the geometrical theory
it will always be assumed that the light travels from left to
right; accordingly all distances measured in this direction are
positive, while those measured in the opposite direction are
negative.
Theory of Optical Representation. — If a pencil of rays, i.e. the
totality of the rays proceeding from a luminous point, falls on a
tens or lens system, a section of the pencil, determined by the
dimensions of the system, will be transmitted. The emergent rays
will have directions differing from those of the incident rays, the
alteration, however, being such that the transmitted rays are con-
vergent in the " image-point," just a_s the incident rays diverge
from the " object-point.' With each incident ray is associated an
emergent ray; such pairs are termed "conjugate ray pairs."
Similarly we define an object-point and its image-point as " con-
jugate points " ; all object-points lie in the " object-space," and all
image-points lie in the " image-space."
The laws of optical representations were first deduced in their
most general form by E. Abbe, who assumed (i) that an optical
representation always exists, and (2) that to every point in the
FIG. 2.
object-space there corresponds a point in the image-space, these
points being mmtually convertible by straight rays ; in other words,
with each object-point is associated one, and only one, image-point,
and if the object-point be placed at the image-point, the conjugate
point is the original object-point. Such a transformation is termed
a " collineation," since it transforms points into points and straight
lines into straight lines. Prior to Abbe, however, James Clerk
Maxwell published, in 1856, a geometrical theory of optical repre-
sentation, but his methods were unknown to Abbe and to his pupils
until O. Eppenstein drew attention to them. Although Maxwell's
theory is not so general as Abbe's, it is used here since its methods
permit a simple and convenient deduction of the laws.
Maxwell assumed that two obiect-planes perpendicular to the
axis are represented sharply and similarly in two image-planes
also perpendicular to the axis (by " sharply " is
meant that the assumed ideal instrument unites
all the rays proceeding from an object-point in
one of the two planes in its image-point, the rays
being generally transmitted by the system). The
symmetry of the axis being premised, it is sufficient
to deduce laws for a plane containing the axis. In
fig. 2 let Oi, Oi be the two points in which the
perpendicular object-planes meet the axis; and
since the axis corresponds to itself, the two con-
jugate points O'i, O i, are at the intersections of
the two image-planes with the axis. We denote
the four planes by the letters Oi, O2, and O'i, O'j.
If two points A, C be taken in the plane Oi, their
images are A', C' in the plane Oi, and since the
planes are represented similarly, we have O'iA' : OiA =O'iC'i :OiC =ft
(say), in which ft is easily seen to be the linear magnification of
the plane-pair Oi, O'i. Similarly, if_twp points B, D_be taken in
the two rays CDi, and EFi; the conjugate point P'i will be deter-
mined by the intersection of the conjugate rays C'D'i and E'F'i, the
points D'i, F'i, being readily found from the magnifications ft, ft.
Since PPi is parallel to CE and also to DF, then DF = DiFt. Since
the plane O2 is similarly represented in O'z, D'F' = D'iF'i; this is
impossible unless P'P't be parallel to C'E'. Therefore every per-
pendicular object-plane is represented by a perpendicular image-
plane.
Let O be the intersection of the line PPi with the axis, and let O'
be its conjugate; then it may be shown that a fixed magnification
0, exists for the planes O and O'. For PPi/FFi = OOi/OjOi,
P'P'i/F'F'i=O'O'/Or,O'2) and F'F'i=ftFFi. Eliminating FF, and
F'F'i between these ratios, we have P'P'i/PPift = O'O'rOiOa/OOi.
O'lO'a, or /33=ft.O'O'i.OiO2/OOi.O'iO'2, i.e. ft,=ftXa product of
the axial distances.
The determination of the image-point of a given object-point is
facilitated by means of the so-called " cardinal points " of the
optical system. To determine the image-point O'i (fig. 3) correspond-
ing to the object-point Oi, we begin by choosing from the ray
pencil proceeding from Oi, the ray parallel with the axis, i.e. inter-
secting the axis at infinity. Since the axis is its own conjugate, the
parallel ray through Oi must intersect the axis after refraction
(say at F'). Then F' is the image-point of an object-point situated
at infinity on the axis, and is termed the " second principal focus "
(German der bildseitige Brennpunkt, the image-side focus). Similarly
if O't be on the parallel through Oi but in the image-space, then the
conjugate ray must intersect the axis at a point (say F), which is
conjugate with the point at infinity on the axis in the image-space.
This point is termed the " first principal focus " (German der objekt-
seitige Brennpunkt, the object-side focus).
_Let Hi, Hi be the intersections of the focal rays through F and F'
with_the line OiO'4. These two points are in the position of object
and image, since they are each determined by two pairs of conjugate
rays (OiHi being conjugate with H'iF', and O'«H'i with HiF).
It _has already been shown that object-planes perpendicular to the
axis are represented by image-planes also perpendicular to the axis.
Two vertical planes through HI and H'i, are related as object- and
points " of the system, H being the " object- ..
" image-side principal point." The vertical planes containing H
and H'_are the " principal planes." It is obvious that conjugate
points in these planes are equidistant from the axis; in other
words, the magnification 0 of the pair of planes is unity. An ad-
ditional characteristic of the principal planes is that the object and
image are direct and not inverted. The distances between F and H,
and between F' and H' are termed the focal lengths; the former
may be called the " object-side focal length " and the latter the
" image-side_ focal length." The two focal points and the two
principal points constitute the so-called four cardinal points of the
system, and with their aid the image of any object can be readily
determined.
Equations relating to the Focal Points. — We know that the ray
proceeding from the object point Oi, parallel to the axis and inter-
secting the principal plane H in Hi, passes through H'i and F'.
intersect in a point P, and the joins of the conjugate points simi-
larly determine the point P'.
If P' is the only possible image-point of the object-point P, then
the conjugate of every ray passing through P must pass through
P'. To prove this, take a third line through P intersecting the
planes Oi, O2 in the points E, F, and by means of the magnifications
ft, ft determine the conjugate points E', F' in the planes O'i, O'2.
Since the planes Oi, Oj are parallel, then AC/AE = BD/BF; and
since these planes are represented similarly in O'i, O'2, then A'C'/A'E'
= B'D'/B'F'. This proportion is only possible when the straight
line E'F' contains the point P'. Since P was any point whatever,
it follows that every point of the object-space is represented in
one and only one point in the image-space.
Take a second object-point Pi, vertically under P and defined by
FIG. 3.
Choose from the pencil a second ray which contains F and inter-
sects the principal plane H in H»; then the conjugate ray must
contain points corresponding to F and H2. The conjugate of F is
the point at infinity on the axis, i.e. on the ray parallel to the axis.
The image of H2 must be in the plane H' at the same distance from,
and on the same side of, the axis, as in H',. The straight line
passing through H'2 parallel to the axis intersects the ray H'iF'
in the point O'i, which must be the image of Oi. If O be the foct of
the perpendicular from Oi to the axis, then OOi is represented by
the line O'O'i also perpendicular to the axis.
This construction is not applicable if the object or image be
infinitely distant. For example, if the object OOi be at infinity
(O being assumed to be on the axis for the sake of simplicity), so
that the object appears under a constant angle w, we know that
the second principal focus is conjugate with the infinitely distant
axis-point. If the object is at infinity in a plane perpendicular to
the axis, the image must be in the perpendicular plane through the
focal point F' (fig. 4).
The size V of the image is readily deduced. Of the parallel rays
from the object subtending the angle w, there is one which passes
LENS
423
through the first principal focus F, and intersects the principal
plane H in Hi. Its conjugate ray passes through H' parallel to, and
at the same distance from the axis, and intersects the image-side
focal plane in O'i; this point is the image of Oi, and y' is its magni-
tude. From the figure we have tan oi = HHi/FH = y'/f,orf=y'/tanui;
this equation was used by Gauss to define the focal length.
Referring to fig. 3, we have from the similarity of the triangles
OO,F and HH2F, HH2/OOi = FH/FO, or O'O',/OOi = FH/FO.
Let y be the magnitude of the object OOi, / that of the image
O'O'i, x the focal distance FO of the object, and / the object-side
focal distance FH; then the above equation may be written
y'ly=flx. From the
similar triangles
H'lH'F' and O'.O'F',
we obtain 0'0',/Od
= F'O'/F'H'. Lets'
be the focal distance
of the image F'O',
and /' the image-
side focal length
F'H'; then y'fy =
x'/f. The ratio of
the size of the image
to the size of the
Denoting this by ft we
FIG. 4.
object is termed the lateral magnification.
have
0 =//?=//*=*'//',
and also
**'=//'.
By differentiating equation (2) we obtain
dx'=- (ff'/x^dx or dx'/dx = -ff'/x*.
(i)
(2)
(3)
The ratio of the displacement of the image dx' to the displacement
of the object dx is the axial magnification, and is denoted by o.
Equation (3) gives important information on the displacement of
the image when the object is moved. Since / and /' always have
contrary signs (as is proved below), the product — ff' is invariably
positive, and since #2 is positive for all values of x, it follows that
dx and dx' have the same sign, i.e. the object and image always
move in the same direction, either both in the direction of the
light, or both in the opposite direction. This is shown in fig. 3 by
the object OjOz and the image O'3O'2.
If two conjugate rays be drawn from two conjugate points on
the axis, making angles « and tt' with the axis, as for example the
rays OHi, O'H'i, in fig. 3, « is termed the " angular aperture for
the object," and «' the " angular aperture for the image." The ratio
of the tangents of these angles is termed the " convergence " and is
denoted by y, thus 7 = tan w'/tan u. Now tan «r=H'H'i/O'H'
= H'H'i/(O'F'+F'H') = H'H',/(F'H'-F'O'). Also tan w = HH,/OH
= HH,/(OF+FH) = HH1/(FH-FO). Consequently •y = (FH-FO)
/(F'H'-F'O'), or, in our previous notation, v = (f-x)J(f'-x').
From equation (i) f/x = x'/f, we obtain by subtracting unity from
both sides (J—x)/x = (x'—f')/f, and consequently
(4)
From equations (i), (3) and (4), it is seen that a. simple relation
exists between the lateral magnification, the axial magnification
and the convergence, viz. ay = f).
In addition to the four cardinal points F, H, F', H', J. B. Listing,
" Beitrage aus physiologischen Optik," Gottinger Studien (1845)
introduced the so-called " nodal points " (Knotenpunkte) of the
system, which are
0, H,| IH', the two conjugate
points from which
the object and
image appear under
the same angle. In
fig. 5 let K be the
nodal point from
which the object y
appears under the
same angle as the image y' from the other nodal point K'. Then
OO,/KO = O'O'i/K'O', or OO,/(KF+FO)=O'O',/(K'F'-|-F'O'), or
Od/CFO -FK) =O'O',/(F'O'-F'K'). Calling the focal distances FK
and F'K', X and X', we have y/(x-X) = //(x'-X'), and since
y'ly = /3, it follows that i/(*-X) =0/(*.'-X'). Replace x' and X' by
the values given in equation (2), and we obtain
o,
FIG. 5.
Since /?=//*=*'//', we have/'= -X,/= -X'.
These equations show that to determine the nodal points, it is only
necessary to measure the focal distance of the second principal focus
from the first principal focus, and vice versa. In the special case
when the initial and final medium is the same, as for example, a
lens in air, we have /= — /', and the nodal points coincide with the
principal points of the system; we then speak of the " nodal point
property of the principal points," meaning that the object and
corresponding image subtend the same angle at the principal points.
Equations Relating to the Principal Points. — It is sometimes
desirable to determine the distances of an object and its image, not
from the focal points, but from the principal points. Let A (see
fig. 3) be the principal point distance of the object and A' that of
the image, we then have
A = HO = HF+FO = FO-FH=x-/,
A' = H'O' = H'F'F'O' = F'O'-F'H' = *'-'
whence
Using xx'=ff,
A/'+A'/=O,
x = A +/ and x' = A' +/'.
, we have (A+/) (A' +/')=//', which leads to AA'+
this becomes in the special case when/= — /',
ill
A7"A=7
To express the linear magnification in terms of the principal point
distances, we start with equation (4) (f—x)/(f'—x') = —x/f. From
this we obtain A/A' = —x/f, or * = —/A/A' ; and by using equation
(i) we have (3= -/A'//' A.
In the special case of /=—/', this becomes ft = A'/A = y'/y, from
which it follows that the ratio of the dimensions of the object and
image is equal to the ratio of the distances of the object and image
from the principal points.
The convergence can be determined in terms of A and A' by
substituting x= —/'A/A' in equation (4), when we obtain -y = A/A .
Compound Systems. — In discussing the laws relating to compound
systems, we assume that the cardinal points of the component
systems are known, and also that the combinations are centred,
i.e. that the axes of the component lenses coincide. If some object
be represented by two systems arranged one behind the other, we
can regard the systems as co-operating in the formation of the final
image.
Let such a system be represented in fig. 6. The two single systems
are denoted by the suffixes i and 2; for example, Fi is the first
F, H,
«;
FIG. 6.
principal focus of the first, and F'2 the second principal focus of the
second system. A ray parallel to the axis at a distance y passes
through the second principal focus F'i of the first system, inter-
secting the axis at an angle w\. The point F'i will be represented
in the second system by the point F', which is therefore conjugate
to the point at infinity for the entire system, i.e. it is the second
principal focus of the compound system. The representation of
F'i in F' by the second system leads to the relations F2F'i=*2>
and F'2F' = *'2t whence *2x'2=/2/'2. Denoting the distance between
the adjacent focal planes F'i, F2 by A, we have A = F'iF2= — F2F'i,
so that x't= — /2/'2/A. A similar ray parallel to the axis at a distance
y proceeding from the image-side will intersect the axis at the focal
point F2; and by finding the image of this point in the first system,
we determine the first principal focus of the compound system.
Equation (2) gives xi*'i=/i/'i, and since #'1 = F'iF2 = A, we have
Xi =/i/'i/A as the distance of the first principal focus F of the
compound system from the first principal focus Fi of the first
system.
To determine the focal lengths/ and/' of the compound system
and the principal points H and H', we employ the equations de-
fining the focal lengths, viz. /=y'/tan w, and ^' = y/tan w'. From the
construction (fig. 6) tan w'\—ylfi. The variation of the angle w'>
by the second system is deduced from the equation to the con-
vergence, viz. 7 = tan o>'2/tan I02= — *2//'2 = A//'2, and since w^ = w'i,
we have tan o/2= (A//'2) tan iv'i. Since w' = w'i in our system of
notation, we have
,_\
f- y - yf'i -/V/'g
tan w' A tan vj'\ A
By taking a ray proceeding from the image-side we obtain for the
first principal focal distance of the combination
/= -/i/2/A.
In the particular case in which A = O, the two focal planes F'i, Fi
coincide, and the focal lengths f, f are infinite. Such a system is
called a telescopic system, and this condition is realized in a telescope
focused for a normal eye.
So far we have assumed that all the rays proceeding from an object-
point are exactly united in an image-point after transmission
through the ideal system. The question now arises so to how far
this assumption is justified for spherical lenses. To investigate this
it is simplest to trace the path of a ray through one spherical
424
LENS
refracting surface. Let such a surface divide media of refractive
indices n and n', the former being to the left. The point where the
axis intersects the surface is the vertex S (fig. 7). Denote the
distance of the axial object-point O from S by s; the distance from
FIG. 7.
O to the point of incidence P by p; the radius of the spherical
surface by r; and the distance OC by c, C being the centre of the
sphere. Let u be the angle made by the ray with the axis, and i
the angle of incidence, i.e. the angle between the ray and the normal
to the sphere at the point of incidence. The corresponding quantities
in the image-space are denoted by the same letters with a dash.
From the triangle O'PC we have sin u = (r/c) sin i, and from the
triangle O'PC we have sin u' = (r/c') sin i'. By Snell's law we have
n'/n = sin »/sin i', and also if> = u'+i'. Consequently c' and the
position of the image may be found.
To determine whether all the rays proceeding from O are re-
fracted through O', we investigate the triangle OPO'. We have
p/p' = sinu'lsin u. Substituting for sin « and sin u' the values found
above, we obtain p'/p = c' sin i/c sin i' = n'c'/nc. Also c = OC = CS +
SO=-SCH-SO = s-r, and similarly c' = s'-r. Substituting these
values we obtain
(6)
P'_n'(s'-r)
p n(i-r) ' p p'
To obtain p and p' we use the triangles OPC and O'PC; we
have />» = (j-r)2-t-r2+2r(s-r)cos <f>, p'" = (i'-r)2+r2+2r(s'-r) cos <t>.
Hence if s, r, n and n' be constant, s' must vary as <t> varies. The
refracted rays therefore do not reunite in a point, and the deflection
is termed the spherical aberration (see ABERRATION).
Developing cos <j> in powers of <t>, we obtain
2! ' 4! 6!
and therefore for such values of <t> for which the second and higher
powers may be neglected, we have & = (s-r)*+ta+2r(s-r), i.e.
p = s, and similarly p' = s'. Equation (6) then becomes n(s-r)/s =
n'(s'-r)/s' or
n' _n . n'—n , ,
This relation shows that in a very small central aperture in which
the equation p = s holds, all rays proceeding from an object-point
are exactly united in an image-point, and therefore the equations
previously deduced are valid for this aperture. K. F. Gauss
derived the equations for thin pencils in his Dioptrische Unter-
suchungen (1840) by very elegant methods. More recently the laws
relating to systems with finite aperture have been approximately
realized, as for example, in well -corrected photographic objectives.
Position of the Cardinal Points of a Lens. — Taking the case of a
single spherical refracting surface, and limiting ourselves to the
small central aperture, it is seen that the second principal focus F'
is obtained when s is infinitely great. Consequently s' = -/'; the
difference of sign is obvious, since s' is measured from S, while /'
is measured from F'. The focal lengths are directly deducible from
equation (7): —
' By joining this simple refracting system with a similar one, so
that the second spherical surface limits the medium of refractive
index n', we derive the spherical lens. Generally the two spherical
surfaces enclose a glass lens, and are bounded on the outside by air
of refractive index i.
The deduction of the cardinal points of a spherical glass lens in
air from the relations already proved is readily effected if we regard
the lens as a combination of two systems each having one refracting
surface, the light passing in the first system from air to glass, and
in the second from glass to air. If we know the refractive index of
the glass n, the radii n, r2 of the spherical surfaces, and the distances
of the two lens-vertices (or the thickness of the lens d) we can deter-
mine all the properties of the lens. A biconvex lens is shown in
fig. 8. Let FI be the first princjpal focus of the first system of
radius fi, and FI' the second principal focus; and let Si be its
vertex. Denote the distance FI Si (the first principal focal length)
by /i, and the corresponding distance F'i Si by j'\. Let the corre-
sponding quantities in the second system be denoted by the same
letters with the suffix 2.
By equations (8) and (9) we have
/2 having the opposite sign to /i. Denoting the distance F'i F» by A,
we have A = F'I F2 = F',Si +S,S, +S,F, = F'jSi +8,5^282 =/',-fd-/2.
Substituting for/'! and/2 we obtain
A=—
n—i n—i
Writing R =A(w - 1), this relation becomes
We have already shown that f (the first principal focal length of a
compound system) = -fif2/A. Substituting for fi, f2, and A the values
found above, we obtain
n-i)
which is equivalent to
* = („-,) )I-I
/ ( r, rt ) nr2»
If the lens be infinitely thin, i.e. if <ibe zero, we have for the first
principal focal length,
By the same method we obtain for the second principal focal length
a _fif't _ nrirt _,
J A (n-i)R J'
The reciprocal of the focal length is termed the power of the lens
and is denoted by <j>. In formulae involving <f> it is customary to
F.
denote the reciprocal of the radii by the symbol p; we thus have
<t> = i/f, p = i/r. Equation (10) thus becomes
The unit of power employed by spectacle-makers is termed the
diopter or dioptric (see SPECTACLES).
We proceed to determine the distances of the focal points from
the vertices of the lens, i.e. the distances FSi and F'S^ Since F is
represented by the first system in F2, we have by equation (2)
- _/./'. -/-/'. - , nrf
~ VI A (n-i)R'
where 3Ci=FiF, and x'i=F'iF3 = A. The distance of the first prin-
cipal focus from the vertex S, i.e. SiF, which we denote by JF is
given by sF = SiF = SiF,+FiF = -F,Si+F,F. Now FiS, is the dis-
tance from the vertex of the first principal focus of the first system,
i.e. /i, and FiF =x\. Substituting these values, we obtain
The distance F'jF' or x't is similarly determined by considering
F'i to be represented by the second system in F'.
We have
„' i -
so that
where s,' denotes the distance of the second principal focus from
the vertex Sj.
The two focal lengths and the distances of the foci from the
vertices being known, the positions of the remaining cardinal points,
i.e. the principal points H and H', are readily determined. Let
oH=SiH, i.e. the distance of the object-side principal point from
the vertex of the first surface, and sH' = S»H', i.e. the distance of the
image-side principal point from the vertex of the second surface,
then /=FH = FS,+SiH = -SiF+S,H = -!„+*„; hence sH=sr+f
= — dri/R. Similarly xH; = iF/+_f'= —drs/R. It is readily seen that
the distances SH and SH/ are in the ratio of the radii n and rt.
The distance between the two principal planes (the interstitium)
is deduced very simply. We have SiSj = SiH+HH'+H'Sj, or
HH' =S,S» - SiH +S2H'. Substituting, we have
The interstitium becomes zero, or the two principal planes coincide,
if d = ri — ri.
We have now derived all the properties of the lens in terms of its
elements, viz. the refractive index, the radii of the surfaces, and the
thickness.
Forms of Lenses. — By varying the signs and relative magnitude
of the radii, lenses may be divided into two groups according to
their action, and into four groups according to their form.
According to their action, lenses are either collecting, convergent
LENS
425
and condensing, or divergent and dispersing; the term positive is
sometimes applied to the former, and the term negative to the
latter. Convergent lenses transform a parallel pencil into a con-
verging one, and increase the convergence, and diminish the diverg-
ence of any pencil. Divergent lenses, on the other hand, transform
a parallel pencil into a diverging one, and diminish the convergence,
and increase the divergence of any pencil. In convergent lenses the
first principal focal distance is positive and the second principal
focal distance negative; in divergent lenses the converse holds.
The four forms of lenses are interpretable by means of equation
(10).
(l) If fi be positive and r2 negative. This type is called biconvex
(fig. 9, i). The first principal focus is in front of the lens, and the
second principal focus behind the lens, and the two principal points
FIG. 9.
are inside the lens. The order of the cardinal points is therefore
FSiHH'S2F'. The lens is convergent so long as the thickness is
less than n(ri-ri)/(n-i). The special case when one of the radii
is infinite, in other words, when one of the bounding surfaces is plane
is shown in fig. 9, 2. Such a collective lens is termed plano-convex.
As d increases, F and H move to the right and F' and H' to the
left. If d = n(rl-ri)l(n-i), the focal length is infinite, i.e. the
lens is telescopic. If the thickness be greater than n(ri-r2)/(n-i),
the lens is dispersive, and the order of the cardinal points is
HFS&F'H'.
(2) If TI is negative and r2 positive. This type is called biconcave
(fig. 9, 4). Such lenses are dispersive for all thicknesses. If d
increases, the radii remaining constant, the focal lengths diminish.
It is seen from the equations giving the distances of the cardinal
points from the vertices that the first principal focus F is always
behind Si, and the second principal focus F' always in front of Sj,
and that the principal points are within the lens, H' always follow-
ing H. If one of the radii becomes infinite, the lens is plano-concave
(fig- 9. 5)-
(3) If the radii are both positive."5 These lenses are called convexo-
concave. Two cases occur according as f2>n, or <ri. (a) If
fj>ri, we obtain the mensicus (fig. 9, 3). Such lenses are always
collective; and the order of the cardinal points is FHH'F'. Since
s* and SH are always negative, the object-side cardinal points are
always in front of the lens. H' can take up different positions.
Since SH'=-dr2/R = -dril\n(r?-rii +d(n-i) I, SH' is greater or less
than d, i.e. H' is either in front of or inside the lens, according as
d<or> jr2-n(rz-ri)!/(M-i). (b) If r2<n the lens is dispersive so
long as d<n(ri— r2)/(»— i). H is always behind Si and H' behind 82,
since SK and SH' are always positive. The focus F is always behind
Si and F' in front of S2. If the thickness be small, the order of the
cardinal points is F'HH'F; a dispersive lens of this type is shown
in fig. 9, 6. As the thickness increases, H, H' and F move to the
right, F more rapidly than H, and H more rapidly than H'; F',
on the other hand, moves to the left. As with biconvex lenses, a
telescopic lens, having all the cardinal points at infinity, results
when d = n(ri-ri)/(n-i). If d>n(ri-ri)/(n-i), f is positive and
the lens is collective. The cardinal points are in the same order as
in the mensicus, viz. FHH'F'; and the relation of the principal
points to the vertices is also the same as in the mensicus.
(4) If ri and r^ are both negative. This case is reduced to (3)
above, by assuming a change in the direction of the light, or, in
other words, by interchanging the object- and image-spaces.
The six forms shown in fig. 9 are all used in optical constructions.
It may be stated fairly generally that lenses which are thicker at
the middle are collective, while those which are thinnest at the
middle are dispersive.
Different, Positions of Object and Image. — The principal points are
always near the surfaces limiting the lens, and consequently the lens
divides the direct
pencil containing
the axis into two
parts. The object
can be either in
front of or behind
the lens as in fig. 10.
If the object point
be in front of the
FIG. 10.
lens, and if it be realized by rays passing from it, it is called real.
If, on the other hand, the object be behind the lens, it is called
virtual; it does not actually exist, and can only be realized as an
image.
When we speak of " object-points," it is always understood that
the rays from the object traverse the first surface of the lens before
meeting the second. In the same way, images may be either real
or virtual. If the image be behind the second surface, it is real,
and can be intercepted on a screen. If, however, it be in front of
the lens, it is visible
to an eye placed
behind the lens,
although the rays do
not actually inter-
sect, but only appear
to do so, but the
image cannot be in-
tercepted on a screen
behind the lens.
FIG. II.
Such an image is said to be virtual. These relations'are shown in
fig. ii.
By referring" to the equations given above, it is seen that a thin
convergent lens produces both real and virtual images of real objects,
but only a real image of a virtual object, whilst a divergent lens
produces a virtual image of a real object and both real and virtual
images of a virtual object. The construction of a real image of a
FIG. 12.
real object by a convergent lens is shown in fig. 3; and that of a
virtual image of a real object by a divergent lens in fig. 12.
The optical centre of a lens is a point such that, for any ray which
passes through it, the incident and emergent rays are parallel. The
idea of the optical centre was originally due to J. Harris (Treatise
on Optics, 1775) ; it is not properly a cardinal point, although it has
several interesting properties. In fig. 13, let CiPi and CjPi be two
parallel radii of a biconvex lens. . Join PiP2 and let OiPi and OjPj
FIG. 13.
be incident and emergent rays which have Pi?2 for the path through
the lens. Then if M be the intersection of PiP8 with the axis, we
have angle CiPiM= angle C2P2M; these two angles are — for a ray
travelling in the direction OiPiPjOj — the angles of emergence and
of incidence respectively. From the similar triangles CjPjM and
CiPiM we have
C,M:C2M=C1P,:CjP2=ri;>j. (")
Such rays as PiP2 therefore divide the distance CiCj in the ratio of
the radii, i.e. at the fixed point M, the optical centre. Calling
SiM=j,, SM=s2, thenCiSi = CiM+MS, = C:M-SiM, i.e. since C,S,
= ri, CiM =ri+si, and similarly C2M =ri+Si. Also SiS2 = SiM+MS2
= SiM-S2M, i.e. d = Si-st. Then by using equation (n) we have
Si=rid/(r-r2) and st = rid/(ri-rt), and hence ii/*j = ri/rj.. The
vertex distances of the optical centre are therefore in the ratio of
the radii.
The values of Si and s^ show that the optical centre of a biconvex
or biconcave lens is in the interior of the lens, that in a plano-convex
or plano-concave lens it is at the vertex of the curved surface, and
in a concavo-convex lens outside the lens.
The Wave-theory Derivation of the Focal Length. — The formulae
above have been derived by means of geometrical rays. We here
give an account of Lord Rayleigh's wave-theory derivation of the
focal length of a convex lens in terms of the aperture, thickness
and refractive index (Phil. Mag. 1879 (5) 8, p. 480; 1885, 20,
4-26
LENS
P- 354) : the argument is based on the principle that the optical
distance from object to image is constant.
" Taking the case of a convex lens of glass, let us suppose that
parallel rays DA, EC, GB (fig. 14) fall upon the lens ACB, and are
collected by it to a focus at F. The points D, E, G, equally distant
from ACB, lie upon a front of the wave before it impinges upon the
lens. The focus is a point at which the different parts of the wave
arrive at the same time, and that such a point can exist depends
upon the fact that the propagation is slower in glass than in air.
The ray ECF is re-
D -^ tarded from having
to pass through the
thickness (d) of
glass by the amount
(n — i)d. The ray
DAK, which tra-
verses only the ex-
treme edge of the
lens, is retarded
merely on account
pIG of the crookedness
of its path, and the
amount of the retardation is measured by AF-CF. If F is a focus
these retardations must be equal, or AF-CF = (n — i)d. Now if y
be the semi-aperture AC of the lens, and / be the focal length CF,
AF — CF = V (f2 +y) — / = iyV/ approximately, whence
f=WI(n-i)d. (12)
In the case of plate-glass (n — i) = J (nearly), and then the rule (12)
may be thus stated : the semi-aperture is a mean proportional between
the focal length and the thickness. The form (12) is in general the
more significant, as well as the more practically useful, but we may,
of course, express the thickness in terms of the curvatures and semi-
aperture by means of d = tyfa-t-rt-1) . In the preceding statement
it has been supposed for simplicity that the lens comes to a sharp
edge. If this be not the case we must take as the thickness of the
lens the difference of the thicknesses at the centre and at the circum-
ference. In this form the statement is applicable to concave lenses,
and we see that the focal length is positive when the lens is thickest
at the centre, but negative when the lens is thickest at the edge."
Regulation of the Rays.
The geometrical theory of optical instruments can be con-
veniently divided into four parts: (i) The relations of the
positions and sizes of objects and their images (see above);
(2) the different aberrations from an ideal image (see ABERRA-
TION) ; (3) the intensity of radiation in the object- and image-
spaces, in other words, the alteration of brightness caused by
physical or geometrical influences; and (4) the regulation
of the rays (Strahlenbegrenzung).
The regulation of rays will here be treated only in systems free
from aberration. E. Abbe first gave a connected theory; and M
von Rohr has done a great deal towards the elaboration. The
Gauss cardinal points make it simple to construct the image of
a given object. No account is taken of the size of the system, or
whether the rays used for the construction really assist in the
reproduction of the image or not. The diverging cones of rays
coming from the object-points can only take a certain small part
in the production of the image in consequence of the apertures of
the lenses, or of diaphragms. It often happens that the rays used
for the construction of the image do not pass through the system ;
the image being formed by quite different rays. If we take a'
luminous point of the object lying on the axis of the system then an
eye introduced at the image-point sees in the instrument several
concentric rings, which are either the fittings of the lenses or their
images, or the real diaphragms or their images. The innermost
FIG.
and smallest ring is completely lighted, and forms the origin of the
cone of rays entering the image-space. Abbe called it the exit pupil.
Similarly there is a corresponding smallest ring in the object-
space which limits the entering cone of rays. This is called the
entrance pupil. The real diaphragm acting as a limit at any part
of the system is called the aperture-diaphragm. These diaphragms
remain for all practical purposes the same for all points lying on
the axis. It sometimes happens that one and the same diaphragm
fulfils the functions of the entrance pupil and the aperture-diaphragm
or the exit pupil and the aperture-diaphragm.
Fig. 15 shows the general but simplified case of the different
diaphragms which are of importance for the regulation of the
rays. Si, 82 are two centred systems. A' is a real diaphragm
lying between them. BI and B'2 are the fittings of the systems.
Then Si produces the virtual image A of the diaphragm A' and the
image Bz of the fitting B'2, whilst the system Sj makes the virtual
image A" of the diaphragm A' and the virtual image B'j of the fitting
BI. The object-point O is reproduced really through the whole
system in the point O'. From the object-point O three diaphragms
can be seen in the object-space, viz. the fitting BI, the image of the
fitting B2 and the image A of the diaphragm A' formed by the
system Si. The cone of rays nearest to B2 is not received to its
total extent by the fitting BI, and the cone which has entered
through BI is again diminished in its further course, when passing
through the diaphragm A', so that the cone of rays really used
for producing the image is limited by A, the diaphragm which seen
from O appears to be the smallest. A is therefore the entrance
pupil. The real diaphragm A' which limits the rays in the
centre of the system is the aperture diaphragm. Similarly three
diaphragms lying in the image-space are to be seen from the
image-point O' — namely B', A", and B'2. A" limits the rays in the
image-space, and is therefore the exit pupil. As A is conjugate to
the diaphragm A' in the system Si, and A" to the same diaphragm
A' in the system 82, the entrance pupil A is conjugate to the exit
pupil A" throughout the instrument. This relation between entrance
and exit pupils is general.
The apices of the cones of rays producing the image of points near
the axis thus lie in the object-points, and their common base is the
entrance pupil. The axis of such a cone, which connects the object
point with the centre of the entrance pupil, is called the principal ray.
Similarly, the principal rays in the image-space join the centre of
the exit pupil with the image-points. The centres of the entrance and
exit pupils are thus the intersections of the principal rays.
For points lying farther from the axis, the entrance pupil no longer
alone limits the rays, the other diaphragms taking part. In fig. 16
only one diaphragm L is
present besides the entrance
pupil A, and the object-
space is divided to a certain
extent into four parts. The
section M contains all points
rendered by a system with
a complete aperture; N con-
tains all points rendered by
a system with a gradually
diminishing aperture; but
this diminution does not
attain the principal ray
passing through the centre
C. In the section O are
those points rendered by a
system with an aperture
which gradually decreases to
zero. No rays pass from the
points of the section P
through the system and no p
image can arise from them. i'IG- '"•
The second diaphragm L therefore limits the three-dimensional
object-space containing the points which can be rendered by the
optical system. From C through this diaphragm L this three-
dimensional object-space can be seen as through a window. L is
called by M von Rohr the entrance luke. If several diaphragms can
be seen from C, then the entrance luke is the diaphragm which seen
from C appears the smallest. In the sections N and O the entrance'
luke also takes part in limiting the cones of rays. This restriction
is known as the " vignetting "
action of the entrance luke. The
base of the cone of rays for the
points of this section of the
object-space is no longer a circle
but a two-cornered curve which
arises from the object -point by
the projection of the entrance
luke on the entrance pupil.
Fig. 170 shows the base of such
a cone of rays. It often hap-
pens that besides the entrance
luke, another diaphragm acts
in a vignetting manner, then
the operating aperture of the cone of rays is a curve made up
of circular arcs formed put of the entrance pupil and the two
projections of the two acting diaphragms (fig. 176).
If the entrance pupil is narrow, then the section NO, in which the
vignetting is increasing, is diminished, and there is really only one
division of the section M which can be reproduced, and of the section
P which cannot be reproduced. The angle w+w = 2w, comprising
the section which can be reproduced, is called the angle of the field of
view on the object-side. The field of view 2w retains its importance
FIG. 170.
FIG. 176.
LENT
427
if the entrance pupil is increased. It then comprises all points
reached by principal rays. The same relations apply to the image-
space, in which there is an exit luke, which, seen from the middle
of the exit pupil, appears under the smallest angle. It is the image
of the entrance luke produced by the whole system. The image-
side field of view 2w' is the angle comprised by the principal rays
reaching the edge of the exit luke.
Most optical instruments are used to observe object-reliefs (three-
dimensional objects), and generally an image-relief (a three-dimen-
sional image) is conjugate to this object-relief. It is sometimes
required, however, to represent by means of an optical instrument
the object-relief on a plane or on a ground-glass as in the photo-
graphic camera. For simplicity we shall assume the intercepting plane
as perpendicular to the axis and shall call it, after von Rohr, the
" ground glass plane." All points of the image not lying in this
plane produce circular spots (corresponding to the form of the
pupils) on it, which are called " circles of confusion." The ground-
glass plane (fig. 18) is conjugate ,to the object-plane E in the
object-space, perpendicular to the axis, and called the " plane
focused for." All points lying in this plane are reproduced exactly
on the ground-glass plane as the points OO. The circle of confusion
Z on the plane focused for corresponds to the circle of confusion
Z' on the ground-glass plane. The figure formed on the plane
focused for by the cones of rays from all of the object-points of the
total object-space directed to the entrance pupil, was called " object-
side representation " (imago) by M von Rohr. This representation
is a central projection. If, for instance, the entrance pupil is
imagined so small that only the principal rays pass through, then
they project directly, and the intersections of the principal rays
represent the projections of the points of the object lying off
the plane focused for. The centre of the projection or the per-
spective centre is the middle point of the entrance pupil C. If the
entrance pupil is opened, in place of points, circles of confusion ap-
pear, whose size depends upon the size of the entrance pupil and the
position of the object-points and the plane focused for. The inter-
section of the principal ray is the centre of the circle of confusion.
The clearness of the representation on the plane focused for is of
course diminished by the circles of confusion. This central pro-
jection does not at all depend upon the instrument, but is entirely
geometrical, arising when the position and the size of the entrance
pupil, and the position of the plane focused for have been fixed.
The instrument then produces an image on the ground-glass plane
of this perspective representation on the plane focused for, and on
account of the exact likeness which this image has to the object-
side representation it is called the " representation copy." By
moving it round an angle of 180°, this representation can be
brought into a perspective position to the objects, so that all
rays coming from the middle of the entrance pupil and aiming
at the object-points, would always meet the corresponding image-
points. This representation is accessible to the observer in different
ways in different instruments. If the observer desires a perfectly
correct perspective impression of the object-relief the distance of
the pivot of the eye from the representation copy must be equal
to the nth part of the distance of the plane focused for from the
entrance pupil, if the instrument has produced a rath diminution of
the object-side representation. The pivot of the eye must coincide
with the centre of the perspective, because all images are observed
in direct vision. It is known that the pivot of the eye is the
point of intersection of all the directions in which one can look.
Thus all these points represented by circles of confusion which are
less than the angular sharpness of vision appear clear to the
eye; the space containing all these object-points, which appear
clear to the eye, is called the depth. The depth of definition,
therefore, is not a special property of the instrument, but depends
on the size of the entrance pupil, the position of the plane focused
for and on the conditions under which the representation can be
observed.
If the distance of the representation from the pivot of the eye be
altered from the correct distance already mentioned, the angles of
vision under which various objects appear are changed; perspective
errors arise, causing an incorrect idea to be given of the depth. A
simple case is shown in fig. 19. A cube is the object, and if it is
observed as in fig. iga with the representation copy at the
correct distance, a correct idea of a cube 'will be obtained. If, as
in figs. 196 and igc, the distance is too great, there can be
two results. If it is known that the farthest section is just
as high as the nearer one then the cube appears exceptionally
deepened, like a long parallelepipedon. But if it is known to be as
deep as it is high then the eye will see it low at the back and
high at the front. The reverse occurs when the distance of
observation is too short, the body then appears either too flat, or
the nearer sections seem too low in relation to those farther off.
These perspective errors can be seen in any telescope. In the
After von Rohr.
FIG. 19.
telescope ocular the representation copy has to be observed under
too large an angle or at too short a distance: all objects therefore
appear flattened, or the more distant objects appear too large in
comparison with those nearer at hand.
From the above the importance of experience will be inferred.
But it is not only necessary that the objects themselves be known
to the observer but also that they are presented to his eye in
the customary manner. This depends upon the way in which the
principal rays pass through the system — in other words, upon the
special kind of " transmission " of the principal rays. In ordinary
vision the pivot of the eye is the centre of the perspective representa-
tion which arises on the very distant plane standing perpendicular
to the mean direction of sight. In this kind of central projection
all objects lying in front of the plane focused for are diminished
when projected on this plane, and those lying behind it are magnified.
(The distances are always given in the direction of light.) Thus the
objects near to the eye appear large and those farther from it appear
small. This perspective has been called by M von Rohr1 "ento-
centric transmission " (fig. 20). If the entrance pupil of the instru-
ment lies at infinity, then all the principal rays are parallel and the
FB C
After von Rohr. After von Rohr.
FIG. 20. FIG. 21.
projections of all objects on the plane focused for are exactly as
large as the objects themselves. After E. Abbe, this course of rays
is called " telecentric transmission " (fig. 21). The exit pupil then lies
in the image-side focus of the
system. If the perspective
centre lies in front of the plane
focused for, then the objects
lying in front of this plane are
magnified and those behind it
are diminished. This is just the
FIG. 22.
After von I obr
reverse of perspective repre-
sentation in ordinary sight, so that the relations of size and the
arrangements for space must be quite incorrectly indicated (fig. 22) ;
this representation is called by M von Rohr a " hypercentric
transmission." (O. HR.)
LENT (O. Eng. lencten, " spring," M. Eng. lenten, lente, lent; cf.
Dut. lente, Ger. Lenz, " spring," O. H. Ger. lenzin, lengizin, lenzo,
probably from the same root as " long " and referring to " the
lengthening days "), in the Christian Church, the period of
fasting preparatory to the festival of Easter. As this fast
falls in the early part of the year, it became confused with the
season, and gradually the word Lent, which originally meant
spring, was confined to this use. The Latin name for the fast,
Quadragesima (whence Ital. quaresima, Span, cuaresma and Fr.
careme), and its Gr. equivalent Te<rerapa,KooT^ (now superseded
by the term ^ vrjaTda. " the fast "), are derived from the Sunday
which was the fortieth day before Easter, as Quinquagesima
and Sexagesima are the fiftieth and sixtieth, Quadragesima
being until the ;th century the caput jejunii or first day of
the fast.
The length of this fast and the rigour with which it has been
observed have varied greatly at different times and in different
countries (see FASTING). In the time of Irenaeus the fast before
Easter was very short, but very severe; thus some ate nothing
for forty hours between the afternoon of Good Friday and the
morning of Easter. This was the only authoritatively prescribed
fast known to Tertullian (Dejejunio, 2, 13, 14; De oratione, 18).
In Alexandria about the middle of the 3rd century it was already
1 M von Rohr, Zeitschr. fur Sinnesphysiologie (1907), xli. 408-429.
428
LENT
customary to fast during Holy Week; and earlier still the
Montanists boasted that they observed a two weeks' fast instead
of one. Of the Lenten fast or Quadragesima, the first mention
is in the fifth canon of the council of Nicaea (325), and from this
time it is frequently referred to, but chiefly as a season of prepara-
tion for baptism, of absolution of penitents or of retreat and
recollection. In this season fasting played a part, but it was
not universally nor rigorously enforced. At Rome, for instance,
the whole period of fasting was but three weeks, according to the
historian Socrates (Hist. eccl. v. 22), these three weeks, in Mgr.
Duchesne's opinion, being not continuous but, following the
primitive Roman custom, broken by intervals. Gradually,
however, the fast as observed in East and West became more
rigorously defined. In the East, where after the example of
the Church of Antioch the Quadragesima fast had been kept
distinct from that of Holy Week, the whole fast came to last
for seven weeks, both Saturdays and Sundays (except Holy
Saturday) being, however, excluded. In Rome and Alexandria,
and even in Jerusalem, Holy Week was included in Lent and the
whole fast lasted but six weeks, Saturdays, however, not being
exempt. Both at Rome and Constantinople, therefore, the actual
fast was but thirty-six days. Some Churches still continued the
three weeks' fast, but by the middle of the sth century most of
these divergences had ceased and the usages of Antioch-Con-
stantinople and Rome-Alexandria had become stereotyped in
their respective spheres of influence.
The thirty-six days, as forming a tenth part of the year and
therefore a perfect number, at first found a wide acceptance
(so Cassianus, Coll. xxi. 30) ; but the inconsistency of this period
with the name Quadragesima, and with the forty days' fast of
Christ, came to be noted, and early in the 7th century four days
were added, by what pope is unknown, Lent in the West begin-
ning henceforth on Ash Wednesday (q.v.). About the same time
the cycle of paschal solemnities was extended to the ninth week
before Easter by the institution of stational masses for Septua-
gesima, Sexagesima and Quinquagesima Sundays. At Constanti-
nople, too, three Sundays were added and associated with the
Easter festival in the same way as the Sundays in Lent proper.
These three Sundays were added in the Greek Church also, and
the present custom of keeping an eight weeks' fast (i.e. exactly
8X5 days), now universal in the Eastern Church, originated in
the 7th century. The Greek Lent begins on the Monday of
Sexagesima, with a week of preparatory fasting, known as
Tvpo<t}6.yia, or the " butter-week "; the actual fast, however,
starts on the Monday of Quinquagesima (Estomihi), this week
being known as " the first week of the fast " («|35o/wis TWV
vrjaTtuav) . The period of Lent is still described as " the six weeks
of the fast " (2£ t/35o/uct<5fs rSiv vyartuav), Holy Week (1^ ayia K<H
fieya\ri ^j35o/ias) not being reckoned in. The Lenten fast was
retained at the Reformation in some of the reformed Churches,
and is still observed in the Anglican and Lutheran communions.
In England a Lenten fast was first ordered to be observed by
Earconberht, king of Kent (640-664). In the middle ages, meat,
eggs and milk were forbidden in Lent not only by ecclesiastical
but by statute law; and this rule was enforced until the reign of
William III. The chief Lenten food from the earliest days was
fish, and entries in the royal household accounts of Edward III.
show the amount of fish supplied to the king. Herring-pies
were a great delicacy. Charters granted to seaports often
stipulated that the town should send so many herrings or other
fish to the king annually during Lent. How severely strict
medieval abstinence was may be gauged from the fact that
armies and garrisons were sometimes, in default of dispensations,
as in the case of the siege of Orleans in 1429, reduced to starvation
for want of Lenten food, though in full possession of meat and
other supplies. The battle of the Herrings (February 1429)
was fought in order to cover the march of a convoy of Lenten food
to the English army besieging Orleans. Dispensations from
fasting were, however, given in case of illness.
During the religious confusion of the Reformation, the practice
of fasting was generally relaxed and it was found necessary to
reassert the obligation of keeping Lent and the other periods and
days of abstinence by a series of proclamations and statutes.
In these, however, the religious was avowedly subordinate to a
political motive, viz. to prevent the ruin of the fisheries, which
were the great nursery of English seamen. Thus the statute
of 2 and 3 Edward VI., cap. 9 (1549), while inculcating that
" due and godly abstinence from flesh is a means to virtue,"
adds that " by the eating of fish much flesh is saved to the
country," and that thereby, too, the fishing trade is encouraged.
The statute, however, would not seem to have had much effect;
for in spite of a proclamation of Queen Elizabeth in 1 560 imposing
a fine of £20 for each offence on butchers slaughtering animals
during Lent, in 1563 Sir William Cecil, in Notes upon an Act for
the Increase of the Navy, says that " in old times no flesh at all was
eaten on fish days; even the king himself could not have license;
which was occasion of eating so much fish as now is eaten in flesh
upon fish days." The revolt against fish had ruined the fisheries
and driven the fishermen to turn pirates, to the great scandal
and detriment of the realm. Accordingly, in the session of 1562-
1563, Cecil forced upon an unwilling parliament "a politic
ordinance on fish eating," by which the eating of flesh on
fast days was made punishable by a fine of three pounds or
three months' imprisonment, one meat dish being allowed on
Wednesdays on condition that three fish dishes were present on
the table, The kind of argument by which Cecil overcame the
Protestant temper of the parliament is illustrated by a clause
which he had meditated adding to the statute, a draft of which
in his own handwriting is preserved: " Because no person should
misjudge the intent of the statute," it runs, " which is politicly
meant only for the increase of fishermen and mariners, and not
for any superstition for choice of meats; whoever shall preach
or teach that eating of fish or forbearing of flesh is for the saving
of the soul of man, or for the service of God, shall be punished as
the spreader of false news " (Dom. MSS., Elizabeth, vol. xxvii.).
But in spite of statutes and proclamations, of occasional severities
and of the patriotic example of Queen Elizabeth, the practice of
fasting fell more and more into disuse. Ostentatious avoidance
of a fish-diet became, indeed, one of the outward symbols of
militant Protestantism among the Puritans. " I have often
noted," writes John Taylor, the water-poet, in his Jack a Lent
(1620), " that if any superfluous feasting or gormandizing,
paunch-cramming assembly do meet, it is so ordered that it must
be either in Lent, upon a Friday, or a fasting: for the meat
does not relish well except it be sauced with disobedience and
comtempt of authority." The government continued to struggle
against this spirit of defiance; proclamations of James I. in
1619 and 1625, and of Charles I. in 1627 and 1631, again com-
manded abstinence from all flesh during Lent, and the High
Church movement of the i7th century lent a fresh religious
sanction to the official attitude. So late as 1687, James II.
issued a proclamation ordering abstention from meat; but,
after the Revolution, the Lenten laws fell obsolete, though they
remained on the statute-book till repealed by the Statute Law
Revision Act 1863. But during the i8th century, though the
strict observance of the Lenten fast was generally abandoned,
it was still observed and inculcated by the more earnest of the
clergy, such as William Law and John Wesley; and the custom
of women wearing mourning in Lent, which had been followed
by Queen Elizabeth and her court, survived until well into the
1 9th century. With the growth of the Oxford Movement in the
English Church, the practice of observing Lent was revived; and,
though no rules for fasting are authoritatively laid down, the
duty of abstinence is now very generally inculcated by bishops
and clergy, either as a discipline or as an exercise in self-denial.
For the more " advanced " Churches, Lenten practice tends to
conform to that of the pre-Reformation Church.
Mid-Lent, or the fourth Sunday in Lent, was long known
as Mothering Sunday, in allusion to the custom for girls in
service to be allowed a holiday on that day to visit their
parents. They usually took as a present for their mother a
small cake known as a simnel. In shape it resembled a pork-
pie but in materials it was a rich plum-pudding. The word
is derived through M. Lat. simenellus, simella, from Lat. simila,
LENTHALL
429
wheat flour. In Gloucestershire simnel cakes are still common;
and at Usk, Monmouth, the custom of mothering is still
scrupulously observed.
LENTHALL, WILLIAM (1591-1662), English parliamentarian,
speaker of the House of Commons, second son of William Lenthall,
of Lachford, Oxfordshire, a descendent of an old Herefordshire
family, was born at Henley-on-Thames in June 1591. He
left Oxford without taking a degree in 1609, and was called
to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1616, becoming a bencher in 1633.
He represented Woodstock in the Short Parliament (April 1640),
and was chosen by King Charles I. to be speaker of the Long
Parliament, which met on the 3rd of November 1640. According
to Clarendon, a worse choice could not have been made, for
Lenthall was of a " very timorous nature." He was treated
with scanty respect in the chair, 'and seems to have had little
control over the proceedings. On the 4th of January 1642,
however, when the king entered the House of Commons to seize
the five members, Lenthall behaved with great prudence and
dignity. Having taken the speaker's chair and looked round in
vain to discover the offending members, Charles turned to
Lenthall standing below, and demanded of him " whether any
of those persons were in the House, whether he saw any of them
and where they were." Lenthall fell on his knees and replied:
" May it please your Majesty, I have neither eyes to see nor
tongue to speak in this place but as the House is pleased to
direct me, whose servant I am here." On the outbreak of the
great rebellion, Lenthall threw in his lot with the parliament.
He had already called attention to the inadequacy of his salary
and been granted a sum of £6000 (gth of April 1642); and he
was now appointed master of the rolls (22nd of November 1643),
and one of the commissioners of the great seal (Oct. 1646-
March 1648).
He carried on his duties as speaker without interruption till
1647, when the power of the parliament had been transferred
to the army. On the 26th of July a mob invaded the House of
Commons and obliged it to rescind the ordinance re-establishing
the old parliamentary committee of militia; Lenthall was held
in the chair by main force and compelled to put to the vote a
resolution inviting the king to London. Threats of worse things
came subsequently to Lenthall's ears, and, taking the mace
with him, he left London on the 29th to join the army and
Fairfax. Lenthall and Manchester, the speaker of the Lords,
headed the fugitive members at the review on Hounslow Heath
on the 3rd of August, being received by the soldiers " as so many
angels sent from heaven for their good." Returning to London
with the army, he was installed again by Fairfax in the chair
(6th August), and all votes passed during his absence were
annulled. He adhered henceforth to the army party, but with
a constant bias in favour of the king.
At the Restoration he claimed to have sent money to the king
at Oxford, to have provided the queen with comforts and
necessaries and to have taken care of the royal children. But
he put the question for the king's trial from the chair, and
continued to act as speaker after the king's execution. He
still continued to use his influence in favour of the royalists,
whenever this was possible without imperilling his own interests,
and he saved the lives of both the earl of Norwich (8th March
1649) and Sir W. D'Avenant (3rd July 1650) by his casting
vote. The removal of the king had left the parliament supreme;
and Lenthall as its representative, though holding little real
power, was the first man in the state.
His speakership continued till the 2oth of April 1653, when
the Long Parliament was summarily expelled. Cromwell directed
Colonel Harrison, on the refusal of Lenthall to quit the chair,
to pull him out — and Lenthall submitted to the show of force.
He took no part in politics till the assembling of the first pro-
tectorate parliament, on the 3rd of September 1654, in which
he sat as member for Oxfordshire. He was again chosen speaker,
his former experience and his pliability of character being his
chief recommendations. In the second protectorate parliament,
summoned by Cromwell on the i7th of September 1656, Lenthall
was again chosen member for Oxfordshire, but had some difficulty
in obtaining admission, and was not re-elected speaker. He
supported Cromwell's administration, and was active in urging
the protector to take the title of king. In spite of his services,
Lenthall was not included by Cromwell in his new House of
Lords, and was much disappointed and crestfallen at his omission.
The protector, hearing of his " grievous complaint," sent him a
writ, and Lenthall was elated at believing he had secured a
peerage. After Cromwell's death, the officers, having determined
to recall the " Rump " Parliament, assembled at Lenthall's
house at the Rolls (6th May 1659), to desire him to send out the
writs. Lenthall, however, had no wish to resume his duties
as speaker, preferring the House of Lords, and made various
excuses for not complying. Nevertheless, upon the officers
threatening to summon the parliament without his aid, and
hearing the next morning that several members had assembled,
he led the procession to the parliament house. Lenthall was
now restored to the position of dignity which he had filled before.
He was temporarily made keeper of the new great seal (i4th of
May). On the 6th of June it was voted that all commissions
should be signed by Lenthall and not by the commander-in-chief.
His exalted position, however, was not left long unassailed.
On the 1 3th of October Lambert placed soldiers round the House
and prevented the members from assembling. Lenthall's coach
was stopped as he was entering Palace Yard, the mace was seized
and he was obliged to return. The army, however, soon returned
to their allegiance to the parliament. On the 24th of December
they marched to LenthaU's house, and expressed their sorrow.
On the 29th the speaker received the thanks of the reassembled
parliament.
Lenthall now turned his attention to bring about the Restora-
tion. He " very violently " opposed the oath abjuring the house
of Stuart, now sought to be imposed by the republican faction
on the parliament, and absented himself from the House for ten
days, to avoid, it was said, any responsibility for the bill. He had
been in communication with Monk for some time, and on Monk
entering London with his army (3rd February 1660) Lenthall met
him in front of Somerset House. On the 6th of February Monk
visited the House of Commons, when Lenthall pronounced a
speech of thanks. On the 28th of March Lenthall forwarded
to the king a paper containing " Heads of Advice." According
to Monk, he " was very active for the restoring of His Majesty
and performed many services . . . which could not have been
soe well effected without his helpe." Lenthall notwithstanding
found himself in disgrace at the Restoration. In spite of Monk's
recommendation, he was not elected by Oxford University for
the Convention Parliament, nor was he allowed by the king,
though he had sent him a present of £3000, to remain master of
the rolls. On the nth of June he was included by the House
of Commons, in spite of a recommendatory letter from Monk,
among the twenty persons excepted from the act of indemnity
and subject to penalties not extending to life. In the House of
Lords, however, Monk's testimony and intercession were effectual,
and Lenthall wasonly declared incapableof holding forthe future
any public office. His last public act was a disgraceful one.
Unmindful now of the privileges of parliament, he consented to
appear as a witness against the regicide Thomas Scot, for words
spoken in the House of Commons while Lenthall was in the
chair. It was probably after this that he was allowed to present
himself at court, and his contemporaries took a malicious glee
in telling how " when, with some difficulty, he obtained leave to
kiss the king's hand he, out of guilt, fell backward, as he was
kneeling."
Lenthall died on the 3rd of September 1662. In his will he
desired to be buried without any state and without a monument,
" but at the utmost a plain stone with this superscription only,
Vermis sum, acknowledging myself to be unworthy of the least
outward regard in this world and unworthy of any remembrance
that hath been so great a sinner." He was held in little honour
by his contemporaries, and was universally regarded as a time-
server. He was, however, a man of good intentions, strong
family affections and considerable ability. Unfortunately he
was called by the irony of fate to fill a great office, in which.
43°
LENTIL— LENTULUS
governed constantly by fears for his person and estate, he was
seduced into a series of unworthy actions. He left one son, Sir
John Lenthall, who had descendants. His brother, Sir John
Lenthall, who, it was said, had too much influence with him,
was notorious for his extortions as keeper of the King's Bench
prison.
See C. H. Firth in the Diet. Nat. Biog.; Wood (ed. Bliss), Ath.
Oxon. \\\. 603, who gives a list of his printed speeches and letters ;
Foss, Lives of the Judges, vi. 447; and J. A. Manning, Lives of the
Speakers of the House of Commons. There are numerous references
to Lenthall in his official capacity, and letters written by and to him,
in the Calendar of State Papers, Domestic Series, and in various MSS.
calendared in the Hist. MSS. Commission Series. See also D'Ewes's
Diary, in the Harleian Collection, British Museum, some extracts
from which have been given by J. Forster, Case of the Five Members,
233 sq- ; and Notes and Queries, ser. iii., vii. 45 (" Lenthall's Lamenta-
tion "), viii., i. 165, 338, 2, ix., xi. 57.
LENTIL, the seed of Lens esculenta (also known as Eroum Lens),
a small annual of the vetch tribe. The plant varies from 6 to
18 in. in height, and has many long ascending branches. The
leaves are alternate, with six pairs of oblong-linear, obtuse,
mucronate leaflets. The flowers, two to four in number, are
of a pale blue colour, and are borne in the axils of the leaves,
on a slender footstalk nearly equalling the leaves in length;
they are produced in June or early in July. The pods are about
J in. long, broadly oblong, slightly inflated, and contain two seeds,
which are of the shape of a doubly convex lens, and about $ in.
in diameter. There are several cultivated varieties of the plant,
differing in size, hairiness and colour of the leaves, flowers and
seeds. The last may be more or less compressed in shape, and
in colour may vary from yellow or grey to dark brown; they are
also sometimes mottled or speckled. In English commerce two
kinds of lentils are principally met with, French and Egyptian.
The former are usually sold entire, and are of an ash-grey
colour externally and of a yellow tint within; the latter are
usually sold like split peas, without the seed coat, and consist of
the reddish-yellow cotyledons, which are smaller and rounder
than those of the French lentil; the seed coat when present
is of a dark brown colour. Considerable quantities of lentils are
also imported into the United States.
The native country of the lentil is not known. It was probably
one of the first plants brought under cultivation by mankind;
lentils have been found in the lake dwellings of St Peter's Island,
Lake of Bienne, which are of the Bronze age. The name 'adas
(Heb. ehv) appears to be an original Semitic word, and the red
pottage of lentils for which Esau sold his birthright (Gen. xxv. 34)
was apparently made from the red Egyptian lentil. This lentil
is cultivated in one or other variety in India, Persia, Syria,
Egypt, Nubia and North Africa, and in Europe, along the coast
of the Mediterranean, and as far north as Germany, Holland and
France. In Egypt, Syria and other Eastern countries the parched
seeds are exposed for sale in shops, and esteemed the best food
to carry on long journeys. Lentils form a chief ingredient in the
Spanish puchero, and are used in a similar way in France and other
countries. For this purpose they are usually sold in the shelled
state.
The reddish variety of the lentil (lenttilon d'hiver) is the kind
most esteemed in Paris on account of the superior flavour of its
smaller seeds. It is sown in autumn either with a cereal crop or
alone, and is cultivated chiefly in the north and east of France. The
large or common variety, lentille large blonde, cultivated in Lorraine
and at Gallardon (Eure-et-Loir), and largely in Germany, is the
most productive, but is less esteemed. This kind has very small
whitish flowers, two or rarely three on a footstalk, and the pods are
generally one-seeded, the seeds being of a whitish or cream colour,
about | of an inch broad and \ in. thick. A single plant produces
from 100 to 150 pods, which are flattened, about fin. long and J in.
broad. Another variety, with seeds similar in form and colour to
the last, but of much smaller size, is known as the lentillon de Mars.
It is sown in spring. This variety and the lentille large are both
sometimes called the lentille a la reine. A small variety, lentille
verte du Puy, cultivated chiefly in the departments of Haute Loire
and Cantal, is also grown as a vegetable and for forage. The Egyptian
lentil was introduced into Britain in 1820. It has blue flowers.
Another species of lentil, Ervum monanthos, is grown in France about
Orleans and elsewhere under the name of jarosse and jarande. It is,
according to Vilmorin, one of the best kinds of green food to grow
on a poor dry sandy soil; on calcareous soil it does not succeed so
well. It is usually sown in autumn with a little rye or winter oats,
at the rate of a hectolitre to a hectare.
The lentil prefers a light warm sandy soil; on rich land it runs
to leaf and produces but few pods. The seeds are sown in March
or April or early in May, according to the climate of the country, as
they cannot endure night frosts. If for fodder they are sown broad-
cast, but in drills if the ripe seeds are required. The pods are
gathered in August or September, as soon as they begin to turn
brown — the plants being pulled up like flax while the foliage is still
green, and on a dry day lest the pods split in drying and loss of
seed takes place. Lentils keep best in the husk so far as flavour is
concerned, and will keep good in this way for two years either for
sowing or for food. An acre of ground yields on an average about
ii cwt. of seed and 30 cwt. of straw. The amount and character
of the mineral matter requisite in the soil may be judged from the
analysis of the ash, which in the seeds has as its chief ingredients —
potash 34-6 % soda 9-5, lime 6-3, phosphoric acid 36-2, chloride of
sodium 7-6, while in the straw the percentages are — potash 10-8,
lime 52-3, silica 17-6, phosphoric acid 12-3, chloride of sodium 2-1.
Lentils have attracted considerable notice among vegetarians
as a food material, especially for soup. A Hindu proverb says,
" Rice is good, but lentils are my life." The husk of the seed is
indigestible, and to cook lentils properly requires at least two and a
half hours, but they are richer in nutritious matter than almost any
other kind of pulse, containing, according to Payen's analysis, 25-2 %
of nitrogenous matter (legumin), 56% of starch and 2-6% of
fatty matter. Fresenius's analysis differs in giving only 35% of
starch; Einhqff gives 32-81 of starch and 37-82% of nitrogenous
matter. Lentils are more properly the food of the poor in all countries
where they are grown, and have often been spurned when better
food could be obtained, hence the proverb Dives factus jam desiit
gaudere lente. The seeds are said to be good for pigeons, or mixed
in a ground state with potatoes or barley for fattening pigs. The
herbage is highly esteemed as green food for suckling ewes and all
kinds of cattle (being said to increase the yield of milk), also for
calves and lambs. Haller says that lentils are so flatulent as to kill
horses. They were also believed Jo be the cause of severe scrofulous
disorders common in Egypt. This bad reputation may possibly be
due to the substitution of the seeds of the bitter vetch or tare lentil,
Ervum Emilia, a plant which closely resembles the true lentil in
height, habit, flower and pod, but whose seeds are without doubt
possessed of deleterious properties — producing weakness or even
paralysis of the extremities in horses which have partaken of them.
The poisonous principle seems to reside chiefly in the bitter seed
coat, and can apparently be removed by steeping in water, since
Gerard, speaking of the bitter vetch " (E. Ervilia), says " kine in
Asia and in most other countries do eat thereof, being made sweet
by steeping in water." The seed of E. Ervilia is about the same size
and almost exactly of the same reddish-brown colour as that of the
Egyptian lentil, and when the seed coat is removed they are both
ofthe same orange red hue, but the former is not so bright as the
latter. The shape is the best means of distinguishing the two seeds,
that of E. Ervilia being obtusely triangular.
Sea-lentil is a name sometimes applied to the gulfweed Sargassum
vulgare.
LENTULUS, the name of a Roman patrician family of the
Cornelian gens, derived from lentes (" lentils "), which its oldest
members were fond of cultivating (according to Pliny, Nat. Hist.
xviii. 3, 10). The word Lentulitas ("Lentulism "; cf. Appietas)
is coined by Cicero (Ad Fam. iii. 7, 5 ) to express the attributes
of a pronounced aristocrat. The three first of the name were
L. Cornelius Lentulus (consul 327 B.C.), Servius Cornelius
Lentulus (consul 303) and L. Cornelius Lentulus Caudinus
(consul 275). Their connexion with the later Lentuli (especially
those of the Ciceronian period) is very obscure and difficult to
establish. The following members of the family deserve mention.
PUBLIUS CORNELIUS LENTULUS, nicknamed SURA, one of
the chief figures in the Catilinarian conspiracy. When accused
by Sulla (to whom he had been quaestor in 81 B.C.) of having
squandered the public money, he refused to render any account,
but insolently held out the calf of his leg (sura), on which part
of the person boys were punished when they made mistakes
in playing ball. He was praetor in 75, governor of Sicily 74,
consul 71. In 70, being expelled from the senate with a number
of others for immorality, he joined Catiline. Relying upon a
Sibylline oracle that three Cornelii should be rulers of Rome,
Lentulus regarded himself as the destined successor of Cornelius
Sulla and Cornelius Cinna. When Catiline left Rome after
Cicero's first speech In CatUinam, Lentulus took his place as
chief of the conspirators in the city. In conjunction with C.
Cornelius Cethegus, he undertook to murder Cicero and set
fire to Rome, but the plot failed owing to his timidity and
LENZ— LEO (POPES)
indiscretion. Ambassadors from the Allobroges being at the
time in Rome, the bearers of a complaint against the oppressions
of provincial governors, Lentulus made overtures to them, with
the object of obtaining armed assistance. Pretending to fall
in with his views, the ambassadors obtained a written agree-
ment signed by the chief conspirators, and informed Q. Fabius
Sanga, their " patron " in Rome, who in his turn acquainted
Cicero. The conspirators were arrested and forced to admit
their guilt. Lentulus was compelled to abdicate his praetorship,
and, as it was feared that there might be an attempt to rescue
him, he was put to death in the Tullianum on the 5th of
December 63.
See Dio Cassius xxxvii. 30, xlyi. 20; Plutarch, Cicero, 17;
Sallust, Catilina; Cicero, In Catilinam, iii., iv. ; Pro Sulla, 25;
also CATILINE.
PUBLIUS CORNELIUS LENTULUS, called SPINTHER from his
likeness to an actor of that name, one of the chief adherents
of the Pompeian party. In 63 B.C. he was curule aedile, assisted
Cicero in the suppression of the Catilinarian conspiracy, and
distinguished himself by the splendour of the games he provided.
Praetor in 60, he obtained the governorship of Hispania Citerior
(59) through the support of Caesar, to whom he was also indebted
for his election to the consulship (57). Lentulus played a
prominent part in the recall of Cicero from exile, and although
a temporary coolness seems to have arisen between them, Cicero
speaks of him in most grateful terms. From 56-53 Lentulus
was governor of the province of Cilicia (with Cyprus) and during
that time was commissioned by the senate to restore Ptolemy XI.
Auletes to his kingdom (see PTOLEMIES). The Sibylline books,
however, declared that the king must not be restored by force
of arms, at the risk of peril to Rome. As a provincial governor,
Lentulus appears to have looked after the interests of his subjects,
and did not enrich himself at their expense. In spite of his
indebtedness to Caesar, Lentulus joined the Pompeians on the
outbreak of civil war (49). The generosity with which he was
treated by Caesar after the capitulation of Corfinium made
him hesitate, but he finally decided in favour of Pompey. After
the battle of Pharsalus, Lentulus escaped to Rhodes, where he
was at first refused admission, although he subsequently found
an asylum there (Cicero, Ad Alt. xi. 13. i). According to
Aurelius Victor (De vir. ill. Ixxviii., 9, if the reading be correct),
he subsequently fell into Caesar's hands and was put to death.
See Caesar, Bell. Civ. i. 15-23, iii. 102; Plutarch, Pomp. 49;
Valerius Maximus ix. 14, 4; many letters of Cicero, especially Ad
Fam. i. 1-9.
Lucius CORNELIUS LENTULUS, surnamed CRUS or CRUSCELLO
(for what reason is unknown), member of the anti-Caesarian
party. In 61 B.C. he was the chief accuser of P. Clodius (q.v.) in
the affair of the festival of Bona Dea. When consul (49) he
advised the rejection of all peace terms offered by Caesar, and
declared that, if the senate did not at once decide upon opposing
him by force of arms, he would act upon his own responsibility.
There seems no reason to doubt that Lentulus was mainly
inspired by selfish motives, and hoped to find in civil war an
opportunity for his own aggrandizement But in spite of his
brave words he fled in haste from Rome as soon as he heard of
Caesar's advance, and crossed over to Greece. After Pharsalus,
he made his way to Rhodes (but was refused admission), thence,
by way of Cyprus, to Egypt. He landed at Pelusium the day
after the murder of Pompey, was immediately seized by Ptolemy,
imprisoned, and put to death.
See Caesar, Bell. Civ. i. 4, iii. 104; Plutarch, Pompey, 80.
A lull account of the different Cornelii Lentuli, with genealogical
table, will be found in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencydopddte, iv. pt. I,
P- '355 (1900) (s.v. " Cornelius "); see also V. de Vit, Onomasticon,
»'• 433-
LENZ, JAKOB MICHAEL REINHOLD (1751-1792), German
poet, was born at Sesswegen in Livonia, the son of the village
pastor, on the I2th of January 1751. He removed with his
parents to Dorpat in 1759, and soon began to compose sacred
odes, in the manner of Klopstock. In 1768 he entered the
university of Konigsberg as a student of theology, and in 1771
accompanied, as tutor, two young German nobles, named von
Kleist, to Strassburg, where they were to enter the French
army. In Strassburg Lenz was received into the literary circle
that gathered round Friedrich Rudolf Salzmann (1749-1821)
and became acquainted with Goethe, at that time a student at
the university. In order to be close to his young pupils, Lenz
had to remove to Fort Louis in the neighbourhood, and while
here became deeply enamoured of Goethe's friend, Friederike
Elisabeth Brion (1752-1813), daughter of the pastor of Sesenheim.
Lenz endeavoured, after Goethe's departure from Strassburg,
to replace the great poet in her affections, and to her he poured
out songs and poems (Die Liebe auf dem Lande) which were long
attributed to Goethe himself, as was also Lenz's first drama, the
comedy, Der Hofmeister, oder Vorteileder Privaterziehung (1774).
In 1776 he visited Weimar and was most kindly received by the
duke; but his rude, overbearing manner and vicious habits
led to his expulsion. In 1777 he became insane, and in 1779
was removed from Emmendingen, where J. G. Schlosser (1739-
1799), Goethe's brother-in-law, had given him a home, to his
native village. Here he lived in great poverty for several years,
and then was given, more out of charity than on account of his
merits, the appointment of tutor in a pension school near
Moscow, where he died on the 24th of May 1792. Lenz, though
one of the most talented poets of the Sturm und Drang period,
presented a strange medley of genius and childishness. His
great, though neglected and distorted, abilities found vent in
ill-conceived imitations of Shakespeare. His comedies, Der
Hofmeister; Der neue Menoza (1774); Die Soldaten (1776);
Die Freunde machen den Philosophen (1776), though accounted
the best of his works, are characterized by unnatural situations
and an incongruous mixture of tragedy and comedy.
Lenz's Gesammelte Schriften were published by L. Tieck in three
volumes (1828); supplementary to these volumes are E. Dorer-
Egloff, /. M. R. Lenz und seine Schriften (1857) and K. Weinhold,
Dramatischer Nachlass von J. M. R. Lenz (1884); a selection of
Lenz's writings will be found in A. Sauer, Sturmer und Drdnger, ii. ;
Kiirschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur, vol. Ixxx., (1883). See
further E. Schmidt, Lenz und Klinger (1878); J. Froitzheim, Lenz
und Goethe (1891); H. Rauch, Lenz und Shakespeare (1892); F.
Waldmann, Lenz in Brief en (1894).
LEO, the name of thirteen popes.
LEO I., who alone of Roman pontiffs shares with Gregory I.
the surname of THE GREAT, pope from 440 to 461, was a native
of Rome, or, according to a less probable account, of Volterra
in Tuscany. Of his family or early life nothing is known; that
he was highly cultivated according to the standards of his time
is obvious, but it does not appear that he could write Greek,
or even that he understood that language. In one of the letters
(Ep. 104) of Augustine, an acolyte named Leo is mentioned
as having been in 418 the bearer of a communication from
Sixtus of Rome (afterwards pope) to Aurelius of Carthage
against the Pelagians. In 429, when the first unmistakable
reference to Pope Leo occurs, he was still only a deacon, but
already a man of commanding influence; it was at his suggestion
that the De incarnation* of the aged Cassianus, having reference
to the Nestorian heresy, was composed in that year, and about
431 we find Cyril of Alexandria writing to him that he might
prevent the Roman Church from lending its support in any
way to the ambitious schemes of Juvenal of Jerusalem. In 440,
while Leo was in Gaul, whither he had been sent to compose
some differences between Aetius and another general named
Albinus, Pope Sixtus III. died. The absent deacon, or rather
archdeacon, was unanimously chosen to succeed him, and
received consecration on his return six weeks afterwards
(September 29). In 443 he began to take measures against the
Manichaeans (who since the capture of Carthage by Genseric
in 439 had become very numerous at Rome), and in the following
year he was able to report to the Italian bishops that some of
the heretics had returned to Catholicism, while a large number
had been sentenced to perpetual banishment " in accordance
with the constitutions of the Christian emperors," and others
had fled ; in seeking these out the help of the provincial clergy
was sought. It was during the earlier years of Leo's pontificate
that the events in Gaul occurred which resulted in this triumph
over Hilarius of Aries, signalized by the edict of Valentinian III.
432
LEO (POPES)
(445), denouncing the contumacy of the Gallic bishop, and
enacting " that nothing should be done in Gaul, contrary to
ancient usage, without the authority of the bishop of Rome,
and that the decree of the apostolic see should henceforth be
law." In 447 Leo held the correspondence with Turribus of
Astorga which led to the condemnation of the Priscillianists by the
Spanish national church. In 448 he received with commendation
a letter from Eutyches, the Constantinopolitan monk, com-
plaining of the revival of the Nestorian heresy there; and in
the following year Eutyches wrote his circular, appealing against
the sentence which at the instance of Eusebius of Dorylaeum
had been passed against him at a synod held in Constantinople
under the presidency of the patriarch Flavian, and asking papal
support at the oecumenical council at that time under summons
to meet at Ephesus. The result of a correspondence was that
Leo by his legates sent to Flavian that famous epistle in which
he sets forth with great fulness of detail the doctrine ever since
recognized as orthodox regarding the union of the two natures
in the one person of Jesus Christ. The events at the " robber "
synod at Ephesus belong to general church history rather than
to the biography of Leo; his letter, though submitted, was not
read by the assembled fathers, and the papal legates had some
difficulty in escaping with their lives from the violence of the
theologians who, not content with deposing Flavian and Eusebius,
shouted for the dividing of those who divided Christ. When the
news of the result of this oecumenical council (oecumenical
in every circumstance except that it was not presided over
by the pope) reached Rome, Leo wrote to Theodosius " with
groanings and tears," requesting the emperor to sanction another
council, to be held this time, however, in Italy. In this petition
he was supported by Valentinian III., by the empress-mother
Galla Placidia and by the empress Kudoxiu, but the appeal
was made in vain. A change, however, was brought about by
the accession in the following year of Marcian, who three days
after coming to the throne published an edict bringing within
the scope of the penal laws against heretics the supporters of
the dogmas of Apollinaris and Eutyches. To convoke a synod
in which greater orthodoxy might reasonably be expected
was in these circumstances no longer difficult, but all Leo's
efforts to secure that the meeting should take place on Italian
soil were unavailing. When the synod of Chalcedon assembled
in 451, the papal legates were treated with great respect, and
Leo's former letter to Flavian was adopted by acclamation
as formulating the creed of the universal church on the subject
of the person of Christ. Among the reasons urged by Leo for
holding this council in Italy had been the threatening attitude
of the Huns; the dreaded irruption took place in the following
year (452). After Aquileia had succumbed to Attila's long
siege, the conqueror set out for Rome. Near the confluence
of the Mincio and the Po he was met by Leo, whose eloquence
persuaded him to turn back. Legend has sought to enhance
the impressiveness of the occurrence by an unnecessarily imagined
miracle. The pope was less successful with Genseric when the
Vandal chief arrived under the walls of Rome in 455, but he
secured a promise that there should be no incendiarism or
murder, and that three of the oldest basilicas should be exempt
from plunder — a promise which seems to have been faithfully
observed. Leo died on the loth of November 461, the liturgical
anniversary being the nth of April. His successor was Hilarius
or Hilarus, who had been one of the papal legates at the " robber "
synod in 449.
The title of doctor ecclesiae was given to Leo by Benedict
XIV. As bishop of the diocese of Rome, Leo distinguished
himself above all his predecessors by his preaching, to which
he devoted himself with great zeal and success. From his short
and pithy Sermones many of the lessons now to be found in the
Roman breviary have been taken. Viewed in conjunction
with his voluminous correspondence, the sermons sufficiently
explain the secret of his greatness, which chiefly lay in the
extraordinary strength and purity of his convictions as to the
primacy of the successors of St Peter at a time when the civil
and ecclesiastical troubles of the civilized world made men
willing enough to submit themselves to any authority whatsoever
that could establish its right to exist by courage, honesty and
knowledge of affairs.
The works of Leo I. were first collectively edited by Quesnel
(Lyons, 1700), and again, on the basis of this, in what is now the
standard edition by Ballerini (Venice, 1753-1756). Ninety-three
Sermones and one hundred and seventy-three Epistolae occupy the
first volume; the second contains the Liber Sacramentorum, usually
attributed to Leo, and the De Vocatione Omnium Gentium, also
ascribed, by Quesnel and others, to him, but more probably the
production of a certain Prosper, of whom nothing further is known.
The works of Hilary of Aries are appended.
LEO II., pope from August 682 to July 683, was a Sicilian by
birth, and succeeded Agatho I. Agatho had been represented
at the sixth oecumenical council (that of Constantinople in
681), where Pope Honorius I. was anathematized for his views
in the Monothelite controversy as a favourer of heresy, and
the only fact of permanent historical interest with regard to Leo
is that he wrote once and again in approbation of the decision
of the council and in condemnation of Honorius, whom he
regarded as one who prof ana proditione immaculatam fidem
subvertere conatus est. In their bearing upon the question of
papal infallibility these words have excited considerable attention
and controversy, and prominence is given to the circumstance
that in the Greek text of the letter to the emperor in which the
phrase occurs the milder expression icaprxuifniaev (subverti
permisit) is used for subvertere conatus est. This Hefele in his
Conciliengeschichte (iii. 294) regards as alone expressing the
true meaning of Leo. It was during Leo's pontificate that the
dependence of the see of Ravenna upon that of Rome was finally
settled by imperial edict. Benedict II. succeeded him.
LEO III., whose pontificate (795-816) covered the last eighteen
years of the reign of Charlemagne, was a native of Rome, and
having been chosen successor of Adrian I. on the 26th of
December 795, was consecrated to the office on the following
day. His first act was to send to Charles as patrician the standard
of Rome along with the keys of the sepulchre of St Peter and of
the city; a gracious and condescending letter in reply made it
still more clear where all real power at that moment lay. For
more than three years his term of office was uneventful; but
at the end of that period the feelings of disappointment which
had secretly been rankling in the breasts of Paschalis and
Campulus, nephews of Adrian I., who had received from him the
offices of primicerius and sacellarius respectively, suddenly
manifested themselves in an organized attack upon Leo as he
was riding in procession through the city on the day of the
Greater Litany (25th April 799); the object of his assailants
was, by depriving him of his eyes and tongue, to disqualify him
for the papal office, and, although they were unsuccessful in this
attempt, he found it necessary to accept the protection of
Winegis, the Prankish duke of Spoleto, who came to the rescue.
Having vainly requested the presence of Charles in Rome, Leo
went beyond the Alps to meet the king at Paderborn; he was
received with much ceremony and respect, but his enemies
having sent in serious written charges, of which the character
is not now known, Charles decided to appoint both the pope
and his accusers to appear as parties before him when he should
have arrived in Rome. Leo returned in great state to his diocese,
and was received with honour; Charles, who did not arrive
until November in the following year, lost no time in assuming
the office of a judge, and the result of his investigation was the
acquittal of the pope, who at the same time, however, was per-
mitted or rather required to clear himself by the oath of corn-
purgation. The coronation of the emperor followed two days
afterwards; its effect was to bring out with increased clearness
the personally subordinate position of Leo. The decision of the
emperor, however, secured for Leo's pontificate an external
peace which was only broken after the accession of Louis the
Pious. His enemies began to renew their attacks; the violent
repression of a conspiracy led to an open rebellion at Rome;
serious charges were once more brought against him, when he was
overtaken by death in 816. It was under this pontificate that
Felix of Urgel, the adoptianist, was anathematized (798) by a
LEO (POPES)
Roman synod. Leo at another synod held in Rome in 810
admitted the dogmatic correctness of thefiloque, but deprecated
its introduction into the creed. On this point, however, the
Prankish Church persevered in the course it had already initiated.
Leo's successor was Stephen IV.
LEO IV., pope from 847 to 855, was a Roman by birth, and
succeeded Sergius II. His pontificate was chiefly distinguished
by his efforts to repair the damage done by the Saracens during
the reign of his predecessor to various churches of the city,
especially those of St Peter and St Paul. It was he who built
and fortified the suburb on the right bank of the Tiber still
known as the Civitas Leonina. A frightful conflagration, which
he is said to have extinguished by his prayers, is the subject
of Raphael's great work in the Sala dell' Incendio of the Vatican.
He held three synods, one of them, (in 850) distinguished by the
presence of Louis II., who was crowned emperor on the occasion,
but none of them otherwise of importance. The history of the
papal struggle with Hincmar of Reims, which began during Leo's
pontificate, belongs rather to that of Nicholas I. Benedict III.
was Leo's immediate successor.
LEO V., a native of Ardea, was pope for two months in 903 after
the death of Benedict IV. He was overthrown and cast into prison
by the priest Christopher, who installed himself in his place.
LEO VI. succeeded John X. in 928, and reigned seven months
and a few days. He was succeeded by Stephen VIII.
LEO VII., pope from 936 to 939, was preceded by John XI.,
and followed by Stephen IX.
LEO VIII., pope from 963 to 965, a Roman by birth, held the
lay office of protoscrinius when he was elected to the papal chair
at the instance of Otto the Great by the Roman synod which
deposed John XII. in December 963. Having been hurried with
unseemly haste through all the intermediate orders, he received
consecration two days after his election, which was unacceptable
to the people. In February 964, the emperor having withdrawn
from the city, Leo found it necessary to seek safety in flight,
whereupon he was deposed by a synod held under the presidency
of John XII. On the sudden death of the latter, the populace
chose Benedict V. as his successor; but Otto, returning and
laying siege to the city, compelled their acceptance of Leo. It
is usually said that, at the synod which deposed Benedict, Leo
conceded to the emperor and his successors as sovereign of Italy
full rights of investiture, but the genuineness of the document
on which this allegation rests is more than doubtful. Leo VIII.
was succeeded by John XIII.
LEO IX., pope from 1049 to 1054, was a native of Upper
Alsace, where he was born on the 2ist of June 1002. His proper
name was Bruno; the family to which he belonged was of noble
rank, and through his father he was related to the emperor
Conrad II. He was educated at Toul, where he successively
became canon and (1026) bishop; in the latter capacity he
rendered important political services to his relative Conrad II.,
and afterwards to Henry III., and at the same time he became
widely known as an earnest and reforming ecclesiastic by the zeal
he showed in spreading the rule of the order of Cluny. On the
death of Damasus II., Bruno was in December 1048, with the
concurrence both of the emperor and of the Roman delegates,
selected his successor by an assembly at Worms; he stipulated,
however, as a condition of his acceptance that he should first
proceed to Rome and be canonically elected by the voice of clergy
and people. Setting out shortly after Christmas, he had a meet-
ing with abbot Hugo of Cluny at Besancon, where he was joined
by the young monk Hildebrand, who afterwards became Pope
Gregory VII. ; arriving in pilgrim garb at Rome in the following
February, he was received with much cordiality, and at his
consecration assumed the name of Leo IX. One of his first
public acts was to hold the well-known Easter synod of 1049,
at which celibacy of the clergy (down to the rank of subdeacon)
was anew enjoined, and where he at least succeeded in making
clear his own convictions against every kind of simony. The
greater part of the year that followed was occupied in one of
those progresses through Italy, Germany and France which
form a marked feature in Leo's pontificate. After presiding
433
over a synod at Pavia, he joined the emperor Henry III. in
Saxony, and accompanied him to Cologne and Aix-la-Chapelle ;
to Reims he also summoned a meeting of the higher clergy,
by which several important reforming decrees were passed. At
Mainz also he held a council, at which the Italian and French
as well as the German clergy were represented, and ambassadors
of the Greek emperor were present; here too simony and the
marriage of the clergy were the principal matters dealt with.
After his return to Rome he held (2<)th April 1050) another
Easter synod, which was occupied largely with the controversy
about the teachings of Berengarius of Tours; in the same year
he presided over provincial synods at Salerno, Siponto and
Vercelli, and in September revisited Germany, returning to Rome
in time for a third Easter synod, at which the question of the
reordination of those who had been ordained by simonists was
considered. In 1052 he joined the emperor at Pressburg, and
vainly sought to secure the submission of the Hungarians; and
at Regensburg, Bamberg and Worms the papal presence was
marked by various ecclesiastical solemnities. After a fourth
Easter synod in 1053 Leo set out against the Normans in the
south with an army of Italians and German volunteers, but his
forces sustained a total defeat at Astagnum near Civitella (i8th
June 1053); on going out, however, from the city to meet the
enemy he was received with every token of submission, relief
from the pressure of his ban was implored and fidelity and
homage were sworn. From June 1053 to March 1054 he was
nevertheless detained at Benevento in honourable captivity;
he did not long survive his return to Rome, where he died on
the igth of April 1034. He was succeeded by Victor II.
LEOX. [Giovanni de' Medici] (1475-1521), pope from the nth
of March 1513 to the ist of December 1521, was the second son
of Lorenzo de' Medici, called the Magnificent, and was born at
Florence on the nth of December 1475. Destined from his birth
for the church, he received the tonsure at the age of seven and
was soon loaded with rich benefices and preferments. His father
prevailed on Innocent VIII. to name him cardinal-deacon of
Sta Maria in Dominica in March 1489, although he was not
allowed to wear the insignia or share in the deliberations of the
college until three years later. Meanwhile he received a careful
education at Lorenzo's brilliant humanistic court under such men
as Angelo Poliziano, the classical scholar, Pico della Mirandola,
the philosopher and theologian, the pious Marsilio Ficino who
endeavoured to unite the Platonic cult with Christianity and
the poet Bernardo Dovizio Bibbiena. From 1489 to 1491 he
studied theology and canon law at Pisa under Filippo Decio
and Bartolomeo Sozzini. On the 23rd of March 1492 he was
formally admitted into the sacred college and took up his residence
at Rome, receiving a letter of advice from his father which ranks
among the wisest of its kind. The death of Lorenzo on the 8th
of April, however, called the seventeen-year-old cardinal to
Florence. He participated in the conclave which followed
the death of Innocent VIII. in July 1492 and opposed the
election of Cardinal Borgia. He made his home with his
elder brother Piero at Florence throughout the agitation of
Savonarola and the invasion of Charles VIII. of France, until
the uprising of the Florentines and the expulsion of the
Medici in November 1494. While Piero found refuge at Venice
and Urbino, Cardinal Giovanni travelled in Germany, in the
Netherlands and in France. In May 1500 he returned to Rome,
where he was received with outward cordiality by Alexander VI.,
and where he lived for several years immersed in art and litera-
ture. In 1503 he welcomed the accession of Julius II. to the
pontificate; the death of Piero de' Medici in the same year
made Giovanni head of his family. On the ist of October 1511
he was appointed papal legate of Bologna and the Romagna,
and when the Florentine republic declared in favour of the
schismatic Pisans Julius II. sent him against his native city at
the head of the papal army. This and other attempts to regain
political control of Florence were frustrated, until a bloodless
revolution permitted the return of the Medici on the i4th of
September 1512. Giovanni's younger brother Giuliano was
placed at the head of the republic, but the cardinal actually
434
LEO (POPES)
managed the government. Julius II. died in February 1513, and
the conclave, after a stormy seven day's session, united on Cardinal
de' Medici as the candidate of the younger cardinals. He was
ordained to the priesthood on the isth of March, consecrated
bishop on the i7th, and enthroned with the name of Leo X. on
the igth. There is no evidence of simony in the conclave, and
Leo's election was hailed with delight by the Romans on account
of his reputation for liberality, kindliness and love of peace.
Following the example of many of his predecessors, he promptly
repudiated his election " capitulation " as an infringement on
the divinely bestowed prerogatives of the Holy See.
Many problems confronted Leo X. on his accession. He
must preserve the papal conquests which he had inherited from
Alexander VI. and Julius II. He must minimize foreign influence,
whether French, Spanish or German, in Italy. He must put an
end to the Pisan schism and settle the other troubles incident
to the French invasion. He must restore the French Church to
Catholic unity, abolish the pragmatic sanction of Bourges, and
bring to a successful close the Lateran council convoked by his
predecessor. He must stay the victorious advance of the Turks.
He must quiet the disagreeable wranglings of the German
humanists. Other problems connected with his family interests
served to complicate the situation and eventually to prevent the
successful consummation of many of his plans. At the very time
of Leo's accession Louis XII. of Francs, in alliance with Venice,
was making a determined effort to regain the duchy of Milan,
and the pope, after fruitless endeavours to maintain peace, joined
the league of Mechlin on the sth of April 1513 with the emperor
Maximilian I., Ferdinand I. of Spain and Henry VIII. of England.
The French and Venetians were at first successful, but on the 6th
of June met overwhelming defeat at Novara. The Venetians
continued the struggle until October. On the igth of December
the fifth Lateran council, which had been reopened by Leo in
April, ratified the peace with Louis XII. and registered the
conclusion of the Pisan schism. While the council was engaged in
planning a crusade and in considering the reform of the clergy, a
new crisis occurred between the pope and the king of France.
Francis I., who succeeded Louis XII. on the ist of January 1515,
was an enthusiastic young prince, dominated by the ambition of
recovering Milan and Naples. Leo at once formed a new league
with the emperor and the king of Spain, and to ensure English
support made Wolsey a cardinal. Francis entered Italy in
August and on the i4thof September won the battle of Marignano.
The pope in October signed an agreement binding him to with-
draw his troops from Parma and Piacenza, which had been
previously gained at the expense of the duchy of Milan, on con-
dition of French protection at Rome and Florence. The king of
Spain wrote to his ambassador at Rome " that His Holiness had
hitherto played a double game and that all his zeal to drive the
French from Italy had been only a mask "; this reproach seemed
to receive some confirmation when Leo X. held a secret conference
with Francis at Bologna in December 1515. The ostensible sub-
jects under consideration were the establishment of peace
between France, Venice and the Empire, with a view to an
expedition against the Turks, and the ecclesiastical affairs of
France. Precisely what was arranged is unknown. During
these two or three years of incessant political intrigue and
warfare it was not to be expected that the Lateran council
should accomplish much. Its three main objects, the peace of
Christendom, the crusade and the reform of the church, could
be secured only by general agreement among the powers, and Leo
or the council failed to secure such agreement. Its most import-
ant achievements were the registration at its eleventh sitting
(igth December 1516) of the abolition of the pragmatic sanction,
which the popes since Pius II. had unanimously condemned,
and the confirmation of the concordat between Leo X. and
Francis I., which was destined to regulate the relations between
the French Church and the Holy See until the Revolution.
Leo closed the council on the i6th of March 1517. It had
ended the schism, ratified. the censorship of books introduced
by Alexander VI. and imposed tithes for a war against the Turks.
It raised no voice against the primacy of the pope.
The year which marked the close of the Lateran council was
also signalized by Leo's unholy war against the duke of Urbino.
The pope was naturally proud of his family and had practised
nepotism from the outset. His cousin Giulio, who subsequently
became Clement VII., he had made the most influential man in
the curia, naming him archbishop of Florence, cardinal and
vice-chancellor of the Holy See. Leo had intended his younger
brother Giuliano and his nephew Lorenzo for brilliant secular
careers. He had named them Roman patricians; the latter
he had placed in charge of Florence; the former, for whom he
planned to carve out a kingdom in central Italy of Parma,
Piacenza, Ferrara and Urbino, he had taken with himself to
Rome and married to Filiberta of Savoy. The death of Giuliano
in March 1516, however, caused the pope to transfer his ambitions
to Lorenzo. At the very time (December 1516) that peace
between France, Spain, Venice and the Empire seemed to give
some promise of a Christendom united against the Turk, Leo
was preparing an enterprise as unscrupulous as any of the
similar exploits of Cesare Borgia. He obtained 150,000 ducats
towards the expenses of the expedition from Henry VIII. of
England, in return for which he entered the imperial league of
Spain and England against France. The war lasted from
February to September 1517 and ended with the expulsion of the
duke and the triumph of Lorenzo; but it revived the nefarious
policy of Alexander VI., increased brigandage and anarchy in
the States of the Church, hindered the preparations for a crusade
and wrecked the papal finances. Guicciardini reckoned the cost
of the war to Leo at the prodigious sum of 800,000 ducats.
The new duke of Urbino was the Lorenzo de' Medici to whom
Machiavelli addressed The Prince. His marriage in March
1518 was arranged by the pope with Madeleine la Tour
d'Auvergne, a royal princess of France, whose daughter was the
Catherine de' Medici celebrated in French history. The war
of Urbino was further marked by a crisis in the relations between
pope and cardinals. The sacred college had grown especially
worldly and troublesome since the time of Sixtus IV., and Leo
took advantage of a plot of several of its members to poison him,
not only to inflict exemplary punishments by executing one and
imprisoning several others, but also to make a radical change in
the college. On the 3rd of July ?5i7 he published the names of
thirty-one new cardinals, a number almost unprecedented in
the history of the papacy. Some of the nominations were ex-
cellent, such as Lorenzo Campeggio, Giambattista Pallavicini,
Adrian of Utrecht, Cajetan, Cristoforo Numai and Egidio Canisio.
The naming of seven members of prominent Roman families,
however, reversed the wise policy of his predecessor which had
kept the dangerous factions of the city out of the curia. Other
promotions were for political or family considerations or to secure
money for the war against Urbino. The pope was accused of
having exaggerated the conspiracy of the cardinals for purposes
of financial gain, but most of such accusations appear to be
unsubstantiated.
Leo, meanwhile, felt the need of staying the advance of the
warlike sultan, Selim I., who was threatening western Europe,
and made elaborate plans for a crusade. A truce was to be
proclaimed throughout Christendom; the pope was to be the
arbiter of disputes; the emperor and the king of France were
to lead the army; England, Spain and Portugal were to furnish
the fleet; and the combined forces were to be directed against
Constantinople. Papal diplomacy in the interests of peace
failed, however; Cardinal Wolsey made England, not the pope,
the arbiter between France and the Empire; and much of the
money collected for the crusade from tithes and indulgences
was spent in other ways. In 1519 Hungary concluded a three
years' truce with Selim I., but the succeeding sultan, Suliman
the Magnificent, renewed the war in June 1521 and on the 28th
of August captured the citadel of Belgrade. The pope was
greatly alarmed, and although he was then involved in war
with France he sent about 30,000 ducats to the Hungarians.
Leo treated the Uniate Greeks with great loyalty, and by bull
of the i Sth of May 1521 forbade Latin clergy to celebrate mass
in Greek churches and Latin bishops to ordain Greek clergy.
LEO (POPES)
435
These provisions were later strengthened by Clement VII. and
Paul III. and went far to settle the chronic disputes between
the Latins and Uniate Greeks.
Leo was disturbed throughout his pontificate by heresy and
schism. The dispute between Reuchlin and Pfefferkorn relative
to the Talmud and other Jewish books was referred to the pope
in September 1513. He in turn referred it to the bishops of
Spires and Worms, who gave decision in March 1514 in favour
of Reuchlin. After the appeal of the inquisitor-general, Hoch-
straten, and the appearance of the Epistolae obscurorum virorum,
however, Leo annulled the decision (June 1520) and imposed
silence on Reuchlin. The pope had already authorized the
extensive grant of indulgences in order to secure funds for the
crusade and more particularly for the rebuilding of St Peter's
at Rome. Against the attendant abuses the Augustinian monk
Martin Luther (q.v.) posted foist October 1517) on the church
door at Wittenberg his famous ninety-five theses, which were
the signal for widespread revolt against the church. Although
Leo did not fully comprehend the import of the movement, he
directed (3rd February 1518) the vicar-general of the Augustinians
to impose silence on the monks. On the 3Oth of May Luther
sent an explanation of his theses to the pope; on the 7th of
August he was cited to appear at Rome. An arrangement was
effected, however, whereby that citation was cancelled, and
Luther betook himself in October 1518 to Augsburg to meet the
papal legate, Cardinal Cajetan, who was attending the imperial
diet convened by the emperor Maximilian to impose the tithes
for the Turkish war and to elect a king of the Romans; but
neither the arguments of the learned cardinal, nor the dogmatic
papal bull of the gth of November to the effect that all Christians
must believe in the pope's power to grant indulgences, moved
Luther to retract. A year of fruitless negotiation followed,
during which the pamphlets of the reformer set all Germany
on fire. A papal bull of the isth of June 1520, which condemned
forty-one propositions extracted from Luther's teachings, 'was
taken to Germany by Eck in his capacity of apostolic nuncio,
published by him and the legates Alexander and Caracciola, and
burned by Luther on the loth of December at Wittenberg. Leo
then formally excommunicated Luther by bull of the 3rd of
January 1521; and in a brief directed the emperor to take
energetic measures against heresy. On the 26th of May 1521
the emperor signed the edict of the diet of Worms, which placed
Luther under the ban of the Empire; on the 2ist of the same
month Henry VIII. of England sent to Leo his book against
Luther on the seven sacraments. The pope, after careful
consideration, conferred on the king of England the title
" Defender of the Faith " by bull of the nth of October 1521.
Neither the imperial edict nor the work of Henry VIII. stayed
the Lutheran movement, and Luther himself, safe in the solitude
of the Wartburg, survived Leo X. It was under Leo X. also
that the Protestant movement had its beginning in Scandinavia.
The pope had repeatedly used the rich northern benefices to
reward members of the Roman curia, and towards the close of
the year 1516 he sent the grasping and impolitic Arcimboldi
as papal nuncio to Denmark to collect money for St Peter's.
King Christian II. took advantage of the growing dissatisfaction
on the part of the native clergy toward the papal government,
and of Arcimboldi's interference in the Swedish revolt, in order
to expel the nuncio and summon (1520) Lutheran theologians
to Copenhagen. Christian approved a plan by which a formal
state church should be established in Denmark, all appeals to
Rome should be abolished, and the king and diet should have
final jurisdiction in ecclesiastical causes. Leo sent a new nuncio
to Copenhagen (1521) in the person of the Minorite Francesco
de Potentia, who readily absolved the king and received the
rich bishopric of Skara. The pope or his legate, however, took
no steps to remove abuses or otherwise reform the Scandinavian
churches.
That Leo did not do more to check the tendency toward
heresy and schism in Germany and Scandinavia is to be partially
explained by the political complications of the time, and by
his own preoccupation with schemes of papal and Medicean
aggrandizement in Italy. The death of the emperor Maximilian
on the 1 2th of January 1519 had seriously affected the situation.
Leo vacillated between the powerful candidates for the succession,
allowing it to appear at first that he favoured Francis I. while
really working for the election of some minor German prince.
He finally accepted Charles I. of Spain as inevitable, and the
election of Charles (28th of June 1519) revealed Leo's desertion
of his French alliance, a step facilitated by the death at about
the same time of Lorenzo de' Medici and his French wife. Leo
was now anxious to unite Ferrara, Parma and Piacenza to the
States of the Church. An attempt late in 1519 to seize Ferrara
failed, and the pope recognized the need of foreign aid. In May
1521 a treaty of alliance was1 signed at Rome between him
and the emperor. Milan and Genoa were to be taken from
France and restored to the Empire, and Parma and Piacenza
were to be given to the Church on the expulsion of the French.
The expense of enlisting 10,000 Swiss was to be borne equally
by pope and emperor. Charles took Florence and the Medici
family under his protection and promised to punish all enemies
of the Catholic faith. Leo agreed to invest Charles with Naples,
to crown him emperor, and to aid in a war against Venice. It
was provided that England and the Swiss might join the league.
Henry VIII. announced his adherence in August. Francis I.
had already begun war with Charles in Navarre, and in Italy,
too, the French made the first hostile movement (23rd June 1521).
Leo at once announced that he would excommunicate the king
of France and release his subjects from their allegiance unless
Francis laid down his arms and surrendered Parma and Piacenza.
The pope lived to hear the joyful news of the capture of Milan
from the French and of the occupation by papal troops of the
long-coveted provinces (November 1521). Leo X. died on the
ist of December 1521, so suddenly that the last sacraments
could not be administered; but the contemporary suspicions
of poison were unfounded. His successor was Adrian VI.
Several minor events of Leo's pontificate are worthy of mention.
He was particularly friendly with King Emmanuel of Portugal
on account of the latter's missionary enterprises in Asia and
Africa. His concordat with Florence (1516) guaranteed the
free election of the clergy in that city. His constitution of the
ist of March 1519 condemned the king of Spain's claim to refuse
the publication of papal bulls. He maintained close relations
with Poland because of the Turkish advance and the Polish
contest with the Teutonic Knights. His bull of the ist of July
1519, which regulated the discipline of the Polish Church, was
later transformed into a concordat by Clement VII. Leo
showed special favours to the Jews and permitted them to erect
a Hebrew printing-press at Rome. He approved the formation
of the Oratory of Divine Love, a group of pious men at Rome
which later became the Theatine Order, and he canonized
Francesco di Paola.
As patron of learning Leo X. deserves a prominent place among
the popes. He raised the church to a high rank as the friend of
whatever seemed to extend knowledge or to refine and embellish
life. He made the capital of Christendom the centre of culture.
Every Italian artist and man of letters in an age of singular
intellectual brilliancy tasted or hoped to taste of his bounty.
While yet a cardinal, he had restored the church of Sta Maria in
Domnica after Raphael's designs; and as pope he built S.
Giovanni on the Via Giulia after designs by Jacopo Sansovino
and pressed forward the work on St Peter's and the Vatican
under Raphael and Chigi. His constitution of the 5th of
November 1513 reformed the Roman university, which had
been neglected by Julius II. He restored all its faculties, gave
larger salaries to the professors, and summoned distinguished
teachers from afar; and, although it never attained to the
importance of Padua or Bologna, it nevertheless possessed in
1514 an excellent faculty of eighty-eight professors. Leo called
Theodore Lascaris to Rome to give instruction in Greek, and
established a Greek printing-press from which the first Greek
book printed at Rome appeared in 1515. He made Raphael
custodian of the classical antiquities of Rome and the vicinity.
The distinguished Latinists Pietro Bembo (1470-1547) and
LEO (POPES)
Jacopo Sadoleto (1477-1547) were papal secretaries, as well as
the famous poet Bernardo Accolti (d.iS34). Writers of poetry
like Vida (1490-1566), Trissino (1478-1550), and Bibbiena (1470-
1520), writers of novelle like Bandello, and a hundred other
literati of the time were bishops, or papal scrip tors or abbreviators,
or in other papal employ. Leo's lively interest in art and
literature, to say nothing of his natural liberality, his nepotism,
his political ambitions and necessities, and his immoderate
personal luxury, exhausted within two years the hard savings of
Julius II., and precipitated a financial crisis from which he never
emerged and which was a direct cause of most of the calamities
of his pontificate. He created many new offices and shamelessly
sold them. He sold cardinals' hats. He sold membership in
the " Knights of Peter." He borrowed large sums from bankers,
curials, princes and Jews. The Venetian ambassador Gradenigo
estimated the paying number of offices on Leo's death at 2150,
with a capital value of nearly 3,000,000 ducats and a yearly
income of 328,000 ducats. Marino Giorgi reckoned the ordinary
income of the pope for the year 1517 at about 580,000 ducats,
of which 420,000 came from the States of the Church, 100,000
from annates, and 60,000 from the composition tax instituted by
Sixtus IV. These sums, together with the considerable amounts
accruing from indulgences, jubilees, and special fees, vanished
as quickly as they were received. Then the pope resorted to
pawning palace furniture, table plate, jewels, even statues of the
apostles. Several banking firms and many individual creditors
were ruined by the death of the pope.
In the past many conflicting estimates were made of the
character and achievements of the pope during whose pontificate
Protestantism first took form. More recent studies have served
to produce a fairer and more honest opinion of Leo X. A
report of the Venetian ambassador Marino Giorgi bearing date of
March 1517 indicates some of his predominant characteristics: —
" The pope is a good-natured and extremely free-hearted man,
who avoids every difficult situation and above all wants peace;
he would not undertake a war himself unless his own personal
interests were involved; he loves learning; of canon law and
literature he possesses remarkable knowledge; he is, moreover,
a very excellent musician." Leo was dignified in appearance
and elegant in speech, manners and writing. He enjoyed music
and the theatre, art and poetry, the masterpieces of the ancients
and the wonderful creations of his contemporaries, the spiritual
and the witty — life in every form. It is by no means certain that
he made the remark often attributed to him, " Let us enjoy the
papacy since God has given it to us," but there is little doubt
that he was by nature devoid of moral earnestness or deep
religious feeling. On the other hand, in spite of his worldliness,
Leo was not an unbeliever; he prayed, fasted, and participated
in the services of the church with conscientiousness. To the
virtues of liberality, charity and clemency he added the Machia-
vellian qualities of falsehood and shrewdness, so highly esteemed
by the princes of his time. Leo was deemed fortunate by his
contemporaries, but an incurable malady, wars, enemies, a
conspiracy of cardinals, and the loss of all his nearest relations
darkened his days; and he failed entirely in his general policy
of expelling foreigners from Italy, of restoring peace throughout
Europe, and of prosecuting war against the Turks. He failed
to recognize the pressing need of reform within the church and
the tremendous dangers which threatened the papal monarchy;
and he unpardonably neglected the spiritual needs of the time.
He was, however, zealous in firmly establishing the political
power of the Holy See; he made it unquestionably supreme in
Italy; he successfully restored the papal power in France;
and he secured a prominent place in the history of culture.
AUTHORITIES. — The_ life of Leo X. was written shortly after his
death by Paolo Giovio, bishop of Nocera, who had known him
intimately. Other important contemporary sources are the Italian
History of the Florentine writer Guicciardini, covering the period
1492-1530 (4 vols., Milan, 1884}; the reports of the Venetian
ambassadors, Marino Giorgi (1517), Marco Minio (1520) and Luigi
Gradenigo (1523), in vol. iii. of the 2nd series of Le Relazioni degli
ambasciatori Veneti, edited by Alberi (Florence, 1846); and the
Diarti of the Venetian Marino Sanuto (58 vols., 1879-1903). Other
materials for the biography are to be found in the incomplete Regesta
edited by Joseph Cardinal Hergenrother (Freiburg-i-B., 1884 ft.)-
in the Turin collection of papal bulls (1859, &c.) ; in // Diario di
Leone X. dai volumi manoscritti degli archivi Vaticani delta S. Sede
connote di M. Armellini (Rome, 1884); and in " Documenti ris-
guardanti Giovanni de' Medici e il pontifice Leone X.," appendix to
vol. I of the Archivio storico Italiano (Florence, 1842).
See L. Pastor, Geschichte der Pdpste im Zeitalter der Renaissance
u. der Glaubensspaltung von der Wahl Leos X. bis zum Tode Klemens
VII. part I (Freiburg-i.-B., 1906) ; M. Creighton, History of the
Papacy, vol. 6 (1901); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages,
trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton, vol. viii., part I (1902); L. von
Ranke, History of the Popes, vol. i., trans, by E. Foster in the Bohn
Library; Histoire de France, ed. by E. Lavisse, vol. 5, part I
(1903) ; Walter Friedensburg, " Ein rptulus familiae Papst Leos X.,"
in Quellen u. Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven u. Bibliotheken,
vol. vi. (1904) ; W. Roscoe, Life and Pontificate of Leo X. (6th ed.,
2 vols., 1853), a celebrated biography but considerably out of date
in spite of the valuable notes of the German and Italian translators,
Henke and Bossi; F. S. Nitti, Leone X. e la sua politica secondo
documenti e carteggi inediti (Florence, 1892) ; A. Schulte, Die Fugger
in Rom r 495-7525 (2 vols., Leipzig, 1906) ; and H. M. Vaughan,
The Medici Popes (1908). (C. H. HA.)
LEO XI. (Alessandro de' Medici) was elected pope on the ist
of April 1605, at the age of seventy. He had long been archbishop
of Florence and nuncio to Tuscany; and was entirely pro-French
in his sympathies. He died on the 2 7th day of his pontificate,
and was succeeded by Paul V.
See the contemporary life by Vitorelli, continuator of Ciaconius,
Vitae et res gestae summorum Pontiff. Rom. ; Ranke, Popes (Eng.
trans., Austin^, ii. 330; v. Reumont, Gesch. der Stadt Rom. iii. 2,
604; Brosch, Gesch. des Kirchenstaates (1880), i. 350.
LEO XII. (Annibale della Genga), pope from 1823 to 1829,
was born of a noble family, near Spoleto, on the 22nd of August
1760. Educated at the Accademia dei Nobili ecclesiastici at
Rome, he was ordained priest in 1783, and in 1790 attracted
favourable attention by a tactful sermon commemorative of the
emperor Joseph II. In 1792 Pius VI. made him his private
secretary, in 1793 creating him titular archbishop of Tyre and
despatching him to Lucerne as nuncio. In 1794 he was trans-
ferred to the nunciature at Cologne, but owing to the war had to
make his residence in Augsburg. During the dozen or more years
he spent in Germany he was entrusted with several honourable
and difficult missions, which brought him into contact with the
courts of Dresden, Vienna, Munich and Wiirttemberg, as well
as with Napoleon. It is, however, charged at one time during
this period that his finances were disordered, and his private life
not above suspicion. After the abolition of the States of the
Church, he was treated by the French as a state prisoner, and
lived for some years at the abbey of Monticelli, solacing himself
with music and with bird-shooting, pastimes which he did not
eschew even after his election as pope. In 1814 he was chosen
to carry the pope's congratulations to Louis XVIII.; in 1816
he was created cardinal-priest of Santa Maria Maggiore, and
appointed to the see of Sinigaglia, which he resigned in 1818.
In 1820 Pius VII. gave him the distinguished post of cardinal
vicar. In the conclave of 1823, in spite of the active opposition
of France, he was elected pope by the zelanti on the 28th of
September. His election had been facilitated because he was
thought to be on the edge of the grave; but he unexpectedly
rallied. His foreign policy, entrusted at first to Della Somaglia
and then to the more able Bernetti, moved in general along lines
laid down by Consalvi; and he negotiated certain concordats
very advantageous to the papacy. Personally most frugal, Leo
reduced taxes, made justice less costly, and was able to find
money for certain public improvements; yet he left the finances
more confused than he had found them, and even the elaborate
jubilee of 1825 did not really mend matters. His domestic policy
was one of extreme reaction. He condemned the Bible societies,
and under Jesuit influence reorganized the educational system.
Severe ghetto laws led many of the Jews to emigrate. He hunted
down the Carbonari and the Freemasons; he took the strongest
measures against political agitation in theatres. A well-nigh
ubiquitous system of espionage, perhaps most fruitful when
directed against official corruption, sapped the foundations of
public confidence. Leo, temperamentally stern, hard-working in
spite of bodily infirmity, died at Rome on the loth of February
LEO (POPES)
437
1829. The news was received by the populace with unconcealed
joy. He was succeeded by Pius VIII.
AUTHORITIES. — Artaud de Montor, Histoire du Pape Leon XII.
(2 vols., 1843; by the secretary of the French embassy in Rome);
Briick, " Leo XII.," in Wetzer and Welte's Kirchenlexikon, vol. vii.
(Freiburg, 1891); F. Nippold, The Papacy in the iyth Century
(New York, 1900), chap. 5; Benrath, " Leo XII.," in Herzog-Hauck,
Realencyklopadie, vol. xi. (Leipzig, 1902), 390-393, with bibliography;
F. Nielsen, The History of the Papacy in the igih century (1906),
vol. ii. I-W Lady Blennerhassett, in the Cambridge Modern History,
vol. x. (1907), I5I-I54. (W. W. R.*)
LEO XIII. (Gioacchino Pecci) (1810-1903), pope from 1878 to
1003, reckoned the 2S?th successor of St Peter, was born at
Carpineto on the 2nd of March 1810. His family was Sienese
in origin, and his father, Colonel Domenico Pecci, had served
in the army of Napoleon. His mother, Anna Prosperi, is said
to have been a descendant of Rienzi, and was a member of the
third order of St Francis. He and his elder brother Giuseppe
(known as Cardinal Pecci) received their earliest education
from the Jesuits at Viterbo, and completed their education in
Rome. In the jubilee year 1825 he was selected by his fellow-
students at the Collegium Romanum to head a deputation
to Pope Leo XII., whose memory he subsequently cherished
and whose name he assumed in 1878. Weak health, consequent
on over-study, prevented him from obtaining the highest
academical honours, but he graduated as doctor in theology
at the age of twenty-two, and then entered the Accademia dei
Nobili ecclesiastic!, a college in which clergy of aristocratic
birth are trained for the diplomatic service of the Roman Church.
Two years later Gregory XVI. appointed him a domestic prelate,
and bestowed on him, by way of apprenticeship, various minor
administrative offices. He was ordained priest on the 3ist of
December 1837, and a few weeks later was made apostolic
delegate of the small papal territory of Benevento, where he
had to deal with brigands and smugglers, who enjoyed the
protection of some of the noble families of the district. His
success here led to his appointment in 1841 as delegate of Perugia,
which was at that time a centre of anti-papal secret societies.
This post he held for eighteen months only, but in that brief
period he obtained a reputation as a social and municipal reformer.
In 1843 he was sent as nuncio to Brussels, being first consecrated
abishop (igth February), with the title of archbishop of Damietta.
During his three years' residence at the Belgian capital he found
ample scope for his gifts as a diplomatist in the education con-
troversy then raging, and as mediator between the Jesuits and
the Catholic university of Louvain. He gained the esteem of
Leopold I., and was presented to Queen Victoria of England
and the Prince Consort. He also made the acquaintance of many
Englishmen, Archbishop Whately among them. In January
1846, at the request of the magistrates and people of Perugia,
he was appointed bishop of that city with the rank of archbishop;
but before returning to Italy he spent February in London, and
March and April in Paris. On his arrival in Rome he would,
at the request of King Leopold, have been created cardinal
but for the death of Gregory XVI. Seven years later, ipth
December 1853, he received the red hat from Pius IX. Mean-
while, and throughout his long episcopate of thirty-two years,
he foreshadowed the zeal and the enlightened policy later to be
displayed in the prolonged period of his pontificate, building
and restoring many churches, striving to elevate the intellectual
as well as the spiritual tone of his clergy, and showing in his
pastoral letters an unusual regard for learning and for social
reform. His position in Italy was similar to that of Bishop
Dupanloup in France; and, as but a moderate supporter of the
policy enunciated in the Syllabus, he was not altogether persona
grata to Pius IX. But he protested energetically against the
loss of the pope's temporal power in 1870, against the con-
fiscation of the property of the religious orders, and against
the law of civil marriage established by the Italian government,
and he refused to welcome Victor Emmanuel in his diocese.
Nevertheless, he remained in the comparative obscurity of his
episcopal see until the death of Cardinal Antonelli; but in 1877,
when the important papal office of camcrlengo became vacant,
Pius IX. appointed to it Cardinal Pecci, who thus returned
to reside in Rome, with the prospect of having shortly responsible
functions to perform during the vacancy of the Holy See, though
the camerlengo was traditionally regarded as disqualified by his
office from succeeding to the papal throne.
When Pius IX. died (7th February 1878) Cardinal Pecci was
elected pope at the subsequent conclave with comparative
unanimity, obtaining at the third scrutiny (2oth February)
forty-four out of sixty-one votes, or more than the requisite
two-thirds majority. The conclave was remarkably free from
political influences, the attention of Europe being at the time
engrossed by the presence of a Russian army at the gates of
Constantinople. It was said that the long pontificate of Pius IX.
led some of the cardinals to vote for Pecci, since his age (within
a few days of sixty-eight) and health warranted the expectation
that his reign would be comparatively brief; but he had for
years been known as one of the few " papable " cardinals; and
although his long seclusion at Perugia had caused his name to
be little known outside Italy, there was a general belief that
the conclave had selected a man who was a prudent statesman
as well as a devout churchman; and Newman (whom he created
a cardinal in the year following) is reported to have said, " In
the successor of Pius I recognize a depth of thought, a tenderness
of heart, a winning simplicity, and a power answering to the
name of Leo, which prevent me from lamenting that Pius is no
longer here."
The second day after his election Pope Leo XIII. crossed
the Tiber incognito to his former residence in the Falconieri
Palace to collect his papers, returning at once to the Vatican,
where he continued to regard himself as " imprisoned " so
long as the Italian government occupied the city of Rome.
He was crowned in the Sistine Chapel 3rd March 1878, and at
once began a reform of the papal household on austere and
economic lines which found little favour with the entourage
of the former pope. To fill posts near his own person he sum-
moned certain of the Perugian clergy who had been trained under
his own eye, and from the first he was less accessible than his
predecessor had been, either in public or private audience.
Externally uneventful as his life henceforth necessarily was,
it was marked chiefly by the reception of distinguished personages
and of numerous pilgrimages, often on a large scale, from all
parts of the world, and by the issue of encyclical letters. The
stricter theological training of the Roman Catholic clergy
throughout the world on the lines laid down by St Thomas
Aquinas was his first care, and to this end he founded in Rome
and endowed an academy bearing the great schoolman's name,
further devoting about £12,000 to the publication of a new and
splendid edition of his works, the idea being that on this basis
the later teaching of Catholic theologians and many of the
speculations of modern thinkers could best be harmonized and
brought into line. The study of Church history was next en-
couraged, and in August 1883 the pope addressed a letter to
Cardinals de Luca, Pitra and Hergenrother, in which he made
the remarkable concession that the Vatican archives and library
might be placed at the disposal of persons qualified to compile
manuals of history. His belief was that the Church would not
suffer by the publication of documents. A man of literary taste
and culture, familiar with the classics, a facile writer of Latin
verses1 as well as of Ciceronian prose, he was as anxious that the
Roman clergy should unite human science and literature with
their theological studies as that the laity should be educated
in the principles of religion; and to this end he established
in Rome a kind of voluntary school board, with members both
lay and clerical; and the rivalry of the schools thus founded
ultimately obliged the state to include religious teaching in its
curriculum. The numerous encyclicals by which the pontificate
of Leo XIII. will always be distinguished were prepared and
written by himself, but were submitted to the customary re-
vision. The encyclical Aelerni Patris (4th August 1879) was
1 Leonis XIII. Pont. Maximi carmina, ed. Brunelli (Udine,
1883); Leonis XIII. carmina, inscriptiones, numismata, ed. J. Bach
(Cologne, 1003).
438
LEO (POPES)
written in the defence of the philosophy of St Thomas Aquinas.
In later ones, working on the principle that the Christian Church
should superintend and direct every form of civil life, he dealt
with the Christian constitution of states (Immortale Dei, ist
November 1885), with human liberty (Liberlas, zoth June 1888),
and with the condition of the working classes (Rerum novarum,
i5th May 1891). This last was slightly tinged with modern
socialism; it was described as " the social Magna Carta of
Catholicism," and it won for Leo the name of " the working-
man's pope." Translated into the chief modern languages,
many thousands of copies were circulated among the working
classes in Catholic countries. Other encyclicals, such as those
on Christian marriage (Arcanum divinaesapientiae, loth February
1880), on the Rosary (Supremi aposlolatus officii, ist September
1883, and Superiore anno, 5th September 1898), and on Free-
masonry (Humanum genus, 2oth April 1884), dealt with subjects
on which his predecessor had been accustomed to pronounce
allocutions, and were on similar lines. It was the knowledge
that in all points of religious faith and practice Leo XIII. stood
precisely where Pius IX. had stood that served to render in-
effectual others of his encyclicals, in which he dealt earnestly
and effectively with matters in which orthodox Protestants had
a sympathetic interest with him and might otherwise have lent
an ear to his counsels. Such were the letters on the study of
Holy Scripture (i8th November 1893), and on the reunion of
Christendom (aoth June 1894). He showed special anxiety for
the return of England to the Roman Catholic fold, and addressed
a letter ad Anglos, dated i4th April 1895. This he followed
up by an encyclical on the unity of the Church (Satis cognitum,
2gth June 1896); and the question of the validity of Anglican
ordinations from the Roman Catholic point of view having been
raised in Rome by Viscount Halifax, with whom the abbe
Louis Duchesne and one or two other French priests were in
sympathy, a commission was appointed to consider the subject,
and on the isth of September 1896 a condemnation of the
Anglican form as theologically insufficient was issued, and was
directed to be taken as final.
The establishment of a diocesan hierarchy in Scotland had
been decided upon before the death of Pius IX., but the actual
announcement of it was made by Leo XIII. On the 2Sth of
July 1898 he addressed to the Scottish Catholic bishops a letter,
in the course of which he said that " many of the Scottish
people who do not agree with us in faith sincerely love the name
of Christ and strive to ascertain His doctrine and to imitate
His most holy example." The Irish and American bishops
he summoned to Rome to confer with him on the subjects of
Home Rule and of " Americanism " respectively. In India
he established a diocesan hierarchy, with seven archbishoprics,
the archbishop of Goa taking precedence with the rank of
patriarch.
With the government of Italy his general policy was to be as
conciliatory as was consistent with his oath as pope never to
surrender the " patrimony of St Peter "; but a moderate attitude
was rendered difficult by partisans on either side in the press,
each of whom claimed to represent tis views. In 1879, addressing
a congress of Catholic journalists in Rome, he exhorted them
to uphold the necessity of the temporal power, and to proclaim
to the world that the affairs of Italy would never prosper until
it was restored; in 1887 he found it necessary to deprecate
the violence with which this doctrine was advocated in certain
journals. A similar counsel of moderation was given to the
Canadian press in connexion with the Manitoba school question
in December 1897. The less conciliatory attitude towards the
Italian government was resumed in an encyclical addressed
to the Italian clergy (sth August 1898), in which he insisted
on the duty of Italian Catholics to abstain from political life
while the papacy remained in its " painful, precarious and
intolerable position." And in January 1902, reversing the
policy which had its inception in the encyclical, Rerum novarum,
of 1891, and had further been developed ten years later in a
letter to the Italian bishops entitled Craves de communi, the
" Sacred Congregation of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs"
issued instructions concerning " Christian Democracy in Italy,"
directing that the popular Christian movement, which embraced
in its programme a number of social reforms, such as factory
laws for children, old-age pensions, a minimum wage in agricul-
tural industries, an eight-hours' day, the revival of trade gilds,
and the encouragement of Sunday rest, should divert its attention
from all such things as savoured of novelty and devote its
energies to the restoration of the temporal power. The re-
actionary policy thus indicated gave the impression that a
similar aim underlay the appointment about the same date of a
commission to inquire into Biblical studies; and in other minor
matters Leo XIII. disappointed those who had looked to him for
certain reforms in the devotional system of the Church. A
revision of the breviary, which would have involved the omission
of some of the less credible legends, came to nothing, while the
recitation of the office in honour of the Santa Casa at Loreto
was imposed on all the clergy. The worship of Mary, largely
developed during the reign of Pius IX., received further stimulus
from Leo; nor did he do anything during his pontificate to
correct the superstitions connected with popular beliefs concern-
ing relics and indulgences.
His policy towards all governments outside Italy was to
support them wherever they represented social order; and
it was with difficulty that he persuaded French Catholics to be
united in defence of the republic. The German Kullurkampf
was ended by his exertions. In 1885 he successfully arbitrated
between Germany and Spain in a dispute concerning the Caroline
Islands. In Ireland he condemned the " Plan of Campaign "
in 1888, but he conciliated the Nationalists by appointing
Dr Walsh archbishop of Dublin. His hope that his support
of the British government in Ireland would be followed by the
establishment of formal diplomatic relations between the court
of St James's and the Vatican was disappointed. But the
jubilee of Queen Victoria in 1887 and the pope's priestly jubilee
a few months later were the occasion of friendly intercourse
between Rome and Windsor, Mgr. Ruffo Scilla coming to London
as special papal envoy, and the duke of Norfolk being received
at the Vatican as the bearer of the congratulations of the queen
of England. Similar courtesies were exchanged during the
jubilee of 1897, and again in March 1902, when Edward VII.
sent the earl of Denbigh to Rome to congratulate Leo XIII.
on reaching his ninety-third year and the twenty-fifth year of
his pontificate. The visit of Edward VII. to Leo XIII. in April
1903 was a further proof of the friendliness between the English
court and the Vatican.
The elevation of Newman to the college of Cardinals in 1879
was regarded with approval throughout the English-speaking
world, both on Newman's account and also as evidence that
Leo XIII. had a wider horizon than his predecessor; and his
similar recognition of two of the most distinguished " inoppor-
tunist " members of the Vatican council, Haynald, archbishop
of Kalocsa, and Prince Fiirstenberg, archbishop of Olmiitz, was
even more noteworthy. Dupanloup would doubtless have
received the same honour had he not died shortly after Leo's
accession. Dollinger the pope attempted to reconcile, but failed.
He laboured much to bring about the reunion of the Oriental
Churches with the see of Rome, establishing Catholic educational
centres in Athens and in Constantinople with that end in view.
He used his influence with the emperor of Russia, as also with
the emperors of China and Japan and with the shah of Persia,
to secure the free practice of their religion for Roman Catholics
within their respective dominions. Among the canonizations
and beatifications of his pontificate that of Sir Thomas More,
author of Utopia, is memorable. His encyclical issued at Easter
1902, and described by himself as a kind of will, was mainly a
reiteration of earlier condemnations of the Reformation, and of
modern philosophical systems, which for their atheism and
materialism he makes responsible for all existing moral and
political disorders. Society, he earnestly pleaded, can only find
salvation by a return to Christianity and to the fold of the Roman
Catholic Church.
Grave and serious in manner, speaking slowly, but with
LEO I.— V.
439
energetic gestures, simple and abstemious in his life — his daily
bill of fare being reckoned as hardly costing a couple of francs —
Leo XIII. distributed large sums in charity, and at his own
charges placed costly astronomical instruments in the Vatican
observatory, providing also accommodation and endowment
for a staff of officials. He always showed the greatest interest
in science and in literature, and he would have taken a position
as a statesman of the first rank had he held office in any secular
government. He may be reckoned the most illustrious pope
since Benedict XIV., and under him the papacy acquired a
prestige unknown since the middle ages. On the 3rd of March
1903 he celebrated his jubilee in St Peter's with more than usual
pomp and splendour; he died on the zoth of July following.
His successor was Pius X.
See Scelta di (Mi episcopali del cardinale G. Pecci . . . (Rome,
1879); Leonis XIII. Pont. Max. acta (17 vols., Rome, 1881-1898);
Sanctissimi Domini N. Leonis XIII. allocutiones, epistolae, &c.
(Bruges and Lille, 1887, &c.); the encyclicals (Samtliche Rund-
schreiben) with a German translation (6 vols., Freiburg, 1878-1904);
Discorsi del Sommo Pontefice Leone XIII. 1878-1882 (Rome, 1882).
There are lives of Leo XIII. by B. O'Reilly (new ed., Chicago, 1903),
H. des Houx (pseudonym of Durand Morimbeau) (Paris, 1900), by
W. Meynell (1887), by T. McCarthy (1896), by Boyer d'Agen,
(Jeunesse de Leon XIII. (1896); La Prelature, 1900), by M. Spahn
(Munich, 1905), by L. K. Goetz (Gotha, 1899), &c. A lifeof Leo XIII.
(4 vols.) was undertaken by F. Marion Crawford, Count Edoardo
Soderini and Professor Giuseppe Clementi. (A. W. Hu.; M. BR.)
LEO, the name of six emperors of the East.
LEO I., variously surnamed THRAX, MAGNUS and MAKELLES,
emperor of the East, 457-474, was born in Thrace about 400.
From his position as military tribune he was raised to the throne
by the soldiery and recognized both by senate and clergy; his
coronation by the patriarch of Constantinople is said to have
been the 'earliest instance of such a ceremony. Leo owed his
elevation mainly to Aspar, the commander of the guards, who
was debarred by his Arianism from becoming emperor in his own
person, but hoped to exercise a virtual autocracy through his
former steward and dependant. But Leo, following the traditions
of his predecessor Marcian, set himself to curtail the domination
of the great nobles and repeatedly acted in defiance of Aspar.
Thus he vigorously suppressed the Eutychian heresy in Egypt,
and by exchanging his Germanic bodyguard for Isaurians
removed the chief basis of Aspar's power. With the help of
his generals Anthemius and Anagastus, he repelled invasions
of the Huns into Dacia (466 and 468) . In 467 Leo had Anthemius
elected emperor of the West, and in concert with him equipped
an armament of more than 1 100 ships and 100,000 men against
the pirate empire of the Vandals in Africa. Through the remiss-
ness of Leo's brother-in-law Basiliscus, who commanded the
expedition, the fleet was surprised by the Vandal king, Genseric,
and half of its vessels sunk or burnt (468) . This failure was made
a pretext by Leo for killing Aspar as a traitor (471), and Aspar's
murder served the Goths in turn as an excuse for ravaging
Thrace up to the walls of the capital. In 473 the emperor
associated with himself his infant grandson, LEO II., who, how-
ever, survived him by only a few months. His surnames Magnus
(Great) and Makelles (butcher) respectively reflect the attitude
of the Orthodox and the Arians towards his religious policy.
See E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed.
Bury, 1896), iv. 29-37; J. B. Bury, The Later Roman Empire (1889),
i. 227-233.
LEO III. (c. 680-740), surnamed THE ISAURIAN, emperor of
the East, 717-740. Born about 680 in the Syrian province of
Commagene, he rose to distinction in the military service, and
under Anastasius II. was invested with the command of the
eastern army. In 717 he revolted against the usurper Theodosius
III. and, marching upon Constantinople, was elected emperor
in his stead. The first year of Leo's reign saw a memorable siege
of his capital by the Saracens, who had taken advantage of the
civil discord in the Roman empire to bring up a force of 80,000
men to the Bosporus. By his stubborn defence the new ruler
wore out the invaders who, after a twelve months' investment,
withdrew their forces. An important factor in the victory of the
Romans was their use of Greek fire. Having thus preserved the
empire from extinction, Leo proceeded to consolidate its adminis-
tration, which in the previous years of anarchy had become com-
pletely disorganized. He secured its frontiers by inviting Slavonic
settlers into the depopulated districts and by restoring the army
to efficiency; when the Arabs renewed their invasions in 726
and 739 they were decisively beaten. His civil reforms include
the abolition of the system of prepaying taxes which had weighed
heavily upon the wealthier proprietors, the elevation of the serfs
into a class of free tenants, the remodelling of family and of
maritime law. These measures, which were embodied in a new
code published in 740, met with some opposition on the part of
the nobles and higher clergy. But Leo's most striking legislative
reforms dealt with religious matters. After an apparently
successful attempt to enforce the baptism of all jews and
Montanists in his realm (722), he issued a series of edicts against
the worship of images (726-729). This prohibition of a custom
which had undoubtedly given rise to grave abuses seems to have
been inspired by a genuine desire to improve public morality,
and received the support of the official aristocracy and a section
of the clergy. But a majority of the theologians and all the
monks opposed these measures with uncompromising hostility,
and in the western parts of the empire the people refused to obey
the edict. A revolt which broke out in Greece, mainly on re-
ligious grounds, was crushed by the imperial fleet (727), and
two years later, by deposing the patriarch of Constantinople,
Leo suppressed the overt opposition of the capital. In Italy the
defiant attitude of Popes Gregory II. and III. on behalf of image-
worship led to a fierce quarrel with the emperor. The former
summoned councils in Rome to anathematize and excom-
municate the image-breakers (730, 732); Leo retaliated by
transferring southern Italy and Greece from the papal diocese to
that of the patriarch. The struggle was accompanied by an
armed outbreak in the exarchate of Ravenna (727), which Leo
finally endeavoured to subdue by means of a large fleet. But the
destruction of the armament by a storm decided the issue against
him; his south Italian subjects successfully defied his religious
edicts, and the province of Ravenna became detached from the
empire. In spite of this partial failure Leo must be reckoned
as one of the greatest of the later Roman emperors. By his re-
solute stand against the Saracens he delivered all eastern Europe
from a great danger, and by his thorough-going reforms he not
only saved the empire from collapse, but invested it with a
stability which enabled it to survive all further shocks for a space
of five centuries.
See E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed.
Bury, 1896), v. 185 seq., 251 seq. and appendices, vi. 6-12, J. B.
Bury, The Later Roman Empire (1889), ii. 401-449; K. Schenk,
Kaiser Leo III. (Halle, 1880), and in Byzantinische Zeitschrift (1896),
v. 257-301 ; T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders (1892, &c.), bk.
vii., chs. ii, 12. See also ICONOCLASTS.
LEO IV., called CHOZAR, succeeded his father, Constantine V.,
as emperor of the East in 775. In 776 he associated his young
son, Constantine, with himself in the empire, and suppressed a
rising led by his five step-brothers which broke out as a result
of this proceeding. Leo was largely under the influence of his
wife Irene (q.v.), and when he died in 780 he left her as the
guardian of his successor, Constantine VI.
LEO V., surnamed THE ARMENIAN, emperor of the East, 813-
820, was a distinguished general of Nicephorus I. and Michael I.
After rendering good service on behalf of the latter in a war with
the Arabs (812), he was summoned in 813 to co-operate in a
campaign against the Bulgarians. Taking advantage of the dis-
affection prevalent among the troops, he left Michael in the lurch
at the battle of Adrianople and subsequently led a successful
revolution against him. Leo justified his usurpation by re-
peatedly defeating the Bulgarians who had been contemplating
the siege of Constantinople (814-817). By his vigorous measures
of repression against the Paulicians and image-worshippers
he roused considerable opposition, and after a conspiracy under
his friend Michael Psellus had been foiled by the imprison-
ment of its leader, he was assassinated in the palace chapel on
Christmas Eve, 820.
See E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed.
Bury, 1896), v. 193-195. (M- O. B. C.)
44°
LEO, BROTHER— LEO, H.
LEO VI., surnamed THE WISE and THE PHILOSOPHER, Byzan-
tine emperor, 886-911. He was a weak-minded ruler, chiefly
occupied with unimportant wars with barbarians and struggles
with churchmen. The chief event of his reign was the capture
of Thessalonica (904) by Mahommedan pirates (described in
The Capture of Thessalonica by John Cameniata) under the
renegade Leo of Tripolis. In Sicily and Lower Italy the imperial
arms were unsuccessful, and the Bulgarian Symeon, who assumed
the title of " Czar of the Bulgarians and autocrat of the Romaei "
secured the independence of his church by the establishment
of a patriarchate. Leo's somewhat absurd surname may be
explained by the facts that he " was less ignorant than the greater
part of his contemporaries in church and state, that his education
had been directed by the learned Photius, and that several
books of profane and ecclesiastical science were composed by the
pen, or in the name, of the imperial philosopher " (Gibbon).
His works include seventeen Oractda, in iambic verse, on the
destinies of future emperors and patriarchs of Constantinople;
thirty-three Orations, chiefly on theological subjects (such as
church festivals) ; Basilica, the completion of the digest of the
laws of Justinian, begun by Basil I., the father of Leo; some
epigrams in the Greek Anthology; an iambic lament on the
melancholy condition of the empire; and some palindromic
verses, curiously called Kapdvoi (crabs). The treatise on military
tactics, attributed to him, is probably by Leo III., the Isaurian.
Complete edition in Migne, Patrologia Graeca, cvii. ; for the
literature of individual works see C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der
byzantinischen Litteratur (1897). (J. H. F.)
LEO, BROTHER (d. c. 1270), the favourite disciple, secretary and
confessor of St Francis of Assisi. The dates of his birth and of his
becoming a Franciscan are not known; but he was one of the
small group of most trusted companions of the saint during his
last years. After Francis's death Leo took a leading part in the
opposition to Elias: he it was who broke in pieces the marble
box which Elias had set up for offertories for the completion of
the basilica at Assisi. For this Elias had him scourged, and this
outrage on St Francis's dearest disciple consolidated the opposi-
tion to Elias and brought about his deposition. Leo was the
leader in the early stages of the struggle in the order for the
maintenance of St Francis's ideas on strict poverty, and the chief
inspirer of the tradition of the Spirituals on St Francis's life
and teaching. The claim that he wrote the so-called Speculum
perfectionis cannot be allowed, but portions of it no doubt go
back to him. A little volume of his writings has been published
by Lemmeus (Scripla Iratris Leonis, 1901). Leo assisted at
St Clara's deathbed, 1253; after suffering many persecutions
from the dominant party in the order he died at the Portiuncula
in extreme old age.
All that is known concerning him is collected by Paul Sabatier in
the " Introduction " to the Speculum perfectionis (1898). See ST
FRANCIS and FRANCISCANS. (E. C. B.)
LEO, HEINRICH (1799-1878), German historian, was born
at Rudolstadt on the igth of March 1799, his father being
chaplain to the garrison there. His family, not of Italian origin —
as he himself was inclined to believe on the strength of family
tradition — but established in Lower Saxony so early as the
1 6th century, was typical of the German upper middle classes,
and this fact, together with the strongly religious atmosphere
in which he was brought up and his early enthusiasm for nature,
largely determined the bent of his mind. The taste for historical
study was, moreover, early instilled into him by the eminent
philologist Karl Wilhelm Gottling (1793-1869), who in 1816
became a master at the Rudolstadt gymnasium. From 1816
to 1819 Leo studied at the universities of Breslau, Jena and
Gottingen, devoting himself more especially to history, philology
and theology. At this time the universities were still agitated
by the Liberal and patriotic aspirations aroused by the War of
Liberation; at Breslau Leo fell under the influence of Jahn, and
joined the political gymnastic association (Turnverein); at Jena
he attached himself to the radical wing of the German Burschen-
schaft, the so-called " Black Band," under the leadership of Karl
Follen. The murder of Kotzebue by Karl Sand, however,
shocked him out of his extreme revolutionary views, and from
this time he tended, under the influence of the writings of Hamann
and Herder, more and more in the direction of conservatism
and romanticism, until at last he ended, in a mood almost of
pessimism, by attaching himself to the extreme right wing of the
forces of reaction. So early as April 1819, at Gottingen, he had
fallen under the influence of Karl Ludwig von Haller's Handbuch
der allgemeinen Staatenkunde (1808), a text-book of the counter-
Revolution. On the nth of May 1820 he took his doctor's
degree; in the same year he qualified as Privatdozent at the
university of Erlangen. For this latter purpose he had chosen
as his thesis the constitution of the free Lombard cities in the
middle ages, the province in which he was destined to do most
for the scientific study of history. His interest in it was greatly
stimulated by a journey to Italy in 1823; in 1824 he returned
to the subject, and, as the result, published in five volumes a
history of the Italian states (1829-1832). Meanwhile he had
been established (1822-1827) as Dozenl at Berlin, where he came
in contact with the leaders of German thought and was somewhat
spoilt by the flattering attentions of the highest Prussian society.
Here, too, it was that Hegel's philosophy of history made a deep
impression upon him. It was at Halle, however, where he
remained for forty years (1828-1868), that he acquired his fame
as an academical teacher. His wonderful power of exposition,
aided by a remarkable memory, is attested by the most various
witnesses. In 1830 he became ordinary professor.
In addition to his lecturing, Leo found time for much literary
and political work. He collaborated in the Jahrbiicher fur
Wissenschaftliche Kritik from its foundation in 1827 until the
publication was stopped in 1846. As a critic of independent
views he won the approval of Goethe; on the other hand, he
fell into violent controversy with Ranke about questions con-
nected with Italian history. Up to the revolutionary year 1830
his religious views had remained strongly tinged with rational-
ism, Hegel remaining his guide in religion as in practical politics
and the treatment of history. It was not till 1838 that Leo's
polemical work Die Hegelingen proclaimed his breach with the
radical developments of the philosopher's later disciples; a
breach which developed into opposition to the philosopher him-
self. Under the impression of the July revolution in Paris and
of the orthodox and pietistic influences at Halle, Leo's political
convictions were henceforth dominated by reactionary principles.
As a friend of the Prussian " Camarilla " and of King Frederick
William IV. he collaborated especially in the high conservative
Politisches Wochenblatt, which first appeared in 1831, as well as
in the Evangelische Kirchenzeitung, the Kreuzzeitung and the
Volksblatt fiir Stadt und Land. In all this his critics scented an
inclination towards Catholicism; and Leo did actually glorify
the counter-Reformation, e.g. in his History of the Netherlands
(2 vols. 1832-1835). His other historical works also, notably
his Universalgeschichte (6 vols., 1835-1844), display a very one-
sided point of view. When, however, in connexion with the
quarrel about the archbishopric of Cologne (1837), political
Catholicism raised its head menacingly, Leo turned against it
with extreme violence in his open letter (1838) to Goerres, its
foremost champion. On the other hand, he took a lively part in
the politico-religious controversies within the fold of Prussian
Protestantism.
Leo was by nature highly excitable and almost insanely
passionate, though at the same time strictly honourable, unselfish,
and in private intercourse even gentle. During the last year of
his life his mind suffered rapid decay, of which signs had been
apparent so early as 1868. He died at Halle on the 24th of April
1878. In addition to the works already mentioned, he left behind
an account of his early life (Meine Jugendzeit, Gotha, 1880)
which is of interest.
See Lord Acton, English Historical Review, i. (1886); H. Haupt,
Karl Follen und die Giessener Schwarzen (Giessen, 1907) ; W. Herbst,
Deutsch-Evangelische Blatter, Bd. 3; P. Kragelin, H. Leo, vol. i.
(1779-1844) (Leipzig, 1908); P. Kraus, Allgemeine Konservative
Monatsschrift, Bd. 50 u. 51 ; R. M. Meyer, Gestalten und Probleme
(1904); W. Schrader, Geschichte der Friedrichs-Universilat in Halle
(Berlin, 1894); C. Varrentrapp, Historische Zeitschrift, Bd. 92;
F. X. Wegcle, Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic, Bd. 18 (1883);
LEO, J.— LEOBSCHUTZ
Geschichte der deutschen Historiographie (1885); G. Wolf, Einfiih
rung in das Studium der neueren Geschichte (1910). Leo's Rectitudine
singularum personarum nebst einer einleitenden Abhandlung ube
Landsiedelung, Landbau, gutsherrliche und bduerliche Verhdltniss
der A ngelsachsen, was translated into English by Lord Acton (1852)
0. HN.)
LEO, JOHANNES (c. 1494-1552), in Italian GIOVANNI LEO o
LEONE, usually called LEO AFRICANUS, sometimes ELIBERI
TANUS (i.e. of Granada), and properly known among the Moor
as Al Hassan Ibn Mahommed Al Wezaz Al Fasi, was the autho
of a Descrizione dell' Africa, or Africae descriptio, which long
ranked as the best authority on Mahommedan Africa. Born
probably at Granada of a noble Moorish stock (his father was
landowner; an uncle of his appears as an envoy from Fez tc
Timbuktu), he received a great part of his education at Fez
and while still very young began to. travel widely in the Barbary
States. In 1512 we trace him at Morocco, Tunis, Bugia and
Constantine; in 1513 we find him returning from Tunis to
Morocco; and before the close of the latter year he seems to have
started on his famous Sudan and Sahara journeys (1513-151 5^
which brought him to Timbuktu, to many other regions of the
Great Desert and the Niger basin (Guinea, Melli, Gago, Walata
Aghadez, Wangara, Katsena, &c.), and apparently to Bornu
and Lake Chad. In 1516-1517 he travelled to Constantinople
probably visiting Egypt on the way; it is more uncertain when
he visited the three Arabias (Deserta, Felix and Petraea)
Armenia and "Tartary" (the last term is perhaps satisfied by
his stay at Tabriz). His three Egyptian journeys, immediately
after the Turkish conquest, all probably fell between 1517 and
1520; on one of these he ascended the Nile from Cairo to Assuan.
As he was returning from Egypt about 1520 he was captured by
pirates near the island of Gerba, and was ultimately presented as
a slave to Leo X. The pope discovered his merit, assigned him
a pension, and having persuaded him to profess the Christian
faith, stood sponsor at his baptism, and bestowed on him (as
Ramusio says) his own names, Johannes and Leo. The new
convert, having made himself acquainted with Latin and Italian,
taught Arabic (among his pupils was Cardinal Egidio Antonini,
bishop of Viterbo); he also wrote books in both the Christian
tongues he had acquired. His Description of Africa was first,
apparently, written in Arabic, but the primary text now remain-
ing is that of the Italian version, issued by the author at Rome,
on the loth of March 1526, three years after Pope Leo's death,
though originally undertaken at the latter's suggestion." The
Moor seems to have lived on Rome for some time longer, but
he returned to Africa some time before his death at Tunis in
1552; according to some, he renounced his Christianity and
returned to Islam; but the later part of his career is obscure.
The Descrizione dell' Africa in its original Arabic MS. is said to
have existed for some time in the library of Vincenzo Pinelli (1535-
1601); the Italian text, though issued in 1526, was first printed by
Giovanni Battista Ramusio in his Navigationi et Viaggi (vol. i.) of
1550. This was reprinted in 1554, 1563, 1588, &c. In 1556 Jean
I emporal executed at Lyons an admirable French version from the
Italian (Historiale description de I'Afrique); and in the same year
appeared at Antwerp both Christopher Plantin's and Jean Bellere's
pirated issues of Temporal's translation, and a new (very inaccurate)
Latin version by Joannes Florianus, Joannis Leonis Africani de
totius Africae descriptione libri i.-ix. The latter was reprinted in
'558, 1559 (Zurich), and 1632 (Leiden), and served as the basis of
John Pory s Elizabethan English translation, made at the suggestion
of Richard Hakluyt (A Geographical Historie of Africa, London,
1600). Pory's version was reissued, with notes, maps, &c., by
Robert Brown E. G. Ravenstein, &c. (3 vols., Hakluyt Society,
London, 1896). An excellent German translation was made by
Lorsbach, from the Italian, in 1805 (Johann Leos des Afrikaners
Beschreibung von Afrika, Herborn). See also Francis Moore's
I ravels into the inland parts of Africa (1738), containing a translation
Leo s account of negro kingdoms. Heinrich Earth intended to
have made a fresh version, with a commentary, but was prevented
by death ; as it is, his own great works on the Sudan are the best
elucidation of the Descrizione dell' Africa.
r.Lc°- ^'S0 wrote lives of the Arab physicians and philosophers
(L>e mns quibusdam illustribus apud Arabes; see J. A. Fabricius,
Bibltotheca Graeca, Hamburg, 1726, xiii. 259-298); a Spanish-
Arabic vocabulary, now lost, but noticed by Ramusio as having
been consulted by the famous Hebrew physician, Jacob Mantino-
i collection of Arabic epitaphs in and near Fez (the MS. of this Leo
presented, it is said, to the brother of the king); and poems, also
441
lost. It is stated, moreover, that Leo intended writing a history
of the Mahommedan religion, an epitome of Mahommedan
chronicles, and an account of his travels in Asia and Egypt.
(C. R. B.)
LEO, LEONARDO (1694-1744), more correctly LIONARDO
ORONZO SALVATORE DE LEO, Italian musical composer, was born
on the 5th of August 1694 at S. Vito dei Normanni, near Brindisi.
He became a student at the Conservatorio della Pieta dei Turchini
at Naples in 1703, and was a pupil first of Provenzale and later
of Nicola Fago. It has been supposed that he was a pupil of
Pitoni and Alessandro Scarlatti, but he could not possibly have
studied with either of these composers, although he was un-
doubtedly influenced by their compositions. His earliest known
work was a sacred drama, L'Infedeltd abbattuta, performed by
his fellow-students in 1712. In 1714 he produced, at the court
theatre, an opera, Pisistrato, which was much admired. He held
various posts at the royal chapel, and continued to write for the
stage, besides teaching at the Conservatorio. After adding comic
scenes to Gasparini's Bajazetle in 1722 for performance at Naples,
he composed a comic opera, La Mpeca scoperta, in Neapolitan
dialect, in 1723. His most famous comic opera was Amor vuol
soferenze (1739), better known as La Finta Frascatana, highly
praised by Des Brosses. He was equally distinguished as a
composer of serious opera, Demofoonte (1735), Farnace (1737)
and L'Olimpiade (1737) being his most famous works in this
branch, and is still better known as a composer of sacred music.
He died of apoplexy on the 3ist of October 1744 while engaged
in the composition of new airs for a revival of La Finta
Frascatana.
Leo was the first of the Neapolitan school to obtain a complete
mastery over modern harmonic counterpoint. His sacred music
is masterly and dignified, logical rather than passionate, and free
from the sentimentality which disfigures the work of F. Durante
and G. B. Pergolesi. His serious operas suffer from a coldness
and severity of style, but in his comic operas he shows a keen
sense of humour. His ensemble movements are spirited, but
never worked up to a strong climax.
A fine and characteristic example of his sacred music is the
Dixit Dormnus in C, edited by C. V. Stanford and published by
Novello. A number of songs from operas are accessible in modern
editions. (E.J.D.)
LEO (THE LION), in astronomy, the fifth sign of the zodiac
(?.».), denoted by the symbol i2. It is also a constellation,
mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd
century B.C.). According to Greek mythology this constellation
s the Nemean lion, which, after being killed by Hercules, was
raised to the heavens by Jupiter in honour of Hercules. A part
of Ptolemy's Leo is now known as Coma Berenices (q.v.). a
^eonis, also known as Cor Leonis or the Lion's Heart, Regulus,
Basilicus, &c., is a very bright star of magnitude 1-23, and parallax
0-02", and proper motion 0-27" per annum. 7 Leonis is a very
fine orange-yellow binary star, of magnitudes 2 and 4, and
>eriod 400 years, t Leonis is a binary, composed of a 4th magni-
.ude pale yellow star, and a 7th magnitude blue star. The
-.EONIDS are a meteoric swarm, appearing in November and
radiating from this constellation (see METEOR).
LEOBEN, a town in Styria, Austria, 44 m. N.W. of Graz by
•ail. Pop. (1900) 10,204. It is situated on the Mur, and part
)f its old walls and towers still remain. It has a well-known
academy of mining and a number of technical schools. Its
•"xtensive iron-works and trade in iron are a consequence of its
aosition on the verge of the important lignite deposits of Upper
Ityria and in the neighbourhood of the iron mines and furnaces
if Vordernberg and Eisenerz. On the i8th of April 1797 a
sreliminary peace was concluded here between Austria and
""ranee, which led to the treaty of Campo-Formio.
LEOBSCHUTZ (Bohemian Lubczyce), a town of Germany, in
he Prussian province of Silesia, on the Zinna, about 20 m.
o the N.W. of Ratibor by rail. Pop. (1905) 12,700. It has
large trade in wool, flax and grain, its markets for these
ommodities being very numerously attended. The principal
ndustries are malting, carriage-building, wool-spinning and
lass-making. The town contains three Roman Catholic
442
churches, a Protestant church, a synagogue, a new town-hall
and a gymnasium. Leobschiitz existed in the loth century,
and from 1524 to 1623 was the capital of the principality of
Jagerndorf.
See F. Troska, Geschichte der Stadt Leobschiitz (Leobschiitz, 1892).
LEOCHARES, a Greek sculptor who worked with Scopas
on the Mausoleum about 350 B.C. He executed statues of the
family of Philip of Macedon, in gold and ivory, which were
set up by that king in the Philippeum at Olympia. He also
with Lysippus made a group in bronze at Delphi representing
a lion-hunt of Alexander. Of this the base with an inscription
was recently found. We hear of other statues by Leochares
of Zeus, Apollo and Ares. The statuette in the Vatican, repre-
senting Ganymede being carried away by an eagle, though
considerably restored and poor in execution, so closely corre-
sponds with Pliny's description of a group by Leochares that
we are justified in considering it a copy of that group, especially
as the Vatican statue shows all the characteristics of Attic
4th-century art. Pliny (N.H. 34. 79) writes: "Leochares
made a group of an eagle aware whom it is carrying off in Gany-
mede and to whom it is bearing him; holding the boy delicately
in its claws, with his garment between." (For engraving see
GREEK ART, Plate I. fig. 53.) The tree stem is skilfully used as
a support; and the upward strain of the group is ably rendered.
The close likeness both in head and pose between the Ganymede
and the well-known Apollo Belvidere has caused some modern
archaeologists to assign the latter also to Leochares. With
somewhat more confidence we may regard the fine statue of
Alexander the Great at Munich as a copy of his gold and ivory
portrait at Olympia. (P. G.)
LEOFRIC (d. 1057), earl of Mercia, was a son of Leofwine,
earl of Mercia, and became earl at some date previous to 1032.
Henceforth, being one of the three great earls of the realm, he
took a leading part in public affairs. On the death of King
Canute in 1035 he supported the claim of his son Harold to the
throne against that of Hardicanute; and during the quarrel
between Edward the Confessor and Earl Godwine in 1051 he
played the part of a mediator. Through his efforts civil war
was averted, and in accordance with his advice the settlement of
the dispute was referred to the Witan. When he became earl
of Mercia his direct rule seems to have been confined to Cheshire,
Staffordshire, Shropshire and the borders of north Wales, but
afterwards he extended the area of his earldom. As Chester
was his principal residence and the seat of his government, he
is sometimes called earl of Chester. Leofric died at Bromley
in Staffordshire on the 3131 of August 1057. His wife was
Godgifu, famous in legend as Lady Godiva. Both husband
and wife were noted as liberal benefactors to the church, among
their foundations being the famous Benedictine monastery at
Coventry. Leofric's son, iElfgar, succeeded him as earl of
Mercia.
See E. A. Freeman, The Norman Conquest, vols. i. and ii. (1877).
LEOMINSTER, a market-town and municipal borough in the
Leominster parliamentary division of Herefordshire, England,
in a rich agricultural country on the Lugg, 157 m. W.N.W. of
London and 125 N. of Hereford on the Great Western and
London & North-Western railways. Pop. (1901) 5826. Area,
8728 acres. Some fine old timber houses lend picturesqueness
to the wide streets. The parish church, of mixed architecture,
including the Norman nave of the old priory church, and con-
taining some of the most beautiful examples of window tracery
in England, was restored in 1866, and enlarged by the addition
of a south nave in 1879. The Butter Cross, a beautiful example
of timber work of the date 1633, was removed when the town-
hall was building, and re-erected in the pleasure ground of the
Grange. Trade is chiefly in agricultural produce, wool and cider,
as the district is rich in orchards. Brewing (from the produce
of local hop-gardens) and the manufacture of agricultural
implements are also carried on. The town is under a mayor,
four aldermen and twelve councillors.
Merewald, king of Mercia, is said to have founded a religious
house in Leominster (Llanlieni, Leofminstre, Lempster) in 660,
LEOCHARES— LEON, L. P. DE
and a nunnery existed here until the Conquest, when the place
became a royal demesne. It was granted by Henry I. to the
monks of Reading, who built in it a cell of their abbey, and
under whose protection the town grew up and was exempted
from the sphere of the county and hundred courts. In 1539
it reverted to the crown; and in 1554 was incorporated, by a
charter renewed in 1562, 1563, 1605, 1666, 1685 and 1786. The
borough returned two members to the parliament of 1295 and
to other parliaments, until by the Representation Act 1867 it
lost one representative, and by the Redistribution of Seats Act
1885 separate representation. A fair was granted in the time
of Henry II., and fairs in the seasons of Michaelmas and the
feasts of St Philip and St James and of Edward the Confessor,
in 1265, 1281 and 1290 respectively. Charters to the burghers
authorized fairs on the days of St Peter and of St Simon and
St Jude in 1554, on St Bartholomew's day in 1605, in Mid-lent
week in 1665, and on the feast of the Purification and on the
2nd of May in 1685; these fairs have modern representatives.
A market was held by the abbey by a grant of Henry I.; Friday
is now market day. Leominster was famous for wool from the
i3th to the i8th century. There were gilds of mercers, tailors,
drapers, dyers and glovers in the i6th century. In 1835 the
wool trade was said to be dead; and that of glove-making,
which had been important, was diminishing. Hops and apples
were grown in 1715.
See G. Townsend, The Town and Borough of Leominster (1863), and
John Price, An Historical and Topographical Account of Leominster
and its Vicinity (Ludlow, 1715).
LEOMINSTER, a township of Worcester county, Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A., about 45 m. N.W. of Boston and about 20 m.
N. by E. of Worcester. Pop. (1890) 7269; (1900) 12,392, of
whom 2827 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 17,580. It is
a broken, hilly district, 26-48 sq. m. in area, traversed by the
Nashua river, crossed by the Northern Division of the New
York, New Haven & Hartford railroad, and by the Fitchburg
Division of the Boston & Maine, and connected with Boston,
Worcester and other cities by interurban electric lines. Along
the N.E. border and mostly in the township of Lunenburg are
Whalom Lake and Whalom Park, popular pleasure resorts.
The principal villages are Leominster, 5 m. S.E. of Fitchburg.
and North Leominster; the two adjoin and are virtually one.
According to the Special U.S. Census of Manufactures of 1905
the township had in that year a greater diversity of important
manufacturing industries than any place of its size in the state,
or, probably, in the United States; its 65 manufactories, with
a capital of $4,572,726 and with a product for the year valued
at $7,501,720 (39% more than in 1900), produced celluloid
and horn work (the manufacture of which is a more important
industry here than elsewhere in the United States), celluloid
combs, furniture, paper, buttons, pianos and piano-cases,
children's carriages and sleds, stationery, leatherboard, worsted,
woollen and cotton goods, shirts, paper boxes, &c. Leominster
owns and operates its water-works. The township was formed
from a part of Lancaster township in 1740.
LE6N, LUIS PONCE DE (1527-1591), Spanish poet and
mystic, was born at Belmonte de Cuenca, entered the university
of Salamanca at the age of fourteen, and in 1544 joined the
Augustinian order. In 1561 he obtained a theological chair at
Salamanca, to which in 1571 was added that of sacred literature.
He was denounced to the Inquisition for translating the book
of Canticles, and for criticizing the text of the Vulgate. He
was consequently imprisoned at Valladolid from March 1572
till December 1576; the charges against him were then
abandoned, and he was released with an admonition. He,
returned to Salamanca as professor of Biblical exegesis, and
was again reported to the Inquisition in 1582, but without result.
In 1583-1585 he published the three books of a celebrated
mystic treatise, Los Nombres de Crislo, which he had written in
prison. In 1583 also appeared the most popular of his prose
works, a treatise entitled La Perfecla Casada, for the use of a
lady newly married. Ten days before his death, which occurred
at Madrigal on the 23rd of August 1591, he was elected vicar
LEON, M. DE— LEON
443
general of the Augustinian order. Luis de Leon is not only the
greatest of Spanish mystics; he is among the greatest of Spanish
lyrical poets. His translations of Euripides, Pindar, Virgil and
Horace are singularly happy; his original pieces, whether devout
like the ode De la vida del cielo, or secular like the ode A Salinas,
are instinct with a serene sublimity unsurpassed in any literature,
and their form is impeccable. Absorbed by less worldly interests,
Fray Luis de Leon refrained from printing his poems, which
were not issued till 1631, when Quevedo published them as a
counterblast to culteranismo.
The best edition of Luis de Leon's works is that of Merino (6 vols.,
Madrid, 1816); the reprint (Madrid, 1885) by C. Munoz Saenz is
incorrect. The text of La Perfecta Casada has been well edited by
Miss Elizabeth Wallace (Chicago, 1903). See Coleccion de documentos
ineditos para la historic, de Espana, vols. x.-xi. ; F. H. Reusch, Luis
de Leon und die spanische Inquisition (Bonn, 1873); M. Gutierrez,
Fray Luisde Leon y la filosofia espanola '(Madrid, 1885); M. Menendez
y Pelayo, Estudios de critica literaria (Madrid, 1893), Primera seYie,
pp. 1-72.
LEON, MOSES [BEN SHEM-TOB] DE (d. 1305), Jewish scholar,
was born in Leon (Spain) in the middle of the I3th century and
died at Arevalo. His fame is due to his authorship of the most
influential Kabbalist work, the Zohar (see KABBALA), which was
attributed to Simon b. Yohai, a Rabbi of the and century. In
modern times the discovery of the modernity of the Zohar has
led to injustice to the author. Moses de Leon undoubtedly
used old materials and out of them constructed a work of genius.
The discredit into which he fell was due partly to the unedifying
incidents of his personal career. He led a wandering life, and
was more or less of an adventurer. But as to the greatness
of his work, the profundity of his philosophy and the brilliance
of his religious idealism, there can be no question.
See Graetz, History of the Jews, vol. iv. ch. i. ; Geiger, Leon de
Modena. (I. A.)
LEON OF MODENA (1571-1648), Jewish scholar, was born in
Venice, of a notable French family which had migrated to
Italy after the expulsion of the Jews from France. He was
a precocious child, but, as Graetz points out, his lack of stable
character prevented his gifts from maturing. " He pursued
all sorts of occupations to support himself, viz. those of preacher,
teacher of Jews and Christians, reader of prayers, interpreter,
writer, proof-reader, bookseller, broker, merchant, rabbi,
musician, matchmaker and manufacturer of amulets." Though
he failed to rise to real distinction he earned a place by his
criticism of the Talmud among those who prepared the way for
the new learning in Judaism. One of Leon's most effective
works was his attack on the Kabbala ('Art Nohem, first published
in 1840), for in it he demonstrated that the " Bible of the
Kabbalists" (the Zohar) was a modern composition. He became
best known, however, as the interpreter of Judaism to the
Christian world. At the instance of an English nobleman he
prepared an account of the religious customs of the Synagogue,
Riti Ebraici (1637). This book was widely read by Christians;
it was rendered into various languages, and in 1650 was translated
into English by Edward Chilmead. At the time the Jewish
question was coming to the fore in London, and Leon of Modena's
book did much to stimulate popular interest. He died at
Venice.
See Graetz, History of the Jews (Eng. trans.), vol. v. ch. iii. ;
Jewish Encyclopedia, viii. 6; Geiger, Leon de Modena. (I. A.)
LEON, or LEON DE LAS ALDAMAS, a city of the state of Guana-
juato, Mexico, 209 m. N.W. of the federal capital and 30 m. W.
by N. of the city of Guanajuato. Pop. (1895) 90,978; (1900)
62,623, Leon ranking fourth in the latter year among the cities
of Mexico. The Mexican Central gives it railway connexion with
the national capital and other prominent cities of the Republic.
Leon stands in a fertile plain on the banks of the Turbio, a
tributary of the Rio Grande de Lerma, at an elevation of 5862 ft.
above sea-level and in the midst of very attractive surroundings.
The country about Leon is considered to be one of the richest
cereal-producing districts of Mexico. The city itself is subject
to disastrous floods, sometimes leading to loss of life as well as
damage to property, as in the great flood of 1889. Leon is
essentially a manufacturing and commercial city; it has a
cathedral and a theatre, the latter one of the largest and finest
in the republic. The city is regularly built, with wide streets
and numerous shady parks and gardens. It manufactures
saddlery and other leather work, gold and silver embroideries,
cotton and woollen goods, especially rebozos (long shawls), soap
and cutlery. There are also tanneries and flour mills. The
city has a considerable trade in wheat and flour. The first
settlement of Leon occurred in 1552, but its formal foundation
was in 1576, and it did not reach the dignity of a city until 1836.
LEON, the capital of the department of Leon, Nicaragua, an
episcopal see, and the largest city in the republic, situated midway
between Lake Managua and the Pacific Ocean, 50 m. N.W. of
Managua, on the railway from that city to the Pacific port of
Corinto. Pop. (1905) about 45,000, including the Indian town
of Subtiaba. Leon covers a very wide area, owing to its gardens
and plantations. Its houses are usually one-storeyed, built of
adobe and roofed with red tiles; its public buildings are among
the finest in Central America. The massive and elaborately
ornamented cathedral was built in the Renaissance style between
1746 and 1774; a Dominican church in Subtiaba is little less
striking. The old (1678) and new (1873) episcopal palaces, the
hospital, the university and the barracks (formerly a Franciscan
monastery) are noteworthy examples of Spanish colonial archi-
tecture. Leon has a large general trade, and manufactures
cotton and woollen fabrics, ice, cigars, boots, shoes and saddlery;
its tanneries supply large quantities of cheap leather for export.
But its population (about 60,000 in 1850) tends to decrease.
At the time of the Spanish conquest Subtiaba was the residence
of the great cacique of Nagrando, and contained an important
Indian temple. The city of Leon, founded by Francisco Hernan-
dez de Cordova in 1523, was originally situated at the head
of the western bay of Lake Managua, and was not removed to
its present position till 1610. Thomas Gage, who visited it in
1665, describes it as a splendid city; and in 1685 it yielded rich
booty to William Dampier (q.v.). Until 1855 Leon was the
capital of Nicaragua, although its great commercial rival Granada
contested its claim to that position, and the jealousy between
the two cities often resulted in bloodshed. Leon was identified
with the interests of the democracy of Nicaragua, Granada with
the clerical and aristocratic parties.
See NICARAGUA; E. G. Squier, Central America, vol. i. (1856);
and T. Gage, Through Mexico, &c. (1665).
LEON, the name of a modern province and of an ancient
kingdom, captaincy-general and province in north-western Spain.
The modern province, founded in 1833, is bounded on the N. by
Oviedo, N.E. by Santander, E. by Palencia, S. by Valladolid
and Zamora. and W. by Orense and Lugo. Pop. (1900) 386,083.
Area, 5986 sq. m. The boundaries of the province on the north
and west, formed respectively by the central ridge and southerly
offshoots of the Cantabrian Mountains (q.v.), are strongly
marked; towards the south-east the surface merges imper-
ceptibly into the Castilian plateau, the line of demarcation being
for the most part merely conventional. Leon belongs partly
to the river system of the Mino (see SPAIN), partly to that of the
Duero or Douro (q.v.), these being separated by the Montaflas de
Leon, which extend in a continuous wall (with passes at Manzanal
and Poncebadon) from north to south-west. To the north-west
of the Montanas de Leon is the richly wooded pastoral and
highland district known as the Vierzo, which in its lower valleys
produces grain, fruit, and wine in abundance. The Tierra del
Campo in the west of the province is fairly productive, but in
need of irrigation. The whole province is sparsely peopled.
Apart from agriculture, stock-raising and mining, its commerce
and industries are unimportant. Cattle, mules, butter, leather,
coal and iron are exported. The hills of Leon were worked for
gold in the time of the Romans; iron is still obtained, and coal-
mining developed considerably towards the close of the igth
century. The only towns with more than 5000 inhabitants in
1900 were Leon (15,580) and Astorga (5573) (q.v.). The main
railway from Madrid to Corunna passes through the province,
and there are branches from the city of Leon to Vierzo, Oviedo,
and the Biscayan port of Gijon.
444
LEON— LEONARDO DA VINCI
At the time of the Roman conquest, the province was inhabited
by the Vettones and Callaici; it afterwards formed part of
Hispania Tarraconensis. Among the Christian kingdoms which
arose in Spain as the Moorish invasion of the 8th century receded,
Leon was one of the oldest. The title of king of Leon was first
assumed by Ordofio in 913. Ferdinand I. (the Great) of Castile
united the crowns of Castile and Leon in the nth century; the
two were again separated in the I2th, until a final union took
place (1230) in the person of St Ferdinand. The limits of the
kingdom varied with the vicissitudes of war, but roughly speaking
it may be said to have embraced what are now the provinces of
Leon, Palencia, Valladolid, Zamora and Salamanca. For a
detailed account of this kingdom, see SPAIN: History. The
captaincy-general of the province of Leon before 1833 included
Leon, Zamora and Salamanca. The Leonese, or inhabitants of
these three provinces, have less individuality, in character and
physique, than the people of Galicia, Catalonia or Andalusia,
who are quite distinct from what is usually regarded as the central
or national Spanish type, i.e. the Castilian. The Leonese belong
partly to the Castilian section of the Spaniards, partly to the
north-western section which includes the Galicians and Asturians.
They have comparatively few of the Moorish traits which are so
marked in the south and east of Spain. Near Astorga there
dwells a curious tribe, the Maragatos, sometimes considered to be
a remnant of the original Celtiberian inhabitants. As a rule the
Maragatos earn their living as muleteers or carriers; they wear a
distinctive costume, mix as little as possible with their neighbours
and do not marry outside their own tribe.
LEON, an episcopal see and the capital of the Spanish province
of Leon, situated on a hill 2631 ft. above sea-level, in the angle
made by the Torio and Bernesga, streams which unite on the
south, and form the river Leon, a tributary of the Esla. Pop.
(1900) 15,580. Leon is on the main railway from Madrid to
Oviedo, and is connected with Astorga by a branch line. The
older quarters of the city, which contain the cathedral and other
medieval buildings, are surrounded by walls, and have lost little
of their beauty and interest from the restoration carried out in the
second half of the igth century. During the same period new
suburbs grew up outside the walls to house the industrial popula-
tion which was attracted by the development of iron-founding
and the manufacture of machinery, railway-plant, chemicals and
leather. Leon thus comprises two towns — the old, which is
mainly ecclesiastical in its character, and the new, which is
industrial. The cathedral, founded in 1199 and only finished at
the close of the i4th century, is built of a warm cream-coloured
stone, and is remarkable for simplicity, lightness and strength.
It is one of the finest examples of Spanish Gothic, smaller, indeed,
than the cathedrals of Burgos and Toledo, but exquisite in design
and workmanship. The chapter library contains some valuable
manuscripts. The collegiate church of San Isidore was founded
by Ferdinand I. of Castile in 1063 and consecrated in 1149.
Its architecture is Romanesque. The church contains some fine
plate, including the silver reliquary in which the bones of St
Isidore of Seville are preserved, and a silver processional cross
dating from the i6th century, which is one of the most beautiful
in the country. The convent and church of San Marcos, planned
in 1514 by Ferdinand the Catholic, founded by Charles V. in 1 537,
and consecrated in 1541, are Renaissance in style. They are
built on the site of a hostel used by pilgrims on their way to
Santiago de Compostela. The provincial museum occupies the
chapterhouse and contains some interesting Roman monuments.
The lower part of the city walls consists of Roman masonry
dating from the 3rd century. Other buildings are the high
school, ecclesiastical seminaries, hospital, episcopal palace and
municipal and provincial halls.
Leon (Arab. Liyun) owes its name to the Legio Septima
Gemina of Galba, which, under the later emperors, had its head-
quarters here. About 540 Leon fell into the hands of the Gothic
king Leovigild, and in 717 it capitulated to the Moors. Retaken
about 742, it ultimately, in the beginning of the loth century,
became the capital of the kingdom of Leon (see SPAIN: History).
About 996 it was taken by Almansur, but on his death soon
afterwards it reverted to the Spaniards. It was the seat of
several ecclesiastical councils, the first of which was held under
Alphonso V. in 1012 and the last in 1288.
LEONARDO DA VINCI (1452-1519), the great Italian painter,
sculptor, architect, musician, mechanician, engineer and natural
philosopher, was the son of a Florentine lawyer, born out of
wedlock by a mother in a humble station, variously described
as a peasant and as of gentle birth. The place of his birth
was Vinci, a castello or fortified hill village in the Florentine
territory near Empoli, from which his father's family derived
its name. The Christian name of the father was Piero (the
son of Antonio the son of Piero the son of Guido, all of whom
had been men of law like their descendant). Leonardo's mother
was called Catarina. Her relations with Ser Piero da Vinci
seem to have come to an end almost immediately upon the birth
of their son. She was soon afterwards married to one Accatta-
briga di Piero del Vacca, of Vinci. Ser Piero on his part was
four times married, and had by his last two wives nine sons and
two daughters; but he had from the first acknowledged the
boy Leonardo and brought him up in his own house, principally,
no doubt, at Florence. In that city Ser Piero followed his
profession with success, as notary to many of the chief families in
the city, including the Medici, and afterwards to the signory or
governing council of the state. The son born to him before
marriage grew up into a youth of shining promise. To splendid
beauty and activity of person he joined a winning charm of
temper and manners, a tact for all societies, and an aptitude for
all accomplishments. An inexhaustible intellectual energy and
curiosity lay beneath this amiable surface. Among the multi-
farious pursuits to which the young Leonardo set his hand,
the favourites at first were music, drawing and modelling. His
father showed some of his drawings to an acquaintance, Andrea
del Verrocchio, who at once recognized the boy's artistic vocation,
and was selected by Ser Piero to be his master.-
Verrocchio, although hardly one of the great creative or in-
ventive forces in the art of his age at Florence, was a first-rate
craftsman alike as goldsmith, sculptor and painter, and particu-
larly distinguished as a teacher. In his studio Leonardo worked
for several years (about 1470-1477) in the company of Lorenzo
di Credi and other less celebrated pupils. Among his contem-
poraries he formed special ties of friendship with the painters
Sandro Botticelli and Pietro Perugino. He had soon learnt all
that Verrocchio had to teach — more than all, if we are to believe
the oft-told tale of the figure, or figures, executed by the pupil
in the picture of Christ's Baptism designed by the master for
the monks of Vallombrosa. The work in question is now in the
Academy at Florence. According to Vasari the angel kneeling
on the left, with a drapery over the right arm, was put in by
Leonardo, and when Verrocchio saw it his sense of its superiority
to his own work caused him to forswear painting for ever after.
The latter part of the story is certainly false. The picture,
originally painted in tempera, has suffered much from later
repaints in oil, rendering exact judgment difficult. The most
competent opinion inclines to acknowledge the hand of Leonardo,
not only in the face of the angel, but also in parts of the drapery
and of the landscape background. The work was probably
done in or about 1470, when Leonardo was eighteen years old.
By T472 we find him enrolled in the lists of the painters' gild
at Florence. Here he continued to live and work for ten or eleven
years longer. Up till 1477 he is still spoken of as a pupil or
apprentice of Verrocchio; but in that year he seems to have been
taken into special favour by Lorenzo the Magnificent, and to
have worked as an independent artist under his patronage until
1482-1483. In 1478 we find him receiving an important com-
mission from the signory, and in 1480 another from the monks
of San Donate in Scopeto.
Leonardo was not one of those artists of the Renaissance
who sought the means of reviving the ancient glories of art
mainly in the imitation of ancient models. The antiques of
the Medici gardens seem to have had little influence on him
beyond that of generally stimulating his passion for perfection.
By his own instincts he was an exclusive student of nature.
LEONARDO DA VINCI
445
From his earliest days he had flung himself upon that study
with an unprecedented ardour of delight and curiosity. In
drawing from life he had early found the way to unite precision
with freedom and fire — the subtlest accuracy of expressive
definition with vital movement and rhythm of line — as no
draughtsman had been able to unite them before. He was the
first painter to recognize the play of light and shade as among
the most significant and attractive of the world's appearances,
the earlier schools having with one consent subordinated light
and shade to colour and outline. Nor was he a student of the
broad, usual, patent appearances only of the world; its fugitive,
fantastic, unaccustomed appearances attracted him most of all.
Strange shapes of hills and rocks, rare plants and animals,
unusual faces and figures of men, questionable smiles and ex-
pressions, whether beautiful or grotesque, far-fetched objects
and curiosities, were things he loved to pore upon and keep in
memory. Neither did he stop at mere appearances of any kind,
but, having stamped the image of things upon his brain, went
on indelatigably to probe their hidden laws and causes. He
soon satisfied himself that the artist who was content to repro-
duce the external aspects of things without searching into the
hidden workings of nature behind them, was one but half
equipped for his calling. Every fresh artistic problem immedi-
ately became for him a far-reaching scientific problem as well.
The laws of light and shade, the laws of " perspective," including
optics and the physiology of the eye, the laws of human and
animal anatomy and muscular movement, those of the growth
and structure of plants and of the powers and properties of water,
all these and much more furnished food almost from the beginning
to his insatiable spirit of inquiry.
The evidence of the young man's predilections and curiosities
is contained in the legends which tell of lost works produced
by him in youth. One of these was a cartoon or monochrome
painting of Adam and Eve in tempera, and in this, besides the
beauty of the figures, the infinite truth and elaboration of the
foliage and animals in the background are celebrated in terms
which bring to mind the treatment of the subject by Albrecht
Durer in his famous engraving done thirty years later. Again,
a peasant of Vinci having in his simplicity asked Ser Piero to get
a picture painted for him on a wooden shield, the father is said
to have laughingly handed on the commission to his son, who
thereupon shut himself up with all the noxious insects and
grotesque reptiles he could find, observed and drew and dissected
them assiduously, and produced at last a picture of a dragon
compounded of their various shapes and aspects, which was so
fierce and so life-like as to terrify all who saw it. With equal
research and no less effect he painted on another occasion the
head of a snaky-haired Medusa. (A picture of this subject which
long did duty at the Uffizi for Leonardo's work is in all likelihood
merely the production of some later artist to whom the descrip-
tions of that work have given the cue.) Lastly, Leonardo is
related to have begun work in sculpture about this time by
modelling several heads of smiling women and children.
Of certified and accepted paintings produced by the young
genius, whether during his apprentice or his independent years
at Florence (about 1470-1482), very few are extant, and the
two most important are incomplete. A small and charming
strip of an oblong " Annunciation " at the Louvre is generally
accepted as his work, done soon after 1470; a very highly
wrought drawing at the Uffizi, corresponding on a larger scale
to the head of the Virgin in the same picture, seems rather to be
a copy by a later hand. This little Louvre " Annunciation "
is not very compatible in style with another and larger, much-
debated " Annunciation " at the Uffizi, which manifestly came
from the workshop of Verrocchio about 1473-1474, and which
many critics claim confidently for the young Leonardo. It may
have been joint studio-work of Verrocchio and his pupils including
Leonardo, who certainly was concerned in it, since a study for the
sleeve of the angel, preserved at Christ Church, Oxford, is un-
questionably by his hand. The landscape, with its mysterious
spiry mountains and winding waters, is very Leonardesque
both in this picture and in another contemporary product of the
workshop, or as some think of Leonardo's hand, namely a very
highly and coldly finished small " Madonna with a Pink " at
Munich. The likeness he is recorded to have painted of Ginevra
de' Benci used to be traditionally identified with the fine portrait
of a matron at the Pitti absurdly known as La Monaca: more
lately it has been recognized in a rather dull, expressionless
Verrocchiesque portrait of a young woman with a fanciful
background of pine-sprays in the Liechtenstein gallery at
Vienna. Neither attribution can be counted convincing.
Several works of sculpture, including a bas-relief at Pistoia and a
small terra-cotta model of a St John at the Victoria and Albert
Museum, have also been claimed, but without general consent, as
the young master's handiwork. Of many brilliant early drawings
by him, the first that can be dated is a study of landscape done
in 1473. A magnificent silver-point head of a Roman warrior
at the British Museum was clearly done, from or for a bas-
relief, under the immediate influence of Verrocchio. A number of
studies of heads in pen or silver point, with some sketches
for Madonnas, including a charming series in the British Museum
for a " Madonna with the Cat," may belong to the same years
or the first years of his independence. A sheet with two studies
of heads bears a MS. note of 1478, saying that in one of the last
months of that year he began painting the " Two Maries." One
of the two may have been a picture of the Virgin appearing to
St Bernard, which we know he was commissioned to paint in that
year for a chapel in the Palace of the Signory, but never finished :
the commission was afterwards transferred to Filippino Lippi,
whose performance is now in the Badia. One of the two heads on
this dated sheet may probably have been a study for the same
St Bernard; it was used afterwards by some follower for a St
Leonard in a stiff and vapid " Ascension of Christ," wrongly
attributed to the master himself in the Berlin Museum. A
pen-drawing representing a ringleader of the Pazzi conspiracy,
Bernardo Baroncelli, hung out of a window of the Bargello after
his surrender by the sultan at Constantinople to the emissaries
of Florence, can be dated from its subject as done in December
1479. A number of his best drawings of the next following
years are preparatory pen-studies for an altarpiece of the
" Adoration of the Magi," undertaken early in 1481 on the com-
mission of the monks of S. Donate at Scopeto. The preparation
in monochrome for this picture, a work of extraordinary power
both of design and physiognomical expression, is preserved
at the Uffizi, but the painting itself was never carried out, and
after Leonardo's failure to fulfil his contract Filippino Lippi
had once more to be employed in his place. Of equal or even
more intense power, though of narrower scope, is an unfinished
monochrome preparation for a St Jerome, found accidentally
at Rome by Cardinal Fesch and now in the Vatican gallery;
this also seems to belong to the first Florentine period, but is
not mentioned in documents.
The tale of completed work for these twelve or fourteen years
(1470-1483 or thereabouts) is thus very scanty. But it must
be remembered that Leonardo was already full of projects in
mechanics, hydraulics, architecture, and military and civil
engineering, ardently feeling his way in the work of experimental
study and observation in every branch of theoretical or applied
science in which any beginning had been made in his age, as
well as in some in which he was himself the first pioneer. He was
full of new ideas concerning both the laws and the applications of
mechanical forces. His architectural and engineering projects
were of a daring which amazed even the fellow-citizens of Alberti
and Brunelleschi. History presents few figures more attractive
to the mind's eye than that of Leonardo during this period of
his all-capable and dazzling youth. He did not indeed escape
calumny, and was even denounced on a charge of immoral
practices, but fully and honourably acquitted. There was
nothing about him, as there was afterwards about Michelangelo,
dark-tempered, secret or morose; he was open and genial with
all men. He has indeed praised " the self-sufficing power of
solitude " in almost the same phrase as Wordsworth, and from
time to time would even in youth seclude himself for a season
in complete intellectual absorption, as when he toiled among his
446
LEONARDO DA VINCI
bats and wasps and lizards, forgetful of rest and food, and in-
sensible to the noisomeness of their corruption. But we have to
picture him as anon coming out and gathering about him a
tatterdemalion company, and jesting with them until they were
in fits of laughter, for the sake of observing their burlesque
physiognomies; anon as eagerly frequenting the society of men
of science and learning of an older generation like the mathe-
matician Benedetto Aritmetico, the physician, geographer
and astronomer Paolo Toscanelli, the famous Greek Aristotelian
Giovanni Argiropoulo; or as out-rivalling all the youth of the
city now by charm of recitation, now by skill in music and now
by feats of strength and horsemanship; or as stopping to buy
caged birds in the market that he might set them free and watch
them rejoicing in their flight; or again as standing radiant
in his rose-coloured cloak and his rich gold hair among the
throng of young and old on the piazza, and holding them spell-
bound while he expatiated on the great projects in art and
mechanics that were teeming in his mind. Unluckily it is to
written records and to imagination that we have to trust ex-
clusively for our picture. No portrait of Leonardo as he
appeared during this period of his life has come down to us.
But his far-reaching schemes and studies brought him no
immediate gain, and diverted him from the tasks by which he
should have supported himself. For all his shining power and
promise he remained poor. Probably also his exclusive belief
in experimental methods, and slight regard for mere authority
whether in science or art made the intellectual atmosphere
of the Medicean circle, with its passionate mixed cult of the
classic past and of a Christianity mystically blended and recon-
ciled with Platonism, uncongenial to him. At any rate he was
ready to leave Florence when the chance was offered him of
fixed service at the court of Ludovico Sforza (il Moro) at Milan.
Soon after that prince had firmly established his power as nominal
guardian and protector of his nephew Gian Galeazzo but really
as usurping ruler of the state, he revived a project previously
mooted for the erection of an equestrian monument in honour
of the founder of his house's greatness, Francesco Sforza, and
consulted Lorenzo dei Medici on the choice of an artist. Lorenzo
recommended the young Leonardo, who went to Milan accord-
ingly (at some uncertain date in or about 1483), taking as a gift
from Lorenzo and a token of his own skill a silver lute of wondrous
sweetness fashioned in the likeness of a horse's head. Hostilities
were at the moment imminent between Milan and Venice; it
was doubtless on that account that in the letter commending him-
self to the duke, and setting forth his own capacities, Leonardo
rests his title to patronage chiefly on his attainments and in-
ventions in military engineering. After asserting these in detail
under nine different heads, he speaks under a tenth of his pro-
ficiency as a civil engineer and architect, and adds lastly a brief
paragraph with reference to what he can do in painting and
sculpture, undertaking in particular to carry out in a fitting
manner the monument to Francesco Sforza.
The first definite documentary evidence of Leonardo's em-
ployments at Milan dates from 1487. Some biographers have
supposed that the interval, or part of it, between 1483 and that
date was occupied by travels in the East. The grounds of the
supposition are some drafts occurring among his MSS. of a
letter addressed to the diodario or diwddar of Syria, lieutenant
of the sultan of Babylon (Babylon meaning according to a usage
of that time Cairo). In these drafts Leonardo describes in the
first person, with sketches, a traveller's strange experiences
in Egypt, Cyprus, Constantinople, the Cilician coasts about
Mount Taurus and Armenia. He relates the rise and persecution
of a prophet and preacher, the catastrophe of a falling mountain
and submergence of a great city, followed by a general inunda-
tion, and the claim of the prophet to have foretold these dis-
asters; adding physical descriptions of the Euphrates river
and the marvellous effects of sunset light on the Taurus range.
No contemporary gives the least hint of Leonardo's having
travelled in the East; to the places he mentions he gives their
classical and not their current Oriental names; the catastrophes
he describes are unattested from any other source; he confuses
the Taurus and the Caucasus; some of the phenomena he
mentions are repeated from Aristotle and Ptolemy; and there
seems little reason to doubt that these passages in his MSS.
are merely his drafts of a projected geographical treatise or
perhaps romance. He had a passion for geography and travellers'
tales, for descriptions of natural wonders and ruined cities, and
was himself a practised fictitious narrator and fabulist, as other
passages in his MSS. prove. Neither is the gap in the account
of his doings after he first went to the court of Milan really so
complete as has been represented. Ludovico was vehemently
denounced and attacked during the earlier years of his usurpa-
tion, especially by the partisans of his sister-in-law Bona of
Savoy, the mother of the rightful duke, young Gian Galeazzo.
To repel these attacks he employed the talents of a number of
court poets and artists, who in public recitation and pageant,
in emblematic picture and banner and device, proclaimed the
wisdom and kindness of his guardianship and the wickedness
of his assailants. That Leonardo was among the artists thus
employed is proved both by notes and projects among his MSS.
and by allegoric sketches still extant. Several such sketches
are at Christ Church, Oxford: one shows a horned hag or she-
fiend urging her hounds to an attack on the state of Milan, and
baffled by the Prudence and Justice of II Moro (all this made
clear by easily recognizable emblems). The allusion must almost
certainly be to the attempted assassination of Ludovico by agents
of the duchess Bona in 1484. Again, it must have been the
pestilence decimating Milan in 1484-1485 which gave occasion
to the projects submitted by Leonardo to Ludovico for breaking
up the city and reconstructing it on improved sanitary prin-
ciples. To 1483-1486 also appears to belong the inception of his
elaborate though unfulfilled architectural plans for beautifying
and strengthening the Castello, the great stronghold of the ruling
power in the state. Very soon afterwards he must have begun
work upon his plans and models, undertaken during an acute
phase of the competition which the task had called forth be-
tween German and Italian architects, for another momentous
enterprise, the completion of Milan cathedral. Extant records
of payments made to him in connexion with these architectural
plans extend from August 1487 to May 1490: in the. upshot
none of them was carried out. From the beginning of his
residence with Ludovico his combination of unprecedented
mechanical ingenuity with apt allegoric invention and courtly
charm and eloquence had made him the directing spirit
in all court ceremonies and festivities. On the occasion of the
marriage of the young duke Gian Galeazzo with Isabella of
Aragon in 1487, we find Leonardo devising all the mechanical
and spectacular part of a masque of Paradise; and presently
afterwards designing a bathing pavilion of unheard-of beauty
and ingenuity for the young duchess. Meanwhile he was filling
his note-books as busily as ever with the results of his studies
in statics and dynamics, in human anatomy, geometry and
the phenomena of light and shade. It is probable that from
the first he had not forgotten his great task of the Sforza monu-
ment, with its attendant researches in equine movement and
anatomy, and in the science and art of bronze casting on a great
scale. The many existing sketches for the work (of which the
chief collection is at Windsor) cannot be distinctly dated. In
1490, the seventh year of his residence at Milan, after some
expressions of impatience on the part of his patron, he had all
but got his model ready for display on the occasion of the
marriage of Ludovico with Beatrice d'Este, but at the last
moment was dissatisfied with what he had done and determined
to begin all over again.
In the same year, 1490, Leonardo enjoyed some months of
uninterrupted mathematical and physical research in the libraries
and among the learned men of Pavia, whither he had been called
to advise on some architectural difficulties concerning the
cathedral. Here also the study of an ancient equestrian monu-
ment (the so-called Regisole, destroyed in 1796) gave him fresh
ideas for his Francesco Sforza. In January 1491 a double
Sforza-Este marriage (Ludovico Sforza himself with Beatrice
d'Este, Alfonso d'Este with Anna Sforza the sister of Gian
LEONARDO DA VINCI
447
Galeazzo) again called forth his powers as a masque and pageant-
master. For the next following years the ever-increasing
gaiety and splendour of the Milanese court gave him continual
employment in similar kinds, including the composition and
recitation of jests, tales, fables and " prophecies " (i.e. moral and
social satires and allegories cast in the future tense); among
his MSS. occur the drafts of many such, some of them both
profound and pungent. Meanwhile he was again at work upon
the monument to Francesco Sforza, and this time to practical
purpose. When ambassadors from Austria came to Milan
towards the close of 1493 to escort the betrothed bride of their
emperor Maximilian, Bianca Maria Sforza, away on her nuptial
journey, the finished colossal model, 26 ft. high, was at last
in its place for all to see in the courtyard of the Castello. Con-
temporary accounts attest the magnificence of the work and
the enthusiasm it excited, but are not precise enough to enable
us to judge to which of the two main groups of extant sketches
its design corresponded. One of these groups shows the horse
and rider in relatively tranquil march, in the manner of the
Gattemalata monument put up fifty years before by Donatello
at Padua and the Colleoni monument on which Verocchio was
now engaged at Venice. Another group of sketches shows the
horse galloping or rearing in violent action, in some instances
in the act of trampling a fallen enemy. Neither is it possible
to discriminate with certainty the sketches intended for the
Sforza monument from others which Leonardo may have done
in view of another and later commission for an equestrian statue,
namely, that in honour of Ludovico's great enemy, Gian Giacomo
Trivulzio.
The year 1494 is a momentous one in the history of Italian
politics. In that year the long ousted and secluded prince,
Gian Galeazzo, died under circumstances more than suspicious.
In that year Ludovico, now duke of Milan in his own right, for
the strengthening of his power against Naples, first entered into
those intrigues with Charles VIII. of France which later brought
upon Italy successive floods of invasion, revolution and calamity.
The same year was one of special importance in the prodigiously
versatile activities of Leonardo da Vinci. Documents show him,
among other things, planning during an absence of several
months from the city vast new engineering works for improving
the irrigation and water-ways of the Lomellina and adjacent
regions of the Lombard plain; ardently studying phenomena
of storm and lightning, of river action and of mountain struc-
ture; co-operating with his friend, Donato Bramante, the great
architect, in fresh designs for the improvement and embellish-
ment of the Castello at Milan; and petitioning the duke to
secure him proper payment for a Madonna lately executed with
the help of his pupil, Ambrogio de Predis, for the brotherhood of
the Conception of St Francis at Milan. (This is almost certainly
the fine, slightly altered second version of the " Virgin of the
Rocks," now in the National Gallery, London. The original
and earlier version is one of the glories of the Louvre, and shows
far more of a Florentine and less of a Milanese character than
the London picture.) In the same year, 1494, or early in the
next, Leonardo, if Vasari is to be trusted, paid a visit to Florence
to take part in deliberations concerning the projected new
council-hall to be constructed in the palace of the Signory.
Lastly, recent research has proved that it was in 1494 that
Leonardo got to work in earnest on what was .to prove not only
by far his greatest but by far his most expeditiously and steadily
executed work in painting. This was the " Last Supper "
undertaken for the refectory of the convent church of Sta
Maria delle Grazie at Milan on the joint commission (as it would
appear) of Ludovico and of the monks themselves.
This picture, the world-famous " Cenacolo " of Leonardo, has
been the subject of much erroneous legend and much misdirected
experiment. Having through centuries undergone cruel injury,
from technical imperfections at the outset, from disastrous
atmospheric conditions, from vandalism and neglect, and most
of all from unskilled repair, its remains have at last (1904-1908)
been treated with a mastery of scientific resource and a tenderness
of conscientious skill that have revived for ourselves and for
posterity a great part of its power. At the same time its true
history has been investigated and re-established. The intensity
of intellectual and manual application which Leonardo threw
into the work is proved by the fact that he finished it within
four years, in spite of all his other avocations and of those
prolonged pauses of concentrated imaginative effort and intense
self-critical brooding to which we have direct contemporary
witness. He painted the picture on the wall in tempera, not,
according to the legend which sprung up within twenty years
of its completion, in oil. The tempera vehicle, perhaps including
new experimental ingredients, did not long hold firmly to its
plaster ground, nor that to the wall. Flaking and scaling set in;
hard crusts of mildew formed, dissolved and re-formed with
changes of weather over both the loosened parts and those that
remained firm. Decade after decade these processes went
on, a rain of minute scales and grains falling, according to one
witness, continually from the surface, till the picture seemed to
be perishing altogether. In the i8th century attempts were first
made at restoration. They all proceeded on the false assump-
tion, dating from the early years of the i6th century, that the
work had been executed in oil. With oil it was accordingly
at one time saturated in hopes of reviving the colours. Other
experimenters tried various " secrets," which for the most part
meant deleterious glues and varnishes. Fortunately not very
much of actual repainting was accomplished except on some
parts of the garments. The chief operations were carried on by
Bellotti in 1726, by Mazza in 1770, and by Barezzi in 1819 and
the following years. None of them arrested, some actually
accelerated, the natural agencies of damp and disintegration,
decay and mildew. Yet this mere ghost of a picture, this
evocation, half vanished as it was, by a great world-genius of
a mighty spiritual world-event, remained a thing indescribably
impressive. The ghost has now been brought back to much
of true life again by the skill of the most scrupulous of all
restorers, Cavaliere Cavenaghi, who, acting under the authority
of a competent commission, and after long and patient experiment,
found it possible to secure to the wall the innumerable blistered,
mildewed and half-detached flakes and scales of the original
work that yet remained, to clear the surface thus obtained of
much of the obliterating accretions due to decay and mishandling,
and to bring the whole to unity by touching tenderly in with
tempera the spots and spaces actually left bare. A further
gain obtained through these operations has been the uncovering,
immediately above the main subject, of a beautiful scheme of
painted lunettes and vaultings, the lunettes filled by Leonardo's
hand with inscribed scutcheons and interlaced plait or knot
ornaments (intrecciamenti) , the vaultings with stars on a blue
ground. The total result, if adequate steps can be taken to
counteract the effects of atmospheric change in future, will
remain a splendid gain for posterity and a happy refutation of
D'Annunzio's despairing poem, the Death of a Masterpiece.
Leonardo's " Last Supper," for all its injuries, became from
the first, and has ever since remained, for all Christendom
the typical representation of the scene. Goethe in his famous
criticism has said all that needs to be said of it. The
painter has departed from precedent in grouping the disciples,
with their Master in the midst, along the far side and the two
ends of a long, narrow table, and in leaving the near or service
side of the table towards the spectator free. The chamber is
seen in a perfectly symmetrical perspective, its rear wall pierced
by three plain openings which admit the sense of quiet distance
and mystery from the open landscape beyond; by the central
of these openings, which is the widest of the three, the head and
shoulders of the Saviour are framed in. On His right and left
are ranged the disciples in equal numbers. The furniture and
accessories of the chamber, very simply conceived, have been
rendered with scrupulous exactness and distinctness; yet
they leave to the human and dramatic elements the absolute
mastery of the scene. The serenity of the holy company has
within a moment been broken by the words of their Master,
" One of you shall betray Me." In the agitation of their con-
sciences and affections, the disciples have started into groups
LEONARDO DA VINCI
or clusters along the table, some standing, some still remaining
seated. There are four of these groups, of three disciples each,
and each group is harmoniously interlinked by some natural
connecting action with the next. Leonardo, though no special
student of the Greeks, has perfectly carried out the Greek
principle of expressive variety in particulars subordinated to
general symmetry. He has used all his acquired science of linear
and aerial perspective to create an almost complete illusion
to the eye, but an illusion that has in it nothing trivial, and in
heightening our sense of the material reality of the scene only
heightens its profound spiritual impressiveness and gravity.
The results of his intensest meditations on the psychology and
the human and divine significance of the event (on which he
has left some pregnant hints in written words of his own) are
perfectly fused with those of his subtlest technical calculations
on the rhythmical balancing of groups and arrangement of
figures in space.
Of authentic preparatory studies for this work there remain
but few. There is a sheet at the Louvre of much earlier date
than the first idea or commission for this particular picture,
containing some nude sketches for the arrangement of the
subject ; another later and farther advanced, but still probably
anterior to the practical commission, at Venice, and a MS.
sheet of great interest at the Victoria and Albert Museum,
on which the painter has noted in writing the dramatic motives
appropriate to the several disciples. At Windsor and Milan
are a few finished studies in red chalk for the heads. A highly-
reputed series of life-sized chalk drawings of the same heads,
of which the greater portion is at Weimar, consists of early
copies, and is interesting though having no just claim to origin-
ality. Scarcely less doubtful is the celebrated unfinished and
injured study of the head of Christ at the Brera, Milan.
Leonardo's triumph with his " Last Supper " encouraged him
in the hope of proceeding now to the casting of the Sforza
monument or " Great Horse," the model of which had stood for
the last three years the admiration of all beholders, in the Corte
Vecchio of the Castello. He had formed a new and close friend-
ship with Luca Pacioli of Borgo San Sepolcro, the great mathe-
matician, whose Summa de aritmetica, geometrica, &c., he had
eagerly bought at Pavia on its first appearance, and who arrived
at the Court of Milan about the moment of the completion of
the " Cenacolo." Pacioli was equally amazed and delighted
at Leonardo's two great achievements in sculpture and painting,
and still more at the genius for mathematical, physical and
anatomical research shown in the collections of MS. notes which
the master laid before him. The two began working together
on the materials for Pacioli's next book, De divina proportions.
Leonardo obtained Pacioli's help in calculations and measure-
ments for the great task of casting the bronze horse and man.
But he was soon called away by Ludovico to a different under-
taking, the completion of the interior decorations, already
begun by another hand and interrupted, of certain chambers
of the Castello called the Saletta Negra and the Sola Grande
dell' Asse, or Sola delta Torre. When, in the last decade of the
1 9th century, works of thorough architectural investigation and
repair were undertaken in that building under the superintend-
ence of Professor Luca Beltrami, a devoted foreign student,
Dr Paul Muller-Walde, obtained leave to scrape for traces of
Leonardo's handiwork beneath the replastered and white-
washed walls and ceilings of chambers that might be identified
with these. In one small chamber there was cleared a frieze
of cupids intermingled with foliage; but in this, after the first
moments of illusion, it was only possible to acknowledge the
hand of some unknown late and lax decorator of the school,
influenced as much by Raphael as by Leonardo. In another
room (Sola del Tesoro) was recovered a gigantic headless figure,
in all probability of Mercury, also wrongly claimed at first
for Leonardo, and afterwards, to all appearance rightly, for
Bramante. But in the great Sola dell' Asse (or della Torre}
abundant traces of Leonardo's own hand were found, in the
shape of a decoration of intricate geometrical knot or plait work
combined with natural leafage; the abstract puzzle-pattern, of
a kind in which Leonardo took peculiar pleasure, intermingling
in cunning play and contrast with a pattern of living boughs
and leaves exquisitely drawn in free and vital growth. Sufficient
portions of this design were found in good preservation to enable
the whole to be accurately restored — a process as legitimate in
such a case as censurable in the case of a figure-painting. For
these and other artistic labours Leonardo was rewarded in 1498
(ready money being with difficulty forthcoming and his salary
being long in arrears) by the gift of a suburban garden outside
the Porta Vercelli.
But again he could not get leave to complete the task in hand.
He was called away on duty as chief military engineer (ingegnere
camerale) with the special charge of inspecting and maintaining
all the canals and waterways of the duchy. Dangers were accumu-
lating upon Ludovico and the state of Milan. France had become
Ludovico's enemy; and Louis XII., the pope and Venice had
formed a league to divide his principality among them. He
counted on baffling them by forming a counter league of the
principalities of northern Italy, and by raising the Turks against
Venice, and the Germans and Swiss against France. Germans
and Swiss, however, inopportunely fell to war against each other.
Ludovico travelled to Innsbruck, the better to push his interests
(September 1499). In his absence Louis XII. invaded the
Milanese, and the officers left in charge of the city surrendered
it without striking a blow. The invading sovereign, going to
Sta Maria delle Grazie with his retinue to admire the renowned
painting of the " Last Supper," asked if it could not be detached
from the wall and transported to France. The French b'eutenant
in Milan, Gian Giacomo Trivulzio, the embittered enemy of
Ludovico, began exercising a vindictive tyranny over the city
which had so long accepted the sway of the usurper. Great
artists were usually exempt from the consequences of political
revolutions, and Trivulzio, now or later, commissioned Leonardo
to design an equestrian monument to himself. Leonardo, having
remained unmolested at Milan for two months under the new
regime, but knowing that Ludovico was preparing a great stroke
for the re-establishment of his power, and that fresh convulsions
must ensue, thought it best to provide for his own security. In
December he left Milan with his friend Luca Pacioli, having first
sent some of his modest savings to Florence for investment.
His intention was to watch events. They took a turn which made
him a stranger to Milan for the next seven years. Ludovico, at
the head of an army of Swiss mercenaries, returned victoriously
in February 1500, and was welcomed by a population disgusted
with the oppression of the invaders. But in April he was once
more overthrown by the French in a battle fought at Novara, his
Swiss clamouring at the last moment for their overdue pay, and
treacherously refusing to fight against a force of their own
countrymen led by La Tremouille. Ludovico was taken prisoner
and carried to France; the city, which had been strictly spared
on the first entry of Louis XII., was entered and sacked; and
the model of Leonardo's great statue made a butt (as eye witnesses
tell) for Gascon archers. Two years later we find the duke Ercole
of Ferrara begging the French king's lieutenant in Milan to let
him have the model, injured as it was, for the adornment of his
own city; but nothing came of the petition, and within a short
time it seems to have been totally broken up.
Thus, of Leonardo's sixteen years' work at Milan (1483-1499)
the results actually remaining are as follows: The Louvre
" Virgin of the Rocks " possibly, i.e. as to its execution; the
conception and style are essentially Florentine, carried out by
Leonardo to a point of intense and almost glittering finish, of
quintessential, almost overstrained, refinement in design and
expression, and invested with a new element of romance by the
landscape in which the scene is set — a strange watered country
of basaltic caves and arches, with the lights and shadows striking
sharply and yet mysteriously among rocks, some upright, some
jutting, some pendent, all tufted here and there with exquisite
growths of shrub and flower. The National Gallery " Virgin of
the Rocks " certainly, with help from Ambrogio de Predis; in
this the Florentine character of the original is modified by an
admixture of Milanese elements, the tendency to harshness and
LEONARDO DA VINCI
449
over-elaboration of detail softened, the strained action of the
angel's pointing hand altogether dropped, while in many places
pupils' work seems recognizable beside that of the master. The
" Last Supper" of Sta Maria delle Grazie, his masterpiece; as to
its history and present condition enough has been said. The
decorations of the ceiling of the Sala della Torre in the CasteOo.
Other paintings done by him at Milan are mentioned, and
attempts have been made to identify them with works still
existing. He is known to have painted portraits of two of the
king's mistresses, Cecilia Gallerani and LucreziaCrivelli. Cecilia
Gallerani used to be identified as a lady with ringlets and a lute,
depicted in a portrait at Milan, now rightly assigned to Barto-
lommeo Veneto. More lately she has by some been conjecturally
recognized in a doubtful, though Leonardesque, portrait of a
lady with a weasel in the Czartoryski collection at Prague.
Lucrezia Crivelli has, with no better reason, been identified with
the famous " Belle Ferronniere " (a mere misnomer, caught
from the true name of another portrait which used to hang near
it) at the Louvre; this last is either a genuine Milanese portrait
by Leonardo himself or an extraordinarily fine work of his pupil
Boltraffio. Strong claims have also been made on behalf of a fine
profile portrait resembling Beatrice d'Este in the Ambrosiana;
but this the best judges are agreed in regarding as a work,
done in a lucky hour, of Ambrogio de Predis. A portrait of a
musician in the same gallery is in like manner contested between
the master and the pupil. Mention is made of a " Nativity "
painted for and sent to the emperor Maximilian, and also
apparently of some picture painted for Matthias Corvinus, king
of Hungary; both are lost or at least unidentified. The painters
especially recorded as Leonardo's immediate pupils during this
part of his life at Milan are the two before mentioned, Giovanni
Antonio Boltraffio and Ambrogio Preda or de Predis, with
Marco d'Oggionno and Andrea Salai, the last apparently less
a fully-trained painter than a studio assistant and personal
attendant, devotedly attached and faithful in both capacities.
Leonardo's own native Florentine manner had at first been not
a little modified by that of the Milanese school as he found it
represented in the works of such men as Bramantino, Borgognone
and Zenale; but his genius had in its turn reacted far more
strongly upon the younger members of the school, and exercised,
now or later, a transforming and dominating influence not only
upon his immediate pupils, but upon men like Luini, Giam-
petrino, Bazzi, Cesare da Sesto and indeed the whole Lombard
school in the early isth century. Of sculpture done by him
during this period we have no remains, only the tragically
tantalizing history of the Sforza monument. Of drawings there
are very many, including few only for the " Last Supper," many
for the Sforza monument, as well as the multitude of sketches,
scientific and other, which we find intermingled among the vast
body of his miscellaneous MSS., notes and records. Inmechanical,
scientific and theoretical studies of all kinds it was a period, as
these MSS. attest, of extraordinary activity and self-develop-
ment. At Pavia in 1494 we find him taking up literary and
grammatical studies, both in Latin and the vernacular; the
former, no doubt, in order the more easily to read those among the
ancients who had laboured in the fields that were his own, as
Euclid, Galen, Celsus, Ptolemy, Pliny, Vitruvius and, above all,
Archimedes; the latter with a growing hope of some day getting
into proper form and order the mass of materials he was daily
accumulating for treatises on all his manifold subjects of enquiry.
He had been much helped by his opportunities of intercourse
with the great architects, engineers and mathematicians who
frequented the court of Milan — Bramante, Alberghetti, Andrea
di Ferrara, Pietro Monti, Fazio Cardano and, above all, Luca
Pacioli. The knowledge of Leonardo's position among and
familiarity with such men early helped to spread the idea that'
he had been at the head of a regularly constituted academy of
arts and sciences at Milan. The occurrence of the words "Acha-
demia Leonard! Vinci " on certain engravings, done after his
drawings, of geometric " knots " or puzzle-patterns (things for
which we have already learned his partiality), helped to give
currency to this impression not only in Italy but in the North,
xvi. 15
where the same engravings were copied by Albrecht Durer.
The whole notion has been proved mistaken. There existed no
such academy at Milan, with Leonardo as president. The
academies of the day represented the prevailing intellectual
tendency of Renaissance humanism, namely, an absorbing
enthusiasm for classic letters and for the transcendental specula-
tions of Platonic and neo-Platonic mysticism, not unmixed with
the traditions and practice of medieval alchemy, astrology and
necromantics. For these last pursuits Leonardo had nothing
but contempt. His many-sided and far-reaching studies in
experimental science were mainly his own, conceived and carried
out long in advance of his time, and in communion with only
such more or less isolated spirits as were advancing along one or
another of the same paths of knowledge. He learnt indeed on
these lines eagerly wherever he could, and in learning imparted
knowledge to others. But he had no school in any proper sense
except his studio, and his only scholars were those who painted
there. Of these one or two, as we have evidence, tried their hands
at engraving; among their engravings were these " knots,"
which, being things of use for decorative craftsmen to copy,
were inscribed for identification, and perhaps for protection, as
coming from the Achademia Leonard! Vinci; a trifling matter
altogether, and quite unfit to sustain the elaborate structure
of conjecture which has been built on it.
To return to the master: when he and Luca Pacioli left Milan
in December 1499, their destination was Venice. They made
a brief stay at Mantua, where Leonardo was graciously received
by the duchess Isabella Gonzaga, the most cultured of the
many cultured great ladies of her time, whose portrait he
promised to paint on a future day; meantime he made the
fine chalk drawing of her now at the Louvre. Arrived at Venice,
he seems to have occupied himself chiefly with studies in mathe-
matics and cosmography. In April the friends heard of the
second and final overthrow of Ludovico il Moro, and at that
news, giving up all idea of a return to Milan, moved on to Florence,
which they found depressed both by internal troubles and
by the protraction of the indecisive and inglorious war with
Pisa. Here Leonardo undertook to paint an altar-piece for
the Church of the Annunziata, Filippino Lippi, who had already
received the commission, courteously retiring from it in his
favour. A year passed by, and no progress had been made with
the painting. Questions of physical geography and engineering
engrossed him as much as ever. He writes to correspondents
making enquiries about the tides in the Euxine and Caspian Seas.
He reports for the information of the Arte de' Mercanti on the
precautions to be taken against a threatening landslip on the
hill of S. Salvatore dell' Osservanza. He submits drawings
and models for the canalization and control of the waters of the
Arno, and propounds, with compulsive eloquence and conviction,
a scheme for transporting the Baptistery of St John, the " bel
San Giovanni " of Dante, to another part of the city, and elevat-
ing it on a stately basement of marble. Meantime the Servile
brothers of the Annunziata were growing impatient for the
completion of their altar-piece. In April 1501 Leonardo had only
finished the cartoon, and this all Florence flocked to see and
admire. Isabella Gonzaga, who cherished the hope that he might
be induced permanently to attach himself to the court of Mantua,
wrote about this time to ask news of him, and to beg for a paint-
ing from him for her study, already adorned with masterpieces
by the first hands of Italy, or at least for a " small Madonna,
devout and sweet as is natural to him." In reply her corre-
spondent says that the master is wholly taken up with geometry
and very impatient of the brush, but at the same time tells
her all about his just completed cartoon for the Annunziata.
The subject was the Virgin seated in the lap of St Anne, bending
forward to hold her child who had half escaped from her embrace
to play with a lamb upon the ground. The description answers
exactly to the composition of the celebrated picture of the
Virgin and St Anne at the Louvre. A cartoon of this composition
in the Esterhazy collection at Vienna is held to be only a copy,
and the original cartoon must be regarded as lost. But another
of kindred though not identical motive has come down to us
45°
LEONARDO DA VINCI
and is preserved in the Diploma Gallery at the Royal Academy.
In this incomparable work St Anne, pointing upward with her
left hand, smiles with an intense look of wondering, questioning,
inward sweetness into the face of the Virgin, who in her turn
smiles down upon her child as He leans from her lap to give the
blessing to the little St John standing beside her. Evidently
two different though nearly related designs had been maturing
in Leonardo's mind. A rough first sketch for the motive of the
Academy cartoon is in the British Museum; one for the motive
of the lost cartoon and of the Louvre picture is at Venice. Nc
painting by Leonardo from the Academy cartoon exists, but in
the Ambrosiana at Milan there is one by Luini, with the figure
of St Joseph added. It remains a matter of debate whether
the Academy cartoon or that shown by Leonardo at the Annun-
ziata in 1501 was the earlier. The probabilities seem in favour
of the Academy cartoon. This, whether done at Milan or at
Florence, is in any case a typically perfect and harmonious
example of the master's Milanese manner; while in the other
composition with the lamb the action and attitude of the Virgin
are somewhat strained, and the original relation between her head
and her mother's, lovely both in design and expression, is lost.
In spite of the universal praise of his cartoon, Leonardo did
not persevere with the picture, and the monks of the Annunziata
had to give back the commission to Filippino Lippi, at whose
death the task was completed by Perugino. It remains un-
certain whether a small Madonna with distaff and spindle, which
the correspondent of Isabella Gonzaga reports Leonardo as
having begun for one Robertet, a favourite of the king of France,
was ever finished. He painted one portrait, it is said, at this
time, that of Ginevra Benci, a kinswoman, perhaps sister, of
a youth Giovanni di Amerigo Benci, who shared his passion
for cosmographical studies; and probably began another,
the famous " La Gioconda," which was only finished four years
afterwards. The gonfalionere Soderini offered him in vain,
to do with it what he would, the huge half-spoiled block of
marble out of which Michelangelo three years later wrought his
" David." Isabella Gonzaga again begged, in an autograph
letter, that she might have a painting by his hand, but her request
was put off; he did her, however, one small service by examining
and reporting on some jewelled vases, formerly the property of
Lorenzo de' Medici, which had been offered her. The impor-
tunate expectations of a masterpiece or masterpieces in painting
or sculpture, which beset him on all hands in Florence, inclined
him to take service again with some princely patron, if possible
of a genius commensurate with his own, who would give him
scope to carry out engineering schemes on a vast scale. Ac-
cordingly he suddenly took service, in the spring of 1502, with
Cesare Borgia, duke of Valentinois, then almost within sight of
the realization of his huge ambitions, and meanwhile occupied
in consolidating his recent conquests in the Romagna. Between
May 1 502 and March 1 503 Leonardo travelled as chief engineer
to Duke Caesar over a great part of central Italy. Starting
with a visit to Piombino, on the coast opposite Elba, he went
by way of Siena to Urbino, where he made drawings and
began works; was thence hastily summoned by way of Pesaro
and Rimini to Cesena; spent two months between there and
Cesenatico, projecting and directing canal and harbour works,
and planning the restoration of the palace of Frederic II.; thence
hurriedly joined his master, momentarily besieged by enemies
at Imola; followed him probably to Sinigaglia and Perugia,
through the whirl of storms and surprises, vengeances and
treasons, which marked his course that winter, and finally, by
way of Chiusi and Acquapendente, as far as Orvieto and probably
to Rome, where Caesar arrived on the I4th of February 1503.
The pope's death and Caesar's own downfall were not destined
to be long delayed. But Leonardo apparently had already had
enough of that service, and was back at Florence in March. He
has left dated notes and drawings made at most of the stations
we have named, besides a set of six large-scale maps drawn
minutely with his own hand, and including nearly the whole
territory of the Maremma, Tuscany and Umbria between the
Apennines and the Tyrrhene Sea.
At Florence he was at last persuaded, on the initiative of
Piero Soderini, to undertake for his native city a work of painting
as great as that with which he had adorned Milan. This was
a battle-piece to decorate one of the walls of the new council-
hall in the palace of the signory. He chose an episode in the
victory won by the generals of the republic in 1440 over Niccolo
Piccinino near a bridge at Anghiari, in the upper valley of the
Tiber. To the young Michelangelo was presently entrusted a
rival battle-piece to be painted on another wall of the same
apartment; he chose, as is well known, a surprise of the Floren-
tine forces in the act of bathing near Pisa. About the same
time Leonardo took part in the debate on the proper site for
Michelangelo's newly finished colossal " David," and voted
in favour of the Loggia dei Lanzi, against a majority which
included Michelangelo himself. Neither Leonardo's genius nor
his noble manners could soften the rude and taunting temper
of the younger man, whose style as an artist, nevertheless, in
subjects both of tenderness and terror, underwent at this time
a profound modification from Leonardo's example.
In one of the sections of his projected Treatise on Painting,
Leonardo has detailed at length, and obviously from his own
observation, the pictorial aspects of a battle. His choice of
subject in this instance was certainly not made from any love
of warfare or indifference to its horrors. In his MSS. there
occur almost as many trenchant sayings on life and human
affairs as on art and natural law; and of war he has disposed
in two words as a " bestial frenzy " (pazzia bestialissima). In
his design for the Hall of Council he set himself to depict this
frenzy at its fiercest. He chose the moment of a terrific struggle
for the colours between the opposing sides; hence the work
became commonly known as the " Battle of the Standard."
Judging by the accounts of those who saw it, and the fragmentary
evidences which remain, the tumultuous medley of men and
horses, and the expressions of martial fury and despair, must
have been conceived and rendered with a mastery not less
commanding than had been the looks and gestures of bodeful
sorrow and soul's perplexity among the quiet company on the
convent wall at Milan. The place assigned to Leonardo for
the preparation of his cartoon was the Sala del Papa at Santa
Maria Novella. He for once worked steadily and unremittingly
at his task. His accounts with the signory enable us to follow
its progress step by step. He had finished the cartoon in less
than two years (1504-1505), and when it was exhibited along
with that of Michelangelo, the two rival works seemed to all
men a new revelation of the powers of art, and served as a model
and example of the students of that generation, as the frescoes
of Masaccio in the Carmine had served to those of two generations
earlier. The young Raphael, whose incomparable instinct for
rhythmical design had been trained hitherto on subjects of
holy quietude and rapt contemplation according to the traditions
of Umbrian art, learnt from Leonardo's example to apply the
same instinct to themes of violent action and strife. From
the same example Fra Bartolommeo and a crowd of other
Florentine painters of the rising or risen generation took in like
manner a new impulse. The master lost no time in proceeding
to the execution of his design upon the mural surface; this
time he had devised a technical method of which, after a pre-
liminary trial in the Sala del Papa, he regarded the success as
certain; the colours, whether tempera or other remains in
doubt, were to be laid on a specially prepared ground, and then
both colours and ground made secure upon the wall by the
application of heat. When the central group was done the heat
was applied, but it was found to take effect unequally; the
colours in the upper part ran or scaled from the wall, and the
result was a failure more or less complete. The unfinished
and decayed painting remained for some fifty years on the wall,
but after 1560 was covered over with new frescoes by Vasari.
The cartoon did not last so long. After doing its work as the
most inspiring of all examples for students it seems to have been
cut up. When Leonardo left Italy for good in 1516 he is recorded
to have left " the greater part of it " in deposit at the hospital
of S. Maria Nuova, where he was accustomed also to deposit his
LEONARDO DA VINCI
moneys, and whence it seems before long to have disappeared.
Our only existing memorials of the great work are a number of
small pen-studies of fighting men and horses, three splendid
studies in red chalk at Budapest for heads in the principal
group, one head at Oxford copied by a contemporary of the size
of the original cartoon (above life); a tiny sketch, also at
Oxford, by Raphael after the principal group; an engraving
done by Zacchia of Lucca in 1558 not after the original but
after a copy; a 16th-century Flemish drawing of the principal
group, and another, splendidly spirited, by Rubens, both copies
of copies; with Edelinck's fine engraving after the Rubens
drawing.
During these years, 1503-1506, Leonardo also resumed (if
it is true that he had already begun it before his travels with
Cesare Borgia) the portrait of Madonna Lisa, the Neapolitan
wife of Zanobi del Giocondo, and finished it to the last pitch
of his powers. In this lady he had found a sitter whose face
and smile possessed in a singular degree the haunting, enigmatic
charm in which he delighted. He worked, it is said, at her
portrait during some portion of four successive years, causing
music to be played during the sittings that the rapt expression
might not fade from off her countenance. The picture was bought
afterwards by Francis I. for four thousand gold florins, and is
now one of the glories of the Louvre. The richness of colouring
on which Vasari expatiates has indeed flown, partly from
injury, partly because in striving for effects of light and shade
the painter was accustomed to model his figures on a dark
ground, and in this as in his other oil-pictures the ground has
to a large extent come through. Nevertheless, in its dimmed
and blackened state, the portrait casts an irresistible spell alike
by subtlety of expression, by refinement and precision of drawing,
and by the romantic invention of its background. It has been
the theme of endless critical rhapsodies, among which that of
Pater is perhaps the most imaginative as it is the best known.
In the spring of 1506 Leonardo, moved perhaps by chagrin
at the failure of his work in the Hall of Council, accepted a
pressing invitation to Milan, from Charles d'Amboise, Marechal
de Chaumont, the lieutenant of the French king in Lombardy.
The leave of absence granted to him by the signory on the
request of the French viceroy was for three months only. The
period was several times extended, at first grudgingly, Soderini
complaining that Leonardo had treated the republic ill in the
matter of the battle picture; whereupon the painter honourably
offered to refund the money paid, an offer which the signory
as honourably refused. Louis XII. sent messages urgently
desiring that Leonardo should await his own arrival in Milan,
having seen a small Madonna by him in France (probably
that painted for Robertet) and hoping to obtain from him works
of the same class and perhaps a portrait. The king arrived
in May 1507, and soon afterwards Leonardo's services were
formally and amicably transferred from the signory of Florence
to Louis, who gave him the title of painter and engineer in
ordinary. In September of the same year troublesome private
affairs called him to Florence. His father had died in 1504,
apparently intestate. After his death Leonardo experienced
unkindness from his seven half-brothers, Ser Piero's legitimate
sons. They were all much younger than himself. One of them,
who followed his father's profession, made himself the champion
of the others in disputing Leonardo's claim to his share, first
in the paternal inheritance, and then in that which had been
left to be divided between the brothers and sisters by an uncle.
The litigation that ensued dragged on for several years, and
forced upon Leonardo frequent visits to Florence and interrup-
tions of his work at Milan, in spite of pressing letters to the
authorities of the republic from Charles d'Amboise, from the
French king himself, and from others of his powerful friends
and patrons, begging that the proceedings might be accelerated.
There are traces of work done during these intervals of com-
pulsory residence at Florence. A sheet of sketches drawn there
in 1508 shows the beginning of a Madonna now lost except in
the form of copies, one of which (known, as the " Madonna
Litta") is at St Petersburg, another in the Poldi-Pezzoli Museum
at Milan. A letter from Leonardo to Charles d'Amboise in 1511,
announcing the end of his law troubles, speaks of two Madonnas
of different sizes that he means to bring with him to Milan. One
was no doubt that just mentioned; can the other have been
the Louvre " Virgin with St Anne and St John," now at last
completed from the cartoon exhibited in 1501? Meantime the
master's main home and business were at Milan. Few works
of painting and none of sculpture (unless the unfulfilled commis'
sion for the Trivulzio monument belongs to this time) are
recorded as occupying him during the seven years of his second
residence in that city (1506-1513). He had attached to himself
a new and devoted young friend and pupil of noble birth,
Francesco Melzi. At the villa of the Melzi family at Vaprio,
where Leonardo was a frequent visitor, a colossal Madonna on
one of the walls is traditionally ascribed to him, but is rather
the work of Sodoma or of Melzi himself working under the
master's eye. Another painter in the service of the French king,
Jehan Perreal or Jehan de Paris, visited Milan, and consultations
on technical points were held between him and Leonardo. But
Leonardo's chief practical employments were evidently on the
continuation of his great hydraulic and irrigation works in
Lombardy. His old trivial office of pageant-master and inventor
of scientific toys was revived on the occasion of Louis XII. 's
triumphal entry after the victory of Agnadello in 1509, and gave
intense delight to the French retinue of the king. He was
consulted on the construction of new choir-stalls for the cathedral.
He laboured in the natural sciences as ardently as ever, especially
at anatomy in company with the famous professor of Pavia,
Marcantonio della Torre. To about this time, when he was
approaching his sixtieth year, may belong the noble portrait-
drawing of himself in red chalk at Turin. He looks too old for
his years, but quite unbroken; the character of a veteran sage
has fully imprinted itself on his countenance; the features are
grand, clear and deeply lined, the mouth firmly set and almost
stern, the eyes strong and intent beneath their bushy eyebrows,
the hair flows untrimmed over his shoulders and commingles
with a majestic beard.
Returning to Milan with his law-suits ended in 1511, Leonardo
might have looked forward to an old age of contented labour,
the chief task of which, had he had his will, would undoubtedly
have been to put in order the vast mass of observations and
speculations accumulated in his note-books, and to prepare
some of them for publication. But as his star seemed rising
that of his royal protector declined. The hold of the French
on Lombardy was rudely shaken by hostile political powers,
then confirmed again for a while by the victories of Gaston de
Foix, and finally destroyed by the battle in which that hero fell
under the walls of Ravenna. In June 1512 a coalition between
Spain, Venice and the pope re-established the Sforza dynasty
in power at Milan in the person of Ludovico's son Massimiliano.
This prince must have been familiar with Leonardo as a
child, but perhaps resented the ready transfer of his allegiance
to the French, and at any rate gave him no employment.
Within a few months the ageing master uprooted himself from
Milan, and moved with his chattels and retinue of pupils to
Rome, into the service of the house that first befriended him,
the Medici. The vast enterprises of Pope Julius II. had already
made Rome the chief seat and centre of Italian art. The acces-
sion of Giulio de' Medici in 1513 under the title of Leo X. raised
on all hands hopes of still ampler and more sympathetic patron-
age. Leonardo's special friend at the papal court was the pope's
youngest brother, Giuliano de' Medici, a youth who combined
dissipated habits with thoughtful culture and a genuine interest
in arts and sciences. By his influence Leonardo and his train
were accommodated with apartments in the Belvedere of the
Vatican. But the conditions of the time and place proved
adverse. The young generation held the field. Michelangelo
and Raphael, who had both, as we have seen, risen to greatness
partly on Leonardo's shoulders, were fresh from the glory of
their great achievements in the Sistine Chapel and the Stanze.
Their rival factions hated each other, but both, 'especially the
faction of Michelangelo, turned bitterly against the veteran
452
LEONARDO DA VINCI
newcomer. The pope, indeed, is said to have been delighted
with Leonardo's minor experiments and ingenuities in science,
and especially by a kind of zoological toys which he had invented
by way of pastime, as well as mechanical tricks played upon
living animals. But for the master's graver researches and
projects he cared little, and was far more interested in the
dreams of astrologers and alchemists. When Leonardo, having
received a commission for a picture, was found distilling for
himself a new medium of oils and herbs before he had begun the
design, the pope was convinced, not quite unreasonably, that
nothing serious would come of it. The only paintings positively
recorded as done by him at Rome are two small panels for an
official of the papal court, one of a child, the other of a Madonna,
both now lost or unrecognized. To this time may also belong
a lost Leda, standing upright with the god in swan's guise at her
side and the four children near their feet. This picture was
at Fontainebleau in the i6th century and is known from several
copies, the finest of them at the Borghese gallery, as well as
from one or two preliminary sketches by the master himself
and a small sketch copy by Raphael. A portrait of a Florentine
lady, said to have been painted for Giuliano de' Medici and seen
afterwards in France, may also have been done at Rome; or
may what we learn of this be only a confused account of the Monna
Lisa? Tradition ascribes to Leonardo an attractive fresco of
a Madonna with a donor in the convent of St Onofrio, but this
seems to be clearly the work of Boltraffio. The only engineering
works we hear of at this time are some on the harbour and
defences of Civita Vecchia. On the whole the master in these
Roman days found himself slighted for the first and only time
in his life. He was, moreover, plagued by insubordination and
malignity on the part of two German assistant craftsmen lodged
in his apartments. Charges of impiety and body-snatching laid
by these men in connexion with his anatomical studies caused
the favour of the pope to be for a time withdrawn. After a
stay of less than two years, Leonardo left Rome under the follow-
ing circumstances. Louis XII. of France had died in the last
days of 1514. His young and brilliant successor, Francis I.,
surprised Europe by making a sudden dash at the head of an
army across the Alps to vindicate his rights in Italy. After
much hesitation Leo X. in the summer of 1515 ordered Giuliano
de' Medici, as gonfalonier of the Church, to lead a papal
force into the Emilia and watch the movements of the invader.
Leonardo accompanied his protector on the march, and remained
with the headquarters of the papal army at Piacenza when
Giuliano fell ill and retired to Florence. After the battle of
Marignano it was arranged that Francis and the pope should
meet in December at Bologna. The pope, travelling by way
of Florence and discussing there the great new scheme of the
Laurentian library, entertained the idea of giving the com-
mission to Leonardo; but Michelangelo came in hot haste from
Rome and succeeded in securing it for himself. As the time
for the meeting of the potentates at Bologna drew near, Leonardo
proceeded thither from Piacenza, and in due course was pre-
sented to the king. Between the brilliant young sovereign
and the grand old sage an immediate and strong sympathy
sprang up; Leonardo accompanied Francis on his homeward
march as far as Milan, and there determined to accept the
royal invitation to France, where a new home was offered him
with every assurance of honour and regard.
The remaining two and a half years of Leonardo's life were
spent at the Castle of Cloux near Amboise, which was assigned,
with a handsome pension, to his use. The court came often
to Amboise, and the king delighted in his company, declaring
his knowledge both of the fine arts and of philosophy to be
beyond those of all mortal men. In the spring of 1518 Leonardo
had occasion to exercise his old talents as a festival-master when
the dauphin was christened and a Medici-Bourbon marriage
celebrated. He drew the designs for a new palace at Amboise,
and was much engaged with the project of a great canal to connect
the Loire and Sa6ne. An ingenious attempt has been made
to prove, in the absence of records, that the famous spiral
staircase at Blois was also of his designing.
Among his visitors was a fellow-countryman, Cardinal Louis
of Aragon, whose secretary has left an account of the day.
Leonardo, it seems, was suffering from some form of slight
paralysis which impaired his power of hand. But he showed
the cardinal three pictures, the portrait of a Florentine lady
done for Giuliano de' Medici (the Gioconda ?), the Virgin in the
lap of St Anne (the Louvre picture; finished at Florence or
Milan 1507-1513?), and a youthful John the Baptist. The
last, which may have been done since he settled in France, is
the darkened and partly repainted, but still powerful and
haunting half-length figure in the Louvre, with the smile of
inward ravishment and the prophetic finger beckoning skyward
like that of St Anne in the Academy cartoon. Of the " Pomona "
mentioned by Lomazzo as a work of the Amboise time his
visitor says nothing, nor yet of the Louvre " Bacchus," which
tradition ascribes to Leonardo but which is clearly pupil's work.
Besides pictures, the master seems also to have shown and
explained to his visitors some of his vast store of notes and
observations on anatomy and physics. He kept hoping to get
some order among his papers, the accumulation of more than
forty years, and perhaps to give the world some portion of the
studies they contained. But his strength was nearly exhausted.
On Easter Eve 1519, feeling that the end was near, he made his
will. It made provision, as became a great servant of the most
Christian king, for masses to be said and candles to be offered
in three different churches of Amboise, first among them that
of St Florentin, where he desired to be buried, as well as for
sixty poor men to serve as torch-bearers at his funeral. Vasari
babbles of a death-bed conversion and repentance. But Leonardo
had never been either a friend or an enemy of the Church.
Sometimes, indeed, he denounces fiercely enough the arts and
pretensions of priests; but no one has embodied with such
profound spiritual insight some of the most vital moments of
the Christian story. His insatiable researches into natural fact
brought upon him among the vulgar some suspicion of practising
those magic arts which of all things he scouted and despised.
The bent of his mind was all towards the teachings of experience
and against those of authority, and laws of nature certainly
occupied far more of his thoughts than dogmas of religion;
but when he mentions these it is with respect as throwing light
on the truth of things from a side which was not his own. His
conformity at the end had in it nothing contradictory of his
past. He received the sacraments of the Church and died on
the and of May 1519. King Francis, then at his court of St
Germain-en-Laye, is said to have wept for the loss of such a
servant; that he was present beside the death-bed and held
the dying painter in his arms is a familiar but an untrue tale.
After a temporary sepulture elsewhere his remains were trans-
ported on the 1 2th of August to the cloister of St Florentin
according to his wish. He left all his MSS. and apparently all
the contents of his studio, with other gifts, to the devoted Melzi,
whom he named executor; to Salai and to his servant Battista
Villanis a half each of his vineyard outside Milan; gifts of
money and clothes to his maid Maturina; one of money to the
poor of the hospital in Amboise; and to his unbrotherly half-
brothers a sum of four hundred ducats lying to his credit at
Florence.
History tells of no man gifted in the same degree as Leonardo
was at once for art and science. In art he was an inheritor and
perfecter, born in a day of great and many-sided endeavours on
which he put the crown, surpassing both predecessors and
contemporaries. In science, on the other hand, he was a pioneer,
working wholly for the future, and in great part alone. That the
two stupendous gifts should in some degree neutralize each other
was inevitable. No imaginable strength of any single man would
have sufficed to carry out a hundredth part of what Leonardo
essayed. The mere attempt to conquer the kingdom of light
and shade for the art of painting was destined to tax the skill of
generations, and is perhaps not wholly and finally accomplished
yet. Leonardo sought to achieve that conquest and at the same
time to carry the old Florentine excellences of linear drawing
and psychological expression to a perfection of which other men
LEONARDO DA VINCI
453
had not dreamed. The result, though marvellous in quality, is
in quantity lamentably meagre. Knowing and doing allured him
equally, and in art, which consists in doing, his efforts were often
paralysed by his strained desire to know. The thirst for know-
ledge had first been aroused in him by .the desire of perfecting
the images of beauty and power which it was his business to
create.
Thence there grew upon him the passion of knowledge for its
own sake. In the splendid balance of his nature the Virgilian
longing, rerum cognoscere causas, could never indeed wholly
silence the call to exercise his active powers. But the powers he
cared most to exercise ceased by degree to be those of imaginative
creation, and came to be those of turning to practical human
use the mastery which his studies had taught him over the forces
of nature. In science he was the first among modern men to set
himself most of those problems which unnumbered searchers of
later generations have laboured severally or in concert to solve.
Florence had had other sons of comprehensive genius, artistic
and mechanical, Leon Battista Alberti perhaps the chief. But
the more the range and character of Leonardo's studies becomes
ascertained the more his greatness dwarfs them all. A hundred
years before Bacon, say those who can judge best, he showed a
firmer grasp of the principles of experimental science than Bacon
showed, fortified by a far wider range of actual experiment and
observation. Not in his actual conclusions, though many of
these point with surprising accuracy in the direction of truths
established by later generations, but in the soundness, the wisdom,
the tenacity of his methods lies his great title to glory. Had the
Catholic reaction not fatally discouraged the pursuit of the natural
sciences in Italy, had Leonardo even left behind him any one with
zeal and knowledge enough to extract from the mass of his MSS.
some portion of his labours in those sciences and give them to
the world, an incalculable impulse would have been given to all
those enquiries by which mankind has since been striving to
understand the laws of its being and control the conditions of
its environment, — to mathematics and astronomy, to mechanics,
hydraulics, and physics generally, to geology, geography, and
cosmology, to anatomy and the sciences of life. As it was, these
studies of Leonardo — " studies intense of strong and stern
delight " — seemed to his trivial followers and biographers merely
his whims and fancies, ghiribizzi, things to be spoken of slightingly
and with apology. The MSS., with the single exception of some
of those relating to painting, lay unheeded and undivulged until
the present generation; and it is only now that the true range of
Leonardo's powers is beginning to be fully discerned.
So much for the intellectual side of Leonardo's character and
career. As a moral being we are less able to discern what he
was like. The man who carried in his brain so many images of
subtle beauty, as well as so much of the hidden science of the
future, must have lived spiritually, in the main, alone. Of
things communicable he was at the same time, as we have said,
communicative — a genial companion, a generous and loyal
friend, ready and eloquent of discourse, impressing all with whom
he was brought in contact by the power and the charm of genius,
and inspiring fervent devotion and attachment in friends and
pupils. We see him living on terms of constant affection with
his father, and in disputes with his brothers not the aggressor but
the sufferer from aggression. We see him full of tenderness to
animals, a virtue not common in Italy in spite of the example
of St Francis; open-handed in giving, not eager in getting —
" poor," he says, " is the man of many wants "; not prone to
resentment — " the best shield against injustice is to double the
cloak of long-suffering "; zealous in labour above all men — " as
a day well spent gives joyful sleep, so does a life well spent give
joyful death." With these instincts and maxims, and with his
strength, granting it almost more than human, spent ever tunnel-
ling in abstruse mines of knowledge, his moral experience is not
likely to have been deeply troubled. In religion, he regarded
the faith of his age and country at least with imaginative sym-
pathy and intellectual acquiescence, if no more. On the political
storms which shook his country and drove him from one employ-
ment to another, he seems to have looked not with the passionate
participation of a Dante or a Michelangelo but rather with the
serene detachment of a Goethe. In matters of the heart, if any
consoling or any disturbing passion played a great part in his
life, we do not know it; we know only (apart from a few passing
shadows cast by calumny and envy) of affectionate and dignified
relations with friends, patrons and pupils, of public and private
regard mixed in the days of his youth with dazzled admiration,
and in those of his age with something of reverential awe.
The Drawings of Leonardo. — These are among the greatest treasures
ever given to the world by the human spirit expressing itself in pen
and pencil. Apart from the many hundreds of illustrative pen-
sketches scattered through his autobiographic and scientific MSS.,
the principal collection is at Windsor Castle (partly derived from
the Arundel collection); others of importance are in the British
Museum; at Christ Church, Oxford; in the Louvre, at Chantilly,
in the Uffizi, the Venice Academy, the Royal Library at Turin, the
M useum of Budapest, and in the collections of M . Bonnat, Mrs Mond,
and Captain Holford. Leonardo's chief implements were pen, silver-
point, and red and black chalk (red chalk especially). In silver-
point there are many beautiful drawings of his earlier time, and some
of his later; but of the charming heads of women and young men
in this material attributed to him in various collections, compara-
tively few are his own work, the majority being drawings in his
spirit by his pupils Ambrogio Preda or Boltraffio. Leonardo appears
to have been left-handed. There is some doubt on the point; but
a contemporary and intimate friend, Luca Pacioli, speaks of his
"ineffable left hand"; all the best of his drawings are shaded
downward from left to right, which would be the readiest way for
a left-handed man; and his habitual eccentric practice of writing
from right to left is much more likely to have been due to natural
left-handedness than to any desire of mystery or concealment. A
full critical discussion and catalogue of the extant drawings of
Leonardo are to be found in Berenson's Drawings of the Florentine
Painters.
The Writings of Leonardo. — The only printed book bearing
Leonardo's name until the recent issues of transcripts from his MSS.
was the celebrated Treatise on Painting (Trattato delta pittura, Traite
de la peinture). This consists of brief didactic chapters, or more
properly paragraphs, of practical direction or critical remark on all
the branches and conditions of a painter's practice. The original
MS. draft of Leonardo has been lost, though a great number of notes
for it are scattered through the various extant volumes of his MSS.
The work has been printed in two different forms; one of these
is an abridged version consisting of 365 sections; the first edition
of it was published in Paris in 1551, by Raphael Dufresne, from a
MS. which he found in theBarberini library; the last, translated into
English by J. F. Rigaud, in London, 1877. The other is a more
extended version, in 912 sections, divided into eight books; this
was printed in 1817 by Guglielmo Manzi at Rome, from two MSS.
which he had discovered in the Vatican library; a German transla-
tion from the same MS. has been edited by G. H. Ludwig in Eitcl-
berger's series of Quellenschriften fur Kunstgeschichte (Vienna, 1882;
Stuttgart, 1885). On the history of the book in general see Max
Jordan, Das Malerbuch des Leonardo da Vinci (Leipzig, 1873). The
unknown compilers of the Vatican MSS. must have had before them
much more of Leonardo's original text than is now extant. Only
about a quarter of the total number of paragraphs are identical with
passages to be found in the master's existing autograph note-
books. It is indeed doubtful whether Leonardo himself ever com-
pleted the MS. treatise (or treatises) on painting and kindred subjects
mentioned by Fra Luca Pacioli and by Vasari, and probable that ,
the form and order, and perhaps some of the substance, of the
Trattato as we have it was due to compilers and not to the master
himself.
In recent years a whole body of scholars and editors have been
engaged in giving to the world the texts of Leonardo's existing
MSS. The history of these is too complicated to be told here in
any detail. Francesco Melzi (d. 1570) kept the greater part of his
master's bequest together as a sacred trust as long as he lived,
though even in his time some MSS. on the art of painting seem to
have passed into other hands. But his descendants suffered the
treasure to be recklessly dispersed. The chief agents in their dispersal
were the Doctor Orazio Melzi who possessed them in the last quarter
of the i6th century; the members of a Milanese family called
Mazzenta, into whose hands they passed in Orazio Melzi's lifetime;
and the sculptor Pompeo Leoni, who at one time entertained the
design of procuring their presentation to Philip II. of Spain, and
who cut up a number of the note-books to form the great miscellane-
ous single volume called the Codice Atlantico, now at Milan. This
volume, with a large proportion of the total number of other Leonardo
MSS. then existing, passed into the hands of a Count Arconati, who
presented them to the Ambrosian library at Milan in 1636. In
the meantime the earl of Arundel had made a vain attempt to
purchase one of these volumes (the Codice Atlanticof) at a great
price for the king of England. Some stray parts of the collection,
including the MSS. now at Windsor, did evidently come into Lord
Arundel s possession, and the history of some other parts can be
454
LEONARDO OF PISA
followed; while much, it is evident, was lost for good. In 1796
Napoleon swept away to Paris, along with the other art treasures
of Italy, the whole of the Leonardo MSS. at the Ambrosiana:
only the Codice Atlantico was afterwards restored, the other volumes
remaining the property of the Institut de France. These also have
had their adventures, two of them having been stolen by Count
Libri and passed temporarily into the collection of Lord Ashburnham,
whence they were in recent years made over again to the Institute.
The first important step towards a better knowledge of the MSS.
was made by the beginning, in 1880, of the great series of publications
from the MSS. of the Institut de France undertaken by C. Rayaisson-
Mollien; the next by the publication in 1883 of Dr J. P. Richter's
Literary Works of Leonardo da Vinci (see Bibliography) : this work
included, besides a history and analytical index of the MSS., fac-
similes of a number of selected pages containing matter of auto-
biographical, artistic, or literary interest, with transcripts and
translations of their MS. contexts. Since then much progress has
been made in the publication of the complete MSS., scientific and
other, whether with adequate critical apparatus or in the form of
mere facsimile without transliteration or comment.
A brief statement follows of the present distribution of the several
MSS. and of the form in which they are severally published : —
England. — Windsor: Nine MSS., chiefly on anatomy, published
entire in simple facsimile by Rouveyre (Paris, 1901); partially,
with transliterations and introduction by Piumati and Sabachni-
koff (Paris, 1898, foil.); British Museum: one MS., miscellaneous,
unpublished; Victoria and Albert Museum: ten note-books bound
in 3 vols. ; facsimile by Rouveyre, Holkham (collection of Lord
Leicester), I vol., on hydraulics and the action of water; published
in facsimile with transliteration and notes by Gerolamo Calvi.
France. — Institut de France: seventeen MSS., all published with
transliteration and notes by C. Ravaisson-Mollien (6 vols., Paris,
1880-1891). Italy. — Milan, Ambrosiana: the Codice Atlantico,
the huge miscellany, of vital importance for the study of the master,
put together by Pompeo Leoni; published in facsimile, with trans-
literation, by the Accademia dei Lincei (1894, foil.) ; Milan : collection
of Count Trivulzio; i vol., miscellaneous; published and edited by
L. Beltrami (1892); Rome: collection of Count Marszolini; Treatise
on the Flight of Birds, published and edited by Piumati and Sabach-
nikoff (Paris, 1492).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The principal authorities are: — " II libro di
Antonio Billi," edited from MS. by G. de Fabriazy in Archivio
Storico Ital. ser. v. vol. 7; " Breve vita di Leonardo da Vinci,
scritto da un ad noni mo del 1 500 ' ' (known as the Anonimo Gaddiano) ,
printed by G. Milanesi in Archivio Slorico Ital. t. xvi. (1872), trans-
lated with notes by H. P. Horne in series published by the Unicorn
Library (1903) ; Paolo Giovio, " Leonardi Vincii vita," in his
Elogia, printed in Tiraboschi, Sloria delta Lett. Ital. t. vii. pt. 4,
and in Classici Italiani, vol. 314; Vasari, in his celebrated Lives
of the Painters (ist ed., Florence, 1550; 2nd ed. ibid. 1568; ed.
Milanesi, with notes and supplements, 1878-1885); Sabba da
Castiglione, Ricordi (Venice, 1565); G. P. Lomazzo, Trattato dell'
arte della pittura, &c. (Milan, 1584-1585); Id., Idea del tempio della
pitlura (Milan, 1591); Le Pere Dan, Le Tresor . . . de Fontaine-
bleau (1642); J. B. Venturi, Essai sur les ouvrages physico-mathe-
matiques de L. da V. (Paris, 1797); C. Amoretti, Memorie storiche
sulla vita, &c. di L. da V. (Milan, 1804), a work which laid the
foundation of all future researches; Giuseppe Bossi, Del Cenacolo
di L. da V. (Milan, 1810); C. Fumagalli, Scuola di Leonardo da
Vinci (1811); Gave, Carteggio d'artisti (1839-1841); G. Uzielli,
Ricerche intorno a L. da V., series I, 2 (Florence, 1872; Rome, 1884;
series I revised, Turin, 1896), documentary researches of the first
importance for the study ; C. L. Calvi, Notizie dei principali professori
di belle arti (Milan, 1869); Arsene Hpussaye, Histoire de L. de V.
(Paris, 1869 and 1876, an agreeable literary biography of the pre-
critical kind); Mrs Heaton, Life of L. da V. (London, 1872), a work
also made obsolete by recent research; Hermann Grothe, L. da V.
als Ingenieur und Philosoph (Berlin, 1874); A. Marks, the 5. Anne
of L. da V. (London, 1882); J. P. Richter, The Literary Works of
L. da V. (2 vols., London, 1883), this is the very important and
valuable history of and selection from the texts mentioned above
under MSS. ; Ch. Ravaisson-Mollien, Les Merits de L. da V. (Paris,
1881); Paul Mtiller Walde, L. da V., Lebensskizze und Forschungen
(Munich, 1889-1890) ; Id., " Beitrage zur Kenntniss des L. da V., in
Jahrbuch der k. Preussischen Kunstsammlungen (1897-1899), the
first immature and incomplete, the second of high value: the whole
life of this writer has been devoted to the study of L. da V., but it
is uncertain whether the vast mass of material collected by him will
ever take shape or see the light ; G. Gronau, L. da V. (London, 1902) ;
Bernhard Berenson, The Drawings of the Florentine Painters (London,
1903); Edmondo Solmi, Studi sulla filosofia naturale di L. da V.
(Modena, 1898); Id., Leonardo (Florence, 1st ed. 1900, 2nd ed.
1907; this last edition of Solmi's work is by far the most complete
and satisfactory critical biography of the master which yet exists) ;
A. Rosenberg, L. da V., in Knackfuss's series of art biographies
(Leipzig, 1898); Gabriel Seailles, L. da V., I' artiste el le savant
(ist ed. 1892, 2nd ed. 1906), a lucid and careful general estimate
of great value, especially in reference to Leonardo's relations to
modern science; Edward McCurdy, L. da V., in Bell's " Great
Masters " series (1904 and 1907), a very sound and trustworthy
summary of the master's career as an artist; Id., L. da V.'s Note-
Books (1908), a selection from the passages of chief general interest
in the master's MSS., very well chosen, arranged, and translated,
with a useful history of the MSS. prefixed ; Le Vicende del Cenacolo
di L. da V. nel secolo XIX. (Milan, 1906), an official account of the
later history and vicissitudes of the " Last Supper " previous to
its final repair; Luca Beltrami, // Castello di Milano (1894); Id.,
L. da V. el la Sola dell' Asse (1902) ; Id., " II Cenacolo di Leonardo,"
in Raccolta Vinciana (Milan, 1908), the official account of the suc-
cessful work of repair carried out by Signor Cavenaghi in the pre-
ceding years; Woldemar von Seidlitz, Leonardo da Vinci, der
Wenaepunkt der Renaissance (2 vols., 1909), a comprehensive and
careful work by an accomplished and veteran critic, inclined to give
perhaps an excessive share in the reputed works of Leonardo to a
single pupil, Ambrogio Preda. It seems needless to give references
to the voluminous discussion in newspapers and periodicals con-
cerning the authenticity of a wax bust of Flora acquired in 1909
for the Berlin Museum and unfortunately ascribed to Leonardo da
Vinci, its real author having been proved by external and internal
evidence to be the Englishman Richard Cockle Lucas, and its date
1846. (S.C.)
LEONARDO OF PISA (LEONARDUS PISANUS or FIBONACCI),
Italian mathematician of the I3th century. Of his personal
history few particulars are known. His father was called
Bonaccio, most probably a nickname with the ironical meaning
of " a good, stupid fellow," while to Leonardo himself another
nickname, Bigollone (dunce, blockhead), seems to have been
given. The father was secretary in one of the numerous factories
erected on the southern and eastern coasts of the Mediterranean
by the warlike and enterprising merchants of Pisa. Leonardo
was educated at Bugia, and afterwards toured the Mediterranean.
In 1202 he was again in Italy and published his great work,
Liber abaci, which probably procured him access to the learned
and refined court of the emperor Frederick II. Leonardo
certainly was in relation with some persons belonging to that
circle when he published in 1220 another more extensive work,
De practica geometriae, which he dedicated to the imperial
astronomer Dominicus Hispanus. Some years afterwards
(perhaps in 1228) Leonardo dedicated to the well-known astro-
loger Michael Scott the second edition of his Liber abaci, which
was printed with Leonardo's other works by Prince Bald.
Boncompagni (Rome, 1857-1862, 2 vols.). The other works
consist of the Practica geometriae and some most striking
papers of the greatest scientific importance, amongst which the
Liber quadratorum may be specially signalized. It bears the
notice that the author wrote it in 1225, and in the introduction
Leonardo tells us the occasion of its being written. Dominicus
had presented Leonardo to Frederick II. The presentation was
accompanied by a kind of mathematical performance, in which
Leonardo solved several hard problems proposed to him by John
of Palermo, an imperial notary, whose name is met with in
several documents dated between 1221 and 1240. The methods
which Leonardo made use of in solving those problems fill the
Liber quadratorum, the Flos, and a Letter to Magister Theodore.
All these treatises seem to have been written nearly at the same
period, and certainly before the publication of the second edition
of the Liber abaci, in which the Liber quadratorum is expressly
mentioned. We know nothing of Leonardo's fate after he issued
that second edition.
Leonardo's works are mainly developments of the results obtained
by his predecessors; the influences of Greek, Arabian, and Indian
mathematicians may be clearly discerned in his methods. In his
Practica geometriae plain traces of the use of the Roman agrimensores
are met with; in his Liber abaci old Egyptian problems reveal
their origin by the reappearance of the very numbers in which the
problem is given, though one cannot guess through what channel
they came to Leonardo's knowledge. Leonardo cannot be regarded
as the inventor of that very great variety of truths for which he
mentions no earlier source.
The Liber abaci, which fills 459 printed pages, contains the most
perfect methods of calculating with whole numbers and with frac-
tions, practice, extraction of the square and cube roots, proportion,
chain rule, finding of proportional parts, averages, progressions, even
compound interest, just as in the completes! mercantile arithmetics
of our days. They teach further the solution of problems leading to
equations of the first and second degree, to determinate and inde-
terminate equations, not by single and double position only, but
by real algebra, proved by means of geometric constructions, and
including the use of letters as symbols for known numbers, the
unknown quantity being called res and its square census.
LEONCAVALLO— LEONTINI
455
The second work of Leonardo, his Practica geometriae (1220)
requires readers already acquainted with Euclid's planimetry, who
are able to follow rigorous demonstrations and feel the necessity for
them. Among the contents of this book we simply mention a trigono-
metrical chapter, in which the words sinus versus arcus occur, the
approximate extraction of cube roots shown more at large than in
the Liber abaci, and a very curious problem, which nobody would
search for in a geometrical work, viz. — To find a square number
remaining so after the addition of 5. This problem evidently
suggested the first question, viz. — To find a square number which
remains a square after the addition and subtraction of 5, put to our
mathematician in presence of the emperor by John of Palermo,
who, perhaps, was quite enough Leonardo's friend to set him such
problems only as he had himself asked for. Leonardo gave as solu-
tion the numbers 1 1 ,%, 16^ and 6ffi, — the squares of 3,^, 4.^ and
2,^; and the method of finding them is given in the Liber quadra-
torum. We observe, however, that this kind of problem was not
new. Arabian authors already had, found three square numbers of
equal difference, but the difference itself had not been assigned in
proposing the question. Leonardo's method, therefore, when the
difference was a fixed condition of the problem, was necessarily very
different from the Arabian, and, in all probability, was his own
discovery. The Flos of Leonardo turns on the second question set
by John of Palermo, which required the solution of the cubic equation
x*+2x* -\-iox = 20. Leonardo, making use of fractions of the
sexagesimal scale, gives * = l° 22'' 7" 42'" 33" 4° 40", after having
demonstrated, by a discussion founded on the loth book of Euclid,
that a solution by square roots is impossible. It is much to be
deplored that Leonardo does not give the least intimation how he
found his approximative value, outrunning by this result more than
three centuries. Genocchi believes Leonardo to have been in pos-
session of a certain method called regula aurea by H. Cardan in the
i6th century, but this is a mere hypothesis without solid foundation.
In the Flos equations with negative values of the unknown quantity
are also to be met with, and Leonardo perfectly understands the
meaning of these negative solutions. In the Letter to Magister
Theodore indeterminate problems are chiefly worked, and Leonardo
hints at his being able to solve by a general method any problem
of this kind not exceeding the first degree.
As for the influence he exercised on posterity, it is enough to say
that Luca Pacioli, about 1500, in his celebrated Summa, leans so
exclusively to Leonardo's works (at that time known in manuscript
only) that he frankly acknowledges his dependence on them, and
states that wherever no other author is quoted all belongs to
Leonardus Pisanus.
Fibonacci's series is a sequence of numbers such that any term is
the sum of the two preceding terms; also known as Lame's series.
(M. CA.)
LEONCAVALLO, RUGGIERO (1858- ), Italian operatic
composer, was born at Naples and educated for music at the
conservatoire. After some years spent in teaching and in
ineffectual attempts to obtain the production of more than one
opera, his Pagliacci was performed at Milan in 1892 with im-
mediate success; and next year his Medici was also produced
there. But neither the latter nor Chatlerton (1896) — both early
works — obtained any favour; and it was not till La Boheme
was performed in 1897 at Venice that his talent obtained public
confirmation. Subsequent operas by Leoncavallo were Zaza
(1900), and Der Rolatid (1904). In all these operas he was his
own librettist.
LEONIDAS, king of Sparta, the seventeenth of the Agiad line.
He succeeded, probably in 489 or 488 B.C., his half-brother
Cleomenes, whose daughter Gorgo he married. In 480 he was
sent with about 7000 men to hold the pass of Thermopylae
against the army of Xerxes. The smallness of the force was,
according to a current story, due to the fact that he was deliber-
ately going to his doom, an oracle having foretold that Sparta
could be saved only by the death of one of its kings: in reality
it seems rather that the ephors supported the scheme half-
heartedly, their policy being to concentrate the Greek forces at
the Isthmus. Leonidas repulsed the frontal attacks of the
Persians, but when the Malian Ephialtes led the Persian general
Hydarnes by a mountain track to the rear of the Greeks he
divided his army, himself remaining in the pass with 300
Spartiates, 700 Thespians and 400 Thebans. Perhaps he hoped
to surround Hydarnes' force: if so, the movement failed, and
the little Greek army, attacked from both sides, was cut down
to a man save the Thebans, who are said to have surrendered.
Leonidas fell in the thickest of the fight; his head was afterwards
cut off by Xerxes' order and his body crucified. Our knowledge of
the circumstances it too slight to enable us to judge of Leonidas's
cut
the
strategy, but his heroism and devotion secured him an almost
unique place in the imagination not only of his own but also of
succeeding times.
See Herodotus v. 39-41, vii. 202-225, 238, >x. 10; Diodorus
xi. 4-11; Plutarch, Apophthegm. Lacon.; de malignitate Herodoti,
28-33; Pausanias i. 13, lii. 3, 4; Isocrates, Paneg. 92; Lycurgus,
c. Leocr. no, in; Strabo i. 10, ix. 429; Aelian, Var hist. iii. 25;
Cicero, Tusc. disput. i. 42, 49; de Finibus, ii. 30; Cornelius Nepos,
Themistocles, 3; Valerius Maximus iii. 2; Justin ii. n. For
modern criticism on the battle of Thermopylae see G. B. Grundy,
The Great Persian War (1901); G. Grote, History of Greece, part ii.,
c. 40; E. Meyer, Geschichte des A'tertums, iii., §§ 219, 220; G. Busolt,
Gnechische Geschichte, 2nd ed., ii. 666-688; J. B. Bury, " The Cam-
paign of Artemisium and Thermopylae," in British School Annual, ii.
83 seq. ; J. A. R. Munro, " Some Observations on the Persian Wars,
II.," in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxii. 294-332.
(M. N. T.)
LEONTIASIS OSSEA, a rare disease characterized by an
overgrowth of the facial and cranial bones. The common form
is that in which one or other maxilla is affected, its size progres-
sively increasing both regularly and irregularly, and thus en-
croaching on the cavities of the orbit, the mouth, the nose and
its accessory sinuses. Exophthalmos gradually develops, going
on later to a complete loss of sight due to compression of the optic
nerve by the overgrowth of bone. There may also be interference
with the nasal respiration and with the taking of food. In the
somewhat less common form of this rare disease the overgrowth
of bone affects all the cranial bones as well as those of the face,
the senses being lost one by one and death finally resulting
from cerebral pressure. There is no treatment other than
exposing the overgrown bone, and chipping away pieces, or
excising entirely) where possible.
LEONTINI (mod. Lentini), an ancient town in the south-east
of Sicily, 22m. N.N.W. of Syracuse direct, founded by Chalcidians
from Naxos in 729 B.C. It is almost the only Greek settlement
not on the coast, from which it is 6 m. distant. The site, origin-
ally held by the Sicels, was seized by the Greeks owing to its
command of the fertile plain on the north. It was reduced to
subjection in 498 B.C. by Hippocrates of Gela, and in 476 Hieron
of Syracuse established here the inhabitants of Catana and
Naxos. Later on Leontini regained its independence, but in its
efforts to retain it, the intervention of Athens was more than
once invoked. It was mainly the eloquence of Gorgias (q.v.)
of Leontini which led to the abortive Athenian expedition of 427.
In 422 Syracuse supported the oligarchs against the people and
received them as citizens, Leontini itself being forsaken. This
led to renewed Athenian intervention, at first mainly diplomatic;
but the exiles of Leontini joined the envoys of Segesta in per-
suading Athens to undertake the great expedition of 415. After
its failure, Leontini became subject to Syracuse once more
(see Strabo vi. 272). Its independence was guaranteed by
the treaty of 405 between Dionysius and the Carthaginians,
but it very soon lost it again. It was finally stormed by M.
Claudius Marcellus in 214 B.C. In Roman times it seems to have
been of small importance. It was destroyed by the Saracens
A.D. 848, and almost totally ruined by the earthquake of 1698.
The ancient city is described by Polybius (vii. 6) as lying in a
bottom between two hills, and facing north. On the western
side of this bottom ran a river with a row of houses on its western
bank under the hill. At each end was a gate, the northern
leading to the plain, the southern, at the upper end, to Syracuse.
There was an acropolis on each side of the valley, which lies
between precipitous hills with flat tops, over which buildings had
extended. The eastern hill1 still has considerable remains of
a strongly fortified medieval castle, in which some writers are
inclined(though wrongly) to recognize portions of Greek masonry.
See G. M. Columba, in Archeologia di Leontinoi (Palermo, 1891),
reprinted from Archivio Storico Siciliano, xi.; P. Orsi in
Romische Mitteilungen (1900), 61 seq. Excavations were made in
1899 in one of the ravines in a Sicel necropolis of the third perio'd;
explorations in the various Greek cemeteries resulted in the
discovery of some fine bronzes, notably a fine bronze lebes, now
in the Berlin museum. (T. As.)
1 As a fact there are two flat valleys, up both of which the modern
Lentini extends; and hence there is difficulty in fitting Polybius's
account to the site.
LEONTIUS— LEOPARDI
LEONTIUS, theological writer, born at Byzantium, flourished
during the 6th century. He is variously styled BYZANTINUS,
HIEROSOLYMITANUS (as an inmate of the monastery of St Saba
near Jerusalem) and SCHOLASTICUS (the first " schoolman,"
as the introducer of the Aristotelian definitions into theology;
according to others, he had been an advocate, a special meaning
of the word scholasticus) . He himself states that in his early
years he belonged to a Nestorian community. Nothing else is
known of his life; he is frequently confused with others of the
same name, and it is uncertain which of the works bearing the
name Leontius are really by him. Most scholars regard as
genuine the polemical treatises Contra Nestorianos et Eutychianos ,
Contra Nestorianos, Contra Monophysitas, Contra Severum
(patriarch of Antioch); and the 2x6Xia, generally called De Sectis.
An essay Adversus fraudes Apollinaristarum and two homilies
are referred to other hands, the homilies to a Leontius, presbyter
of Constantinople.
Collected works in J. P. Migne, Patrologia Graeca, Ixxxvi.; for
the various questions connected with Leontius see F. Loops, Das
Leben und die polemischen Werke des Leontios von Byzanz (Leipzig,
1887); W. Rugamer, Leontius von Byzanz (1894); V. Ermoni,
De Leontio Byzantine (Paris, 1895); C. Krumbacher, Geschichle
der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897); J. P. Junglas, Leontius von
Byzanz (1908). For other persons of the name see Fabricius, Biblio-
theca Graeca (ed. Harles), viii. 323.
LEOPARD,1 PARD or PANTHER (Felis pardus), the largest
spotted true cat of the Old World, with the exception of the snow-
leopard, which is, however, inferior in point of size to the largest
leopard. (See CARNIVORA and SNOW-LEOPARD.) Leopards,
known in India as cheeta (chita), are characterized by the rosette-
like form of the black spots on the greater part of the body,
and the absence of a central spot from each rosette. Towards the
head and on the limbs the spots tend to become solid, but there
is great local variation in regard to their form and arrangement.
In the Indian leopard, the true Felis pardus, the spots are large
and rosette-like, and the same is the case with the long-haired
Persian leopard (F. pardus lulliana). On the other hand the
heavily built and thick-haired Manchurian F. p. villosa has more
consolidated spots. African leopards, again, to one of which
the name F. p. leopardus is applicable, show a decided tendency
to a breaking-up of the spots; West African animals being
much darker-coloured than those from the east side of the con-
tinent.
Both as regards structure and habits, the leopard may be
reckoned as one of the more typical representatives of the genus
Felis, belonging to that section in which the hyoid bone is loosely
connected with the skull, owing to imperfect ossification of its
anterior arch, and the pupil of the eye when contracted under
the influence of light is circular, not linear as in the smaller cats.
The size of leopards varies greatly, the head and body usually
measuring from 3^ to 4^ ft. in length, and the tail from 2\ to 3 ft.,
but some specimens exceed these limits, while the Somali leopard
(F. p. nanopardus) falls considerably short of them. The ground-
colour of the fur varies from a pale fawn to a rufous buff, graduat-
ing in the Indian race into pure white on the under-parts and
inside of the limbs. Generally speaking, the spots on the under
parts and limbs are simple and blacker than those on the other
parts of the body. The bases of the ears behind are black, the
tips buff. The upper side of the tail is buff, spotted with broken
rings like the back, its under surface white with simple spots..
The hair of the cubs is longer than that of the adults, its ground-
colour less bright, and its spots less distinct. Perfectly black
leopards, which in certain lights show the characteristic markings
on the fur, are not uncommon, and are examples of melanism,
occurring as individual variations, sometimes in one cub out of a
litter of which the rest are normally coloured, and therefore not
indicating a distinct race, much less a species. These are met with
chiefly in southern Asia; melanism among African leopards
1 The name (Late Lat. leopardus, Late Gr. XeAirapSos) was given
by the ancients to an animal supposed to have been a cross between
a lion (Lat. leo, Gr. \iwv) and a pard (Gr. irdpSos, Pers. pan) or
panther. Medieval heralds made no distinction in shape between a
lion and a leopard, but marked the difference by drawing the leopard
showing the full face (see HERALDRY: § Beasts and Birds).
taking the form of an excessive breaking-up of the spots, which
finally show a tendency to coalesce.
In habits the leopard resembles the other large cat-like animals,
yielding to none in the ferocity of its disposition. It is exceed-
ingly quick in its movements, but seizes its prey by waiting in
ambush or stealthily approaching to within springing distance,
when it suddenly rushes upon it and tears it to ground with its
The Leopard (Felis pardus).
powerful claws and teeth. It preys upon almost any animal
it can overcome, such as antelopes, deer, sheep, goats, monkeys,
peafowl, and has a special liking for dogs. It not unfrequently
attacks human beings in India, chiefly children and old women,
but instances have been known of a leopard becoming a regular
" man-eater." When favourable opportunities occur, it often
kills many more victims than it can devour at once, either to
gratify its propensity for killing or for the sake of their fresh •
blood. It generally inhabits woody districts, and can climb trees
with facility when hunted, but usually lives on or near the ground,
among rocks, bushes and roots and low branches of large trees.
The geographical range of the leopard embraces practically all
Africa, and Asia from Palestine to China and Manchuria, inclusive
of Ceylon and the great Malay Islands as far as Java. Fossil
bones and teeth, indistinguishable from those of existing leopards,
have been found in cave-deposits of Pleistocene age in Spain,
France, Germany and England. (R. L.*; W. H. F.)
LEOPARDI, GIACOMO, COUNT (1798-1837), Italian poet, was
born at Recanati in the March of Ancona, tm the agth of June
1708. All the circumstances of his parentage and education
conspired to foster his precocious and sensitive genius at the
expense of his physical and mental health. His family was
ancient and patrician, but so deeply embarrassed as to be only
rescued from ruin by the energy of his mother, who had taken
the control of business matters entirely into her own hands, and
whose engrossing devotion to her undertaking seems to have
almost dried up the springs of maternal tenderness. Count
Monaldo Leopardi, the father, a mere nullity in his own house-
hold, secluded himself in his extensive library, to which his
nervous, sickly and deformed son had free access, and which
absorbed him exclusively in the absence of any intelligent
sympathy from his parents, any companionship except that of
his brothers and sister, or any recreation in the dullest of Italian
towns. The lad spent his days over grammars and dictionaries,
learning Latin with little assistance, and Greek and the principal
modern languages with none at all. Any ordinarily clever boy
would have emerged from this discipline a mere pedant and
LEOPARDI
457
bookworm. Leopard! came forth a Hellene, not merely a con-
summate Greek scholar, but penetrated with the classical con-
ception of life, and a master of antique form and style. At
sixteen he composed a Latin treatise on the Roman rhetoricians
of the 2nd century, a commentary on Porphyry's life of Plotinus
and a history of astronomy; at seventeen he wrote on the popular
errors of the ancients, citing more than four hundred authors.
A little later he imposed upon the first scholars of Italy by two
odes in the manner of Anacreon. At eighteen he produced a
poem of considerable length, the Appressamento alia Morle,
which, after being lost for many years, was discovered and
published by Zanino Volta. It is a vision of the omnipotence of
death, modelled upon Petrarch, but more truly inspired by
Dante, and in its conception, machinery and general tone offering
a remarkable resemblance to Shelley's Triumph of Life (1822),
of which Leopardi probably never heard. This juvenile work
was succeeded (1819) by two lyrical compositions which at once
placed the author upon the height which he maintained ever
afterwards. The ode to Italy, and that on the monument to
Dante erected at Florence, gave voice to the dismay and affliction
with which Italy, aroused by the French Revolution from the
torpor of the ryth and i8th centuries, contemplated her forlorn
and degraded condition, her political impotence, her degeneracy
in arts and arms and the frivolity or stagnation of her intellectual
life. They were the outcry of a student who had found an ideal
of national existence in his books, and to whose disappointment
everything in his own circumstances lent additional poignancy.
But there is nothing unmanly or morbid in the expression of these
sentiments, and the odes are surprisingly exempt from the
failings characteristic of young poets. They are remarkably
chaste in diction, close and nervous in style, sparing in fancy and
almost destitute of simile and metaphor, antique in spirit, yet
pervaded by modern ideas, combining Lander's dignity with a
considerable infusion of the passion of Byron. These qualities
continued to characterize Leopardi's poetical writings throughout
his life. A third ode, on Cardinal Mai's discoveries of ancient
MSS., lamented in the same spirit of indignant sorrow the
decadence of Italian literature. The publication of these pieces
widened the breach between Leopardi and his father, a well-mean-
ing but apparently dull and apathetic man, who had lived into the
ipth century without imbibing any of its spirit, and who provoked
his son's contempt by a superstition unpardonable in a scholar
of real learning. Very probably from a mistaken idea of duty to
his son, very probably, too, from his own entire dependence in
pecuniary matters upon his wife, he for a long time obstinately
refused Leopardi funds, recreation, change of scene, everything
that could have contributed to combat the growing pessimism
which eventually became nothing less than monomaniacal.
The affection of his brothers and sister afforded him some con-
solation, and he found intellectual sympathy in the eminent
scholar and patriot Pietro Giordani, with whom he assiduously
corresponded at this period, partly on the ways and means of
escaping from " this hermitage, or rather seraglio, where the
delights of civil society and the advantages of solitary life are
alike wanting." This forms the keynote of numerous letters of
complaint and lamentation, as touching but as effeminate in
their pathos as those of the banished Ovid. It must be remem-
bered in fairness that the weakness of Leopardi's eyesight
frequently deprived him for months together of the resource of
study. At length (1822) his father allowed him to repair to
Rome, where, though cheered by the encouragement of C. C. J.
Bunsen and Niebuhr, he found little satisfaction in the trifling
pedantry that passed for philology and archaeology, while his
sceptical opinions prevented his taking orders, the indispensable
condition of public employment in the Papal States. Dispirited
and with exhausted means, he returned to Recanati, where he
spent three miserable years, brightened only by the production
of several lyrical masterpieces, which appeared in 1824. The
most remarkable is perhaps the Bruto Minore, the condensation
of his philosophy of despair. In 1825 he accepted an engagement
to edit Cicero and Petrarch for the publisher Stella at Milan,
and took up his residence at Bologna, where his life was for a
time made almost cheerful by the friendship of the countess
Malvezzi. In 1827 appeared the Operelte Morali, consisting
principally of dialogues and his imaginary biography of Filippo
Ottonieri, which have given Leopardi a fame as a prose writer
hardly inferior to his celebrity as a poet. Modern literature has
few productions so eminently classical in form and spirit, so
symmetrical in construction and faultless in style. Lucian is
evidently the model; but the wit and irony which were play-
things to Lucian are terribly earnest with Leopardi. Leopardi's
invention is equal to Lucian's and his only drawback in com-
parison with his exemplar is that, while the latter's campaign
against pretence and imposture commands hearty sympathy,
Leopardi's philosophical creed is a repulsive hedonism in the
disguise of austere stoicism. The chief interlocutors in his
dialogues all profess the same unmitigated pessimism, claim
emancipation from every illusion that renders life tolerable to
the vulgar, and assert or imply a vast moral and intellectual
superiority over unenlightened mankind. When, however, we
come to inquire what renders them miserable, we find it is nothing
but the privation of pleasurable sensation, fame, fortune or
some other external thing which a lofty code of ethics would
deny to be either indefeasibly due to man or essential to his
felicity. A page of Sartor Resartus scatters Leopardi's sophistry
to the winds, and leaves nothing of his dialogues but the con-
summate literary skill that would render the least fragment
precious. As works of art they are a possession for ever, as
contributions to moral philosophy they are worthless, and apart
from their literary qualities can only escape condemnation if
regarded as lyrical expressions of emotion, the wail extorted
from a diseased mind by a diseased body. Filippo Ottonieri is
a portrait of an imaginary philosopher, imitated from the
biography of a real sage in Lucian's Demonax. Lucian has shown
us the philosopher he wished to copy, Leopardi has truly depicted
the philosopher he was. Nothing can be more striking or more
tragical than the picture of the man superior to his fellows in
every quality of head and heart, and yet condemned to sterility
and impotence because he has, as he imagines, gone a step too
far on the road to truth, and illusions exist for him no more.
The little tract is full of remarks on life and character of surprising
depth and justice, manifesting what powers of observation as well
as reflection were possessed by the sickly youth who had seen so
little of the world.
Want of means soon drove Leopardi back to Recanati, where,
deaf, half-blind, sleepless, tortured by incessant pain, at war
with himself and every one around him except his sister, he
spent the two most unhappy years of his unhappy life. In May
1831 he escaped to Florence, where he formed the acquaintance
of a young Swiss philologist, M. de Sinner. To him he confided
his unpublished philological writings, with a view to their
appearance in Germany. A selection appeared under the title
Excerpta ex schedis criticis J. Leopardi (Bonn, 1834). The
remaining MSS. were purchased after Sinner's death by the
Italian government, and, together with Leopardi's correspond-
ence with the Swiss philologist, were partially edited by Aulard.
In 1831 appeared a new edition of Leopardi's poems, comprising
several new pieces of the highest merit. These are in general
less austerely classical than his earlier compositions, and evince
a greater tendency to description, and a keener interest in the
works and ways of ordinary mankind. The Resurrection, com-
posed on occasion of his unexpected recovery, is a model of
concentrated energy of diction, and The Song of the Wandering
Shepherd in Asia is one of the highest flights of modern lyric
poetry. The range of the author's ideas is still restricted, but
his style and melody are unsurpassable. Shortly after the
publication of these pieces (October 1831) Leopardi was driven
from Florence to Rome by an unhappy attachment. His feelings
are powerfully expressed in two poems, To Himself and Aspasia,
which seem to breathe wounded pride at least as much as wounded
love. In 1832 Leopardi returned to Florence, and there formed
acquaintance with a young Neapolitan, Antonio Ranieri, himself
an author of merit, and destined to enact towards him the part
performed by Severn towards Keats, an enviable title to renown
458
LEOPARDO— LEOPOLD I.
if Ranieri had not in his old age tarnished it by assuming the
relation of Trelawny to the dead Byron. Leopardi accompanied
Ranieri and his sister to Naples, and under their care enjoyed
four years of comparative tranquillity. He made the acquaint-
ance of the German poet Platen, his sole modern rival in the
classical perfection of form, and composed La Ginestra, the most
consummate of all his lyrical masterpieces, strongly resembling
Shelley's Mont Blanc, but more perfect in expression. He also
wrote at Naples The Sequel to the Battle of the Frogs and Mice,
a satire in ottava rima on the abortive Neapolitan revolution of
1820, clever and humorous, but obscure from the local character
of the allusions. The more painful details of his Neapolitan
residence may be found by those who care to seek for them in
the deplorable publication of Ranieri's peevish old age (Selte
anni di sodalizio). The decay of Leopardi's constitution con-
tinued; he became dropsical; and a sudden crisis of his malady,
unanticipated by himself alone, put an end to his life-long
sufferings on the isth of June 1837.
The poems which constitute Leopardi's principal title to immor-
tality are only forty-one in number, and some of these are merely
fragmentary. They may for the most part be described as odes,
meditative soliloquies, or impassioned addresses, generally couched
in a lyrical form, although a few are in magnificent blank verse.
Some idea of the style and spirit of the former might be obtained
by imagining the thoughts of the last book of Spenser's Faerie
Queene in the metre of his Epithalamium. They were first edited
complete by Ranieri at Florence in 1845, forming, along with the
Operette Morali, the first volume of an edition of Leopardi's works,
which does not, however, include The Sequel to the Battle of the Frogs
and Mice, first printed at Paris in 1842, nor the afterwards discovered
writings. Vols. ii.-iv. contain the philological essays and translations,
with some letters, and vols. v. and vi. the remainder of the corre-
spondence. Later editions are those of G. Chiarini and G. Mestica.
The juvenile essays preserved in his father's library at Recanati
were edited by Cugnoni (Opere inedite) in 1879, with the consent
of the family. See Cappelleti, Bibliografia Leopardiana (Parma,
1882). Leopardi's biography is mainly in his letters (Epistolario,
ist ed., 1849, 5th ed., 1892), to which his later biographers (Brandes,
Bouchii-Leclercq, Rosa) have merely added criticisms, excellent in
their way, more particularly Brandes's, but generally over-rating
Leopardi's significance in the history of human thought. W. E.
Gladstone's essay (Quart. Rev., 1850), reprinted in vol. ii. of the
author's Gleanings, is too much pervaded by the theological spirit,
but is in the main a pattern of gerierous and discriminating eulogy.
There are excellent German translations of the poems by Heyse and
Brandes. An English translation of the essays and dialogues by
C. Edwards appeared in 1882, and most of the dialogues were trans-
lated with extraordinary felicity by James Thomson, author of
The City of Dreadful Night, and originally published in the National
Reformer. (R. G.)
LEOPARDO, ALESSANDRO (d. c. 1512), Italian sculptor,
was born and died at Venice. His first known work is the
imposing mausoleum of the -doge Andrea Vendramini, now in
the church of San Giovanni e Paolo; in this he had the co-
operation of Tulh'o Lombardo, but the finest parts are Leopardo's.
Some of the figures have been taken away, and two in the Berlin
museum are considered to be certainly his work. He was exiled
on a charge of fraud in 1487, and recalled in 1490 by the senate
to finish Verrocchio's colossal statue of Bartolommeo Colleoni.
He worked between 1503 and 1505 on the tomb of Cardinal Zeno
at St Mark's, which was finished in 1515 by Pietro Lombardo;
and in 1505 he designed and cast the bronze sockets for the three
flagstaffs in the square of St Mark's, the antique character of
the decorations suggesting some Greek model. (See VENICE.)
LEOPOLD (M.H. Ger. Liupolt; O.H. Ger. Liupald, from
Hut, Mod. Ger. Leute, " people," and paid, " bold," i.e. " bold
for the people "), the name which has been that of several
European sovereigns.
LEOPOLD I. (1640-1705), Roman emperor, the second son of
the emperor Ferdinand III. and his first wife Maria Anna,
daughter of Philip III. of Spain, was born on the gth of June
1640. Intended for the Church, he received a good education,
but his prospects were changed by the death of his elder brother,
the German king Ferdinand IV., in July 1654, when he became
his father's heir. In 1655 he was chosen king of Hungary and
in 1656 king of Bohemia, and in July 1658, more than a year
after his father's death, he was elected emperor at Frankfort,
in spite of the intrigues of Cardinal Mazarin, who wished to place
on the imperial throne Ferdinand, elector of Bavaria, or some
other prince whose elevation would break the Habsburg succes-
sion. Mazarin, however, obtained a promise from the new
emperor that he would not send assistance to Spain, then at
war with France, and, by joining a confederation of German
princes, called the league of the Rhine, France secured a certain
influence in the internal affairs of Germany. Leopold's long
reign covers one of the most important periods of European
history; for nearly the whole of its forty-seven years he was
pitted against Louis XIV. of France, whose dominant personality
completely overshadowed Leopold. The emperor was a man of
peace and never led his troops in person; yet the greater part
of his public life was spent in arranging and directing wars.
The first was with Sweden, whose king Charles X. found a useful
ally in the prince of Transylvania, George II. Rakocky, a re-
bellious vassal of the Hungarian crown. This war, a legacy of
the last reign, was waged by Leopold as the ally of Poland until
peace was made at Oliva in 1660. A more dangerous foe next
entered the lists. The Turks interfered in the affairs of Tran-
sylvania, always an unruly district, and this interference brought
on a war with the Empire, which after some desultory operations
really began in 1663. By a personal appeal to the diet at Regens-
burg Leopold induced the princes to send assistance for the
campaign; troops were also sent by France, and in August 1664
the great imperialist general, Montecucculi, gained a notable
victory at St Gotthard. By the peace of Vasvar the emperor
made a twenty years' truce with the sultan, granting more
generous terms than his recent victory seemed to render
necessary.
After a few years of peace began the first of three wars between
France and the Empire. The aggressive policy pursued by
Louis XIV. towards Holland had aroused the serious attention
of Europe, and steps had been taken to check it. Although
the French king had sought the alliance of several German
princes and encouraged the Turks in their attacks on Austria
the emperor at first took no part in this movement. He was
on friendly terms with Louis, to whom he was closely related
and with whom he had already discussed the partition of the
lands of the Spanish monarchy; moreover, in 1671 he arranged
with him a treaty of neutrality. In 1672, however, he was
forced to take action. He entered into an alliance for the
defence of Holland and war broke out; then, after this league
had collapsed owing to the defection of the elector of Brandenburg,
another and more durable alliance was formed for the same
purpose, including, besides the emperor, the king of Spain and
several German princes, and the war was renewed. At this
time, twenty-five years after the peace of Westphalia, the Empire
was virtually a confederation of independent princes, and it
was very difficult for its head to conduct any war with vigour
and success, some of its members being in alliance with the
enemy and others being only lukewarm in their support of the
imperial interests. Thus this struggle, which lasted until the
end of 1678, was on the whole unfavourable to Germany, and
the advantages of the treaty of Nijmwegen (February 1679)
were with France.
Almost immediately after the conclusion of peace Louis
renewed his aggressions on the German frontier. Engaged in
a serious struggle with Turkey, the emperor was again slow to
move, and although he joined a league against France in 1682
he was glad to make a truce at Regensburg two years later.
In 1686 the league of Augsburg was formed by the emperor
and the imperial princes, to preserve the terms of the treaties
of Westphalia and of Nijmwegen. The whole European position
was now bound up with events in England, and the tension
lasted until 1688, when William of Orange won the English
crown and Louis invaded Germany. In May 1689 the grand
alliance was formed, including the emperor, the kings of'England,
Spain and Denmark, the elector of Brandenburg and others,
and a fierce struggle against France was waged throughout
almost the whole of western Europe. In general the several
campaigns were favourable to the allies, and in September
1697 England and Holland made peace with Louis at Ryswick.
LEOPOLD II.
459
To this treaty Leopold refused to assent, as he considered that
his allies had somewhat neglected his interests, but in the follow-
ing month he came to terms and a number of places were trans-
ferred from France to Germany. The peace with France lasted
for about four years and then Europe was involved in the War
of the Spanish Succession. The king of Spain, Charles II., was
a Habsburg by descent and was related by marriage to the
Austrian branch, while a similar tie bound him to the royal
house of France. He was feeble and childless, and attempts had
been made, by the European powers to arrange for a peaceable
division of his extensive kingdom. Leopold refused to consent
to any partition, and when in November 1700 Charles died,
leaving his crown to Philip, duke of Anjou, a grandson of
Louis XIV., all hopes of a peaceable settlement vanished. Under
the guidance of William III. a powerful league, the grand alliance,
was formed against France; of this the emperor was a prominent
member, and in 1703 he transferred his claim on the Spanish
monarchy to his second son, the archduke Charles. The early
course of the war was not favourable to the imperialists, but the
tide of defeat had been rolled back by the great victory of
Blenheim before Leopold died on the 5th of May 1705.
In governing his own lands Leopold found his chief difficulties
in Hungary, where unrest was caused partly by his desire to
crush Protestantism. A rising was suppressed in 1671 and for
some years Hungary was treated with great severity. In 1681,
after another rising, some grievances were removed and a less
repressive policy was adopted, but this did not deter the Hun-
garians from revolting again. Espousing the cause of the rebels
the sultan sent an enormous army into Austria early in 1683;
this advanced almost unchecked to Vienna, which was besieged
from July to September, while Leopold took refuge at Passau.
Realizing the gravity of the situation somewhat tardily, some
of the German princes, among them the electors of Saxony and
Bavaria, led their contingents to the imperial army which was
commanded by the emperor's brother-in-law, Charles, duke of
Lorraine, but the most redoubtable of Leopold's allies was
the king of Poland, John Sobieski, who was already dreaded by
the Turks. On the I2th of September 1683 the allied army
fell upon the enemy, who was completely routed, and Vienna
was saved. The imperialists, among whom Prince Eugene of
Savoy was rapidly becoming prominent, followed up the victory
with others, notably one near Mohacz in 1687 and another at
Zenta in 1697, and in January 1699 the sultan signed the treaty
of Karlowitz by which he admitted the sovereign rights of the
house of Habsburg over nearly the whole of Hungary. Before
the conclusion of the war, however, Leopold had taken measures
to strengthen his hold upon this country. In 1687 at the diet
of Pressburg the constitution was changed, the right of the
Habsburgs to succeed to the throne without election was
admitted and the emperor's elder son Joseph was crowned
hereditary king of Hungary.
During this reign some important changes were made in the
constitution of the Empire. In 1663 the imperial diet entered
upon the last stage of its existence, and became a body perman-
ently in session at Regensburg; in 1692 the duke of Hanover
was raised to the rank of an elector, becoming the ninth member
of the electoral college; and in 1700 Leopold, greatly in need
of help for the impending war with France, granted the title
of king of Prussia to the elector of Brandenburg. The net
result of these and similar changes was to weaken the authority
of the emperor over the members of the Empire, and to compel
him to rely more and more upon his position as ruler of the
Austrian archduchies and of Hungary and Bohemia, and Leopold
was the first who really appears to have realized this altered
state of affairs and to have acted in accordance therewith.
The emperor was married three times. His first wife was
Margaret Theresa (d. 1673), daughter of Philip IV. of Spain;
his second Claudia Felicitas (d. 1676), the heiress of Tirol;
and his third Eleanora, a princess of the Palatinate. By his
first two wives he had no sons, but his third wife bore him two,
Joseph and Charles, both of whom became emperors. He had
also four daughters.
Leopold was a man of industry and education, and during his
later years he showed some political ability. Extremely tenacious
of his rights, and regarding himself as an absolute sovereign,
he was also very intolerant and was greatly influenced by the
Jesuits. In person he was short, but strong and healthy.
Although he had no inclination for a military life he loved
exercises in the open air, such as hunting and riding; he had
also a taste for music.
Leopold's letters to Marco d'Aviano from 1680 to 1699 were
edited by O. Klopp and published at Graz in 1888. Other letters
are found in the Fontes rerunt Austriacarum, Bande 56 and 57
(Vienna, 1903-1904). See also F. Krones, Handbuch der Geschichte
Osterreichs (Berlin, 1876-1879); R. Baumstark, Kaiser Leopold /.
(1873) ; and A. F. Pribram, Zur WM Leopolds I. (Vienna, 1888).
(A.W.H.*)
LEOPOLD II. (1747-1792), Roman emperor, and grand-duke
of Tuscany, son of the empress Maria Theresa and her husband,
Francis I., was born in Vienna on the 5th of May 1747. He was
a third son, and was at first educated for the priesthood, but the
theological studies to which he was forced to apply himself
are believed to have influenced his mind in a way unfavourable
to the Church. On the death of his elder brother Charles in
1761 it was decided that he should succeed to his father's grand
duchy of Tuscany, which was erected into a " secundogeniture "
or apanage for a second son. This settlement was the condition
of his marriage on the 5th of August 1764 with Maria Louisa,
daughter of Charles III. of Spain, and on the death of his father
Francis I. (i3th August 1765) he succeeded to the grand duchy.
For five years he exercised little more than nominal authority
under the supervision of counsellors appointed by his mother.
In 1770 he made a journey to Vienna to secure the removal of
this vexatious guardianship, and returned to Florence with a
free hand. During the twenty years which elapsed between
his return to Florence and the death of his eldest brother
Joseph II. in 1790 he was employed in reforming the administra-
tion of his small state. The reformation was carried out by the
removal of the ruinous restrictions on industry and personal
freedom imposed by his predecessors of the house of Medici, and
left untouched during his father's life; by the introduction of a
rational system of taxation; and by the execution of profitable
public works, such as the drainage of the Val di Chiana. As
he had no army to maintain, and as he suppressed the small
naval force kept up by the Medici, the whole of his revenue
was left free for the improvement of his state. Leopold was
never popular with his Italian subjects. His disposition was cold
and retiring. His habits were simple to the verge of sordidness,
though he could display splendour on occasion, and he could
not help offending those of his subjects who had profited by the
abuses of the Medicean regime. But his steady, consistent and
intelligent administration, which advanced step by step, making
the second only when the first had been justified by results,
brought the grand duchy to a high level of material prosperity.
His ecclesiastical policy, which disturbed the deeply rooted
convictions of his people, and brought him into collision with
the pope, was not successful. He was unable to secularize the
property of the religious houses, or to put the clergy entirely
under the control of the lay power.
During the last few years of his rule in Tuscany Leopold had
begun to be frightened by the increasing disorders in the German
and Hungarian dominions of his family, which were the direct
result of his brother's headlong methods. He and Joseph II.
were tenderly attached to one another, and met frequently both
before and after the death of their mother, while the portrait
by Pompeo Baltoni in which they appear together shows that
they bore a strong personal resemblance to one another. But
it may be said of Leopold, as of Fontenelle, that his heart was
made of brains. He knew that he must succeed his childless
eldest brother in Austria, and he was unwilling to inherit his
unpopularity. When, therefore, in 1789 Joseph, who knew
himself to be dying, asked him to come to Vienna, and become
co-regent, Leopold coldly evaded the request. He was still
in Florence when Joseph II. died at Vienna on the 2oth of
February 1790, and he did not leave his Italian capital till the
460
LEOPOLD I.
3rd of March. Leopold, during his government in Tuscany,
had shown a speculative tendency to grant his subjects a con-
stitution. When he succeeded to the Austrian lands he began
by making large concessions to the interests offended by his
brother's innovations. He recognized the Estates of his different
dominions as " the pillars of the monarchy," pacified the
Hungarians and divided the Belgian insurgents by concessions.
When these failed to restore order, he marched troops into the
country, and re-established at the same time his own authority,
and the historic franchises of the Flemings. Yet he did not
surrender any part that could be retained of what Maria Theresa
and Joseph had done to strengthen the hands of the state. He
continued, for instance, to insist that no papal bull could be
published in his dominions without his consent (placetum regium).
If Leopold's reign as emperor, and king of Hungary and
Bohemia, had been prolonged during years of peace, it is probable
that he would have repeated his successes as a reforming ruler
in Tuscany on a far larger scale. But he lived for barely two
years, and during that period he was hard pressed by peril from
west and east alike. The growing revolutionary disorders in
France endangered the life of his sister Marie Antoinette, the
queen of Louis XVI., and also threatened his own dominions
with the spread of a subversive agitation. His sister sent him
passionate appeals for help, and he was pestered by the royalist
emigrants, who were intriguing both to bring about an armed
intervention in France, and against Louis XVI. From the east
he was threatened by the aggressive ambition of Catherine II.
of Russia, and by the unscrupulous policy of Prussia. Catherine
would have been delighted to see Austria and Prussia embark
on a crusade in the cause of kings against the Revolution. While
they were busy beyond the Rhine, she would have annexed what
remained of Poland, and would have made conquests in Turkey.
Leopold II. had no difficulty in seeing through the rather trans-
parent cunning of the Russian empress, and he refused to be
misled. To his sister he gave good advice and promises of help
if she and her husband could escape from Paris. The emigrants
who followed him pertinaciously were refused audience, or when
they forced themselves on him were peremptorily denied all
help. Leopold was too purely a politician not to be secretly
pleased at the destruction of the power of France and of her
influence in Europe by her internal disorders. Within six
weeks of his accession he displayed his contempt for her weakness
by practically tearing up the treaty of alliance made by Maria
Theresa in 1756 and opening negotiations with England to impose
a check on Russia and Prussia. He was able to put pressure
on England by threatening to cede his part of the Low Countries
to France, and then, when secure of English support, he was in a
position to baffle the intrigues of Prussia. A personal appeal to
Frederick William II. led to a conference between them at
Reichenbach in July 1 790, and to an arrangement which was in fact
a defeat for Prussia. Leopold's coronation as king of Hungary on
the 1 5th of November 1 790, was preceded by a settlement with the
diet in which he recognized the dominant position of the Magyars.
He had already made an eight months' truce with the Turks
in September, which prepared the way for the termination of
the war begun by Joseph II. the peace of Sistova being signed
in August 1791. The pacification of his eastern dominions
left Leopold free to re-establish order in Belgium and to confirm
friendly relations with England and Holland.
During 1791 the emperor continued to be increasingly pre-
occupied with the affairs of France. In January he had to
dismiss the count of Artois, afterwards Charles X., king of France,
in a very peremptory way. His good sense was revolted by the
folly of the French emigrants, and he did his utmost to avoid
being entangled in the affairs of that country. The insults
inflicted on Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette, however, at the
time of their attempted flight to Varennes in June, stirred his
indignation, and he made a general appeal to the sovereigns
of Europe to take common measures in view of events which
" immediately compromised the honour of all sovereigns, and
the security of all governments." Yet he was most directly
interested in the conference at Sistova, which in June led to a
final peace with Turkey. On the 25th of August he met the
king of Prussia at Pillnitz, near Dresden, and they drew up a
declaration of their readiness to intervene in France if and when
their assistance was called for by the other powers. The declara-
tion was a mere formality, for, as Leopold knew, neither Russia
nor England was prepared to act, and he endeavoured to guard
against the use which he foresaw the emigrants would endeavour
to make of it. In face of the agitation caused by the Pillnitz
declaration in France, the intrigues of the emigrants, and the
attacks made by the French revolutionists on the rights of the
German princes in Alsace, Leopold continued to hope that
intervention might not be required. When Louis XVI. swore
to observe the constitution of September 1791, the emperor
professed to think that a settlement had been reached in France.
The attacks on the rights of the German princes on the left
bank of the Rhine, and the increasing violence of the parties
in Paris which were agitating to bring about war, soon snowed,
however, that this hope was vain. Leopold met the threatening
language of the revolutionists with dignity and temper. His
sudden death on the ist of March 1792 was an irreparable loss
to Austria.
Leopold had sixteen children, the eldest of his eight sons
being his successor, the emperor Francis II. Some of his other
sons were prominent personages in their day. Among them were :
Ferdinand III., grand duke of Tuscany; the archduke Charles,
a celebrated soldier; the archduke John, also a soldier; the
archduke Joseph, palatine of Hungary; and the archduke
Rainer, viceroy of Lombardy-Venetia.
Several volumes containing the emperor's correspondence have
been published. Among these are: Joseph II. und Leopold von
Toskana. Ihr Briefwechsel 1781-1790 (Vienna, 1872), and Marie
Antoinette, Joseph II. und Leopold II. Ihr Briefwechsel (Vienna,
1866), both edited by A. Ritter von Arneth; Joseph II., Leopold II.
und Kaunitz. Ihr Briefwechsel (Vienna, 1873); and Leopold II.,
Franz II. und Catharina. Ihre Correspondenz nebst einer Einleitung:
Zur Geschichte der Politik Leopolds II. (Leipzig, 1874), both edited
by A. Beer ; and Leopold II. und Marie Christine. Ihr Briefwechsel
1781-17(12, edited by A. Wolf (Vienna, 1867). See also H. von
Sybel, fiber die Regierung Kaiser Leopolds II. (Munich, 1860);
A. Schultze, Kaiser Leopold II. und die franzosische Revolution
(Leipzig, 1899); and A. Wolf and H. von Zwiedeneck-Sudenhorst,
Osterreich unter Maria Theresa, Joseph II. und Leopold II. (Berlin,
1882-1884).
LEOPOLD I. (1790-1865), king of the Belgians, fourth son
of Francis, duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and uncle of Queen
Victoria of England, was born at Coburg on the i8th of December
1790. At the age of eighteen he entered the military service
of Russia, and accompanied the emperor Alexander to Erfurt
as a member of his staff. He was required by Napoleon to quit
the Russian army, and spent some years in travelling. In 1813
he accepted from the emperor Alexander the post of a cavalry
general in the army of invasion, and he took part in the whole
of the campaign of that and the following year, distinguishing
himself in the battles of Leipzig, Liitzen and Bautzen. He
entered Paris with the allied sovereigns, and accompanied them
to England. He married in May 1816 Charlotte, only child
of George, prince regent, afterwards George IV., heiress-pre-
sumptive to the British throne, and was created duke of Kendal
in the British peerage and given an annuity of £50,000. The
death of the princess in the following year was a heavy blow
to his hopes, but he continued to reside in England. In 1830
he declined the offer of the crown of Greece, owing to the refusal
of the powers to grant conditions which he considered essential
to the welfare of the new kingdom, but was in the following year
elected king of the Belgians (4th June 1831). After some
hesitation he accepted the crown, having previously ascertained
that he would have the support of the great powers on entering
upon his difficult task, and on the I2th of July he made his
entry into Brussels and took the oath to observe the constitution.
During the first eight years of his reign he was confronted with
the resolute hostility of King William I. of Holland, and it was
not until 1839 that the differences between the two states,
which until 1830 had formed the kingdom of the Netherlands,
were finally settled at the conference of London by the treaty
LEOPOLD II.
461
of the 24 Articles (see BELGIUM). From this date until his
death, King Leopold spent all his energies in the wise administra-
tion of the affairs of the newly formed kingdom, which may be
said to owe in a large measure its first consolidation and constant
prosperity to the care and skill of his discreet and fatherly
government. In 1848 the throne of Belgium stood unshaken
amidst the revolutions which marked that year in almost every
European country. On the 8th of August 1832 Leopold married,
as his second wife, Louise of Orleans, daughter of Louis Philippe,
king of the French. Queen Louise endeared herself to the
Belgian people, and her death in 1850 was felt as a national loss.
This union produced two sons and one daughter — (i) Leopold,
afterwards king of the Belgians; (2) Philip, count of Flanders;
(3) Marie Charlotte, who married Maximilian of Austria, the
unfortunate emperor of Mexico. Leopold I. died at Laeken
on the loth of December 1865. He was a most cultured man and
a great reader, and did his utmost during his reign to encourage
art, science and education. His judgment was universally
respected by contemporary sovereigns and statesmen, and he
was frequently spoken of as " the Nestor of Europe " (see also
VICTORIA, QUEEN).
See Th. Juste, Leopold I", roi des Beiges d'apres des doc. ined. 1793-
1865 (2 vols., Brussels, 1868), and Les Fondateurs de la monarchic
Beige (22 vols., Brussels, 1878-1880); J. J. Thonissen, La Belgique
sous le regne de Leopold I" (Lou vain, 1862).
LEOPOLD II. [LEOPOLD Louis PHILIPPE MARIE VICTOR]
(1835-1909), king of the Belgians, son of the preceding, was born
At Brussels on the gth of April 1835. In 1846 he was created
duke of Brabant and appointed a sub-lieutenant in the army,
in which he served until his accession, by which time he had
reached the rank of lieutenant-general. On attaining his
majority he was made a member of the senate, in whose proceed-
ings he took a lively interest, especially in matters concerning
the development of Belgium and its trade. On the 22nd of
August 1853 Leopold married Marie Henriette (1836-1902),
daughter of the archduke Joseph of Austria, palatine of Hungary,
by his wife Marie Dorothea, duchess of Wiirttemberg. This
princess, who was a great-granddaughter of the empress Maria
Theresa, and a great -niece of Marie Antoinette, endeared herself
to the people by her elevated character and indefatigable
benevolence, while her beauty gained for her the sobriquet of
" The Rose of Brabant "; she was also an accomplished artist
and musician, and a fine horsewoman. Between the years
1854 and 1865 Leopold travelled much abroad, visiting India
and China as well as Egypt and the countries on the Mediter-
ranean coast of Africa. On the loth of December 1865 he
succeeded his father. On the 28th of January 1869 he lost his
only son, Leopold (b. 1859), duke of Hainaut. The king's
brother Philip, count of Flanders (1837-1905), then became
heir to the throne; and on his death his son Albert (b. 1875)
became heir-presumptive. During the Franco-Prussian War
(1870-1871) the king of the Belgians preserved neutrality in
a period of unusual difficulty and danger. But the most notable
event in Leopold's career was the foundation of the Congo Free
State (q.v.). While still duke of Brabant he had been the first
to call the attention of the Belgians to the need of enlarging
their horizon beyond sea, and after his accession to the throne
he gave the first impulse towards the development of this idea
by founding in 1876 the Association Internationale Africaine,
He enlisted the services of H. M. Stanley, who visited Brussels
in 1878 after exploring the Congo river, and returned in 1879
to the Congo as agent of the Comite d'£tudes du Haul Congo,
soon afterwards reorganized as the " International Association
of the Congo." This association was, in 1884-1885, recognized
by the powers as a sovereign state under the name of the £tat
Independant du Congo. Leopold's exploitation of this vast
territory, which he administered autocratically, and in which
he associated himself personally with various financial schemes,
was understood to bring him an enormous fortune; it was
the subject of acutely hostile criticism, to a large extent sub-
stantiated by the report of a commission of inquiry instituted
by the king himself in 1904, and followed in 1908 by the annexa-
tion of the state to Belgium (see CONGO FREE STATE: History).
In 1880 Leopold sought an interview with General C. G. Gordon
and obtained his promise, subject to the approval of the British
government, to enter the Belgian service on the Congo. Three
years later Leopold claimed fulfilment of the promise, and
Gordon was about to proceed to the Congo when the British
government required his services for the Sudan. On the i5th
of November 1902 King Leopold's life was attempted in Brussels
by an Italian anarchist named Rubino. Queen Marie Henriette
died at Spa on the igth of September of the same year. Besides
the son already mentioned she had borne to Leopold three
daughters — Louise Marie Amelie (b. 1858), who in 1875 married
Philip of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and was divorced in 1906;
Stephanie (b. 1864), who married Rudolph, crown prince of
Austria, in 1881, and after his death in 1889 married, against
her father's wishes, Elemer, Count Lonyay, in 1900; and
Clementine (b. 1872). At the time of the queen's death an
unseemly incident was occasioned by Leopold's refusal to see
his daughter Stephanie, who in consequence was not present at
her mother's funeral. The disagreeable impression on the public
mind thus created was deepened by an unfortunate litigation,
lasting for two years (1904-1906), over the deceased queen's
will, in which the creditors of the princess Louise, together
with princess Stephanie (Countess Lonyay), claimed that under
the Belgian law the queen's estate was entitled to half of her
husband's property. This claim was disallowed by the Belgian
courts. The king died at Laeken, near Brussels, on the i7th
of December 1909. On the 23rd of that month his nephew
took the oath to observe the constitution, assuming the title of
Albert I. King Leopold was personally a man of considerable
attainments and much strength of character, but he was a
notoriously dissolute monarch, who even to the last offended
decent opinion by his indulgences at Paris and on the Riviera.
The wealth he amassed from the Congo he spent, no doubt,
royally not only in this way but also on public improvements
in Belgium; but he had a hard heart towards the natives of
his distant possession.
LEOPOLD II. (1797-1870), of Habsburg-Lorraine, grand-duke
of Tuscany, was born on the 3rd of October 1797, the son of the
grand -duke Ferdinand III., whom he succeeded in 1824. During
the first twenty years of his reign he devoted himself to the
internal development of the state. His was the mildest and least
reactionary of all the Italian despotisms of the day, and although
always subject to Austrian influence he refused to adopt the
Austrian methods of government, allowed a fair measure of
liberty to the press, and permitted many political exiles from
other states to dwell in Tuscany undisturbed. But when in the
early 'forties a feeling of unrest spread throughout Italy, even in
Tuscany demands for a constitution and other political reforms
were advanced; in 1845-1846 riots broke out in various parts of
the country, and Leopold granted a number of administrative
reforms. But Austrian influence prevented him from going
further, even had he wished to do so. The election of Pope Pius
IX. gave fresh impulse to the Liberal movement, and on the
4th of September 1847 Leopold instituted the National Guard —
a first step towards the constitution; shortly after the marchese
Cosimo Ridolfi was appointed prime minister. The granting of
the Neapolitan and Piedmontese constitutions was followed
(i7th February 1848) by that of Tuscany, drawn up by Gino
Capponi. The revolution in Milan and Vienna aroused a fever
of patriotic enthusiasm in Tuscany, where war against Austria
was demanded; Leopold, giving way to popular pressure, sent
a force of regulars and volunteers to co-operate with Piedmont
in the Lombard campaign. His speech on their departure was
uncompromisingly Italian and Liberal. " Soldiers," he said,
" the holy cause of Italian freedom is being decided to-day on the
fields of Lombardy. Already the citizens of Milan have purchased
their liberty with their blood and with a heroism of which history
offers few examples. . . . Honour to the arms of Italy! Long
live Italian independence!" The Tuscan contingent fought
bravely, if unsuccessfully, at Curtatone and Montanara. On the
a6th of June the first Tuscan parliament assembled, but the
462
LEOPOLD II.— LEOTYCHIDES
disturbances consequent on the failure of the campaign in
Lombardy led to the resignation of the Ridolfi ministry, which
was succeeded by that of Gino Capponi. The riots continued,
especially at Leghorn, which was a prey to actual civil war, and
the democratic party of which F. D. Guerrazzi and G. Montanelli
were leading lights became every day more influential. Capponi
resigned, and Leopold reluctantly agreed to a Montanelli-
Guerrazzi ministry, which in its turn had to fight against the
extreme republican party. New elections in the autumn of
1848 returned a constitutional majority, but it ended by voting
in favour of a constituent assembly. There was talk of instituting
a central Italian kingdom with Leopold as king, to form part of
a larger Italian federation, but in the meanwhile the grand-duke,
alarmed at the revolutionary and republican agitations in
Tuscany and encouraged by the success of the Austrian arms,
was, according to Montanelli, negotiating with Field-Marshal
Radetzky and with Pius IX., who had now abandoned his
Liberal tendencies, and fled to Gaeta. Leopold had left Florence
for Siena, and eventually for Porto S. Stefano, leaving a letter
to Guerrazzi in which, on account of a protest from the pope,
he declared that he could not agree to the proposed constituent
assembly. The utmost confusion prevailed in Florence and other
parts of Tuscany. On the gih of February 1849 the republic
was proclaimed, largely as a result of Mazzini's exhortations,
and on the i8th Leopold sailed for Gaeta. A third parliament
was elected and Guerrazzi appointed dictator. But there was
great discontent, and the defeat of Charles Albert at Novara
caused consternation among the Liberals. The majority, while
fearing an Austrian invasion, desired the return of the grand-duke
who had never been unpopular, and in April 1849 the municipal
council usurped the powers of the assembly and invited him to
return, " to save us by means of the restoration of the constitu-
tional monarchy surrounded by popular institutions, from the
shame and ruin of a foreign invasion." Leopold accepted,
although he said nothing about the foreign invasion, and on the
ist of May sent Count Luigi Serristori to Tuscany with full
powers. But at the same time the Austrians occupied Lucca
and Leghorn, and although Leopold simulated surprise at their
action it has since been proved, as the Austrian general d'Aspre
declared at the time, that Austrian intervention was due to the
request of the grand-duke. On the 24th of May the latter
appointed G. Baldasseroni prime minister, on the 25th the
Austrians entered Florence and on the 28th of July Leopold
himself returned. In April 1850 he concluded a treaty with
Austria sanctioning the continuation for an indefinite period of
the Austrian occupation with 10,000 men; in September he
dismissed parliament, and the following year established a
concordat with the Church of a very clerical character. He
feebly asked Austria if he might maintain the constitution, and
the Austrian premier, Prince Schwarzenberg, advised him to
consult the pope, the king of Naples and the dukes of Parma and
Modena. On their advice he formally revoked the constitution
(1852). Political trials were held, Guerrazzi and many others
being condemned to long terms of imprisonment, and although
in 1855 the Austrian troops left Tuscany, Leopold's popularity
was gone. A part of the Liberals, however, still believed in the
possibility of a constitutional grand-duke who could be induced
for a second time to join Piedmont in a war against Austria,
whereas the popular party headed by F. Bartolommei and
G. Dolfi realized that only by the expulsion of Leopold could the
national aspirations be realized. When in 1859 France and
Piedmont made war on Austria, Leopold's government failed to
prevent numbers of young Tuscan volunteers from joining the
Franco-Piedmontese forces. Finally an agreement was arrived
at between the aristocratic constitutionalists and the popular
party, as a result of which the grand-duke's participation in the
war was formally demanded. Leopold at first gave way, and
entrusted Don Neri Corsini with the formation of a ministry.
The popular demands presented by Corsini were for the abdica-
tion of Leopold in favour of his son, an alliance with Piedmont
and the reorganization of Tuscany in accordance with the
eventual and definite reorganization of Italy. Leopold hesitated
and finally rejected the proposals as derogatory 'to 'his dignity.
On the 27th of April there was great excitement in Florence,
Italian colours appeared everywhere, but order was maintained,
and the grand-duke and his family departed for Bologna un-
disturbed. Thus the revolution was accomplished without a
drop of blood being shed, and after a period of provisional govern-
ment Tuscany was incorporated in the kingdom of Italy. On the
2ist of July Leopold abdicated in favour of his son Ferdinand IV.,
who never reigned, but issued a protest from Dresden (26th
March 1860). He spent his last years in Austria, and died in
Rome on the 29th of January 1870.
Leopold of Tuscany was a well-meaning, not unkindly man,
and fonder of his subjects than were the other Italian despots;
but he was weak, and too closely bound by family ties and
Habsburg traditions ever to become a real Liberal. Had he not
joined the conclave of autocrats at Gaeta, and, above all, had he
not summoned Austrian assistance while denying that he had
done so, in 1849, he might yet have preserved his throne, and
even changed the whole course of Italian history. At the same
time his rule, if not harsh, was enervating and demoralizing.
See G. Baldasseroni, Leopoldo II (Florence, 1871), useful but
reactionary in tendency, the author having been Leopold's minister.
G. Montanelli, Memorie sull' Italia (Turin, 1853); F. D. Guerrazzi,
Memorie (Leghorn, 1848); Zobi, Storia civile della Toscana, vols.
iv.-v. (Florence, 1850-1852); A. von Reumont, Geschichte Toscanas
(2 vols., Gotha, 1876-1877); M. Bartolommei-Gioli, // Rivolgimenlo
Toscano e I'azipne popolare (Florence, 1905) ; C. Tivaroni, £ Italia
durante il dominio Austriaco, vol. i. (Turin, 1892), and L' Italia degli
Italiani, vol. i. (Turin, 1895). See also RICASOLI; BARTOLOMMEI^
CAPPONI, GINO; &c. (L. V.*)
LEOPOLD II., a lake of Central Africa in the basin of the
Kasai affluent of the Congo, cut by 2° S.' and 18° 10' E. It has
a length N. to S. of about 75 m., is 30 m. across at its northern
end, tapering towards its southern end. Numerous bays and
gulfs render its outline highly irregular. Its shores are flat and
marshy, the lake being (in all probability) simply the lowest part
of a vast lake which existed here before the Kasai system breached
the barrier — at Kwa mouth — separating it from the Congo. The
lake is fed by the Lokoro (about 300 m. long) and smaller streams
from the east. Its northern and western affluents are com-
paratively unimportant. It discharges its waters (at its southern
end) into the Mfini, which is in reality the lower course of the
Lukenye. The lake is gradually diminishing in area; in the
rainy season it overflows its banks. The surrounding country
is very flat and densely wooded.
See KASAI; and articles and maps in Le Mouvement geog., speci-
ally vol. xiv., No. 29 (1897) and vol. xxiv., No. 38 (1907).
LEOTYCHIDES, Spartan king, of the Eurypontid family,
was descended from Theopompus through his younger son
Anaxandridas (Herod, viii. 131), and in 491 B.C. succeeded
Demaratus (<?.».), whose title to the throne he had with Cleomenes'
aid successfully challenged. He took part in Cleomenes' second
expedition to Aegina, on which ten hostages were seized and
handed over to the Athenians for safe custody: for this he
narrowly escaped being surrendered to the Aeginetans after
Cleomenes' death. In the spring of 479 we find him in command
of the Greek fleet of no ships, first at Aegina and afterwards
at Delos. In August he attacked the Persian position at Mycale
on the coast of Asia Minor opposite Samos, inflicted a crushing
defeat on the land-army, and annihilated the fleet which was
drawn up on the shore. Soon afterwards he sailed home with
the Peloponnesians, leaving the Athenians to prosecute the siege
of Sestos. In 476 he led an army to Thessaly to punish the
Aleuadae of Larisa for the aid they had rendered to the Persians
and to strengthen Spartan influence in northern Greece. After
a series of successful engagements he accepted a bribe from the
enemy to withdraw. For this he was brought to trial at Sparta,
and to save his life fled to the temple of Athena Alea at Tegea.
Sentence of exile was passed, his house was razed and his grand-
son Archidamus II. ascended the throne (Herod, vi. 65-87,
90-114; Thucydides i. 89; Pausanias iii. 4. 3. 7. 9-10;
Plutarch, De malignitate Herodoti, 21,
34-37)-
p. 859 D; Diodorus xi.
LEOVIGILD— LEPANTO
463
According to Diodorus (xi. 48) Leotychides reigned twenty-two,
his successor Archidamus forty-two years. The total duration of
the two reigns, sixty-four years, we know to be correct, for Leoty-
chides came to the throne in 491 and Archidamus (q.y.) died in 427.
On this basis, then, Leotychides's exile would fall in 469 and the
Thessalian expedition in that or the preceding year (so E. Meyer,
Geschichte des Altertums, iii. § 287). But Diodorus is not consistent
with himself ; he attributes (xi. 48) Leotychides's death to the year
476-475 and he records (xii. 35) Archidamus's death in 434-433.
though he introduces him in the following years at the head of the
Peloponnesian army (xii. 42, 47, 52). Further, he says expressly
that Leotychides iTtMTyaiv dp£os tri\ Anoai K<d Wo, i.e. he lived
twenty-two years after his accession. The twenty-two years, then,
may include the time which elapsed between his exile and his death.
In that case Leotychides died in 469, and 476-475 may be the year
in which his reign, though not his life, ended. This date seems,
from what we know of the political situation in general, to be more
probable than the later one for the Thessalian campaign.
G. Busolt, Griech. Geschichte, iii. 83, note; J. B. Bury, History
of Greece, p. 326; G. Grote, History of Greece, new edition 1888, iv.
349, note; also abridged edition 1907, p. 273, note 3. Beloch's view
(Griech. Geschichte, i. 455, note 2) that the expedition took place in
476, the trial and flight in 469, is not generally accepted. (M . N. T.)
LEOVIGILD, or LOWENHELD (d. 586), king of the Visigoths,
became king in 568 after the short period of anarchy which
followed the death of King Athanagild, whose widow, Goisvintha,
he married. At first he ruled that part of the Visigothic kingdom
which lay to the south of the Pyrenees, his brother Liuva or
Leova governing the small part to the north of these mountains;
but in 572 Liuva died and Leovigild became sole king. At this
time the Visigoths who settled in Spain early in the 5th century
were menaced by two powerful enemies, the Suevi who had a
small kingdom in the north-west of the peninsula, and the
Byzantines who had answered Athanagild's appeal for help by
taking possession of a stretch of country in the south-east.
Their kingdom, too, was divided and weakened by the fierce
hostility between the orthodox Christians and those who pro-
fessed Arianism. Internal and external dangers alike, however,
failed to daunt Leovigild, who may fairly be called the restorer of
the Visigothic kingdom. He turned first against the Byzantines,
who were defeated several times; he took Cordova and
chastised the Suevi; and then by stern measures he destroyed
the power of those unruly and rebellious chieftains who had
reduced former kings to the position of ciphers. The chronicler
tells how, having given peace to his people, he, first of the Visi-
gothic sovereigns, assumed the attire of a king and made Toledo
his capital. He strengthened the position of his family and
provided for the security of his kingdom by associating his two
sons, Recared and Hermenegild, with himself in the kingly office
and placing parts of the land under their rule. Leovigild him-
self was an Arian, being the last of the Visigothic kings to hold
that creed; but he was not a bitter foe of the orthodox Christians,
although he was obliged to punish them when they conspired
against him with his external enemies. His son Hermenegild,
however, was converted to the orthodox faith through the
influence of his Frankish wife, Ingundis, daughter of King
Sigebert I., and of Leander, metropolitan of Seville. Allying
himself with the Byzantines and other enemies of the Visigoths,
and supported by most of the orthodox Christians he headed
a formidable insurrection. The struggle was fierce; but at
length, employing persuasion as well as force, the old king
triumphed. Hermenegild was captured; he refused to give
up his faith and in March or April 585 he was executed. He was
canonized at the request of Philip II., king of Spain, by Pope
Sixtus V. About this time Leovigild put an end to the kingdom
of the Suevi. During his last years he was engaged in a war
with the Franks. He died at Toledo on the 2ist of April 586 and
was succeeded by his son Recared.
LEPANTO,1 BATTLE OF, fought on the ?th of October 1571
The conquest of Cyprus by the Turks, and their aggressions on
the Christian powers, frightened the states of the Mediterranean
into forming a holy league for their common defence. The main
promoter of the league was Pope Pius V., but the bulk of the
forces was supplied by the republic of Venice and Philip II. o
Spain, who was peculiarly interested in checking the Turks
1 For Lepanto see NAUPACTUS.
)oth because of the Moorish element in the population of Spain,
and because he was also sovereign of Naples and Sicily. In
compliment to King Philip, the general command of the league's
leet was given to his natural brother, Don John of Austria.
It included, however, only twenty-four Spanish ships. The
great majority of the two hundred galleys and eight galeasses,
of which the fleet was composed, came from Venice, under the
command of the proveditore Barbarigo; from Genoa, which
was in close alliance with Spain, under Gianandrea Doria;
and from the Pope whose squadron was commanded by Marc
Antonio Colonna. The Sicilian and Neapolitan contingents
were commanded by the marquess of Santa Cruz, and Cardona,
Spanish officers. Eight thousand Spanish soldiers were em-
jarked. The allied fleet was collected slowly at Messina, from
whence it advanced by the passage between Ithaca and Cephalonia
to Cape Marathia near Dragonera. The Turkish fleet which had
come up from Cyprus and Crete anchored in the Gulf of Patras.
tt consisted in all of 273 galleys which were of lighter build than
the Christians', and less well supplied with cannon or small arms.
The Turks still relied mainly on the bow and arrow. Ali, the
capitan pasha, was commander-in-chief, and he had with him
Chulouk Bey of Alexandria, commonly called Scirocco, and Uluch
Ali, dey of Algiers. On the 7th of October the Christian fleet
advanced to the neighbourhood of Cape Scropha. It was
formed in the traditional order of the galleys — a long line abreast,
subdivided into the centre or " battle " commanded by Don
John in person, the left wing under the proveditore Barbarigo,
and the right under Gianandrea Doria. But a reserve squadron
was placed behind the centre under the marquess of Santa Cruz,
and the eight lumbering galeasses were stationed at intervals in
front of the line to break the formation of the Turks. The
capitan pasha left his anchorage in the Gulf of Patras with his
fleet in a single line, without reserve or advance-guard. He was
himself in the centre, with Scirocco on his right and Uluch Ali
on his left. The two fleets met south of Cape Scropha, both drawn
up from north to south, the land being close to the left flank of
the Christians, and the right of the Turks. To the left of the
Turks and the right of the Christians, there was open sea. Ali
Pasha's greater numbers enabled him to outflank his enemy.
The Turks charged through the intervals between the galeasses,
which proved to be of no value. On their right Scirocco out-
flanked the Venetians of Barbarigo, but the better build of the
galleys of Saint Mark and the admirable discipline of their
crews gave them the victory. The Turks were almost all sunk
or driven on shore. Scirocco and Barbarigo both lost their lives.
On the centre Don John and the capitan pasha met prow to prow
— the Christians reserving the fire of their bow guns (called di
cursia) till the moment of impact, and then boarding. Ali Pasha
was slain and his galley taken. Everywhere on the centre the
Christians gained the upper hand, but their victory was almost
turned into a defeat by the mistaken manoeuvres of Doria.
In fear lest he should be outflanked by Uluch Ali, he stood
out to sea, leaving a gap between himself and the centre. The
dey of Algiers, who saw the opening, reversed the order of his
squadron, and fell on the right of the centre. The galleys of the
Order of Malta, which were stationed at this point, suffered
severely, and their flagship was taken with great slaughter.
A disaster was averted by the marquess of Santa Cruz, who
brought up the reserve. Uluch Ali then retreated with sail and
oar, bringing most of his division off in good order.
The loss of life in the battle was enormous, being put at
20,000 for the Turks and 8000 for the Christians. The battle of
Lepanto was of immense political importance. It gave the naval
power of the Turks a blow from which it never recovered,
and put a stop to their aggression in the Eastern Mediterranean.
Historically the battle is interesting because it was the last
example of an encounter on a great scale between fleets of galleys
and also because it was the last crusade. The Christian powers
of the Mediterranean did really combine to avert the ruin of
Christendom. Hardly a noble house of Spain or Italy was not
represented in the fleet, and the princes headed the boarders.
Volunteers came from all parts of Europe, and it is said that
464
LE PAUTRE— LEPIDOPTERA
among them was Sir Richard Grenville, afterwards famous for
his fight in the " Revenge " off Flores in the Azores. Cervantes
was undoubtedly present, and had his left hand shattered by a
Turkish bullet.
For full accounts of the battle, with copious references to author-
ities and to ancient controversies, mostly arising out of the conduct
of Doria, see Sir W. Stirling Maxwell, Don John of Austria (1883);
and Jurien de la Graviere, La Guerre de Chypre et la bataille de
Lepanto (1888). (D. H.)
LE PAUTRE, JEAN (1618-1682), French designer and en-
graver. He was apprenticed to a carpenter and builder and
in addition to learning mechanical and constructive work
developed considerable facility with the pencil. His designs,
which were innumerable in quantity and exuberant in fancy,
consisted mainly of ceilings, friezes, chimney-pieces, doorways
and mural decorations; he also devised fire-dogs, sideboards,
cabinets, console tables, mirrors and other pieces of furniture;
he was long employed at the Gobelins. His work is often ex-
cessively flamboyant and over-elaborate; he revelled in amorini
and swags, arabesques and cartouches. His chimney-pieces,
however, were frequently simple and elegant. His engraved
plates, almost entirely original, are something like 1 500 in number
and include a portrait of himself. He became a member of the
academy of Paris in 1677.
LEPCHA, the name of the aboriginal inhabitants of Sikkim
(g.v.). A peace-loving people, the Lepchas have been repeatedly
conquered by surrounding hill-tribes, and their ancient patri-
archal customs are dying out. The total number of speakers
of Lepcha, or Rong, in all India in 1901, was only 19,291. Their
rich and beautiful language has been preserved from extinction
by the efforts of General Mainwaring and others; but their
literature was almost entirely destroyed by the Tibetans, and
their traditions are being rapidly forgotten. Once free and
independent, they are now the poorest people in Sikkim, and it
is from them that the coolie class is drawn. They are above
all things woodmen, knowing the ways of beasts and birds, and
possessing an extensive zoological and botanical nomenclature of
their own.
See Florence Donaldson, Lepcha Land (1900).
LE PELETIER (or LEPELLETIER) , DE SAINT-FARGEAU,
LOUIS MICHEL (1760-1793), French politician, was born on the
29th of May 1760 at Paris. He belonged to a well-known family,
his great-grandfather, Michel Robert Le Peletier des Forts,
count of Saint-Fargeau, having been controller-general of finance.
He inherited a great fortune, and soon became president of the
parlement of Paris and in 1789 he was a deputy of the noblesse
to the States-General. At this time he shared the conservative
views of the majority of his class; but by slow degrees his ideas
changed and became very advanced. On the i$th of July
1789 he demanded the recall of Necker, whose dismissal by the
king had aroused great excitement in Paris; and in the Con-
stituent Assembly he had moved the abolition of the penalty
of death, of the galleys and of branding, and the substitution
of beheading for hanging. This attitude won him great
popularity, and on the 2ist of June 1790 he was made president
of the Constituent Assembly. During the existence of the
Legislative Assembly, he was president of the general council
for the department of the Yonne, and was afterwards elected
by this department as a deputy to the Convention. Here he
was in favour of the trial of Louis XVI. by the assembly and
voted for the death of the king. This vote, together with his
ideas in general, won him the hatred of the royalists, and on the
2oth of January 1793, the eve of the execution of the king, he was
assassinated in the Palais Royal at Paris by a member of the
king's body-guard. The Convention honoured Le Peletier by a
magnificent funeral, and the painter J. L. David represented
his death in a famous picture, which was later destroyed by his
daughter. Towards the end of his life, Le Peletier had interested
himself in the question of public education; he left fragments
of a plan, the ideas contained in which were borrowed in later
schemes. His assassin fled to Normandy, where, on the point of
being discovered, he blew out his brains. Le Peletier had
a brother, Felix (1760-1837), well known for his advanced
ideas. His daughter, Suzanne Louise, was " adopted " by the
French nation.
See (Euvres de M. le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau (Brussels, 1826)
with a life by his brother Felix; E. Le Blant, " Le Peletier de St-
Fargeau, et son meurtrier," in the Correspondant review (1874);
F. Clerembray, Episodes de la Revolution (Rouen, 1891); Brette,
" La Reiorme de la legislation universelle, et le plan de Lepelletier
Saint-Fargeau," in La Revolution fran$aise, xlii. (1902); and M.
Tourneux, Bibliog. de I' hist, de Paris . . . (vol. i., 1890, Nos. 3896-
3910, and vol. iv., 1906, s.v. Lepeletier).
LEPIDOLITE, or LITHIA-MICA, a mineral of the mica group
(see MICA). It is a basic aluminium, potassium and lithium
fluo-silicate, with the approximate formula KLi [A1(OH,F)Z]
Al(SiOs)3. Lithia and fluorine are each present to the extent
of about 5%; rubidium and caesium are sometimes present
in small amounts. Distinctly developed monoclinic crystals
or cleavage sheets of large size are of rare occurrence, the mineral
being usually found as scaly aggregates, and on this account
was named lepidolite (from Gr. X«r«, scale) by M. H. Klaproth
in 1792. It is usually of a lilac or peach-blossom colour, but is
sometimes greyish-white, and has a pearly lustre on the cleavage
surfaces. The hardness is 25-4 and the sp. gr. 2-8-2-9, the optic
axial angle measures 5o°-7o°. It is found in pegmatite-veins,
often in association with pink tourmaline (rubellite) and some-
times intergrown in parallel position with muscovite. Scaly
masses of considerable extent are found at Rozena near Bystrzitz
in Moravia and at Pala in San Diego county, California. The
material from Rozena has been known since 1791, and has some-
times been cut and polished for ornamental purposes: it has a
pretty colour and spangled appearance and takes a good polish,
but is rather soft. At Pala it has been extensively mined for the
preparation of lithium and rubidium salts. Other localities
for the mineral are the island of Uto in Sweden, and Auburn
and Paris in Maine, U.S.A.; at Alabashka near Mursinka in the
Urals large isolated crystals have been found, and from Central
Australia transparent cleavage sheets of a fine lilac colour are
known.
The lithium-iron mica zinnivaldite or lilhionite is closely allied
to lepidolite, differing from it in containing some ferrous iron
in addition to the constituents mentioned above. It occurs
as greyish silvery scales with hexagonal outlines in the tin-
bearing granites of Zinnwald in the Erzgebirge, Bohemia and of
Cornwall. (L. J. S.)
LEPIDOPTERA (Gr. X«rk, a scale or husk, and irrtpbv, a
wing), a term used in zoological classification for one of the
largest and best-known orders of the class Hexapoda (q.v.),
in order that comprises the insects popularly called butterflies
and moths. The term was 'first used by Linnaeus (1735) in the
sense still accepted by modern zoologists, and there are few
a
Alter Edwards, Rfley and Howard's Insect Life, vol. 3 (U.S. Dept. Agr.).
FIG. I. — e, Crytophasa unipuctata, Donov., Australia, a, Larva;
c, pupa, natural size; b, 2nd and 3rd abdominal segments of larva;
d, cremaster of pupa, magnified.
groups of animals as to whose limits and distinguishing characters
less controversy has arisen.
Characters. — The name of the order indicates the fact that
the wings (and other parts of the body) are clothed with flattened
LEPIDOPTERA
465
cuticular structures — the scales (fig. 7) — that may be regarded
as modified arthropodan " hairs." Such scales are not peculiar
to the Lepidoptera — they are found also on many of the Aptera,
on the Psocidae, a family of Corrodentia, on some Coleoptera
(beetles) and on the gnats (Culicidae), a family of Diptera. The
most distinctive structural features of the Lepidoptera are to
be found in the jaws. The mandibles are mere vestiges or
entirely absent; the second maxillae are usually reduced to a
narrow transverse mentum which bears the scale-covered
labial palps, between which project the elongate first maxillae,
grooved on their inner faces, so as to form when apposed a
tubular proboscis adapted for sucking liquid food.
All Lepidoptera are hatched as the cruciform soft-bodied
type of larva (fig. i, a) known as the caterpillar, with biting
mandibles, three pairs of thoracic legs and with a variable
number (usually five pairs) of abdominal prolegs, which carry
complete or incomplete circles of booklets. The pupa in a
single family only is free (i.e. with the appendages free from the
body), and mandibulate. In the vast majority of the order
it is more or less obtect (i.e. with the appendages fixed to the
cuticle of the body) and without mandibles (fig. i, c).
Structure. — The head in the Lepidoptera is sub-globular in shape
with the compound eyes exceedingly well developed, and with a
pair of ocelli or " simple eyes " often present on the vertex. It is
connected to the thorax by a relatively broad and membranous
" neck." The feelers are many-jointed, often they are complex,
the segments bearing
processes arranged in
a comb-like manner
and furnished with
numerous sensory
hairs (fig. 2). The
complexity of the
feelers is carried to
its highest develop-
ment in certain male
moths that have a
wonderful power of
discovering their
females by smell or
From Rfley and Howard, Insect Life, vol. 7 (U.S. Dept. some analogous sense.
Agr )• Often the feelers are
FIG. 2. — a, Feeler of Saturniid Moth (Telea excessively complex
polyphemus), magnified 3 times, b, c, Tips in male moths whose
of branches, highly magnified. maxillae are so re-
duced that they take
no food in the imaginal state. The nature of the jaws has already
been briefly described. Functional mandibles of peculiar form
(fig. 3, A) are present in the remarkable small moths of the genus
Micropteryx (or Eriocephala) , and there are vestiges of these jaws
in other moths of low type, but the minute structures in the higher
Lepidoptera that were formerly described as mandibles are now
believed to belong to the labrum, the true mandibles being perhaps
represented by rounded prominences,
not articulated with the head-capsule.
Throughout the order, as a whole,
the jaws are adapted for sucking
liquid food, and the suctorial pro-
boscis (often erroneously called a
" tongue ") is formed as was shown
by J. C. Savigny in 1816 by two
elongated and flexible outgrowths of
the first maxillae, usually regarded
as representing the outer lobes or
galeae (fig. 4, A, B, g). These struc-
tures are grooved along their inner
faces and by means of a series of
interlocking hair-like bristles can be
joined together so as to form a
After A. Walter (Jen. Z«fe. /. tubular sucker (fig. 4, C). At their
Natum. vol. 18). extremities they are beset with club-
FIG. 3.— A, Mandible, and like sense-organs, whose apparent
B, 1st maxilla of Micropteryx function is that of taste. The pro-
(Eriocephala). Magnified. boscis when in use is stretched out
_ p0i_ j ct;, in front of the head and inserted
ft' Sfc » r PA ( into the corolla of a flower or else-
b' C e' Cardo of where, for the absorption of liquid
nourishment. When at rest, the
proboscis is rolled up into a close
spiral beneath the head and between the labial palps (fig. 4, A, p).
Only in the genus Micropteryx mentioned above is the lacinia
of the maxilla (as A. Walter has shown) developed (fig. 3, B, c).
The maxillary palp is usually a mere vestige (fig. 4, B, p) though
it is conspicuous in a few families of small moths. A consider-
c, Lacinia.
maxilla.
able number of Lepidoptera take no food in the imaginal state;
in these the maxillae are reduced or altogether atrophied. The
second maxillae are intimately fused together to form the labium,
which consists only
of a reduced men-
tum, bearing some-
times vestigial lobes
and always a pair of
palps. These have
two or three seg-
ments and are
clothed with scales.
The form and direc-
tion of the terminal
segment of the labial
palp afford valuable
characters in classi-
fication.
In the thorax of
the Lepidoptera the
foremost segment or
prothorax is very
small, and not mov-
able on the meso-
thorax. In many
families it carries a
pair of small erectile
plates — the patagia
— which have been
FlG- ^-Arrangement of the jaws in a
^ Moth Somewhat diagramJmatic and
Zrfx is extensive; >" part after E. Burgess and V. L. Kellogg
its scutum forming (Amer- Nat- xlv' XXJX->-
most of the dorsal A, Front view of head,
thoracic area and c, Clypeus.
small plates— teg- e, Compound eye.
ulae — are often m, Vestigial mandible,
present at the base l< Labrum.
of the forewings, as g, Galeae of 1st maxillae.
in Hymenoptera. p, Labial palp. Magnified, B. [head.
The tegulae which b, Base of first maxilla dissected out of the
are beset with long P, Vestigial palp,
hair-like scales are g, Galea. Further magnified.
C, Part transverse section showing how the
often conspicuous.
The metathorax is
smaller than the
mesothorax. The
legs are of the typical t,
hexapodan form n,
channel (A) of the proboscis is formed
by the interlocking of the grooved inner
faces of the flexible maxillae.
Air-tube.
Nerve.
with five-segmented rn, Muscle-fibres. Highly magnified.
feet ; the shins often
bear terminal and median spurs articulated at their bases and the
entire limbs are clothed with scales.
The wings of the Lepidoptera may be said to dominate the structure
of the insect; only exceptionally, in certain female moths, are they
vestigial or absent (fig. 17). The forewing, with its prominent apex,
is longer than the
hindwing, and the
neuration in both
(see figs. 5 and 6) is
for the most part
longitudinal, only a
few transverse ner-
vures, which are, in
fact, branches of the
median trunk,
marking off a dis-
coidal areolet or
"cell" (fig. 5, a).
The five branches of
the radial nervure
(figs. 5, 6, j) (see
HEXAPODA) are
usually present in
the forewing, but
the hindwing, in
most families, has
only a single radial
After A. S. Packard, M em. Nat. Acad. Sci. vol. vii.
FIG. 5. — Wing-neuration of a Notodont
3,
Moth. 2, Subcostal; 3, radial; 4, median;
nervure; its anal 5, cubital; 7, 8, anal nervures. a, Discoidal
area is, however, areolet or " cell " ; /, frenulum. Note that
often more strongly the forewing has five branches (i — 5) of the
developed than that radial nervure, the hindwing one only. The
of the forewing. The nrst anal nervure (No. 6) is absent,
two wings of a side
are usually kept together during flight by a few stout bristles — the
frenulum — (fig. 5, /) projecting from the base of the costa of the
hindwing and fitting beneath a membranous fold or a few thickened
scales— the retinaculum — on the under surface of the forewing.
In butterflies there is no frenulum, but a costal outgrowth of the
466
LEPIDOPTERA
hindwing subserves the same function. In the most primitive
moths a small lobate outgrowth — the jugum (fig. 6, j.) — from the
dorsum of the forewing is present, but it can be of little service in
keeping the two wings together. A jugum may be also present on
the hindwing. The legs, which are generally used for clinging rather
than for walking, have five-segmented feet and are covered with
scales. In some families the Front pair are reduced and without
tarsal segments.
Ten abdominal segments are recognizable in many Lepidoptera,
but the terminal segments are reduced or modified to form external
organs of reproduction. In
2 the male, according to the
interpretation of C. Pey-
3 toureau, the lateral plates
belonging to the ninth seg-
ment form paired claspers
beset with harpes, or series
of ridges or teeth, while the
tergum of the tenth seg-
ment forms a dorsal hook
— the uncus — and its ster-
num a ventral process or
-caphium. In the female
the terminal segments
form, in some cases, a
protrusible ovipositor, but
the typical hexapodan oyi-
d, Mm. *+ ^. «. vo,. vii. Pp^or with hsuthn* pairs
FIG. 6. — Wing neuration of a Swift in the Lepidoptera.
Moth (Hepialid). j, Jugum. Ner- As already mentioned,
vures numbered as in fig. 5. Note the characteristic scales on
that there are five branches to the the wings, legs and body
radial nervure (No. 3) in both fore- of the Lepidoptera are
and hindwing, and that the median cuticular structures. A
trunk nervures (No. 4) traverse the complete series of transi-
discoidal areolet. tional forms can be traced
between the most elaborate
flattened scales (fig. 7, B) with numerous longitudinal striae and a
simple arthropod " hair." Either a " hair " or a scale owes its
origin to a special cell of the ectoderm (hypodermis), a process from
which grows through the general cuticle and forms around itself
the substance of the cuticular appendage. The scales on the wings
are arranged in regular rows (fig. 7, A), and the general cuticle is
drawn out into a narrow neck or collar around the base of each
scale. The scales can be easily rubbed from the surface of the wing,
and the series of collars in which the scales rest are then evident
(fig. 7, A, c) on the wing-membrane. On the wings of many male
butterflies there are specially modified scales — the androconia
(fig. 7, C) — which are formed by glandular cells and diffuse a scented
secretion. In some cases, the androconia are mixed among the
ordinary scales; in others they are associated into conspicuous
" brands " (see fig. 66). The admirable colours of the wings of the
Lepidoptera are due partly to pigment in the scales — as in the case
of yellows, browns, reds and blacks — partly to " interference "
effects from the fine striae on the
scales — as with the blues, purples and
greens.
A few points of interest in the in-
ternal structure of the Lepidoptera
deserve mention. The mouth opens
into a sub-globular, muscular pharynx
which is believed to suck the liquid
food through the proboscis, and force
it along the slender gullet into a crop-
like enlargement or diverticulum of the
fore-gut known as a " food-reservoir "
FIG. 7.— A, Arrangement or " sucking-stomach.'' The true
of scales in rows on wing stomach is tubular, and beyond it lies
of Butterfly, n, Nervure* th? "Destine into which open the three
collar-like outerowths Palrs of excretorv (Malpighian) tubes,
of cutide. Magnified .B The terminal part of the intestine is
single scale, and C, an °f wide diameter, and in some cases
androconium more highly 8lves »ff a «hort caecum- The bram
ifi ' ' and the sub-oesophageal ganglia are
closely approximated; there are two
or three thoracic and four (rarely five) abdominal ganglia. In
the female each ovary has four ovarian tubes, in which the large
egg-cells are enclosed in follicles and associated with nutritive cells.
There is a special bursa which in the Hepialidae opens with the
vagina on the eighth abdominal sternum. In the Micropterygidae,
Enocraniidae and the lower Tineides, the duct of the bursa leads
into the vagina, which still opens on the eighth sternum. But in
most Lepidoptera, the bursa opens by a vestibule on the eighth
sternum, distinct from the vagina, whose opening shifts back to
the ninth, the duct of the bursa being connected with the vagina
by a canal which opens opposite to the spermatheca. In the male,
the two testes are usually fused into a single mass, and a pair of
tubular accessory glands open into the vasa deferentia or into the
ejaculatory duct. In a few families — the Hepialidae and Saturniidae
for example — the testes retain the primitive paired arrangement.
These details have been worked out by various students, among
whom W. H. Jackson and W. Petersen deserve special mention.
Summing up the developmental history of the genital ducts, Jackson
remarks that there is an Ephemeridal stage, which ends towards
the close of larval life, an Orthopteran stage, indicated during the
quiescent period preceding pupation, and a Lepidopteran stage
which begins with the commencement of pupal life."
Development — Many observations have been made on the
embryology of the Lepidoptera; for some of the more important
FIG. 8 A. — Cossus macmurtrei. (MacMurtrie's Goat Moth.)
N. America.
results of these see HEXAPODA. The post-embryonic develop-
ment of Lepidoptera is more familiar, perhaps, than that of any
other group of animals. The egg shows great variation in its
outward form, the outer envelope or chorion being in some families
globular, in others flattened, in others again erect and sub-conical
or cylindrical; while its surface often exhibits a beautifully
regular series of ribs and furro-ws. Throughout the order the
larva is of the form known as the caterpillar (fig. i, a, b, fig. 8 B)
FIG. 8 B. — Larva of Cossus cossus. (Goat Moth.) Europe.
characterized by the presence of three pairs of jointed and clawed
legs on the thorax and a variable number of pairs of abdominal
" prolegs " — sub-cylindrical outgrowths of the abdominal seg-
ments, provided with a complete or incomplete circle of booklets
at the extremity.
There are ten abdominal segments — the ninth often small and
concealed; prolegs are usually present on the third, fourth, fifth,
sixth and tenth of these segments.
The head of the caterpillar (fig. 9)
is large with firmly chitinized cuticle ;
it carries usually twelve simple eyes
or ocelli, a pair of short feelers (fig.
9 At) and a pair of strong mandibles
(fig. 9, Mn), for the caterpillar feeds
by biting leaves or other plant-
tissues. The first maxillae, so highly
developed in the imago, are in the
larva small and inconspicuous ap-
pendages, each bearing two short
jointed processes, — the galea and
the palp (fig. 9, MX). The second
maxillae form a plate-like labium
on whose surface projects the
spinneret which is usually regarded _ , ~
as a modified hypopharynx ?fig. 9, _ FlG- .9.— Head of ,Goat
f rom
_
. , _ FlG- .9.—
Lm). The silk-glands whose ducts £at?n«
open on this spinneret are paired hind. Magnified. (From Miall
convoluted tubes lying alongside and Denny after Lyonnet.)
the elongate cylindrical stomach. •"'•
In the common " silkworm " these Mn,
glands are five times as long as the Mx>
body of the caterpillar. They are re- Lm,
garded as modified salivary glands,
though the correspondence has been doubted by some students. The
body of the caterpillar is usually cylindrical and wormlike, with the
l-Vi
Mandible.
£irst maxilla.
Second maxillae (Lab-
Iuir-) wlth spinneret.
LEPIDOPTERA
467
segmentation well marked and the cuticle feebly chitinized and
flexible. Firm chitinous plates are, however, not seldom present on
the prothorax and on the hindmost abdominal segment. The seg-
ments are mostly provided with bristle or spine-bearing tubercles,
whose arrangement has lately been shown by H. G. Dyar to give
partially trustworthy indications of relationship. On either side
of the median line we find two dorsal or trapezoidal tubercles (Nos. I
and 2), while around the spiracle are grouped (Nos. 3, 4 and 5)
supra-, post-, and pre-spiracular tubercles; below are the sub-
spiraculars, of which there may be two (Nos. 6, 7). The last-named
is situated on the base of the abdominal proleg, and yet another
tubercle (No. 8) may be present on the inner aspect of the proleg.
The spiracles are very conspicuous on the body of a caterpillar,
occurring on the prothorax and on the first eight abdominal seg-
ments. Various tubercles may become coalesced or aborted (fig.
10, B); often, in conjunction with the spines that they bear, the
tubercles serve as a valuable protective armature for the caterpillar.
Much discussion has taken place as to whether the abdominal prolegs
are or are not developed directly from the embryonic abdominal
appendages. In the more lowly families of Lepidoptera, these
organs are provided at the extremity with a complete circle of
booklets, but in the more highly organized families, only the inner
half of this circle is retained.
The typical Lepidopteran pupa, or " chrysalis," as shown in the
higher families, is an obtect pupa (fig. 1 1) with no trace of mandibles,
the appendages being glued to the body by an exudation, and
B, after Grote, Mitt, aus dem Roemer Museum.
No. 6.
FIG. 10. — Abdominal segments of
Caterpillars, to show arrangement of
tubercles; the arrows point anteriorly.
A, Generalized condition; B, special-
ized condition in the Saturniidae. i,
Spiracle ; the numbering of the tubercles
is explained in the text. Note that in FIG. n. — Pupa
B No. 2 is much reduced and disappears of a Butterfly
after the first moult. 4 and 5 are (Amathusia phi-
coalesced, and 6 is absent. dippus).
motion being possible only at three of the abdominal intersegmental
regions, the fifth and s-ixth abdominal segments at most being " free."
A flattened or pointed process — the cremaster — often prominent at
the tail-end, may carry one or several hooks (fig. I, d) which serve
to anchor the pupa to its cocoon or to suspend butterfly-pupae
from their pad of silk (fig. n). In the lower families the pupa
(fig. I, c) is only incompletely obtect, and a greater number of
abdominal segments can move on one another. The seventh ab-
dominal segment is, in all female lepidopterous pupae, fused with
those behind it; in the male "incomplete" pupa this becomes
" free " and so may the segments anterior to it, in both sexes, for-
ward to and including the third. The presence of circles of spines
on the abdominal segments enables the " incomplete " pupa as a
whole to work its way partly out of the cocoon when the time for
the emergence of the imago draws near. In the family of the
Eriocraniidae (often called the Micropterygidae) the pupa resembles
that of a caddis- fly (Trichopteron) being active before the emergence
of the imago and provided with strong mandibles by means of which
it bites its way out of the cocoon. The importance of the pupa in
the phylogeny and classification of the Lepidoptera has lately been
demonstrated by T. A. Chapman in a valuable series of papers.
Sometimes organs are present in the pupa which are undeveloped in
the imago, such as the maxillary palps of the Sesiidae (clearwing
moths) and the pectination on the feelers of female Saturniids.
E. B. Poulton has drawn attention to the ancestral value of such
characters.
Habits and Life- Relations. — The attractiveness of the Lepidop-
tera and the conspicuous appearance of many of them have led to
numerous observations on their habits. The method of feeding
of the imago by the suction of liquids has already been mentioned
in connexion with the structure of the maxillae and the food-
canal. Nectar from flowers is the usual food of moths and
butterflies, most of which alight on a blossom before thrusting
the proboscis into the corolla of the flower, while others— the
hawk moths (Sphingidae) for example — remain poised in the
air in front of the flower by means of excessively rapid vibration
of the wings, and quickly unrolling the proboscis sip the nectar.
Certain flowers with remarkably long tubular corollas seem to be
specially adapted for the visits of hawk moths. Some Lepidoptera
have other sources of food-supply. The juices of fruit are often
sought for, and certain moths can pierce the envelope of a
succulent fruit with the rough cuticular outgrowths at the tips
of the maxillae, so as to reach the soft tissue within. Animal
juices attract other Lepidoptera, which have been observed
to suck blood from a wounded mammal; while putrid meat
is a familiar " lure " for the gorgeous " purple emperor " butterfly
( A patura iris) . The watenof streams or the dew on leaves may be
frequently sought by Lepidoptera desirous of quenching their
thirst, possibly with fatal results, the insects being sometimes
drowned in rivers in large numbers. Members of several families
of the Lepidoptera — the Hepialidae, Lasiocampidae and
Saturniidae, for example — have the maxillae vestigial or aborted,
and take no food at all after attaining the winged condition.
In such insects there is a complete " division of labour " between
the larval and the imaginal instars, the former being entirely
devoted to nutritive, the latter to reproductive functions.
Of much interest is the variety displayed among the Lepidop-
tera in the season and the duration of the various instars. The
brightly coloured vanessid butterflies, for example, emerge from
the pupa in the late summer and live through the winter in
sheltered situations, reappearing to lay their eggs in the succeed-
ing spring. Many species, such as the vapourer moths (Orgyia),
lay eggs in the autumn, which remain unhatched through the
winter. The eggs of the well-known magpie moths (Abraxas)
hatch in autumn and the caterpillar hibernates while still quite
small, awaiting for its growth the abundant food-supply to be
afforded by the next year's foliage. The codlin moths (Carpo-
capsa) pass the winter as resting full-grown larvae, which seek
shelter and spin cocoons in autumn, but do not pupate until the
succeeding spring. Lastly, many of the Lepidoptera hibernate
in the pupal stage; the death's head moth (Acherontia) and the
cabbage- white butterflies (Pieris) are familiar examples of such.
The last-named insects afford instances of the " double-brooded "
condition, two complete life-cycles being passed through in the
year. The flour moth (Ephestia kiihniella) is said to have five
successive generations in a twelvemonth. On the other hand,
certain species whose larvae feed in wood or on roots take two
or three years to reach the adult stage.
The rate of growth of the larva depends to a great extent on
the nature of its food, and the feeding-habits of caterpillars
afford much of interest and variety to the student. The contrast
among the Lepidoptera between the suctorial mouth of the
imago and the biting jaws of the caterpillar is very striking (cf.
figs. 4 and 9), and the profound transformation in structure
which takes place is necessarily accompanied by the change from
solid to liquid food. The first meal of a young caterpillar is well
known to be often its empty egg-shell; from this it turns to feed
upon the leaves whereon its provident parent has laid her eggs.
But in a few cases hatching takes place in winter or early spring,
and the young larvae have then to find a temporary food until
their own special plant is available. For example, the cater-
pillars of some species of Xanthia and other noctuid moths feed
at first upon willow-catkins. On the other hand, the caterpillars
of the pith moth (Blastodacna) hatched at midsummer, feed on
leaves when young, and burrow into woody shoots in autumn.
All who have tried to rear caterpillars know that, while those of
some species will feed only on one particular species of plant,
others will eat several species of the same genus or family, while
others again are still less particular, some being able to feed on
almost any green herb. It is curious to note how certain species
change their food hi different localities, a caterpillar confined to
one plant in some localities being less particular elsewhere.
Individual aberrations in food are of special interest in suggesting
the starting-point for a change in the race. When we consider
_ the vast numbers of the Lepidoptera and the structural modifica-
j tions which they have undergone, their generally faithful
I adherence to a vegetable diet is remarkable. The vast majority
468
of caterpillars eat leaves, usually devouring them openly, and,
if of large size, quickly reducing the amount of foliage on the plant.
But many small caterpillars keep, apparently for the sake of
concealment, to the under surface of the leaf, while others burrow
into the green tissue, forming a characteristic sinuous " mine "
between the two leaf-skins. In several families we find the
habit of burrowing in woody stems, — the " goat " (Cossus, fig. 8)
and the clearwings (Sesiidae), for example, while others, like
the larvae of the swift moths (Hepialidae) live underground
devouring roots (fig 12). The richer nutrition in the green food
is usually shown by the quicker growth of the numerous cater-
pillars that feed on it, as compared with the slower development
of the wood and root-feeding species. Aquatic larvae are very
rare among the Lepidoptera. The caterpillars of the pyralid
" china-mark " moths (Hydrocampa, fig. 13), however, live
under water, feeding on duckweed (Lemna) and breathing
atmospheric air, a film of which is enclosed in a spun-up shelter
beneath the leaves, while the larvae of Paraponyx, which feed
on Stratiotes, have closed spiracles and breathe dissolved air
by means of branchial filaments along the sides of the body.
LEPIDOPTERA
FIG. 12. — Larva of Hepialus humuli
(ghost moth).
FIG. 13. — Hydro-
campa 111/ 1111 t il 1 \
(water moth).
We may now turn to instances of more anomalous modes of
feeding. The clothes moths (Tineids) have invaded our dwellings
and found a congenial food-stuff for their larvae in our garments.
A few small species of the same group are reared in meal and
other human food-stores; so are the caterpillars of some pyralid
moths (Ephestia), while others (Asopia, Aglossa) feed upon
kitchen refuse. Two species of crambid moths (Aphomia
sociella and Galleria melonella) find a home in bee-hives, where
their caterpillars feed upon the wax, while the waxy secretion
from the body of the great American lantern-fly (Fulgora
candelaria) serves both as shelter and food for the caterpillar of
the moth Epipyrops anomala. Very few caterpillars have
developed a thoroughly carnivorous habit. That of Cosmia
trapezina feeds on oak and other leaves, but devours smaller
caterpillars which happen to get in its way, and if shaken from
the tree, eats other larvae while climbing the trunk. Xylina
ornithopus and a few other species are said to be always carni-
vorous when opportunity offers; the small looping caterpillar
of a " pug " moth (Eupithecia coronata) has been observed to eat
a larva three times as big as itself. The caterpillars of Orthosia
pistacina live together in peace while their food is moist, but
devour each other when it dries up; this is true cannibalism —
a term which should not be applied to the habit of preying on
another species. A few carnivorous caterpillars do not attack
other caterpillars, but prey upon insects of another order; among
these Fenescia tarquinius, which eats aphides, and Erastria
scitida, which feeds upon scale insects, must be reckoned as bene-
factors to mankind. The life-history of the latter moth has been
worked out by H. Rouzaud. It inhabits the shores of the Medi-
terranean, and its caterpillar devours the coccids upon various
fruit-trees, especially the black-scale (Lecanium oleae) of the
olive. The moth, which is a small noctuid, the white markings
on whose wings give it the appearance of a bird^dropping
when at rest in the daytime, appears in May, and lays her eggs,
singly and far apart, upon the trees infested by the coccids.
When hatched, the young caterpillar selects a large female
coccid, eats its way through the scale, and devours the insect
beneath; having done this it makes its way to a fresh victim.
As it increases in size it forms a case for itself made of the scales
of its victims, excrement, &c., bound together by silk which it
spins, and, protected by this covering, which closely resembles
the smut-covered bark of the tree, it roams about during its
later stages, devouring several coccids every day. So nutritious
is the food, that four or five successive broods follow each other
through the summer.
The habit just mentioned of forming some kind of protective
covering out of foreign substances spun together by silk is
practised by caterpillars of different families. The clothes moth
larvae (Tinea, fig. 14), for example, make a tubular dwelling out
After Marlatt (after Rfley), Ball. 4, Din. Ent. U.S. Dept. Agr.
FIG. 14. — Clothes Moth (Tinea pellionella), with larva in and out
of its case. Magnified.
of the pellets of wool passed from their own intestines, while the
allied Tortricid caterpillars roll up leaves and spin for themselves
cylindrical shelters. The habit of spinning over the food plant
a protective mass of web, whereon the caterpillars of a family
can live together socially is not uncommon. In the case of the
small ermine moths (Hyponomeuta) the caterpillars remain
associated throughout their lives and pupate in cocoons on the
mass of web produced by their common labour. But the larger,
spiny caterpillars of the vanessid butterflies usually scatter away
from the nest of their infancy when they have attained a certain
size.
Spines and hairs seem to be often effective protections for
caterpillars; the experiments of E. B. Poulton and others tend to
show that hairy caterpillars (fig. 15) are distasteful to birds.
Many caterpillars are protected by the harmony of their general
green coloration with their surroundings. When the insect attains
a large size — as in the case of the hawk moth (Sphingid) cater-
pillars— the extensive ,
green surface becomes
broken up by diagonal
dark markings (fig.
466), thus simulating
the effect of light and
shade among the foli-
age. A remarkable
result of Poulton 's
experiments has been
the establishment of a
reflex effect through the skin on the colour of a caterpillar. Some
species of " loopers " (Geometridae, fig. 43) for example, if placed
when young among surroundings of a certain colour, become
closely assimilated thereto — dark brown among dark twigs,
green among green leaves. These colour-reflexes in conjunction
with the elongate twig-like shape of the caterpillars and their
habit of stretching themselves straight out from a branch, afford
some of the best and most familiar examples of " protective
resemblance." The " terrifying attitude " of caterpillars, and
the supposed resemblance borne by some of them to serpents and
other formidable vertebrates or arthropods, are discussed in the
article MIMICRY.
The silk produced by a caterpillar is, as we have seen, often
advantageous in its own life-relations, but its great use is in
connexion with the pupal stage. In the life-history of many
Lepidoptera, the last act of the caterpillar is to spin a cocoon
which may afford protection to the pupa. In some cases this is
formed entirely of the silk produced by the spinning-glands, and
may vary from the loose meshwork that clothes the pupa of the
FIG. 15. — Larva of Orgyia gonostigma.
Europe.
LEPIDOPTERA
469
After Ratzeburg, Insect Life,
vol. 2 (U.S. Dept. Agr.).
FIG. 16. — Pupa of
leaves joined by silken
threads. Below is the
cast larval cuticle.
diamond-back moth (Plutella cruciferarum) to the densely woven
cocoon of the silkworms (Bombycidae and Saturniidae) or the
hard shell-like covering of the eggars (Lasiocampidae). Fre-
quently foreign substances are worked up with the silk and serve
to strengthen the cocoon, such as hairs from the body of the
caterpillar itself, as among the " tigers "
(Arctiidae) or chips of wood, as with
the timber-burrowing larva of the
" goat " (Cossus). In many families
of Lepidoptera we can trace a degenera-
tion of the cocoon. Thus, the pupae
of most owl moths (Noctuidae) and
hawk moths (Sphingidae) lie buried in
an earthen cell. Among the butterflies
we find that- the cocoon is reduced to a
pad of silk which gives attachment to
the cremaster; in the Pieridae there is
in addition a girdle of silk around the
waist-region of the pupa, but the pupae
of the Nymphalidae (figs, n, 65)
simply hang from the supporting pad
by the tail-end. Poulton has shown
that the colours of some exposed
pupae vary with the nature of the
surroundings of the larva during the
final stage.
When the pupal stage is complete
the insect has to make its way out of
the cocoon. In the lower families of moths it is the pupa
which comes out at least partially, working itself onwards
by the spines on its abdominal segments; the pupa of the
primitive Micropteryx has functional mandibles with which it
bites through the cocoon. In the higher Lepidoptera the pupa is
immovable, and the imago, after the ecdysis of the pupal cuticle,
must emerge. This emergence is in some cases facilitated by the
secretion of an acid or alkaline solvent discharged from the mouth
or from the hind-gut, which weakens the cocoon—so that the
delicate moth can break through without injury.
As might be expected, the conditions to which larva and
pupa are subjected have often a marked influence on the nature
of the imago. An indifferent food-supply for the larva leads
to a dwarfing of the moth or butterfly. Many converging lines
of experiment and observation tend to show that cool conditions
during the pupal stage frequently induce darkening of pigment
in the imago, while a warm temperature brightens the colours
of the perfect insect. For example, in many species of butterfly
that are double-brooded, the spring brood emerging from the
wintering pupae are more darkly coloured than the summer
brood, but if the pupae producing the latter be subjected artifici-
ally to cold conditions, the winter form of imago results. It is
usually impossible, however, to produce the summer form of
the species from wintering pupae by artificial heat. From this
A. Weismann argued that the more stable winter form must be
regarded as representing the ancestral race of the species.
Further examples of this " seasonal dimorphism " are afforded
by many tropical butterflies which possess a darker " wet-season "
and a brighter " dry-season " generation. So different in
appearance are often these two seasonal forms that before their
true relationship was worked out they had been naturally
regarded as independent species. The darkening of wing-
patterns in many species of Lepidoptera has been carefully
studied in our own British fauna. Melanic or melanochroic
varieties are specially characteristic of western and hilly regions,
and some remarkable dark races (fig. 43) of certain geometrid
moths have arisen and become perpetuated in the manufacturing
districts of the north of England. The production of these
melanic forms is explained by J. W. Tutt and others as largely
due to the action of natural selection, the damp and sooty
conditions of the districts where they occur rendering unusually
dark the surfaces — such as rocks, tree-trunks and palings — •
on which moths habitually rest and so favouring the survival
of dark, and the elimination of pale varieties, as the latter
would be conspicuous to their enemies. Breeding experiments
have shown that these melanic races are sometimes " dominant "
to their parent-stock. An evidently adaptive connexion can
be frequently traced between the resting situation and attitude
of the insect and the colour and pattern of its wings. Moths
that rest with the hindwings concealed beneath the forewings
(fig. 34, /) often have the latter dull and mottled, while the
former are sometimes highly coloured. Butterflies whose
normal resting attitude is with the wings closed vertically
over the back (fig. 63) so that the under surface is exposed to
view, often have this under surface mottled and inconspicuous
although the upper surface may be bright with flashing colours.
Various degrees of such " protective resemblance " can be traced,
culminating in the wonderful " imitation " of its surroundings
shown by the tropical " leaf -butterflies " (Kallima), the under
surfaces of whose wings, though varying greatly, yet form in
every case a perfect representation of a leaf in some stage or
other of decay, the butterfly at the same time disposing of the
rest of its body so as to bear out the deception. How this is
effected is best told by A. R. Wallace, who was the first to
observe it, in his work The Malay Archipelago: —
" The habit of the species is always to rest on a twig and among
dead or dried leaves, and in this position, with the wings closely
pressed together, their outline is exactly that of a moderately sized
leaf slightly curved or shrivelled. The tail of the hindwings forms
a perfect stalk and touches the stick, while the insect is supported
by the middle pair of legs, which are not noticed among the twigs
and fibres that surround it. The head and antennae are drawn
back between the wings so as to be quite concealed, and there is a
little notch hollowed out at the very base of the wings, which allows
the head to be retracted sufficiently."
But the British Vanessids often rest on a bare patch of ground
with the brightly coloured upper surface of their wings fully
exposed to view, and even make themselves still more conspicuous
by fanning their wings up and down. Some genera and families
of Lepidoptera, believed to secrete noxious juices that render
them distasteful, are adorned with the staring contrasts of
colour usually regarded as " warning," while other genera,
belonging to harmless families sought for as food by birds and
lizards, are believed to obtain complete or partial immunity
by their likeness to the conspicuous noxious groups. (See
MIMICRY.)
Sexual dimorphism is frequent among the Lepidoptera.
In many families this takes the form of more elaborate feelers
in the male than in the female moth. Such complex feelers
(fig. 2) bear numerous sensory (olfactory) nerve-endings and
give to the males that possess them a wonderful power of dis-
covering their mates. A single captive female of the Endromidae
or Lasiocampidae often causes hundreds of males of her species
to " assemble " around her prison, and this character is made
use of by collectors who want to secure specimens. In many
butterflies — notably the " blues " (Lycaenidae) — the male is
brilliant while the female is dull, and in other groups (the
Danainae for example) he is provided with scent-producing
glands believed to be " alluring " in function. The apparent
evidence given by the sexual differences among the Lepidoptera
in favour of C. Darwin's theory of sexual selection finds no
support from a study of their habits. The male indeed usually
seeks the female, but
she appears to exercise
no choice in pairing. In
some cases the female is
attracted by the male,
and here a modified
form of sexual selection
appears to be opera-
tive. The ghost swift
moth (Hepialushumuli] FIG. 17 — VapourerMotMOcnmadefrita).
affords a curious and S' Eur°Pe' A- Male' B' Female'
interesting example of this condition, the female showing the
usual brown and buff coloration of her genus, while the wings
of the male are pure white, rendering him conspicuous in the
dusky evening when pairing takes place. But in the northernmost
470
LEPIDOPTERA
haunts of the species, where there is no midsummer night,
the male closely resembles the female in wing patterns, the
development of the conspicuous white being needless. A very
interesting sexual dimorphism is seen in the wingless condition
of several female' moths — the winter moths (Hybernia and
Cheimatobia) among the Geometridae and the vapourers (Orgyia
and Ocneria) among the Lymantriidae for example (fig. 17).
It might be thought that the loss of power of flight by the female
would seriously restrict the range of the species. In such
insects, however, the caterpillars are often active and travel far.
Distribution and Migration. — The range of the Lepidoptera
is practically world- wide; they are absent from the most remote
and inhospitable of the arctic and antarctic lands, but even
Kerguelen possesses a few small indigenous moths. Many of
the large and dominant families have a range wide as that of the
order, and certain species that have attached themselves to
man — like the meal moths and the clothes moths — have become
almost cosmopolitan. Interesting and suggestive restrictions
of range can, however, be often traced. Although butterflies
have been found in 82° N. latitude in Greenland, they are
unknown in Iceland, and only a few species of the group reach
New Zealand. Three large sections — the Ithomiinae, Heliconiinae
and Brassolinae — of the great butterfly family Nymphalidae
are peculiar to the Neotropical region, while the Morphinae,
a characteristically South American group, have a few Oriental
genera in India and Indo-Malaya. The Acraeinae, another
section of the same family, have the vast majority of their
species in Ethiopian Africa, but are represented eastwards in
the Oriental and Australian regions and westwards in South
America. A comparison of the lepidopterous faunas of Ireland,
Great Britain and the European continent is very instructive,
and suggests strongly that, despite their power of flight the
Lepidoptera are mostly dependent on land-connexions for the
extension of their range. For example, Ireland has only forty
of the seventy species of British butterflies. The range of
many Lepidoptera is of course determined by the distribution
of the plants on which their larvae feed.
Nevertheless certain species of powerful flight, and some
that might be thought feeble on the wing, often cross sea-channels
and establish or reinforce distant colonies. Caterpillars of the
great death's head moth (Acherontia atropos) are found every
summer feeding in British and Irish potato fields, but it is doubt-
ful if any of the pupae resulting from them survive the winter
in our climate. It is believed by Tutt that the species is only
maintained by a fresh immigration of moths from the South
each summer. Hosts of white butterflies (Pieris) have been
frequently observed crossing the English Channel from France
to Kent. Migrating swarms of Lepidoptera have often been
met by sailors in mid-ocean; thus, Tutt records the presence
around a sailing ship in the Atlantic of such a swarm of the
rather feeble moth Deiopeia pulchella, nearly 1000 m. from its
nearest known habitat. This migratory instinct is connected
with the gregarious habits of many Lepidoptera. For example,
H. W. Bates states that at one place in South America he
noticed eighty different species flying about in enormous numbers
in the sunshine, and these, with few exceptions, were males,
the females remaining within the forest shades. Darwin describes
a "butterfly shower," which he observed 10 m. off the South
American coast, extending as far as the eye could reach;
" even by the aid of the telescope," he adds, " it was not possible
to see a space free from butterflies." Sir J. Emerson Tennent,
witnessed in Ceylon a mighty host of butterflies of white or pale
yellow hue, " apparently miles in breadth and of such prodigious
extension as to occupy hours and even days uninterruptedly
in their passage." Observations at Heligoland by H. Gatke
have shown that migrating moths " travel under the same
conditions as migrating birds, and for the most part in their
company, in an east to west direction; they fly in swarms,
the numbers of which defy all attempts at computation and
can only be expressed by millions." The painted lady butterfly
(Pyrameis cardui) comes in repeated swarms from the Mediter-
ranean region into northern and western Europe, while in North
America companies of the monarch (Anosia archippus) invade
Canada every summer from the United States, and are believed
to return southwards in autumn. This latter species has, during
the last half-century, extended its range south-westwards
across the Pacific and reached the Austro-Malayan islands,
while several specimens have occurred in southern and western
England, though it has not established itself on this side of the
Atlantic. It is noteworthy that the introduction of its food-plant
— Asdepias — into the Sandwich Islands in 1850 apparently
enabled it to spread across the Pacific.
Fossil History. — Our knowledge of the geological history of
the Lepidoptera is but scanty. Certain Oolitic fossil insects
from the lithographic stone of Solenhofen, Bavaria, have been
described as moths, but it is only in Tertiary deposits that
undoubted Lepidoptera occur, and these, all referable to existing
families, are very scarce. Most of them come from the Oligocene
beds of Florissant, Colorado, and have been described by S. H.
Scudder. The paucity of Lepidoptera among the fossils is not
surprising when we consider the delicacy of their structure, and
though their past history cannot be traced back beyond early
Cainozoic times, we can have little doubt from the geographical
distribution of some of the families that the order originated
with the other higher Endopterygota in the Mesozoic epoch.
Classification. — The order Lepidoptera contains more than
fifty families, the discussion of whose mutual relationships has
given rise to much difference of opinion. The generally received
distinction is between butterflies or Rhopalocera (Lepidoptera
with clubbed feelers, whose habit is to fly by day) and moths or
Heterocera (Lepidoptera with variously shaped feelers, mostly
crepuscular or nocturnal in habit). This distinction is quite
untenable as a zoological conception, for the relationship of
butterflies to some moths is closer than that of many families
of Heterocera to each other. Still more objectionable is the
division of the order into Macrolepidoptera (including the butter-
flies and large moths) and the Microlepidoptera (comprising the
smaller moths). Most of the recent suggestions for the division
of the Lepidoptera into sub-orders depend upon some single
character. Thus J. H. Comstock has proposed to separate the
three lowest families, which have — like caddis-flies (Trichoptera)
— a jugum on each forewing, as a sub-order Jugatae, distinct
from all the rest of the Lepidoptera — the Frenatae, mostly posses-
sing a frenulum on the hindwing. A. S. Packard places one
family (Micropterygidae) with functional mandibles and a
lacinia in the first maxilla alone in a sub-order Laciniata, all the
rest of the order forming the sub-order Haustellata. T. A.
Chapman divides the families with free or incompletely obtect
and mobile pupae (Incompletae) from those with obtect pupae
which never leave the cocoon (Obtectae), and this is probably the
most natural primary division of the Lepidoptera that has as
yet been suggested. Dyar puts forward a classification founded
entirely on the structure of the larva, while Tutt divides the
Lepidoptera into three great stirps characterized by the shape
of the chorion of the egg. The primitive form of the egg is oval,
globular, or flattened with the micropyle at one end; from this
has apparently been derived the upright form of egg with the
micropyle on top which characterizes the butterflies and the
higher moths. These schemes, though helpful in pointing out
important differences, are unnatural in that they lay stress on
single, often adaptive, characters to the exclusion of others
equally important. Although it is perhaps best to establish no
division among the Lepidoptera between the order and the family,
an attempt has been made in the classification adopted in this
article to group the families into tribes or super-families which
may indicate their probable affinities. The systematic work
of G. F. Hampson, A. R. Grote and E. Meyrick has done much
to place the classification of the Lepidoptera on a sound basis,
so far as the characters of the imago are concerned, but attention
must also be paid to the preparatory stages if a truly natural
system is to be reached.
Jugatae.
Three families are included in this group having in common
certain primitive characters of the wings and ncuration (see fig. 6),
LEPIDOPTERA
47
as well as of the larva and pupa. There is a membranous lobe or
jugum near the base of the wing, and the neuration of the hindwing
is closely like that of the forewing, the radial nervure being five-
branched in both. The pupa has four or five movable segments, and
the larval prolegs have complete circles of hooklets.
The three families of the Jugatae are not very closely related to
each other. The Micropterygidae (often known as Eriocephalidae),
comprising a few small moths with metallic wings, are the most
primitive of all Lepidoptera. They are provided with functional
mandibles, while the maxillae have distinct laciniae, well-developed
palps and galeae not modified for suction (see fig. 3). The larva is
remarkable on account of its long feelers, the presence of pairs of
jointed prolegs on the first eight abdominal segments, an anal sucker
beneath the last segment and bladder-like outgrowths on the cuticle.
These curious larvae feed on wet moss. The family has only a few
genera scattered widely over the earth's surface (Europe, America,
Australia, New Zealand).
The EriocranOdae resemble the Micropterygidae in appearance,
but the imago has no mandibles, and the maxillae, though short
and provided with conspicuous palps, have no laciniae and form a
proboscis as in Lepidoptera generally. The abdomen of the female
carries a serrate piercing process, and the eggs are laid in the leaves
of deciduous trees, the white larvae, with aborted legs, mining in the
leaf tissue. The fully-fed larva winters in an underground cocoon
and then changes into the most remarkable of all known lepidopter-
ous pupae, with relatively enormous toothed mandibles which bite
a way out of the cocoon in preparation for the final change. These
pupal mandibles of the Eriocraniidae, together with the nature of the
imaginal maxillae in the Micropterygidae (Eriocephalidae) and the
wing-neuration in both families, point strongly to a relationship
between the Lepidoptera and the Trichoptera.
The Hepialidae or swift moths — the third family of the Jugatae —
are in some respects specialized. The moths are of large or moderate
size with the maxillae in a vestigial condition, no food being taken
after the attainment of the perfect state. The larvae (fig. 12) feed
either on roots or in the wood of trees and shrubs, not attaining
their growth in less than a year and some large exotic species living
for two or three. The family is world-wide in range, and Australia
possesses some almost gigantic and strangely coloured genera.
Tineides.
A large assemblage of moths, mostly of small size, are included
in this group. The wings have no jugum, but there is a frenulum
on the hindwing, which has, as in all the groups above the Jugatae,
only a single radial nervure. Three anal nervures are present in the
hindwing in those families whose wings are well developed, but in
several families of small moths the wings of both pairs are very
narrow and pointed, and the neuration is consequently reduced,.
The sub-costal nervure of the hindwing is usually present and
distinct from the radial nervure. The egg is flat except in the
Cpssidae and Castniidae in which it is upright. The larval prolegs,
with few exceptions, have a complete circle of hooklets, and the
larvae usually feed in some concealed situation. The pupa is incom-
pletely obtect, with three (in some females only two) to five free
abdominal segments, and emerges partly from the cocoon before
the moth appears. The cremaster serves to anchor the pupa to its
cocoon at the correct degree of emergence, and thus facilitates the
eclosion of the imago.
The Cossidae are a small family of large moths (figs. 8, 18, 19)
belonging to this section, characterized by their heads with erect
rough scales or hairs, the pectinate feelers of the males, their reduced
maxillae so that no food is taken in the perfect state, and their
FIG. 18. — Stygia
australis. S.
Europe. FIG. 19. — Zeuzera scalaris. India.
wings with the fifth radial nervure arising from the third, and the
main median nervure forking in the discoidal areolet. The larvae
feed in plant stems, often in the wood of trees, forming tunnels and
galleries, and usually taking a year or more to reach maturity.
The pupa which has three or four free segments in the male and four
or five in the female, rests in a cocoon within the food plant, often
strengthened by chips of wood, or in a subterranean cocoon. The
family is fairly well represented in the tropics; the British fauna
possesses only three species, of which the " goat " (Gossus cossus)
and the " leopard " (Zeuzera pyrina) are well known, the cater-
pillars of both being often injurious to timber and fruit trees.
The Tortricidae are a large family of small moths (see fig. i),
nearly allied to the Cossidae. The fifth radial nervure does not
arise from the third, the maxillae are well developed, but their
palps are obsolete; the head is densely clothed with erect scales;
the terminal segment of the labial palp is short and obtuse. The
female pupa has three, the male four, free segments. All the larvae
of these moths have some method of concealing themselves while
feeding. A frequent plan is to roll up a leaf of the food-plant,
fastening the twisted portion with silken threads so as to make
a tubular retreat; this is the habit of the caterpillar of the green
bell moth (Tortrix viridana) which often ravages the foliage of oak
plantations. The larvae of the pine-shoot moths (Retinia) shelter
in solidified resinous exudations from their coniferous food-plants,
while the codlin-moth caterpillar (Carpocapsa pomonetta) feeds in
apples and pears, growing with the growth of the fruit which affords
them both provender and home. The antics of " jumping-beans "
are due to the movements of tortricid caterpillars within the substance
of the seed.
The Psychidae are a small but widely-distributed family of moths
whose males have the head, densely clothed with rough hairs,
bearing complex, bipectinated feelers, but with the maxillae reduced
and useless. The larvae live in portable cases made of grass, pieces
of leaf or stick, with a silken lining, and these cases serve as cocoons
for the pupae which agree in structure with those of the Tortricidae.
But the most remarkable feature of the family is the extreme
degradation of the female, which, wingless, legless and without jaws
or feelers, never emerges from the cocoon.
The Castniidae are a small family of large, conspicuous, day-flying
exotic moths (fig.
20) whose clubbed
feelers and bright
colours give them
a resemblance
to butterflies, al-
though their wing-
neuration is of the
primitive t i n e o i d
type; the smooth
larvae feed on the
stems or roots of
plants and the
pupal structure
agrees with that of _ „
the Tortricidae and FlG.2O.—Castmaacrae<ndes. Brazil.
Psychidae. The distribution of the family is confined to Tropical
America and the Indo-Malayan and Australian regions.
The Zygaenidae (burnet moths) are a large family of day-flying
moths (fig. 2l) adorned with brilliant metallic colours. The feelers
are long, stout in the middle and tapering, bearing numerous long
or short pectinations. The well-developed
maxillae have vestigial palps. The larvae —
often very conspicuously coloured — are remark-
able among the Tineides in having incomplete
circles of hooks on the prolegs, and they feed
exposed on the leaves of various plants. The
pupa, enclosed in a silken cocoon, has four or
five free segments. The Limacodidae are a small
family of brownish nocturnal moths, allied to
the Zygaenidae and agreeing with them in the
structure of the pupa. The larva in this family
also is an exposed feeder, but it is remarkable in form, being
flattened and slug-like, without prolegs and adorned with curious
spinous processes.
The Sesiidae are a large family of small, narrow-winged moths,
the sub-costal nervure of the hindwing being absent and the wings
being for the most part
destitute of scales (fig.
22). The maxillae are
developed but their palps
are vestigial, while the
terminal segment of the
labial palp is short and
pointed. Many of these
insects have their bodies
banded with black and
yellow; this in conjunc-
tion with the transparent
wings makes some of
them like wasps or
hornets in appearance.
The larvae feed in the
woody stems of various
plants. The pupa, with F .
three or '— - «~- -K- IG- 22~A'
pIG _ Neuro
' •
conctnna.
domina
mains within its cocoon, formed with chips of wood, until the time
for its final change draws near; then it works itself partly out of
the tree by means of the spines on its abdominal segments.
The Nepliculidae are the smallest of all the Lepidoptera, measur-
ing only 3-8 mm. across the outspread wings, which are all lanceolate
and pointed at the tip. The sucking portions of the maxillae are
vestigial, but the palps are long and jointed. The larvae, without
472
LEPIDOPTERA
thoracic limbs or prolegs, but sometimes with paired rudimentary
processes on some of the segments, mine in the leaves of plants.
The pupa, with four free abdominal segments in the female and five
in the male, rests in a cocoon usually outside the mine.
The Adelidae are a family of delicate, but larger, moths with very
long feelers (fig. 23) especially in the males. The larvae feed, when
young, in flowers, later, protected by a flat case, they devour leaves ,
the pupa resembles that of the Nepticulidae
in structure. The female has an ovipositor
adapted for piercing plant tissues.
The Tineidae are a large and important
family of small moths (figs. 14, 24, 25) with
rough-haired heads, and with the maxillae
FIG. 23. — Adda FIG. 24. — Euplocampus FIG. 25. — Tinea
degeerella. Europe, anthracinus. Europe. tapetzella (Clothes
Moth). Europe.
and their palps usually well developed. Many of the genera have
narrow pointed wings with degraded neuration. The larvae differ
in their habits, some—Gracilaria for example — mine in leaves, while
others, like the well-known caterpillars of the clothes moth (Tinea)
surround themselves with portable cases (fig. 14) formed by spinning
together their own excrement. The female pupa has three, the
male four free abdominal segments.
Plutellides.
This group includes a few large families of small moths that are
linked by their imaginal and larval structure to the Tineidae (in
which they have often been included) and by their pupal structure
to the higher groups that have yet to be considered. The moths
have labial palps with slender pointed terminal segments, and
narrow pointed wings, but the neuration (except in the Elachistidae)
is less degenerate than in most Tineidae. The hairy covering of the
head is smooth, and the maxillary palps are usually vestigial. The
egg is flat, and the larval prolegs have complete circles of booklets.
The pupa is obtect with only two free abdominal segments (fifth
and sixth) in both sexes and does not move out of the cocoon.
Four families are included in this group. The Plutellidae (fig. 26)
have the maxillary palps developed, in some genera, as slender
threadlike appendages directed straight forward. The larvae do not
usually mine in leaves/but feed openly, keeping to the underside for
protection (Plutella),
or spinning by their
united labour a mass
of web over the food-
plant (Hyponomeuta).
In the other three
families the maxillary
palps are vestigial or
obsolete. The Elachi-
stidae have remarkably
narrow, pointed wings
and their larvae mine in leaves or form portable cases and feed
among seeds. In the Oecophoridae (fig. 27) the sub-costal nervure
of the hindwing is free and distinct throughout its length, and the
larvae usually feed among spun leaves or seeds, or in decayed
wood. The Gelechiidae are a large family with similar larval habits;
the moths are distinguished by the sinuate termen of the hindwing
and the connexion of its sub-costal nervure with the discoidal
areolet.
Pyralides,
This group includes a number of moths of delicate build with
elongate legs, the maxillae and their palps being usually well
developed. The
forewings have
two anal nerv-
ures, the hind-
wings three (fig.
30, h, i); in the
hindwing the sub-
costal nervure
bends towards
and often con-
nects with the
radial, and the
f renu lum is
usually present.
The egg is flat.
The larva has complete circles of booklets on its five pairs of prolegs,
and the pupa (usually completely obtect) does not move at all from
its cocoon. This group includes the only Lepidoptera that have
aquatic larvae.
Of the families comprised in this division three deserve special
FIG. 26. — Cero-
stoma asperella.
Europe.
FIG. 27. — Psecadia
pusiella.
FIG. 28. — Ptero-
phorus spilodactylus.
Europe.
FIG. 29. — Orneodes
hexadactylus (24-plumed
Moth). Europe.
mention. The Pterophoridae (plume moths, fig. 28) usually have
the wings deeply cleft — a single cleft in the forewing and two in the
hindwing. The hairy larvae feed openly on leaves, while the soft
and hairy pupa remains attached to its cocoon by the cremaster,
although it is incompletely obtect and has three or four free ab-
dominal segments. The Orneod^dae (multiplume moths) have all
the wings six-cleft. Our British species, Orneodes hexadactyla (fig. 29),
is an exquisite little insect, whose larva feeds on the blossoms of
honeysuckle. The pupa is completely obtect, with only two free
abdominal segments. The Pyralidae (figs. 13, 30), a large family
with numerous divisions, have entire wings, and their pupae are
After RUey and Howard, Insect Life, vol. 2 (U.S. Dept. Agr.).
FIG. 30. — Flour Moth (Ephestia kuhniella).
c, With wings spread. d, Head and front body-seg-
/, At rest. [wings. ments of larva,
g, h, i, Marking and neuration of e, 2nd and 3rd abdominal seg-
a, Larva. ments, more highly magni-
b, Pupa ; twice natural size. fied.
obtect. The caterpillars feed in some kind of shelter, some spinning
a loose case among the leaves of their food-plant, others burrowing
into dry vegetable substances or eating the waxen cells of bees.
Several species of this group, such as the Mediterranean flour moth,
Ephestia kuhniella (fig. 30), become serious pests in storehouses and
granaries, their larvae devouring flour and similar food-stuffs.
Noctuides.
In this group may be included a number of families of moths
with the second median nervure of the forewing arising close to the
third. This feature of neuration characterizes also the Jugatae
(see fig. 6), Tineides, Plutellides and Pyralides. But the Noctuides
differ from these groups in having only two anal nervures in the
hindwing. The maxillary palps are absent or vestigial, and a frenu-
lum is usually present on the hindwing. The larva has usually ten
prolegs, whose booklets are arranged only along the inner edge,
while the immobile pupa is always obtect with only two free ab-
dominal segments (the fifth and sixth). The Lasiocampidae and
their allies have flat eggs, but in the Noctuidae, Arctiidae and their
allies the egg is upright.
The Lasiocamptdae, together with a few small families, differ from
the majority of this group in wanting a frenulum. The maxillae of
the Lasiocampidae are so reduced that no food is taken in the
imaginal state, and in correlation with this condition the feelers of
the male are strongly (those of the female more feebly) bipectinated.
The moths are stout, hairy insects, usually brown or yellow in the
pattern of their wings. The caterpillars are densely hairy and
many species hibernate in the larval stage. The pupa is enclosed in
a hard, dense cocoon, whence the name " eggars " is often applied
to the family, which has a wide distribution, but is absent from
New Zealand. The Drepanulidae are an allied family, in which the
frenulum is usualjy present, while
the hindmost pair of larval pro-
legs are absent, their segment
being prolonged into a pointed
process which is raised up when
the caterpillar is at rest. The
hook-tip moths represent this
family in the British fauna.
The Lymantriidae resemble the
Lasiocampida^ in their hairy
bodies and vestigial maxillae, but
the frenulum is usually present
on the hindwing and the feelers
are bipectinate only in the males. F ^,—Claterna cydonia. India.
Some females of this family — the
vapourer moths (Orgyia and allies,
fig. 17), for example — are degenerate creatures with vestigial wings.
The larvae (fig. 15) are very hairy, and often carry dense tufts on
some of their segments; hence the name of " tussocks " frequently
applied to them. The pupae are also often hairy (fig. 16) — an
LEPIDOPTERA
473
exceptional condition — and are protected by a cocoon of silk mixed
with some of the larval hairs, while the female sheds some hairs
from her own abdomen to cover the eggs. The family is widely
distributed, its headquarters being the eastern tropics. To that
part of the world is restricted the allied family of the Hypsidae,
and the caterpillars are often densely covered with long smooth
hairs. The pupae are enclosed in silken cocoons (fig. 38). The
highest specialization of structure in this group of the Lepidoptera
is reached by the Syntomidae, a family nearly allied to the Arctiidae,
but with the sub-costal nervure in the hindwing absent. The
Syntomidae have elongate narrow forewings and snort hindwings,
usually dark in colour with clear spots and dashes destitute of
FIG. 32. — Ophideres imperator. Madagascar.
distinguished from the " tussocks " by the slender upturned terminal
segment of the labial palps and by the development of the maxillae.
The Noctuidae are the largest and most dominant family of the
Lepidoptera, comprising some 10,000 known species. They are
mostly moths of dull coloration, flying at dusk or by night. The
maxillae are well developed, the hindwing has a frenulum, and its
sub - costal nervure
touches the radial
near the base. The
larvae of the Noc-
tuidae (fig. 34, c) are
rarely hairy and the
pupa (fig. 34, d)
usually rests in an
earthen cell, being
often the wintering
stage for the species ;
sometimes the pupa
is enclosed in a loose
cocoon of silk and
leaves. In some
FIG- 33—Cyligramma fluctuosa. W. Africa. Noctuidae (fig. 32)
the hindwings are
brightly coloured, but these are concealed beneath the dull, in-
conspicuous forewings when the insect rests (fig. 34, /). Nearly
allied to the Noctuidae, but very different in appearance, are the
gaily-coloured Agaristidae, a family of day-flying moths (figs. 35, 36),
confined to the warmer regions of the globe and distinguished by
From Mally, Bull. 24, Div. Enl. U.S. Dept. Agr.
FIG. 34. — e, f, Heliothis armigera. Europe, c. Larva; d, pupa in
cell. Natural size, o, b, Egg, highly magnified.
their thickened feelers, those of the Noctuids being thread-like or
slightly pectinate.
The Arctiidae (tiger moths, footmen, &c.) are allied to the Noc-
tuidae, but their wing-neuration is more specialized, the sub-costal
nervure of the hindwing being confluent with the radial for the basal
part of its course. These moths (fig. 37) have gaily coloured wings,
FIG. 35. — Rothia pales. Madagascar.
scales (fig. 40). The body, on the other hand, is often brilliantly
adorned. The family, abundant in the tropics of the Old World,
has only two European species.
Sphingides.
This group includes a series of families which agree with the
Noctuides in most points, but are distinguished by the origin of the
FIG. 37. — Haploa Leconiei.
N. America.
FIG. 36. — Aegocera rectilinea.
Tropical Africa.
second median nervure of the forewing close to the first, or from
the discocellular nervure midway between the first and third medians
(see fig. 5). These neuratipnal characters may appear somewhat
insignificant, but such slight though constant distinctions in
structures of no adaptational value may be safely regarded as
truly significant of relationship. Several of the families in this
a
After Lugger, Riley and Howard, Insect Life, vol. 2 (U.S. Dept. Agr.).
FIG. 38. — c, Tiger Moth (Phragmatobia fuliginosa, Linn.). Europe.
a, Caterpillar; b, cocoon with pupa. Slightly enlarged.
group have lost the frenulum. In larval and pupal characters the
Sphingides generally resemble the Noctuides, but in some families
there is a reduction in the number of the larval prolegs. The egg
is spherical or flat, upright only in the Notodontidae.
The Notodontidae are stout, hairy moths (figs. 5, 41, 420) with
maxillae and frenulum developed. In the larva the prolegs on the
FIG. 40. — Euchromiaformosa. S. Africa.
FIG. 39. — Halias
prasinana. Europe.
hindmost segment are sometimes modified into pointed outgrowths
which are carried erect when the caterpillar moves about. From
these structures whip-like, coloured processes are protruded by the
caterpillar (fig. 426) of the puss moth (Cerura) when alarmed;
these processes are believed to help in " terrifying " the caterpillar's
enemies. Allied to the Notodontidae are the Cymatophoridae — a
family of moths agreeing with the Noctuidae in appearance and
habits — and the large and important family of the Geometridae.
474
LEPIDOPTERA
The moths (fig. 43) of this family are distinguished from the Noto-
dontidae by their delicate build and elongate feet, the caterpillars
(fig. 43, c) by the absence or vestigial condition of the three anterior
pairs of prolegs. The two hinder pairs of prolegs are therefore alone
FIG. 41. — Notodonta ziczac (Pebble
Prominent Moth). Europe.
FIG. 420. — Cerura borealis.
N. America.
FIG. 426. — Larva
of Cerura (Puss Moth).
functional and the larva progresses by " looping," i.e. bending the
body so as to bring these prolegs close up to the thoracic legs, and
then, taking a fresh grip on the twig whereon it walks, stretching
the body straight out again. Many of these larvae have a striking
After Grow, Natural Science (J. M. Dent & Co.).
FIG. 43. — Geometrid Moth (Amphidasys betularia, Linn.). Europe,
a, Large grey type; 6, dark variety; c, caterpillar in looping
attitude.
resemblance both in form and colour to the twigs of their food-
plant. In some of the species the female has the wings reduced to
useless vestiges. The family is world-wide in its range. The tropical
Uraniidae are large handsome moths (figs. 44, 45), often with ex-
FIG. 44. — Urania boisduvalii. Cuba.
quisite wing-patterns, allied to the Geometridae, but distinguished
by the absence of a frenulum in the moth and the presence of the
normal ten prolegs in the larva.
The Sphingidae (hawk moths) are insects often of large size
(figs. 460, 47), with spindle-shaped feelers, elongate and powerful fore-
wings and the maxillae very well developed. The hindwing carries
a frenulum and has
its sub-costal nerv-
ure connected with
the radial by a short
bar. The cater-
pillars have the full
number of prolegs,
and, in many genera,
carry a prominent
dorsal horn on the
eighth abdominal
segment (fig. 46 6).
The pupa lies in an
earthen cell. On
account of their
powerful flight the
moths of this family
have a wide range; _
certain species— like FlG- 45-— Urania, bmsdwoaln at rest, showing
Acherontia atropos under surface of wings,
and Protoparce convolvuli — migrate into the British Islands in
numbers almost everv summer.
PIG. 460. — CUaenogramma jasminearum (Jessamine Sphinx).
N. America.
A group of families in which the first maxillae are vestigial, the
feelers bipectmate and the pupa enclosed in a dense silken cocoon,
have been regarded as
the most highly special-
ized of all the moths,
though according to
other views the whole
series of the Lepidoptera
culminates in the Synto-
midae. Of these cocoon-
spinning families may
be specially mentioned
the Eupterotidae, large
brown or yellow moths
inhabiting tropical Asia
and Africa, and repre-
sented in Europe only
by the " processionary
FIG. 466. — Larva.
family the frenulum is present, and the larvae are protected
with tufts of long hair. The Bombycidae have no frenulum, and
FIG. 47. — Smerinthus ocellatus (Eyed Hawk moth). Europe.
the larvae are smooth, with some of the segments humped and
the eighth abdominal often carrying a dorsal spine. The family
LEPIDOPTERA
475
is tropical in its distribution, but the common silkworm (Bombyx
mori, fig. 48) has become acclimatized in southern Europe and is
the source of most of the silk used in manufacture and art. Of
After C. V. Rfley, Bull. 14, Div. Ent. U.S. Dipt. Agr.
FIG. 48. — Bombyx mori. China, a, Caterpillar (the common
silk-worm) ; b, cocoon ; c, male moth.
commercial value also is the silk spun by the great moths of the
family Saturniidae, well represented in warm countries and con-
tributing a single species (Saturnia pavonia-minor) to the British
fauna. These moths (fig. 49) have but a single anal nervure in the
hindwing and only three radial nervures in the forewing. The
wing-patterns are handsome and striking; usually an unsealed
" eyespot " is conspicuous at the end of each discoidal areolet. The
— usually brown or grey wings (fig. 50) and a peculiar jerky flight.
The family has an extensive range but is unknown in Greenland,
New Zealand, and in many oceanic
islands.
Rhopalocera.
This group comprises the typical
butterflies which are much more
highly specialized than the Gry-
pocera, and may be readily distin-
guished by the knobbed or clubbed
feelers and by the absence of a
frenulum. Two or more of the
radial nervures in the forewing arise
from a common stalk or are sup-
pressed. The egg is " upright." The
larvae have booklets only on the
inner edges of the prolegs. The pupa
is very highly modified, only two free
abdominal segments are ever recog-
nizable, and in some genera even
thesejhaye become consolidated. The
cocoon is reduced to a pad of silk,
to which the pupa is attached, sus-
pended by the cremastral hooks ; in
some families there is also a silken
girdle around the waist-region. In
correlation with the exposed con-
dition of the pupa, we find the
presence of a specially developed FiG. 51.— Chrysalis and
" head-piece or ' nose-horn "to Larva of Nisoniadestages
protect the head-region of the con- (dingy skipper). Europe,
tamed imago. Their bright colours
and conspicuous flight in the sunshine has made the Rhopa-
locera the most admired of all insects by the casual observer.
A modification that has taken place in
several families of butterflies is the re-
duction of the first pair of legs. H. W.
Bates arranged the families in a series
depending on this character, but neura-
tional and pupal features must be taken
FIG. 49. — Epiphora bouhiniae. W. Africa.
caterpillars are protected by remarkable spine-bearing tubercles
(fig. 10, B).
Grypocera. •
This group stands at the base of the series of families that are
usually distinguished as " butterflies." The feelers are recurved at
the tip, and thickened just before the extremity. The forewing
has the full number of radial
nervures, distinct and evenly spaced,
and two anal nervures; the frenu-
lum is usually absent. The larvae
(fig. 51) have prolegs with complete
circles of booklets, and often feed
in concealed situations, while the
pupa is protected by a light cocoon.
The affinities of this group are
clearly not with the higher groups
of moths just described, but with
some of the lower families. Accord-
ing to Meyrick they are most closely
related to the Pyralidae, but Hampson and most other students
would derive them (through the Castniidae) from a primitive Tineoid
stock allied to the Cossidae and Zygaenidae.
Three families are included in the section. The North American
Megathymidae and the Australian Euschemonidae have a frenulum
and are usually reckoned among the " moths." The Hesperiidae
in which the frenulum is wanting form the large family of the
skipper butterflies, represented in our own fauna by several species.
They are insects with broad head — the feelers being widely separated
FIG. 50.
-Tagiai.es sabadius.
S. Africa.
FiG.'S2. — Chrysophanus (hoe. N. America.
into account as well, and"the sequence
followed here is modified from that pro-
posed by A. R. Grote and J. W. Tutt.
The Lycaenidae are a large family in-
cluding the small butterflies (figs. 52, 53,
54) popularly known as blues, coppers
and hairstreaks. The forelegs in the
female are normal, but in the male the
tarsal segmenta'are shortened and the claws sometimes are absent.
The forewing has only three or four radial nervures (fig.55),thelasttwo
of which arise from a common stalk; the feelers are inserted close
together on the head. The larva is short and hairy, somewhat like
a woodlouse in shape, the broad sides concealing the legs and prolegs,
while the pupa, which is also hairy or bristly, is attached by the
cremaster to a silken pad and cinctured with a silken thread. The
upper surfaces of the wings of these insects are usually of a bright
metallic hue — blue _ or coppery — while beneath there are often
FIG. 53. — Rathinda
amor. India.
FIG. 54. — Cheritra freja. India.
numerous dark centred " eye-spots." The family is widely dis-
tributed. Nearly related are the Lemoniidae, a family abundantly
represented in the Neotropical Region, but scarce in the Old World
and having only a single European species (Nemeobius lucinia)
which occurs also in England. In the Lemoniidae (figs. 56, 57) the
forelegs of the male are reduced and useless for walking. The
Libytheidae may be recognized by the elongate snout-like palps,
476
LEPIDOPTERA
the five-branched radial nervur? of the forewing, the cylindrical
hairy larva, and the pupa attached only by the cremaster.
The Papilionidae are large butterflies with ample wings, and all
six legs fully developed in both sexes. The forewing has five radial
After Grote, Natural
Science, vol. 13 ( J. M.
Dent & Co.).
FIG. 55. — Neura-
tion of Wings in
Lycaena.
2, Sub-costal.
3, Radial.
4, Median.
5, Cubital.
7, 8, Anal nerv-
FIG. 56. — Eurybia Carolina. Brazil
FIG. 57. — Calephelis caenius. N. America.
and two anal nervures, the second of the latter being free from the
first and running to the dorsum of the wing, while the hindwing has
but a single anal, and is frequently prolonged into a " tail " at the
FIG. 58. — Papilio machaon (Swallow-tail). Europe.
third median nervure (fig. 58). The larva is cylindrical, never
hairy but often tuberculate and provided with a dorsal retractile
tentacle (osmaterium) on the prothorax. The pupa, which has a
FIG. 59. — Parnassius apollo (Apollo). European Alps.
double " nose-horn," is attached by the cremaster and a waist-
girdle to the food-plant in the Papilioninae (fig. 58), but lies in a web
on the ground among the Parnasiinae (figs. 59, 60). The latter sub-
family includes the well-known Apollo butterflies of the Alps.
FIG. 60. — Thais medesicaste. S. France.
The former is represented in the British fauna by the East Anglian
swallow-tail (Papilio machaon), and is very abundant in the warmer
regions of the world, in-
cluding some of the most
magnificent and brilliant
of insects.
Agreeing with the
Papilionidae in the six
perfect legs of both sexes
and the cincture-support
of the pupa we find the
Pieridae — the family of
the white and yellow
butterflies (figs. 61, 62) —
represented by ten species
in the British fauna and
very widely spread over
the earth's surface. In
the Pieridae there are two anal nervures in the hindwing, while the
second anal nervure in the forewing runs into the first; the larva
is cylindrical and hairy without an osmaterium. The pupa has a
single " nose-horn," and
in the more highly organ-
ized genera there is no
mobility whatever be-
tween its abdominal seg-
ments. The wintering
pupae of the common
cabbage butterflies (Pieris
brassicaeandP. rapae) are
common objects attached
to walls and fences and
their colour harmonizes, to
a great extent, with that
of their surroundings.
The Nymphalidae are FlG- oi.—Colias hyale (Pale clouded
by far the largest and Yellow Butterfly). Europe,
most dominant family
of butterflies. In both sexes the forelegs are useless for walk-
ing (fig. 63), the tarsal segments being absent and the short shins
clothed with long hairs, whence the name of brush-footed butterflies
is often applied to the family. The neuration of the wings resembles
FIG. 62. — Appias nero (male). Malaya
that found among the Pieridae, but in the Nymphalidae the pupa,
which has a double nose-horn (fig. 65) — as in Papilio — is suspended
from the cremaster only, no girdling thread being present, or it lies
simply on the ground. The egg is elongate and sub-conical in form
FIG. 63. — Dione moneta. Brazil.
FIG. 64. — Larva of A rgynnis
paphia (Silver-washed Fritil-
lary). Europe.
and ornamented with numerous ribs, while the larva is usually
protected by numerous spines (fig. 64) arising from the segmental
tubercles. To this family belong our common gaily-coloured
butterflies — the tortoiseshells, peacock (fig. 65), admirals, fritillaries
LEPIDOPTERA
477
and emperors. In most cases the bright colouring is confined to the
upper surface of the wings, the under-side being mottled and often
inconspicuous. Most members of the group Vanessidi — the peacock
and tortoiseshells (Vanessa) and the red admiral (Pyrameis) for
FIG. 65. — Vanessa io (Peacock) and its pupa.
example-^-hibernate in the imaginal state. This large family is
divided into several sub-families whose characters may be briefly
given, as they are considered to be distinct families by many entomo-
logists. The Danainae (or Euploeinae, fig. 66) have the anal nervures
of the forewing arising from a common stalk, the discoidal areolets in
both wings closed, and the front feet of the female thickened ; their
FIG. 66. — Euploea leucostictos (male). Malaya.
larvae are smooth with fleshy processes. The danaine butterflies
range over all the warmer parts of the world, becoming most numer-
ous in the eastern tropics, where flourish the handsome purple
Euploeae whose males often have "brands" on the wings; these
insects are conspicuously marked and are believed to be distaste-
ful to birds and lizards. So are the South American Ithomiinae,
distinguished from the Danainpe by the slender feet of the females;
the narrow winged, tawny Acraeinae, with simple anal nervures, thick
hairy palps and spiny larvae;
and the Heliconiinae whose palps
are compressed, scaly at the
sides and hairy in front. This
last named sub-family is con-
fined to the Neotropical Region,
while the Acraeinae are most
numerous in the Ethiopian. The
Nymphalinae include the British
vanessids (fig. 65), and a vast
assemblage of exotic genera
(figs. 68, 70), characterized by
After A. R. Grate, Natural
Science, vol. 12 (J. M. Dent
& Co.).
FIG. 67. — Neuration of
Wings in a Nymphaline
Butterfly.
2, Sub-costal.
3, Radial.
4, Median.
5, Cubital.
6, 7, 8, Anal nervures.
FIG. 69. — Larva and Pupa of
Apatura ilia.
the " open ' discoidal areolets (fig. 67) owing to the absence of the
transverse " disco-cellular " nervules. In the Morphinae — including
some magnificent South American insects with deep or azure
FIG. 70. — Callithea sapphtra. Brazil.
blue wings, and a few rather, dull-coloured Oriental genera —
the areolets are closed in the forewings and often in the hind-
wings. The larvae of the Morphinae (fig. 71) are smooth
FIG. 68.—Nymphalis jason. W. Africa. Upper and under surface.
478
LEPIDUS
or hairy with a curiously forked tail-segment. A similar larva
characterizes the South American Brassolinae or owl-butterflies —
FIG. 71. — Larva of Amathusia phidippus.
FIG. 72. — Opsiphanes syme.
FIG. 73. — Brassolis astyra.
FIG. 75. — Oeneis jutta. Arctic
Regions.
After A. R. Grote,
Natural Science, vol.
« (J. M. Dent& Co.).
FIG. 74. — Neur-
iiion of wings in
Pararge, a satyrid
butterfly.
2, Sub-costal.
3, Radial.
4, Median.
5, Cubital.
7, 8, Anal nervures.
FIG. 76 — Bia actorion. Brazil.
robust insects (figs. 72, 73) with the areolets closed in both wings,
which are adorned with large " eye-spots " beneath. The Satyrinae,
including our native browns and the Alpine Erebiae, resemble the
foregoing group in many respects of structure, but the sub-costal
nervure is greatly thickened at the base (fig. 74). This sub-family
is world-wide in its distribution. One genus (Oeneis, fig. 75) is found
in high northern latitudes, but reappears in South America. The
dark, spotted species of Erebia are familiar insects to travellers
among the Alps; yet butterflies nearly related to these Alpine
insects occur in Patagonia, in South Africa and in New Zealand.
Such facts of distribution clearly show that though the Nymphalidae
have attained a high degree of specialization among the Lepidoptera,
some of their genera have a history which goes back to a time when
the distribution of land and water on the earth's surface must have
been very different from what it is to-day.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The handsome Lepidoptera, with their interest-
ing and easily observed life-histories, have naturally attracted
many students, and the literature of the order is enormous. M.
Malpighi's treatise on the anatomy of the silkworm (De Bombycibus,
London, 1669) and P. Lyonnet's memoir on the Goat-caterpillar,
are among the earliest and most famous of entomological writings.
W. F. Kirby's Handbook to the Order Lepidoptera (5 vols., London,
1894-1897) should be consulted for references to the older systematic
writers such as Linnaeus, J. C. Fabricius, J. Htibner, P. Cramer,
E. Doubleday and W. C. Hewitson. Kirby's Catalogues are also
invaluable for the systematist. For the jaws of the Lepidoptera see
F. Darwin, Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. xv. (1875); E. Burgess, Amer.
Nat. xiy. (1880); A. Walter, Jen. Zeits. f. Natural, xviii. (1885);
W. Breitenbach, Ib. xv. (1882); V. L. Kellogg, Amer. Nat. xxix.
(1895). The last-named deals also with wing structure, which is
further described by A. Spuler, Zeits. wiss. Zoo/, liii. (1892) and
Zoo/. Jahrb. Anal. viii. (1895); A. R. Grote, Mitt, aus dent Roemer-
Museum (Hildesheim, 1896-1897); G. Enderlein, Zoo/. Jahrb.
Anal. xvi. (1903), and many others. For scales see A. G. Mayer,
Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoo/. Harvard, xxix. (1896). For internal anatomy
W. H. Jackson, Trans. Linn. Soc. Zoo/. (2) v. (1891), and W. Petersen,
Mem. Acad. Imp. Sci. St Petersburg (8) ix. (1900). The early stages
and transformations of Lepidoptera are described by J. Gonin,
Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat. xxx. (1894); E. B. Poulton, Trans. Linn.
Soc. Zoo/. (2) v. (1891); H. G. Dyar, Ann. New York Acad. Sci.
viii. (1894); T. A. Chapman, Trans. Entom. Soc. Land. (1893), &c.
For habits and life-relations see A. Seitz, Zoo/. Jahrb. Syst. v., vii.
(1890, 1894) ; A. Weisrnann, Studies in the Theory of Descent (London,
1882) and Entomologist, xxix. (1896); F. Merrifield, Trans. Entom.
Soc. Land. (1890, 1893, 1905); M. Standfuss, Handbuch der paldark-
tischen Gross-schmetterlinge (Jena, 1896); R. Trimen, Proc. Ent.
Soc. Land. (1898) ; E. B. Poulton, Colours of Animals (London, 1890) ;
Trans. Entom. Soc. (1892 and 1903), and Journ. Linn. Soc. Zoo/,
xxvi. (1898); F. E. Beddard, Animal Coloration (London, 1892).
For distribution see H. J. Elwes, Proc. Entom. Soc. Land. (1894);
J. W. Tutt, Migration and Dispersal of Insects (London, 1902);
Fossil Lepidoptera, S. H. Scudder, 8th Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey (1889).
Among recent general works on the Lepidoptera, most of which
contain numerous references to the older literature, may be mentioned
A. S. Packard's unfinished work on the Bombycine Moths of N.
America, Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci. Philadelphia, vii. (1895), and Mem.
Acad. Sci. Washington, Ix. (1905); D. Sharp's chapter in Cambridge
Nat. Hist. vi. (London, 1898); G. F. Hampson, Moths of India
(4 vols., London, 1892-1896), and Catalogue of the Lepidoptera
Phalaenae (1895) and onwards; S. H. Scudder, Butterflies of New
England (3 vols., Cambridge, Mass., 1888-1889); W. J. Holland,
Butterfly Book (New York, 1899). Works on the British Lepidoptera
are numerous, for example, those of H. T. Stainton (1851), C. G.
Barrett (1893-1907), E. Meyrick (1895), and J. W. Tutt (1899 and
onwards). For recent general systematic works, the student should
consult the catalogues mentioned above and the Zoological Record,
The writings of O. Staudinger, E. Schatz, C. Oberthur, K. Jordan,
C. Aurivillius and P. Mabille may be specially mentioned.
(G. H. C.)
LEPIDUS, the jiame of a Roman patrician family in the
Aemilian gens.
1. MARCUS AEMILIUS LEPIDUS, one of the three ambassadors
sent to Egypt in 201 B. c. as guardians of the infant king Ptolemy
V. He was consul in 187 and 175, censor 179, pontifex maximus
from 180 onwards, and was six times chosen by the censors
princeps senatus. He died in 152. He distinguished himself in
the war with Antiochus III. of Syria, and against the Ligurians.
He made the Via Aemilia from Ariminum to Placentia, and led
colonies to Mutina and Parma.
Livy xl. 42-46, epit. 48; Polybius xvi. 34.
2. MARCUS AEMILIUS LEPIDUS, surnamed PORCINA (probably
from his personal appearance), consul 137 B.C. Being sent to
Spain to conduct the Numantine war, he began against the will
of the senate to attack the Vaccaei. This enterprise was so
unsuccessful that he was deprived of his command in 136 and
condemned to pay a fine. He was among the greatest of the
earlier Roman orators, and Cicero praises him for having
LE PLAY— LEPROSY
479
introduced the well-constructed sentence and even flow of
language from Greek into Roman oratory.
Cicero, Brutus, 25, 27, 86, 97; Veil. Pat. ii. 10; Appian, Hisp.
80-83; Livy, epit.$6.
3. MARCUS AEMILIUS LEPIDUS, father of the triumvir. In
81 B.C. he was praetor of Sicily, where he made himself detested
by oppression and extortion. In the civil wars he sided with
Sulla and bought much of the confiscated property of the Marian
partisans. Afterwards he became leader of the popular party,
and with the help of Pompey was elected consul for 78, in spite
of the opposition of Sulla. When the dictator died, Lepidus
tried in vain to prevent the burial of his body in the Campus
Martius, and to alter the constitution established by him. His
colleague Lutatius Catulus found a tribune to place his veto on
Lepidus's proposals; and the quarrel between the two parties
in the state became so acute that the senate made the consuls
swear not to take up arms. Lepidus was then ordered by the
senate to go to his province, Transalpine Gaul; but he stopped
in Etruria on his way from the city and began to levy an army.
He was declared a public enemy early in 77, and forthwith
marched against Rome. A battle took place in the Campus
Martius, Pompey and Catulus commanding the senatorial army,
and Lepidus was defeated. He sailed to Sardinia, in order to
put himself into connexion with Sertorius in Spain, but here also
suffered a repulse, and died shortly afterwards.
Plutarch, Sulla, 34, 38, Pompey, 15; Appian, B.C. i. 105, 107;
Livy, epil. 90; Florus ih. 23; Cicero, Balbus, 15.
4. MARCUS AEMILIUS LEPIDUS, the triumvir. He joined the
party of Julius Caesar in the civil wars, and was by the dictator
thrice nominated magister equitum and raised to the consulship
in 46 B.C. He was a man of great wealth and influence, and it was
probably more on this ground than on account of his ability
that Caesar raised him to such honours. In the beginning of
44 B.C he was sent to Gallia Narbonensis, but before he had left
the city with his army Caesar was murdered. Lepidus, as
commander of the only army near Rome, became a man of great
importance in the troubles which followed. Taking part with
Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony), he joined in the reconciliation
which the latter effected with the senatorial party, and afterwards
sided with him when open war broke out. Antony, after his
defeat at Mutina, joined Lepidus in Gaul, and in August 43
Octavian (afterwards the emperor Augustus), who had forced
the senate to make him consul, effected an arrangement with
Antony and Lepidus, and their triumvirate was organized at
Bononia. Antony and Octavian soon reduced Lepidus to an
inferior position. His province of Gaul and Spain was taken from
him; and, though he was included in the triumvirate when it
was renewed in 37, his power was only nominal. He made an
effort in the following year to regain some reality of power,
conquered part of Sicily, and claimed the whole island as his
province, but Octavian found means to sap the fidelity of his
soldiers, and he was obliged to supplicate for his life. He was
allowed to retain his fortune and the office of pontifex maximus
to which he had been appointed in 44, but had to retire into
private life. According to Suetonius (Augustus, 16) he died at
Circeii in the year 13.
See ROME: History ii., "The Republic," Period C, ad fin.;
Appian, Bell. Civ. ii.-v. ; Dio Cassius *li.-xlix. ; Veil. Pat. ii. 64, 80;
Orelli's Onomasticon to Cicero.
LE PLAY, PIERRE GUILLAUME FRfr)6RIC (1806-1882),
French engineer and economist, was born at La Riviere-Saint-
Sauveur (Calvados) on the nth of April 1806, the son of a
custom-house official. He was educated at the Ecole Poly-
technique, and from there passed into the State Department
of Mines. In 1834 he was appointed head of the permanent
committee of mining statistics, and in 1840 engineer-in-chief
and professor of metallurgy at the school of mines, where he
became inspector in 1848. For nearly a quarter of a century
Le Play spent his vacations travelling in the various countries
of Europe, and collected a vast quantity of material bearing
upon the social condition of the working classes. In 1855 he
published Les Ouvriers europeens, which comprised a series of
thirty-six monographs on the budgets of typical families selected
from the most diverse industries. The Academic des Sciences
conferred on him the Montyon prize. Napoleon III., who held
him in high esteem, entrusted him with the organization of the
Exhibition of 1835, and appointed him counsellor of state,
commissioner general of the Exhibition of 1867, senator of the
empire and grand officer of the Legion of Honour. He died in
Paris on the sth of April 1882.
In 1856 Le Play founded the Societe Internationale des etudes
pratiques d'Economie sociale, which has devoted its energies princip-
ally to forwarding social studies on the lines laid down by its founder.
The journal of the society, La Reforme sociale, founded in 1881, is
published fortnightly. Other works of Le Play are La Reforme
sociale (2 vols., 1864; 7th ed., 3 vols., 1887); L Organisation de la
famille (1871); La Constitution de I'Angleterre (in collaboration with
M. Delaire, 1875). See article in Harvard Quarterly Journal of
Economics (June 1890), by H. Higgs.
LEPROSY (Lepra Arabum, Elephantiasis Graecorum, Aussatz,
Spedalskhed), the greatest disease of medieval Christendom,
identified, on the one hand, with a disease endemic from the
earliest historical times (1500 B.C.) in the delta and valley of the
Nile, and, on the other hand, with a disease now common in Asia,
Africa, South America, the West Indies, and certain isolated
localities of Europe. An authentic representation of the leprosy
of the middle ages exists in a picture at Munich by Holbein,
painted at Augsburg in 1516; St Elizabeth gives bread and wine
to a prostrate group of lepers, including a bearded man whose face
is covered with large round reddish knobs, an old woman whose
arm is covered with brown blotches, the leg swathed in bandages
through which matter oozes, the bare knee also marked with
discoloured spots, and on the head a white rag or plaster, and,
thirdly, a young man whose neck and face (especially round the
somewhat hairless eyebrows) are spotted with brown patches
of various size. It is conjectured by Virchow that the painter
had made studies of lepers from the leper-houses then existing
at Augsburg. These external characters of medieval leprosy
agree with the descriptions of it by the ancients, and with the
pictures of modern leprosy given by Danielssen and Boeck for
Norway, by various authors for sporadic European cases, by
Anderson for Malacca, by Carter for India, by Wolff for Madeira
and by Hillis for British Guiana. There has been some confusion
in the technical naming of the disease; it is called Elephantiasis
(Leontiasis, Satyriasis) by the Greek writers, and Lepra by the
Arabians.
Leprosy is now included among the parasitic diseases (see
PARASITIC DISEASES). The cause is believed to be infection
by the bacillus leprae, a specific microbe discovered by Armauer
Hansen in 1871. It is worthy of note that tuberculosis is very
common among lepers, and especially attacks the serous mem-
branes. The essential character of leprosy is a great multiplica-
tion of cells, resembling the " granulation cells " of lupus and
syphilis, in the tissues affected, which become infiltrated and
thickened, with degeneration and destruction of their normal
elements. The new cells vary in size from ordinary leucocytes
to giant cells three or four times larger. The bacilli are found in
these cells, sometimes in small numbers, sometimes in masses.
The structures most affected are the skin, nerves, mucous mem-
branes and lymphatic glands.
The symptoms arise from the anatomical changes indicated,
and they vary according to the parts attacked. Three types of
disease are usually described — (i) nodular, (2) smooth or anaes-
thetic, (3) mixed. In the first the skin is chiefly affected, in the
second the nerves; the third combines the features of both.
It should be understood that this classification is purely a matter
of convenience, and is based on the relative prominence of
symptoms, which may be combined in all degrees. The incuba-
tion period of leprosy — assuming it to be due to infection — is
unknown, but cases are on record which can only be explained
on the hypothesis that it may be many years. The invasion
is usually slow and intermittent. There are occasional feverish
attacks, with the usual constitutional disturbance and other slight
premonitory signs, such as changes in the colour of the skin and
in its sensibility. Sometimes, but rarely, the onset is acute and
the characteristic symptoms develop rapidly. These begin with
480
LEPROSY
an eruption which differs markedly according to the type of
disease. In the nodular form dark red or coppery patches appear
on the face, backs of the hands, and feet or on the body; they
are generally symmetrical, and vary from the size of a shilling
upwards. They come with one of the feverish attacks and fade
away when it has gone, but only to return. After a time in-
filtration and thickening of the skin become noticeable, and the
nodules appear. They are lumpy excrescences, at first pink but
changing to brown. Thickening of the skin of the face produces
a highly characteristic appearance, recalling the aspect of a lion.
The tissues of the eye undergo degenerative changes; the
mucous membrane of the nose and throat is thickened, impairing
the breathing and the voice; the eyebrows fall off; the ears and
nose become thickened and enlarged. As the disease progresses
the nodules tend to break down and ulcerate, leaving open sores.
The patient, whose condition is extremely wretched, gradually
becomes weaker, and eventually succumbs to exhaustion or is
carried off by some intercurrent disease, usually inflammation
of the kidneys or tuberculosis. A severe case may end fatally
in two years, but, as a rule, when patients are well cared for the
illness lasts several years. There is often temporary improve-
ment, but complete recovery from this form of leprosy rarely
or never occurs. The smooth type is less severe and more
chronic. The eruption consists of patches of dry, slightly dis-
coloured skin, not elevated above the surface. These patches
are the result of morbid changes affecting the cutaneous nerves,
and are accompanied by diminished sensibility over the areas of
skin affected. At the same time certain nerve trunks in the
arm and leg, and particularly the ulnar nerve, are found to be
thickened. In the further stages the symptoms are those of
increasing degeneration of the nerves. Bullae form on the skin,
and the discoloured patches become enlarged; sensation is lost,
muscular power diminished, with wasting, contraction of tendons,
and all the signs of impaired nutrition. The nails become hard
and clawed; perforating ulcers of the feet are common; portions
of the extremities, including whole fingers and toes, die and drop
off. Later, paralysis becomes more marked, affecting the
muscles of the face and limbs. The disease runs a very chronic
course, and may last twenty or thirty years. Recovery occasion-
ally occurs. vJn the mixed form, which is probably the most
common, the symptoms described are combined in varying
degrees. Leprosy may be mistaken for syphilis, tuberculosis,
ainhum (an obscure disease affecting negroes, in which the little
toe drops off), and several affections of the skin. Diagnosis is
established by the presence of the bacillus leprae in the nodules
or bullae, and by the signs of nerve degeneration exhibited in
the anaesthetic patches of skin and the thickened nerve trunks.
In former times leprosy was often confounded with other
skin diseases, especially psoriasis and leucoderma; the white
leprosy of the Old Testament was probably a form of the latter.
But there is no doubt that true leprosy has existed from time
immemorial. Prescriptions for treating it have been found in
Egypt, to which a date of about 4600 B.C. is assigned. The disease
is described by Aristotle and by later Greek writers, but not
by Hippocrates, though leprosy derives its name from his " lepra "
or " scaly " disease, which was no doubt psoriasis. In ancient
times it was widely prevalent throughout Asia as well as in
Egypt, and among the Greeks and Romans. In the middle
ages it became extensively diffused in Europe, and in some
countries — France, England, Germany and Spain — every con-
siderable town had its leper-house, in which the patients were
segregated. The total number of such houses has been reckoned
at 19,000. The earliest one in England was established at
Canterbury in 1096, and the latest at Highgate in 1472. At one
time there were at least 95 religious hospitals for lepers in Great
Britain and 14 in Ireland (Sir James Simpson). During the isth
century the disease underwent a remarkable diminution. It
practically disappeared in the civilized parts of Europe, and the
leper-houses were given up. It is a singular fact that this
diminution was coincident with the great extension of syphilis
(see PROSTITUTION). The general disappearance of leprosy
at this time is the more unintelligible because it did not take
effect everywhere. In Scotland the disease lingered until the
igth century, and in some other parts it has never died out at
all. At the present time it still exists in Norway, Iceland, along
the shores of the Baltic, in South Russia, Greece, Turkey, several
Mediterranean islands, the Riviera, Spain and Portugal. Isolated
cases occasionally occur elsewhere, but they are usually imported.
The Teutonic races seem to be especially free from the taint.
Leper asylums are maintained in Norway and at two or three
places in the Baltic, San Remo, Cyprus, Constantinople, Alicante
and Lisbon. Except in Spain, where some increase has taken
place, the disease is dying out. The number of lepers in Norway
was 3000 in 1856, but has now dwindled to a few hundreds.
They are no longer numerous in any part of Europe. On the
other hand, leprosy prevails extensively throughout Asia, from
the Mediterranean to Japan, and from Arabia to Siberia. It
is also found in nearly all parts of Africa, particularly on the
east and west coasts near the equator. In South Africa it has
greatly increased, and attacks the Dutch as well as natives.
Leper asylums have been established at Robben Island near
Cape Town, and in Tembuland. In Australia, where it was
introduced by Chinese, it has also spread to Europeans. In
New Zealand the Maoris are affected; but the amount of leprosy
is not large in either country. A much more remarkable case
is that of the Hawaiian Islands, where the disease is believed
to have been imported by Chinese. It was unknown before
1848, but in 1866 the number of lepers had risen to 230 and
in 1882 to 4000 (Liveing). All attempts to stop it by segregating
lepers in the settlement of Molokai appear to have been fruit-
less. In the West Indies and on the American continent,
again, leprosy has a wide distribution. It is found in nearly all
parts of South and Central America, and in certain parts of
North America — namely, Louisiana, California (among Chinese),
Minnesota, Wisconsin and North and South Dakota (Norwegians) ,
New Brunswick (French Canadians).
It is difficult to find any explanation of the geographical
distribution and behaviour of leprosy. It seems to affect islands
and the sea-coast more than the interior, and to some extent
this gives colour to the old belief that it is caused or fostered
by a fish diet, which has been revived by Mr Jonathan Hutchin-
son, but is not generally accepted. Leprosy is found in interiors
where fish is not an article of diet. Climate, again, has obviously
little, if any, influence. The theory of heredity is equally at
fault, whether it be applied to account for the spread of the
disease by transmission or for its disappearance by the elimination
of susceptible persons. The latter is the manner in which
heredity might be expected to act, if at all, for lepers are re-
markably sterile. But we see the disease persisting among
the Eastern races, who have been continuously exposed to its
selective influence from the earliest times, while it has disappeared
among the Europeans, who were affected very much later.
The opposite theory of hereditary transmission from parents to
offspring is also at variance with many observed facts. Leprosy
is very rarely congenital, and no cases have occurred among the
descendants to the third generation of 160 Norwegian lepers
settled in the United States. Again, if hereditary transmission
were an effective influence, the disease could hardly have died
down so rapidly as it did in»Europe in the isth century. Then
we have the theory of contagion. There is no doubt that human
beings are inoculable with leprosy, and that the disease may
be communicated by close contact. Cases have been recorded
which prove it conclusively; for instance, that of a man who
had never been out of the British islands, but developed leprosy
after sharing for a time the bed and clothes of his brother, who
had contracted the disease in the West Indies. Some of the
facts noted, such as the extensive dissemination of the disease
in Europe during the middle ages, and its subsequent rapid
decline, suggest the existence of some unknown epidemic factor.
Poverty and insanitation are said to go with the prevalence of
leprosy, but they go with every malady, and there is nothing
to show that they have any special influence. Vaccination has
been blamed for spreading it, and a few cases of communication
by arm-to-arm inoculation are recorded. The influence of this
LEPSIUS— LEPTINES
481
factor, however, can only be trifling. Vaccination is a new thing,
leprosy a very old one; where there is most vaccination there
is no leprosy, and where there is most leprosy there is little or
no vaccination. In India 78% of the lepers are unvaccinated,
and in Canton since vaccination was introduced leprosy has
declined (Cantlie). On the whole we must conclude that there
is still much to be learnt about the conditions which govern
the prevalence of leprosy.
With regard to prevention, the isolation of patients is obviously
desirable, especially in the later stages, when open sores may
disseminate the bacilli; but complete segregation, which has
been urged, is regarded as impracticable by those who have
had most experience in leprous districts. Scrupulous cleanh'ness
should be exercised by persons attending on lepers or brought
into close contact with them. In treatment the most essential
thing is general care of the health, with good food and clothing.
The tendency of modern therapeutics to attach increasing
importance to nutrition in various morbid states, and notably
in diseases of degeneration, such as tuberculosis and affections
of the nervous system, is borne out by experience in leprosy,
which has affinities to both; and this suggests the application
to it of modern methods for improving local as well as general
nutrition by physical means. A large number of internal remedies
have been tried with varying results; those most recommended
are chaulmoogra oil, arsenic, salicylate of soda, salol and chlorate
of potash. Vergueira uses Collargol intravenously and sub-
cutaneously, and states that in all the cases treated there was
marked improvement, and hair that had been lost grew again.
Calmette's Anterenene injected subcutaneously has been followed
by good results. Deycke together with R. Bey isolated from
a non-ulcerated leprous nodule a streptothrix which they call S.
leproides. Its relation to the bacillus is uncertain. They found
that injections of this organism had marked curative effects,
due to a neutral fat which they named " Nastin." Injections
of Nastin together with Benzoyl Chloride directly act on the
lepra bacilli. Some cases were unaffected by this treatment,
but with others the effect was marvellous. Dr W. A. Pusey of
Chicago uses applications of carbon dioxide snow with good effect.
In the later stages of the disease there is a wide field for surgery,
which is able to give much relief to sufferers.
LITERATURE. — For history and geographical distribution, see
Hirsch, Handbuch der historisch-geographischen Pathologic (ist ed.,
Erlangen, 1860, with exhaustive literature). For pathology, Virchpw,
Die krankhaften Geschwulste (Berlin, 1863-1867), vol. ii. For clinical
histories, R. Liveing, Elephantiasis Graecorum or True Leprosy
(London, 1873), ch. iv. For medieval leprosy — in Germany,
Virchow, in Virchow's Archiv, five articles, vols. xviii.-xx. (1860—
1861); in the Netherlands, Israels, in Nederl. Tijdschr. voor Genees-
kunde, vol. i. (1857) ; in Britain, J. Y. Simpson, Edin. Med. and Surg.
Journ., three -articles, vols. Ixvi. and Ixvii. (1846—1847). Treatises
on modern leprosy in particular localities: Danielssen and Boeck
(Norway), Traite de la Spedalskhed, with atlas of twenty-four
coloured plates (Paris, 1848) ; A. F. Anderson, Leprosy as met with in
the Straits Settlements, coloured photographs with explanatory notes
(London, 1872); H. Vandyke Carter (Bombay), On Leprosy and
Elephantiasis, with coloured plates (London, 1874); Hillis, Leprosy
in British Guiana, an account of West Indian leprosy, with twenty-
two coloured plates (London, 1882). See also the dermatological
works of Hebra, Erasmus Witson, Bazin and Jonathan Hutchinson
(also the latter's letters to The Times of the nth of April and the
25th of May 1903); British Medical Journal (April I, 1908);
American Journal of Dermatology (Dec. 1907); The Practitioner
(February 1910). An important early work is that of P. G. Hensler,
Vom abendldndischen Aussatze im Mittelalter (Hamburg, 1790).
LEPSIUS, KARL RICHARD (1810-1884), German Egypto-
logist, was born at Naumburg-am-Saale on the 23rd of December
1810, and in 1823 was sent to the " Schulpforta " school near
Naumburg, where he came under the influence of Professor
Lange. In 1829 he entered the university of Leipzig, and one
year later that of Gottingen, where, under the influence of
Otfried Miiller, he finally decided to devote himself to the
archaeological side of philology. From Gottingen he proceeded
to Berlin, where he graduated in 1833 as doctor with the thesis
De lalulis Eugubinis. In the same year he proceeded to study
in Paris, and was commissioned by the due de Luynes to collect
material from the Greek and Latin writers for his work on the
xvi. 16
weapons of the ancients. In 1834 he took the Volney prize
with his Paliiographie als Mittel der Sprachforschung. Befriended
by Bunsen and Humboldt, Lepsius threw himself with great
ardour into Egyptological studies, which, since the death of
Champollion in 1832, had attracted no scholar of eminence and
weight. Here Lepsius found an ample field for his powers. After
four years spent in visiting the Egyptian collections of Italy,
Holland and England, he returned to Germany, where Humboldt
and Bunsen united their influence to make his projected visit
to Egypt a scientific expedition with royal support. For three
years Lepsius and his party explored the whole of the region in
which monuments of ancient Egyptian and Ethiopian occupation
are found, from the Sudan above Khartum to the Syrian coast.
At the end of 1845 they returned home, and the results of the
expedition, consisting of casts, drawings and squeezes of in-
scriptions and scenes, maps and plans collected with the utmost
thoroughness, as well as antiquities and papyri, far surpassed
expectations. In 1846 he married Elisabeth Klein, and his
appointment to a professorship in Berlin University in the
following August afforded him the leisure necessary for the
completion of his work. In 1859 the twelve volumes of his
vast Denkmaler aus Agypten und Athiopien were finished,
supplemented later by a text prepared from the note-books of
the expedition; they comprise its entire archaeological, palaeo-
graphical and historical results. In 1866 Lepsius again went to
Egypt, and discovered the famous Decree of Tanis or Table of
Canopus, an inscription of the same character as the Rosetta
Stone, in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek. In 1873 he was
appointed keeper of the Royal Library, Berlin, which, like the
Berlin Museum, owes much to his care. About ten years later
he was appointed Geheimer Oberregierungsrath. He died at
Berlin on the loth of July 1884. Besides the colossal Denkmaler
and other publications of texts such as the Todlenbuch der
Agypter (Book of the Dead, 1842) his other works, amongst
which may be specially named his Konigsbuch der Agypter
(1858) and Chronologic der Agypter (1849), are characterized
by a quality of permanence that is very remarkable in a subject
of such rapid development as Egyptology. In spite of his
scientific training in philology Lepsius left behind few transla-
tions of inscriptions or discussions of the meanings of words:
by preference he attacked historical and archaeological problems
connected with the ancient texts, the alphabet, the metrology,
the names of metals and minerals, the chronology, the royal
names. On the other hand one of his latest works, the Nubische
Grammatik (1880), is an elaborate grammar of the then little-
known Nubian language, preceded by a linguistic sketch of the
African continent. Throughout his life he profited by the gift
of attaching to himself the right men, whether as patrons or,
like Weidenbach and Stern, as assistants. Lepsius was a fine
specimen of the best type of German scholar.
See Richard Lepsius, by Georg Ebers (New York, 1887), and art.
EGYPT, section Exploration and Research.
LEPTINES, an Athenian orator, known as the proposer of a
law that no Athenian, whether citizen or resident alien (with
the sole exception of the descendants of Harmodius and Aristo-
geiton), should be exempt from the public charges (AeiTou/rytcu)
for the state festivals. The object was to provide funds for the
festivals and public spectacles at a time when both the treasury
and the citizens generally were short of money. It was further
asserted that many of the recipients of immunity were really
unworthy of it. Against this law Demosthenes delivered
(354 B.C.) his well-known speech Against Leptines in support of
the proposal of Ctesippus that all the cases of immunity should
be carefully investigated. Great stress is laid on the reputation
for ingratitude and breach of faith which the abolition of im-
munities would bring upon the state. Besides, the law itself
had been passed unconstitutionally, for an existing law confirmed
these privileges, and by the constitution of Solon no law could
be enacted until any existing law which it contravened had been
repealed. The law was probably condemned. Nothing further
is known of Leptines.
See the edition of the speech by J. E. Sandys (1890).
482
LEPTIS— LE PUY
LEPTIS, the name of two towns in ancient Africa. The
first, Leptis Magna (AtTrrinayva.) , the modern Lebda, was in
Tripolitana between Tripolis and Mesrata at the mouth of the
Cinyps; the second, Leptis Parva (A«ms 17 fUKpa), known also
as Leptiminus or Leptis minor, the modern Lamta, was a
small harbour of Byzacena between Ruspina (Monastir) and
Thapsus (Dimas).
1. LEPTIS MAGNA was one of the oldest and most flourishing
of the Phoenician emporia established on the coasts of the
greater Syrtis, the chief commercial entrepot for the interior of the
African continent. It was founded by the Sidonians (Sallust,
Jug. 78) who were joined later by people of Tyre (Pliny, Hist.
Nat. v. 17). Herodotus enlarges on the fertility of its territory
(iv. 175, v. 42). It was tributary to Carthage to which it paid a
contribution of a talent a day (Livy xxxiv. 62). After the Second
Punic War Massinissa made himself master of it (Sallust, Jug.
78; Livy xxxiv. 62; Appian viii. 106). During the Jugurthine
War it appealed for protection to Rome (Sallust, Jug. 78).
Though captured and plundered by Juba, it maintained its
allegiance to Rome, supported the senatorial cause, received
Cato the younger with the remains of the Pompeian forces after
Pharsalus 48 B.C. After his victory Julius Caesar imposed upon
it an annual contribution of 300,000 measures of oil. Neverthe-
less, it preserved its position as a free city governed by its own
magistrates (C.I.L. viii. 7). It received the title of muni-
cipium (C.I.L. viii. 8), and was subsequently made a colonia
by Trajan (C.I.L. viii. 10). Septimius Severus, who was
born there, beautified the place and conferred upon it the I us
Italicum. Leptis Magna was the limit of the Roman state, the
last station of the limes Tripolitanus; hence, especially during
the last centuries of the Empire, it suffered much from the
Nomads of the desert, the Garamantes, the Austuriani and the
Levathae (Ammian. Marc, xxviii. 6; Procop. De Aedif'. vi. 4).
Its commerce declined and its harbour silted up. Justinian
made a vain attempt to rebuild it (Procop. ibid. ; Ch. Diehl,
L'Afrique byzanline, p. 388). It was the seat of a bishopric,
but no mention is made of its bishops after 462.
Leptis Magna had a citadel which protected the commercial
city which was generally called Neapolis, the situation of which
may be compared with that of Carthage at the foot of Byrsa.
Its ruins are still imposing; remains of ramparts and docks,
a theatre, a circus and various buildings of the Roman period still
exist. Inscriptions show that the current pronunciation of the
name was Lepcis, Lepcitana, instead of Leptis, Leptitana
(Tissot, Geogr. comp. de la prov. d' Afrique, ii. 219; Clermont-
Ganneau, Recuett d'archedogie orientals, vi. 41; Comptes
rendus de I' A cad. des Inscr. et B.-Letlres, 1903, p. 333;
Cagnat, C.R. Acad., 1905, p. 531). The coins of Leptis Magna,
like the majority of the emporia in the neighbourhood, present a
series from the Punic period. They are of bronze with the legend
'ptb (Lepqi). They have on one side the head of Bacchus,
Hercules or Cybele, and on the other various emblems of these
deities. From the Roman period we have also coins bearing the
heads of Augustus, Livia and Tiberius, which still have the name
of the town in Neo-Punic script (Lud. Miiller, Numism. de
Vane. Afrique, ii. 3).
The ruins of Leptis Magna have been visited by numerous travellers
since the time of Frederick William and Henry William Beechey
(Travels, pp. 51 and 74) and Heinrich Barth (Wanderungen, pp.
306, 360); they are described by Ch. Tissot (Geogr. comp. ii. 219
et seq.); Cl. Perroud, De Syrticis emppriis, p. 33 (Paris, 1881,
in 8°) ; see also a description in the New York journal, The Nation
(1877), vol. xxvii. No. 683. M. Mehier de Mathuisieulx explored
the site afresh in 1901 ; his account is inserted in the Nouvelles
Archives des missions, x. 245-277; cf. vol. xii. See also J. Toutain,
" Le Limes Tripolitanus en Tripolitaine," in the Bulletin archeologique
du comite des travaux historiques (1905).
2. LEPTIS PARVA (Lamta), 7$ m. from Monastir, which is
often confused by modern writers with Leptis Magna in their
interpretations of ancient texts (Tissot, Geogr. comp. ii. 169),
was, according to the Tabula Peutingeriana, 18 m. south of
Hadrumetum. Evidently Phoenician in origin like Leptis
Magna, it was in the Punic period of comparatively slight
importance. Nevertheless, it had fortifications, and the French
engineer, A. Daux, has discovered a probable line of ramparts
Like its neighbour Hadrumetum, Leptis Parva declared for
Rome after the last Punic War. Also after the fall of Carthage
in 146 it preserved its autonomy and was declared a civitas
libera et immunis (Appian, Punica, 94; C.I.L. i. 200; De
bell. Afric. c. xii.). Julius Caesar made it the base of his opera-
tions before the battle of Thapsus in 46 (Ch. Tissot, Geogr.
comp. ii. 728). Under the Empire Leptis Parva became
extremely prosperous; its bishops appeared in the African
councils from 258 onwards. In Justinian's reorganization of
Africa we find that Leptis Parva was with Capsa one of the two
residences of the Dux Byzacenae (Tissot, op. cit. p. 171). The
town had coins under Augustus and Tiberius. On the obverse
is the imperial effigy with a Latin legend, and on the reverse
the Greek legend AEIITIC with the bust of Mercury (Lud.
Muller, Numism. de Vane. Afrique, ii. 49). The ruins extend
along the sea-coast to the north-west of Lemta; the remains of
docks, the amphitheatre and the acropolis can be distinguished;
a Christian cemetery has furnished tombs adorned with curious
mosaics.
See Comptes rendus de I 'Acad. des Inscrip. et B.-Leltres (1883), p.
189; Cagnat and Saladin, " Notes d'arch6ol. tunisiennes," in the
Bidletin monumental of 1 884 ; A r chives des missions, xii. 1 1 1 ;
Cagnat, Explorations archeol. en Tunisie, 3me fasc. pp. 9-16, and
Tour du monde (1881), i. 292; Saladin, Rapport sur une mission
en Tunisie (1886), pp. 9-20; Bulletin archeol. du comite de travaux
historiques (1895), pp. 69-71 (inscriptions of Lamta); Bulletin de la
Soc. archeol. de Sousse (1905 ; plan of the ruins of Lamta). (E. B.*)
LE PUY, or LE PUY EN VELAY, a town of south-eastern
France, capital of the department of Haute-Loire, 90 m. S.W.
of Lyons on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) town, 17,291;
commune, 21,420. Le Puy rises in the form of an amphitheatre
from a height of 2050 ft. above sea-level upon Mont Anis, a
hill that divides the left bank of the Dolezon from the right bank
of the Borne (a rapid stream joining the Loire 3 m. below).
From the new town, which lies east and west in the valley of
the Dolezon, the traveller ascends the old feudal and ecclesiastical
town through narrow steep streets, paved with pebbles of lava,
to the cathedral commanded by the fantastic pinnacle of Mont
Corneille. Mont Corneille, which is 433 ft. above the Place de
Breuil (in the lower town), is a steep rock of volcanic breccia,
surmounted by an iron statue of the Virgin (53 ft. high) cast,
after a model by Bonassieux, out of guns taken at Sebastopol.
Another statue, that of Msgr de Morlhon, bishop of Le Puy,
also sculptured by Bonassieux, faces that of the Virgin. From
the platform of Mont Corneille a magnificent panoramic view
is obtained of the town and of the volcanic mountains, which
make this region one of the most interesting parts of France.
The Romanesque cathedral (Notre-Dame), dating chiefly
from the first half of the i2th century, has a particoloured
facade of white sandstone and black volcanic breccia, which
is reached by a flight of sixty steps, and consists of three tiers,
the lowest composed of three high arcades opening into the
porch, which extends beneath the first bays of the nave; above
are three windows lighting the nave; and these in turn are
surmounted by three gables, two of which, those to the right
and the left, are of open work. The staircase continues within
the porch, where it divides, leading on the left to the cloister,
on the right into the church. The doorway of the south transept
is sheltered by a fine Romanesque porch. The isolated bell-tower
(184 ft.), which rises behind the choir in seven storeys, is one
of the most beautiful examples of the Romanesque transition
period. The bays of the nave are covered in by octagonal
cupolas, the central cupola forming a lantern. The choir and
transepts are barrel-vaulted. Much veneration is paid to a
small image of the Virgin on the high altar, a modern copy
of the medieval image destroyed at the Revolution. The cloister,
to the north of the choir, is striking, owing to its variously-
coloured materials and elegant shafts. Viollet-Ie-Duc considered
one of its galleries to belong to the oldest known type of cathedral
cloister (8th or gth century). Connected with the cloister are
remains of fortifications of the I3th century, by which it was
separated from the rest of the city. Near the cathedral the
LERDO DE TEJADA— LERIDA
483
baptistery of St John (nth century), built on the foundations
of a Roman building, is surrounded by walls and numerous
remains of the period, partly uncovered by excavations. The
church of St Lawrence (i4th century) contains the tomb and
statue of Bertrand du Guesclin, whose ashes were afterwards
carried to St Denis.
Le Puy possesses fragmentary remains of its old line of fortifica-
tions, among them a machicolated tower, which has been
restored, and a few curious old houses dating from the I2th
to the 1 7th century. In front of the hospital there is a fine
medieval porch under which a street passes. Of the modern
monuments the statue of Marie Joseph Paul, marquis of La
Fayette, and a fountain in the Place de Breuil, executed in
marble, bronze and syenite, may be specially mentioned. The
museum, named after Charles Crozatier, a native sculptor and
metal-worker to whose munificence it principally owes its
existence, contains antiquities, engravings a collection of lace,
and ethnographical and natural history collections. Among the
curiosities of Le Puy should be noted the church of St Michel
d'Aiguilhe, beside the gate of the town, perched on an isolated
rock like Mont Corneille, the top of which is reached by a staircase
of 271 steps. The church dates from the end of the loth century
and its chancel is still older. The steeple is of the same type
as that of the cathedral. Three miles from Le Puy are the ruins
of the Chateau de Polignac, one of the most important feudal
strongholds of France.
Le Puy is the seat of a bishopric, a prefect and a court of
assizes, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce,
a board of trade arbitration, a chamber of commerce, and a
branch of the Bank of France. Its educational institutions
include ecclesiastical seminaries, lycees and training colleges
for both sexes and municipal industrial schools of drawing,
architecture and mathematics applied to arts and industries.
The principal manufacture is that of lace and guipure (in woollen,
linen, cotton, silk and gold and silver threads), and distilling,
leather-dressing, malting and the manufacture of chocolate and
cloth are carried on. Cattle, woollens, grain and vegetables
are the chief articles of trade.
It is not known whether Le Puy existed previously to the Roman
invasion. Towards the end of the 4th or beginning of the 5th
century it became the capital of the country of the Vellavi, at which
period the bishopric, originally at Revession, now St Paulien, was
transferred hither. Gregory of Tours speaks of it by the name of
Anicium, because a chapel " ad Deum " had been built on the
mountain, whence the name of Mont Adidon or Anis, which it still
retains. In the loth century it was called Podium Sanctae Mariae,
whence Le Puy. In the middle ages there was a double enclosure,
one for the cloister, the other for the town. The sanctuary of
Notre Dame was much frequented by pilgrims, and the city grew
famous and populous. Rivalries between the bishops who held
directly of the see of Rome and had the right of coining money, and
the lords of Polignac, revolts of the town against the royal authority,
and the encroachments of the feudal superiors on municipal pre-
rogatives often disturbed the quiet of the town. The Saracens in the
8th century, the Routiers in the I2th, the English in the Hth, the
Burgundians in the I5th, successively ravaged the neighbourhood.
Le Puy sent the flower of its chivalry to the Crusades in 1096,
and Raymond d'Aiguille, called d'Agiles, one of its sons, was their
historian. Many councils and various assemblies of the states of
Languedoc met within its walls; popes and sovereigns, among the
latter Charlemagne and Francis I., visited its sanctuary. Pestilence
and the religious wars put an end to its prosperity. Long occupied
by the Leaguers, it did not submit to Henry IV. until many years
after his accession.
LERDO DE TEJADA, SEBASTIAN (1825-1889), president
of Mexico, was born at Jalapa on the 25th of April 1825. He
was educated as a lawyer and became a member of the supreme
court. He became known as a liberal leader and a supporter
of President Juarez. He was minister of foreign affairs for
three months in 1857, and became president of the Chamber
of Deputies in 1861. During the French intervention and
the reign of the emperor Maximilian he continued loyal to
the patriotic party, and had an active share in conducting the
national resistance. He was minister of foreign affairs to
President Juarez, and he showed an implacable resolution in
carrying out the execution of Maximilian at Queretaro. When
Juarez died in 1872 Lerdo succeeded him in office in the midst
of a confused civil war. He achieved some success in pacifying
the country and began the construction of railways. He was
re-elected on the 24th of July 1876, but was expelled in January
of the following year by Porfirio Diaz. He had made himself
unpopular by the means he took to secure his re-election and by
his disposition to limit state rights in favour of a strongly
centralized government. He fled to the United States and
died in obscurity at New York in 1889.
See H. H. Bancroft, Pacific States, vol. 9 (San Francisco, 1882-
1890).
LERICI, a village of Liguria, Italy, situated on the N.E. side
of the Gulf of Spezia, about 12 m. E.S.E. of Spezia, and 4 m.
W.S.W. of Sarzana by road, 17 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901)
9326. Its small harbour is guarded by an old castle, said to
have been built by Tancred; in the middle ages it was the chief
place on the gulf. S. Terenzo, a hamlet belonging to Lerici,
was the residence of Shelley during his last days. Farther
north-west is the Bay of Pertusola, with its large lead-smelting
works.
LERIDA, a province of northern Spain, formed in 1833 of
districts previously included in the ancient province of Catalonia,
and bounded on the N. by France and Andorra, E. by Gerona
and Barcelona, S. by Tarragona and W. by Saragossa and
Huesca. Pop. (1900) 274,590; area 4690 sq. m. The northern
half of Lerida belongs entirely to the Mediterranean or eastern
section of the Pyrenees, and comprises some of the finest scenery
in the whole chain, including the valleys of Aran and La Cerdana,
and large tracts of forest. It is watered by many rivers, the
largest of which is the Segre, a left-hand tributary of the Ebro.
South of the point at which the Segre is joined on the right by
the Noguera Pallaresa, the character of the country completely
alters. The Llanos de Urgel, which comprise the greater part of
southern Lerida, are extensive plains forming part of the Ebro
valley, but redeemed by an elaborate system of canals from the
sterility which characterizes so much of that region in Aragon.
Lerida is traversed by the main railway from Barcelona to
Saragossa, and by a line from Tarragona to the city of Lerida.
In 1904 the Spanish government agreed with France to carry
another line to the mouth of an international tunnel through the
Pyrenees. Industries are in a more backward condition than in
any other province of Catalonia, despite the abundance of water-
power. There are, however, many saw-mills, flour-mills, and
distilleries of alcohol and liqueurs, besides a smaller number of
cotton and linen factories, paper-mills, soap-works, and oil and
leather factories. Zinc, lignite and common salt are mined, but
the output is small and of slight value. There is a thriving trade
in wine, oil, wool, timber, cattle, mules, horses and sheep, but
agriculture is far less prosperous than in the maritime provinces
of Catalonia. Lerida (q.v.) is the capital (pop. 21,432), and
the only town with more than 5000 inhabitants. S6o de
Urgel, near the headwaters of the Segre, is a fortified city
which has been an episcopal see since 840, and has had a
close historical connexion with Andorra (q.v.). Solsona, on a
small tributary of the Cardoner, which flows through Barcelona
to the Mediterranean, is the Setelix of the Romans, and contains
in its parish church an image of the Virgin said to possess
miraculous powers, and visited every year by many hundreds
of pilgrims. Cervera, on a small river of the same name,
contains the buildings of a university which Philip V. established
here in 1717. This university had originally been founded at
Barcelona in the isth century, and was reopened there in 1842.
In character, and especially in their industry, intelligence and
keen local patriotism, the inhabitants of Lerida are typical
Catalans. (See CATALONIA.)
LERIDA, the capital of the Spanish province of Le'rida, on the
river Segre and the Barcelona-Saragossa and Lerida-Tarragona
railways. Pop. (1900) 21,432. The older parts of the city, on
the right bank of the river, are a maze of narrow and crooked
streets, surrounded by ruined walls and a moat, and commanded
by the ancient citadel, which stands on a height overlooking
the plains of Noguera on the north and of Urgel on the south.
On the left bank, connected with the older quarters by a fine
LERMA— LERMONTOV
stone bridge and an iron railway bridge, are the suburbs, laid out
after 1880 in broad and regular avenues of modern houses. The
old cathedral, last used for public worship in 1707, is a very
interesting late Romanesque building, with Gothic and Mauresque
additions; but the interior was much defaced by its conversion
into barracks after 1717. It was founded in 1203 by Pedro II.
of Aragon, and consecrated in 1278. The fine octagonal belfry
was built early in the isth century. A second cathedral, with
a Corinthian facade, was completed in 1781. The church of San
Lorenzo (1270-1300) is noteworthy for the beautiful tracery of
its Gothic windows; its nave is said to have been a Roman
temple, converted by the Moors into a mosque and by Ramon
Berenguer IV., last count of Barcelona, into a church. Other
interesting buildings are the Romanesque town hall, founded in
the i3th century but several times restored, the bishop's palace
and the military hospital, formerly a convent. The museum
contains a good collection of Roman and Romanesque antiquities;
and there are a school for teachers, a theological seminary and
academies of literature and science. Leather, paper, glass, silk,
linen and cloth are manufactured in the city, which has also
some trade in agricultural produce.
L6rida is the Ilerda of the Romans, and was the capital of the
people whom they called Ilerdenses (Pliny) or Ikrgetes (Ptolemy).
By situation the key of Catalonia and Aragon, it was from a very
early period an important military station. In the Punic Wars
it sided with the Carthaginians and suffered much from the
Roman arms. In its immediate neighbourhood Hanno was
defeated by Scipio in 216 B.C., and it afterwards became famous
as the scene of Caesar's arduous struggle with Pompey's generals
Afranius and Petreius in the first year of the civil war (49 B.C.).
It was already a municipium in the time of Augustus, and enjoyed
great prosperity under later emperors. Under the Visigoths
it became an episcopal see, and at least one ecclesiastical council
is recorded to have met here (in 546). Under the Moors Laredo,
became one of the principal cities of the province of Saragossa;
it became tributary to the Franks in 793, but was reconquered
in 797. In 1149 it fell into the hands of Ramon Berenguer IV.
In modern times it has come through numerous sieges, having
been taken by the French in November 1707 during the War of
Succession, and again in 1810. In 1300 James II. of Aragon
founded a university at L6rida, which achieved some repute in
its day, but was suppressed in 1717, when the university of
Cervera was founded.
LERMA, FRANCISCO DE SANDOVAL Y ROJAS, DUKE OF
(1552-1625), Spanish minister, was born in 1552. At the
age of thirteen he entered the royal palace as a page. The
family of Sandoval was ancient and powerful, but under Philip II.
(1556-1598) the nobles, with the exception of a few who held
viceroyalties or commanded armies abroad, had little share in
the government. The future duke of Lerma, who was by descent
marquis of Denia, passed his life as a courtier, and possessed
no political power till the accession of Philip III. in 1598. He had
already made himself a favourite with the prince, and was in fact
one of the incapable men who, as the dying king Philip II. fore-
saw, were likely to mislead the new sovereign. The old king's
fears were fully justified. No sooner was Philip III. king than he
entrusted all authority to his favourite, whom he created duke
of Lerma in 1599 and on whom he lavished an immense list of
offices and grants. The favour of Lerma lasted for twenty years,
till it was destroyed by a palace intrigue carried out by his own
son. Philip III. not only entrusted the entire direction of his
government to Lerma, but authorized him to affix the royal
signature to documents, and to take whatever presents were
made to him. No royal favourite was ever more amply trusted,
or made a worse use of power. At a time when the state was
practically bankrupt, he encouraged the king in extravagance,
and accumulated for himself a fortune estimated by contem-
poraries at forty-four millions of ducats. Lerma was pious withal,
spending largely on religious houses, and he carried out the
niinous measures for the expulsion of the Moriscoes in 1610 — a
policy which secured him the admiration of the clergy and was
popular with the mass of the nation. He persisted in costly and
useless hostilities with England till, in 1604, Spain was forced
by exhaustion to make peace, and he used all his influence against
a recognition of the independence of the Low Countries. The
fleet was neglected, the army reduced to a remnant, and the
finances ruined beyond recovery. His only resources as a finance
minister were the debasing of the coinage, and foolish edicts
against luxury and the making of silver plate. Yet it is probable
that he would never have lost the confidence of Philip III., who
divided his life between festivals and prayers, but for the domestic
treachery of his son, the duke of Uceda, who combined with the
king's confessor, Aliaga, whom Lerma had introduced to the
place, to turn him out. After a long intrigue in which the king
was all but entirely dumb and passive, Lerma was at last com-
pelled to leave the court, on the 4th of October 1618. As a
protection, and as a means of retaining some measure of power
in case he fell from favour, he had persuaded Pope Paul V. to
create him cardinal, in the year of his fall. He retired to the
town of Lerma in Old Castile, where he had built himself a
splendid palace, and then to Valladolid. Under the reign of
Philip IV., which began in 1621 he was despoiled of part of his
wealth, and he died in 1625.
The history of Lerma's tenure of office is in vol. xy. of the Historia
General de Espatta of Modesto Lafuente (Madrid, 1855) — with
references to contemporary authorities.
LERMONTOV, MIKHAIL YUREVICH (1814-1841), Russian
poet and novelist, often styled the poet of the Caucasus, was
born in Moscow, of Scottish descent, but belonged to a respectable
family of the Tula government, and was brought up in the village
of Tarkhanui (in the Penzensk government), which now preserves
his dust. By his grandmother — on whom the whole care of his
childhood was devolved by his mother's early death and his
father's military service — no cost nor pains was spared to give
him the best education she could think of. The intellectual atmo-
sphere which he breathed in his youth differed little from thai
in which Pushkin had grown up, though the domination of French
had begun to give way before the fancy for English, and Lamartine
shared his popularity with Byron. From the academic gymnasium
in Moscow Lermontov passed in 1830 to the university, but
there his career came to an untimely close through the part
he took in some acts of insubordination to an obnoxious teacher.
From 1830 to 1834 he attended the school of cadets at St Peters-
burg, and in due course he became an officer in the guards.
To his own and the nation's anger at the loss of Pushkin (1837)
the young soldier gave vent in a passionate poem addressed
to the tsar, and the very voice which proclaimed that, if Russia
took no vengeance on the assassin of her poet, no second poet
would be given her, was itself an intimation that a poet had come
already. The tsar, however, seems to have found more im-
pertinence than inspiration in the address, for Lermontov was
forthwith sent off to the Caucasus as an officer of dragoons.
He had been in the Caucasus with his grandmother as a boy of
ten, and he found himself at home by yet deeper sympathies
than those of childish recollection. The stern and rocky virtues
of the mountaineers against whom he had to fight, no less than
the scenery of the rocks 'and mountains themselves, proved
akin to his heart; the emperor had exiled him to his native land.
He was in St Petersburg in 1838 and 1839, and in the latter
year wrote the novel, A Hero of Our Time, which is said to have
been the occasion of the duel in which he lost his life in July 1841.
In this contest he had purposely selected the edge of a precipice,
so that if cither combatant was wounded so as to fall his fate
should be sealed.
Lermontov published only one small collection of poems in 1840.
Three volumes, much mutilated by the censorship, were issued in
1842 by Glazounov; and there have been full editions of his works
in 1860 and 1863. To Bodenstedt's German translation of his
poems (MichaU Lermontov' s poetischer Nachlass, Berlin, 1842,
2 vols.), which indeed was the first satisfactory collection, he is
indebted for a wide reputation outside of Russia. His novel has
, , Russian
ballad, " The song of the tsar Ivan Vasilivitch, his young body-
guard, and the bold merchant Kalashnikov."
See Taillandier, " LePoetedu Caucase," in Revue des deux monies
LEROUX— LERWICK
485
(February 1855), reprinted in Allemagne, et Russie (Paris, 1856);
Duduishkin's " Materials for the Biography of Lermontov," prefixed
to the 1863 edition of his works. The Demon, translated by Sir
Alexander Condie Stephen (1875), is an English version of one of his
longer poems. (W. R. S.-R.)
LEROUX, PIERRE (1798-1871), French philosopher and
economist, was born at Bercy near Paris on the 7th of April 1798,
the son of an artisan. His education was interrupted by the
death of his father, which compelled him to support his mother
and family. Having worked first as a mason and then as a
compositor, he joined P. Dubois in the foundation of Le Globe
which became in 1831 the official organ of the Saint-Simonian
community, of which he became a prominent member. In
November of the same year, when Enfantin preached the en-
franchisement of women and the functions of the couple-pretre,
Leroux separated himself from the sect. In 1838, with J.
Regnaud, who had seceded with him, he founded the Ency-
clopedic nowielle (eds. 1838-1841). Amongst the articles which
he inserted in it were De Vegalite and Refutation de I'eclectisme,
which afterwards appeared as separate works. In 1840 he
published his treatise De Vhumanitt (2nd ed. 1845), which
contains the fullest exposition of his system, and was regarded as
the philosophical manifesto of the Humanitarians. In 1841
he established the Revue independante, with the aid of George
Sand, over whom he had great influence. Her Spiridion, which
was dedicated to him, Sept cordes de la lyre, Consuelo, and La
Comtesse de Rudolstadt, were written under the Humanitarian
inspiration. In 1843 he established at Boussac (Creuse) a print-
ing association organized according to his systematic ideas,
and founded the Revue sociale. After the outbreak of the
revolution of 1848 he was elected to the Constituent Assembly,
and in 1849 to the Legislative Assembly, but his speeches on
behalf of the extreme socialist wing were of so abstract and
mystical a character that they had no effect. After the coup
d'etat of 1851 he settled with his family in Jersey, where he
pursued agricultural experiments and wrote his socialist poem
La Grew de Samarez. On the definitive amnesty of 1869 he
returned to Paris, where he died in April 1871, during the
Commune.
The writings of Leroux have no permanent significance in the
history of thought. He was the propagandist or sentiments and
aspirations rather than the expounder ofa systematic theory. He
has, indeed, a system, but it is a singular medley of doctrines
borrowed, not only from Saint-Simonian, but from Pythagorean
and Buddhistic sources. In philosophy his fundamental principle
is that of what he calls the " triad " — a triplicity which he finds to
pervade all things, which in God is " power, intelligence and love,"
in man " sensation, sentiment and knowledge." His religious doc-
trine is Pantheistic; and, rejecting the belief in a future life as
commonly conceived, he substitutes for it a theory of metempsy-
chosis. In social economy his views are very vague; he preserves
the family, country and property, but finds in all three, as they now
are, a despotism which must be eliminated. He imagines certain
combinations by which this triple tyranny can be abolished, but his
solution seems to require the creation of families without heads,
countries without governments and property without rights of
possession. In politics he advocates absolute equality — a democracy
pushed to anarchy.
See Raillard, Pierre Leroux et ses ceuvres (Paris, 1891}); Thomas,
Pierre Leroux: so, vie, son cewore, so. doctrine (Paris, 1904) ; L. Rey-
baud, Etudes sur les reformaieurs et socialistes modernes; article in
R. H. Inglis Palgravc's Dictionary of Pol. Econ,
LEROY-BEAULIEU. HENRI JEAN BAPTISTE ANATOLE
(1842- ), French publicist, was born at Lisieux, on the I2th
of February 1842. In 1866 he published Une troupe de comediens,
and afterwards Essai sur la reslauralion de nos monuments ttis-
toriques devant I' art et dcvant le budget, which deals particularly with
the restoration of the cathedral of Evreux. He visited Russia in
order to collect documents on the political and economic organiza-
tion of the Slav nations, and on his return published in the
Revue des deux mondes (1882-1889) a series of articles, which
appeared shortly afterwards in book form under the title L' Empire
des tsars et les Russes (4th ed., revised in 3 vols., 1897-1898).
The work entitled Un empereur, un roi, un pape, une restaura-
tion, published in 1879, was an analysis and criticism of the
politics of the Second Empire. Un homme d'etat russe (1884)
gave the history of the emancipation of the serfs by Alexander II.
Other works are Les Catholiques libfraux, I'fglisc et le liberalisme
(1890), La Papaute, le socialisme et la democracie (1892), Les
Juifs et I'antisemitisme; Israel chez les nations (1893), Les
Armeniens et la question armenienne (1896), L' Antisemitisme
(1897), Etudes russes et europeennes (1897). These writings,
mainly collections of articles and lectures intended for the general
public, display enlightened views and wide information. In 1881
Leroy-Beaulieu was elected professor of contemporary history
and eastern affairs at the Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques,
becoming director of this institution on the death of Albert
Sorel in 1906, and in 1887 he became a member of the Acadfimie
des Sciences Morales et Politiques.
Two of Leroy-Beaulieu's works have been translated into English :
one as the Empire of the Tsars and the Russians, by Z. A. Regozin
(New York, 1893-1896), and another as Papacy, Socialism, Demo-
cracy, by B. L. O'Donncll (1892). Sec W. E. H. Lecky, Historical
and Political Essays (1908).
LEROY-BEAULIEU, PIERRE PAUL (1843- ), French
economist, brother of the preceding, was born at Saumur on
the 9th of December 1843, and educated in Paris at the Lyc£e
Bonaparte and the Ecole de Droit. He afterwards studied
at Bonn and Berlin, and on his return to Paris began to write
for Le Temps, Revue nalionale and Revue contemporaine. In
1867 he won a prize offered by the Academy of Moral Science
with an essay entitled " L'Influence de 1'etat moral et intellectuel
des populations ouvrieres sur le taux des salaires." In 1870
he gained three prizes for essays on " La Colonization chez les
peuples modernes," " L'Administration en France et en Angle-
terre," and " L'Imp6t foncicr et ses consequences economiques."
In 1872 Leroy-Beaulieu became professor of finance at the
newly-founded Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques, and in 1880
he succeeded his father-in-law, Michel Chevalier, in the chair of
political economy in the College de France. Several of his works
have made their mark beyond the borders of his own country.
Among these may be mentioned his Recherches Iconomiques,
historiqucs el slalistiques sur les guerres contemporaines, a series
of studies published between 1863 and 1869, in which hecalculated
the loss of men and capital caused by the great European conflicts.
Other works by him are — La Question monnaic au dix-neuvieme
siecle (1861), Le Travail des femmes au dix-neuvicme siecle (1873),
Traitt de la science des finances (1877), Essai sur la repartition
des richesses (1882), L'Algerie el la Tunisie (1888), Precis
d' fconomie politique (1888), and L'Etat moderne et ses fonctions
(1889). He also founded in 1873 the Economiste franfais, on
the model of the English Economist. Leroy-Beaulieu may be
regarded as the leading representative in France of orthodox
political economy, and the most pronounced opponent of pro-
tectionist and collectivist doctrines.
LERWICK, a municipal and police burgh of Shetland, Scot-
land, the most northerly town in the British Isles. Pop. (1901)
4281. It is situated on Brassay Sound, a fine natural harbour,
on the east coast of the island called Mainland, 115 m. N.E. of
Kirkwall, in Orkney, and 340 m. from Leith by steamer. The
town dates from the beginning of the i?th century, andtheolder
part consists of a flagged causeway called Commercial Street,
running for i m. parallel with the sea (in which the gable ends of
several of the quaint-looking houses stand), and so narrow
in places as not to allow of two vehicles passing each other. At
right angles to this street lanes ascend the hill-side to Hillhead,
where the more modern structures and villas have been built.
At the north end stands Fort Charlotte, erected by Cromwell,
repaired in 1665 by Charles II. and altered in 1781 by George III.,
after whose queen it was named. It is now used as a dep6t
for the Naval Reserve, for whom a large drill hall was added.
The Anderson Institute, at the south end, was constructed as a
secondary school in 1862 by Arthur Anderson, a native, who
also presented the Widows' Asylum in the same quarter, an
institution intended by preference for widows of Shetland
sailors. The town-hall, built in 1881, contains several stained-
glass windows, two of which were the gift of citizens of Amster-
dam and Hamburg, in gratitude for services rendered by the
islanders to fishermen and seamen of those ports. Lerwick's
main industries are connected with the fisheries, of which it is an
486
LE SAGE
important centre. Docks, wharves, piers, curing stations and
warehouses have been provided or enlarged to cope with the
growth of the trade, and an esplanade has been constructed
along the front. The town is also the chief distributing agency
for the islands, and carries on some business in knitted woollen
goods. One mile west of Lerwick is Clickimin Loch, separated
from the sea by a narrow strip of land. On an islet in the lake
stands a ruined " broch " or round tower.
LE SAGE, ALAIN RENfi (1668-1747), French novelist and
dramatist, was born at Sarzeau in the peninsula of Rhuys,
between the Morbihan and the sea, on the i3th of December 1668.
Rhuys was a legal district, and Claude le Sage, the father of
the novelist, held the united positions of advocate, notary and
registrar of its royal court. His wife's name was Jeanne Brenugat.
Both father and mother died when Le Sage was very young, and
his property was wasted or embezzled by his guardians. Little
is known of his youth except that he went to school with the
Jesuits at Vannes until he was eighteen. Conjecture has it that
he continued his studies at Paris, and it is certain that he was
called to the bar at the capital in 1692. In August 1694 he
married the daughter of a joiner, Marie Elizabeth Huyard.
She was beautiful but had no fortune, and Le Sage had little
practice. About this time he met his old schoolfellow, the
dramatist Danchet, and is said to have been advised by him
to betake himself to literature. He began modestly as a trans-
lator, and published in 1695 a French version of the Epistles
of Aristaenetus, which was not successful. Shortly afterwards
he found a valuable patron and adviser in the abbe de Lyonne,
who bestowed on him an annuity of 600 livres, and recommended
him to exchange the classics for Spanish literature, of which he
was himself a student and collector.
Le Sage began by translating plays chiefly from Rojas and
Lope de Vega. Le Traitre puni and Le Point d'honneur from
the former, Don Felix de Mendoce from the latter, were acted or
published in the first two or three years of the i8th century.
In 1704 he translated the continuation of Don Quixote by
Avellaneda, and soon afterwards adapted a play from Calderon,
Don Cesar Ursin, which had a divided fate, being successful at
court and damned in the city. He was, however, nearly forty
before he obtained anything like decided success. But in 1707
his admirable farce of Crispin rival de son maltre was acted
with great applause, and Le Viable boiteux was published.
This latter went through several editions in the same year, and
was frequently reprinted till 1725, when Le Sage altered and
improved it considerably, giving it its present form. Notwith-
standing the success of Crispin, the actors did not like Le Sage,
and refused a small piece of his called Les Etrennes (1707). He
thereupon altered it into Turcaret, his theatrical masterpiece, and
one of the best comedies in French literature. This appeared
in 1709. Some years passed before he again attempted romance
writing, and then the first two parts of Gil Bias de Santillane
appeared in 1715. Strange to say, it was not so popular as Le
Diable boiteux. Le Sage worked at it for a long time, and did
not bring out the third part till 1724, nor the fourth till 1735.
For this last he had been part paid to the extent of a hundred
pistoles some years before its appearance. During these twenty
years he was, however, continually busy. Notwithstanding the
great merit and success of Turcaret and Crispin, the Theatre
Francais did not welcome him, and in the year of the publication
of Gil Bias he began to write for the Th6atre de la Foire — the
comic opera held in booths at festival time. This, though not a
very dignified occupation, was followed by many writers of dis-
tinction at this date, and by none more assiduously than by
Le Sage. According to one computation he produced, either
alone or with others, about a hundred pieces, varying from
strings of songs with no regular dialogues, to comediettas only
distinguished from regular plays by the introduction of music.
He was also industrious in prose fiction. Besides finishing
Gil Bias he translated the Orlando innamorato (1721), rearranged
Guzman d' Alfarache (1732), published two more or less original
novels, Le Bachelier de Salamanque and Est&oanille Gonzales,
and in 1733 produced the Vie et aventures de M. de Beauchesne,
which is curiously like certain works of Defoe. Besides all this,
Le Sage was also the author of La Valise trouiiee, a collection of
imaginary letters, and of some minor pieces, ef which Une
journee des parques is the most remarkable. This laborious
life he continued until 1740, when he was more than seventy
years of age. His eldest son had become an actor, and Le Sage
had disowned him, but the second was a canon at Boulogne in
comfortable circumstances. In the year just mentioned his father
and mother went to live with him. At Boulogne Le Sage spent
the last seven years of his life, dying on the I7th of November
1747. His last work, Melange amusant de saillies d' esprit et
de traits historiques les plus f rap pants, had appeared in 1743.
Not much is known of Le Sage's life and personality, and
the foregoing paragraph contains not only the most important
but almost the only facts available for it. The few anecdotes
which we have of him represent him as a man of very independent
temper, declining to accept the condescending patronage which
in the earlier part of the century was still the portion of men of
letters. Thus it is said that, on being remonstrated with, as he
thought impolitely, for an unavoidable delay in appearing at the
duchess of Bouillon's house to read Turcaret, he at once put the
play in his pocket and retired, refusing absolutely to return.
It may, however, be said that as in time so in position he occupies
a place apart from most of the great writers of the i7th and i8th
centuries respectively. He was not the object of royal patronage
like the first, nor the pet of salons and coteries like the second.
Indeed, he seems all his life to have been purely domestic in his
habits, and purely literary in his interests.
The importance of Le Sage in French and in European literature
is not entirely the same, and he has the rare distinction of being
more important in the latter than in the former. His literary
work may be divided into three parts. The first contains his
Theatre de la Foire and his few miscellaneous writings, the second
his two remarkable plays Crispin and Turcaret, the third his
prose fictions. In the first two he swims within the general
literary current in France; he can be and must be compared
with others of his own nation. But in the third he emerges
altogether from merely national comparison. It is not with
Frenchmen that he is to be measured. He formed no school in
France; he followed no French models. His work, admirable
as it is from the mere point of view of style and form, is a paren-
thesis in the general development of the French novel. That
product works its way from Madame de la Fayette through
Marivaux and Prevost, not through Le Sage. His literary
ancestors are Spaniards, his literary contemporaries and suc-
cessors are Englishmen. The position is almost unique; it is
certainly interesting and remarkable in the highest degree.
Of Le Sage's miscellaneous work, including his numerous
farce-operettas, there is not much to be said except that they
are the very best kind of literary hack-work. The pure and
original style of the author, his abundant wit, his cool, humoristic
attitude towards human life, which wanted only greater earnest-
ness and a wider conception of that life to turn it into true
humour, are .discernible throughout. But this portion of his
work is practically forgotten, and its examination is incumbent
only on the critic. Crispin and Turcaret show a stronger and
more deeply marked genius, which, but for the ill-will of the
actors, might have gone far in this direction. But Le Sage's
peculiar unwillingness to attempt anything absolutely new
discovered itself here. Even when he had devoted himself
to the Foire theatre, it seems that he was unwilling to attempt,
when occasion called for it, the absolute innovation of a piece
with only one actor, a crux which Alexis Piron, a lesser but a
bolder genius, accepted and carried through. Crispin and
Turcaret are unquestionably Molieresque, though they are
perhaps more original in their following of Moliere than any
other plays that can be named. For this also was part of Le
Sage's idiosyncrasy that, while he was apparently unable or
unwilling to strike out an entirely novel line for himself, he had
no sooner entered upon the beaten path than he left it to follow
his own devices. Crispin rival de son maltre is a farce in one
act and many scenes, after the earlier manner of motion. Its
LES ANDELYS— LES BAUX
487
plot is somewhat extravagant, inasmuch as it lies in the effort
of a knavish valet, not as usual to further his master's interests,
but to supplant that master in love and gain. But the charm
of the piece consists first in the lively bustling action of the
short scenes which take each other up so promptly and smartly
that the spectator has not time to cavil at the improbability
of the action, and secondly in the abundant wit of the dialogue.
Turcaret is a far more important piece of work and ranks high
among comedies dealing with the actual society of their time.
The only thing which prevents it from holding the very highest
place is a certain want of unity in the plot. This want, however,
is compensated in Turcaret by the most masterly profusion of
character-drawing in the separate parts. Turcaret, the ruthless,
dishonest and dissolute financier, his vulgar wife as dissolute
as himself, the harebrained marquis, the knavish chevalier, the
baroness (a coquette with the finer edge taken off her fine-
ladyhood, yet by no means unlovable), are each and all finished
portraits of the best comic type, while almost as much may be
said of the minor characters. The style and dialogue are also
worthy of the highest praise; the wit never degenerates into
mere " wit-combats."
It is, however, as a novelist that the world has agreed to
remember Le Sage. A great deal of unnecessary labour has
been spent on the discussion of his claims to originality. What
has been already said will give a sufficient clue through this
thorny ground. In mere form Le Sage is not original. He
does little more than adopt that of the Spanish picaroon romance
of the 1 6th and I7th century. Often, too, he prefers merely
to rearrange and adapt existing work, and still oftener to give
himself a kind of start by adopting the work of a preceding
writer as a basis. But it may be laid down as a positive truth
that he never, in any work that pretends to originality at all,
is guilty of anything that can fairly be called plagiarism. Indeed
we may go further, and say that he is very fond of asserting
or suggesting his indebtedness when he is really dealing with
his own funds. Thus the Diable boiteux borrows the title, and
for a chapter or two the plan and almost the words, of the
Diablo Cojuelo of Luis Velez de Guevara. But after a few
pages Le Sage leaves his predecessor alone. Even the plan of the
Spanish original is entirely discarded, and the incidents, the
episodes, the style, are as independent as if such a book as the
Diablo Cojuelo had never existed. The case of Gil Bias is still
more remarkable. It was at first alleged that Le Sage had
borrowed it from the Marcos de Obregon of Vincent Espinel,
a curiously rash assertion, inasmuch as that work exists and is
easily accessible, and as the slightest consultation of it proves
that, though it furnished Le Sage with separate incidents and
hints for more than one of his books, Gil Bias as a whole is not
in the least indebted to it. Afterwards Father Isla asserted
that Gil Bias was a mere translation from an actual Spanish
book — an assertion at once incapable of proof and disproof,
inasmuch as there is no trace whatever of any such book. A
third hypothesis is that there was some manuscript original
which Le Sage may have worked up in his usual way, in the
same way, for instance, as he professes himself to have worked
up the Bachelor of Salamanca. This also is in the nature of it
incapable of refutation, though the argument from the Bachelor
is strong against it, for there could be no reason why Le Sage
should be more reticent of his obligations in the one case than
in the other. Except, however, for historical reasons, the
controversy is one which may be safely neglected, nor is there
very much importance in the more impartial indication of
sources— chiefly works on the history of Olivares — which
has sometimes been attempted. That Le Sage knew Spanish
literature well is of course obvious; but there is as little doubt
(with the limitations already laid down) of his real originality
as of that of any great writer in the world . Gil Bias then remains
his property, and it is admittedly the capital example of its
own style. For Le Sage has not only the characteristic, which
Homer and Shakespeare have, of absolute truth to human nature
as distinguished from truth to this or that national character,
but he has what has been called the quality of detachment,
which they also have. He never takes sides with his characters
as Fielding (whose master, with Cervantes, he certainly was)
sometimes does. Asmodeus and Don Cleofas, Gil Bias and the
Archbishop and Doctor Sangrado, are produced by him with
exactly the same impartiality of attitude. Except that he
brought into novel writing this highest quality of artistic truth,
it perhaps cannot be said that he did much to advance prose
fiction in itself. He invented, as has been said, no new genre;
he did not, as Marivaux and Prevost did, help on the novel as
distinguished from the romance. In form his books are un-
distinguishable, not merely from the Spanish romances which
are, as has been said, their direct originals, but from the medieval
romans d'auentures and the Greek prose romances. But in
individual excellence they have few rivals. Nor should it be
forgotten, as it sometimes is, that Le Sage was a great master
of French style, the greatest unquestionably between the classics
of the 1 7th century and the classics of the i8th. He is perhaps
the last great writer before the decadence (for since the time
of Paul Louis Courier it has not been denied that the philosophe
period is in point of style a period of decadence). His style is
perfectly easy at the same time that it is often admirably epi-
grammatic. It hasjjlenty of colour, plenty of flexibility, and may
be said to be exceptionally well fitted for general literary work.
The dates of the original editions of Le Sage's most important
works have already been given. He published during his life a
collection of his regular dramatic works, and also one of his pieces
for the Foire, but the latter is far from exhaustive; nor is there
any edition which can be called so, though the CEuvres choisies of
1782 and 1818 are useful, and there are so-called CEuvres completes
of 1821 and 1840. Besides critical articles by the chief literary
critics and historians, the work of Eugene Lintilhac, in the Grands
ecrivains franc,ais (1893), should be consulted. The Diable boiteux
and Gil Bias have been reprinted and translated numberless times.
Both will be found conveniently printed, together with Estevanille
Gonzales and Guzman d'Alfarache, the best of the minor novels, in
four volumes of Gamier s Bibliotheque amusante (Paris, 1865).
Turcaret and Crispin are to be found in all collected editions of the
French drama. There is a useful edition of them, with ample
specimens of Le Sage's work for the Foire, in two volumes (Paris,
1821). (G. SA.)
LES ANDELYS, a town of northern France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Eure about 30 m. S.E. of
Rouen by rail. Pop. (1906) 3955. Les Andelys is formed by
the union of Le Grand Andely and Le Petit Andely, the latter
situated on the right bank of the Seine, the former about half a mile
from the river. Grand Andely, founded, according to tradition,
in the 6th century, has a church (i3th, I4th and i5th centuries)
parts of which are of fine late Gothic and Renaissance architec-
ture. The works of art in the interior include beautiful stained
glass of the latter period. Other interesting buildings are the
h6tel du Grand Cerf dating from the first half of the i6th century,
and the chapel of Sainte-Clotilde, close by a spring which, owing
to its supposed healing powers, is the object of a pilgrimage.
Grand Andely has a statue of Nicolas Poussin a native of the
place. Petit Andely sprang up at the foot of the eminence on
which stands the chateau Gaillard, now in ruins, but formerly
one of the strongest fortresses in France (see FORTIFICATION AND
SIEGECRAFT and CASTLE). It was built by Richard Cceur
de Lion at the end of the i2th century to protect the Norman
frontier, was captured by the French in 1204 and passed finally
into their possession in 1449. The church of St Sauveur at
Petit Andely also dates from the end of the I2th century. Les
Andelys is the seat of a sub-prefect and of a tribunal of first
instance, has a preparatory infantry school; it carries on silk
milling, and the manufacture of leather, organs and sugar.
It has trade in cattle, grain, flour, &c.
LES BAUX, a village of south-eastern France, in the depart-
ment of Bouches-du-Rh6ne, n m. N.E. of Aries by road. Pop.
( 1 906) in. Les Baux, which in the middle ages was a flourishing
town, is now almost deserted. Apart from a few inhabited
dwellings, it consists of an assemblage of ruined towers, fallen
walls and other debris, which cover the slope of a hill crowned by
the remains of ahuge chateau, once the seat of a celebrated "court
of love." The ramparts, a medieval church, the chateau, parts
of which date to the nth century, and many of the dwellings are,
488
LESBONAX— LESBOS
in great part, hollowed out of the white friable limestone on
which they stand. Here and there may be found houses preserv-
ing carved facades of Renaissance workmanship. Les Baux has
given its name to the reddish rock (bauxite) which is plentiful
in the neighbourhood and from which aluminium is obtained.
In the middle ages Les Baux was the seat of a powerful family
which owned the Terre Baussenques, extensive domains in
Provence and Dauphine. The influence of the seigneurs de Baux
in Provence declined before the power of the house of Anjou,
to which they abandoned many of their possessions. In 1632
the chateau and the ramparts were dismantled.
LESBONAX, of Mytilene, Greek sophist and rhetorician,
flourished in the time of Augustus. According to Photius (cod. 74)
he was the author of sixteen political speeches, of which two are
extant, a hortatory speech after the style of Thucydides, and a
speech on the Corinthian War. In the first he exhorts the
Athenians against the Spartans, in the second (the title of which
is misleading) against the Thebans (edition by F. Kiehr, Les-
boiiaclis quae super sunt, Leipzig, 1907). Some erotic letters are
also attributed to him.
The Lesbonax described in Suidas as the author of a large number
of philosophical works is probably of much earlier date; on the
other hand, the author of a small treatise Htpl Sx^drwi' on
grammatical figures (ed. Rudolf Muller, Leipzig, 1900), is probably
later.
LESBOS (Mytilene, Turk. Midullu), an island in the Aegean
sea, off the coast of Mysia, N. of the entrance of the Gulf of
Smyrna, forming the main part of a sanjak in the archipelago
vilayet of European Turkey. It is divided into three districts,
Mytilene or Kastro in the E., Molyvo in the N., and Calloni in the
W. Since the middle ages it has been known as Mytilene, from
the name of its principal town. Strabo estimated the circum-
ference of the island at noo stadia, or about 138 m., and Scylax
reckoned it seventh in size of the islands of the Mediterranean.
The width of the channel between it and the mainland varies
from 7 to 10 m. The island is roughly triangular in shape; the
three points are Argennum on the N.E., Sigrium (Sigri) on the
W., and Malea (Maria) on the S.E. The Euripus Pyrrhaeus
(Calloni) is a deep gulf on the west between Sigrium and Malea.
The country though mountainous is very fertile, Lesbos being
celebrated in ancient times for its wine, oil and grain. Homer
refers to Its wealth. Its chief produce now is olives, which also
form its principal export. Soap, skins and valonea are also
exported, and mules and cattle are extensively bred. The sardine
fishery is an important trade, and antimony, marble and coal
are found on the island. The surface is rugged and mountainous,
the highest point, Mount Olympus (Hagios Elias) being 3080 ft.
The island has suffered from periodical earthquakes. The roads
were remade in 1889, and there is telegraphic communication on
the island, and to the mainland by cable. The ports are Sigri
and Mytilene. The Gulf of Calloni and Hiera or Olivieri can
only be entered by vessels of small draught.
The chief town, called Mytilene, is built in amphitheatre shape
round a small hill crowned by remains of an ancient fortress.
There are now 14 mosques and 7 churches, including a cathedral.
It was originally built on an island close to the eastern coast of
Lesbos, and afterwards when the town became too large for the
island, it was joined to Lesbos by a causeway, and the city spread
along the coast. There was a harbour on each side of the small
island. Maloeis, by some surmised to be the northern of these,
was not far away. Besides the five cities which gave the island
the name of Pentapolis (Mytilene, Methymna, Antissa, Eresus,
Pyrrha), there was a town called Arisba, destroyed by an earth-
quake in the time of Herodotus. Professor Conze thinks that
this is the site now called Palaikastro, N.E. of Calloni. Pyrrha
lay S.E. of Calloni, and is now also called Palaikastro. Antissa
was on the N. coast near Sigri. It was destroyed by the Romans
in 1 68 B.C. Eresus was also near Sigri on the S. coast. Methymna
was on the N. coast, on the site of Molyvo, still the second
city of the island. The name Methymna is derived from the wine
(Gr. fitOv) for which it was famous. Considerable remains of
town walls and other buildings are to be seen on all these
sites. (E. GR.)
History. — Although the position of Lesbos near the old-
established trade-route to the Hellespont marks it out as an
important site even in pre-historic days, no evidence on the early
condition of the island is as yet obtainable, beyond the Greek
tradition which represented it at the time of the Trojan War
as inhabited by an original stock of Pelasgi and an immigrant
population of lonians. In historic times it was peopled by
an " Aeolian " race who reckoned Boeotia as their motherland
and claimed to have migrated about 1050 B.C.; its principal
nobles traced their pedigree to Orestes, son of Agamemnon.
Lesbos was the most prominent of Aeolian settlements, and
indeed played a large part in the early development of Greek
life. Its commercial activity is attested by several colonies in
Thrace and the Troad, and by the participation of its traders in
the settlement of Naucratis in Egypt; hence also the town of
Mytilene, by virtue of its good harbour, became the political
capital of the island. The climax of its prosperity was reached
about 600 B.C., when a citizen named Pittacus was appointed as
aesymnetcs (dictator) to adjust the balance between the governing
nobility and the insurgent commons and by his wise administra-
tion and legislation won a place among the Seven Sages of Greece.
These years also constitute the golden age of Lesbian culture.
The lyric poetry of Greece, which owed much to two Lesbians
of the 7th century, the musician Terpander and the dithyrambist
Arion, attained the standard of classical excellence under
Pittacus' contemporaries Alcaeus and Sappho. In the 6th
century the importance of the island declined, partly through
a protracted and unsuccessful struggle with Athens for the
possession of Sigeum near the Hellespont, partly through a
crushing naval defeat inflicted by Polycrates of Samos (about
550). The Lesbians readily submitted to Persia after the fall of
Croesus of Lydia, and although hatred of their tyrant Goes, a
Persian protege, drove them to take part in the Ionic revolt (499-
493), they made little use of their large navy and displayed poor
spirit at the decisive battle of Lade. In the sth century Lesbos
for a long time remained a privileged member of the Delian
League (?.».), with full rights of self-administration, and under
the sole obligation of assisting Athens with naval contingents.
Nevertheless at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War the
ruling oligarchy of Mytilene forced on a revolt, which was ended
after a two years' siege of that town (420-427). The Athenians,
who had intended to punish the rebels by a wholesale execution,
contented themselves with killing the ringleaders, confiscating
the land and establishing a garrison. In the later years of the
war Lesbos was repeatedly attacked by the Peloponnesians,
and in 405 the harbour of Mytilene was the scene of a battle
between the admirals Callicratidas and Conon. In 389 most of
the island was recovered for the Athenians by Thrasybulus;
in 377 it joined the Second Delian League, and remained through-
out a loyal member, although in the second half of the century
the dominant democracy was for a while supplanted by a tyranny.
In 334 Lesbos served as a base for the Persian admiral Memnon
against Alexander the Great. During theThird Macedonian War
the Lesbians sided with Perseus against Rome; similarly in 88
they became eager allies of Mithradates VI. of Pontus, and
Mytilene stood a protracted siege on his behalf. This town,
nevertheless, was raised by Pompey to the status of a free com-
munity, thanks no doubt to his confidant Theophanes, a native
of Mytilene.
Of the other towns on the island, Antissa, Eresus and Pyrrha
possess no separate history. Methymna in the 5th and 4th
centuries sometimes figures as a rival of Mytilene, with an
independent policy. Among the distinguished Lesbians, in
addition to those cited, may be mentioned the cyclic poet
Lesches, the historian Hellanicus and the philosophers Theo-
phrastus and Cratippus.
During the Byzantine age the island, which now assumes the
name of Mytilene, continued to flourish. In 1091 it fell for a
while into the hands of the Seljuks, and in the following century
was repeatedly occupied by the Venetians. In 1224 it was
recovered by the Byzantine emperors, who in 1354 gave it as a
dowry to the Genoese family Gattilusio. After prospering under
LESCHES— LESGHIANS
489
their administration Mytilene passed in 1462 under Turkish
control, and has since had an uneventful history. The present
population is about 130,000 of whom 13,000 are Turks and
Moslems and 117,000 Greeks.
See Strabo xiii. pp. 617-619; Herodotus ii. 178, iii. 39, vi. 8, 14;
Thucydides iii. 2-50; Xenophon, Hellenica, i., ii.; S. Plehn,
Lesbiacorum Liber (Berlin, 1828) ; C. T. Newton, Travels and Dis-
coveries in the Levant (London, 1865) ; B. V. Head, Historia Numorum
(Oxford, 1887), pp. 487-488; E. L. Hicks and G. F. Hill, Greek
Historical Inscriptions (Oxford, 1901), Nos. 61, 94, 101, 139, 164;
Conze, Reise auf der Insel Lesbos (1865); Koldewey, Antike Baureste
auf Lesbos (Berlin, 1890). (M. O. B. C.)
LESCHES (Lescheos in Pausanias x. 25. 5), the reputed
author of the Little Iliad ('IXtas /w/cpa), one of the " cyclic "
poems. According to the usually accepted tradition, he was
a native of Pyrrha in Lesbos, and flourished about 660 B.C.
(others place him about 50 years earlier). The Little Iliad took
up the story of the Homeric Iliad, and, beginning with the
contest between Ajax and Odysseus for the arms of Achilles,
carried it down to the fall of Troy (Aristotle, Poetics, 23). Accord-
ing to the epitome in the Chrestomathy of Proclus, it ended with
the admission of the wooden horse within the walls of the city.
Some ancient authorities ascribe the work to a Lacedaemonian
named Cinaethon, and even to Homer.
See F. G. Welcker, Der epische Cyclus (1865-1882); Miiller and
Donaldson, Hist, of Greek Literature, i. ch. 6; G. H. Bode, Geschichte
der hellenischen Dichtkunst, \.
LESCURE, LOUIS MARIE JOSEPH, MARQUIS DE (1766-1703),
French soldier and anti-revolutionary, was born near Bressuire.
He was educated at the Ecole Militaire, which he left at the age
of sixteen. He was in command of a company of cavalry in the
Regiment de Royal-Piemont, but being opposed to the ideas
of the Revolution he emigrated in 1791; he soon, however,
returned to France, and on the loth of August 1792 took part
in the defence of the Tuileries against the mob of Paris. The
day after, he was forced to leave Paris, and took refuge in the
chateau of Clisson near Bressuire. On the outbreak of the
revolt of Vendee against the Republic, he was arrested and
imprisoned with all his family, as one of the promoters of the
rising. He was set at liberty by the Royalists, and became
one of their leaders, fighting at Thouars, taking Fontenay and
Saumur (May- June 1793), and, after an unsuccessful attack
on Nantes, joining H. du Verger de la Rochejaquelein, another
famous Vendean leader. Their peasant troops, opposed to
the republican general F. J. Westermann, sustained various
defeats, but finally gained a victory between Tiffauges and
Cholet on the igth of September 1793. The struggle was then
concentrated round Chatillon, which was time after time taken
and lost by the Republicans. Lescure was killed on the I5th
of October 1793 near the chateau of La Tremblaye between
Einee and Fougeres.
See Marquise de la Rochejaquelein (Lescure's widow, who after-
wards married La Rochejaquelein), Memoires (Paris, 1817); Jullien
de Courcelles, Dictionnaire des generaux franfais, tome vii. (1823) ;
T. Muret, Histoire des guerres de Vouest (Paris, 1848); and J. A. M.
Crdtineau-Joly, Guerres de Vendee (1834).
LESDIGUIERES, FRANCOIS DE BONNE, Due DE (1543-1626),
constable of France, was born at Saint-Bonnet de Champsaur
on the ist of April 1543, of a family of notaries with pretensions
to nobility. He was educated at Avignon under a Protestant
tutor, and had begun the study of law in Paris when he enlisted
as an archer. He served under the lieutenant-general of his
native province of Dauphine, Bertrand de Simiane, baron de
Gordes, but when the Huguenots raised troops in Dauphine
Lesdiguieres threw in his lot with them, and under his kinsman
Antoine Rambaud de Furmeyer, whom he succeeded in 1570,
distinguished himself in the mountain warfare that followed
by his bold yet prudent handling of troops. He fought at Jarnac
and Moncontour, and was a guest at the wedding of Henry IV.
of Navarre. Warned of the impending massacre he retired
hastily to Dauphine, where he secretly equipped and drilled
a determined body of Huguenots, and in 1575, after the execution
of Montbrun, became the acknowledged leader of the Huguenot
resistance in the district with the title of Commandant general,
confirmed in 1577 by Marshal Damville, by Cond6 in 1580,
and by Henry of Navarre in 1582. He seized Gap by a lucky
night attack on the 3rd of January 1577, re-established the
reformed religion there, and fortified the town. He refused to
acquiesce in the treaty of Poitiers (1578) which involved the
surrender of Gap, and after two years of fighting secured better
terms for the province. Nevertheless in 1580 he was compelled
to hand the place over to Mayenne and to see the fortifications
dismantled. He took up arms for Henry IV. in 1585, capturing
Chorges, Embrun, Chateauroux and other places, and after
the truce of 1588-1589 secured the complete submission of
Dauphine. In 1590 he beat down the resistance of Grenoble,
and was now able to threaten the leaguers and to support the
governor of Provence against the raids of Charles Emmanuel I.
of Savoy. He defeated the Savoyards at Esparron in April
1591, and in 1592 began the reconquest of the marquessate of
Saluzza which had been seized by Charles Emmanuel. After
his defeat of the Spanish allies of Savoy at Salebertrano in
June 1593 there was a truce, during which Lesdiguieres was
occupied in maintaining the royal authority against Eperon
in Provence. The war with Savoy proceeded intermittently
until 1601, when Henry IV. concluded peace, much to the
dissatisfaction of Lesdiguieres. The king regarded his lieutenant's
domination in Dauphine with some distrust, although he was
counted among the best of his captains. Nevertheless he made
him a marshal of France in 1609, and ensured the succession
to the lieutenant-generalship of Dauphine, vested in Lesdiguieres
since 1597, to his son-in-law Charles de Crequy. Sincerely
devoted to the throne, Lesdiguieres took no part in the intrigues
which disturbed the minority of Louis XIII., and he moderated
the political claims made by his co-religionists under the terms
of the Edict of Nantes. After the death of his first wife, Claudine
de Berenger, he married the widow of Ennemond Matel, a
Grenoble shopkeeper, who was murdered in 1617. Lesdiguieres
was then 73, and this lady, Marie Vignon, had long been his
mistress. He had two daughters, one of whom, Francoise,
married Charles de Crequy. In 1622 he formally abjured the
Protestant faith, his conversion being partly due to the influence
of Marie Vignon. He was already a duke and peer of France;
he now became constable of France, and received the order of
the Saint Esprit. He had long since lost the confidence of the
Huguenots, but he nevertheless helped the Vaudois against
the duke of Savoy. Lesdiguieres had the qualities of a great
general, but circumstances limited him to the mountain warfare
of Dauphine, Provence and Savoy. He had almost unvarying
success through sixty years of fighting. His last campaign,
fought in alliance with Savoy to drive the Spaniards from the
Valtelline, was the least successful of his enterprises. He died
of fever at Valence on the 2ist of September 1626.
The life of the Huguenot captain has been written in detail by
Ch. Dufuyard, Le Connetable de Lesdiguieres (Paris, 1892). His first
biographer was his secretary Louis Videl, Histoire de la vie du
connestable de Lesdiguieres (Paris, 1638). Much of his official corre-
spondence, with an admirable sketch of his life, is contained in Actei
et correspondence du connetable de Lesdiguieres, edited by Comtt
Douglas and J. Roman in Documents historiques inedits pour servil
d I'histoire de Dauphin^ (Grenoble, 1878). Other letters are in th«
Lettres et memoires (Paris, 1647) of Duplessis-Mornay.
" LESGHIANS, or LESGHIS '(from the Persian Leksi, called
Leki by the Grusians or Georgians, Armenians and Ossetes),
the collective name for a number of tribes of the eastern Caucasus,
who, with their kinsfolk the Chechenzes, have inhabited
Daghestan from time immemorial. They spread southward
into the Transcaucasian circles Kuba, Shemakha, Nukha and
Sakataly. They are mentioned as A.fjxai by Strabo and Plutarch
along with the FrfXat (perhaps the modern Galgai, a Chechenzian
tribe), and their name occurs frequently in the chronicles of
the Georgians, whose territory was exposed to their raids for
centuries, until, on the surrender (1859) to Russia of the
Chechenzian chieftain Shamyl, they became Russian subjects.
Moses of Chorene mentions a battle in the reign of the Armenian
king Baba (A.D. 370-377), in which Shagir, king of the Lekians,
was slain. The most important of the Lesghian tribes are the
Avars (<?.».), the Kasimukhians or Lakians, the Darghis and the
LESINA— LESLEY, J.
49°
Kurins or Lesghians proper. Komarov l gives the total number
of the tribes as twenty-seven, all speaking distinct dialects.
Despite this, the Lesghian peoples, with the exception of the
Udi and Kubatschi, are held to be ethnically identical. The
Lesghians are not usually so good-looking as the Circassians or
the Chechenzes. They are tall, powerfully built, and their
hybrid descent is suggested by the range of colouring, some of
the tribes exhibiting quite fair, others quite dark, individuals.
Among some there is an obvious mongoloid strain. In disposi-
tion they are intelligent, bold and persistent, and capable of
reckless bravery, as was proved in their struggle to maintain
their independence. They are capable of enduring great physical
fatigue. They live a semi-savage life on their mountain slopes,
for the most part living by hunting and stock-breeding. Little
agriculture is possible. Their industries are mainly restricted
to smith-work and cutlery and the making of felt cloaks, and
the women weave excellent shawls. They are for the most part
fanatical Mahommedans.
See Moritz Wagner, Schamyl (Leipzig, 1854); von Seidlitz,
" Ethnographic des Kaukasus," in Petermann's Mitteilungen (1880) ;
Ernest Chantre, Recherches anthropologiqu.es dans le Caucase (Lyon,
1885-1887) ; J. de Morgan, Recherches sur les origines des peuples du
Caucase (Paris, 1889).
LESINA (Serbo-Croatian, Hvar), an island in the Adriatic
Sea, forming part of Dalmatia, Austria. Lesina lies between the
islands of Brazza on the north and Curzola on the south; and
is divided from the peninsula of Sabbioncello by the Narenta
channel. Its length is 41 m.; its greatest breadth less than 4 m.
It has a steep rocky coast with a chain of thinly wooded
limestone hills. The climate is mild, and not only the grape and
olive, but dates, figs and the carob or locust-bean flourish.
The cultivation of these fruits, boat-building, fishing and the
preparation of rosemary essence and liqueurs are the principal
resources of the islanders. Lesina (Hvar) and Cittavecchia
(Starigrad) are the principal towns and seaports, having respec-
tively 2138 and 3120 inhabitants. Lesina, the capital, contains
an arsenal, an observatory and some interesting old buildings
of the 1 6th century. It is a Roman Catholic bishopric, and the
centre of an administrative district, which includes Cittavecchia,
Lissa, and some small neighbouring islands. Pop. (IQOO) of island
18,091, of district 27,928.
To the primitive " Illyrian " race, whose stone cists and bronze
implements have been disinterred from barrows near the capital,
may perhaps be attributed the " Cyclopean " walls at Citta-
vecchia. About 385 B.C., a Greek colony from Paros built a city
on the site of the present Lesina, naming it Paros or Pharos
The forms Phara, Pharia (common among Latin writers), and
Pityeia, also occur. In 229 B'.C. the island was betrayed to the
Romans by Demetrius, lieutenant of the Illyrian queen Teuta
but in 219, as Demetrius proved false to Rome also, his capita!
was razed by Lucius Aemilius Paullus. Neos Pharos, now
Cittavecchia, took its place, and flourished until the 6th century
when the island was laid waste by barbarian invaders. Con
stantine Porphyrogenitus mentions Lesina as a colony of pagan
Slavs, in the lolh century. Throughout the middle ages it
remained a purely Slavonic community; and its name, which
appears in old documents as Lisna, Lesna or Lyesena, " wooded '
is almost certainly derived from the Slavonic lyes, " forest," no
from the Italian lesina, " an awl." But the old form Pharia
persisted, as Far or Hvar, with the curious result that the modern
Serbo-Croatian name is Greek, and the modern Italian name
Slavonic in origin. Lesina became a bishopric in 1145, an<
received a charter from Venice in 1331. It was sacked by thi
enemies of Venice in 1354 and 1358; ceded to Hungary in th
same year; held by Ragusa from 1413 to 1416; and incorporatec
in the Venetian dominions in 1420. During the i6thcentur
Lesina city had a considerable maritime trade, and, thoug!
sacked and partly burned by the Turks in 1571, it remainec
the chief naval station of Venice, in these waters, until 1776
when it was superseded by Curzola. Passing to Austria in 1797
and to France in 1805, it withstood a Russian attack in 1807
* Ethnological Map of Daghestan.
>ut was surrendered by the French in 1813, and finally annexed
o Austria in 1815.
LESION (through Fr. from Lat. laesio, injury, laedere, to hurt),
an injury, hurt, damage. In Scots law the term is used of
lamage suffered by a party in a contract sufficient to enable
lim to bring an action for setting it aside. In pathology, the
:hief use, the word is applied to any morbid change in the
tructure of an organ, whether shown by visible changes or by
tisturbance of function.
LESKOVATS (LESKOVATZ or LESKOVAC), a town in Servia,
between Nish and Vranya, on the railway line from Nish to
Salonica. Pop. (1901) 13,70?- It is the headquarters of the
Servian hemp industry, the extensive plain in which the town
ies growing the best flax and hemp in all the Balkan peninsula.
The plain is not only the most fertile portion of Servia, but also
he best cultivated. Besides flax and hemp, excellent tobacco
s grown. Five valleys converge on the plain from different
directions, and the inhabitants of the villages in these valleys
are all occupied in growing flax and hemp, which they send to
,eskovats to be stored or manufactured into ropes. After
Belgrade and Nish, Leskovats is the most prosperous town ir>
Servia.
LESLEY, JOHN (1527-1596), Scottish bishop and historian,
was born in 1527. His father was Gavin Lesley, rector of
Kingussie. He was educated at the university of Aberdeen,
where he took the degree of M.A. In 1538 he obtained a dis-
pensation permitting him to hold a benefice, notwithstanding
his being a natural son, and in June 1 546 he was made an acolyte
in the cathedral church of Aberdeen, of which he was afterwards
appointed a canon and prebendary. He also studied at Poitiers,
at Toulouse and at Paris, where he was made doctor of laws
in 1S53- IQ J558 he took orders and was appointed Official
of Aberdeen, and inducted into the parsonage and prebend of
Oyne. At the Reformation Lesley became a champion of
Catholicism. He was present at the disputation held in Edin-
burgh in 1561, when Knox and Willox were his antagonists.
He was one of the commissioners sent the same year to bring
over the young Queen Mary to take the government of
Scotland. He returned in her train, and was appointed a
privy councillor and professor of canon law in King's College,
Aberdeen, and in 1565 one of the senators of the college of
justice. Shortly afterwards he was made abbot of Lindores,
and in 1565 bishop of Ross, the election to the see being
confirmed in the following year. He was one of the sixteen
commissioners appointed to revise the laws of Scotland, and the
volume of the Actis and Constitutionis of the Realme of Scotland
known as the Black Acts was, chiefly owing to his care, printed
in 1566.
The bishop was one of the most steadfast friends of Queen Mary.
After the failure of the royal cause, and whilst Mary was a captive
in England, Lesley (who had gone to her at Bolton) continued to
exert himself on her behalf. He was one of the commissioners
at the conference at York in 1568. He appeared as her
ambassador at the court of Elizabeth to complain of the injustice
done to her, and when he found he was not listened to he laid
plans for her escape. He also projected a marriage for her with
the duke of Norfolk, which ended in the execution of that noble-
man. For this he was put under the charge of the bishop of
London, and then of the bishop of Ely (in Holborn), and after-
wards imprisoned in the Tower of London. During his confine-
ment he collected materials for his history of Scotland, by which
his name is now chiefly known. In 1571 he presented the latter
portion of this work, written in Scots, to Queen Mary to amuse
her in her captivity. He also wrote for her use his Piae Consola-
tiones, and the queen devoted some of the hours of her captivity
to translating a portion of it into French verse.
In 1573 he was liberated from prison, but was banished from
England. For two years he attempted unsuccessfully to obtain
the assistance of Continental princes in favour of Queen Mary.
While at Rome in 1578 he published his Latin history De Origine,
Moribus, el Rebus Gestis Scotorum. In 1579 he went to France,
and was made suffragan and vicar-general of the archbishopric
LESLEY, J. P.— LESLIE, C. R.
491
of Rouen. Whilst visiting his diocese, however, he was thrown
into prison, and had to pay 3000 pistoles to prevent his being
given up to Elizabeth. During the remainder of the reign of
Henry III. he lived unmolested, but on the accession of the
Protestant Henry IV. he again fell into trouble. In 1590 he
was thrown into prison, and had to purchase his freedom at the
same expense as before. In 1593 he was made bishop of Cout-
ances in Normandy, and had licence to hold the bishopric of
Ross till he should obtain peaceable possession of the former see.
He retired to an Augustinian monastery near Brussels, where he
died on the 3ist of May 1596.
The chief works of Lesley are as follows : A Defence of the Honour
of . . . Marie, Queene of Scotland, by Eusebius Dicaeophile (London,
1569), reprinted, with alterations, at Liege in 1571, under the title,
A Treatise concerning the Defence of the Honour of Marie, Queene of
Scotland, made by Morgan Philippes, Bachelar of Divinitie, Piae
afflicti animi consolationes, ad Mariam Scot. Reg. (Paris, 1574);
De origins, moribus et rebus gestis Scotorum libri decem (Rome, 1578;
re-issued 1675); De illustrium feminarum in republica administranda
authoritate libellus (Reims, 1580; a Latin version of a tract on
"The Lawfulness of the Regiment of Women": cf. Knox's
pamphlet) ; De titulo et jure Marine Scot. Reg., quo regni Angliae
successionem sibi juste vindicat (Reims, 1580; translated in 1584).
The history of Scotland from 1436 to 1561 owes much, in its earlier
chapters, to the accounts of Hector Boece (?.».) and John Major (q.v.) ,
though no small portion of the topographical matter is first-hand.
In the later sections he gives an independent account (from the
Catholic point of view) which is a valuable supplement and a correc-
tive in many details, to the works of Buchanan and Knox. A Scots
version of the history was written in 1596 by James Dalrymple of
the Scottish Cloister at Regensburg. It has been printed for the
Scottish Text Society (2 vols., 1888-1895) under the editorship of
the Rev. E. G. Cody, O.S.B. A slight sketch by Lesley of Scottish
history from 1562 to 1571 has been translated by Forbes-Leith in
his Narrative of Scottish Catholics (1885), from the original MS. now
in the Vatican.
LESLEY, J. PETER (1810-1903), American geologist, was born
in Philadelphia on the i;th of September 1819. It is recorded by
Sir A. Geikie that " He was christened Peter after his father
and grandfather, and at first wrote his name ' Peter Lesley, Jr.,'
but disliking the Christian appellation that had been given to
him, he eventually transformed his signature by putting the J.
of ' Junior ' at the beginning." He was educated for the ministry
at the university of Pennsylvania, where he graduated in 1838;
but the effects of close study having told upon his health, he
served for a time as sub-assistant on the first geological survey
of Pennsylvania under Professor H. D. Rogers, and was after-
wards engaged in a special examination of the coal regions.
On the termination of the survey in 1841 he entered Princeton
seminary and renewed his theological studies, at the same time
giving his leisure time to assist Professor Rogers in preparing
the final report and map of Pennsylvania. He was licensed to
preach in 1844; he then paid a visit to Europe and entered on a
short course of study at the university of Halle. Returning to
America he worked during two years for the American Tract
Society, and at the close of 1847 he joined Professor Rogers
again in preparing geological maps and sections at Boston. He
then accepted the pastorate of the Congregational church at
Milton, a suburb of Boston, where he remained until 1851, when,
his views having become Unitarian, he abandoned the ministry
and entered into practice as a consulting geologist. In the course
of his work he made elaborate surveys of the Cape Breton coal-
field, and of other coal and iron regions. From 1855 to 1859
he was secretary of the American Iron Association; for twenty-
seven years (1858-1885) he was secretary and librarian of the
American Philosophical Society; from 1872 to 1878 he was
professor of geology and dean of the faculty of science in the
university of Pennsylvania, and from 1874-1893 he was in charge
of the second geological survey of the state. He then retired
to Milton, Mass., where he died on the ist of June 1903. He
published Manual of Coal and its Topography (1856); The Iron
Manufacturer's Guide to the Furnaces, Forges and Rolling Mills
of the United Stales (1859).
See Memoir by Sir A. Geikie in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. (May 1904) ;
and Memoir (with portrait) by B. S. Lyman, printed in advance
with portrait, and afterwards in abstract only in Trans. Amer. Inst.
Mining Engineers, xxxiv. (1904) p. 726.
LESLIE, CHARLES (1650-1722), Anglican nonjuring divine,
son of JohnLeslie (1571-1671), bishop of Raphoe and afterwards
of Clogher, was born in July 1650 in Dublin, and was educated
at Enniskillen school and Trinity College, Dublin. Going to
England he read law for a time, but soon turned his attention
to theology, and took orders in 1680. In 1687 he became
chancellor of the cathedral of Connor and a justice of the peace,
and began a long career of public controversy by responding in
public disputation at Monaghan to the challenge of the Roman
Catholic bishop of Clogher. Although a vigorous opponent of
Roman Catholicism, Leslie was a firm supporter of the Stuart
dynasty, and, having declined at the Revolution to take the oath
to William and Mary, he was on this account deprived of his
benefice. In 1689 the growing troubles in Ireland induced him
to withdraw to England, where he employed himself for the next
twenty years in writing various controversial pamphlets in
favour of the nonjuring cause, and in numerous polemics against
the Quakers, Jews, Socinians and Roman Catholics, and especi-
ally in that against the Deists with which his name is now most
commonly associated. He had the keenest scent for every form
of heresy and was especially zealous in his defence of the sacra-
ments. A warrant having been issued against him in 1710 for
his pamphlet The Good Old Cause, or Lying in Truth, he resolved
to quit England and to accept an offer made by the Pretender
(with whom he had previously been in frequent correspondence)
that he should reside with him at Bar-le-Duc. After the failure
of the Stuart cause in 1715, Leslie accompanied his patron into
Italy, where he remained until 1721, in which year, having found
his sojourn amongst Roman Catholics extremely unpleasant,
he sought and obtained permission to return to his native country.
He died at Glaslough, Monaghan, on the i3th of April 1722.
The Theological Works of Leslie were collected and published by
himself in 2 vols. folio in 1721; a later edition, slightly enlarged,
appeared at Oxford in 1832 (7 vols. 8yo). Though marred by per-
sistent arguing in a circle they are written in lively style and show
considerable erudition. He had the somewhat rare distinction of
making several converts by his reasonings, and Johnson declared
that " Leslie was a reasoner, and a reasoner who was not to be
reasoned against." An historical interest in all that now attaches
to his subjects and his methods, as may be seen when the promise
given in the title of his best-known work is contrasted with the actual
performance. The book professes to be A Short and Easy Method
with the Deists, wherein the certainty of the Christian Religion is
Demonstrated by Infallible Proof from Four Rules, which are incom-
patible to any imposture that ever yet has been, or that can possibly be
(1697). The four rules which, according to Leslie, have only to be
rigorously applied in order to establish not the probability merely
but the absolute certainty of the truth of Christianity are simply
these: (i) that the matter of fact be such as that men's outward senses,
their eyes and ears, may be judges of it ; (2) that it be done publicly,
in the face of the world; (3) that not only public monuments be
kept up in memory of it, but some outward actions be performed;
(4) that such monuments and such actions or observances be in-
stituted and do commence from the time that the matter of fact was
done. Other publications of Leslie are The Snake in the Grass (1696),
against the Quakers; A Short Method with the Jews (1689) ; Gallienus
Redivivus (an attack on William III., 1695); The Socinian Con-
troversy Discussed (1697); The True Notion of the Catholic Church
(1703); and Tlic Case Stated between the Church of Rome and the
Church of England (1713).
LESLIE, CHARLES ROBERT (1794-1859), English genre-
painter, was born in London on the I9th of October 1794. His
parents were American, and when he was five years of age he
returned with them to their native country. They settled in
Philadelphia, where their son was educated and afterwards
apprenticed to a bookseller. He was, however, mainly interested
in painting and the drama, and when George Frederick Cooke
visited the city he executed a portrait of the actor, from re-
collection of him on the stage, which was considered a work
of such promise that a fund was raised to enable the young
artist to study in Europe. He left for London in 1811, bearing
introductions which procured for him the friendship of West,
Beechey, Allston, Coleridge and Washington Irving, and was
admitted as a student of the Royal Academy, where he carried
off two silver medals. At first, influenced by West and Fuseli,
he essayed " high art," and his earliest important subject depicted
Saul and the Witch of Endor; but he soon discovered his true
492
LESLIE, F.— LESLIE, T. E. C.
aptitude and became a painter of cabinet-pictures, dealing,
not like those of Wilkie, with the contemporary life that sur-
rounded him, but with scenes from the great masters of fiction,
from Shakespeare and Cervantes, Addison and Moliere, Swift,
Sterne, Fielding and Smollett. Of individual paintings we may
specify "Sir Roger de Coverley going to Church" (1819);
" May-day in the Time of Queen Elizabeth " (1821); " Sancho
Panza and the Duchess " (1824); " Uncle Toby and the Widow
Wadman " (1831); La Malade Imaginaire, act iii. sc. 6 (1843);
and the " Duke's Chaplain Enraged leaving the Table," from
Don Quixote (1849). Many of his more important subjects
exist in varying replicas. He possessed a sympathetic imagina-
tion, which enabled him to enter freely into the spirit of the author
whom he illustrated, a delicate perception for female beauty,
an unfailing eye for character and its outward manifestation
in face and figure, and a genial and sunny sense of humour,
guided by an instinctive refinement which prevented it from
overstepping the bounds of good taste. In 1821 Leslie was
elected A.R.A., and five years later full academician. In 1833
he left for America to become teacher of drawing in the military
academy at West Point, but the post proved an irksome one,
and in some six months he returned to England. He died
on the 5th of May 1859.
In addition to his skill as an artist, Leslie was a ready and pleasant
writer. His Life of his friend Constable, the landscape painter,
appeared in 1843, and his Handbook for Young Painters, a volume
embodying the substance of his lectures as professor of painting to
the Royal Academy, in 1855. In 1860 Tom Taylor edited his Auto-
biography and Letters, which contain interesting reminiscences of his
distinguished friends and contemporaries.
LESLIE, FRED [FREDERICK HOBSON] (1855-1892), English
actor, was born at Woolwich on the ist of April 1855. He
made his first stage appearance in London as Colonel Hardy in
Paul Pry in 1878. He had a good voice, and in 1882 made a
great hit as Rip Van Winkle in Planquette's opera of that name
at the Comedy. In 1885 he appeared at the Gaiety as Jonathan
Wild in H. P. Stephens and W. Yardley's burlesque Little Jack
Sheppard. His extraordinary success in this part determined
his subsequent career, and for some years he and Nelly Farren,
with whom he played in perfect association, were the pillars of
Gaiety burlesque. Leslie's " Don Caesar de Bazan " in Ruy
Bias, or the Blase Roue, was perhaps the most popular of his later
parts. In all of them it was his own versatility and entertaining
personality which formed the attraction; whether he sang,
danced, whistled or " gagged," his performance was an unending
flow of high spirits and ludicrous charm. Under the pseudonym
of " A. C. Torr " he was acknowledged on the programmes as
part-author of these burlesques, and while on occasion he acted
in more serious comedy, for which he had undoubted capacity,
his fame rests on his connexion with them. In 1881 and 1883
he played in America. He died on the 7th of December 1892.
See W. T. Vincent, Recollections of Fred Leslie (1894).
LESLIE, SIR JOHN (1766-1832), Scottish mathematician
and physicist, was born of humble parentage at Largo, Fifeshire,
on the i6th of April 1766, and received his early education there
and at Leven. In his thirteenth year, encouraged by friends
who had even then remarked his aptitude for mathematical and
physical science, he entered the university of St Andrews. On
the completion of his arts course, he nominally studied divinity
at Edinburgh until 1787; in 1788-1789 he spent rather more
than a year as private tutor in a Virginian family, and from 1790
till the close of 1792 he held a similar appointment at Etruria
in Staffordshire, with the family of Josiah Wedgwood, em-
ploying his spare time in experimental research and in preparing
a translation of Buffon's Natural History of Birds, which was
published in nine 8vo vols. in 1793, and brought him some money.
For the next twelve years (passed chiefly in London or at Largo,
with an occasional visit to the continent of Europe) he continued
his physical studies, which resulted in numerous papers contri-
buted by him to Nicholson's Philosophical Journal, and in the
publication (1804) of the Experimental Inquiry into the Nature
and Properties of Heat, a work which gained him the Rumford
Medal of the Royal Society of London. In 1805 he was elected
to succeed John Playfair in the chair of mathematics at Edin-
burgh, not, however, without violent though unsuccessful opposi-
tion on the part of a narrow-minded clerical party who accused
him of heresy in something he had said as to the " unsophisti-
cated notions of mankind " about the relation of cause and
effect. During his tenure of this chair he published two volumes
of a Course of Mathematics — the first, entitled Elements of Geo-
metry, Geometrical Analysis and Plane Trigonometry, in 1809,
and the second, Geometry of Curve Lines, in 1813; the third
volume, on Descriptive Geometry and the Theory of Solids was
never completed. With reference to his invention (in 1810)
of a process of artificial congelation, he published in 1813 A
Short Account of Experiments and Instruments depending on the
relations of Air to Heat and Moisture; and in 1818 a paper by
him " On certain impressions of cold transmitted from the higher
atmosphere, with an instrument (the aethrioscope) adapted to
measure them," appeared in the Transactions of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh. In 1819, on the death of Playfair, he was
promoted to the more congenial chair of natural philosophy,
which he continued to hold until his death, and in 1823 he pub-
lished, chiefly for the use of his class, the first volume of his
never-completed Elements of Natural Philosophy. Leslie's
main contributions to physics were made by the help of the
" differential thermometer," an instrument whose invention was
contested with him by Count Rumford. By adapting to this
instrument various ingenious devices he was enabled to employ
it in a great variety of investigations, connected especially with
photometry, hygroscopy and the temperature of space. In
1820 he was elected a corresponding member of the Institute of
France, the only distinction of the kind which he valued, and
early in 1832 he was created a knight. He died at Coates, a
small property which he had acquired near Largo, on the 3rd of
November 1832.
LESLIE, THOMAS EDWARD CLIFFE (1827-1882), English
economist, was born in the county of Wexford in (as is believed)
the year 1827. He was the second son of the Rev. Edward
Leslie, prebendary of Dromore, and rector of Annahilt, in the
county of Down. His family was of Scottish descent, but had
been connected with Ireland since the reign of Charles I.
Amongst his ancestors were that accomplished prelate, John
Leslie (1571-1671), bishop first of Raphoe and afterwards of
Clogher, who, when holding the former see, offered so stubborn
a resistance to the Cromwellian forces, and the bishop's son
Charles (see above), the nonjuror. Cliffe Leslie received his
elementary education from his father, who resided in England,
though holding church preferment as well as possessing some
landed property in Ireland; by him he was taught Latin, Greek
and Hebrew, at an unusually early age; he was afterwards
for a short time under the care of a clergyman at Clapham,
and was then sent to King William's College, in the Isle of Man,
where he remained until, in 1842, being then only fifteen years
of age, he entered Trinity College, Dublin. He was a distinguished
student there, obtaining, besides other honours, a classical
scholarship in 1845, and a senior moderatorship (gold medal)
in mental and moral philosophy at his degree examination in
1846. He became a law student at Lincoln's Inn, was for two
years a pupil in a conveyancer's chambers in London, and was
called to the English bar. But his attention was soon turned
from the pursuit of legal practice, for which he seems never to
have had much inclination, by hrs appointment, in 1853, to the
professorship of jurisprudence and political economy in Queen's
College, Belfast. The duties of this chair requiring only short
visits to Ireland in certain terms of each year, he continued to
reside and prosecute his studies in London, and became a frequent
writer on economic and social questions in the principal reviews
and other periodicals. In 1870 he collected a number of his
essays, adding several new ones, into a volume entitled Land
Systems and Industrial Economy of Ireland, England and Con-
tinental Countries. J. S. Mill gave a full account of the contents
of this work in a paper in the Fortnightly Review, in which he
pronounced Leslie to be " one of the best living writers on applied
political economy." Mill had sought'his acquaintance on reading
LESLIE
493
his first article in Macmillan's Magazine; he admired his talents
and took pleasure in his society, and treated him with a respect
and kindness which Leslie always gratefully acknowledged.
In the frequent visits which Leslie made to the continent,
especially to Belgium and some of the less-known districts
of France and Germany, he occupied himself much in economic
and social observation, studying the effects of the institutions
and system of life which prevailed in each region, on the material
and moral condition of its inhabitants. In this way he gained
an extensive and accurate acquaintance with continental rural
economy, of which he made excellent use in studying parallel
phenomena at home. The accounts he gave of the results of
his observations were among his happiest efforts; " no one,"
said Mill, " was able to write narratives of foreign visits at once
so instructive and so interesting." In these excursions he made
the acquaintance of several distinguished persons, amongst
others of M. Leonce de Lavergne and M. fimile de Laveleye.
To the memory of the former of these he afterwards paid a
graceful tribute in a biographical sketch (Fortnightly Review,
February 1881) ; and to the close of his life there existed between
him and M. de Laveleye relations of mutual esteem and cordial
intimacy.
Two essays of Leslie's appeared in volumes published under
the auspices of the Cobden Club, one on the " Land System of
France" (2nd ed., 1870), containing an earnest defence of la
petite culture and still more of la petite propriete; the other on
" Financial Reform " (1871), in which he exhibited in detail the
impediments to production and commerce arising from indirect
taxation. Many other articles were contributed by him to
reviews between 1875 and 1879, including several discussions of
the history of prices and the movements of wages in Europe,
and a sketch of life in Auvergne in his best manner; the most
important of them, however, related to the philosophical method
of political economy, notably a memorable one which appeared
in the Dublin University periodical, Hcrmathena. In 1879 the
provost and senior fellows of Trinity College published for him
a volume in which a number of these articles were collected under
the title of Essays in Political and Moral Philosophy. These and
some later essays, together with the earlier volume on Land
Systems, form the essential contribution of Leslie to economic
literature. He had long contemplated, and had in part written,
a work on English economic and legal history, which would have
been his magnum opus — a more substantial fruit of his genius and
his labours than anything he has left. But the MS. of this
treatise, after much pains had already been spent on it, was
unaccountably lost at Nancy in 1872; and, though he hoped to
be able speedily to reproduce the missing portion and finish the
work, no material was left in a state fit for publication. What
the nature of it would have been may be gathered from an essay
on the " History and Future of Profit " in the Fortnightly
Review for November 1881, which is believed to have been in
substance an extract from it.
That he was able to do so much may well be a subject of
wonder when it is known that his labours had long been impeded
by a painful and depressing malady, from which he suffered
severely at intervals, whilst he never felt secure from its recurring
attacks. To this disease he in the end succumbed at Belfast, on
the 27th of January 1882.
Leslie's work may be distributed under two heads, that of applied
political economy and that of discussion on the philosophical method
of the science. The Land Systems belonged principally to the former
division. The author perceived the great and growing importance
for the social welfare of both Ireland and England of what is called
" the land question," and treated it in this volume at once with
breadth of view and with a rich variety of illustrative detail. His
general purpose was to show that the territorial systems of both
countries were so encumbered with elements of feudal origin as to be
altogether unfitted to serve the purposes of a modern industrial
society. The policy he recommended is summed up in the following
list of requirements, " a simple jurisprudence relating to land, a law
of equal intestate succession, a prohibition of entail, a legal security
for tenants' improvements, an open registration of title and transfer
and a considerable number of peasant properties." The volume is
full of practical good sense, and exhibits a thorough knowledge of
home and foreign agricultural economy ; and in the handling of the
subject is everywhere shown the special power which its author
possessed of making what he wrote interesting as well as instructive.
The way in which sagacious observation and shrewd comment are
constantly intermingled in the discussion not seldom reminds us of
Adam Smith, whose manner was more congenial to Leslie than the
abstract and arid style of Ricardo.
But what, more than anything else, marks him as an original
thinker and gives him a place apart among contemporary econo-
mists, is his exposition and defence of the historical method in
political economy. Both at home and abroad there has for some
time existed a profound and growing dissatisfaction with the method
and many of the doctrines of the hitherto dominant school, which,
it is alleged, under a " fictitious completeness, symmetry and exact-
ness " disguises a real hollowness and discordance with fact. It is
urged that the attempt to deduce the economic phenomena of a
society from the so-called universal principle of " the desire of
wealth " is illusory, and that they cannot be fruitfully studied apart
from the general social conditions and historic development of which
they are the outcome. Of this movement of thought Leslie was
the principal representative, if not the originator, in England.
There is no doubt, for he has himself placed it on record, that the
first influence which impelled him in the direction of the historical
method was that of Sir Henry Maine, by whose personal teaching
of jurisprudence, as well as by the example of his writings, he was
led " to look at the present economic structure and state of society
as the result of a long evolution." The study of those German
economists who represent similar tendencies doubtless confirmed
him in the new line of thought On which he had entered, though he
does not seem -to have been further indebted to any of them except,
perhaps, in some small degree to Roschcr. And the writings of
Comte, whose " prodigious genius," as exhibited in the Philosophic
Positive, he admired and proclaimed, though he did not accept his
system as a whole, must have powerfully co-operated to form in him
the habit of regarding economic science as only a single branch of
sociology, which should always be kept in close relation to the others.
The earliest writing in which Leslie's revolt against the so-called
" orthodox school " distinctly appears is his Essay on Wages, which
was first published in 1868 and was reproduced as an appendix to
the volume on Land Tenures. In this, after exposing the inanity
of the theory of the wage-fund, and showing the utter want of agree-
ment between its results and the observed phenomena, he concludes
by declaring that " political economy must be content to take rank
as an inductive, instead of a purely deductive science," and that, by
this change of character, " it will gain in utility, interest and real
truth far more than a full compensation for the forfeiture of a
fictitious title to mathematical exactness and certainty." But it is
in the essays collected in the volume of 1879 that his attitude in
relation to the question of method is most decisively marked. In
one of these, on " the political economy of Adam Smith," he exhibits
in a very interesting way the co-existence in the Wealth of Nations
of historical-inductive investigation in the manner of Montesquieu
with a priori speculation founded on theologico-metaphysical bases,
and points out the error of ignoring the former element, which is the
really characteristic feature of Smith's social philosophy, and places
him in strong contrast with his soi-disant followers of the school of
Ricardo. The essay, however, which contains the most brilliant
polemic against the " orthodox school," as well as the most luminous
account and the most powerful vindication of the new direction, was
that of which we have above spoken as having first appeared in
Hermathena. It may be recommended as supplying the best extant
presentation of one of the two contending views of economic method.
On this essay mainly rests the claim of Leslie to be regarded as the
founder and first head of the English historical school of political
economy. Those who share his views on the philosophical constitu-
tion of the science regard the work he did, notwithstanding its un-
systematic character, as in reality the most important done by any
English economists in the latter half of the igth century. But even
the warmest partisans of the older school acknowledge that he did
excellent service by insisting on a kind of inquiry, previously too
much neglected, which was of the highest interest and value, in
whatever relation it might be supposed to stand to the establishment
of economic truth. The members of both groups alike recognized
his great learning, his patient and conscientious habits of investiga-
tion and the large social spirit in which he treated the problems of
his science. (J. K. I.)
LESLIE, a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901)
3587. It lies on the Leven, the vale of which is overlooked by
the town, 4 m. W. of Markinch by the North British railway.
The industries include paper-making, flax-spinning, bleaching
and linen-weaving. The old church claims to be the " Christ's
Kirk on the Green " of the ancient ballads of that name. A
stone on the Green, called the Bull Stone, is said to have been
used when bull-baiting was a popular pastime. Leslie House,
the seat of the earl of Rothes, designed by Sir William Bruce,
rivalled Holyrood in magnificence. It was noted for its tapestry
and its gallery of family portraits and other pictures, including a
494
portrait of Rembrandt by himself. Daniel Defoe considered
its park the glory of the kingdom. The mansion sustained serious
damage from fire in 1763. Norman Leslie, master of Rothes,
was concerned in the killing of Cardinal Beaton (1546), and the
dagger with which John Leslie, Norman's uncle, struck the fatal
blow is preserved in Leslie House.
MARKINCH (pop. 1499), a police burgh situated between
Conland Burn and the Leven, 71 m. N. by E. of Kirkcaldy by
the North British railway, is a place of great antiquity. A cell
of the Culdees was established here by one of the last of the Celtic
bishops, the site of which may possibly be marked by the ancient
cross of Balgonie. Markinch is also believed to have been a
residence of the earlier kings, where prior to the nth century
they occasionally administered justice; and in the reign of
William the Lion (d. 1 2 14) the warrantors of goods alleged to have
been stolen were required to appear here. Its industries com-
prise bleaching, flax-spinning, paper-making, distilling and coal-
mining. Balgonie Castle, close by, the keep of which is 80 ft.
high, was a residence of Alexander Leslie, the first earl of Leven,
and at Balfour Castle were born Cardinal Beaton and his uncle
and nephew the archbishops of Glasgow.
LESPINASSE, JEANNE JULIE ELEONORE DE (1732-1776),
French author, was born at Lyons on the gth of November 1732.
A natural child of the comtesse d'Albon, she was brought up as
the daughter of Claude Lespinasse of Lyons. On leaving her
convent school she became governess in the house of her mother's
legitimate daughter, Mme de Vichy, who had married the brother
of the marquise du Deffand. Here Mme du Deffand made her
acquaintance, and, recognizing her extraordinary gifts, per-
suaded her to come to Paris as her companion. The alliance
lasted ten years (1754-1764) until Mme du Deffand became
jealous of the younger woman's increasing influence, when a
violent quarrel ensued. Mile de Lespinasse set up a salon of her
own which was joined by many of the most brilliant members of
Mme du Deffand's circle. D'Alembert was one of the most
assiduous of her friends and eventually came to live under the
same roof. There was no scandal attached to this arrangement,
which ensured d'Alembert's comfort and lent influence to Mile
de Lespinasse's salon. Although she had neither beauty nor
rank, her ability as a hostess made her reunions the most popular
in Paris. She owes her distinction, however, not to her social
success, but to circumstances which remained a secret during her
lifetime from her closest friends. Two volumes of Leltres pub-
lished in 1809 displayed her as the victim of a passion of a rare
intensity. In virtue of this ardent, intense quality Sainte Beuve
and other of her critics place her letters in the limited category
to which belong the Latin letters of Heloise and those of the
Portuguese Nun. Her first passion, a reasonable and serious one,
was for the marquis de Mora, son of the Spanish ambassador
in Paris. De Mora had come to Paris in 1765, and with some
intervals remained there until 1772 when he was ordered to Spain
for his health. On the way to Paris in 1774 to fulfil promises
exchanged with Mile de Lespinasse, he died at Bordeaux. But
her letters to the comte de Guibert, the worthless object of her
fatal infatuation, begin from 1773. From the struggle between
her affection for de Mora and her blind passion for her new lover
they go on to describe her partial disenchantment on Guibert's
marriage and her final despair. Mile de Lespinasse died on the
23rd of May 1776, her death being apparently hastened by the
agitation and misery to which she had been for the last three
years of her life a prey. In addition to the Leltres she was the
author of two chapters intended as a kind of sequel to Sterne's
Sentimental Journey.
Her Lettres . . . were published by Mme de Guibert in 1809 and
a spurious additional collection appeared in 1820. Among modern
editions may be mentioned that of Eugene Asse (1876-1877).
Lettres inedites de Mademoiselle de Lespinasse a Condorcet, a D'Alem-
bert, a Guibert, au comte de Crillon, edited by M. Charles Henry (1887),
contains copies of the documents available for her biography. Mrs
Humphry Ward's novel, Lady Rose's Daughter, owes something to
the character of Mile de Lespinasse.
LES SABLES D'OLONNE, a seaport of western France, capital
of an arrondissement of the department of Vendee, on an inlet of
LESPINASSE— LESSEPS, F. DE
the Atlantic seaboard, 23 m. S.W. of La Roche-sur-Yon by rail.
Pop. (1906) 11,847. The town stands between the sea on the
south and the port on the north, while on the west it is separated
by a channel from the suburb of La Chaume, built at the foot of
a range of dunes 65 ft. high, which terminates southwards in the
rocky peninsula of L'Aiguille. The beautiful smoothly sloping
beach, i m. in length, is much frequented by bathers. To the
north of Sables extend salt-marshes and oyster-parks, yielding
6,000,000 to 8,000,000 oysters per annum. Sables has a church
built in the Late Gothic style towards the middle of the i7th
century. The port, consisting of a tidal basin and a wet-dock, is
accessible to vessels of 2000 tons, but is dangerous when the winds
are from the south-west. The lighthouse of Barges, a mile out
at sea to the west, is visible for 17 to 18 nautical miles. The
inhabitants are employed largely in sardine and tunny fishing;
there are imports of coal, wood, petroleum and phosphates.
Boat-building and sardine-preserving are carried on. The town
has a sub-prefecture and a tribunal of first instance.
Founded by Basque or Spanish sailors, Sables was the first
place in Poitou invaded by the Normans in 817. Louis XL, who
went there in 1472, granted the inhabitants various privileges,
improved the harbour, and fortified the entrance. Captured and
recaptured during the Wars of Religion, the town afterwards
became a nursery of hardy sailors and privateers, who harassed
the Spaniards and afterwards the English. In 1696 Sables was
bombarded by the combined fleets of England and Holland. In
the middle of the i8th century hurricanes caused grievous
damage to town and harbour.
LES SAINTES-MARIES, a coast village of south-eastern France
in the department of Bouches-du-Rh6ne, 24 m. S.S.W. of Aries
by rail. Pop. (1906) 544. Saintes-Maries is situated in the plain
of the Camargue, 15 m. E. of the mouth of the Petit-Rh6ne. It
is the object of an ancient and famous pilgrimage due to the
tradition that Mary, sister of the Virgin, and Mary, mother of
James and John, together with their black servant Sara, Lazarus,
Martha, Mary Magdalen and St Maximin fled thither to escape
persecution in Judaea. The relics of the two Maries, who are
said to have been buried at Saintes-Maries, are bestowed in the
upper storey of the apse of the fortress-church, a remarkable
building of the I2th century with crenelated and machicolated
walls. Two festivals are held in the town, a less important one
in October, the other, on the 24th and 25th of May, unique for
its gathering of gipsies who come in large numbers to do honour
to the tomb of their patroness Sara, contained in the crypt below
the apse.
LESSE, one of the most romantic of the smaller rivers of
Belgium. It rises at Ochamps in the Ardennes, and flowing in
a north-westerly course reaches the Meuse at Anseremme, a few
miles above Dinant. The river is only 49 m. long, but its meander-
ing course may be judged by the fact that it is no more than 29 m.
from Ochamps to Anseremme in a straight line. There is a good
deal of pretty scenery along this river, as, for instance, atCiergnon,
but the most striking part of the valley is contained in the last
1 2 m. from Houyet to Anseremme. In this section the river is
confined between opposing walls of cliff ranging from 300 to 500 ft.
above the river. Here were discovered in the caves near Walzin
the bones of prehistoric men, and other evidence of the primitive
occupants of this globe at a period practically beyond computa-
tion. Another curious natural feature of the Lesse is that on
reaching the hill of Han it disappears underground, reappearing
about i m. farther on at the village of that name. Here are the
curious and interesting Han grottoes. The Lesse receives
altogether in its short course the water of thirteen tributaries.
LESSEPS, FERDINAND DE (1805-1894). French diplomatist
and maker of the Suez Canal, was born at Versailles on the i9th
of November 1805. The origin of his family has been traced back
as far as the end of the I4th century. His ancestors, it is believed,
came from Scotland, and settled at Bayonne when that region
was occupied by the English. One of his great-grandfathers was
town clerk and at the same time secretary to Queen Anne of
Neuberg, widow of Charles II. of Spain, exiled to Bayonne after
the accession of Philip V. From the middle of the i8th century
LESSEES, F. DE
495
the ancestors of Ferdinand de Lesseps followed the diplomatic
career, and he himself occupied with real distinction several posts
in the same calling from 1825 to 1849. His uncle was ennobled
by King Louis XVI., and his father was made a count by
Napoleon I. His father, Mathieu de Lesseps (1774-1832), was
in the consular service; his mother, Catherine de Grivegnee, was
Spanish, and aunt of the countess of Montijo, mother of the
empress Eugenie. His first years were spent in Italy, where
his father was occupied with his consular duties. He was
educated at the College of Henry IV. in Paris. From the age of
18 years to 20 he was employed in the commissary department
of the army. From 1825 to 1827 he acted as assistant vice-
consul at Lisbon, where his uncle, Barthelemy de Lesseps, was
the French charge d'affaires. This uncle was an old companion
of La Perouse and a survivor of the expedition in which that
navigator perished. In 1828 Ferdinand was sent as an assist-
ant vice-consul to Tunis, where his father was consul-general.
He courageously aided the escape of Youssouff, pursued by the
soldiers of the bey, of whom he was one of the officers, for viola-
tion of the seraglio law. Youssouff acknowledged this protection
given by a Frenchman by distinguishing himself in the ranks
of the French army at the time of the conquest of Algeria.
Ferdinand de Lesseps was also entrusted by his father with
missions to Marshal Count Clausel, general-in-chief of the army
of occupation in Algeria. The marshal wrote to Mathieu de
Lesseps on the i8th of December 1830: " I have had the pleasure
of meeting your son, who gives promise of sustaining with great
credit the name he bears." In 1832 Ferdinand de Lesseps was
appointed vice-consul at Alexandria. To the placing in quaran-
tine of the vessel which took him to Egypt is due the origin of
his great conception of a canal across the isthmus of Suez.
In order to help him to while away the time at the lazaretto,
M. Mimaut, consul-general of France at Alexandria, sent him
several books, among which was the memoir written upon the
Suez Canal, according to Bonaparte's instructions, by the civil
engineer Lapere, one of the scientific members of the French
expedition. This work struck de Lesseps's imagination,
and gave him the idea of piercing the African isthmus. This
idea, moreover, was conceived in circumstances that were to
prepare the way for its realization. Mehemet Ali, who was the
viceroy of Egypt, owed his position, to a certain extent, to the
recommendations made in his behalf to the French government
by Mathieu de Lesseps, who was consul-general in Egypt when
Mehemet Ali was a simple colonel. The viceroy therefore wel-
comed Ferdinand affectionately, while Said Pacha, Mehemet's
son, began those friendly relations that he did not forget later,
when he gave him the concession for making the Suez Canal.
In 1833 Ferdinand de Lesseps was sent as consul to Cairo,
and soon afterwards given the management of the consulate-
general at Alexandria, a post that he held until 1837. While he
was there a terrible epidemic of the plague broke out and lasted
for two years, carrying off more than a third of the inhabitants
of Cairo and Alexandria. During this time he went from one
city to the other, according as the danger was more pressing,
and constantly displayed an admirable zeal and an imperturbable
energy. Towards the close of the year 1837 he returned to
France, and on the 2ist of December married Mile Agathe
Delamalle, daughter of the government prosecuting attorney
at the court of Angers. By this marriage M. de Lesseps became
the father of five sons. In 1839 he was appointed consul at
Rotterdam, and in the following year transferred to Malaga,
the place of origin of his mother's family. In 1842 he was sent to
Barcelona, and soon afterwards promoted to the grade of consul-
general. In the course of a bloody insurrection in Catalonia,
which ended in the bombardment of Barcelona, Ferdinand de
Lesseps showed the most persistent bravery, rescuing from death,
without distinction, the men belonging to the rival factions, and
protecting and sending away not only the Frenchmen who were
in danger, but foreigners of all nationalities. From 1848 to
1849 he was minister of France at Madrid. In the latter year the
government of the French Republic confided to him a mission
to Rome at the moment when it was a question whether
the expelled pope would return to the Vatican with or without
bloodshed. Following his interpretation of the instructions he
had received, de Lesseps began negotiations with the existing
government at Rome, according to which Pius IX. should peace-
fully re-enter the Vatican and the independence of the Romans be
assured at the same time. But while he was negotiating, the
elections in France had caused a change in the foreign policy
of the government. His course was disapproved; he was re-
called and brought before the council of state, which blamed his
conduct without giving him a chance to justify himself. Rome,
attacked by the French army, was taken by assault after a
month's sanguinary siege. M. de Lesseps then retired from the
diplomatic service, and never afterwards occupied any public
office. In 1853 he lost his wife and daughter at a few days'
interval. Perhaps his energy would not have been sufficient
to sustain him against these repeated blows of destiny if, in 1854,
the accession to the viceroyalty of Egypt of his old friend, Said
Pacha, had not given a new impulse to the ideas that had
haunted him for the last twenty-two years concerning the Suez
Canal. Said Pacha invited M. de Lesseps to pay him a visit, and
on the 7th of November 1854 he landed at Alexandria; on the
3Oth of the same month Said Pacha signed the concession authoriz-
ing M. de Lesseps to pierce the isthmus of Suez.
A first scheme, indicated by him, was immediately drawn
out by two French engineers who were in the Egyptian service,
MM. Linant Bey and Mougel Bey. This project, differing from
others that had been previously presented or that were in opposi-
tion to it, provided for a direct communication between the
Mediterranean and the Red Sea. After being slightly modified,
the plan was adopted in 1856 by an international commission
of civil engineers to which it had been submitted. Encouraged
by this approval, de Lesseps no longer allowed anything to stop
him. He listened to no adverse criticism and receded before no
obstacle. Neither the opposition of Lord Palmerston, who
considered the projected disturbance as too radical not to
endanger the commercial position of Great Britain, nor the
opinions entertained, in France as well as in England, that
the sea in front of Port Said was full of mud which would
obstruct the entrance to the canal, that the sands from the
desert would fill the trenches — no adverse argument, in a word,
could dishearten Ferdinand de Lesseps. His faith made him
believe that his adversaries were in the wrong; but how great
must have been this faith, which permitted him to undertake
the work at a time when mechanical appliances for the execution
of such an undertaking did not exist, and when for the utilization
of the proposed canal there was as yet no steam mercantile
marine ! Impelled by his convictions and talent, supported
by the emperor Napoleon III. and the empress Eugenie, he
succeeded in rousing the patriotism of the French and obtaining
by their subscriptions more than half of the capital of two
hundred millions of francs which he needed in order to form
a company. The Egyptian government subscribed for eighty
millions' worth of shares. The company was organized at the
end of 1858. On the 25th of April 1859 the first blow of the
pickaxe was given by Lesseps at Port Said, and on the I7th
of November 1869 the canal was officially opened by the Khedive,
Ismail Pacha (see SUEZ CANAL). While in the interests of his
canal Lesseps had resisted the opposition of British diplomacy
to an enterprise which threatened to give to France control
of the shortest route to India, he acted loyally towards Great
Britain after Lord Beaconsfield had acquired the Suez shares
belonging to the Khedive, by frankly admitting to the board
of directors of the company three representatives of the British
government. The consolidation of interests which resulted,
and which has been developed by the addition in 1884 of seven
other British directors, chosen from among shipping merchants
and business men, has augmented, for the benefit of all concerned,
the commercial character of the enterprise.
Ferdinand de Lesseps steadily endeavoured to keep out of
politics. If in 1869 he appeared to deviate from this principle
by being a candidate at Marseilles for the Corps Legislatif, it
was because he yielded to the entreaties of the Imperial
496
LESSING
government in order to strengthen its goodwill for the Suez
Canal. Once this goodwill had been shown, he bore no malice
towards those who rendered him his liberty by preferring Gam-
betta. He afterwards declined the other candidatures that were
offered him: for the Senate in 1876, and for the Chamber in 1877.
In 1873 he became interested in a project for uniting Europe
and Asia by a railway to Bombay, with a branch to Peking.
He subsequently encouraged Major Roudaire, who wished to
transform the Sahara desert into an inland sea. The king of the
Belgians having formed an International African Society, de
Lesseps accepted the presidency of the French committee,
facilitated M. de Brazza's explorations, and acquired stations
that he subsequently abandoned to the French government.
These stations were the starting-point of French Congo. In
1879 a congress assembled in the rooms of the Geographical
Society at Paris, under the presidency of Admiral de la Ronciere
le Noury, and voted in favour of the making of the Panama
Canal. Public opinion, it may be declared, designated Ferdinand
de Lesseps as the head of the enterprise. It was upon that
occasion that Gambetta bestowed upon him the title of Le
Grand Fran$ais. He was not a man to shirk responsibility,
and notwithstanding that he had reached the age of 74, he
undertook to carry out the Panama Canal project (see PANAMA
CANAL and FRANCE: History). Politics, which de Lesseps had
always avoided, was his greatest enemy in this matter. The
winding-up of the Panama Company having been declared
in the month of December 1888, the adversaries of the French
Republic, seeking for a scandal that would imperil the govern-
ment, hoped to bring about the prosecution of the directors
of the Panama Company. Their attacks were so vigorously
made that the government was obliged, in self-defence, to have
judicial proceedings taken against Ferdinand de Lesseps, his
son Charles (b. 1849) and his co-workers Fontane and Cottu.
Charles de Lesseps, a victim offered to the fury of the politicians,
tried to divert the storm upon his head and prevent it from
reaching his father. He managed to draw down upon himself
alone the burden of the condemnations pronounced. One of
the consequences of the persecutions of which he was the object
was to oblige him to spend three years, from 1896 to 1899, in
England, where his participation in the management of the
Suez Canal had won for him some strong friendships, and where
he was able to see the great respect in which the memory and
name of his father were held by Englishmen.
Ferdinand de Lesseps died at La Chenaie on the 7th of
December 1894. He had contracted a second marriage in 1869
with Mile Autard de Bragard, daughter of a former magistrate
of Mauritius; and eleven out of twelve children of this marriage
survived him. M. de Lesseps was a member of the French
Academy, of the Academy of Sciences, of numerous scientific
societies, Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour and of the Star
of India, and had received the freedom of the City of London.
According to some accounts he was unconscious of the disastrous
events that took place during the closing months of his life.
Others report that, feeling himself powerless to scatter the
gathered clouds, and aware of his physical feebleness, he had
had the moral courage to pass in the eyes of his family, which
he did not wish to afflict, as the dupe of the efforts they employed
to conceal the truth from him. This last version would not be
surprising if we relied upon the following portrait, sketched by
a person who knew him intimately: — " Simple in his tastes,
never thinking of himself, constantly preoccupied about others,
supremely kind, he did not and would not recognize such a thing
as evil. Of a confiding nature, he was inclined to judge others
by himself. This naturally affectionate abandonment that
every one felt in him had procured him profound attachments
and rare devotions. He showed, while making the Suez Canal,
what a gift he possessed for levying the pacific armies he con-
ducted. He set duty above everything, had in the highest
degree a reverence for honour, and placed his indomitable courage
at the service of everything that was beneficial with an abnegation
that nothing could tire. His marvellous physical and moral
equilibrium gave him an evenness of temper which always
rendered his society charming. Whatever his cares, his work
or his troubles, I have never noticed in him aught but generous
impulses and a love of humanity carried even to those heroic
imprudences of which they alone are capable who devote them-
selves to the amelioration of humanity." No doubt this eulogy
requires some reservations. The striking and universal success
which crowned his work on the Suez Canal gave him an absolute-
ness of thought which brooked no contradiction, a despotic
temper before which every one must bow, and against which,
when he had once taken a resolution, nothing could prevail,
not even the most authoritative opposition or the most legiti-
mate entreaties. He had resolved to construct the Panama
Canal without locks, to make it an uninterrupted navigable
way. All attempts to dissuade him from this resolution failed
before his tenacious will. At his advanced age he went with his
youngest child to Panama to see with his own eyes the field
of his new enterprise. He there beheld the Culebra and the
Chagres; he saw the mountain and the stream, those two greatest
obstacles of nature that sought to bar his route. He paid no
heed to them, but began the struggle against the Culebra and
the Chagres. It was against them that was broken his invincible
will, sweeping away in the defeat the work of Panama, his own
fortune, his fame and almost an atom of his honour. But this
atom, only grazed by calumny, has already been restored to
him by posterity, for he died poor, having been the first to
suffer by the disaster to his illusions. Political agitators, in
order to sap the power of the Opportunist party, did not hesitate
to drag in the mud one of the greatest citizens of France. But
when the Panama " scandal " has been forgotten, for centuries
to come the traveller in saluting the statue of Ferdinand de
Lesseps at the entrance of the Suez Canal will pay homage ta
one of the most powerful embodiments of the creative genius
of the i 9th century.
See G. Barnett Smith, The Life and Enterprises of Ferdinand de
Lesseps (London, 1893); and Souvenirs de quarante ans, by Ferdi-
nand de Lesseps (trans, by C. B. Pitman). (DE B.)
LESSING, GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM (1720-1781), German
critic and dramatist, was born at Kamenz in Upper Lusatia
(Oberlausitz), Saxony, on the 22nd of January 1729. His father,
Johann Gottfried Lessing, was a clergyman, and, a few years
after his son's birth, became pastor primarius or chief pastor of
Kamenz. After attending the Latin school of his native town,
Gotthold was sent in 1741 to the famous school of St Afra at
Meissen, where he made such rapid progress, especially in classics
and mathematics, that, towards the end of his school career, he
was described by the rector as " a steed that needed double
fodder." In 1746 he entered the university of Leipzig as a
theological student. The philological lectures of Johann Fried-
rich Christ (1700-1756) and Johann August Ernesti (1707-1781)
proved, however, more attractive than those on theology, and
he attended the philosophical disputations presided over by his
friend A. G. Kastner, professor of mathematics and also an
epigrammatist of repute. Among Lessing's chief friends in
Leipzig were C. F. Weisse (1726-1804) the dramatist, and Christ-
lob Mylius (1722-1754), who had made some name for himself
as a journalist. He was particularly attracted by the theatre
then directed by the talented actress Karoline Neuber (1697-
1760), who had assisted Gottsched in his efforts to bring the
German stage into touch with literature. Frau Neuber even
accepted for performance Lessing's first comedy, Der junge
Gelehrte (1748), which he had begun at school. His father
naturally did not approve of these new interests and acquaint-
ances, and summoned him home. He was only allowed to
return to Leipzig on the condition that he would devote himself
to the study of medicine. Some medical lectures he did attend,
but as long as Frau Neuber's company kept together the theatre
had an irresistible fascination for him.
In 1748, however, the company broke up, and Lessing, who
had allowed himself to become surety for some of the actors'
debts, was obliged to leave Leipzig too, in order to escape their
creditors. He went to Wittenberg, and afterwards, towards
the end of the year, to Berlin, where his friend Mylius had
LESSING
497
established himself as a journalist. In Berlin Lessing now spent
three years, maintaining himself chiefly by literary work. He
translated three volumes of Charles Rollin's Histoire ancienne,
wrote several plays — Der Misogyn, Der Freigeist, Die Juden —
and in association with Mylius, began the Beitrage zur Historic
und Aufnahme des Theaters (1750), a periodical — which soon
came to an end — for the discussion of matters connected with
the drama. Early in 1751 he became literary critic to the
Vossische Zeitung, and in this position laid the foundation for
his reputation as a reviewer of learning, judgment and wit. At
the end of 1751 he was in Wittenberg again, where he spent about
a year engaged in unremitting study and research. He then
returned to Berlin with a view to making literature his pro-
fession; and the next three years were among the busiest of
his life. Besides translating for the booksellers, he issued several
numbers of the Theatralische Bibliothek, a periodical similar
to that which he had begun with Mylius; he also continued his
work as critic to the Vossische Zeitung. In 1 7 54 he gave a particu-
larly brilliant proof of his critical powers in his Vademecum fur
Herrn S. G. Lange; as a retort to that writer's overbearing
criticism, Lessing exposed with scathing satire Lange's errors
in his popular translation of Horace.
By 1753 Lessing felt that his position was sufficiently assured
to allow of him issuing an edition of his collected writings
(Schriften, 6 vols., 1753-1755). They included his lyrics and
epigrams, most of which had already appeared during his first
residence in Berlin in a volume of Kleinigkeiten, published
anonymously. Much more important were the papers entitled
Rettungen, in which he undertook to vindicate the character
of various writers — Horace and writers of the Reformation
period, such as Cochlaeus and Cardanus — who had been mis-
understood or falsely judged by preceding generations. The
Schriften also contained Lessing's early plays, and one new one,
Miss Sara Sampson (1755). Hitherto Lessing had, as a drama-
tist, followed the methods of contemporary French comedy as
cultivated in Leipzig; Miss Sara Sampson, however, marks the
beginning of a new period in the history of the German drama.
This play, based more or less on Lillo's Merchant of London,
and influenced in its character-drawing by the novels of Richard-
son, is the first btirgerliches Trauerspiel, or " tragedy of common
life " in German. It was performed for the .first time at Frank-
fort-on-Oder in the summer of 1755, and received with great
favour. Among Lessing's chief friends during his second
residence in Berlin were the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn
(1720-1786), in association with whom he wrote in 1755 an
admirable treatise, Pope ein Metaphysikert tracing sharply
the lines which separate the poet from the philosopher. He was
also on intimate terms with C. F. Nicolai (1733-1811), a Berlin
bookseller and rationalistic writer, and with the " German
Horace" K. W. Ramler (1725-1798); he had also made the
acquaintance of J. W. L. Gleim (1710-1803), the Halberstadt
poet, and E. C. von Kleist (1715-1759), a Prussian officer, whose
fine poem, Der Fruhling, had won for him Lessing's warm
esteem.
In October 1755 Lessing settled in Leipzig with a view to
devoting himself more exclusively to the drama. In 1756 he
accepted the invitation of Gottfried Winkler, a wealthy young
merchant, to accompany him on a foreign tour for three years.
They did not, however, get beyond Amsterdam, for the out-
break of the Seven Years' War made it necessary for Winkler
to return home without loss of time. A disagreement with his
patron shortly after resulted in Lessing's sudden dismissal;
he demanded compensation and, although in the end the court
decided in his favour, it was not until the case had dragged on
for about six years. At this time Lessing began the study of
medieval literature to which attention had been drawn by the
Swiss critics, Bodmer and Breitinger, and wrote occasional
criticisms for Nicolai's Bibliothek der schonen Wissenschaften.
In Leipzig Lessing had also an opportunity of developing his
friendship with Kleist who happened to be stationed there.
The two men were mutually attracted, and a warm affection
sprang up betweem them. In 1758 Kleist's regiment being
ordered to new quarters, Lessing decided not to remain behind
him and returned again to Berlin. Kleist was mortally wounded
in the following year at the battle of Kunersdorf.
Lessing's third residence in Berlin was made memorable
by the Briefe, die neueste Literatur betrejfend (1759-1765), a
series of critical essays — written in the form of letters to a
wounded officer — on the principal books that had appeared since
the beginning of the Seven Years' War. The scheme was sug-
gested by Nicolai, by whom the Letters were published. In
Lessing's share in this publication, his critical powers and
methods are to be seen at their best. He insisted especially on
the necessity of truth to nature in the imaginative presentation
of the facts of life, and in one letter he boldly proclaimed the
superiority of Shakespeare to Corneille, Racine and Voltaire.
At the' same time he marked the immutable conditions to which
even genius must submit if it is to succeed in its appeal to our
sympathies. While in Berlin at this time, he edited with Ramler
a selection from the writings of F. von Logau, an epigrammatist
of the 1 7th century, and introduced to the German public the
Lieder eines preussischen Grenadiers, by J. W. L. Gleim. In
1759 he published Philotas, a prose tragedy in one act, and also
a complete collection of his fables, preceded by an essay on the
nature of the fable. The latter is one of his best essays on
criticism, defining with perfect lucidity what is meant by "action"
in works of the imagination, and distinguishing the action of the
fable from that of the epic and the drama.
In 1760, feeling the need of some change of scene and work,
Lessing went to Breslau, where he obtained the post of secretary
to General Tauentzien, to whom Kleist had introduced him in
Leipzig. Tauentzien was not only a general in the Prussian army,
but governor of Breslau, and director of the mint. During the
four years which Lessing spent in Breslau, he associated chiefly
with Prussian officers, went much into society, and developed
a dangerous fondness for the gaming table. He did not, however,
lose sight of his true goal; he collected a large library, and, after
the conclusion of the Seven Years' War, in 1763, he resumed
more enthusiastically than ever the studies which had been
partially interrupted. He investigated the early history of
Christianity and penetrated more deeply than any contemporary
thinker into the significance of Spinoza's philosophy. He also
found time for the studies which were ultimately to appear in
the volume entitled Laokoon, and in fresh spring mornings he
sketched in a garden the plan of Minna von Barnhelm.
After resigning his Breslau appointment in 1765, he hoped for
a time to obtain a congenial appointment in Dresden, but nothing
came of this and he was again compelled, much against his
will, to return to Berlin. His friends there exerted themselves
to obtain for him the office of keeper of the royal library, but
Frederick had not forgotten Lessing's quarrel with Voltaire, and
declined to consider his claims. During the two years which
Lessing now spent in the Prussian capital, he was restless and
unhappy, yet it was during this period that he published two of
his greatest works, Laokoon, oder iiber die Grenzen der Malerei
und Poesie (1766) and Minna von Barnhelm (1767). The aim of
Laokoon, which ranks as a classic, not only in German but in
European literature, is to define by analysis the limitations of
poetry and the plastic arts. Many of his conclusions have been
corrected and extended by later criticism; but he indicated more
decisively than any of his predecessors the fruitful principle
that each art is subject to definite conditions, and that it can
accomplish great results only by limiting itself to its special
function. The most valuable parts of the work are those which
relate to poetry, of which he had a much more intimate knowledge
than of sculpture and painting. His exposition of the methods
of Homer and Sophocles is especially suggestive, and he may be
said to have marked an epoch in the appreciation of these writers,
and of Greek literature generally. The power of Minna von
Barnhelm, Lessing's greatest drama, was also immediately
recognized. Tellheim, the hero of the comedy, is an admirable
study of a manly and sensitive soldier, with somewhat exagger-
ated ideas of conventional honour; and Minna, the heroine,
is one of the brightest and most attractive figures in German
LESSING
comedy. The subordinate characters are conceived with even
more force and vividness; and the plot, which reflects precisely
the struggles and aspirations of the period that immediately
followed the Seven Years' War, is simply and naturally unfolded.
In 1767 Lessing settled in Hamburg, where he had been invited
to take part in the establishment of a national theatre. The
scheme promised well, and, as he associated himself with Johann
Joachim Christoph Bode (1730-1793), a literary man whom he
respected, in starting a printing establishment, he hoped that he
might at last look forward to a peaceful and prosperous career.
The theatre, however, was soon closed, and the printing estab-
lishment failed, leaving behind it a heavy burden of debt. In
despair, Lessing determined towards the end of his residence in
Hamburg to quit Germany, believing that in Italy he might
find congenial labour that would suffice for his wants; The
Hamburgische Dramaturge (1767-1768), Lessing's commentary
on the performances of the National Theatre, is the first modern
handbook of the dramatist's art. By his original interpretation
of Aristotle's theory of tragedy, he delivered German dramatists
from the yoke of the classic tragedy of France, and directed them
to the Greek dramatists and to Shakespeare. Another result of
Lessing's labours in Hamburg was the Antiquarische Briefe (1768),
a series of masterly letters in answer to Christian Adolf Klotz
(1738-1771), a professor of the university of Halle, who, after
flattering Lessing, had attacked him, and sought to establish
a kind of intellectual despotism by means of critical journals
which he directly or indirectly controlled. In connexion with
this controversy Lessing wrote his brilliant little treatise, Wie
die Alien den Tod gebiidet (1769), contrasting the medieval
representation of death as a skeleton with the Greek conception
of death as the twin-brother of sleep.
Instead of settling in Italy, as he intended, Lessing accepted
in 1770 the office of librarian at Wolfenbuttel, a post which was
offered to him by the hereditary prince of Brunswick. In this
position he passed his remaining years. For a time he was not
unhappy, but the debts which he had contracted in Hamburg
weighed heavily on him, and he missed the society of his friends;
his health, too, which had hitherto been excellent, gradually
gave way. In 1775 he travelled for nine months in Italy with
Prince Leopold of Brunswick, and in the following year he
married Eva Konig, the widow of a Hamburg merchant, with
whom he had been on terms of intimate friendship. But then-
happiness lasted only for a brief period; in 1778 she died in
childbed.
Soon after settling in Wolfenbuttel, Lessing found in the
library the manuscript of a treatise by Berengarius of Tours on
transubstantiation in reply to Lanfranc. This was the occasion
of Lessing's powerful essay on Berengarius, in which he vindicated
the latter's character as a serious and consistent thinker. In
1771 he published his Zerstreute Anmerkungen ubtrdas Epigramm,
und einige der .vornehmsten Epigrammatisten — a work which
Herder described as " itself an epigram." Lessing's theory of
the origin of the epigram is somewhat fanciful, but no other
critic has offered so many pregnant hints as to the laws of
epigrammatic verse, or defended with so much force and in-
genuity the character of Martial. In 1772 he published Emilia
Galotti, a tragedy which he had begun many years before in
Leipzig. The subject was suggested by the Roman legend of
Virginia, but the scene is laid in an Italian court, and the whole
play is conceived in the spirit of the " tragedy of common life."
Its defect is that its tragic conclusion does not seem absolutely
inevitable, but the characters — especially those of the Grafin
Orsina and Marinelli, the prince of Guastalla's chamberlain who
weaves the intrigue from which Emilia escapes by death, are
powerfully drawn. Having completed Emilia Galotti, which the
younger generation of playwrights at once accepted as a model,
Lessing occupied himself for some years almost exclusively with
the treasures of the Wolfenbuttel library. The results of these
researches he embodied in a series of volumes, Zur Geschichte und
Literatur, the first being issued in 1773, the last in the year of
his death.
The last period of Lessing's life was devoted chiefly to theo-
logical controversy. \ H. S. Reimarus (1694-1768), professor of
oriental languages in Hamburg, who commanded general respect
as a scholar and thinker, wrote a book entitled Apologie oder
Schutzscltrift fiir die terniinftigen Verehrer Gottes. His standpoint
was that of the English deists, and he investigated, without
hesitation, the evidence for the miracles recorded in the Bible.
The manuscript of this work was, after the author's death,
entrusted by his daughter to Lessing, who published extracts
from it in his Zur Geschichte und Literatur in 1774-1778. These
extracts, the authorship of which was not publicly avowed,
were known as the Wolfenbutteler Fragmente. They created
profound excitement among orthodox theologians, and evoked
many replies, in which Lessing was bitterly condemned for having
published writings of so dangerous a tendency. His most for-
midable assailant was Johann Melchior Goeze (1717-1786),
the chief pastor of Hamburg, a sincere and earnest theologian,
but utterly unscrupulous in his choice of weapons against an
opponent. To him, therefore, Lessing addressed in 1778 his
most elaborate answers — Eine Parabel, Axiomata, eleven letters
with the title Anti-Goeze, and two pamphlets in reply to an
inquiry by Goeze as to what Lessing meant by Christianity.
These papers are not only full of thought and learning; they
are written with a grace, vivacity and energy that make them
hardly less interesting to-day than they were to Lessing's con-
temporaries. He does not undertake to defend the conclusions
of Reimarus; his immediate object is to claim the right of free
criticism in regard even to the highest subjects of human thought.
The argument on which he chiefly relies is that the Bible cannot
be considered necessary to a belief in Christianity, since Chris-
tianity was a living and conquering power before the New
Testament in its present form was recognized by the church. The
true evidence for what is essential in Christianity, he contends,
is its adaptation to the wants of human nature; hence the
religious spirit is undisturbed by the speculations of the boldest
thinkers. The effect of this controversy was to secure wider
freedom for writers on theology, and to suggest new problems
regarding the growth of Christianity, the formation of the canon
and the essence of religion. The Brunswick government having,
in deference to the consistory, confiscated the Fragments and
ordered Lessing to discontinue the controversy, he resolved, as
he wrote to Elise Reimarus, to try " whether they would let
him preach undisturbed from his old pulpit, the stage." In
Nathan der Weise, written in the winter of 1778-1779, he gave
poetic form to the ideas which he had already developed in
prose. Its governing conception is that noble character may be
associated with the most diverse creeds, and that there can,
therefore, be no good reason why the holders of one sect of
religious principles should not tolerate those who maintain
wholly different doctrines. The play, which is written in blank
verse, is too obviously a continuation of Lessing's theological con-
troversy to rank high as poetry, but the representatives of the
three religions — the Mahommedan Saladin, the Jew Nathan and
the Christian Knight Templar — are finely conceived, and show
that Lessing's dramatic instinct had, in spite of other interests,
not deserted him. In 1 780 appeared Die Erziehung des Menschen-
geschlechts, the first half of which he had published in 1777 with
one of the Fragments. This work, composed a hundred brief
paragraphs, was the last, and is one of the most suggestive of
Lessing's writings. The doctrine on which its argument is
based is that no dogmatic creed can be regarded as final, but that
every historical religion had its share in the development of the
spiritual life of mankind. Lessing also maintains that history
reveals a definite law of progress, and that occasional retrogression
may be necessary for the advance of the world towards its
ultimate goal. These ideas formed a striking contrast to the
principles both of orthodox and of sceptical writers in Lessing's
day, and gave a wholly new direction to religious philosophy.
Another work of Lessing's last years, Ernst und Folk (a series of
five dialogues, of which the first three were published in 1777,
the last two in 1780), also set forth many new points of view.
Its nominal subject is freemasonry, but its real aim is to plead
for a humane and charitable spirit in opposition to a narrow
LESSON— LE SUEUR
499
patriotism, an extravagant respect for rank, and exclusive
devotion to any particular church.
Lessing's theological opinions exposed him to much petty
persecution, and he was in almost constant straits for money.
Nothing, however, broke his manly and generous spirit. To
the end he was always ready to help those who appealed to him
for aid, and he devoted himself with growing ardour to the
search for truth. He formed many new plans of work, but in the
course of 1780 it became evident to his friends that he would not
be able much longer to continue his labours. His health had
been undermined by excessive work and anxiety, and after a short
illness he died at Brunswick on the i$th of February 1781.
" We lose much in him," wrote Goethe after Lessing's death,
" more than we think." It may be questioned whether there
is any other writer to whom the Germans owe a deeper debt of
gratitude. He was succeeded by poets and philosophers who
gave Germany for a time the first place in the intellectual life
of the world, and it was Lessing, as they themselves acknowledged,
who prepared the way for their achievements. Without attaching
himself to any particular system of philosophical doctrine, he
fought error incessantly, and in regard to art, poetry and the
drama and religion, suggested ideas which kindled the en-
thusiasm of aspiring minds, and stimulated their highest energies.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The first edition of Lessing's collected works,
edited by his brother Karl Gotthelf Lessing (1740-1812), J. J.
Eschenburg and F. Nicolai, appeared in 26 vols. between 1791 and
1794, as a continuation of the Vermischte Schriften, edited by Lessing
himself in 4 vols. (1771-1785); the Sdmtliche Schriften, edited by
Karl Lachmann, were published in 13 vols. (1825-1828), this edition
being subsequently re-edited by W. von Maltzahn (1853-1857) and
by F. Muncker (21 vols., 1886 ff.), the last mentioned being the
standard edition of Lessing's works. Other editions are Lessings
Werke, published by HempeT, under the editorship of various scholars
(23 vols., 1868-1877); an illustrated edition published by Grote in
8 vols. (1875, new ed., 1882); Lessings Werke, edited by R. Box-
berger and H. Bliimner, in Kiirschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur,
vols. 58-71 (1883-1890). There are also many popular editions.
Lessing's correspondence is included in the Lachmann editions and
in that of Hempel (edited by C. C. Redlich, 1879; Nachtriige und
Berichtigungen, 1886) ; his correspondence with his wife was pub-
lished as early as 1789 (2 vols., new edition by A. Schpne, 1885).
The chief biographies of Lessing are by K. G. Lessing (his brother),
('793-1795. a reprint in Reclam's universalbibliothek); by J. F.
Schink (1825); T. W. Danzel and G. E. Guhrauer (1850-1853,
and ed. by W. von Maltzahn and R. Boxberger, 2 vols., 1880-
1881); A. Stahr (2 vols., 1859, gth ed., 1887); J. Sime, Lessing, his
Life and Works (2 vols., 1877); H. Zimmern, Lessing's Life and
Works (1878); H. Dtintzer, Lessings Leben (1882); E. Schmidt,
Lessing, Geschichte seines Lebens und seiner Schriften (2 vols., 1884-
1892, 3rd ed., 1910)— this is the most complete biography; T. W.
Rolleston, Lessing (in " Great Writers," 1889); K. Borinski, Lessing
(2 vols., 1900). Cf. also C. Hebler, Lessing-Studien (1862); A. Leh-
mann, Forschungen iiber Lessings Sprache (1875); W. Cosack,
Materialien zu Lessings Hamburgischer Dramaturgie (1876, 2nd ed.,
1891); H. Bliimner, Lessings Laokoon (1876, 2nd ed., 1880);
H. Bliimner, Laokoon-Studien (2 vols., 1881-1882); K. Fischer,
Lessing als Reformator der deutschen Literatur dargestellt (2 vols.,
1881, 2nd ed., 1888); B. A. Wagner, Lessing- Forschungen (1881);
J. W. Braun, Lessing im Urteile seiner Zeitgenossen (2 vols., 1884);
P. Albrecht, Lessings Plagiate (6 vols., 1890 ff.); K. Werder, Vorles-
ungen iiber Lessings Nathan (1892); G. Kettner, Lessings Dramen
im Lichte ihrer und unsrer Zeit (1904). Translations of Lessing's
Dramatic Works (2 vols., 1878), edited by E. Bell, and of Laokoon,
Dramatic Notes and the Representation of Death by the Ancients, by
E. C. Beasley and H. Zimmern (l vol., 1879), will be found in Bohn's
" Standard Library." (J. Si.; J. G. R.)
LESSON (through Fr. leqan from Lat. lectio, reading; legere,
to read), properly a certain portion of a book appointed to be
read aloud, or learnt for repetition, hence anything learnt or
studied, a course of instruction or study. A specific meaning
of the word is that of a portion of Scripture or other religious
writings appointed to be read at divine service, in accordance
with a table known as a " lectionary . " In the Church of England
the lectionary is so ordered that most of the Old Testament
is read through during the year as the First Lesson at Morning
and Evening Prayer, and as the Second Lesson the whole of the
New Testament, except Revelation, of which only portions are
read. (See LECTION and LECTIONARY.)
LESTE, a desert wind, similar to the Leyeche (?.».), observed
in Madeira. It blows from an easterly direction in autumn,
winter and spring, rarely in summer, and is of intense dryness,
sometimes reducing the relative humidity at Funchal to below
20%. The Leste is commonly accompanied by clouds of fine
red sand.
L'ESTRANGE, SIR ROGER (1616-1704), English pamphleteer
on the royalist and court side during the Restoration epoch,
but principally remarkable as the first English man of letters
of any distinction who made journalism a profession, was born
at Hunstanton in Norfolk on the i7th of December 1616. In
1644, during the civil war, he headed a conspiracy to seize the
town of Lynn for the king, under circumstances which led to
his being condemned to death as a spy. The sentence, however,
was not executed, and after four years' imprisonment in Newgate
he escaped to the Continent. He was excluded from the Act of
Indemnity, but in 1653 was pardoned by Cromwell upon his
personal solicitation, and lived quietly until the Restoration,
when after some delay his services and sufferings were acknow-
ledged by his appointment as licenser of the press. This office
was administered by him in the spirit which might be expected
from a zealous cavalier. He made himself notorious, not merely
by the severity of his literary censorship, but by his vigilance
in the suppression of clandestine printing. In 1663 (see NEWS-
PAPERS) he commenced the publication of the Public Intelli-
gencer and the News, from which eventually developed the
famous official paper the London Gazette in 1665. In 1679 he
again became prominent with the Observator, a journal specially
designed to vindicate the court from the charge of a secret
inclination to popery. He discredited the Popish Plot, and
the suspicion he thus incurred was increased by the conversion
of his daughter to Roman Catholicism, but there seems no reason
to question the sincerity of his own attachment to the Church
of England. In 1687 he gave a further proof of independence
by discontinuing the Observator from his unwillingness to advocate
James II. 's Edict of Toleration, although he had previously
gone all lengths in support of the measures of the court. The
Revolution cost him his office as licenser, and the remainder
of his life was spent in obscurity. He died in 1704. It is to
L'Estrange's credit that among the agitations of a busy political
life he should have found time for much purely literary work
as a translator of Josephus, Cicero, Seneca, Quevedo and other
standard authors.
LESUEUR, DANIEL, the pseudonym of JEANNE LAPANZE,
nee Loiseau (1860- ), French poet and novelist, who was
born in Paris in 1860. She published a volume of poems,
Flews d'avril (1882), which was crowned by the Academy.
She also wrote some powerful novels dealing with contemporary
life: Le Mariage de Gabrielle (1882); Un Mysterieux Amour
(1892), with a series of philosophical sonnets; L'Amant de
Genevieve (1883); Marcelle (1885); Une Vie tragique (1890);
Justice de femme (1893); Comedienne Haine d' amour (1894);
Honneur d'une femme (1901); La Force du passe (1905). Her
poems were collected in 1895. She published in 1905 a book
on the economic status of women, L' Evolution feminine; and in
1891-1893 a translation (2 vols.) of the works of Lord Byron,
which was awarded a prize by the Academy. Her Masque
d' amour, a five-act play based on her novel (1904) of the same
name, was produced at the Theatre Sarah Bernhardt in 1905.
She received the ribbon of the Legion of Honour in 1900, and the
prix Vitet from the French Academy in 1905. She married
in 1904 Henry Lapanze (b. 1867), a well-known writer on art.
LE SUEUR, EUSTACHE (1617-1655), one of the founders of
the French Academy of painting, was born on the igth of
November 1617 at Paris, where he passed his whole life, and
where he died on the 3Oth of April 1655. His early death and
retired habits have combined to give an air of romance to his
simple history, which has been decorated with as many fables
as that of Claude. We are told that, persecuted by Le Brun,
who was jealous of his ability, he became the intimate friend and
correspondent of Poussin, and it is added that, broken-hearted at
the death of his wife, Le Sueur retired to the monastery of the
Chartreux and died in the arms of the prior. All this, however,
is pure fiction. The facts of Le Sueur's life are these. He was
LESUEUR— LETRONNE
the son of Cathelin Le Sueur, a turner and sculptor in wood,
who placed his son with Vouet, in whose studio he rapidly dis-
tinguished himself. Admitted at an early age into the guild
of master-painters, he left them to take part in establishing the
academy of painting and sculpture, and was one of the first
twelve professors of that body. Some paintings, illustrative
of the Hypnerotomachia Polyphili, which were reproduced in
tapestry, brought him into notice, and his reputation was further
enhanced by a series of decorations (Louvre) in the mansion of
Lambert de Thorigny, which he left uncompleted, for their
execution was frequently interrupted by other commissions.
Amongst these were several pictures for the apartments of the
king and queen in the Louvre, which are now missing, although
they were entered in Bailly's inventory (1710); but several
works produced for minor patrons have come down to us. In
the gallery of the Louvre are the " Angel and Hagar," from the
mansion of De Tonnay Charente; " Tobias and Tobit," from the
Fieubet collection; several pictures executed for the church
of Saint Gervais; the " Martyrdom of St Lawrence," from Saint
Germain de 1'Auxerrois; two very fine works from the destroyed
abbey of Marmou tiers; " St Paul preaching at Ephesus," one
of Le Sueur's most complete and thorough performances, painted
for the goldsmith's corporation in 1649; and his famous series of
the " Life of St Bruno," executed in the cloister of the Chartreux.
These last have more personal character than anything else
which Le Sueur produced, and much of their original beauty
survives in spite of injuries and restorations and removal from
the wall to canvas. The Louvre also possesses many fine draw-
ings (reproduced by Braun), of which Le Sueur left an incredible
quantity, chiefly executed in black and white chalk His pupils,
who aided him much in his work, were his wife's brother, Th.
Gousse, and three brothers of his own, as well as Claude Lefebvre
and Patel the landscape painter.
Most of his works have been engraved, chiefly by Picart, B.
Audran, Seb. Leclerc, Drevet, Chauveau, Poilly and Desplaces.
Le Sueur's work lent itself readily to the engraver's art, for he was a
charming draughtsman; he had a truly delicate perception of
varied shades of grave and elevated sentiment, and possessed the
power to render them. His graceful facility in composition was
always restrained by a very fine taste, but his works often fail to
please completely, because, producing so much, he had too frequent
recourse to conventional types, and partly because he rarely saw
colour except with the cold and clayey quality proper to the school
of Vouet ; yet his " St Paul at Ephesus " and one or two other works
show that he was not naturally deficient in this sense, and whenever
we get direct reference to nature — as in the monks of the St Bruno
series — we recognize his admirable power to read and render physiog-
nomy of varied and serious type.
See Guillet de St Georges, Mem. ined. ; C. Blanc, Histoire des
peintres; Vitet, Catalogue des tableaux du Louvre; d'Argenville,
Vies des peintres.
LESUEUR, JEAN FRANCOIS (1760 or 1763-1837), French
musical composer, was born on the i5th of January 1760 (or
1763) at Drucat-Plessiel, near Abbeville. He was a choir boy
in the cathedral of Amiens, and then became musical director
at various churches. In 1786 he obtained by open competition
the musical directorship of the cathedral of Notre-Darrie in
Paris, where he gave successful performances of sacred music
with a full orchestra. This place he resigned in 1787; and,
after a retirement of five years in a friend's country house, he
produced La Caverne and two other operas at the Theatre
Feydeau in Paris. At the foundation of the Paris Conservatoire
(1795) Lesueur was appointed one of its inspectors of studies,
but was dismissed in 1802, owing to his disagreements with
Mehul. Lesueur succeeded G. Paisiello as Maestro di cappella
to Napoleon, and produced (1804) his Ossian at the Opera. He
also composed for the emperor's coronation a mass and a Te
Deum. Louis XVIII., who had retained Lesueur in his court,
appointed him (1818) professor of composition at the Con-
servatoire; and at this institution he had, among many other
pupils, Hector Berlioz, Ambroise Thomas, Louis Desir6, Besozzi
and Charles Gounod. He died on the 6th of October 1837. Lesueur
composed eight operas and several masses, and other sacred music.
All his works are written in a style of rigorous simplicity.
See Raoul Rochette, Les Ouvrages de M. Lesueur (Paris, 1839).
LE TELLIER, MICHEL (1603-1685), French statesman, was
born in Paris on the igth of April 1603. Having entered the
public service he became maitre des requetes and in 1640
intendant of Piedmont; in 1643, owing to his friendship with
Mazarin, he became secretary of state for military affairs, being
an efficient administrator. In 1677 he was made chancellor of
France and he was one of those who influenced Louis XIV. to
revoke the Edict of Nantes. He died on the 3oth of October
1685, a few days after the revocation had been signed. Le
Tellier, who amassed great wealth, left two sons, one the famous
statesman Louvois and another who became archbishop of Reims.
His correspondence is in the Bibliotheque nationale in Paris.
See L. Caron, Michel Le Tellier, intendant d'armee au Piemont
(Paris, 1881).
Another MICHEL LE TELLIER (1643-1719) was confessor of
the French king Louis XIV. Born at Vire on the i6th of
December [1643 he entered the Society of Jesus and later became
prominent in consequence of his violent attacks on the Jansenists.
He was appointed provincial of his order in France, but it was
not until 1709 that he became the king 's confessor. In this
capacity all his influence was directed towards urging Louis to
further persecutions of the Protestants. He was exiled by the
regent Orleans, but he had returned to France when he died at
La Fleche on the 2nd of September 1719.
LETHAL (Lat. lethalis, for letalis, deadly, from letum, death;
the spelling is due to a confusion with Gr. X^TJ, forgetfulness),
an adjective meaning " deadly," " fatal," especially as applied to
weapons, drugs, &c. A " lethal chamber " is a room or recep-
tacle in which animals may be put to death painlessly, by the
admission of poisonous gases.
LETHARGY (Gr. \r)6apyia, from X^fy, forgetfulness), drowsi-
ness, torpor. In pathology the term is used of a morbid condition
of deep and lasting sleep from which the sufferer can be with
difficulty and only temporarily aroused. The term Negro or
African lethargy was formerly applied to the disease now gener-
ally known as " sleeping sickness " (<?.».).
LETHE (" Oblivion "), in Greek mythology, the daughter of
Eris (Hesiod, Theog. 227) and the personification of forgetfulness.
It is also the name of a river in the infernal regions. Those
initiated in the mysteries were taught to distinguish two streams
in the lower world, one of memory and one of oblivion. Direc-
tions for this purpose, written on a gold plate, have been found
in a tomb at Petilia, and near Lebadeia, at the oracle of Tro-
phonius, which was counted an entrance to the lower world, the
two springs Mnemosyne and Lethe were shown (Pausanias ix.
39. 8). This thought begins to appear in literature in the end of
the sth century B.C., when Aristophanes (Frogs, 186) speaks of
the plain of Lethe. Plato (Rep. x.) embodies the idea in one of
his finest myths.
LE TRRPORT, a maritime town of northern France in the
department of Seine-Inferieure, on the English Channel, at the
mouth of the Bresle, 114 m. N.N.W. of Paris on the Northern
railway. Pop. (1906) 4619. Owing to its nearness to the capital,
Le Treport is a favourite watering-place of the Parisians. A
good view is obtained from Mont Huon, which rises to the south-
west of the town. The mouth of the Bresle forms a small port,
comprising an outer tidal harbour and an inner dock accessible
to vessels drawing from 13 to 16 ft. The fisheries and oyster
parks with their dependent industries, shipbuilding and glass
manufacture, furnish the chief occupations of the inhabitants.
Coal, timber, ice and jute are imported; articles de Paris, sugar,
&c., are exported. The chief buildings are the church of St
Jacques (i6th century), which has finely carved vaulting and
good modern stained glass, and the casino erected 1896-1897.
About i m. north-east of Le Treport is the small bathing resort
of Mers. The Eu-Treport canal, uniting the two towns, has a
length of about 3m., and is navigable by vessels drawing 14 ft.
Le Treport ( the ancient Ulterior Portus)v/as a. port of some note
in the middle ages and suffered from the English invasions.
Louis Philippe twice received Queen Victoria here.
LETRONNE, JEAN ANTOINE (1787-1848), French archaeo-
logist, was born at Paris on the 2$th of January 1787. His
LETTER— LETTERS PATENT
SOT
father, a poor engraver, sent him to study art under the painter
David, but his own tastes were literary, and he became a student
in the College de France, where it is said he used to exercise his
already strongly developed critical faculty by correcting for his
own amusement old and bad texts of Greek authors, afterwards
comparing the results with the latest and most approved editions.
From 1810 to 1812 he travelled in France, Switzerland . and
Italy, and on his return to Paris published an Essai critique sur
la topographic de Syracuse (1812), designed to elucidate Thucy-
dides. Two years later appeared his Recherches gfographiques et
critiques on the De Mensura Orbis Terrae of Dicuil. In 1815 he
was commissioned by government to complete the translation of
Strabo which had been begun by Laporte-Dutheil, and in March
1816 he was one of those who were admitted to the Academy
of Inscriptions by royal ordinance, having previously contributed
a M (moire, " On the Metrical System of the Egyptians," which
had been crowned. Further promotion came rapidly; in 1817
he was appointed director of the Ecole des Charles, in 1819
inspector-general of the university, and in 1831 professor of
history in the College de France. This chair he exchanged in
1838 for that of archaeology, and in 1840 he succeeded Pierre C.
Francois Daunou (1761-1840) as keeper of the national archives.
Meanwhile he had published, among other works, Considerations
generates sur devaluation des monnaies grecques et romaines et sur
la iialeur de I' or el del' argent avant la decouverte de I'Amerique
(1817), Recherches pour servir a, I'histoire d'Egypte pendant la
domination des Grecs et des Romains (1823), and Sur I'origine
grecque des zodiaques pretendus egyptiens (1837). By the last-
named he finally exploded a fallacy which had up to that time
vitiated the chronology of contemporary Egyptologists. His
Diplomes et chartres de Vepoque Merovingienne sur papyrus et
sur velin were published in 1844. The most important work of
Letronne is the Recueil des inscriptions grecques et latines de
I'Egypte, of which the first volume appeared in 1842, and the
second in 1848. He died at Paris on the i4th of December 1848.
LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or lilera, letter
of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has
probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with
wax, for an inscription with a stilus), a character or symbol
expressing any one of the elementary sounds into which a spoken
word may be analysed, one of the members of an alphabet. As
applied to things written, the word follows mainly the meanings
of the Latin plural litterae, the most common meaning attaching
to the word being that of a written communication from one
person to another, an epistle (q.v.). For the means adopted to
secure the transmission of letters see POST AND POSTAL SERVICE.
The word is also, particularly in the plural, applied to many
legal and formal written documents, as in letters patent, letters
rogatory and dismissory, &c. The Latin use of the plural is also
followed in the employment of " letters " in the sense of literature
(q.v.} or learning.
LETTERKENNY, a market town of Co. Donegal, Ireland,
23 m. W. by S. of Londonderry by the Londonderry and Lough
Swilly and Letterkenny railway. Pop. (1901) 2370. It has a
harbour at Port Ballyrane, i m. distant on Lough Swilly. In
the market square a considerable trade in grain, flax and pro-
visions is prosecuted. Rope-making and shirt-making are
industries. The handsome Roman Catholic cathedral for the
diocese of Raphoe occupies a commanding site, and cost a large
sum, as it contains carving from Rome, glass from Munich and
a pulpit of Irish and Carrara marble. It was consecrated in 1901.
There is a Catholic college dedicated to St Ewnan. The town,
which is governed by an urban district council, is a centre for
visitors to the county. Its name signifies the " hill of the
O'Cannanans," a family who lorded over Tyrconnell before the
rise of the O'Donnells.
LETTER OF CREDIT, a letter, open or sealed, from a banker
or merchant, containing a request to some other person or firm
to advance the bearer of the letter, or some other person named
therein, upon the credit of the writer a particular or an unlimited
sum of money. A letter of credit is either general or special.
It is general when addressed to merchants or other persons in
I general, requesting an advance to a third person, and special
when addressed to a particular person by name requesting him
to make such an advance. A letter of credit is not a negotiable
instrument. When a letter of credit is given for the purchase of
goods, the letter of credit usually states the particulars of the
merchandise against which bills are to be drawn, and shipping
documents (bills of lading, invoices, insurance policies) are
usually attached to the draft for acceptance.
LETTERS PATENT. It is a rule alike of common law and
sound policy that grants of freehold interests, franchises, liberties,
&c., by the sovereign to a subject should be made only after due
consideration, and in a form readily accessible to the public.
These ends are attained in England through the agency of
that piece of constitutional machinery known as " letters
patent." It is here proposed to consider only the charac-
teristics of letters patent generally. The law relating to
letters patent for inventions is dealt with under the heading
PATENTS.
Letters patent (litterae patentes) are letters addressed by the
sovereign " to all to whom these presents shall come," reciting
the grant of some dignity, office, monopoly, franchise or other
privilege to the patentee. They are not sealed up, but are left
open (hence the term "patent"), and are recorded in the Patent
Rolls in the Record Office, or in the case of very recent grants,
in the Chancery Enrolment Office, so that all subjects of the
realm may read and be bound by their contents. In this respect
they differ from certain other letters of the sovereign directed
to particular persons and for particular purposes, which, not
being proper for public inspection, are closed up and sealed on
the outside, and are thereupon called writs close (litterae clausae}
and are recorded in the Close Rolls. Letters patent are used to
put into commission various powers inherent in the crown —
legislative powers, as when the sovereign entrusts to others the
duty of opening parliament or assenting to bills; judicial powers,
e.g. of gaol delivery; executive powers, as when the duties of
Treasurer and Lord High Admiral are assigned to commissioners
of the Treasury and Admiralty (Anson, Const, ii. 47). Letters
patent are also used to incorporate bodies by charter — in the
British colonies, this mode of legislation is frequently applied
to joint stock companies (cf. Rev. Stats. Ontario, c. 191, s. 9) —
to grant a conge d'elire to a dean and chapter to elect a bishop,
or licence to convocation to amend canons; to grant pardon,
and to confer certain offices and dignities. Among grants of
offices, &c., made by letters patent the following may be enumer-
ated: offices in the Heralds' College; the dignities of a peer,
baronet and knight bachelor; the appointments of lord-lieuten-
ant, custos rotulorum of counties, judge of the High Court and
Indian and Colonial judgeships, king's counsel, crown livings;
the offices of attorney- and solicitor-general, commander-in-
chief, master of the horse, keeper of the privy seal, postmaster-
general, king's printer; grants of separate courts of quarter-
sessions. The fees payable in respect of the grant of various
forms of letters patent are fixed by orders of the lord chancellor,
dated 2oth of June 1871, i8th of July 1871 and nth of Aug.
1 88 1. (These orders are set out at length in the Statutory Rules
and Orders Revised (ed. 1904), vol. ii. tit. " Clerk of the Crown in
Chancery," pp. i. et seq.) Formerly each colonial governor was
appointed and commissioned by letters patent under the great
seal of the United Kingdom. But since 1875, the practice has
been to create the office of governor in each colony by letters
patent, and then to make each appointment to the office by
commission under the Royal Sign Manual and to give to the
governor so appointed instructions in a uniform shape under
the Royal Sign Manual. The letters patent, commission and
instructions, are commonly described as the Governor's Com-
mission (see Jenkyns, British Rule and Jurisdiction beyond the
Seas, p. 100; the forms now in use are printed in Appx. iv.
Also the Statutory Rules and Codes Revised, ed. 1904, under the
title of the colony to which they relate). The Colonial Letters
Patent Act 1863 provides that letters patent shall not take
effect in the colonies or possessions beyond the seas until their
publication there by proclamation or otherwise (s. 2), and shall
502
LETTRES DE CACHET
be void unless so published within nine months in the case of
colonies east of Bengal or west of Cape Horn, and within six
months in any other case. Colonial officers and judges holding
offices by patent for life or for a term certain, are removable
by a special procedure — " amotion " — by the Governor and
Council, subject to a right of appeal to the king in Council
(Leave of Absence Act, formerly cited as " Burke's Act " 1 782 ;
see Montagu v. Governor of Van Diemen's Land, 1849, 6 Moo.
P.C. 491; Willis v. Gipps, 1846, 6 St. Trials [N.S., 311]). The
law of conquered or ceded colonies may be altered by the crown
by letters patent under the Great Seal as well as by Proclamation
or Order in Council (Jephson v. Riera, 1835, 3 Knapp, 130;
3 St. Trials [N.S.] 591).
Procedure. — Formerly letters patent were always granted
under the Great Seal. But now, under the Crown Office Act 1877,
and the Orders in Council made under it, many letters patent
are sealed with the wafer great seal. Letters patent for inven-
tions are issued under the seal of the Patent Office. The pro-
cedure by which letters patent are obtained is as follows: A
warrant for the issue of letters patent is drawn up, and is signed
by the lord chancellor; this is submitted to the law officers of
the crown, who countersign it; finally, the warrant thus signed
and countersigned is submitted to His Majesty, who affixes his
signature. The warrant is then sent to the Crown Office and is
filed, after it has been acted upon by the issue of letters patent
under the great or under the wafer seal as the case may be. The
letters patent are then delivered into the custody of those in
whose favour they are granted.
Construction. — The construction of letters patent differs from
that of other grants in certain particulars: (i.) Letters patent,
contrary to the ordinary rule, are construed in a sense favourable
to the grantor (viz. the crown) rather than to the grantee;
although this rule is said not to apply so strictly where the grant
is made for consideration, or where it purports to be made ex
certS, scientiA et mero motu. (ii.) When it appears from the face
of the grant that the sovereign has been mistaken or deceived,
either in matter of fact or in matter of law, as, e.g. by false
suggestion on the part of the patentee, or by misrecital of former
grants, or if the grant is contrary to law or uncertain, the letters
patent are absolutely void, and may still, it would seem, be
cancelled (except as regards letters patent for inventions, which
are revoked by a special procedure, regulated by § 26 of the
Patents Act 1883), by the procedure known as scire facias, an
action brought against the patentee in the name of the crown
with the fiat of the attorney-general.
As to letters patent generally, see Bacon's Abridgment (" Pre-
rogative," F.); Chitty's Prerogative; Hindmarsh on Patents (1846);
Anson, Law and Custom of the Const, ii. (3rd ed., Oxford and London,
1907-1908). (A. W. R.)
LETTRES DE CACHET. Considered solely as French docu-
ments, lettres de cachet may be defined as letters signed by the
king of France, countersigned by one of his ministers, and closed
with the royal seal (cachet). They contained an order — in
principle, any order whatsoever — emanating directly from the
king, and executory by himself. In the case of organized bodies
lettres de cachet were issued for the purpose of enjoining members
to assemble or to accomplish some definite act; the provincial
estates were convoked in this manner, and it was by a lettre de
cachet (called lettre de jussion) that the king ordered a parlement
to register a law in the teeth of its own remonstrances. The
best-known lettres de cachet, however, were those which may be
called penal, by which the king sentenced a subject without trial
and without an opportunity of defence to imprisonment in a
state prison or an ordinary gaol, confinement in a convent or a
hospital, transportation to the colonies, or relegation to a given
place within the realm.
The power which the king exercised on these various occasions
was a royal privilege recognized by old French law, and can be
traced to a maxim which furnished a text of the Digest of Jus-
tinian: " Rex solutus est a legibus." This signified particularly
that when the king intervened directly in the administration
proper, or in the administration of justice, by a special act of
his will, he could decide without heeding the laws, and even in
a sense contrary to the laws. This was an early conception, and
in early times the order in question was simply verbal; thus
some letters patent of Henry III. of France in 1576 (Isambert,
Anciennes lois franQ aises, xiv. 278) state that Francois de Mont-
morency was " prisoner in our castle of the Bastille in Paris by
verbal command" of the late king Charles IX. But in the i4th
century the principle was introduced that the order should be
written, and hence arose the lettre de cachet. The lettre de cachet
belonged to the class of lettres closes, as opposed to lettres patentes,
which contained the expression of the legal and permanent will
of the king, and had to be furnished with the seal of state affixed
by the chancellor. The lettres de cachet, on the contrary, were
signed simply by a secretary of state (formerly known as secre-
taire des commandements) for the king; they bore merely the
imprint of the king's privy seal, from which circumstance they
were often called, in the I4th and isth centuries, lettres de petit
signet or lettres de petit cachet, and were entirely exempt from the
control of the chancellor.
While serving the government as a silent weapon against
political adversaries or dangerous writers and as a means of
punishing culprits of high birth without the scandal of a suit at
law, the lettres de cachet had many other uses. They were
employed by the police in dealing with prostitutes, and on their
authority lunatics were shut up in hospitals and sometimes in
prisons. They were also often used by heads of families as a
means of correction, e.g. for protecting the family honour from
the disorderly or criminal conduct of sons; wives, too, took
advantage of them to curb the profligacy of husbands and
vice versa. They were issued by the intermediary on the advice
of the intendants in the provinces and of the lieutenant of police
in Paris. In reality, the secretary of state issued them in a
completely arbitrary fashion, and in most cases the king was
unaware of their issue. In the i8th century it is certain that the
letters were often issued blank, i.e. without containing the name
of the person against whom they were directed; the recipient,
or mandatary, filled in the name in order to make the letter
effective.
Protests against the lettres de cachet were made continually
by the parlement of Paris and by the provincial parlements,
and often also by the States-General. In 1648 the sovereign
courts of Paris procured their momentary suppression in a kind
of charter of liberties which they imposed upon the crown,
but which was ephemeral. It was not until the reign of
Louis XVI. that a reaction against this abuse became clearly
perceptible. At the beginning of that reign Malesherbes during
his short ministry endeavoured to infuse some measure of justice
into the system, and in March 1784 the baron de Breteuil, a
minister of the king's household, addressed a circular to the
intendants and the lieutenant of police with a view to preventing
the crying abuses connected with the issue of lettres de cachet.
In Paris, in 1779, the Cour des Aides demanded their suppression,
and in March 1788 the parlement of Paris made some exceedingly
energetic remonstrances, which are important for the light they
throw upon old French public law. The crown, however, did
not decide to lay aside this weapon, and in a declaration to the
States-General in the royal session of the 23rd of June 1789
(art. 15) it did not renounce it absolutely. Lettres de cachet
were abolished by the Constituent Assembly, but Napoleon re-
established their equivalent by a political measure in the decree
of the gth of March 1801 on the state prisons. This was one of
the acts brought up against him by the senatus-consulte of the
3rd of April 1814, which pronounced his fall "considering that
he has violated the constitutional laws by the decrees on the
state prisons."
See Honore Mirabeau, Les Lettres de cachet et des prisons d'etat
(Hamburg, 1782), written in the dungeon at Vincennes into which
his father had thrown him by a lettre de cachet, one of the ablest and
most eloquent of his works, which had an immense circulation and
was translated into English with a dedication to the duke of Norfolk
in 1788; Frantz Funck-Brentano, Les Lettres de cachet a Paris (Paris,
1904); and Andre Chassaigne, Les Lettres de cachet sous Vancien
regime (Paris, 1903). (J. P. E.)
LETTUCE— LEUCITE
5°3
LETTUCE, known botanically as Lactuca saliva (nat. ord.
Compositae), a hardy annual, highly esteemed as a salad plant.
The London market-gardeners make preparation for the first
main crop of Cos lettuces in the open ground early in August,
a frame being set on a shallow hotbed, and, the stimulus of heat
not being required, this is allowed to subside till the first week in
October, when the soil, consisting of leaf-mould mixed with a
little sand, is put on 6 or 7 in. thick, so that the surface is within
45 in. of the sashes. The best time for sowing is found to be
about the i ith of October, one of the best varieties being Lobjoits
Green Gos. When the seeds begin to germinate the sashes are
drawn quite off in favourable weather during the day, and put
on, but tilted, at night in wet weather. Very little watering is
required, and the aim should be to keep the plants gently moving
till the days begin to lengthen. In -January a more active
growth is encouraged, and in mild winters a considerable extent
of the planting out is done, but in private gardens the preferable
time would be February. The ground should be light and rich,
and well manured below, and the plants put out at i ft. apart
each way with the dibble. Frequent stirring of the ground
with the hoe greatly encourages the growth of the plants. A
second sowing should be made about the 5th of November, and
a third in frames about the end of January or beginning of
February. In March a sowing may be made in some warm
situation out of doors; successional sowings may be made in the
open border about every third or fourth week till August,
about the middle of which month a crop of Brown Cos, Hardy
Hammersmith or Hardy White Cos should be sown, the latter
being the most reliable in a severe winter. These plants may be
put out early in October on the sides of ridges facing the south
or at the front of a south wall, beyond the reach of drops from
the copings, being planted 6 or 8 in. apart. Young lettuce
plants should be thinned out in the seed-beds before they crowd
or draw each other, and transplanted as soon as possible after
two or three leaves are formed. Some cultivators prefer that
the summer crops should not be transplanted, but sown where
they are to stand, the plants being merely thinned out; but
transplanting checks the running to seed, and makes the most of
the ground.
For a winter supply by gentle forcing, the Hardy Hammer-
smith and Brown Dutch Cabbage lettuces, and the Brown Cos
and Green Paris Cos lettuces, should be sown about the middle
of August and in the beginning of September, in rich light soil,
the plants being pricked out 3 in. apart in a prepared bed, as
soon as the first two leaves are fully formed. About the middle
of October the plants should be taken up carefully with balls
attached to the roots, and should be placed in a mild hotbed of
well-prepared dung (about 55°) covered about i ft. deep with a
compost of sandy peat, leaf-mould and a little well-decomposed
manure. The Cos and Brown Dutch varieties should be planted
about 9 in. apart. Give plenty of air when the weather permits,
and protect from frost. For winter work Stanstead Park
Cabbage Lettuce is greatly favoured now by London market-
gardeners, as it stands the winter well. Lee's Immense is another
good variety, while All the Year Round may be sown for almost
any season, but is better perhaps for summer crops.
There are two races of the lettuce, the Cos lettuce, with erect
oblong heads, and the Cabbage lettuce, with round or spreading
heads, — the former generally crisp, the latter soft and flabby in
texture. Some of the best lettuces for general purposes of the
two classes are the following: —
Cos: White Paris Cos, best for summer; Green Paris Cos,
hardier than the white; Brown Cos, Lobjoits Green Cos, one of
the hardiest and best for winter; Hardy White Cos.
Cabbage: Hammersmith Hardy Green: Stanstead Park,
very hardy, good for winter; Tom Thumb; Brown Dutch;
Neapolitan, best for summer; All the Year Round; Golden
Ball, good for forcing in private establishments.
Lactuca virosa, the strong-scented lettuce, contains an alkaloid
which has the power of dilating the pupil and may possibly
be identical with hyoscyamine, though this point is as yet not
determined. No variety of lettuce is now used for any medicinal
purpose, though there is probably some slight foundation for
the belief that the lettuce has faint narcotic properties.
LEUCADIA, the ancient name of one of the Ionian Islands,
now Santa Maura (q.v.), and of its chief town (Hamaxichi).
LEUCIPPUS, Greek philosopher, born at Miletus (or Elea),
founder of the Atomistic theory, contemporary of Zeno,
Empedocles and Anaxagoras. His fame was so completely over-
shadowed by that of Democritus, who subsequently developed
the theory into a system, that his very existence was denied by
Epicurus (Diog. Laert. x. 7), followed in modern times by
E. Rohde. Epicurus, however, distinguishes Leucippus from
Democritus, and Aristotle and Theophrastus expressly credit
him with the invention of Atomism. There seems, therefore, no
reason to doubt his existence, although nothing is known of his
life, and even his birthplace is uncertain. Between Leucippus
and Democritus there is an interval of at least forty years;
accordingly, while the beginnings of Atomism are closely con-
nected with the doctrines of the Eleatics, the system as developed
by Democritus is conditioned by the sophistical views of his
time, especially those of Protagoras. While Leucippus's notion
of Being agreed generally with that of the Eleatics, he postulated
its plurality (atoms) and motion, and the reality of not-Being
(the void) in which his atoms moved.
See DEMOCRITUS. On the Rohde-Diels controversy as to the exist-
ence of Leucippus, see F. Lortzing in Bursian's Jahresbericht, vol.
cxvi. (1904); also J. Burnet, Early Creek Philosophy (1892).
LEUCITE, a rock-forming mineral composed of potassium and
aluminium metasilicate KAl(SiOs)2. Crystals have the form
of cubic icositetrahedra 1 2 1 1 j , but, as first observed by Sir David
Brewster in 1821, they are not optically isotropic, and are there-
fore pseudo-cubic. Goniometric measurements made by G. vom
Rath in 1873 led him to refer the crystals to the tetragonal
system, the faces o being distinct from those lettered i in the
adjoining figure. Optical investigations have since proved
the crystals to be still more complex
in character, and to consist of several
orthorhombic or monoclinic indi-
viduals, which are optically biaxial
and repeatedly twinned, giving rise
to twin-lamellae and to striations on
the faces. When the crystals are
raised to a temperature of about
500° C. they become optically iso-
tropic, the twin-lamellae and stria-
tions disappearing, reappearing,
however, when the crystals are again
cooled. This pseudo-cubic character of leucite is exactly the
same as that of the mineral boracite (q.v.).
The crystals are white (hence the name suggested by A. G.
Werner in 1791, from Xeuxos) or ash-grey in colour, and are
usually dull and opaque, but sometimes transparent and glassy;
they are brittle and break with a conchoidal fracture. The
hardness is 5 • 5 , and the specific gravity 2-5. Enclosures of other
minerals, arranged in concentric zones, are frequently present in
the crystals. On account of the colour and form of the crystals
the mineral was early known as " white garnet." French
authors employ R. J. Haiiy's name " amphigene." (L. J. S.)
Leucite Rocks. — Although rocks containing leucite are numerically
scarce, many countries such as England being entirely without them,
yet they are of wide distribution, occurring in every quarter of the
globe. Taken collectively, they exhibit a considerable variety of
types and are of great interest petrographically. For the presence
of this mineral it is necessary that the silica percentage of the rock
should not be high, for leucite never occurs in presence of free quartz.
It is most common in lavas of recent and Tertiary age, which nave a
fair amount of potash, or at any rate have potash equal to or greater
than soda; if soda preponderates nepheline occurs rather than
leucite. In pre-Tertiary rocks leucite is uncommon, since it readily
decomposes and changes to zeolites, analcite and other secondary
minerals. Leucite also is rare in plutonic rocks and dike rocks, but
leucite-syenite and leucite-tinguaite bear witness to the possibility
that it may occur in this manner. The rounded shape of its crystals,
their white or grey colour, and rough cleavage, make the presence
of leucite easily determinable in many of these rocks by simple
inspection, especially when the crystals are large. " Pseudo-leu-
cites " are rounded areas consisting of felspar, nepheline, analcite,
504
LEUCTRA— LEUTHEN
&c., which have the shape, composition and sometimes even the
crystalline forms of leucite; they are probably pseudomorphs or
paramorphs, which have developed from leucite because this mineral,
in its isometric crystals, is not stable at ordinary temperatures and
may be expected under favourable conditions to undergo spontaneous
change into an aggregate of other minerals. Leucite is very often
accompanied by nepheline, sodalite or nosean; other minerals
which make their appearance with some frequency are melanite,
garnet and melilite.
The plutonic leucite-bearing rocks are leucite-syenite and mis-
sourite. Of these the former consists of orthoclase, nepheline,
sodalite, diopside and aegirine, biotite and sphene. Two occur-
rences are known, one in Arkansas, the other in Sutherlandshire,
Scotland. The Scottish rock has been called borolanite. Both
examples show large rounded spots in the hand specimens; they are
pseudo-leucites and under the microscope prove to consist of ortho-
clase, nepheline, sodalite and decomposition products. These have
a radiate arrangement externally, but are of irregular structure at
their centres; it is interesting to note that in both rocks melanite
is an important accessory. The missqurites are more basic and
consist of leucite, olivine, augite and biotite; the leucite is partly
fresh, partly altered to analcite, and the rock has a spotted character
recalling that of the leucite-syenites. It has been found only in the
Highwood Mountains of Montana.
The leucite-bearing dike-rocks are members of the tinguaite and
monchiquite groups. The leucite-tinguaites are usually pale grey
or greenish in colour and consist principally of nepheline, alkali-
felspar and aegirine. The latter forms bright green moss-like
patches and growths of indefinite shape, or in other cases scattered
acicular prisms, among the felspars and nephelines of the ground
mass. IWhere leucite occurs, it is always eumorphic in small,
rounded, many-sided crystals in the ground mass, or in larger masses
which have the same characters as the pseudo-leucites. Biotite
occurs in some of these rocks, and melanite also is present. Nepheline
appears to decrease in amount as leucite increases. Rocks of this
group are known from Rio de Janeiro, Arkansas, Kola (in Finland),
Montana and a few other places. In Greenland there are leucite-
tinguaites with much arfvedsonite (hornblende) and eudyalite.
Wherever they occur they accompany leucite- and nepheline-
syenites. Leucite-monchiquites are fine-grained dark rocks con-
sisting of olivine, titaniferous augite and iron oxides, with a glassy
ground mass in which small rounded crystals of leucite are scattered.
They have been described from Bohemia.
By far the greater number of the rocks which contain leucite are
lavas of Tertiary or recent geological age. They are never acid
rocks which contain quartz, but felspar is usually present, though
there are certain groups of leucite lavas which are non-felspathic.
Many of them also contain nepheline, sodalite, hauyne and nosean ;
the much rarer mineral melilite appears also in some examples.
The commonest ferromagnesian mineral is augite (sometimes rich
in soda), with olivine in the more basic varieties. Hornblende
and biotite occur also, but are less common. Melanite is found in
some of the lavas, as in the leucite-syenites.
The rocks in which orthoclase (or sanidine). is present in con-
siderable amount are leucite-trachytes, leucite-phonohtes and leucito-
phyres. Of these groups the two former, which are not sharply
distinguished from one another by most authors, are common in
the neighbourhood of Rome (L. Bracciano, L. Bolsena). They are
of trachytic appearance, containing phenocysts of sanidine, leucite,
augite and biotite. Sodalite or hauyne may also be present, but
nepheline is typically absent. Rocks of this class occur also in the
tuffs of the Phlegraean Fields, near Naples. The leucitophyres are
rare rocks which have been described from various parts of the
volcanic district of the Rhine (Olbriick, Laacher See, &c.) and from
Monte Vulture in Italy. They are rich in leucite, but contain also
some sanidine and often much nepheline with hauyne or nosean.
Their pyroxene is principally aegirine or aegirine augite; some of
them are rich in melanite. Microscopic sections of some of these
rocks are of great interest on account of their beauty and the variety
of felspathoid minerals which they contain. In Brazil leucitophyres
have been found which belong to the Carboniferous period.
Those leucite rocks which contain abundant essential plagioclase
felspar are known as leucite-tephrites and leucite-basanites. The
former consist mainly of plagioclase, leucite and augite, while the
latter contain olivine in addition. The leucite is often present in
two sets of crystals, both porphyritic and as an ingredient of the
ground mass. It is always idiomorphic with rounded outlines.
The felspar ranges from bytownite to oligoclase, being usually a
variety of labradorite; orthoclase is scarce. The augite varies a
good deal in character, being green, brown or violet, but aegirine
(the dark green pleochroic soda-iron-augite) is seldom present.
Among the accessory minerals biotite, brown hornblende, hauyne,
iron oxides and apatite are the commonest ; melanite and nepheline
may also occur. The ground mass of these rocks is only occasionally
rich in glass. The leucite-tephrites and leucite-basanites of Vesuvius
and Somma are familiar examples of this class of rocks. They are
black or ashy-grey in colour, often vesicular, and may contain many
large grey phenocysts of leucite. Their black augite and yellow green
olivine are also easily detected in hand specimens. From Volcan-
ello, Sardinia and Roccamonfina similar rocks are obtained; they
occur also in Bohemia, in Java, Celebes, Kilimanjaro (Africa) and
near Trebizond in Asia Minor.
Leucite lavas from which felspar is absent are divided into the
leucitites and leucite basalts. The latter contain olivine, the former
do not. Pyroxene is the usual ferromagnesian mineral, and resembles
that of the tephrites and basanites. Sanidine, melanite, hauyne
and perofskite are frequent accessory minerals in these rocks, and
many of them contain melilite in some quantity. The well-known
leucitite of the Capo di Bove, near Rome, is rich in this mineral,
which forms irregular plates, yellow in the hand specimen, enclosing
many small rounded crystals of leucite. Bracciano and Roccamon-
fina are other Italian localities for leucitite, and in Java, Montana,
Celebes and New South Wales similar rocks occur. The leucite-
basalts belong to more basic types and are rich in olivine and augite.
They occur in great numbers in the Rhenish volcanic district (Eifel,
Laacher See) and in Bohemia, and accompany tephrites or leucitites
in Java, Montana, Celebes and Sardinia. The " peperino " of the
neighbourhood of Rome is a leucitite tuff. (J. S. F.)
LEUCTRA, a village of Boeotia in the territory of Thespiae,
chiefly noticeable for the battle fought in its neighbourhood in
371 B.C. between the Thebans and the Spartans and their allies.
A Peloponnesian army, about 10,000 strong, which had invaded
Boeotia from Phocis, was here confronted by a Boeotian levy of
perhaps 6000 soldiers under Epaminondas (q.v.). In spite of
inferior numbers and the doubtful loyalty of his Boeotian allies,
Epaminondas offered battle on the plain before the town. Mass-
ing his cavalry and the so-deep column of Theban infantry on
his left wing, he sent forward this body in advance of his centre
and right wing. After a cavalry engagement in which the
Thebans drove their enemies off the field, the decisive issue was
fought out between the Theban and Spartan foot. The latter,
though fighting well, could not sustain in their i2-deep formation
the heavy impact of their opponents' column, and were hurled
back with a loss of about 2000 men, of whom 700 were Spartan
citizens, including the king Cleombrotus. Seeing their right wing
beaten, the rest of the Peloponnesians retired and left the enemy
in possession of the field. Owing to the arrival of a Thessalian
army under Jason of Pherae, whose friendship they did not
trust, the Thebans were unable to exploit their victory. But
the battle is none the less of great significance in Greek history.
It marks a revolution in military tactics, affording the first
known instance of a deliberate concentration of attack upon the
vital point of the enemy's line. Its political effects were equally
far-reaching, for the loss in material strength and prestige which
the Spartans here sustained deprived them for ever of their
supremacy in Greece.
AUTHORITIES. — Xenophon, Hellenica, vi. 4. 3-15; Diodorus xi.
53-56; Plutarch, Pelopidas, chs. 20-23; Pausanias ix. 13. 2-10;
G. B. Grundy, The Topography of the Battle of Plataea (London,
1894), pp. 73-76; H. Delbruck, Geschichte der Kriegskunst (Berlin,
1900),!. 130 ff. (M. O. B. C.)
LEUK (Fr. Loecke Ville), an ancient and very picturesque
little town in the Swiss canton of the Valais. It is built above
the right bank of the Rhone, and is about i m. from the Leuk-
Susten station (15 5 m. east of Sion and 17 5 m. west of Brieg) on
the Simplon railway. In 1900 it had 1592 inhabitants, all but
wholly German-speaking and Romanists. About 105 m. by a
winding carriage road N. of Leuk, and near the head of the Dala
valley, at a height of 4629 ft. above the sea-level, and over-
shadowed by the cliffs of the Gemmi Pass (7641 ft.; q.v.) leading
over to the Bernese Oberland, are the Baths of Leuk (Leukerbad,
or Louche les Bains). They have only 613 permanent inhabitants,
but are much frequented in summer by visitors (largely French
and Swiss) attracted by the hot mineral springs. These are 22
in number, and are very abundant. The principal is that of
St Laurence, the water of which has a temperature of 124° F.
The season lasts from June to September. The village in winter
is long deprived of sunshine, and is much exposed to avalanches,
by which it was destroyed in 1518, 1719 and 1756, but it is now
protected by a strong embankment from a similar catastrophe.
(W. A. B. C.)
LEUTHEN, a village of Prussian Silesia, 10 m. W. of Breslau,
memorable as the scene of Frederick the Great's victory over the
Austrians on December 5, 1757. The high road from Breslau
to Liiben crosses the marshy Schweidnitz Water at Lissa,
and immediately enters the rolling country about Neumarkt.
LEUTZE— LEVEE
505
rise.
I
Leuthen itself stands some 4000 paces south of the road, and a
similar distance south again lies Sagschiitz, while Nypern, on
the northern edge of the hill country, is 5000 paces from the road.
On Frederick's approach the Austrians took up a line of battle
resting on the two last-named villages. Their whole position
was strongly garrisoned and protected by obstacles, and their
artillery was numerous though of light calibre. A strong outpost
of Saxon cavalry was in Borne to the westward. Frederick had
the previous day surprised the Austrian bakeries at Neumarkt,
and his Prussians, 33,00x3 to the enemy's 82,000, moved towards
Borne and Leuthen early on the sth. The Saxon outpost was
rushed at in the morning mist, and, covered by their advanced
guard on the heights beyond, the Prussians wheeled to their
right. Prince Charles of Lorraine, the Austrian commander-
in-chief, on Leuthen Church tower, could make nothing of
Frederick's movements, and the commander of his right wing
(Lucchesi) sent him message after message from Nypem and
Gocklerwitz asking for help, which was eventually despatched.
But the real blow was to fall on the left under Nadasdy. While
the Austrian commander was thus wasting time, the Prussians
were marching against Nadasdy in two columns, which preserved
their distances with an exactitude which has excited the wonder
of modern generations of soldiers; at the due place they wheeled
into line of battle obliquely to the Austrian front, and in one
great echelon, — the cavalry of the right wing foremost, and that
of the left " refused," — Frederick advanced on Sagschiitz.
Nadasdy, surprised, put a bold face on the matter and made a
good defence, but he was speedily routed, and, as the Prussians
advanced, battalion after battalion was rolled up towards
Leuthen until the Austrians faced almost due south. The fighting
in Leuthen itself was furious; the Austrians stood, in places,
100 deep, but the disciplined valour of the Prussians carried
the village. For a moment the victory was endangered when
Lucchesi came down upon the Prussian left wing from the north,
but Driesen's cavalry, till then refused, charged him in flank
and scattered his troopers in wild rout. This stroke ended the
battle. The retreat on Breslau became a rout almost comparable
to that of Waterloo, and Prince Charles rallied, in Bohemia,
barely 37,000 out of his 82,000. Ten thousand Austrians were
left on the field, 21,000 taken prisoners (besides 17,000 in
Breslau a little later), with 51 colours and 116 cannon. The
Prussian loss in all was under 5500. It was not until 1854
that a memorial of this astonishing victory was erected on the
battlefield.
See Carlyle, Frederick, bk. xviii. cap. x. ; V. Ollech, Friedrich der
Grossc von Kolin bis Leuthen (Berlin, 1858); Kutzen, Schlacht bei
Leuthen (Breslau, 1851); and bibliography under SEVEN YEARS'
WAR.
LEUTZE, EMANUEL (1816-1868), American artist, was born
at Gmtind, Wiirttemberg, on the 24th of May 1816, and as a
child was taken by his parents to Philadelphia, where he early
displayed talent as an artist. At the age of twenty-five he had
earned enough to take him to Dusseldorf for a course of art study
at the royal academy. Almost immediately he began the painting
of historical subjects, his first work, " Columbus before the
Council of Salamanca," being purchased by the Dusseldorf Art
Union. In 1860 he was commissioned by the United States
Congress to decorate a stairway in the Capitol at Washington,
for which he painted a large composition, " Westward the Star
of Empire takes its Way." His best-known work, popular
through engraving, is " Washington crossing the Delaware,"
a large canvas containing a score of life-sized figures; it is now
owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. He
became a member of the National Academy of Design in 1860,
and died at Washington, D.C., on the i8th of July 1868.
LEVALLOIS-PERRET, a north-western suburb of Paris, on
the right bank of the Seine, 2^ m. from the centre of the city.
Pop. (1906) 61,419. It carries on the manufacture of motor-cars
and accessories, carriages, groceries, liqueurs, perfumery, soap,
&c., and has a port on the Seine.
LEVANT (from the French use of the. participle of lever, to
rise, for the east, the orient), the name apph'ed widely to the
coastlands of the eastern Mediterranean Sea from Greece to
Egypt, or, in a more restricted and commoner sense, to the
Mediterranean coastlands of Asia Minor and Syria. In the i6th
and 1 7th centuries the term " High Levant" was used of the
Far East. The phrase " to levant," meaning to abscond, especi-
ally of one who runs away leaving debts unpaid, particularly of
a betting man or gambler, is taken from the Span, levantar,
to lift or break up, in such phrases as levantar la casa, to break
up a household, or el campo, to break camp.
LEVASSEUR, PIERRE EMILE (1828- ), French econo-
mist, was born in Paris on the Sth of December 1828. Educated
in Paris, he began to teach in the Iyc6e at Alenfon in 1852, and
in 1857 was chosen professor of rhetoric at Besancon. He re-
turned to Paris to become professor at the lycee Saint Louis,
and in 1868 he was chosen a member of the academy of moral
and political sciences. In 1872 he was appointed professor of
geography, history and statistics in the College de France, and
subsequently became also professor at the Conservatoire des
arts et metiers and at the Ecole libre des sciences politiques.
Levasseur was one of the founders of the study of commercial
geography, and became a member of the Council of Public
Instruction, president of the French society of political economy
and honorary president of the French geographical society.
His numerous writings include: Histoire des classes intvrieres en
France depuis la conquete de Jules Cesar jusqu'd la Revolution (1859) ;
Histoire des classes ouvrieres en France depuis la Revolution jusqu'a
nos jours (1867); L'&ude et Venseignement de la geographie (1871);
La Population fran^aise (1889-1892); L' Agriculture aux Etats-Unis
(1894); L' Enseignement primaire dans les pays civilises (1897);
L'Ouvrier americain (1898); Questions ouvrieres et industrielles sous
la troisieme Republique (1907) ; and Histoire des classes ouvrieres
et de I'industrie en France de ifSQ a 1870 (1903-1904). He also pub-
lished a Grand Atlas de geographie physique et politique (1890-1892).
LEVECHE, the name given to the dry hot sirocco wind in
Spain; often incorrectly called the " solano." The direction of
the Leveche is mostly from S.E., S. or S.W., and it occurs along
the coast from Cabo de Gata to Cabo de Nao, and even beyond
Malaga for a distance of some 10 m. inland.
LEVEE (from Fr. lever, to raise) , an embankment which keeps a
river in its channel. A river such as the Mississippi (q.v.), draining
a large area, carries a great amount of sediment from its swifter
head-streams to the lower ground. As soon as a stream's velocity
is checked, it drops a portion of its load of sediment and spreads
an alluvial fan in the lower part of its course. This deposition
of material takes place particularly at the sides of the stream
where the velocity is least, and the banks are in consequence
raised above the main channel, so that the river becomes lifted
bodily upwards in its bed, and flows above the level of the
surrounding country. In flood-time the muddy water flows over
the river's banks, where its velocity is at once checked as it flows
gently down the outer side, causing more material to be deposited
there, and a long alluvial ridge, called a natural levee, to be built
up on either side of the stream. These ridges may be wide or
narrow, but they slope from the stream's outer banks to the
plain below, and in consequence require careful watching, for if
the levee is broken by a " crevasse," the whole body of the river
may pour through and flood the country below. In 1890 the
Mississippi near New Orleans broke through the Nita crevasse
and flowed eastward with a current of 1 5 m. an hour, spreading
destruction in its path. The Hwang-ho river in China is
peculiarly liable to these inundations. The word levee is also
sometimes used to denote a riverside quay or landing-place.
LEVEE (from the French substantival use of lever, to rise;
there is no French substantival use of levee in the English sense),
a reception or assembly held by the British sovereign or his
representative, in Ireland by the lord-lieutenant, in India by the
viceroy, in the forenoon or early afternoon, at which men only are
present in distinction from a " drawing-room," at which ladies
also are presented or received. Under the ancien regime in
France the lever of the king was regulated, especially under
Louis XIV., by elaborate etiquette, and the various divisions of
the ceremonial followed the stages of the king's rising from bed,
from which it gained its name. The petit lever began when the
506
LEVELLERS— LEVEN, EARL OF
king had washed and said his daily offices; to this were ad-
mitted the princes of the blood, certain high officers of the house-
hold and those to whom a special permit had been granted; then
followed the premiere entree, to which came the secretaries and
other officials and those having the entree; these were received
by the king in his dressing-gown. Finally, at the grand lever,
the remainder of the household, the nobles and gentlemen of the
court were received; the king by that time was shaved, had
changed his linen and was in his wig. In the United States the
term " levee" was formerly used of the public receptions held
by the president.
LEVELLERS, the name given to an important political party
in England during the period of the Civil War and the Common-
wealth. The germ of the Levelling movement must be sought
for among the Agitators (q.v.), men of strong republican views,
and the name Leveller first appears in a letter of the ist of
November 1647, although it was undoubtedly in existence as a
nickname before this date (Gardiner, Great Civil War, iii. 380).
This letter refers to these extremists thus: " They have given
themselves a new name, viz. Levellers, for they intend to
sett all things straight, and rayse a parity and community in
the kingdom."
The Levellers first became prominent in 1647 during the pro-
tracted and unsatisfactory negotiations between the king and
the parliament, and while the relations between the latter and
the army were very strained. Like the Agitators they were
mainly found among the soldiers; they were opposed to the
existence of kingship, and they feared that Cromwell and the
other parliamentary leaders were too complaisant in their deal-
ings with Charles; in fact they doubted their sincerity in this
matter. Led by John Lilburne (q.i>.) they presented a manifesto,
The Case of the Army truly stated, to thecommander-in-chief, Lord
Fairfax, in October 1647. In this they demanded a dissolution
of parliament within a year and substantial changes in the con-
stitution of future parliaments, which were to be regulated by an
unalterable " law paramount." In a second document, The
Agreement of the People, they expanded these ideas, which were
discussed by Cromwell, Ireton and other officers on the one side,
and by John Wildman, Thomas Rainsborough and Edward
Sexby for the Levellers on the other. But no settlement was
made; some of the Levellers clamoured for the king's death,
and in November 1647, just after his flight from Hampton Court
to Carisbrooke, they were responsible for a mutiny which broke
out in two regiments .at Corkbush Field, near Ware. This,
however, was promptly suppressed by Cromwell. During the
twelve months which immediately preceded the execution of the
king the Levellers conducted a lively agitation in favour of the
ideas expressed in the Agreement of the people, and in January
1648 Lilburne wa"s arrested for using seditious language at a
meeting in London. But no success attended these and similar
efforts, and their only result was that the Levellers regarded
Cromwell with still greater suspicion.
Early in 1649, just after the death of the king, the Levellers
renewed their activity. They were both numerous and danger-
ous, and they stood up, says Gardiner, " for an exaggeration
of the doctrine of parliamentary supremacy." In a pamphlet,
England's New Chains, Lilburne asked for the dissolution of the
council of state and for a new and reformed parliament. He
followed this up with the Second Part of England's New Chains;
his writings were declared treasonable by parliament, and in
March 1649 ne and three other leading Levellers, Richard Over-
ton, William Walwyn and Prince were arrested. The discontent
which was spreading in the army was fanned when certain
regiments were ordered to proceed to Ireland, and in April 1649
there was a meeting in London; but this was quickly put down
by Fairfax and Cromwell, and its leader, Robert Lockyer, was
shot. Risings at Burford and at Banbury were also suppressed
without any serious difficulty, and the trouble with the Levellers
was practically over. Gradually they became less prominent,
but under the Commonwealth they made frequent advances to
the exiled king Charles II., and there was some danger from them
early in 1655 when Wildman was arrested and Sexby escaped
from England. The distinguishing mark of the Leveller was a
sea-green ribbon.
Another but more harmless form of the same movement was
the assembling of about fifty men on St George's Hill near
Oatlands in Surrey. In April 1649 these "True Levellers"
or " Diggers," as they were called, took possession of some
unoccupied ground which they began to cultivate. They were,
however, soon dispersed, and their leaders were arrested and
brought before Fairfax, when they took the opportunity of
denouncing landowners. It is interesting to note that Lilburne
and his colleagues objected to being designated Levellers, as
they had no desire to take away " the proper right and title that
every man has to what is his own."
Cromwell attacked the Levellers in his speech to parliament in
September 1654 (Carlyle, Cromwell's Letters and Speeches, Speech
II.). He said: "A nobleman, a gentleman, a yeoman; the
distinction of these; that is a good interest of the nation, and
a great one. The ' natural ' magistracy of the nation, was it
not almost trampled under foot, under despite and contempt, by
men of Levelling principles ? I beseech you, for the orders of
men and ranks of men, did not that Levelling principle tend to
the reducing of all to an equality ? Did it ' consciously ' think
to do so; or did it 'only unconsciously' practise towards that
for property and interest ? ' At all events,' what was the pur-
port of it but to make the tenant as liberal a fortune as the
landlord ? Which, I think, if obtained, would not have lasted
long."
In 1724 there was a rising against enclosures in Galloway, and a
number of men who took part therein were called Levellers or Dyke-
breakers (A. Lang, History of Scotland, vol. iv.). The word was also
used in Ireland during the 1 8th century to describe a secret revolu-
tionary society similar to the Whiteboys. (A. W. H.*)
LEVEN, ALEXANDER LESLIE, IST EARL OF (c. 1580-1661),
Scottish general, was the son of George Leslie, captain of Blair-in-
Athol, and a member of the family of Leslie of Balquhain.
After a scanty education he sought his fortune abroad, and became
a soldier, first under Sir Horace Vere in the Low Countries, and
afterwards (1605) under Charles IX. and Gustavus Adolphus
of Sweden, in wnose service he remained for many years and
fought in many campaigns with honour. In 1626 Leslie had
risen by merit to the rank of lieutenant-general, and had been
knighted by Gustavus. In 1628 he distinguished himself by his
constancy and energy in the defence of Stralsund against Wallcn-
stein, and in 1630 seized the island of Rtigen in the name of
the king of Sweden. In the same year he returned to Scotland
to assist in recruiting and organizing the corps of Scottish
volunteers which James, 3rd marquis of Hamilton, brought
over to Gustavus in 1631. Leslie received a severe wound in
the following winter, but was able nevertheless to be present
at Gustavus's last battle at Lutzen. Like many others of the
soldiers of fortune who served under Gustavus, Leslie cherished
his old commander's memory to the day of his death, and he
kept with particular care a jewel and miniature presented to him
by the king. He continued as a general officer in the Swedish
army for some years, was promoted in 1636 to the rank of field
marshal, and continued in the field until 1638, when events
recalled him to his own country. He had married long before
this — in 1637 his eldest son was made a colonel in the Swedish
army — and he had managed to keep in touch with Scottish
affairs.
As the foremost Scottish soldier of his day he was naturally
nominated to command the Scottish army in the impending
war with England, a post which, resigning his Swedish command,
he accepted with a glad heart, for he was an ardent Covenanter
and had caused "a great number of our commanders in Germany
subscryve our covenant" (Baillie's Letters). On leaving Sweden
he brought back his arrears of pay in the form of cannon and
muskets for his new army. For some months he busied himself
with the organization and training of the new levies, and with
inducing Scottish officers abroad to do their duty to their country
by returning to lead them. Diminutive in size and somewhat
deformed in person as he was, his reputation and his shrewdness
LEVEN— LEVEN, LOCH
507
and simple tact, combined with the respect for his office of lord
general that he enforced on all ranks, brought even the unruly
nobles to subordination. He had by now amassed a considerable
fortune and was able to live in a manner befitting a commander-
in-chief, even when in the field. One of his first exploits was to
take the castle of Edinburgh by surprise, without the loss of a
man. He commanded the Scottish army at Dunse Law in May
of that year, and in 1640 he invaded England, and defeated
the king's troops at Newburn on the Tyne, which gave him
possession of Newcastle and of the open country as far as the
Tees. At the treaty with the king at Ripon, Leslie was one of
the commissioners of the Scottish parliament, and when Charles
visited Edinburgh Leslie entertained him magnificently and
accompanied him when he drove through the streets. His
affirmations of loyalty to the crown, which later events caused
to be remembered against him, were sincere enough, but the
complicated politics of the time made it difficult for Leslie, the
lord general of the Scottish army, to maintain a perfectly
consistent attitude. However, his influence was exercised
chiefly to put an end to, even to hush up, the troubles, and he
is found, now giving a private warning to plotters against the
king to enable them to escape, now guarding the Scottish
parliament against a royalist coup d'etat, and now securing for
an old comrade of the German wars, Patrick Ruthven, Lord
Ettrick, indemnity for having held Edinburgh Castle for the
king against the parliament. Charles created him, by patent
dated Holyrood, October n, 1641, earl of Leven and Lord
Balgonie, and made him captain of Edinburgh Castle and a
privy councillor. The parliament recognized his services by a
grant, and, on his resigning the lord generalship, appointed him
commander of the permanent forces. A little later, Leven, who
was a member of the committee of the estates which exercised
executive powers during the recess of parliament, used his great
influence in support of a proposal to raise a Scottish army to
help the elector palatine in Germany, but the Ulster massacres
gave this force, when raised, a fresh direction and Leven himself
accompanied it to Ireland as lord general. He did not remain
there long, for the Great Rebellion (q.v.) had begun in England,
and negotiations were opened between the English and the
Scottish parliaments for mutual armed assistance. Leven
accepted the command of the new forces raised for the invasion
of England, and was in consequence freely accused of having
broken his personal oath to Charles, but he could hardly have
acted otherwise than he did, and at that time, and so far as the
Scots were concerned, to the end of the struggle, the parliaments
were in arms, professedly and to some extent actually, to rescue
his majesty from the influence qf evil counsellors.
The military operations preceding Marston Moor are described
under GREAT REBELLION, and the battle itself under its own
heading. Leven's great reputation, wisdom and tact made him
an ideal commander for the allied army formed by the junction
of Leven's, Fairfax's and Manchester's in Yorkshire. After
the battle the allied forces separated, Leven bringing the siege
of Newcastle to an end by storming it. In 1645 the Scots were
less successful, though their operations ranged from Westmorland
to Hereford, and Leven himself had many administrative and
political difficulties to contend with. These difficulties became
more pronounced when in 1646 Charles took refuge with the
Scottish army. The king remained with Leven until he was
handed over to the English parliament in 1647, and Leven
constantly urged him to take the covenant and to make peace.
Presbyterians and Independents had now parted, and with
no more concession than the guarantee of the covenant the
Scottish and English Presbyterians were ready to lay down their
arms, or to turn them against the " sectaries." Leven was now
old and infirm, and though retained as nominal commander-in-
chief saw no further active service. He acted with Argyll and
the " godly " party in the discussions preceding the second in-
vasion of England, and remained at his post as long as possible
in the hope of preventing the Scots becoming merely a royalist
instrument for the conquest of the English Independents.
But he was induced in the end to resign, though he was appointed
lord general of all new forces that might be raised for the defence
of Scotland. The occasion soon came, for Cromwell annihilated
the Scottish invaders at Preston and Uttoxeter, and thereupon
Argyll assumed political and Leven military control at Edinburgh.
But he was now over seventy years of age, and willingly resigned
the effective command to his subordinate David Leslie (see
NEWARK, LORD), in whom he had entire confidence. After the
execution of Charles I. the war broke out afresh, and this time
the " godly " party acted with the royalists. In the new war,
and in the disastrous campaign of Dunbar, Leven took but a
nominal part, though attempts were afterwards made to hold
him responsible. But once more the parliament refused to
accept his resignation. Leven at last fell into the hands of a
party of English dragoons in August 1651, and with some others
was sent to London. He remained incarcerated in the Tower
for some time, till released on finding securities for £20,000,
upon which he retired to his residence in Northumberland.
While on a visit to London he was again arrested, for a technical
breach of his engagement, but by the intercession of the queen
of Sweden he obtained his liberty. He was freed from his
engagements in 1654, and retired to his seat at Balgonie in
Fifeshire, where he died at an advanced age in 1661. He
acquired considerable landed property, particularly Inchmartin
in the Carse of Gowrie, which he called Inchleslie.
See LEVEN AND MELVILLE, EARLS OF, below.
LEVEN, a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901)
5577. It is situated on the Firth of Forth, at the mouth of the
Leven, sfm. E. by N. of Thornton Junction by the North
British railway. The public buildings include the town hall,
public hall and people's institute, in the grounds of which the
old town cross has been erected. The industries are numerous,
comprising flax-spinning, brewing, linen-weaving, paper-making,
seed-crushing and rope-making, besides salt-works, a foundry,
saw-mill and brick-works. The wet dock is not much used,
owing to the constant accumulation of sand. The golf-links
extending for 2 m. to Lundin are among the best in Scotland.
Two miles N.E. is Lundin Mill and Drumochie, usually called
LUNDIN (pop. 570), at the mouth of Kiel Burn, with a station on
the Links. The three famous standing stones are supposed to
be either of " Druidical " origin or to mark the site of a battle
with the Danes. In the vicinity are the remains of an old house
of the Lundins, dating from the reign of David II. To the N.W.
of Leven lies the parish of KENNOWAY (pop. 870). In Captain
Seton's house, which still stands in the village of Kennoway,
Archbishop Sharp spent the night before his assassination (1679).
One mile east of Lundin lies LARGO (pop. of parish 2046),
consisting of Upper Largo, or Kirkton of Largo, and Lower
Largo. The public buildings include Simpson institute, with
a public hall, library, reading-room, bowling-green and lawn-
tennis court, and John Wood's hospital, founded in 1659 for
poor persons bearing his name. A statue of Alexander Selkirk,
or Selcraig (1676-1721), the prototype of " Robinson Crusoe,"
who was born here, was erected in 1886. Sir John Leslie (1766-
1832), the natural philosopher, was also a native. Largo claims
two famous sailors, Admiral Sir Philip Durham (1763-1845),
commander-in-chief at Portsmouth from 1836 to 1839, and
Sir Andrew Wood (d. 1515), the trusted servant of James III.
and James IV., who sailed the " Great Michael," the largest ship
of its time. When he was past active service he had a canal
cut from his house to the parish church, to which he was rowed
every Sunday in an eight-oared barge. Largo House was granted
to him by James III., and the tower of the original structure still
exists. About 1 1 m. from the coast rises the height of Largo Law
(948 ft.). Kellie Law lies some s| m. to the east.
LEVEN, LOCH, a lake of Kinross-shire, Scotland. It has an
oval shape, the longer axis running from N.W. to S.E., has a
length of 3! m., and a breadth of 2§ m. and is situated near the
south and east boundaries of the shire. It lies at a height of 3 50 ft.
above the sea. The mean depth is less than 15 ft., with a
maximum of 83 ft., the lake being thus one of the shallowest
in Scotland. Reclamation works carried on from 1826 to 1836
reduced its area by one quarter, but it still possesses a surface
508
LEVEN AND MELVILLE, EARLS OF— LEVER
area of 55 sq. m. It drains the county and is itself drained by
the Leven. It is famous for the Loch Leven trout (Salmo
levenensis, considered by some a variety of 5. trutta), which are
remarkable for size and quality. The fishings are controlled
by the Loch Leven Angling Association, which organizes com-
petitions attracting anglers from far and near. The loch contains
seven islands. Upon St Serf's, the largest, which commemorates
the patron saint of Fifeshire, are the ruins of the Priory of Port-
moak — so named from St Moak, the first abbot — the oldest
Culdee establishment in Scotland. Some time before 961 it
was made over to the bishop of St Andrews, and shortly after
1 144 a body of canons regular was established on it in connexion
with the priory of canons regular founded in that year at St
Andrews. The second largest island, Castle Island, possesses
remains of even greater interest. The first stronghold is supposed
to have been erected by Congal, son of Dongart, king of the
Picts. The present castle dates from the I3th century and was
occasionally used as a royal residence. It is said to have been
in the hands of the English for a time, from whom it was delivered
by Wallace. It successfully withstood Edward Bah'ol's siege
in J33S) and was granted by Robert II. to Sir William Douglas
of Lugton. • It became the prison at various periods of Robert II. ;
of Alexander Stuart, earl of Buchan, " the Wolf of Badenoch ";
Archibald, earl of Douglas (1429); Patrick Graham, archbishop
of St Andrews (who died, still in bondage, on St Serf's Island in
1478), and of Mary, queen of Scots. The queen had visited it
more than once before her detention, and had had a presence
chamber built in it. Conveyed hither in June 1567 after her
surrender at Carberry, she signed her abdication within its walls
on the 4th of July and effected her escape on the and of May 1 568.
The keys of the castle, which were thrown into the loch during
her flight, were found and are preserved at Dalmahoy in Mid-
lothian. Support of Mary's cause had involved Thomas Percy,
7th earl of Northumberland (b. 1528). He too was lodged in
the castle in 1569, and after three years' imprisonment was
handed over to the English, by whom he was beheaded at
York in 1572. The proverb that " Those never got luck who
came to Loch Leven " sums up the history of the castle. The
causeway connecting the isle with the mainland was long sub-
merged too deeply for use, but the reclamation operations already
referred to almost brought it into view again.
LEVEN AND MELVILLE, EARLS OF. The family of Melville
which now holds these two earldoms is descended1 from Sir John
Melville of Raith in Fifeshire. Sir John, who was a member of
the reforming party in Scotland, was put to death for high
treason on the i3th of December 1548; he left with other
children a son Robert (1527-1621), who in 1616 was created a lord
of parliament as Lord Melville of Monymaill. Before his eleva-
tion to the Scottish peerage Melville had been a stout partisan
of Mary, queen of Scots, whom he represented at the English
court, and he had filled several important offices in Scotland
under her son James VI. The fourth holder of the lordship of
Melville was George (c. 1634-1707), a son of John, the 3rd lord
(d. 1643), and a descendant of Sir John Melville. Implicated in
the Rye House plot against Charles II., George took refuge in
the Netherlands in 1683, but he returned to England after the
revolution of 1688 and was appointed secretary for Scotland
by William III. in 1689, being created earl of Melville in the
following year. He was made president of the Scottish privy
council in 1696, but he was deprived of his office when Anne
became queen in 1702, and he died on the 2oth of May 1707.
His son David, 2nd earl of Melville (1660-1728), fled to Holland
with his father in 1683 ; after serving in the army of the elector
of Brandenburg he accompanied William of Orange to England
in 1688. At the head of a regiment raised by himself he fought
for William at Killiecrankie and elsewhere, and as commander-
in-chief of the troops in Scotland he dealt promptly and effectively
with the attempted Jacobite rising of 1708. In 1712, however,
his office was taken from him and he died on the 6th of June
1728.
Alexander Leslie, ist earl of Leven (<?.».), was succeeded in
his earldom by his grandson Alexander, who died without sons
in July 1664. The younger Alexander's two daughters were
then in turn countesses of Leven in their own right; and after the
death of the second of these two ladies in 1676 a dispute arose
over the succession to the earldom between John Leslie, earl
(afterwards duke) of Rothes, and David Melville, 2nd earl of
Melville, mentioned above. In 1681, however, Rothes died,
and Melville, who was a great-grandson of the ist earl of Leven,
assumed the title, calling himself earl of Leven and Melville
after he succeeded his father as earl of Melville in May 1707.
Since 1805 the family has borne the name of Leslie-Melville.
In 1906 John David Leslie-Melville (b. 1886) became I2th earl
of Leven and nth earl of Melville.
See Sir W. Eraser, The Melvilles, Earls of Melville, and the Leslies,
Earls of Leven (1890) ; and the Leven and Melville Papers, edited by
the Hon. W. H. Leslie-Melville for the Bannatyne Club (1843).
LEVER, CHARLES JAMES (1806-1872), Irish novelist, second
son of James Lever, a Dublin architect and builder, was born
in the Irish capital on the 3ist of August 1806. His descent
was purely English. He was educated in private schools, where
he wore a ring, smoked, read novels, was a ringleader in every
breach of discipline, and behaved generally like a boy destined
for the navy in one of Captain Marryat's novels. His escapades
at Trinity College, Dublin (1823-1828), whence he took the
degree of M.B. in 1831, form the basis of that vast cellarage
of anecdote from which all the best vintages in his novels are
derived. The inimitable Frank Webber in Charles O'Malley
(spiritual ancestor of Foker and Mr Bouncer) was a college
friend, Robert Boyle, later on an Irish parson. Lever and Boyle
sang ballads of their own composing in the streets of Dublin,
after the manner of Fergusson or Goldsmith, filled their caps
with coppers and played many other pranks embellished in the
pages of O'Malley, Con Cregan and Lord Kilgobbin. Before
seriously embarking upon the medical studies for which he was
designed, Lever visited Canada as an unqualified surgeon on
an emigrant ship, and has drawn upon some of his experiences
in Con Cregan, Arthur O'Leary and Roland Cashel. Arrived in
Canada he plunged into the backwoods, was affiliated to a tribe
of Indians and had to escape at the risk of his life, like his own
Bagenal Daly.
Back in Europe, he travelled in the guise of a student from
Gottingen to Weimar (where he saw Goethe), thence to Vienna;
he loved the German student life with its beer, its fighting and
its fun, and several of his merry songs, such as " The Pope he
loved a merry life " (greatly envied by Titmarsh), are on
Student-lied models. His medical degree admitted him to an
appointment from the Board of Health in Co. Clare and then
as dispensary doctor at Port Stewart, but the liveliness of his
diversions as a country doctor seems to have prejudiced the
authorities against him. In 1833 he married his first love,
Catherine Baker, and in February 1837, after varied experiences,
he began running The Confessions of Harry Lorrequer through
the pages of the recently established Dublin University Magazine.
During the previous seven years the popular taste had declared
strongly in favour of the service novel as exemplified by Frank
Mildmay, Tom Cringle, The Subaltern, Cyril Thornton, Stories of
Waterloo, Ben Brace and The Bivouac; and Lever himself
had met William Hamilton Maxwell, the titular founder of the
genre. Before Harry Lorrequer appeared in volume form (1839),
Lever had settled on the strength of a slight diplomatic connexion
as a fashionable physician in Brussels (16, Rue Ducale). Lorrequer
was merely a string of Irish and other stories good, bad and
indifferent, but mostly rollicking, and Lever, who strung together
his anecdotes late at night after the serious business of the day
was done, was astonished at its success. " If this sort of thing
amuses them, I can go on for ever." Brussels was indeed a
superb place for the observation of half-pay officers, such as
Major Monsoon (Commissioner Meade), Captain Bubbleton and
the like, who terrorized the lavernes of the place with their
endless peninsular stories, and of English society a little damaged,
which it became the specialty of Lever to depict. He sketched
with a free hand, wrote, as he lived, from hand to mouth, and
the chief difficulty he experienced was that of getting rid of his
LEVER
509
characters who " hung about him like those tiresome people
who never can make up their minds to bid you good night."
Lever had never taken part in a battle himself, but his next three
books, Charles O'Mdley (1841), Jack Hinton and Tom Burke of
Ours (1843), written under the spur of the writer's chronic
extravagance, contain some splendid military writing and some
of the most animated battle-pieces on record. In pages of
O'Malley and Tom Burke Lever anticipates not a few of the best
effects of Marbot, Thiebaut, Lejeune, Griois, Seruzier, Burgoyne
and the like. His account of the Douro need hardly fear compari-
son, it has been said, with Napier's. Condemned by the critics,
Lever had completely won the general reader from the Iron
Duke himself downwards.
In 1842 he returned to Dublin to edit the Dublin University
Magazine, and gathered round him a typical coterie of Irish
wits (including one or two hornets) such as the O'Sullivans,
Archer Butler, W. Carleton, Sir William Wilde, Canon Hayman,
D. F. McCarthy, McGlashan, Dr Kenealy and many others. In
June 1842 he welcomed at Templeogue, 4 m. south-west of Dublin,
the author of the Snob Papers on his Irish tour (the Sketch
Book was, later, dedicated to Lever). Thackeray recognized
the fund of Irish sadness beneath the surface merriment. "The
author's character is not humour but sentiment. The spirits
are mostly artificial, the fond is sadness, as appears to me to
be that of most Irish writing and people." The Waterloo
episode in Vanity Fair was in part an outcome of the talk
between the two novelists. But the " Galway pace," the display
he found it necessary to maintain at Templeogue, the stable
full of horses, the cards, the friends to entertain, the quarrels
to compose and the enormous rapidity with which he had to
complete Tom Burke, The O'Donoghue and Arthur O'Leary
(1845), made his native land an impossible place for Lever to
continue in. Templeogue would soon have proved another
Abbotsford. Thackeray suggested London. But Lever required
a new field of literary observation and anecdote. His seve
originel was exhausted and he decided to renew it on the continent.
In 1845 he resigned his editorship and went back to Brussels,
whence he started upon an unlimited tour of central Europe
in a family coach. Now and again he halted for a few months,
and entertained to the limit of his resources in some ducal
castle or other which he hired for an off season. Thus at Rieden-
burg, near Bregenz, in August 1846, he entertained Charles
Dickens and his wife and other well-known people. Like his
own Daltons or Dodd Family Abroad he travelled continentally,
from Carlsruhe to Como, from Como to Florence, from Florence
to the Baths of Lucca and so on, and his letters home are the
litany of the literary remittance man, his ambition now limited
to driving a pair of novels abreast without a diminution of his
standard price for serial work (" twenty pounds a sheet ").
In the Knight of Gwynne, a story of the Union (1847), Con Cregan
(1849), Roland Cashel (1850) and Maurice Tiernay (1852) we
still have traces of his old manner; but he was beginning to lose
his original joy in composition. His fond of sadness began to
cloud the animal joyousness of his temperament. Formerly
he had written for the happy world which is young and curly
and merry; now he grew fat and bald and grave. " After 38
or so what has life to offer but one universal declension. Let
the crew pump as hard as they like, the leak gains every hour."
But, depressed in spirit as he was, his wit was unextinguished ;
he was still the delight of the salons with his stories, and in 1867,
after a few years' experience of a similar kind at Spezia, he was
cheered by a letter from Lord Derby offering him the more
lucrative consulship of Trieste. " Here is six hundred a year for
doing nothing, and you are just the man to do it." The six
hundred could not atone to Lever for the lassitude of prolonged
exile. Trieste, at first " all that I could desire," became with
characteristic abruptness "detestable and damnable." " Nothing
to eat, nothing to drink, no one to speak to." " Of all the
dreary places it has been my lot to sojourn in this is the worst "
(some references to Trieste will be found in That Boy of Norcott's,
1869). He could never be alone and was almost morbidly
dependent upon literary encouragement. Fortunately, like
Scott, he had unscrupulous friends who assured him that his
last efforts were his best. They include The Fortunes of Glencore
(1857), Tony Butler (1865), Luttrell of Arran (1865), Sir Brooke
Fosbrooke (1866), Lord Kilgobbin (1872) and the table-talk of
Cornelius O'Doivd, originally contributed to Blackwood. His
depression, partly due to incipient heart disease, partly to the
growing conviction that he was the victim of literary and
critical conspiracy, was confirmed by the death of his wife
(23rd April 1870), to whom he was tenderly attached. He
visited Ireland in the following year and seemed alternately
in very high and very low spirits. Death had already given
him one or two runaway knocks, and, after his return to Trieste,
he failed gradually, dying suddenly, however, and almost
painlessly, from failure of the heart's action on the ist of June
1872. His daughters, one of whom, Sydney, is believed to have
been the real author of The Rent in a Cloud (1869), were well
provided for.
Trollope praised Lever's novels highly when he said that they
were just like his conversation. He was a born raconteur, and
had in perfection that easy flow of light description which without
tedium or hurry leads up to the point of the good stories of which
in earlier days his supply seemed inexhaustible. With little
respect for unity of action or conventional novel structure, his
brightest books, such as Lorrequer, O'Malley and Tom Burke, are
in fact little more than recitals of scenes in the life of a particular
" hero," unconnected by any continuous intrigue. The type of
character he depicted is for the most part elementary. His
women are mostly rouees, romps or Xanthippes; his heroes have
too much of the Pickle temper about them and fall an easy prey
to the serious attacks of Poe or to the more playful gibes of
Thackeray in Phil Fogarty or Bret Harte in Terence Deumlle.
This last is a perfect bit of burlesque. Terence exchanges
nineteen shots with the Hon. Captain Henry Somerset in the glen.
" At each fire I shot away a button from his uniform. As my
last bullet shot off the last button from his sleeve, I remarked
quietly, ' You seem now, my lord, to be almost as ragged as the
gentry you sneered at,' and rode haughtily away." And yet
these careless sketches contain such haunting creations as Frank
Webber, Major Monsoon and Micky Free, " the Sam Weller of
Ireland." Falstaff is alone in the literature of the world; but
if ever there came a later Falstaff, Monsoon was the man. As
for Baby Blake, is she not an Irish Di Vernon ? The critics may
praise Lever's thoughtful and careful later novels as they will,
but Charles O'Malley will always be the pattern of a military
romance.
Superior, it is sometimes claimed, in construction and style,
the later books approximate it may be thought to the good
ordinary novel of commerce, but they lack the extraordinary
qualities, the incommunicable " go " of the early books — the
elan of Lever's untamed youth. Artless and almost formless
these productions may be, but they represent to us, as very few
other books can, that pathetic ejaculation of Lever's own —
" Give us back the wild freshness of the morning!" We know
the novelist's teachers, Maxwell, Napier, the old-fashioned com-
pilation known as Victoires, conquetes et desastres des Francois
(1835), and the old buffers at Brussels who emptied the room
by uttering the word " Badajos." But where else shall we find
the equals of the military scenes in O'Malley and Tom Burke,
or the military episodes in Jack Hinton, Arthur O'Leary (the story
of Aubuisson) or Maurice Tiernay (nothing he ever did is finer
than the chapter introducing " A remnant of Fontenoy ")? It
is here that his true genius lies, even more than in his talent for
conviviality and fun, which makes an early copy of an early Lever
(with Phiz's illustrations) seem literally to exhale an atmosphere
of past and present entertainment. It is here that he is a true
romancist, not for boys only, but also for men.
Lever's lack of artistry and of sympathy with the deeper
traits of the Irish character have been stumbling-blocks to his
reputation among the critics. Except to some extent in The
Marlins of Cro' Martin (1856) it may be admitted that his por-
traits of Irish are drawn too exclusively from the type depicted
in Sir Jonah Barrington's Memoirs and already well known on
LEVER— LEVERTIN
the English stage. He certainly had no deliberate intention of
" lowering the national character." Quite the reverse. Yet his
posthumous reputation seems to have suffered in consequence,
in spite of all his Gallic sympathies and not unsuccessful
endeavours to apotheosize the " Irish Brigade."
The chief authorities are the Life, by W. J. Fitzpatrick (1879),
and the Letters, ed. in 2 vols. by Edmund Downey (1906), neither of
which, however, enables the reader to penetrate below the surface.
See also Dr Garnett in Diet. Nat. Biog.; Dublin Univ. Mag. (1880),
465 and 570; Anthony Trollppe's Autobiography; Blackwood
(August 1862); Fortnightly Review, vol. xxxii.; Andrew Lang's
Essays in Little (1892) ; Henley's Views and Reviews; Hugh Walker's
Literature of the Victorian Era (1910); The Bookman Hist, of English
Literature (1906), p. 467; Bookman (June 1906; portraits). A library
edition of the novels in 37 vols. appeared 1897-1899 under the
superintendence of Lever's daughter, Julie Kate Neville. (T. SE.)
LEVER (through O. Fr. leveour, levere, mod. levier, from Lat.
levare, to lift, raise), a mechanical device for raising bodies; the
" simple " lever consists of a rigid bar free to move about a fixed
point, termed the fulcrum; one point of the rod is connected to
the piece to be moved, and power is applied at another point
(see MECHANICS).
LEVERRIER, URBAIN JEAN JOSEPH (1811-1877), French
astronomer, was born at St L6 in Normandy on the i ith of March
1811. His father, who held a small post under government,
made great efforts to send him to Paris, where a brilliant examina-
tion gained him, in 1831, admittance to the Ecole Polytechnique.
The distinction of his career there was rewarded with a free
choice amongst the departments of the public service open to
pupils of the school. He selected the administration of tobaccos,
addressing himself especially to chemical researches under the
guidance of Gay-Lussac, and gave striking proof of ability in
two papers on the combinations of phosphorus with hydrogen
and oxygen, published in Annales de Chimie et de Physique
(1835 and 1837). His astronomical vocation, like that of Kepler,
came from without. The place of teacher of that science at the
ficole Polytechnique falling vacant in 1837, it was offered to
and accepted by Leverrier, who, " docile to circumstance,"
instantly abandoned chemistry, and directed the whole of his
powers to celestial mechanics. The first fruits of his labours
were contained in two memoirs presented to the Academy,
September 16 and October 14, 1839. Pursuing the investigations
of Laplace, he demonstrated with greater rigour the stability of
the solar system, and calculated the limits within which the
eccentricities and inclinations of the planetary orbits vary. This
remarkable debut excited much attention, and, on the recom-
mendation of Francois Arago, he took in hand the theory of
Mercury, producing, in 1843, vastly improved tables of that
planet. The perturbations of the comets discovered, the one by
H. A. E. A. Faye in November 1843, the other by Francesco de
Vico a year later, were minutely investigated by Leverrier, with
the result of disproving the supposed identity of the first with
Lexell's lost comet of 1770, and of the other with Tycho's of
1585. On the other hand, he made it appear all but certain that
Vico's comet was the same with one seen by Philippe de Lahire
in 1678. Recalled once more, by the summons of Arago, to
planetary studies, he was this time invited to turn his attention
to Uranus. Step by step, with sagacious and patient accuracy,
he advanced to the great discovery which has immortalized his
name. Carefully sifting all the known causes of disturbance, he
showed that one previously unknown had to be reckoned with,
and on the 23rd of September 1846 the planet Neptune was
discerned by J. G. Galle (d. 1910) at Berlin, within one degree of
the spot Leverrier had indicated (see NEPTUNE).
This memorable achievement was greeted with an outburst
of public enthusiasm. Academies vied with each other in en-
rolling Leverrier among their members; the Royal Society
awarded him the Copley medal; the king of Denmark sent him
the order of the Dannebrog; he was named officer in the Legion
of Honour, and preceptor to the comte de Paris; a chair of
astronomy was created for his benefit at the Faculty of Sciences;
he was appointed adjunct astronomer to the Bureau of Longi-
tudes. Returned to the Legislative Assembly in 1849 by his
native department of Manche, he voted with the anti-republican
party, but devoted his principal attention to subjects connected
with science and education. After the coup d'etat of 1851 he
became a senator and inspector-general of superior instruction,
sat upon the commission for the reform of the ficole Poly-
technique (1854), and, on the 3oth of January 1854, succeeded
Arago as director of the Paris observatory. His official work in
the latter capacity would alone have strained the energies of an
ordinary man. The institution had fallen into a state of lament-
able inefficiency. Leverrier placed it on a totally new footing,
freed it from the control of the Bureau of Longitudes, and raised
it to its due rank among the observatories of Europe. He did
not escape the common lot of reformers. His uncompromising
measures and unconciliatory manner of enforcing them raised a
storm only appeased by his removal on the $th of February 1870.
On the death of his successor Charles Eugene Delaunay (1816-
1872), he was reinstated by Thiers, but with authority restricted
by the supervision of a council. In the midst of these dis-
quietudes, he executed a task of gigantic proportions. This was
nothing less than the complete revision of the planetary theories,
followed by a laborious comparison of results with the most
authentic observations, and the construction of tables represent-
ing the movements thus corrected. It required all his indomit-
able perseverance to carry through a purpose which failing
health continually menaced with frustration. He had, however,
the happiness of living long enough to perfect his work. Three
weeks after he had affixed his signature to the printed sheets of
the theory of Neptune he died at Paris on the 23rd of September
1877. By his marriage with Mademoiselle Choquet, who sur-
vived him little more than a month, he left a son and daughter.
The discovery with which Leverrier's name is popularly identified
was only an incident in his career. The elaboration of the scheme of
the heavens traced out by P. S. Laplace in the Mecanique celeste
was its larger aim, for the accomplishment of which forty years of
unremitting industry barely sufficed. He nevertheless found time
to organize the meteorological service in France and to promote the
present system of international weather-warnings. He founded the
Association Scientifique, and was active in introducing a practical
scientific element into public education. His inference of the exist-
ence, between Mercury and the sun, of an appreciable quantity of
circulating matter (Comptes rendus, 1859, ii. 379), has not yet
been verified. He was twice, in 1868 and 1876, the recipient of the
gold medal of the Royal Astronomical Society, London, and the
university of Cambridge conferred upon him, in 1875, the honorary
degree of LL.D. His planetary and solar tables were adopted by the
Nautical Almanac, as well as by the Connaissance des temps.
The Annales de I' Observatoire de Paris, the publication of which
was set on foot by Leverrier, contain, in vols. i.-vi. (Memoires)
(1855-1861) and x.-xiv. (1874-1877), his theories and tables of the
several planets. In vol. i. will be found, besides his masterly report
on the observatory, a general theory of secular inequalities, in which
the development of the disturbing function was carried further than
had previously been attempted.
The memoirs and papers communicated by him to the Academy
were summarized in Comptes rendus (1839-1876), and the more im-
portant published in full either separately or in the Conn, des temps
and the Journal des mathematiques. That entitled Developpemens
sur diferents points de la theorie des perturbations (1841), was trans-
lated in part xviii. of Taylor's Scientific Memoirs. For his scientific
work see Professor Adams's address, Monthly Notices, xxxvi.
232, and F. Tisserand's review in Ann. de I'Obs. torn. xv. (1880);
for a notice of his life, J. Bertrand'.0 " Eloge historique," Mem. de
I' Ac. des Sciences, torn, xli., 2me seYie (A. M. C.)
LEVERTIN, OSCAR IVAN (1862-1906), Swedish poet and
man of letters, was born of Jewish parents at Norrkoping on the
i7th of July 1862. He received his doctorate in letters at Upsala "
in 1887, and was subsequently decent at Upsala, and later pro-
fessor of literature at Stockholm. Enforced sojourns in southern
Europe on account of health familiarized him with foreign
languages. He began by being an extreme follower of the natural-
ist school, but on his return in 1890 from a two years' residence
in Davos he wrote, in collaboration with the poet C. G. Verner
von Heidenstam (b. 1859), a novel, Peptias brollop (1890), which
was a direct attack on naturalism. His later volumes of short
stories, Rococonoveller and Sista noveller, are fine examples of
modern Swedish fiction. The lyrical beauty of his poems,
Legender och visor (1891), placed him at the head of the romantic
reaction in Sweden. In his poems entitled Nya Dikter (1894)
he drew his material partly from medieval sources, and a third
LEVI, H.— LEVIRATE
volum6 of poetry in 1902 sustained his reputation. His last
poetical work (1905) was Kung Salomo och Morolf, poems founded
on an eastern legend. As a critic he first attracted attention by
his books on the Gustavian age of Swedish letters: Teater och
drama under Gustaf III. (1889), &c. He was an active colla-
borator in the review Ord och Bild. He died in 1906, at a time
when he was engaged on his Limit, posthumously published,
a fragment of a great work on Linnaeus.
LEVI, HERMANN (1839-1900), German orchestral conductor,
was born at Giessen on the 7th of November 1839, and was the
son of a Jewish rabbi. He was educated at Giessen and Mann-
heim, and came under Vincenz Lachner's notice. From 1855 to
1858 Levi studied at the Leipzig conservatorium, and after a
series of travels which took him to Paris, he obtained his first
post as music director at Saarbriicken, which post he exchanged
for that at Mannheim in 1861. From 1862 to 1864 he was chief
conductor of the German opera in Rotterdam, then till 1872
at Carlsruhe, when he went to Munich, a post he held until 1896,
when ill-health compelled him to resign. Levi's name is in-
dissolubly connected with the increased public appreciation of
Wagner's music. He conducted the first performance of Parsifal
at Bayreuth in 1882, and was connected with the musical life
of that place during the remainder of his career. He visited
London in 1895.
LEVI, LEONE (1821-1888), English jurist and statistician,
was born of Jewish parents on the 6th of June 1821, at Ancona,
Italy. After receiving an early training in a business house in
his native town, he went to Liverpool in 1844, became naturalized,
and changing his faith, joined the Presbyterian church. Per-
ceiving the necessity, in view of the unsystematic condition of
the English law on the subject, for the establishment of chambers
and tribunals of commerce in England, he warmly advocated
their institution in numerous pamphlets; and as a result of his
labours the Liverpool Chamber of Commerce, of which Levi was
made secretary, was founded in 1849. In 1850 Levi published
his Commercial Law of the World, being an exhaustive and com-
parative treatise upon the laws and codes of mercantile countries.
Appointed in 1852 to the chair of commercial law in King's
College, London, he proved himself a highly competent and
popular instructor, and his evening classes were a most successful
innovation. He was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1859,
and received from the university of Tubingen the degree of
doctor of political science. His chief work — History of British
Commerce and of the Economic Progress of the British Nation,
1763-1870, is perhaps a rather too partisan account of British
economic development, being a eulogy upon the blessings of
Free Trade, but its value as a work of reference cannot be
gainsaid. Among his other works are: Work and Pay; Wages
and Earnings of the Working Classes; International Law, with
Materials for a Code. He died on the 7th of May 1888.
LEVIATHAN, the Hebrew name (livyathan), occurring in the
poetical books of the Bible, of a gigantic animal, apparently
the sea or water equivalent of behemoth (q.v.), the king of the
animals of the dry land. In Job xli. 15 it would seem to repre-
sent the crocodile, in Isaiah xxvii. i it is a crooked and piercing
serpent, the dragon of the sea;cf. Psalms civ. 26. Theetymology
of the word is uncertain, but it has been taken to be connected
with a root meaning " to twist." Apart from its scriptural
usage, the word is applied to any gigantic marine animal such
as the whale, and hence, figuratively, of very large ships, and
also of persons of outstanding strength, power, wealth or influence.
Hobbes adopted the name as the title of his principal work,
applying it to " the multitude so united in one person . . . called
a commonwealth. . . . This is the generation of that Leviathan,
or rather ... of that mortal God, to which we owe under the
immortal God, our peace and defence."
LEVIRATE (Lat. levir, a husband's brother), a custom,
sometimes even a law, compelling a dead man's brother to
marry his widow. It seems to have been widespread in primitive
times, and is common to-day. Of the origin and primitive
purpose of the levirate marriage various explanations have been
put forward: —
1. It has been urged that the custom was primarily based on
the law of inheritance; a wife, regarded -as a chattel, being
inherited like other possessions. The social advantage of pro-
viding one who should maintain the widow doubtless aided the
spread of the custom. The abandonment of a woman and her
children in the nomadic stage of civilization would be equiva-
lent to death for them; hence with some peoples the levirate
became a duty rather than a right. Among the Thlinkets,
for example, when a man dies, his brother or his sister's son
must marry the widow, a failure in this duty occasioning
feuds. The obligation on a man to provide for his sister-in-law
is analogous to other duties devolving on kinsfolk, such as the
vendetta.
2. J. F. McLennan, however, would assume the levirate to be
a relic of polyandry, and in his argument lays much stress on the
fact that it is the dead man's brother who inherits the widow.
But among many races who follow the custom, such as the
Fijians, Samoans, Papuans of New Guinea, the Caroline Islanders,
and some tribes in the interior of Western Equatorial Africa, the
rule of inheritance is to the brother first. Thus among the
Santals, " when the elder brother dies, the next younger inherits
the widow, children and all the property." Further, there is
no known race where it is permitted to a son to marry his own
mother. Inheriting a woman in primitive societies would be
always tantamount to marrying her, and, apart from any special
laws of inheritance, it would be natural for the brother to take
over the widow. In polygamous countries where a man leaves
many widows the son would have a right of ownership over
these, and could dispose of them or keep them as he pleased, his
own mother alone excepted. Thus among the Bakalai, an
African tribe, widows may marry the son of their dead husband,
or in default of a son, can live with the brother. The Negroes
of Benin and the Gabun and the Kaffirs of Natal have similar
customs. In New Caledonia every man, married or single,
must immediately marry his brother's widow. In Polynesia the
levirate has the force of law, and it is common throughout
America and Asia.
3. Another explanation of the custom has been sought in a
semi-religious motive which has had extraordinary influence in
countries where to die without issue is regarded as a terrible
calamity. The fear of this catastrophe would readily arise
among people who did not believe in personal immortality, and
to whom the extinction of their line would be tantamount to
annihilation. Or it is easily conceivable as a natural result of
ancestor-worship, under which failure of offspring entailed
deprivation of cherished rites and service.1 Thus it is only when
the dead man has no offspring that the Jewish, Hindu and
Malagasy laws prescribe that the brother shall " raise up seed "
to him. In this sense the levirate forms part of the Deuteronomic
Code, under which, however, the obligation is restricted to the
brother who " dwelleth together " (i.e. on the family estate)
with the dead man, and the first child only of the levirate
marriage is regarded as that of the dead man. That the custom
was obsolescent seems proved by the enjoining of ceremony on
any brother who wished to evade the duty, though he had to
submit to an insult from his sister-in-law, who draws off his
sandal and spits in his face. The biblical story of Ruth ex-
emplifies the custom, though with further modifications (see
RUTH, BOOK OF). Finally the custom is forbidden in Leviticus,
though in New Testament times the levirate law was still observed
by some Jews. The ceremony ordained by Deuteronomy is still
observed among the orthodox. Among the Hindus the levir did
not take his brother's widow as wife, but he had intercourse with
her. This practice was called niyoga.
4. Yet another suggested origin of the levirate is agrarian,
the motive being to keep together under the levirate husband the
1 An expression of this idea is quoted from the Mahabharafa
(Muir's trans.), by Max Miiller (Gitford Lectures), Anthropological
Religion, p. 31 —
" That stage completed, seek a wife
And gain the fruit of wedded life,
A race of sons, by rites to seal,
When thou art gone, thy spirit's weal."
LEVIS— LEVITES
property which would otherwise have been divided among all the
brothers or next of kin.
See J. F. McLennan, Studies in Ancient History (London, 1886)
and " The Levirate and Polyandry," in The Fortnightly Review, n.s.
vol. xxi. (1877); C. N. Starcke, The Primitive Family in its Origin
and Development (London, 1889); Edward Westermarck, History
of Human Marriage (London, 1894), pp. 510-514, where are valuable
notes containing references to numerous books of travel; H. Spencer,
Principles of Sociology, ii. 649; A. H. Post, Einleitung in das
Stud. d. Ethnolog. Jurisprud. (1886).
LEVIS (formerly Pointe Levi), the chief town of Levis county,
Quebec, Canada, situated on the precipitous south bank of the
St Lawrence, opposite Quebec city. Pop. (1901) 7783. It is
on the Intercolonial railway, and is the eastern terminus of the
Grand Trunk and Quebec Central railways. It contains the
Lome dock, a Dominion government graving dock, 445 ft. long,
too ft. wide, with a depth on the sill of 26^ and 2of ft. at high
water, spring and neap tides respectively. It is an important
centre of the river trade, and is connected by steam ferries
with the city of Quebec. It is named after the marechal due
de Levis, the last commander of the French troops in Canada.
LEVITES, or sons of Levi (son of Jacob by Leah), a sacred
caste in ancient Israel, the guardians of the temple service at
Jerusalem.1
i. Place in Ritual.— In the developed hierarchical system the
ministers of the sanctuary are divided into distinct grades.
All are " Levites " by descent, and are thus correlated in the
genealogical and other lists, but the true priesthood is confined
to the sons of Aaron, while the mass of the Levites are subordinate
servants who are not entitled to approach the altar or to perform,
any strictly priestly function. All access to the Deity is restricted
to thoone priesthood and to the one sanctuary at Jerusalem;
the worshipping subject is the nation of Israel as a unity, and the
function of worship is discharged on its behalf by divinely chosen
priests. The ordinary individual may not intrude under penalty
of death; only those of Levitical origin may perform service,
and they are essentially the servants and hereditary serfs of the
Aaronite priests (see Num. xviii.). But such a scheme finds no
place in the monarchy; it presupposes ahierocracy under which
the priesthood increased its rights by claiming the privileges
which past kings had enjoyed; it is the outcome of a complicated
development in Old Testament religion in the light of which it is
to be followed (see HEBREW RELIGION).
First (a) , in the earlier biblical writings which describe the state
of affairs under the Hebrew monarchy there is not this funda-
mental distinction among the Levites, and, although a list of
Aaronite high-priests is preserved in a late source, internal
details and the evidence of the historical books render its value
extremely doubtful (i Chron. vi. 3-15, 49-53)- In Jerusalem
itself the subordinate officers of the temple were not members
of a holy gild, but of the royal body-guard, or bond-slaves who
had access to the sacred courts, and might even be uncircumcised
foreigners (Josh. ix. 27; i Kings xiv. 28; 2 Kings xi.; cf. Zeph.
i. 8 seq.; Zech. xiv. 21). Moreover, ordinary individuals might
serve as priests (i Sam. ii. n, 18, vii. i; see 2 Sam. viii. 18,
deliberately altered in i Chron. xviii. 17); however, every Levite
was a priest, or at least qualified to become one (Deut. x. 8,
xviii. 7 ; Judges xvii. 5-13), and when the author of i Kings xii. 31,
wishes to represent Jeroboam's priests as illegitimate, he does
not say that they were not Aaronites, but that they were not of
the sons of Levi.
The next stage (b) is connected with the suppression of the
local high-places or minor shrines in favour of a central sanctuary.
This involved the suppression of the Levitical priests in the
country (cf. perhaps the allusion in Deut. xxi. 5) ; and the present
book of Deuteronomy, in promulgating the reform, represents
the Levites as poor scattered " sojourners " and recommends
them to the charity of the people (Deut. xii. 12, 18 seq., xiv. 27
29, xvi. ii, 14, xxvi. ii sqq.). However, they are permitted to
congregate at " the place which Yahweh shall choose," where
they may perform the usual priestly duties together with their
brethren who " stand there before Yahweh," and they are
1 For the derivation of " Levi " see below § 4 end.
llowed their share of the offerings (Deut. xviii. 6-8).4 The
Deuteronomic history of the monarchy actually ascribes to the
udaean king Josiah (621 B.C.) the suppression of the high-places,
and states that the local priests were brought to Jerusalem and
received support, but did not minister at the altar (2 Kings
cxiii. 9). Finally, a scheme of ritual for the second temple raises
his exclusion to the rank of a principle. The Levites who had
>een idolatrous are punished by exclusion from the proper
iriestly work, and take the subordinate offices which the un-
circumcised and polluted foreigners had formerly filled, while the
sons of Zadok, who had remained faithful, are henceforth the
egitimate priests, the only descendants of Levi who are allowed
o minister unto Yahweh (Ezek. xliv. 6-15, cf. xl. 46, xliii. 19,
xlviii. ii). " A threefold cord is not quickly broken," and these
hree independent witnesses agree in describing a significant
nnovation which ends with the supremacy of the Zadokites of
erusalem over their brethren.
In the last stage (c) the exclusion of the ordinary Levites from
all share in the priesthood of the sons of Aaron is looked upon as
matter of course, dating from the institution of priestly worship
>y Moses. The two classes are supposed to have been founded
separately (Exod. xxviii., cf. xxix. 9; Num. Hi. 6-10), and so far
rom any degradation being attached to the rank and file of the
^evites, their position is naturally an honourable one compared
with that of the mass of non-Levitical worshippers (see Num.
• 50-53), and they are taken by Yahweh as a surrogate
for the male first-born of Israel (iii. 11-13). They are inferior •
only to the Aaronites to whom they are " joined " (xviii. 2, a play
on the name Levi) as assistants. Various adjustments and
modifications still continue, and a number of scattered details
may indicate that internal rivalries made themselves felt. But
the different steps can hardly be recovered clearly, although the
'act that the priesthood was extended beyond the Zadokites to
families of the dispossessed priests points to some compromise
(i Chron. xxiv.). Further, it is subsequently found that certain
classes of temple servants, the singers and porters, who had once
been outside the Levitical gilds, became absorbed as the term
Levite " was widened, and this change is formally expressed by
the genealogies which ascribe to Levi, the common " ancestor "
of them all, the singers and even certain families whose heathenish
and foreign names show that they were once merely servants
of the temple.3
2. Significance of the Development. — Although the legal basis
for the final stage is found in the legislation of the time of Moses
(latter part of the second millennium B.C.), it is in reality scarcely
earlier than the sth century B.C., and the Jewish theory finds
analogies when developments of the Levitical service are referred
to David (i Chron. xv. seq., xxiii. sqq.), Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxix.)
and Josiah (xxxv.) — contrast the history in the earlier books of
Samuel and Kings — or when the still later book of Jubilees
(xxxii.) places the rise of the Levitical priesthood in the patriarchal
period. The traditional theory of the Mosaic origin of the
elaborate Levitical legislation cannot be maintained save by
the most arbitrary and inconsequential treatment of the evidence
and by an entire indifference to the historical spirit; and,
although numerous points of detail still remain very obscure, the
three leading stages-in the Levitical institutions are now recog-
nized by nearly all independent scholars. These stages with a
number of concomitant features confirm the literary hypothesis
that biblical history is in the main due to two leading recensions,
the Deuteronomic and the Priestly (cf. [b] and [c] above), which
have incorporated older sources.4 If the hierarchical system as
2 The words " beside that which cometh of the sale of his patri-
mony " (lit. " his sellings according to the fathers ") are obscure;
they seem to imply some additional source of income which the Levite
enjoys at the central sanctuary.
3 For the nethinim ("given") and "children of the slaves of
Solomon " (whose hereditary service would give them a pre-eminence
over the temple slaves), see art. NETHINIM, and Benzinger, Ency.
Bib. cols. 3397 sqq. ...
4 In defence of the traditional view, see S. I. Curtiss, The Levtlical
Priests (1877), with which his later attitude should be contrasted
(see Primitive Semitic Religion To-day, pp. 14. 5a 133 seq- • '71. 238
sqq., 241 sqq.); W. L. Baxter, Sanctuary and Sacrifice (1895)'
LEVITES
it existed in the post-exilic age was really the work of Moses,
it is inexplicable that all trace of it was so completely lost that
the degradation of the non-Zadokites in Ezekiel was a new
feature and a punishment, whereas in the Mosaic law the
ordinary Levites, on the traditional view, was already forbidden
priestly rights under penalty of death. There is in fact no clear
evidence of the existence of a distinction between priests and
Levites in any Hebrew writing demonstrably earlier than the
Deuteronomic stage, although, even as the Pentateuch contains
ordinances which have been carried back by means of a " legal
convention" to the days of Moses, writers have occasionally
altered earlier records of the history to agree with later
standpoints.1
No argument in support of the traditional theory can be drawn
from the account of Koran's revolt (Num. xyi. sqq., see § 3) or from
the Levitical cities (Num. xxxv. ; Josh. xxi.). Some of the latter
were either not conquered by the Israelites until long after the in-
vasion, or, if conquered, were not held by Levites; and names are
wanting of places in which priests are actually known to have lived.
Certainly the names are largely identical with ancient holy cities,
which, however, are holy because they possessed noted shrines,
not because the inhabitants were members of a holy tribe. Gezer
and Taanach, for example, are said to have remained in the hands of
Canaanites (Judges i. 27, 29 ; cf. I Kings ix. 16), and recent excavation
has shown how far the cultus of these cities was removed from Mosaic
religion and ritual and how long the grosser elements persisted.2
On the other hand, the sanctuaries obviously had always their local
ministers, all of whom in time could be called Levitical, and it is
only in this sense, not in that of the late priestly legislation, that a
place like Shechem could ever have been included. Further, instead
of holding cities and pasture-grounds, the Levites are sometimes
described as scattered and divided (Gen. xlix. 7; Deut. xviii. 6),
and though they may naturally possess property as private indi-
viduals, they alone of all the tribes of Israel possess no tribal in-
heritance (Num. xviii. 23, xxvi. 62; Deut. x. 9; Josh. xiy. 3). This
fluctuation finds a parallel in the age at which the Levites were to
serve; for neither has any reasonable explanation been found on
the traditional view. Num. iv. 3 fixes the age at thirty, although
in i. 3 it has been reduced to twenty; but in I Chron. xxiii. 3,
David is said to have numbered them from the higher limit, whereas
in TO. 24, 27 the lower figure is given on the authority of " the last
words (or acts) of David." In Num. viii. 23-26, the age is given
as twenty-five, but twenty became usual and recurs in Ezra iii. 8
and 2 Chron. xxxi. 17. There are, however, independent grounds
for believing that I Chron. xxiii. 24, 27, 2 Chron. xxxi. 17 belong to
later insertions and that Ezr. iii. 8 is relatively late.
When, in accordance with the usual methods of Hebrew
genealogical history, the Levites are defined as the descendants
of Levi, the third son of Jacob by Leah (Gen. xxix. 34), a literal
interpretation is unnecessary, and the only narrative wherein
Levi appears as a person evidently delineates under the form
of personification events in the history of the Levites (Gen.
xxxiv.).3 They take their place in Israel as the tribe set apart
for sacred duties, and without entering into the large question
how far the tribal schemes can be used for the earlier history
A. van Hoonacker, Le Sa.cerd.oce levitique (1899); and J. Orr,
Problem of the O.T. (1905). These and other apologetic writings
have so far failed to produce any adequate alternative hypothesis,
and while they argue for the traditional theory, later revision
not being excluded, the modern critical view accepts late dates for
the literary sources in their present form, and explicitly recognizes the
presence of much that is ancient. Note the curious old tradition that
Ezra wrote out the law which had been burnt (2 Esdr. xiv.
21 sqq.).
1 For example, in i Kings viii. 4, there are many indications that
the context has undergone considerable editing at a fairly late date.
The Septuagint translators did not read the clause which speaks of
" priests and Levites," and 2 Chron. v. 5 reads " the Levite priests,"
the phrase characteristic of the Deuteronomic identification of
priestly and Levitical ministry. I Sam. vi. 15, too, brings in the
Levites, but the verse breaks the connexion between 14 and 16.
For the present disorder in the text of 2 Sam. xv. 24, see the com-
mentaries.
2 See Father H. Vincent, O.P., Canaan d'apres I 'exploration
recente (1907), pp. 151, 200 sqq., 463 sq.
3 So Gen. xxxiv. 7, Hamor has wrought folly " in Israel " (cf. Judges
xx. 6 and often), and in v. 30 " Jacob " is not a personal but a collec-
tive idea, for he says, " I am a few men," and the capture and
destruction of a considerable city is in the nature of things the work
of more than two individuals. In the allusion to Levi and Simeon
in Gen. xlix. the two are spoken of as " brothers " with a communal
assembly. See, for other examples of personification, GENEALOGY :
Biblical.
xvi. 17
of Israel, it may be observed that no adequate interpretation
has yet been found of the ethnological traditions of Levi and
other sons of Leah in their historical relation to one another or to
the other tribes. However intelligible may be the notion of a
tribe reserved for priestly service, the fact that it does not apply
to early biblical history is apparent from the heterogeneous
details of the Levitical divisions. The incorporation of singers
and porters is indeed a late process, but it is typical of the
tendency to co-ordinate all the religious classes (see GENEALOGY:
Biblical). The genealogies in their complete form pay little
heed to Moses, although Aaron and Moses could typify the
priesthood and other Levites generally (i Chron. xxiii. 14).
Certain priesthoods in the first stage (§ i [a]) claimed descent
from these prototypes, and it is interesting to observe (i) the
growing importance of Aaron in the later sources of " the
Exodus," and (2) the relation between Mosheh (Moses) and his
two sons Gershom and Eliezer, on the one side, and the Levitical
names Mushi (i.e. the Mosaite), Gershon and the Aaronite
priest Eleazar, on the other. There are links, also, which unite
Moses with Kenite, Rechabite, Calebite and Edomite families,
and the Levitical names themselves are equally connected with
the southern tribes' of Judah and Simeon and with the Edomites.4
It is to be inferred, therefore, that some relationship subsisted,
or was thought to subsist, among (i) the Levites, (2) clans actually
located in the south of Palestine, and (3) families whose names
and traditions point to a southern origin. The exact meaning
of these features is not clear, but if it be remembered (a) that the
Levites of post-exilic literature represent only the result of a long
and intricate development, (b) that the name " Levite," in the
later stages at least, was extended to include all priestly servants,
and (c) that the priesthoods, in tending to become hereditary,
included priests who were Levites by adoption and not by
descent, it will be recognized that the examination of the evidence
for the earlier stages cannot confine itself to those narratives
where the specific term alone occurs.
3. The Traditions of the Levites. — In the " Blessing of Moses "
(Deut. xxxiii. 8-n), Levi is a collective name for the priesthood,
probably that of (north) Israel. He is the guardian of the sacred
oracles, knowing no kin, and enjoying his privileges for proofs
of fidelity at Massah and Meribah. That these places (in the
district of Kadesh) were traditionally associated with the origin
of the Levites is suggested by various Levitical stories, although
it is in a narrative now in a context pointing to Horeb or Sinai
that the Levites are Israelites who for some cause (now lost)
severed themselves from their people and took up a stand
on behalf of Yahweh (Exod. xxxii.). Other evidence allows
us to link together the Kenites, Calebites and Danites in a
tradition of some movement into Palestine, evidently quite
distinct from the great invasion of Israelite tribes which pre-
dominates in the existing records. The priesthood of Dan
certainly traced its origin to Moses (Judges xvii. 9, xviii. 30) ; that
of Shiloh claimed an equally high ancestry (i Sam. ii. 27 seq.).6
Some tradition of a widespread movement appears to be
ascribed to the age of Jehu, whose accession, promoted by the
prophet Elisha, marks the end of the conflict between Yahweh
and Baal. To a Rechabite (the clan is allied to the Kenites)
is definitely ascribed a hand in Jehu's sanguinary measures,
and, though little is told of the obviously momentous events, one
writer clearly alludes to a bloody period when reforms were to
be effected by the sword (i Kings xix. 17). Similarly the story
of the original selection of the Levites in the wilderness men-
tions an uncompromising massacre of idolaters. Consequently,
it is very noteworthy that popular tradition preserves the
recollection of some attack by the " brothers " Levi and Simeon
* See E. Meyer, Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstamme, pp. 299 sqq.
(passim); S. A. Cook, Ency. Bib. col. 1665 seq.; Crit. Notes on O.T.
History, pp. 84 sqq., 122-125.
6 The second element of the name Abiathar is connected with
Jether or Jethro, the father-in-law of Moses, and even Ichabod
(i Sam. iv. 21) seems to be an intentional reshaping of Jochebed,
which is elsewhere the name of the mother of Moses. Phinehas,
Eli's son, becomes in later writings the name of a prominent Aaronite
priest in the days of the exodus from Egypt.
514
LEVITES
upon the famous holy city of Shechem to avenge their
" sister " Dinah (Gen. xxxiv.), and that a detailed narrative
tells of the bloodthirsty though pious Danites who sacked an
Ephraimite shrine on their journey to a new home (Judges
xvii. sq.).
The older records utilized by the Deuteronomic and later compilers
indicate some common tradition which has found expression in these
varying forms. Different religious standpoints are represented in
the biblical writings, and it is now important to observe that the
prophecies of Hosea unmistakably show another attitude to the
Israelite priesthood. The condemnation of Jehu's bloodshed (Hos.
i. 4) gives another view of events in which both Elijah and Elisha
were concerned, and the change is more vividly realized when it is
found that even to Moses and Aaron, the traditional founders of
Israelite religion and ritual, is ascribed an offence whereby they
incurred Yahweh's wrath (Num. xx. 12, 24, xxvii. 14; Deut. ix. 20,
xxxii. 51). The sanctuaries of Shiloh and Dan lasted until the
deportation of Israel (Judges xviii. 30 seq.), and some of their history
is still preserved in the account of the late premonarchical age
(l2th— nth centuries B.C.). Shiloh's priestly gild is condemned for its
iniquity (i Sam. iii. II-I4)> the sanctuary mysteriously disappears,
and the priests are subsequently found at Nob outside Jerusalem
(i Sam. xxi. seq.). All idea of historical perspective has been lost,
since the fall of Shiloh was apparently a recent event at the close of
the 7th century (Jer. vii. 12-15, xxvi. 6-9). But the tendency to
ascribe the disasters of northern Israel to the priesthood (see esp.
HOSEA) takes another form when an inserted prophecy revokes the
privileges of the ancient and honourable family, foretells its over-
throw, and announces the rise of a new faithful and everlasting
priesthood, at whose hands the dispossessed survivors, reduced to
poverty, would beg some priestly office to secure a livelihood (i Sam.
li. 27-36). The sequel to this phase is placed in the reign of Solomon,
when David's old priest Abiathar, sole survivor of the priests of
Shiloh, is expelled to Anathoth (near Jerusalem), and Zadok becomes
the first chief priest contemporary with the foundation of the first
temple (i Kings ii. 27, 35). These situations cannot be severed from
what is known elsewhere of the Deuteronomic teaching, of the reform
ascribed to Josiah, or of the principle inculcated by Ezekiel (see
§ I [6]). The late specific tendency in favour of Jerusalem agrees
with the Deuteronomic editor of Kings who condemns the sanctuaries
of Dan and Bethel for calf-worship (i Kings xii. 28-31), and does not
acknowledge the northern priesthood to be Levitical (i Kings xii. 31,
note the interpretation in 2 Chron. xi. 14, xiii. 9). It is from a similar
standpoint that Aaron is condemned for the manufacture of the
golden calf, and a compiler (not the original writer) finds its sequel
in the election of the faithful Levites.1
In the third great stage there is another change in the tone.
The present (priestly) recension of Gen. xxxiv. has practically
justified Levi and Simeon from its standpoint of opposition to
intermarriage, and in spite of Jacob's curse (Gen. xlix. 5-7)
later traditions continue to extol the slaughter of the Shechemites
as a pious duty. Post-exilic revision has also hopelessly obscured
the offence of Moses and Aaron, although there was already a
tendency to place the blame upon the people (Deut. i. 37, iii. 26,
iv. 21 ). "When two-thirds of the priestly families are said to be
Zadokites and one-third are of the families of Abiathar, some
reconciliation, some adjustment of rivalries, is to be recognized
(i Chron. xxiv.). Again, in the composite story of Korah's
revolt, one version reflects a contest between Aaronites and the
other Levites who claimed the priesthood (Num. xvi. 8-u, 36-40),
while another shows the supremacy of the Levites as a caste either
over the rest of the people (? cf. the prayer, Deut. xxxiii. n),
or, since the latter are under the leadership of Korah, later the
eponym of a gild of singers, perhaps over the more subordinate
ministers who once formed a separate class.2 In the composite
work Chronicles-Ezra-Nehemiah (dating after the post-exilic
Levitical legislation) a peculiar interest is taken in the Levites,
more particularly in the singers, and certain passages even reveal
1 With this development in Israelite religion, observe that Judaean
cult included the worship of a brazen serpent, the institution of
which was ascribed to Moses, and that, according to the compiler of
Kings, Hezekiah was the first to destroy it when he suppressed
idolatrous worship in Judah (2 Kings xviii. 4). It may be added that
the faithful Kenites (found in N. Palestine, Judges iv. 11) appear in
another light when threatened with captivity by Asshur (Num. xxiv.
22; cf. fall of Dan and Shiloh), and if their eponym is Cain (q.v.),
the story of Cain and Abel serves, amid a variety of purposes, to
condemn the murder of the settled agriculturist by the nomad, but
curiously allows that any retaliation upon Cain shall be avenged
(see below, note 5).
•The name Korah itself is elsewhere Edomite (Gen. xxxvi. 5,
14, 18) and Calebite (i Chron. ii. 43). See Ency. Bib., s.v.
some animus against the Aaronites (2 Chron. xxix. 34, xxx. 3).
A Levite probably had a hand in the work, and this, with
the evidence for the Levitical Psalms (see PSALMS), gives the
caste an interesting place in the study of the transmission of
the biblical records.3 But the history of the Levites in the early
post-exilic stage and onwards is a separate problem, and the work
of criticism has not advanced sufficiently for a proper estimate
of the various vicissitudes. However, the feeling which was
aroused among the priests when some centuries later the singers
obtained from Agrippa the privilege of wearing the priestly linen
dress (Josephus, Ant. xx. 9. 6), at least enables one to appreciate
more vividly the scantier hints of internal jealousies during the
preceding years.4
4. Summary. — From the inevitable conclusion that there are
three stages in the written sources for the Levitical institutions,
the next step is the correlation of allied traditions on the basis
of the genealogical evidence. But the problem of fitting these
into the history of Israel still remains The assumption that
the earlier sources for the pre-monarchical history, as incorporated
by late compilers, are necessarily trustworthy confuses the inquiry
(on Gen. xxxiv., see SIMEON), and even the probability of a
reforming spirit in Jehu's age depends upon the internal criticism
of the related records (see JEWS, §§ 11-14). The view that the
Levites came from the south may be combined with the con-
viction that there Yahweh had his seat (cf. Deut. xxxiii. 2;
Judges v. 4; Hab. iii. 3), but the latter is only one view, and the
traditions of the patriarchs point to another belief (cf. also
Gen. iv. 26). The two are reconciled when the God of the
patriarchs reveals His name for the first time unto Moses (Exod.
iii. 15, vi. 3). With these variations is involved the problem of
the early history of the Israelites.5 Moreover, the real Judaean
tendency which associates the fall of Eli's priesthood at Shiloh
with the rise of the Zadokites involves the literary problems of
Deuteronomy, a composite work whose age is not certainly
known, and of the twofold Deuteronomic redaction elsewhere,
one phase of which is more distinctly Judaean and anti-Samaritan.
There are vicissitudes and varying standpoints which point to a
complicated literary history and require some historical back-
ground, and, apart from actual changes in the history of the
Levites, some allowance must be made for the real character
of the circles where the diverse records originated or through
which they passed. The key must be sought in the exilic
and post-exilic age where, unfortunately, direct and decisive
evidence is lacking. It is clear that the Zadokite priests were
rendered legitimate by finding a place for their ancestor in the
Levitical genealogies — through Phinehas (cf. Num. xxv. 12 seq.),
and Aaron — there was a feeling that a legitimate priest must
be an Aaronite, but the historical reason for this is uncertain
(see R. H. Kennett, Journ. Theolog. Stud., 1905, pp. 161 sqq.).
Hence, it is impossible at present to trace the earlier steps which
led to the grand hierarchy of post-exilic Judaism. Even the
name Levite itself is of uncertain origin. Though popularly
connected with lavah, " be joined, attached," an ethnic from
Leah has found some favour; the Assyrian li'u "powerful,
wise," has also been suggested. The term has been more
plausibly identified with l-v-' (fem. l-v-'-t), the name given in old
Arabian inscriptions (e.g. at al-'Ola, south-east of Elath) to the
priests and priestesses of the Arabian god Vadd (so especially
Hommel, Anc.Heb. Trad., pp. 27% seq.). The date of the evidence,
however, has not been fixed with unanimity, and this very
3 The musical service of the temple has no place in the
Pentateuch, but was considerably developed under the second temple
and attracted the special attention of Greek observers (Theophrastus,
apud Porphyry, de Abstin. ii. 26); see on this subject, R. Kittel's
Handkommentar on Chronicles, pp. 90 sqq.
4 Even the tithes enjoyed by the Levites (Num. xviii. 21 seq.)
were finally transferred to the priests (so in the Talmud : see Yeba-
moth, fol. S6a, Carpzov, App. ad Godw. p. 624; Hottinger, De Dec.
vi. 8, ix. 17).
6 For some suggestive remarks on the relation between nomadism
and the Levites, and their influence upon Israelite religion and
literary tradition, see E. Meyer, Die Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstdmme
(1906), pp. 82-89, 138; on the problems of early Israelite history, see
SIMEON (end), JEWS, §§ 5, 8, and PALESTINE, History.
LEVITICUS
attractive and suggestive view requires confirmation and
independent support.
AUTHORITIES. — For the argument in § I, see Wellhausen, Prolego-
mena, pp. 121-151 ; W. R. Smith, Old Tesi. in Jew. Church (2nd ed.,
Index, s.v. " Levites "); A. Kuenen, Hexateuch, §§ 3 n. 16; n, pp.
203 sqq.; 15 n. 15 (more technical); also the larger commentaries
on Exodus-Joshua and the ordinary critical works on Old Testa-
ment literature. In § I and part of § 2 use has been freely made of
W. R. Smith's article " Levites " in the gth edition of the Ency.
Brit, (see the revision by A. Bertholet, Ency. Bib. col. 2770 sqq.).
For the history of the Levites in the post-exilic and later ages,
see the commentaries on Numbers (by G. B. Gray) and Chronicles
(E. L. Curtis), and especially H. Vogelstein, Der Kampf zwischen
Priestern u. Leviten seit den Tagen Ezechiels, with Kuenen's review
in his Gesammelte Abhandlungen (ed. K. Budde, 1894). See further
PRIEST. (S. A. C.)
LEVITICUS, in the Bible, the third book of the Pentateuch.
The name is derived from that of the Septuagint version (TO)
XevlelmKoi' (sc. 0ifi\iov), though the English form is due to the
Latin rendering, Leviticus (sc. liber). By the Jews the book is
called WayyikrH (mjj-i) from the first word of the Hebrew text,
but it is also referred to (in the Talmud and Massorah) as Torath
koh&nlm (o'?rp m'w, law of the priests), Sepher kdhttnim ("D -ipp,
book of the priests), and Sepher fcorbamm (o':?-!i5 i|ip, book of
offerings). As a descriptive title Leviticus, " the Levitical
book," is not inappropriate to the contents of the book, which
exhibits an elaborate system of sacrificial worship. In this
connexion, however, the term " Levitical " is used in a perfectly
general sense, since there is no reference in the book itself to the
Levites themselves.
The book of Leviticus presents a marked contrast to the two
preceding books of the Hexateuch in that it is derived from one
document only, viz. the Priestly Code (P), and contains no trace
of the other documents from which the Hexateuch has been
compiled. Hence the dominant interest is a priestly one, while
the contents are almost entirely legislative as opposed to histori-
cal. But though the book as a whole is assigned to a single
document, its contents are by no means homogeneous: in fact
the critical problem presented by the legislative portions of
Leviticus, though more limited in scope, is very similar to that
of the other books of. the Hexateuch. Here, too, the occurrence
of repetitions and divergencies, the variations of standpoint and
practice, and, at times, the linguistic peculiarities point no less
clearly to diversity of origin.
The historical narrative with which P connects his account
of the sacred institutions of Israel is reduced in Leviticus to a
minimum, and presents no special features. The consecration
of Aaron and his sons (viii. ix.) resumes the narrative of Exod.
xl., and this is followed by a brief notice of the death of Nadab
and Abihu (x. 1-5), and later by an account of the death of the
blasphemer (xxiv. 10 f.). Apart from these incidents, which,
in accordance with the practice of P, are utilized for the purpose
of introducing fresh legislation, the book consists of three main
groups or collections of ritual laws: (i) chaps, i.-vii., laws of
sacrifice; (2) chaps, xi.-xv., laws of purification, with an ap-
pendix (xvi.) on the Day of Atonement; (3) chaps, xvii.-xxvi.,
the Law of Holiness, with an appendix (xxvii.) on vows and
tithes. In part these laws appear to be older than P, but when
examined in detail the various collections show unmistakably
that they have undergone more than one process of redaction
before they assumed the form in which they are now presented.
The scope of the present article does not permit of an elaborate
analysis of the different sections, but the evidence adduced will,
it is hoped, afford sufficient proof of the truth of this statement.
I. The Laws of Sacrifice. — Chaps, i.-vii. This group of laws
clearly formed no part of the original narrative of P since it
interrupts the connexion of chap. viii. with Exod. xl. For chap,
viii. describes how Moses carried out the command of Exod.-xl.
12-15 in accordance with the instructions given in Exod. xxix.
1-35, and bears the same relation to the latter passage that
Exod. xxxv, ff. bears to Exod. xxv. ff. Hence we can only con-
clude that Lev. i.-vii. were added by a later editor. This con-
clusion does not necessarily involve a late date for the laws them-
selves, many of which have the appearance of great antiquity,
though their original form has been considerably modified. But
though these chapters form an independent collection of laws, and
were incorporated as such in P, a critical analysis of their con-
tents shows that they were not all derived from the same source.
The collection falls into two divisions, (a) i.-vi. 7 (Heb. v. 26), and
(b) vi. 8 (Heb. vi. l)-vii., the former being addressed to the people
and the latter to the priests. The laws contained in (a) refer to (i)
burnt-offerings, i. ; (2) meal-offerings, ii. ; (3) peace-offerings, iii.;
(4) sin-offerings, iv. (on v. 1-13 see below); (5) trespass-offerings,
v. I4~vi. 7 (Heb. v. 14-26). The laws in (b) cover practically the
same ground — (i) burnt-offerings, vi. 8-13 (Heb. w. 1-6); (2) meal-
offerings, vi. 14-18 (Heb. TO. 7-11); (3) the meal-offering of the priest,
vi. 19-23 (Heb. mi. 12-16); (4) sin-offerings, vi. 24-30 (Heb. w. 17-
23); (5) trespass-offerings, vii. 1-7, together with certain regulations
for the priest's share of the burnt- and meal-offerings (w. 8-ip);
(6) peace-offerings, vii. 11-21. Then follow the prohibition of eating
the fat or blood (iw. 22-28), the priest's share of the peace-offerings
(mi. 29-34), the priest's anointing-portion (ro. 35, 36), and the sub-
scription (w. 37, 38). The second group of laws is thus to a certain
extent supplementary to the first, and was, doubtless, intended as
such by the editor of chaps, i.— vii. Originally it can hardly have
formed part of the same collection; for (a) the order is different,
that of the second group being supported by its subscription, and
(b) the laws in vi. 8— vii. are regularly introduced by the formula
" This is the law (torah) of. . . ." Most probably the second group
was excerpted by the editor of chaps, i.-vii. from another collection
for the purpose of supplementing the laws of i.-v., more especially on
points connected with the functions and dues of the officiating priests.
Closer investigation, however, shows that both groups of laws
contain heterogeneous elements and that their present form is the
result of a long process of development. Thus i. and iii. seem to
contain genuinely old enactments, though i. 14-17 is probably a later
addition, since there is no reference to birds in the general heading
v. 2. Chap. ii. i -3, on the other hand, though it corresponds in form to
i. and iii., interrupts the close connexion between those chapters, and
should in any case stand after iii. : the use of the second for the third
person in the remaining verses points to a different source. As might
be expected from the nature of the sacrifice with which it deals, iv.
(sin-offerings) seems to belong to a relatively later period of the
sacrificial system. Several features confirm this view: (i) the blood
of the sin-offering of the " anointed priest " and of the whole con-
gregation is brought within the veil and sprinkled on the altar of
incense, (2) the sin-offering of the congregation is a bullock, and
not, as elsewhere, a goat (ix. 15; Num. xv. 24), (3) the altar of
incense is distinguished from the altar of burnt-offering (as opposed
to Exod. xxix.; Lev. viii. ix.). Chap. v. 1-13 have usually been
regarded as an appendix to iv., setting forth (a) a number of typical
cases for which a sin-offering is required (w. 1-6), and (b) certain con-
cessions for those who could not afford the ordinary sin-offering
(w. 7-13). But TO. 1-6, which are not homogeneous (w. 2 and 3
treating of another question and interrupting w. i, 4, 5 f.), cannot
be ascribed to the same author as iv.: for (i) it presents a different
theory of the sin-offering (contrast v. I f. with iv. 2), (2) it ignores
the fourfold division of offerings corresponding to the rank of the
offender, (3) it fails to observe the distinction between sin- and
trespass-offering (in w. 6, 7, "his guilt-offering" (iD^s) appears to
have the sense of a " penalty " or " forfeit," unless with Baentsch
we read b^ii; "his oblation" in each case; cf. ». n, iv. 23 ff.
Verses 7-13, on the other hand, form a suitable continuation of iv.,
though probably they are secondary in character. Chap. v. 14
(Heb. v. 26)-vi. 7 contain regulations for the trespass-offering, in
which the distinctive character of that offering is clearly brought
out. The cases cited in vi. 1-7 (Heb. v. 20-26) are clearly analogous
to those in v. 14-16, from which they are at present separated by
tw. 17-19. These latter prescribe a trespass-offering for the same
case for which in iv. 22 f . a sin-offering is required : it is noticeable
also that no restitution, the characteristic feature of the asham, is
prescribed. It is hardly doubtful that the verses are derived from a
different source to that of their immediate context, possibly the
same as v. 1-6.
The subscription (vii. 37, 38) is our chief guide to determining the
original extent of the second group of laws (vi. 8 [Heb. vi. l]-vii. 36).
From it we infer that originally the collection only dealt with the
five chief sacrifices (vi. 8-13; 14-18; 24, 25, 27-30; vii.. 1-6; 11-21)
already discussed in i.-v., since only these are referred to in the
colophon where they are given in the same order (the consecration-
offering [v. 37] is probably due to the same redactor who introduced
the gloss " in the day when he is anointed " in vi. 20). Of the
remaining sections vi. 19-23 (Heb. 12-16), the daily meal-offering of
the (high-) priest, betrays its secondary origin by its absence from
the subscription, cf. also the different introduction. Chaps, vi.
26 (Heb. 19) and vii. 7 assign the offering to the officiating
priest in contrast to vi. 18 (Heb. Ii), 29 (Heb. 22), vii. 6 (" every
male among the priests "), and possibly belong, together with vii.
8-10, to a separate collection which dealt especially with priestly
dues. Chap. vii. 22-27, which prohibit the eating of fat and blood,
are addressed to the community at large, and were, doubtless,
inserted here in connexion with the sacrificial meal which formed
Si6
LEVITICUS
the usual accompaniment of the peace-offering. Chap. vii. 28-34
are also addressed to the people, and cannot therefore have formed
part of the original priestly manual ; v. 33 betrays the same hand as
vi. 26 (Heb. 19) and vii. 7, and with 350 may be assigned to the same
collection as those verses; to the redactor must be assigned w. 32
(a doublet of v. 33), 34, 356 and 36.
Chaps, viii.-x. As stated, these chapters form the original sequel
to Exod. xl. They describe (a) the consecration of Aaron and his sons,
a ceremony which lasted seven days (viii.), and (6) the public worship
on the eighth day, at which Aaron and his sons officiated for the
first time as priests (ix.) ; then follow (c) an account of the death of
Nadab and Abihu for offering strange fire (x. 1-5) ; (d) various
regulations affecting the priests (w. 12-15), and (e) an explanation,
in narrative form, of the departure in ix. 15 from the rules for the
sin-offering given in vi. 30 (TO. 16-20).
According to Exod. xl. 1-15 Moses was commanded to set up the
Tabernacle and to consecrate the priests, and the succeeding verses
(16-38) describe how the former command was carried out. The
execution of the second command, however, is first described in
Lev. viii., and since the intervening chapters exhibit obvious traces
of belonging to another source, we may conclude with some certainty
that Lev. viii. formed the immediate continuation of Exod. xl. in
the original narrative of P. But it has already been pointed out
(see EXODUS) that Exod. xxxv.-xl. belong to a later stratum of P
than Exod. xxv.-xxix,, hence it is by no means improbable that
Exod. xxxv — xl. have superseded an earlier and shorter account of
the fulfilment of the commands in Exod. xxv.-xxix. If this be the
case, we should naturally expect to find that Lev. viii., which bears
the same relation to Exod. xxix. 1-35 as Exod. xxxv. ff. to Exod.
xxv. ff. also belonged to a later stratum. But Lev. viii., unlike
Exod xxxv. ff., only mentions one altar, and though in its present
form the chapter exhibits marks of later authorship, these marks
form no part of the original account, but are clearly the work of a
later editor. These additions, the secondary character of which is
obvious both from the way in which they interrupt the context and
also from their contents, are (i), ». 10, the anointing of the Tabernacle
in accordance with Exod. xxx. 26 ff. : it is not enjoined in Exod.
xxix.; (2) v. II, the anointing of the altar and the laver (cf. Exod.
xxx. 17 ff.) as in Exod. xxix. 366, xxx. 26 ff.) ; (3) v. 30, the sprinkling
of blood and oil on Aaron and his sons. Apart from these secondary
elements, which readily admit of excision, the chapter is in complete
accord with P as regards point of view and language, and is therefore
to be assigned to that source.
The consecration of Aaron and his sons was, according to P, a
necessary preliminary to the offering of sacrifice, and chap. ix.
accordingly describes the first solemn act of worship. The ceremony
consists of (a) the offerings for Aaron, and (6) those for the congre-
gation; then follows the priestly blessing (v. 22), after which Moses
and Aaron enter the sanctuary, and on reappearing once more bless
the people. The ceremony terminates with the appearance of the
glory of Yahweh, accompanied by a fire which consumes the sacri-
fices on the altar. Apart from a few redactional glosses the chapter
as a whole belongs to P. The punishment of Nadab and Abihu by
death for offering " strange fire " (x. 1-5) forms a natural sequel to
chap. ix. To this incident a number of disconnected regulations
affecting the priests have been attached, of which the first, viz. the
prohibition of mourning to Aaron and his sons (w. 6, 7), alone has
any connexion with the immediate context ; as it stands, the passage
is late in form (cf. xxi. 10 ff.). The second passage, w. 8, 9, which
prohibits the use of wine and strong drink to the priest when on duty,
is clearly a later addition. The connexion between these verses and
the following is extremely harsh, and since w, 10, n relate to an
entirely different subject (cf. xi. 47), the latter verses must be re-
garded as a misplaced fragment. Verses 12-15 relate to the portions
of the meal- and peace-offerings which fell to the lot of the priests,
and connect, therefore, with chap. ix. ; possibly they have been
wrongly transferred from that chapter. In the remaining para-
graph, x. 16-20, we have an interesting example of the latest type
of additions to the Hexateuch. According to ix. 15 (cf. v. n) the
priests had burnt the flesh of the sin-offering which had been offered
on behalf of the congregation, although its blood had not been taken
into the inner sanctuary (cf. iv. I -21 , vi. 26). Such treatment, though
perfectly legitimate according to the older legislation (Exod. xxix. 14;
cf. Lev. viii. 17), was in direct contradiction to the ritual of vi. 24 ff.,
which prescribed that the flesh of ordinary sin-offerings should be
eaten by the priests. Such a breach of ritual on the part of Aaron
and his sons seemed to a later redactor to demand an explanation,
and this is furnished in the present section.
II. The Laws of Purification. — Chaps, xi.-xv. This collection
of laws comprises four main sections relating to (i) clean and
unclean beasts (xi.), (2) childbirth (xii.), (3) leprosy (xiii. xiv.),
and (4) certain natural secretions (xv.). These laws, or toroth,
are so closely allied to each other by the nature of their contents
and their literary form (cf. especially the recurring formula
"This is the law of ..." xi. 46, xii. 7, xiii. 50, xiv. 32,54, 57,
xv. 32) that they must originally have formed a single collection.
The collection, however, has clearly undergone more than one
redaction before reaching its final form. This is made evident
not only by the present position of chap. xii. which in v. 2 pre-
supposes chap. xv. (cf. xv. 19), and must originally have followed
after that chapter, but also by the contents of the different
sections, which exhibit clear traces of repeated revision. At
the same time it seems, like chaps, i.-vii., xvii.-xxvi., to have
been formed independently of P and to have been added to that
document by a later editor; for in its present position it in-
terrupts the main thread of P's narrative, chap. xvi. forming the
natural continuation of chap, x.; and, further, the inclusion
of Aaron as well as Moses in the formula of address (xi. i, xiii. i,
xiv. 33, xv. i) is contrary to the usage of P.
I. Chap. xi. consists of two main sections, of which the first
(at. 1-23, 41-47) contains directions as to the clean and unclean
animals which may or may not be used for food, while the second
(w. 24-40) treats of the defilement caused by contact with the
carcases of unclean animals (in. v. 39 f. contact with clean animals
after death is also forbidden), and prescribes certain rites of purifi-
cation. The main interest of the chapter, from the point of view of
literary criticism, centres in the relation of the first section to the
Law of Holiness (xvii.-xxvi.) and to the similar laws in Deut. xiv.
3-20. From xx. 25 it has been inferred with considerable probability
that H, or the Law of Holiness, originally contained legislation of a
similar character with reference to clean and unclean animals;
and many scholars have held that the first section (w. i [or 2]-2j
and 41-47) really belongs to that code. But while TO. 43-45 may
unhesitatingly be assigned to H, the remaining verses fail to exhibit
any of the characteristic features of that code. We must assign
them, therefore, to another source, though, in view of xx. 25 and
xi- 43-45. it is highly probable that they have superseded similar
legislation belonging to H.
The relation of Lev. xi. 2-23 to Deut. xiv. 4-20 is less easy to
determine, since the phenomena presented by the two texts are
somewhat inconsistent. The two passages are to a large extent
verbally identical, but while Deut. xiv. 46, 5 both defines and
exemplifies the clean animals (as opposed to Lev. xi. 3 ; which only
defines them), the rest of the Deuteronomic version is much shorter
than that of Leviticus. Thus, except for w. 46, 5, the Deuteronomic
version, which in its general style, and to a certain extent in its phrase-
ology (cf. J'p kind, w. 13, 15, 18, and Yl^ swarm, v. 19), shows
traces of a priestly origin, might be regarded as an abridgment of
Lev. xi. But the Deuteronomic version uses KBB unclean, throughout
(TO. 7, 10, 19), while Lev. xi. from y. 1 1 onwards employs the technical
term YUV detestable thing, and it is at least equally possible to treat
the longer version of Leviticus as an expansion of Deut. xiv. 4-20.
The fact that Deut. xiv. 21 permits the stranger (13) to eat the flesh
of any animal that dies a natural death, while Lev. xvii. 25 places
him on an equal footing with the Israelite, cannot be cited in favour
of the priority of Deuteronomy since v. 21 is clearly supplementary;
cf. also Lev. xi. 39. On the whole it seems best to accept the view
that both passages are derived separately from an earlier source.
2. Chap. xii. prescribes regulations for the purification of a
woman after the birth of (a) a male and (6) a female child. It has
been already pointed out that this chapter would follow more suitably
after chap, xv., with which it is closely allied in regard to subject-
matter. The closing formula (v. 7) shows clearly that, as in the case
of v. 7-13 (cf. i. 14-17), the concessions in favour of the poorer
worshipper are a later addition.
3. Chaps, xiii., xiv. The regulations concerning leprosy fall readily
into four main divisions: (a) xiii. 1-460, an elaborate descrip-
tion of the symptoms common to the earlier stages of leprosy and
other skin diseases to guide the priest jn deciding as to the cleanness
or uncleanness of the patient; (6) xiii. 47-59, a further description
of different kinds of mould or fungus-growth affecting stuffs and
leather; (c) xiv. 1-32, the rites of purification to be employed after
the healing of leprosy; and (d) xiv. 33-53, regulations dealing with
the appearance of patches of mould or mildew on the walls of a house.
Like other collections the group of laws on leprosy easily betrays
its composite character and exhibits unmistakable evidence of its
gradual growth. There is, however, no reason to doubt that a large
portion of the laws is genuinely old since the subject is one that would
naturally call for early legislation; moreover, Deut. xxiv. 8 pre-
supposes the existence of regulations concerning leprosy, presumably
oral, which were in the possession of the priests. The earliest sections
are admittedly xiii. 1-460 and xiv. 2-80, the ritual of the latter being
obviously of a very archaic type. The secondary character of xiii.
47-59 is evident: it interrupts the close connexion between xiii.
1-460 and xiv. 2-80, and further it is provided with its own colophon
in v. 59. A similar character must be assigned to the remaining
verses of chap, xiv., with the exception of the colophon in v. 576;
the latter has been successively expanded in ro. 54-570 so as to
include the later additions. Thus xiv. 9-20 prescribes a second and
more elaborate ritual of purification after the healing of leprosy,
though the_ leper, according to v. 80, is already clean ; its secondary
character is further shown by the heightening of the ceremonial
which seems to be modelled on that of the consecration of the priests
LEVITICUS
(viii. 23 ff.). the multiplication of sacrifices and the minute regulations
with regard to the blood and oil. The succeeding section (w. 21-32)
enjoins special modifications for those who cannot afford the more
costly offerings of w. 9-20, and like v. 7-13, xii. 8 is clearly a later
addition ; cf. the separate colophon, ti. 32. The closing section xiv.
33-53 's closely allied to xiii. 47-59, though probably later in date :
probably the concluding verses (48-53), in which the same rites are
prescribed for the purification of a house as are ordained for a person
in w. 3-8o, were added at a still later period.
4. Chap. xv. deals with the rites of purification rendered
necessary by various natural secretions, and is therefore closely
related to chap. xii. On the analogy of the other laws it is probable
that the old torah, which forms the basis of the chapter, has been
subsequently expanded, but except in the colophon (ro. 32-34),
which displays marks of later redaction, there is nothing to guide
us in separating the additional matter.
Chap. xvi. It may be regarded as certain that this chapter
consists of three main elements, only one of which was originally
connected with the ceremonial of the Day of Atonement, and that
it has passed through more than one stage of revision. Since the
appearance of Benzinger's analysis ZA TW (1889), critics in the main
have accepted the division of the chapter into three independent
sections: (l) m. 1-4, 6, 12, 13, 346 (probably w. 23, 24 also form
part of this section), regulations to be observed by Aaron whenever
he might enter " the holy place within the veil." These regulations
are the natural outcome of the death of Nadab and Abihu (x. 1-5),
and their object is to guard Aaron from a similar fate; the section
thus forms the direct continuation of chap. x. ; (2) w. 29-340,
rules for the observance of a yearly fast day, having for their object
the purification of the sanctuary and of the people; (3) w. 5, 7-10,
14-22, 26-28, a later expansion of the blood-ritual to be performed
by the high-priest when he enters the Holy of Holies, with which is
combined the strange ceremony of the goat which is sent away
into the wilderness to Azazel. The matter common to the first two
sections, viz. the entrance of the high priest into the Holy of Holies,
was doubtless the cause of their subsequent fusion; beyond this,
however, the sections have no connexion with one another, and must
originally have been quite independent. Doubtless, as Benzinger
suggests, the rites to be performed by the officiating high priest on
the annual Day of Atonement, which are not prescribed in w. 29-340,
were identical with those laid down in chap. ix. That the third
section belongs to a later stage of development and was added at a
later date is shown by (a) the incongruity of w. 14 ff. with v. 6 — ac-
cording to the latter the purification of Aaron is a preliminary condi-
tion of his entrance within the veil — and (6) the elaborate ceremonial
in connexion with the sprinkling of the blood. The first section,
doubtless, belongs to the main narrative of P; it connects directly
with chap. x. and presupposes only one altar (cf. ». 12, Expd. xxviii.
35). The second and third sections, however, must be assigned to a
later stratum of P, if only because they appear to have been unknown
to Ezra (Neh. ix. l); the fact that Ezra's fast day took place on the
twenty-fourth day of the seventh month (as opposed to Lev. xvi.
29, xxiii. 26 f.) acquires an additional importance in view of the
agreement between Neh. viii. 23 f . and Lev. xxiii. 33 f. as to the date of
the Feast of Tabernacles. No mention is made of the Day of Atone-
ment in the pre-exilic period, and it is a plausible conjecture that the
present law arose from the desire to turn the spontaneous fasting of
Neh. ix. I into an annual ceremony; in any case directions as to the
annual performance of the rite must originally have preceded w.
29 ff. Possibly the omission of this introduction is due to the re-
dactor who combined (i) and (2) by transferring the regulations of
(i) to the ritual of the annual Day of Atonement. At a later period
the ritual was further developed by the inclusion of the additional
ceremonial contained in (3).
III. The Law of Holiness. — Chaps, xvii.-xxvi. The group of
laws contained in these chapters has long been recognized as
standing apart from the rest of the legislation set forth in
Leviticus. For, though they display undeniable affinity with P,
they also exhibit certain features which closely distinguish them
from that document. The most noticeable of these is the promin-
ence assigned to certain leading ideas and motives, especially to
that of holiness. The idea of holiness, indeed, is so characteristic
of the entire group that the title " Law of Holiness," first given
to it by Klostermann (1877), has been generally adopted. The
term " holiness " in this connexion consists positively in the
fulfilment of ceremonial obligations and negatively in abstaining
from the defilement caused by heathen customs and superstitions,
but it also includes obedience to the moral requirements of the
religion of Yahweh.
On the literary side also the chapters are distinguished by the
paraenetic setting in which the laws are embedded and by the use
of a special terminology, many of the words and phrases occurring
rarely, if ever, in P (Tor a list of characteristic phrases cf. Driver,
L.O.T.", p.49). Further, the structure of these chapters, which closely
resembles that of the other two Hexateuchal codes (Exod. xx. 22-
xxiii. and Deut. xii.-xxviii.), may reasonably be adduced in support of
their independent origin,
laneous collection of law
rAll three codes contain a somewhat miscel-
laws; all alike commence with regulations as
to the place of sacrifice and close with an exhortation. Lastly, some
of the laws treat of subjects which have been already dealt with
in P (cf. xvii. 10-14 and vii. 26 f., xix. 6-8 and vii. 15-18). It is
hardly doubtful also that the group of laws, which form the basis
of chaps, xvii.— xxvi., besides being independent of P, represent an
older stage of legislation than that code. For the sacrificial system
of H ( = Law of Holiness) is less developed than that of P, and in
particular shows no knowledge 'of the sin- and trespass-offerings;
the high priest is only primus inter pares among his brethren, xxi. 10
(cf. Lev. x. 6, 7, where the same prohibition is extended to all the
priests); the distinction between " holy " and " most holy " things
(Num. xviii. 8) is unknown to Lev. xxii. (Lev. xxi. 22 is a later
addition). It cannot be denied, however, that chaps, xvii.— xxvi.
present many points of resemblance with P, both in language and
subject-matter, but on closer examination these points of contact
are seen to be easily separable from the main body of the legislation.
It is highly probable, therefore, that these marks of P are to be
assigned to the compiler who combined H with P. But though it
may be regarded as certain that H existed as an independent code,
it cannot be maintained that the laws which it contains are all of
the same origin or belong to the same age. The evidence rather
shows that they were first collected by an editor before they were
incorporated in P. Thus there is a marked difference in style between
the laws themselves and the paraenetic setting in which they are
embedded; and it is not unnatural to conjecture that this setting
is the work of the first editor.
Two other points in connexion with H are of considerable import-
ance: (a) the possibility of other remains of H, and (6) its relation to
Deuteronomy and Ezekiel.
(a) It is generally recognized that H, in its present form, is in-
complete. The original code must, it is felt, have included many
other subjects now passed over in silence. These, possibly, were
omitted by the compiler of P, because they had already been dealt
with elsewhere, or they may have been transferred to other con-
nexions. This latter possibility is one that has appealed to many
scholars, who have accordingly claimed many other passages of P as
parts of H. We have already accepted xi. 43 ff. as an undoubted
excerpt from H, but, with the exception of Num. xv. 37-41 (on
fringes), the other passages of the Hexateuch which have been attri-
buted to H do not furnish sufficient evidence to justify us in assigning
them to that collection. Moore (Ency. Bibl. col. 2787) rightly points
out that " resemblance in the subject or formulation of laws to
toroth incorporated in H may point to a relation to the sources
of H, but is not evidence that these laws were ever included in that
collection."
(b) The exact relation of H to Deuteronomy and Ezekiel is hard
to determine. That chaps, xvii.-xxvi. display a marked affinity to
Deuteronomy cannot be denied. Like D, they lay great stress on the
duties of humanity and charity both to the Israelite and to the
stranger (Deut. xxiv. ; Lev. xix. ; compare also laws affecting the
poor in Deut. xv. ; Lev. xxv.), but in some respects the legislation
of H appears to reflect a more advanced stage than that of D, e.g.
the rules for the priesthood (chap, xxi.), the;feasts (xxiii. 9-20, 39-43),
the Sabbatical year (xxv. 1-7, 18-22), weights and measures (xix.
35 f.). It must be remembered, however, that these laws have
passed through more than one stage of revision and that the original
regulations have been much obscured by later glosses and additions;
it is therefore somewhat hazardous to base any argument on their
present form. " The mutual independence of the two (codes) is
rather to be argued from the absence of laws identically formulated,
the lack of agreement in order either in the whole or in smaller
portions, and the fact that of the peculiar motives and phrases of
RD there is no trace in H (Lev. xxiii. 40 is almost solitary). It is an
unwarranted assumption that all the fragments of Israelite legis-
lation which have been preserved lie in one serial development "
(Moore, Ency. Bibl. col. 2790).
The relation of H to Ezekiel is remarkably close, the resemblances
between the two being so striking that many writers have regarded
Ezekiel as the author of H. Such a theory, however, is excluded
by the existence of even greater differences of style and matter,
so that the main problem to be decided is whether Ezekiel is prior to
H or vice versa. The main arguments brought forward by those
who maintain the priority of Ezekiel are (l) the fact that H makes
mention of a high priest, whereas Ezekiel betrays no knowledge
of such an official, and (2) that the author of Lev. xxvi. presupposes
a condition of exile and looks forward to a restoration from it.
Too much weight, however, must not be attached to these points;
for (l) the phrase used in Lev. xxi. 10 (literally, " he who is greater
than his brethren ") cannot be regarded as the equivalent of
the definitive " chief priest " of P, and is rather comparable with
the usage of 2 Kings xxii. 4 ff., xxv. 18 (" the chief priest "), cf. " the
priest " in xi. 9 ff., xvi. 10 ff. ; and (2) the passages in Lev. xxvi.
(w. 34 f., 39-45), which are especially cited in support of the exilic
standpoint of the writer, are just those which, on other grounds,
show signs of later interpolation. The following considerations un-
doubtedly suggest the priority of H : (l) there is no trace in H of the
distinction between priests and Levites first introduced by Ezekiel ;
(2) Ezekiel xviii., xx., xxii., xxiii. appear to presuppose the laws of
5i8
LEVITICUS
Lev. xviii.-xx. ; (3) the calendar of Lev. xxiii. represents an earlier
stage of development than the fixed days and months of Ezek. xlv. ;
(4) the sin- and trespass-offerings are not mentioned in H (cf . Ezek.
xl. 39, xlii. 13, xliv. 29, xlvi. 20); (5) the parallels to H, which are
found especially in Ezek. xviii., xx., xxii. f., include both the parae-
netic setting and the laws; and lastly, (6) a comparison of Lev. xxvi.
with Ezekiel points to the greater originality of the former. Baentsch ,
however, who is followed by Bertholet, adopts the view that Lev.
xxvi. is rather an independent hortatory discourse modelled on
Ezekiel. The same writer further maintains that H consists of three
separate elements, viz. chaps, xyii. ; xyiii.-xx., with various ordinances
in chaps, xxiii.-xxv. ; and xxii., xxiii., of which the last is certainly
later than Ezekiel, while the second is in the main prior to that
author. But the arguments which he adduces in favour of the
threefold origin of H are not sufficient to outweigh the general
impression of unity which the code presents.
Chap. xvii. comprises four main sections which are clearly
marked off by similar introductory and closing formulae: (l) w.
3-7, prohibition of the slaughter of domestic animals, unless they are
presented to Yahweh ; (2) TO. 8, 9, sacrifices to be offered to Yahweh
alone; (3) w. 10-12, prohibition of the eating of blood; (4) w. 13,
14, the blood of animals not used in sacrifice to be poured on the
ground. The chapter as a whole is to be assigned to H. At the
same time it exhibits many marks of affinity with P, a phenomenon
most easily explained by the supposition that older laws of H have
been expanded and modified by later hands in the spirit of P. Clear
instances of such revision may be seen in the references to " the
door of the tent of meeting " (w. 4, 5, 6, 9) and " the camp " (v. 3),
as well as in w. 6, II, 12-14; *". 15, 16 (prohibiting the eating of
animals that die a natural death or are torn by beasts) differ formally
from the preceding paragraphs, and are to be assigned to P. What
remains after the excision of later additions, however, is not entirely
uniform, and points to earlier editorial work on the part of the
compiler of H. Thus TO. 3-7 reflect two points of view, w. 3, 4
drawing a contrast between profane slaughter and sacrifice, while
TO. 5-7 distinguish between sacrifices offered to Yahweh and those
offered to demons.
Chap, xviii. contains laws on prohibited marriages (TO. 6-18)
and various acts of unchastity (TO. 19-23) embedded in a paraenetic
setting (TO. 1-5 and 24-30), the laws being given in the 2nd pers.
sing., while the framework employs the 2nd pers. plural. With the
exception of v. 21 (on Molech worship), which is here out of place,
and has possibly been introduced from xx. 2-5, the chapter displays
all the characteristics of H.
Chap. xix. is a collection of miscellaneous laws, partly moral,
partly religious, of which the fundamental principle is stated in v. 2
(" Ye shall be holy ")• The various laws are clearly defined by the
formula " I am Yahweh," ot " I am Yahweh your God," phrases
which are especially characteristic of chaps, xviii.-xx. The first
group of laws (TO. 3 f.) corresponds to the first table of the decalogue,
while w. 11-18 are analogous to the second table; w. 5-8 (on
peace-offerings) are obviously out of place here, and are possibly
to be restored to the cognate passage xxii. 29 f., while the humani-
tarian provisions of TO. 9 and 10 (cf. xxiii. 22) have no connexion
with the immediate context; similarly v. 20 (to which a later
redactor has added TO. 21, 22, in accordance with vi. 6 f.) appears
to be a fragment from a penal code; the passage resembles Exod.
xxi. 7 ff . , and the offence is clearly one against property, the omission
of the punishment being possibly due to the redactor who added
TO. 21, 22.
Chap. xx. Prohibitions against Molech worship, w. 2-5, witch-
craft, TO. 6 and 27, unlawful marriages and acts of unchastity, TO.
10-21. Like chap, xviii., the main body of laws is provided with a
paraenetic setting, TO. 7, 8 and 22-24; it differs from that chapter,
however, in prescribing the death penalty in each case for disobedi-
ence. Owing to the close resemblance between the two chapters,
many critics have assumed that they are derived from the same
source and that the latter chapter was added for the purpose of
supplying the penalties. This view, however, is not borne out by
a comparison of the two chapters, for four of the cases mentioned
in chap, xviii. (TO. 7, 10, 176, 18) are ignored in chap, xx., while the
order and in part the terminology are also different; further, it is
difficult on this view to explain why the two chapters are separated
by chap. xix. A more probable explanation is that the compiler
of H has drawn from two parallel, but independent, sources. Signs
of revision are not lacking, especially in TO. 2-5, where TO. 4 f. are a
later addition intended to reconcile the inconsistency of v. 2 with
v. 3 (RH); y. 6, which is closely connected with xix. 31, appears to
be less original than v. 27, and may be ascribed to the same hand
as v. 3 ; r. 9 can hardly be in its original context — it would be more
suitable after xxiv. 15. The paraenetic setting (TO. 7, 8 and 22-24)
is to be assigned to the compiler of H, who doubtless prefaced the
parallel version with the additional laws of TO. 2-6. Verses 25, 26
apparently formed the conclusion of a law on clean and unclean
animals similar to that of chap, xi., and very probably mark the place
where H's regulations on that subject originally stood.
Chaps, xxi., xxii. A series of laws affecting the priests and offer-
ings, viz. (l) regulations ensuring the holiness of (a) ordinary
priests, xxi. 1-9, and (b) the chief priest, TO. 10-15; (2) a list of
physical defects which exclude a priest from exercising his office,
TO. 16-24; (3) the enjoyment of sacred offerings limited to (a)
priests, if they are ceremonially clean, xxi. 1-9, and (b) members
of a priestly family, w. 10-16; (4) animals offered in sacrifice must
be without blemish, TO. 17-25; (5) further regulations with regard
to sacrifices, TO. 26-30, with a paraenetic conclusion, TO. 31-33.
These chapters present considerable difficulty to the literary critic ;
for while they clearly illustrate the application of the principle of
" holiness," and in the main exhibit the characteristic phraseology
of H, they also display many striking points of contact with P and
the later strata of P, which have been closely interwoven into the
original laws. These phenomena can be best explained by the
supposition that we have here a body of old laws which have been
subjected to more than one revision. The nature of the subjects
with which they deal is one that naturally appealed to the priestly
schools, and owing to this fact the laws were especially liable to
modification and expansion at the hands of later legislators who
wished to bring them into conformity with later usage. Signs of
such revision may be traced back to the compiler of H, but the
evidence shows that the process must have been continued down to
the latest period of editorial activity in connexion with P. To redactors
of the school of P belong such phrases as " the sons of Aaron " (xxi.
I, 24, xxii. 2, 18), "^the seed of Aaron " (xxi. 21, xxii. 4 and " thy
seed," v. 17; cf. xxii. 3), " the offerings of the Lord made by fire "
(xxi. 6, 21, xxii. 22, 27), " the most holy things " (xxi. 22; cf. xxii.
3ff. " holy things " only), " throughout their (or your) generations "
(xxi. 7, xxii. 3), the references to the anointing of Aaron (xxi. 10, 12)
and the Veil (xxi. 23), the introductory formulae (xxi. I, 16 f., xxii.
I f., 17 f., 26) and the subscription (xxi. 24^). Apart from these
redactional additions, chap. xxi. is to be ascribed to H, ro. 6 and 8
being possibly the work of RH. Most critics detect a stronger
influence of P in chap, xxii., more especially in TO. 3-7 and 17-25,
29, 30; most probably these verses have been largely recast and
expanded by later editors, but it is noticeable that they contain no
mention of either sin- or trespass-offerings.
Chap, xxiii. A calendar of sacred seasons. The chapter consists
of two main elements which can easily be distinguished from one
another, the one being derived from P and the other from H. To
the former belongs the fuller and more elaborate description of TO.
4-8, 21, 23-38; to the latter, TO. 9-20, 22, 39-44. Characteristic of
the priestly calendar are (l) the enumeration of " holy convocations,"
(2) the prohibition of all work, (3) the careful determination of the
date by the day and month, (4) the mention of " the offerings made
by fire to Yahweh," and (5) the stereotyped form of the regulations.
The older calendar, on the other hand, knows nothing of " holy
convocations," nor of abstinence from work; the time of the
feasts, which are clearly connected with agriculture, is only roughly
defined with reference to the harvest (cf, Exod. xxiii. 14 ff., xxxiv.
22; Deut. xvi. 9 ff.).
The calendar of P comprises (a) the Feast of Passover and the
Unleavened Cakes, TO. 4-8; (b) a fragment of Pentecost, v. 21;
(c) the Feast of Trumpets, TO. 23-25; (d) the Day of Atonement,
TO. 26-32; and (e) the Feast of Tabernacles, TO. 33-36, with a sub-
scription in TO. 37, 38. With these have been incorporated the older
regulations of H on the Feast of Weeks, or Pentecost, w. 9-20,
which have been retained in place of P's account (cf. v. 21), and on
the Feast of Tabernacles, TO. 39-44, the latter being clearly intended
to supplement TO. 33-36. The hand of the redactor who combined
the two elements may be seen partly in additions designed to accom-
modate the regulations of H to P (e.g. v. 390, " on the fifteenth day
of the seventh month," and 396, " and on the eighth day shall be
a solemn rest "), partly in the later expansions corresponding to
later usage, TO. 12 f., 18, iga, 216, 41. Further, TO. 26-32 (on the
Day of Atonement, cf. xvi.) are a later addition to the P sections.
Chap. xxiv. affords an interesting illustration of the manner in
which the redactor of P has added later elements to the original code
of H. For the first part of the chapter, with its regulations as to
(a) the lamps in the Tabernacle, w. 1-4, and (b) the Shewbread, TO.
5-9, is admittedly derived from P, w. 1-4, forming a supplement
to Exod. xxv. 31-40 (cf. xxvii. 20 f.) and Num. viii. 1-4, and TO. 5-9
to Exod. xxv. 30. The rest of the chapter contains old laws (vv.
156-22) derived from H on blasphemy, manslaughter and injuries
to the person, to which the redactor has added an historical setting
(w. 10-14, 23) as we" as a few glosses.
Chap. xxv. lays down regulations for the observance of (a) the
Sabbatical year, TO. 1-7, 19-22, and (b) the year of Jubilees, TO. 8-18,
23, and then applies the principle of redemption to (i) land and house
property, w. 24-34, and (2) persons, w. 35-55. The rules for the
Sabbatical year (TO. 1-7) are admittedly derived from H, and TO.
19-22 are also from the same source. Their present position after
TO. 8- 1 8 is due to the redactor who wished to apply the same rules
to the year of Jubilee. But though the former of the two sections
on the year of Jubilee (TO. 8-18, 23) exhibits undoubted signs of P,
the traces of H are also sufficiently marked to warrant the conclusion
that the latter code included laws relating to the year of Jubilee,
and that these have been modified by RP and then connected with
the regulations for the Sabbatical year. Signs of the redactor's
handiwork may be seen in TO. 9, 11-13 (the year of Jubilee treated
as a fallow year) and 15, 1 6 (cf. the repetition of " ye shall not wrong
one another," TO. 14 and 17). Both on historical and on critical
grounds, however, it is improbable that the principle of restitution
LEVY, A.— LEWANIKA
5*9
underlying the regulations for the year of Jubilee was originally
extended to persons in the earlier code. For it is difficult to har-
monize the laws as to the release of Hebrew slaves with the other
legislation on the same subject (Exod. xxi. 2-6; Deut. xv.), while
both the secondary position which they occupy in this chapter and
their more elaborate and formal character point to a later origin for
w. 35-55. Hence these verses in the main must be assigned to RP.
In this connexion it is noticeable that w. 35-38, 39-400, 43, 47, 53, 55,
which show the characteristic marks of H, bear no special relation
to the year of Jubilee, but merely inculcate a more humane treat-
ment of those Israelites who are compelled by circumstances to sell
themselves either to their brethren or to strangers. It is probable,
therefore, that they form no part of the original legislation of the
year of Jubilee, but were incorporated at a later period. The present
form of w. 24-34 is largely due to RP, who has certainly added
v. 32-34 (cities of the Levites) and probably w. 29-31.
Chap. xxvi. The concluding exhortation. After reiterating
commands to abstain from idolatry and to observe the Sabbath,
w. 1,2, the chapter sets forth (a) the rewards of obedience, TO. 3-13,
and (6) the penalties incurred by disobedience to the preceding laws,
w. 14-46. The discourse, which is spoken throughout in the name
of Yahweh, is similar in character to Exod. xxiii. 20-33 and Deut.
xxviii., more especially to the latter. That it forms an integral
part of H is shown both by the recurrence of the same distinctive
phraseology and by the emphasis laid on the same motives. At
the same time it is hardly doubtful that the original discourse has
been modified and expanded by later hands, especially in the con-
cluding paragraphs. Thus TO. 34, 35, which refer back to xxv. 2 ff.,
interrupt the connexion and must be assigned to the priestly redactor,
while TO. 40-45 display obvious signs of interpolation. With regard
to the literary relation of this chapter with Ezekiel, it must be
admitted that Ezekiel presents many striking parallels, and in par-
ticular makes use, in common with chap, xxvi., of several expressions
which do not occur elsewhere in the Old Testament. But there are
also points of difference both as regards phraseology and subject-
matter, and in view of these latter it is impossible to hold that Ezekiel
was either the author or compiler of this chapter.
Chap, xxvii. On the commutation of vows and tithes. The
chapter as a whole must be assigned to a later stratum of P, for
while w. 2-25 (on vows) presuppose the year of Jubilee, the section
on tithes, TO. 30-33, marks a later stage of development than Num.
xviii. 21 ff. (P); w. 26-29 (on firstlings and devoted things) are
supplementary restrictions to TO. 2-25.
LITERATURE. — Commentaries: Dillmann-Ryssel, Die Bticher
Exodus und Leviticus (1897); Driver and White, SBOT. Leviticus
(English, 1898); B. Baentsch, Exod. Lev. u. Num. (HK, 1900);
Bertholet, Leviticus (KHC, 1901). Criticism: The Introductions
to the Old Testament by Kuenen, Holzinger, Driver, Cornill, Konig
and the archaeological works of Benzinger and Nowack. Well-
hausen, Die Composition des Hexateuchs, &c. (1899); Kayser, Das
vorexilisehe Buck der Urgeschichte Isr. (1874); Kjostermann,
Zeitschrift fur Luth. Theologie (1877); Horst, Lev. xvii.-xxvi. und
Hezekiel (1881); Wurster, ZATW (1884); Baentsch, Das Heilig-
keitsgesetz (1893); L. P. Paton, " The Relation of Lev. 20 to Lev.
17-19," Hebraica (1894); "The Original Form of Leviticus," JBL
(1897, 1898); "The Holiness Code and Ezekiel," Pres. and Ref.
Review (1896); Carpenter, Composition of the Hexateuch (1902).
Articles on Leviticus by G. F. Moore, Hastings's Diet. Bib., and
G. Harford Battersby, Ency. Bib. (]. F. ST.)
LEVY, AMY (1861-1889), English poetess and novelist,
second daughter of Lewis Levy, was born at Clapham on the loth
of November 1861, and was educated at Newnham College,
Cambridge. She showed a precocious aptitude for writing verse
of exceptional merit, and in 1884 she published a volume of poems,
A Minor Poet and Other Verse, some of the pieces in which had
already been printed at Cambridge with the title Xantippe and
Other Poems. The high level of this first publication was main-
tained in A London Plane Tree and Other Poems, a collection of
lyrics published in 1889, in which the prevailing pessimism of
the writer's temperament was conspicuous. She had already in
1888 tried her hand at prose fiction in The Romance of a Shop,
which was followed by Reuben Sachs, a powerful novel. She
committed suicide on the loth of September 1889.
LEVY, AUGUSTS MICHEL (1844- ), French geologist,
was born in Paris on the 7th of August 1844. He became
inspector-general of mines, and director of the Geological Survey
of France. He was distinguished for his researches on eruptive
rocks, their microscopic structure and origin; and he early
employed the polarizing microscope for the determination of
minerals. In his many contributions to scientific journals he
described the granulite group, and dealt with pegmatites, vario-
lites, eurites, the ophites of the Pyrenees, the extinct volcanoes
of Central France, gneisses, and the origin of crystalline schists.
He wrote Structures et classification des r aches eruptives (1889),
but his more elaborate studies were carried on with F. Fouque".
Together they wrote on the artificial production of felspar,
nepheline and other minerals, and also of meteorites, and pro-
duced Mineralogie micrographique (1879) and Synthese des
mineraux et des roches (1882). Levy also collaborated with
A. Lacroix in Les Mineraux des roches (1888) and Tableau des
mineraux des roches (1889).
LEVY (Fr. levee, from lever, Lat. levare, to lift, raise), the
raising of money by the collection of an assessment, &c., a tax
or compulsory contribution; also the collection of a body of men
for military or other purposes. When all the able-bodied men
of a nation are enrolled for service, the French term levee en
masse, levy in mass, is frequently used.
LEWALD, FANNY (1811-1889), German author, was born at
Konigsberg in East Prussia on the 24th of March i8u,of Jewish
parentage. When seventeen years of age she embraced Chris-
tianity, and after travelling in Germany, France and Italy, settled
in 1845 at Berlin. Here, in 1854, she married the author, Adolf
Wilhelm Theodor Stahr (1805-1876), and removed after his death
in 1876 to Dresden, where she resided, engaged in literary
work, until her death on the 5th of August 1889. Fanny Lewald
is less remarkable for her writings, which are mostly sober,
matter-of-fact works, though displaying considerable talent and
culture, than for her championship of " women's rights," a
question which she was practically the first German woman to
take up, and for her scathing satire on the sentimentalism of
the Grafin Hahn Hahn. This authoress she ruthlessly attacked
in the exquisite parody (Diogena, Roman wn Iduna Grafin
H .... H. . . . (2nd ed., 1847). Among the best known of
her novels are Klementine (1842); Prinz Louis Ferdinand
(1849; 2nd ed., 1859); Das Madchen von Hela (1860); Von
Geschlecht zu Geschlecht (8 vols., 1863-1865); Benvenuto (1875),
and Stella (1883 ; English by B. Marshall, 1884). Of her writings
in defence of the emancipation of women Osterbriefe fur die
Frauen (1863) and Fur und wider die Frauen (1870) are con-
spicuous. Her autobiography, Meine Lebensgeschichte (6 vols.,
1861-1862), is brightly written and affords interesting glimpses
of the literary life of her time.
A selection of her works was published under the title Gesammelte
Schriften in 12 vols. (1870-1874). Cf. K. Frenzel, Erinnerungen und
Stromungen (1890).
LEWANIKA (c. 1860- ), paramount chief of the Barotse
and subject tribes occupying the greater part of the upper
Zambezi basin, was the twenty-second of a long line of rulers,
whose founder invaded the Barotse valley about the beginning
of the 1 7th century, and according to tradition was the son of
a woman named Buya Mamboa by a god. The graves of
successive ruling chiefs are to this day respected and objects
of pilgrimage for purposes of ancestor worship. Lewanika
was born on the upper Kabompo in troublous times, where
his father — Letia, a son of a former ruler — lived in exile during
the interregnum of a foreign dynasty (Makololo), which remained
in possession from about 1830 to 1865, when the Makololo were
practically exterminated in a night by a well-organized revolt.
Once more masters of their own country, the Barotse invited
Sepopa, an uncle of Lewanika, to rule over them. Eleven years
of brutality and licence resulted in the tyrant's expulsion and
subsequent assassination, his place being taken by Ngwana-Wina,
a nephew. Within a year abuse of power brought about this
chief's downfall (1877), and he was succeeded by Lobosi, who
assumed the name of Lewanika in 1885. The early years of his
reign were also stained by many acts of blood, until in 1884
the torture and murder of his own brother led to open rebellion,
and it was only through extreme presence of mind that the
chief escaped with his life into exile. His cousin, Akufuna or
Tatela, was then proclaimed chief. It was during his brief
reign that Francois Coillard, the eminent missionary, arrived
at Lialui, the capital. The following year Lewanika, having
collected his partisans, deposed the usurper and re-established
his power. Ruthless revenge not unmixed with treachery
characterized his return to power, but gradually the strong
520
LEWES, C. L.— LEWES, G. H.
personality of the high-minded Francois Coillard so far influenced
him for good that from about 1887 onward he ruled tolerantly
and showed a consistent desire to better the condition of his
people. In 1890 Lewanika, who two years previously had
proposed to place himself under the protection of Great Britain,
concluded a treaty with the British South Africa Company,
acknowledging its supremacy and conceding to it certain mineral
rights. In 1897 Mr R. T. Coryndon took up his position at
Lialui as British agent, and the country to the east of 25° E.
was thrown open to settlers, that to the west being reserved
to the Barotse chief. In 1905 the king of Italy's award in the
Barotse boundary dispute with Portugal deprived Lewanika
of half of his dominions, much of which had been ruled by his
ancestors for many generations. In 1902 Lewanika attended
the coronation of Edward VII. as a guest of the nation. His
recognized heir was his eldest son Letia.
See BAROTSE, and the works there cited, especially On the Threshold
of Central Africa (London, 1897), by Francois Coillard.
(A. ST. H. G.)
LEWES, CHARLES LEE (1740-1803), English actor, was the
son of a hosier in London. After attending a school at Ambleside
he returned to London, where he found employment as a postman;
but about 1760 he went on the stage in the provinces, and some
three years later began to appear in minor parts at Covent
Garden Theatre. His first role of importance was that of
" Young Marlow " in She Stoops to Conquer, at its production
of that comedy in 1773, when he delivered an epilogue specially
written for him by Goldsmith. He remained a member of the
Covent Garden company till 1783, appearing in many parts,
among which were " Fag " in The Rivals, which he " created,"
and " Sir Anthony Absolute " in the same comedy. In 1783 he
removed to Drury Lane, where he assumed the Shakespearian
r&les of "Touchstone," " Lucio " and " Falstaff." In 1787
he left London for Edinburgh, where he gave recitations, includ-
ing Cowper's "John Gilpin." For a short time in 1792 Lewes
assisted Stephen Kemble in the management of the Dundee
Theatre; in the following year he went to Dublin, but he was
financially unsuccessful and suffered imprisonment for debt.
He employed his time in compiling his Memoirs, a worthless
production published after his death by his son. He was also
the author of some poor dramatic sketches. Lewes died on the
23rd of July 1803. He was three times married; the philosopher,
George Henry Lewes, was his grandson.
See John Genest, Some Account of the English Stage (Bath, 1832).
LEWES, GEORGE HENRY (1817-1878), British philosopher
and literary critic, was born in London in 1817. He was a
grandson of Charles Lee Lewes, the actor. He was educated
in London, Jersey, Brittany, and finally at Dr Burney's school
in Greenwich. Having abandoned successively a commercial
and a medical career, he seriously thought of becoming an actor,
and between 1841 and 1850 appeared several times on the stage.
Finally he devoted himself to literature, science and philosophy.
As early as 1836 he belonged to a club formed for the study of
philosophy, and had sketched out a physiological treatment of
the philosophy of the Scottish school. Two years later he went
to Germany, probably with the intention of studying philosophy.
In 1840 he married a daughter of Swynfen Stevens Jervis
(1798-1867), and during the next ten years supported himself
by contributing to the quarterly and other reviews. These
articles discuss a wide variety of subject, and, though often
characterized by hasty impulse and imperfect study, betray
a singularly acute critical judgment, enlightened by philosophic
study. The most valuable are those on the drama, afterwards
republished under the title Actors and Acting (1875). With
this may be taken the volume on The Spanish Drama (1846).
The combination of wide scholarship, philosophic culture and
practical acquaintance with the theatre gives these essays a
high place among the best efforts in English dramatic criticism.
In 184 5-1846 he published The Biographical History of Philosophy,
an attempt to depict the life of philosophers as an ever-renewed
fruitless labour to attain the unattainable. In 1847-1848 he
made two attempts in the field of fiction — Ranthrope, and Rose,
Blanche and Violet — which, though displaying considerable
skill both in plot, construction and in characterization, have
taken no permanent place in literature. The same is to be
said of an ingenious attempt to rehabilitate Robespierre (1849).
In 1850 he collaborated with Thornton Leigh Hunt in the
foundation of the Leader, of which he was the literary editor.
In 1853 he republished under the title of Comte's Philosophy
of the Sciences a series of ^papers which had appeared in that
journal. In 1851 he became acquainted with Miss Evans
(George Eliot) and in 1854 left his wife. Subsequently he lived
with Miss Evans as her husband (see ELIOT, GEORGE).
The culmination of Lewes's work in prose literature is the
Life of Goethe (1855), probably the best known of his writings.
Lewes's many-sidedness of mind, and his combination of scientific
with literary tastes, eminently fitted him to appreciate the
large nature and the wide-ranging activity of the German
poet. The high position this work has taken in Germany itself,
notwithstanding the boldness of its criticism and the unpopu-
larity of some of its views (e.g. on the relation of the second to
the first part of Faust), is a sufficient testimony to its general
excellence. From about 1853 Lewes's writings show that he was
occupying himself with scientific and more particularly biological
work. He may be said to have always manifested a distinctly
scientific bent in his writings, and his closer devotion to science
was but the following out of early impulses. Considering that
he had not had the usual course of technical training, these
studies are a remarkable testimony to the penetration of his
intellect. The most important of these essays are collected in
the volumes Seaside Studies (1858), Physiology of Common Life
(1859), Studies in Animal Life (1862), and Aristotle, a Chapter
from the History of Science (1864). They are much more than
popular expositions of accepted scientific truths. They contain
able criticisms of authorized ideas, and embody the results of in-
dividual research and individual reflection. He made a number
of impressive suggestions, some of which have since been accepted
by physiologists. Of these the most valuable is that now known
as the doctrine of the functional indifference of the nerves —
that what are known as the specific energies of the optic, auditory
and other nerves are simply differences in their mode of action
due to the differences of the peripheral structures or sense-organs
with which they are connected. This idea was subsequently
arrived at independently by Wundt (Physiologische Psychologie,
2nd ed., p. 321). In 1865, on the starting of the Fortnightly
Review, Lewes became its editor, but he retained the post for
less than two years, when he was succeeded by John Morley.
This date marks the transition from more strictly scientific
to philosophic work. He had from early youth cherished a
strong liking for philosophic studies; one of his earliest essays
was an appreciative account of Hegel's Aesthetics. Coming under
the influence of positivism as unfolded both in Comte's own works
and in J. S. Mill s System of Logic, he abandoned all faith in the
possibility of metaphysic, and recorded this abandonment in
the above-mentioned History of Philosophy. Yet he did not at
any time give an unqualified adhesion to Comte's teachings,
and with wider reading and reflection his mind moved away
further from the positivist standpoint. In the preface to the
third edition of his History of Philosophy he avowed a change
in this direction, and this movement is still more plainly dis-
cernible in subsequent editions of the work. The final outcome
of this intellectual progress is given to us in The Problems of
Life and Mind, which may be regarded as the crowning work
of his life. His sudden death on the 28th of November 1878
cut short the work, yet it is complete enough to allow us to judge
of the author's matured conceptions on biological, psychological
and metaphysical problems. Of his three sons only 'one, Charles
(1843-1891), survived him; in the first London County Council
Election (1888) he was elected for St Pancras; he was also much
interested in the Hampstead Heath extension.
Philosophy. — The first two volumes on The Foundations of a Creed
lay down what Lewes regarded as the true principlcsof philosophizing.
He here seeks to effect a rapprochement between metaphysic and
science. He is still so far a positivist as to pronounce all inquiry into
the ultimate nature of things fruitless. What matter, form, spirit are
LEWES
521
in themselves is a futile question that belongs to the sterile region
of " metempirics." But philosophical questions may be so stated
as to be susceptible of a precise solution by scientific method. Thus,
since the relation of subject to object falls within our experience,
it is a proper matter for philosophic investigation. It may be
questioned whether Lewes is right in thus identifying the methods of
science and philosophy. Philosophy is not a mere extension of
scientific knowledge ; it is an investigation of the nature and validity
of the knowing process itself. In any case Lewes cannot be said to
have done much to aid in the settlement of properly philosophical
questions. His whole treatment of the question of the relation of
subject to object is vitiated by a confusion between the scientific
truth that mind and body coexist in the living organism and the
philosophic truth that all knowledge of objects implies a knowing
subject. In other words, to use Shadworth Hodgson's phrase, he
mixes up the question of the genesis of mental forms with the question
of their nature (see Philosophy^ of Reflexion, ii. 40-58). Thus he
reaches the " monistic " doctrine that mind and matter are two
aspects of the same existence by attending simply to the parallelism
between psychical and physical processes given as a fact (or a prob-
able fact) of our experience, and by leaving out of account their
relation as subject and object in the cognitive act. His identification
of the two as phases of one existence is open to criticism, not only
from the point of view of philosophy, but from that of science. In
his treatment of such ideas as " sensibility," " sentience " and the
like, he does not always show whether he is speaking of physical or
of psychical phenomena. Among the other properly philosophic
questions discussed in these two volumes the nature of the casual
relation is perhaps the one which is handled with most freshness and
suggestiveness. The third volume, The Physical Basis of Mind,
further develops the writer's views on organic activities as a whole.
He insists strongly on the radical distinction between organic and
inorganic processes, and on the impossibility of ever explaining the
former by purely mechanical principles. With respect to the nervous
system, he holds that all its parts have one and the same elementary
property, namely, sensibility. Thus sensibility belongs as much to
the lower centres of the spinal cord as to the brain, contributing in
this more elementary form elements to the " subconscious " region
of mental life. The higher functions of the nervous system, which
make up our conscious mental life, are merely more complex modifi-
cations of this fundamental property of nerve substance. Closely
related to this doctrine is the view that the nervous organism acts
as a whole, that particular mental operations cannot be referred to
definitely circumscribed regions of the brain, and that the hypothesis
of nervous activity passing in the centre by an isolated pathway
from one nerve-cell to another is altogether illusory. By insisting
on the complete coincidence between the regions of nerve-action and
sentience, and by holding that these are but different aspects of one
thing, he is able to attack the doctrine of animal and human auto-
matism, which affirms that feeling or consciousness is merely an
incidental concomitant of nerve-action and in no way essential to the
chain of physical events. Lewes's views in psychology, partly opened
up in the earlier volumes of the Problems, are more fully worked out
in the last two volumes (3rd series). He discusses the method of
psychology with much insight. He claims against Comte and his
followers a place for introspection in psychological research. In
addition to this subjective method there must be an objective, which
consists partly in a reference to nervous conditions and partly in the
employment of sociological and historical data. Biological know-
ledge, or a consideration of the organic conditions, would only help
us to explain mental functions, as feeling and thinking; it would
not assist us to understand differences of mental faculty as mani-
fested in different races and stages of human development. The
organic conditions of these differences will probably for ever escape
detection. Hence they can be explained only as the products of the
social environment. This idea of dealing with mental phenomena in
their relation to social and historical conditions is probably Lewes's
most important contribution to psychology. Among other points
which he emphasizes is the complexity of mental phenomena. Every
mental state is regarded as compounded of three factors in different
proportions — namely, a process of sensible affection, of logical
grouping and of motor impulse. But Lewes's work in psychology
consists less in any definite discoveries than in the inculcation of a
sound and just method. His biological training prepared him to
view mind as a complex unity, in which the various functions
interact one on the other, and of which the highest processes are
identical with and evolved out of the lower. Thus the operations of
thought, " or the logic of signs," are merely a more complicated
form of the elementary operations of sensation and instinct or " the
logic of feeling." The whole of the last volume of the Problems may
be said to be an illustration of this position. It is a valuable
repository of psychological facts, many of them drawn from the more
obscure regions of mental life and from abnormal experience, and
is throughout suggestive and stimulating. To suggest and to
stimulate the mind, rather than to supply it with any complete
system of knowledge, may be said to be Lewes's service in philosophy.
The exceptional rapidity and versatility of his intelligence seems to
account at once for the freshness in his way of envisaging the subject-
matter of philosophy and psychology, and for the want of satisfac-
tory elaboration and of systematic co-ordination. (J. S. ; X.)
LEWES, a market-town and municipal borough and the
county town of Sussex, England, in the Lewes parliamentary
division, 50 m. S. from London by the London, Brighton &
South Coast railway. Pop. (1901) 11,249. It is picturesquely
situated on the slope of a chalk down falling to the river Ouse.
Ruins of the old castle, supposed to have been founded by King
Alfred and rebuilt by William de Warenne shortly after the
Conquest, rise from the height. There are two mounds which
bore keeps, an uncommon feature. The castle guarded the pass
through the downs formed by the valley of the Ouse. In one of
the towers is the collection of the Sussex Archaeological Society.
St Michael's church is without architectural merit, but contains
old brasses and monuments; St Anne's church is a transitional
Norman structure; St Thomas-at-Cliffe is Perpendicular; St
John's, Southover, of mixed architecture, preserves some early
Norman portions, and has some relics of the Warenne family.
In the grounds of the Cluniac priory of St Pancras, founded in
1078, the leaden coffins of William de Warenne and Gundrada
his wife were dug up during an excavation for the railway in 1845.
There is a free grammar school dating from 1512, and among the
other public buildings are the town hall and corn exchange,
county hall, prison, and the Fitzroy memorial library. The
industries include the manufacture of agricultural implements,
brewing, tanning, and iron and brass founding. The municipal
borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area,
1042 acres.
The many neolithic and bronze implements that have been
discovered, and the numerous tumuli and earthworks which
surround Lewes, indicate its remote origin. The town Lewes
(Loewas, Loewen, Leswa, Laquis, Latisaquensis) was in the royal
demesne of the Saxon kings, from whom it received the privilege
of a market, ^thelstan established two royal mints there, and
by the reign of Edward the Confessor, and probably before, Lewes
was certainly a borough. William I. granted the whole barony
of Lewes, including the revenue arising from the town, to
William de Warenne, who converted an already existing fortifica-
tion into a place of residence. His descendants continued to hold
the barony until the beginning of the i4th century. In default
of male issue, it then passed to the earl of Arundel, with whose
descendants it remained until 1439, when it was divided between
the Norfolks, Dorsets and Abergavennys. By 1086 the borough
had increased 30% in value since the beginning of the reign,
and its importance as a port and market-town is evident from
Domesday. A gild merchant seems to have existed at an
early date. The first mention of it is in a charter of Reginald de
Warenne, about 1148, by which he restored to the burgesses the
privileges they had enjoyed in the time of his grandfather and
father, but of which they had been deprived. In 1595 a " Fellow-
ship " took the place of the old gild and in conjunction with
two constables governed the town until the beginning of the i8th
century. The borough seal probably dates from the I4th
century. Lewes was incorporated by royal charter in 1881.
The town returned two representatives to parliament from 1295
until deprived of one member in 1867. It was disfranchised in
1885. Earl Warenne and his descendants held the fairs and
markets from 1066. In 1792 the fair-days were the 6th of May,
Whit-Tuesday, the 26th of July (for wool), and the 2nd of
October. The market-day was Saturday. Fairs are now held
on the 6th of May for horses and cattle, the 2oth of July for wool,
and the 2ist and 28th of September for Southdown sheep.
A corn-market is held every Tuesday, and a stock-market every
alternate Monday. The trade in wool has been important since
the 1 4th century.
Lewes was the scene of the battle fought on the i4th of May
1 264 between Henry III. and Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester.
Led by the king and by his son, the future king Edward I., the
royalists left Oxford, took Northampton and drove Montfort
from Rochester into London. Then, harassed on the route by
their foes, they marched through Kent into Sussex and took up
their quarters at Lewes, a stronghold of the royalist Earl Warenne.
Meanwhile, reinforced by a number of Londoners, Earl Simon
left London and reached Fletching, about 9 m. north of Lewes,
522
LEWES— LEWIS, SIR G. C.
on the i3th of May. Efforts at reconciliation having failed he
led his army against the town, which he hoped to surprise, early
on the following day. His plan was to direct his main attack
against the priory of St Pancras, which sheltered the king and
his brother Richard, earl of Cornwall, king of the Romans,
while causing the enemy to believe that his principal objective
was the castle, where Prince Edward was. But the surprise
was not complete and the royalists rushed from the town to
meet the enemy in the open field. Edward led his followers
against the Londoners, who were gathered around the standard
of Montfort, put them to flight, pursued them for several miles,
and killed a great number of them. Montfort's ruse, however,
had been successful. He was not with his standard as his foes
thought, but with the pick of his men he attacked Henry's
followers and took prisoner both the king and his brother.
Before Edward returned from his chase the earl was in possession
of the town. In its streets the prince strove to retrieve his
fortunes, but in vain. Many of his men perished in the river,
but others escaped, one band, consisting of Earl Warenne and
others, taking refuge in Pevensey Castle. Edward himself took
sanctuary and on the following day peace was made between
the king and the earl.
LEWES, a town in Sussex county, Delaware, U.S.A., in the
S.E. part of the state, on Delaware Bay. Pop. (1910), 2158.
Lewes is served by the Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washington
(Pennsylvania System), and the Maryland, Delaware & Virginia
railways. Its harbour is formed by the Delaware Breakwater,
built by the national government and completed in 1869, and
2j m. above it another breakwater was completed in December
1901 by the government. The cove between them forms a
harbour of refuge of about 550 acres. At the mouth of Delaware
Bay, about 2 m. below Lewes, is the Henlopen Light, one of
the oldest lighthouses in America. The Delaware Bay pilots
make their headquarters at Lewes. Lewes has a large trade with
northern cities in fruits and vegetables, and is a subport of entry
of the Wilmington Customs District. The first settlement on
Delaware soil by Europeans was made near here in 1631 by
Dutch colonists, sent by a company organized in Holland in
the previous year by Samuel Blommaert, Killian van Rensselaer,
David Pieterszen de Vries and others. The settlers called the
place Zwaanendael, valley of swans. The settlement was soon
entirely destroyed by the Indians, and a second body of settlers
whom de Vries, who had been made director of the colony,
brought in 1632 remained for only two years. The fact of the
settlement is important; because of it the English did not unite
the Delaware country with Maryland, for the Maryland Charter
of 1632 restricted colonization to land within the prescribed
boundaries, uncultivated and either uninhabited or inhabited
only by Indians. In 1658 the Dutch established an Indian
trading post, and in 1659 erected a fort at Zwaanendael. After
the annexation of the Delaware counties to Pennsylvania in 1682,
its name was changed to Lewes, after the town of that name in
Sussex, England. It was pillaged by French pirates in 1698.
One of the last naval battles of the War of Independence was
fought in the bay near Lewes on the 8th of April 1782, when the
American privateer " Hyder Ally " (16), commanded by Captain
Joshua Barnes (1750-1818), defeated and captured the British
sloop " General Monk " (20), which had been an American
privateer, the " General Washington," had been captured by
Admiral Arbuthnot's squadron in 1780, and was now pur-
chased by the United States government and, as the " General
Washington," was commanded by Captain Barnes in 1782-
1784. In March 1813 the town was bombarded by a British
frigate.
See the " History of Lewes " in the Papers of the Historical Society
of Delaware, No. xxxviii. (Wilmington, 1903); and J. T. Scharf,
History of Delaware (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1888).
LEWIS, SIR GEORGE CORNEWALL, BART. (1806-1863),
English statesman and man of letters, was born in London on
the 2ist of April 1806. His father, Thomas F. Lewis, of Harpton
Court, Radnorshire, after holding subordinate office in various
administrations, became a poor-law commissioner, and was made
a baronet in 1846. Young Lewis was educated at Eton and at
Christ Church, Oxford, where in 1828 he took a first-class in
classics and a second-class in mathematics. He then entered
the Middle Temple, and was called to the bar in 1831. In 1833
he undertook his first public work as one of the commissioners
to inquire into the condition of the poor Irish residents in the
United Kingdom.1 In 1834 Lord Althorp included him in the
commission to inquire into the state of church property and
church affairs generally in Ireland. To this fact we owe his work
on Local Disturbances in Ireland, and the Irish Church Question
(London, 1836), in which he condemned the existing connexion
between church and state, proposed a state provision for the
Catholic clergy, and maintained the necessity of an efficient
workhouse organization. During this period Lewis's mind
was much occupied with the study of language. Before leaving
college he had published some observations on Whately's doctrine
of the predicables, and soon afterwards he assisted Thirlwall
and Hare in starting the Philological Museum. Its successor,
the Classical Museum, he also supported by occasional contribu-
tions. In 1835 he published an Essay on the Origin and Forma-
tion of the Romance Languages (re-edited in 1862), the first
effective criticism in England of Raynouard's theory of a uniform
romance tongue, represented by the poetry of the troubadours.
He also compiled a glossary of provincial words used in Hereford-
shire and the adjoining counties. But the most important work
of this earlier period was one to which his logical and philological
tastes contributed. The Remarks on the Use and Abuse of some
Political Terms (London, 1832) may have been suggested by
Bentham's Book of Parliamentary Fallacies, but it shows all
that power of clear sober original thinking which marks his
larger and later political works. Moreover, he translated
Boeckh's Public Economy of Athens and Muller's History of
Greek Literature, and he assisted Tufnell in the translation of
Muller's Dorians. Some time afterwards he edited a text of
the Fables of Babrius. While his friend Hay ward conducted
the Law Magazine, he wrote in it frequently on such subjects as
secondary punishments and the penitentiary system. In 1836,
at the request of Lord Glenelg, he accompanied John Austin to
Malta, where they spent nearly two years reporting on the
condition of the island and framing a new code of laws. One
leading object of both commissioners was to associate the Maltese
in the responsible government of the island. On his return to
England Lewis succeeded his father as one of the principal
poor-law commissioners. In 1841 appeared the Essay on the
Government of Dependencies, a systematic statement and dis-
cussion of the various relations in which colonies may stand
towards the mother country. In 1844 Lewis married Lady Maria
Theresa Lister, sister of Lord Clarendon, and a lady of literary
tastes. Much of their married life was spent in Kent House,
Knightsbridge. They had no children. In 1847 Lewis resigned
his office. He was then returned for the county of Hereford,
and Lord John Russell appointed him secretary to the Board of
Control, but a few months afterwards he became under-secretary
to the Home Office. In this capacity he introduced two important
bills,one for the abolition of turnpike trusts and the management
of highways by a mixed county board, the other for the purpose
of defining and regulating the law of parochial assessment. In
1850 he succeeded Hayter as financial secretary to the treasury.
About .this time', also, appeared his Essay on the Influence of
Authority in Matters of Opinion. On the dissolution of parlia-
ment which followed the resignation of Lord John Russell's
ministry in 1852, Lewis was defeated for Herefordshire and then
for Peterborough. Excluded from parliament he accepted the
editorship of the Edinburgh Review, and remained editor until
1855. During this period he served on the Oxford commission,
and on the commission to inquire into the government of London.
But its chief fruits were the Treatise on the Methods of Observation
and Reasoning in Politics, and the Enquiry into the Credibility
of the Early Roman History? in which he vigorously attacked
1 See the Abstract of Final Report of Commissioners of Irish Poor
Enquiry, &c., by G. C. Lewis and N. Senior (1837).
1 Translated into German by Liebrecht (Hanover, 1858).
LEWIS, H. C.— LEWIS, M.
523
the theory of epic lays and other theories on which Niebuhr's
reconstruction of that history had proceeded. In 1855 Lewis
succeeded his father in the baronetcy. He was at once elected
member for the Radnor boroughs, and Lord Palmerston made
him chancellor of the exchequer. He had a war loan to contract
and heavy additional taxation to impose, but his industry,
method and clear vision carried him safely through. After
the change of ministry in 1859 Sir George became home secretary
under Lord Palmerston, and in 1861, much against his wish,
he succeeded Sidney Herbert (Lord Herbert of Lea) at the
War Office. The closing years of his life were marked by in-
creasing intellectual vigour. In 1859 he published an able
Essay on Foreign Jurisdiction and the Extradition of Criminals,
a subject to which the attempt on Napoleon's life, the discussions
on the Conspiracy Bill, and the trial of Bernard, had drawn
general attention. He advocated 'the extension of extradition
treaties, and condemned the principal idea of Weltrechtsordnung
which Mohl of Heidelberg had proposed. His two latest works
were the Survey of the Astronomy of the Ancients, in which,
without professing any knowledge of Oriental languages, he
applied a sceptical analysis to the ambitious Egyptology of
Bunsen; and the Dialogue on the Best Form of Government, in
which, under the name of Crito, the author points out to the
supporters of the various systems that there is no one abstract
government which is the best possible 'for all times and places.
An essay on the Characteristics of Federal, National, Provincial
and Municipal Government does not seem to have been published.
Sir George died in April 1863. A marble bust by Weekes stands
in Westminster Abbey.
Lewis was a man of mild and affectionate disposition, much
beloved by a large circle of friends, among whom were Sir E.
Head, the Grotes, the Austins, Lord Stanhope, J. S. Mill, Dean
Milman, the Duff Gordons. In public life he was distinguished,
as Lord Aberdeen said, " for candour, moderation, love of truth."
He had a passion for the systematic acquirement of knowledge,
and a keen and sound critical faculty. His name has gone down
to history as that of a many-sided man, sound in judgment,
unselfish in political life, and abounding in practical good sense.
A reprint from the Edinburgh Review of his long series of papers
on the Administration of Great Britain appeared in 1864, and his
Letters to various Friends (1870) were edited by his brother Gilbert,
who succeeded him in the baronetcy.
LEWIS, HENRY CARVILL (1853-1888), American geologist,
was born in Philadelphia on the i6th of November 1853.
Educated in the university of Pennsylvania he took the degree of
M.A. in 1876. He became attached to the Geological Survey of
Pennsylvania in 1879, serving for three years as a volunteer
member, and during this term he became greatly interested in the
study of glacial phenomena. In 1880 he was chosen professor of
mineralogy in the Philadelphia academy of natural sciences, and
in 1883 he was appointed to the chair of geology in Haverford
College, Pennsylvania. During the winters of 1885 to 1887 he
studied petrology under H. F. Rosenbusch at Heidelberg, and
during the summers he investigated the glacial geology of
northern Europe and the British Islands. His observations
\n North America, where he had studied under Professor G. F.
Wright, Professor T. C. Chamberlin and Warren Upham, had
demonstrated the former extension of land-ice, and the existence
of great terminal moraines. In 1884 his Report on the Terminal
Moraine in Pennsylvania and New York was published: a
work containing much information on the limits of the North
American ice-sheet. In Britain he sought to trace in like manner
the southern extent of the terminal moraines formed by British
ice-sheets, but before his conclusions were matured ' he died
at Manchester on the 2ist of July 1888. The results of his
observations were published in 1894 entitled Papers and Notes
on the Glacial Geology of Great Britain and Ireland, edited by
Dr H. W. Crosskey.
See "Prof. Henry Carvill Lewis and his Work in Glacial Geology,"
by Warren Upham, Amer. Geol. vol. ii. (Dec. 1888) p. 371, with
portrait.
LEWIS, JOHN FREDERICK (1805-1876), British painter,
son of F. C. Lewis, engraver, was born in London. He was
elected in 1827 associate of the Society of Painters in Water
Colours, of which he became full member in 1829 and president
in 1855; he resigned in 1858, and was made associate of the
Royal Academy in 1859 and academician in 1865. Much of his
earlier life was spent in Spain, Italy and the East, but he re-
turned to England in 1851 and for the remainder of his career
devoted himself almost exclusively to Eastern subjects, which
he treated with extraordinary care and minuteness of finish,
and with much beauty of technical method. He is represented
by a picture, " Edfou: Upper Egypt," in the National Gallery
of British Art. He achieved equal eminence in both oil and
water-colour painting.
LEWIS, MATTHEW GREGORY (1775-1818), English
romance-writer and dramatist, often referred to as " Monk "
Lewis, was born in London on the 9th of July 1775. He was
educated for a diplomatic career at Westminster school and at
Christ Church, Oxford, spending most of his vacations abroad
in the study of modern languages; and in 1794 he proceeded to
the Hague as attache to the British embassy. His stay there
lasted only a few months, but was marked by the composition,
in ten weeks, of his romance Ambrosia, or the Monk, which was
published in the summer of the following year. It immediately
achieved celebrity; but some passages it contained were of such
a nature that about a year after its appearance an injunction to
restrain its sale was moved for and a rule nisi obtained. Lewis
published a second edition from which he had expunged, as he
thought, all the objectionable passages, but the work still
remains of such a character as almost to justify the severe
language in which Byron in English Bards and Scotch Reviewers
addresses—
" Wonder-working Lewis, Monk or Bard,
Who fain would'st make Parnassus a churchyard;
Even Satan's self with thee might dread to dwell,
And in thy skull discern a deeper hell."
Whatever its demerits, ethical or aesthetic, may have been, The
Monk did not interfere with the reception of Lewis into the best
English society; he was favourably noticed at court, and almost
as soon as he came of age he obtained a seat in the House
of Commons as member for Hindon, Wilts. After some years,
however, during which he never addressed the House, he finally
withdrew from a parliamentary career. His tastes lay wholly in
the direction of literature, and The Castle Spectre (1796, a musical
drama of no great literary merit, but which enjoyed a long
popularity on the stage), The Minister (a translation from
Schiller's Kabale u. Liebe), Rolla (1797, a translation from
Kotzebue), with numerous other operatic and tragic pieces,
appeared in rapid succession. The Bravo of Venice, a romance
translated from the German, was published in 1804; next to
The Monk it is the best known work of Lewis. By the death of
his father he succeeded to a large fortune, and in 1815 embarked
for the West Indies to visit his estates; in the course of this
tour, which lasted four months, the Journal of a West Indian
Proprietor, published posthumously in 1833, was written. A
second visit to Jamaica was undertaken in 1817, in order that
he might become further acquainted with, and able to amelio-
rate, the condition of the slave population; the fatigues to
which he exposed himself in the tropical climate brought on a
fever which terminated fatally on the homeward voyage on the
i4th of May 1818.
The Life and Correspondence of M. G. Lewis, in two volumes, was
published in 1839.
LEWIS, MERIWETHER (1774-1809), American explorer,
was born near Charlottesville, Virginia, on the i8th of August
1774. In 1794 he volunteered with the Virginia troops called
out to suppress the " Whisky Insurrection," was commissioned
as ensign in the regular United States army in 1795, served with
distinction under General Anthony Wayne in the campaigns
against the Indians, and attained the rank of captain in 1797.
From 1801 to 1803 he was the private secretary of President
Jefferson. On the i8th of January 1803 Jefferson sent a con-
fidential message to Congress urging the development of trade
with the Indians of the Missouri Valley and recommending that
an exploring party be sent into this region, notwithstanding
524
LEWISBURG— LEWISTON
the fact that it was then held by Spain and owned by France.
Congress appropriated funds for the expedition, and the president
instructed Lewis to proceed to the head-waters of the Missouri
river and thence across the mountains to the Pacific Ocean.
With Jefferson's consent Lewis chose as a companion Lieut.
William Clark, an old friend and army comrade. The prepara-
tions were made under the orders of the War Department, and,
until the news arrived that France had sold Louisiana to the
United States, they were conducted in secrecy. Lewis spent
some time in Philadelphia, gaining additional knowledge of the
natural sciences and learning the use of instruments for deter-
mining positions; and late in 1803 he and Clark, with twenty-
nine men from the army, went into winter quarters near St
Louis, where the men were subjected to rigid training. On the
i4th of May 1804 the party, with sixteen additional members,
who, however, were to go only a part of the way, started up the
Missouri river in three boats, and by the 2nd of November had
made the difficult ascent of the stream as far as 47° 21' N. lat.,
near the site of the present Bismarck, North Dakota, where,
among the Mandan Indians, they passed the second winter.
Early in April 1805 the ascent of the Missouri was continued as
far as the three forks of the river, which were named the Jeffer-
son, the Gallatin and the Madison. The Jefferson was then
followed to its source in the south-western part of what is now
the state of Montana. Procuring a guide and horses from the
Shoshone Indians, the party pushed westward through the Rocky
Mountains in September, and on the 7th of October embarked
in canoes on a tributary of the Columbia river, the mouth of
which they reached on the isth of November. They had
travelled upwards of 4000 m. from their starting-point, had
encountered various Indian tribes never before seen by whites,
had made valuable scientific collections and observations, and
were the first explorers to reach the Pacific by crossing the
continent north of Mexico. After spending the winter on the
Pacific coast they started on the 23rd of March 1806 on their
return journey, and, after crossing the divide, Lewis with
one party explored Maria's river, and Clark with another the
Yellowstone. On the I2th of August the two explorers reunited
near the junction of the Yellowstone and the Missouri, and on
the 23rd of September reached St Louis. In spite of exposure,
hardship and peril only one member of the party died, and
only one deserted. No later feat of exploration, perhaps, in
any quarter of the globe has exceeded this in romantic interest.
The expedition was commemorated by the Lewis and Clark
Centennial Exposition at Portland, Oregon, in 1905. The leaders
and men of the exploring party were rewarded with liberal grants
of land from the public domain, Lewis receiving 1500 acres; and
in March 1807 Lewis was made governor of the northern part
of the territory obtained from France in 1803, which had been
organized as the Louisiana Territory. He performed the duties
of this office with great efficiency, but it is said that in the un-
wonted quiet of his new duties, his mind, always subject to
melancholy, became unbalanced, and that while on his way to
Washington he committed suicide about 60 m. south-west
of Nashville, Tennessee, on the nth of October 1809. It is not
definitely known, however, whether he actually committed
suicide or was murdered.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Jefferson's Message from the President of the
United States, Communicating Discoveries made in Exploring the
Missouri, Red River and Washita by Captains Lewis and Clark, Dr
Sibley and Mr Dunbar (Washington, 1806, and subsequent editions)
is the earliest account, containing the reports sent back by the ex-
plorers in the winter of 1804-1805. Patrick Gass's Journal of the
Voyages and Travels of a Corps of Discovery under the Command of
Capt. Lewis and Capt. Clark (Pittsburg, 1807) is the account of a
sergeant jn the party. Biddle and Allen's History of the Expedition
under the Command of Captains Lewis and Clark (2 vols., Philadelphia,
1814) is a condensation of the original journals. There are numerous
reprints of this work, the best being that of Elliott Coues (4 vols.,
New York, 1893), which contains additions from the original manu-
scripts and a new chapter, in the style of Biddle, inserted as though
a part of the original text. As a final authority consult R. G.
Thwaites (ed.), The Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Ex-
pedition (8 vols., New York, 1904-1905), containing all the known
literary records of the expedition. For popular accounts see W. R.
Lighten, Lewis and Clark (Boston, 1901); O. D. Wheeler, The Trail
of Lewis and Clark (2 vols., New York, 1904) ; and Noah Brooks
(ed.), First across the Continent: Expedition of Lewis and Clark (New
York, 1901).
LEWISBURG, a borough and the county-seat of Union county,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the W. bank of West Branch of the
Susquehanna river, about 50 m. N. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1900)
3457 (60 foreign-born); (1910) 3081. It is served by the
Pennsylvania and the Philadelphia & Reading railways. It is
the seat of Bucknell University (coeducational), opened in 1846
as the university of Lewisburg and renamed in 1886 in honour
of William Bucknell (1809-1890), a liberal benefactor. The
university comprises a College of Liberal Arts, an Academy for
Young Men, an Institute for Young Women, and a School of
Music, and in 1908-1909 had 50 instructors and 775 students,
of whom 547 were in the College of Liberal Arts. The city is
situated in a farming region, and has various manufactures,
including flour, lumber, furniture, woollens, nails, foundry
products and carriages. Lewisburg (until about 1805 called
Derrstown) was founded and laid out in 1785 by Ludwig Derr,
a German, and was chartered as a borough in 1812.
LEWISHAM, a south-eastern metropolitan borough of London,
England, bounded N.W. by Deptford, N.E. by Greenwich, E.
by Woolwich, and W. by Camberwell, and extending S. to the
boundary of the county of London. Pop. (1901) 127,495. Its
area is for the most part occupied by villas. It includes the
districts of Blackheath and Lee in the north, Hither Green,
Catford and Brockley in the central parts, and Forest Hill and
part of Sydenham in the south-west. In the districts last named
well-wooded hills rise above 300 ft., and this is an especially
favoured residential quarter, its popularity being formerly
increased by the presence of medicinal springs, discovered in
1640, on Sydenham Common. Towards the south, in spite of the
constant extension of building, there are considerable tracts of
ground uncovered, apart from public grounds. In the north the
borough includes the greater part of Blackheath (q.v.), an open
common of considerable historical interest. The other principal
pleasure grounds are Hilly Fields (46 acres) and Ladywell Recrea-
tion Grounds (46 acres) in the north-west part of the borough;
and at Sydenham (but outside the boundary of the county of
London) is the Crystal Palace. Among institutions are the
Horniman Museum, Forest Hill (1901); Morden's College, on the
south of Blackheath, founded at the close of the I7th century by
Sir John Morden for Turkey merchants who were received as
pensioners, and subsequently extended in scope; numerous
schools in the same locality; and the Park Fever Hospital, Hither
Green. The parliamentary borough of Lewisham returns one
member. The borough council consists of a mayor, 7 aldermen
and 42 councillors. Area, 7014-4 acres.
LEWISTON, a city of Anctroscoggin county, Maine, U.S.A.,
on the Androscoggin river, opposite Auburn, with which it is
connected by four steel bridges, and about 36 m. N.E. of Portland.
Pop. (1900) 23,761, of whom 9316 were foreign-born; (1910
census) 26,247. It is served by the Maine Central, the Grand
Trunk, the Portland & Rumford Falls and the Lewiston, Augusta
& Waterville (electric) railways. The surrounding country
is hilly and the river is picturesque; in the vicinity there are
many lakes and ponds abounding in salmon and trout. The
Maine fish hatchery is on Lake Auburn, 3 m. above the city.
Lewiston is the seat of Bates College, a non-sectarian institution,
which grew out of the Maine State Seminary (chartered in 1855),
and was chartered in 1864 under its present name, adopted in
honour of Benjamin E. Bates (d. 1877), a liberal benefactor.
In 1908-1909 the college had 25 instructors and 440 students,
and its library contained 34,000 volumes. The campus of the
college is about i m. from the business portion of Lewiston and
covers 50 acres; among the college buildings are an auditorium
(1909) given by W. Scott Libbey of Lewiston, and the Libbey
Forum for the use of the three literary societies and the two
Christian associations of the college. The literary societies
give excellent training in forensics. The matriculation pledge
requires from male students total abstinence from intoxicants
LEWIS-WITH-HARRIS
525
as a condition of membership. There are no secret fraternities.
From the beginning women have been admitted on the same
terms as men. The Cobb Divinity School (Free Baptist), which
was founded at Parsonfield, Maine, in 1840 as a department
of Parsonfield Seminary, and was situated in 1842-1844 at
Dracut, Massachusetts, in 1844-1854 at Whitestown, New York,
and in 1854-1870 at New Hampton, New Hampshire, was
removed to Lewiston in 1870 and became a department (known
as Bates Theological Seminary until 1888) of Bates College,
with which it was merged in 1908. Lewiston has a fine city
hall, a Carnegie library and a public park of io| acres, with a
bronze soldiers' monument by Franklin Simmons, who was born
in 1839 at Webster near Lewiston, and is known for his statues
of Roger Williams, William King, Francis H. Pierpont and U. S.
Grant in the national Capitol, and for " Grief " and " History " on
the Peace Monument at Washington. In Lewiston are the
Central Maine General Hospital (1888), the Sisters' Hospital
•(1888), under the charge of the French Catholic Sisters of Charity,
a home for aged women, a young women's home and the
Hesley Asylum for boys. The Shrine Building (Kora Temple),
dedicated in 1909, is the headquarters of the Shriners of the
state. The river at Lewiston breaks over a ledge of mica-schist
and gneiss, the natural fall of 40 ft. having been increased to
more than 50 ft. by a strong granite dam; and 3 m. above the
city at Deer Rips a cement dam furnishes 10,000 horse-power.
The water-power thus obtained is distributed by canals from
the nearer dam and transmitted by wire from the upper dam.
The manufacture of cotton goods is the principal industry, and
in 1905 the product of the city's cotton mills was valued at about
one-third of that of the mills of the whole state. Among other
industries are the manufacture of woollen goods, shirts, dry-
plates, carriages, spools and bobbins, and boots and shoes, and
the dyeing and finishing of textiles. The total factory product
in 1905 was valued at $8,527,649. The municipality owns its
water works and electric lighting plant. Lewiston was settled
in 1770, incorporated as a township in 1795 and chartered as a
city in 1 86 1. It was the home of Nelson Dingley (1832-1899),
who from 1856 until his death controlled the Lewiston Journal.
He was governor of the state in 1874-1876, Republican repre-
sentative in Congress in 1881-1899, an(i the drafter of the Dingley
Tariff Bill (1897).
LEWIS-WITH-HARRIS, the most northerly island of the
Outer Hebrides, Scotland. It is sometimes called the Long
Island and is 24 m. from the nearest point of the mainland,
from which it is separated by the strait called The Minch. It
is 60 m. long and has an extreme breadth of 30 m., its average
breadth being 15 m. It is divided into two portions by a line
roughly drawn between Loch Resort on the west and Loch
Seaforth on the east, of which the larger or more northerly portion,
inown as Lewis (pron. Lews), belongs to the county of Ross and
Cromarty and the lesser, known as Harris, to Inverness-shire.
The area of the whole island is 492,800 acres, or 770 sq. m., of
which 368,000 acres belong to Lewis. In 1891 the population
of Lewis was 27,045, of Harris 3681; in 1901 the popula-
tion of Lewis was 28,357, of Harris 3803, or 32,160 for the island,
of whom 17,175 were females, 11,209 spoke Gaelic only, and
17,685 both Gaelic and English. There is communication with
•certain ports of the Western Highlands by steamer via Stornoway
every week — oftener during the tourist and special seasons —
the steamers frequently calling at Loch Erisort, Loch Sealg,
Ardvourlie, Tarbert, Ardvey, Rodel and The Obe. The coast is
indented to a remarkable degree, the principal sea-lochs in
Harris being East and West Loch Tarbert ; and in Lewis, Loch
Seaforth, Loch Erisort and Broad Bay (or Loch a Tuath) on the
east coast and Loch Roag and Loch Resort on the west. The
mainland is dotted with innumerable fresh-water lakes. The
island is composed of gneiss rocks, excepting a patch of granite
near Carloway, small bands of intrusive basalt at Gress and in
Eye Peninsula and some Torridonian sandstone at Stornoway,
Tong, Vatskir and Carloway. Most of Harris is mountainous,
there being more than thirty peaks above 1000 ft. high. Lewis
is comparatively flat, save in the south-east, where Ben More
reaches 1874 ft., and in the south-west, where Mealasbhal (1885)
is the highest point ; but in this division there are only eleven
peaks exceeding 1000 ft. in height. The rivers are small and
unimportant. The principal capes are the Butt of Lewis, in
the extreme north, where the cliffs are nearly 150 ft. high and
crowned with a lighthouse, the light of which is visible for 19 m.;
Tolsta Head, Tiumpan Head and Cabag Head, on the east;
Renish Point, in the extreme south; and, on the west, Toe Head
and Gallon Head. The following inhabited islands in the
Inverness-shire division belong to the parish of Harris: off the
S-.W. coast, Bernera (pop. 524), Ensay, Killigray and Pabbay;
off the W. coast, Scarp (160), Soay and Tarrensay (72); off the
E. coast, Scalpa (587) and Scotasay. Belonging to the county
of Ross and Cromarty are Great Bernera (580) to the W. of Lewis,
in the parish of Uig, and the Shiant Isles, about 21 m. S. of
Stornoway, in the parish of Lochs, so named from the number
of its sea lochs and fresh-water lakes. The south-eastern base
of Broad Bay is furnished by the peninsula of Eye, attached to
the main mass by so slender a neck as seemingly to be on the
point of becoming itself an island. Much of the surface of both
Lewis and Harris is composed of peat and swamp; there are
scanty fragments of an ancient forest. The rainfall for the year
averages 41-7 in., autumn and winter being very wet. Owing
to the influence of the Gulf Stream, however, the temperature
is fairly high, averaging for the year 46-6° F., for January 39-5° F.
and for August 56-5° F.
The economic conditions of the island correspond with its
physical conditions. The amount of cultivable land is small
and poor. Sir James Matheson (1796-1878), who purchased
the island in 1844, is said to have spent nearly £350,000 in
reclamation and improvements. Barley and potatoes are the
chief crops. A large number of black cattle are reared and some
sheep-farming is carried on in Harris. Kelp-making, once
important, has been extinct for many years. Harris has obtained
great reputation for tweeds. The cloth has an aroma of heather
and peat, and is made in the dwellings of the cotters, who use
dyes of long-established excellence. The fisheries are the
principal mainstay of the people. In spite of the very consider-
able reductions in rent effected by the Crofters' Commission
(appointed in 1886) and the sums expended by government,
most of the crofters still live in poor huts amid dismal surround-
ings. The island affords good sporting facilities. Many of the
streams abound with salmon and trout; otters and seals are
plentiful, and deer and hares common; while bird life includes
grouse, ptarmigan, woodcock, snipe, heron, widgeon, teal, eider
duck, swan and varieties of geese and gulls. There are many
antiquarian remains, including duns, megaliths, ruined towers
and chapels and the like. At RODEL, in the extreme south of
Harris, is a church, all that is left of an Augustinian monastery.
The foundation is Norman and the superstructure Early English.
On the towers are curious carved figures and in the interior
several tombs of the Macleods, the most remarkable being that
of Alastair (Alexander), son of William Macleod of Dunvegan,
dated 1528. The monument, a full-length recumbent effigy
of a knight in armour^ lies at the base of a tablet in the shape
of an arch divided into compartments, in which are carved in
bas-relief, besides the armorial bearings of the deceased and a
rendering of Dunvegan castle, several symbolical scenes, one of
which exhibits Satan weighing in the balance the good and evil
deeds of Alastair Macleod, the good obviously preponderating.
Stornoway, the chief town (pop. 3852) is treated under a separate
heading. At CALLERNISH, 13 m. due W. of Stornoway, are
several stone circles, one of which is probably the most perfect
example of so-called " Druidical " structures in the British Isles.
In this specimen the stones are huge, moss-covered, undressed
blocks of gneiss. Twelve of such monoliths constitute the
circle, in the centre of which stands a pillar 1 7 ft. high. From
the circle there runs northwards an avenue of stones, comprising
on the right-hand side nine blocks and on the left-hand ten.
There also branch off from the circle, on the east and west, a
single line of four stones and, on the south, a single line of five
stones. From the extreme point of the south file to the farther
526
LEXICON— LEXINGTON
end of the avenue on the north is a distance of 127 yds. and the
width from tip to tip of the east and west arms is 41 yds. Viewed
from the north end of the avenue, the design is that of a cross.
The most important fishery centre on the west coast is Carloway,
where there is the best example of abroch,or fort, in the Hebrides.
Rory, the blind harper who translated the Psalms into Gaelic,
was born in the village. Tarbert, at the head of East Loch
Tarbert, is a neat, clean village, in communication by mail-car
with Stornoway. At Coll, a few miles N. by E. of Stornoway,
is a mussel cave; and at Gress, 2 m. or so beyond in the same
direction, there is a famous seals' cave, adorned with fine stal-
actites. Port of Ness, where there is a harbour, is the head-
quarters of the ling fishery. Loch Seaforth gave the title of
earl to a branch of the Mackenzies, but in 1716 the 5th earl was
attainted for Jacobitism and the title forfeited. In 1797
Francis Humberston Mackenzie (1754-1815), chief of the Clan
Mackenzie, was created Lord Seaforth and Baron Mackenzie
of Kintail, and made colonel of the 2nd battalion of the North
British Militia, afterwards the 3rd battalion of the Seaforth
Highlanders. The 2nd battalion of the Seaforth Highlanders
was formerly the Ross-shire Buffs, which was raised in 1771.
LEXICON, a dictionary (q.v.). The word is the Latinized form
of Gr. Xe^t/coy, sc. j3ifi\lov, a. word-book (Xe£ts, word, \eyfiv, to
speak). Lexicon, rather than dictionary, is used of word-books
of the Greek language, and sometimes of Arabic and Hebrew.
• LEXINGTON, BARON, a title borne in the English family of
Sutton from 1645 to 1723. Robert Sutton (1594-1668), son of
Sir William Sutton of Averham, Nottinghamshire, was a member
of parliament for his native county in 1625 and again in 1640.
He served Charles I. during the Civil War, making great
monetary sacrifices for the royal cause, and in 1645 the king
created him Baron Lexington, this being a variant of the
name of the Nottinghamshire village of Laxton. His estate
suffered during the time of the Commonwealth, but some money
was returned to him by Charles II. He died on the i3th of
October 1668. His only son, Robert, the 2nd baron (1661-1723),
supported in the House of Lords the elevation of William of
Orange to the throne, and was employed by that king at court
and on diplomatic business. He also served as a soldier, but he
is chiefly known as the British envoy at Vienna during the
conclusion of the treaty of Ryswick, and at Madrid during the
negotiations which led to the treaty of Utrecht. He died on
the igth of September 1723. His letters from Vienna, selected
and edited by the Hon. H. M. Sutton, were published as the
Lexington Papers (1851). Lexington's barony became extinct
on his death, but his estates descended to the younger sons of
his daughter Bridget (d. 1734), the wife of John Manners, 3rd
duke of Rutland. Lord George Manners, who inherited these
estates in 1762, is the ancestor of the family of Manners-Sutton.
An earlier member of this family is Oliver Sutton, bishop of
Lincoln from 1280 to 1299.
LEXINGTON, a city and the county-seat of Fayette county,
Kentucky, U.S.A., about 75 m. S. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1900)
26,369, of whom 10,130 were negroes and 924 were foreign-born;
(1910 census), 35,099. It is served by the Louisville & Nash-
ville, the Southern, the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Cincinnati,
New Orleans & Texas Pacific, the Lexington & Eastern,
and electric railways. The city, which lies at an altitude of
about 950 ft., is situated near the centre of the celebrated " blue
grass " region, into which extend a number of turnpike roads.
Its public buildings include the court house and the Federal
building, both built of Bowling Green oolitic limestone. Among
the public institutions are two general hospitals — St Joseph's
(Roman Catholic) and Good Samaritan (controlled by the
Protestant churches of the city) — the Eastern Lunatic Asylum
(1815, a state institution since 1824), with 250 acres of grounds;
a state House of Reform for Girls and a state House of Reform
for Boys (both at Greendale, a suburb); an orphan industrial
school (for negroes) ; and two Widows' and Orphans' Homes,
one established by the Odd Fellows of Kentucky and the other
by the Knights of Pythias of the state. Lexington is the seat
of Transylvania University (non-sectarian; coeducational),
formerly Kentucky University (Disciples of Christ), which grew
out of Bacon College (opened at Georgetown, Ky., in 1836),
was chartered in 1858 as Kentucky University, and was opened
at Harrodsburg, Ky., in 1859, whence after a fire in 1864 it
removed to Lexington in 1865. At Lexington it was consolidated
with the old Transylvania University, a well-known institution
which had been chartered as Transylvania Seminary in 1783,
was opened near Danville, Ky., in 1785, was removed to Lexing-
ton in 1789, was re-chartered as Transylvania University in
1798, and virtually ceased to exist in i&SQ.1 In 1908 Kentucky
University resumed the old name, Transylvania University.
It has a college of Liberal Arts, a College of Law, a Preparatory
School, a Junior College for Women, and Hamilton College for
women (founded in 1869 as Hocker Female College), over which
the university assumed control in 1903, and a College of the Bible,
organized in 1865 as one of the colleges of the university, but
now under independent control. In 1907-1908 Transylvania
University, including the College of the Bible, had 1129 students;
At Lexington are the State University, two colleges for girls —
the Campbell-Hagerman College and Sayre College — and St
Catherine's Academy (Roman Catholic) . The city is the meeting-
place of a Chatauqua Assembly, and has a public library. The
State University was founded (under the Federal Land Grant
Act of 1862) in 1865 as the State Agricultural and Mechanical
College, was opened in 1866, and was a college of Kentucky
University until 1878. In 1890 the college received a second
Federal appropriation, and it received various grants from the
state legislature, which in 1880 imposed a state tax of one-half of
i % for its support. In connexion with it an Agricultural
Experiment Station was established in 1885. In 1908 its title
became, by act of Legislature, the State University. The
university has a College of Agriculture, a College of Arts and
Science, a College of Law, a School of Civil Engineering, a School
of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, and a School of mining
Engineering. The university campus is the former City Park,
in the southern part of the city. In 1907-1908 the university
had 1064 students. The city is the see of a Protestant Episcopal
bishopric.
Lexington was the home of Henry Clay from 1797 until his
death in 1852, and in his memory a monument has been erected,
consisting of a magnesian-limestone column (about 120 ft.) in
the Corinthian style and surmounted by a statue of Clay, the
head of which was torn off in 1902 by a thunderbolt. Clay's
estate, " Ashland," is now one of the best known of the stock-
farms in the vicinity; the present house is a replica of Clay's
home. The finest and most extensive of these stock-farms, and
probably the finest in the world, is " Elmendorf," 6 m. from the
city. On these farms many famous trotting and running horses
have been raised. There are two race-tracks in Lexington , and
annual running and trotting race meetings attract large crowds.
The city's industries consist chiefly in a large trade in tobacco,
hemp, grain and live stock — there are large semi-annual horse
sales — and in the manufacture of " Bourbon " whisky, tobacco,
flour, dressed flax and hemp, carriages, harness and saddles.
The total value of the city's factory products in 1905 was
$2,774,329 (46-9% more than in 1900).
Lexington was named from Lexington, Massachusetts, in 1775
by a party of hunters who were encamped here when they
received the news of the battle of Lexington; the permanent
settlement dates from 1779. It was laid out in 1781, incor-
porated as a town in 1782, and chartered as a city in 1832. The
first newspaper published west of the Alleghany Mountains, the
Kentucky Gazette, was established here in 1787, to promote the
separation of Kentucky from Virginia. The first state legislature
met here in 1792, but later in the same year Frankfort became
the state capital. Until 1907, when the city was enlarged by
annexation, its limits remained as they were first laid out, a
circle with a radius of i m., the court house being its centre.
See G.W. Ranck, History of Lexington, Kentucky (Cincinnati, 1872).
1 See Robert Peter, Transylvania University: Its Origin, Rise,
Decline and Fall (Louisville, 1896), and his History of the Medical'
Department of Transylvania University (Louisville, 1905).
LEXINGTON
527
LEXINGTON, a township of Middlesex county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., about ii m. N.W. of Boston. Pop. (1900) 3831, (1910
U.S. census) 4918. It is traversed by the Boston & Maine
railroad and by the Lowell & Boston electric railway. Its area
is about 17 sq. m., and it contains three villages — Lexington,
East Lexington and North Lexington. Agriculture is virtually
the only industry. Owing to its historic interest the village of
Lexington is visited by thousands of persons annually, for it
was on the green or common of this village that the first armed
conflict of the American War of Independence occurred. On
the green stand a monument erected by the state in 1799 to the
memory of the minute-men who fell in that engagement, a
drinking fountain surmounted by a bronze statue (1900, by
Henry Hudson Kitson) of Captain John Parker, who was in
command of the minute-men, and a large boulder, which marks
the position of the minute-men wh'en they were fired upon by
the British. Near the green, in the old burying-ground, are the
graves of Captain Parker and other American patriots — the
oldest gravestone is dated 1690. The Hancock-Clarke House
(built in part in 1698) is now owned by the Lexington Historical
Society and contains a museum of revolutionary and other relics,
which were formerly exhibited in the Town Hall. The Buckman
Tavern (built about 1690), the rendezvous of the minute-men,
and the Munroe Tavern (1695), the headquarters of the British,
are still standing, and two other houses, on the common, antedate
the War of Independence. The Gary Library in this village, with
25,000 volumes (1908), was founded in 1868, and was housed in
the Town Hall from 1871 until 1906, when it was removed to
the Gary Memorial Library building. In the library are portraits
of Paul Revere, William Dawes and Lord Percy. The Town
Hall (1871) contains statues of John Hancock (by Thomas R.
Gould) and Samuel Adams (by Martin Millmore), of the " Minute-
Man of 1775 " and the " Soldier of 1861," and a painting by
Henry Sandham, " The Battle of Lexington."
Lexington was settled as a part of Cambridge as early as 1642.
It was organized as a parish in 1691 and was made a township
(probably named in honour of Lord Lexington) in 1713. In the
evening of the i8th of April 1775 a British force of about 800
men under Lieut. -Colonel Francis Smith and Major John Pit-
cairn was sent by General Thomas Gage from Boston to destroy
military stores collected by the colonists at Concord, and to
seize John Hancock and Samuel Adams, then at Parson Clarke's
house (now known as the Hancock-Clarke House) in Lexington.
Although the British had tried to keep this movement a secret,
Dr Joseph Warren discovered their plans and sent out Paul
Revere and William Dawes to give warning of their approach.
The expedition had not proceeded far when Smith, discovering
that the country was aroused, despatched an express to Boston
for reinforcements and ordered Pitcairn to hasten forward with
a detachment of light infantry. Early in the morning of the
igth Pitcairn arrived at the green in the village of Lexington,
and there found between sixty and seventy minute-men under
Captain John Parker drawn up in line of battle. Pitcairn
ordered them to disperse, and on their refusal to do so his men
fired a volley. Whether a stray shot preceded the first volley,
and from which side it came, are questions which have never
been determined. After a second volley from the British,
Parker ordered his men to withdraw. The engagement lasted
only a few minutes, but eight Americans were killed and nine
were wounded; not more than two or three of the British were
wounded. Hancock and Adams had escaped before the "British
troops reached Lexington. The British proceeded from Lexing-
ton to Concord (q.v.). On their return they were continually
fired upon by Americans from behind trees, rocks, buildings and
other defences, and were threatened with complete destruction
until they were rescued at Lexington by a force of 1000 men
under Lord Hugh Percy (later, 1786, duke of Northumberland).
Percy received the fugitives within a hollow square, checked
the onslaught for a time with two field-pieces, used the Munroe
Tavern for a hospital, and later in the day carried his command
with little further injury back to Boston. The British
losses for the entire day were 73 killed, 174 wounded and 26
missing; the American losses were 49 killed, 39 wounded and
5 missing.
In 1839 a state normal school for women (the first in Massa-
chusetts and the first public training school for teachers in the
United States) was opened at Lexington; it was transferred
to West Newton in 1844 and to Framingham in 1853.
See Charles Hudson, History of the Town of Lexington (Boston,
1868), and the publications of the Lexington Historical Society,
(1890 seq.).
LEXINGTON, a city and the county-seat of Lafayette county,
Missouri, U.S.A., situated on the S. bank of the Missouri river,
about 40 m. E. of Kansas City. Pop. (1900) 4190, including 1170
negroes and 283 foreign-born; (1910) 5242. It is served by the
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Wabash (at Lexington
Junction, 4 m. N.W.), and the Missouri Pacific railway systems.
The city lies for the most part on high broken ground at the
summit of the river bluffs, but in part upon their face. Lexington
is the seat of the Lexington College for Young Women (Baptist,
established 1855), the Central College for Women (Methodist
Episcopal, South; opened 1869), and the Wentworth Military
Academy (1880). There are steam flour mills, furniture factories
and various other small manufactories; but the main economic
interest of the city is in brickyards and coal-mines in its immedi-
ate vicinity. It is one of the principal coal centres of the state,
Higginsville (pop. in 1910, 2628), about 12 m. S. E., in the same
county, also being important. Lexington was founded in 1819,
was laid out in 1832, and, with various additions, was chartered
as a city in 1845. A new charter was received in 1870. Lexing-
ton succeeded Sibley as the eastern terminus of the Santa Fe
trade, and was in turn displaced by Independence; it long owed
its prosperity to the freighting trade up the Missouri, and at the
opening of the Civil War it was the most important river town
between St Louis and St Joseph and commanded the approach
by water to Fort Leavenworth.
After the Confederate success at Wilson's Creek (Aug. 10,
1861), General Sterling Price advanced northward, and with
about 15,000 men arrived in the vicinity of Lexington on the
1 2th of September. Here he found a Federal force of about
2800 men under Colonel James A. Mulligan (1830-1864) throwing
up intrenchments on Masonic College Hill, an eminence adjoining
Lexington on the N.E. An attack was made on the same day
and the Federals were driven within their defences, but at night
General Price withdrew to the Fair-grounds not far away and
remained there five days waiting for his wagon train and for
reinforcements. On the i8th the assault was renewed, and on the
2oth the Confederates, advancing behind movable breastworks
of water-soaked bales of hemp, forced the besieged, now long
without water, to surrender. The losses were: Confederate,
25 killed and 75 wounded; Federal, 39 killed and 120 wounded.
At the end of September General Price withdrew, leaving a guard
of only a few hundred in the town, and on the i6th of the next
month a party of 220 Federal scouts under Major Frank J. White
(1842-1875) surprised this guard, released about 15 prisoners,
and captured 60 or more Confederates. ' Another Federal raid
on the town was made in December of the same year by General
John Pope's cavalry. Again, during General Price's Missouri
expedition in 1864, a Federal force entered Lexington on the i6th
of October, and three days later there was some fighting about
4 m. S. of the town.
LEXINGTON, a town and the county-seat of Rockbridge
county, Virginia, U.S.A., on the, North river (a branch of the
James), about 30 m. N.N.W. of Lynchburg. Pop. (1900) 3203
(1252 negroes); (1910) 2931. It is served by the Chesapeake
6 Ohio and the Baltimore & Ohio railways. The famous
Natural Bridge is about 16 m. S.W., and there are mineral springs
in the vicinity — at Rockbridge Baths, 10 m. N., at Wilson's
Springs, 12 m. N., and at Rockbridge Alum Springs, 17 m. N.W.
Lexington is best known as the seat of Washington and Lee
University, and of the Virginia Military Institute. The former
grew out of Augusta Academy, which was established in 1749
in Augusta county, about 15 m. S.W. of what is now the city of
Staunton, was renamed Liberty Hall and was established near
528
LEYDEN— LEYDEN JAR
Lexington in 1780, and was chartered as Liberty Hall Academy
fn 1 782. In 1 798 its name was changed to Washington Academy,
in recognition of a gift from George Washington of some
shares of canal stock, which he refused to receive from the
Virginia legislature. In 1802 the Virginia branch of the Society
of the Cincinnati disbanded and turned over to the academy its
funds, about $25,000; in 1813 the academy took the name
Washington College; and in 1871 its corporate name was changed
to Washington and Lee University, the addition to the name
being made in honour of General Robert E. Lee, who was the
president of the college from August 1865 until his death in 1870.
He was succeeded by his son, General George Washington
CustisLee (b. 183 2), president from 1871 to 1897, and Dr William
Lyne Wilson (1843-1900), the eminent political leader and
educator, was president from 1897 to 1900. In 1908-1909 the
university comprised a college, a school of commerce, a school
of engineering and a school of law, and had a library of 47,000
volumes, 23 instructors and 565 students. In the Lee Memorial
chapel, on the campus, General Robert E. Lee is buried, and
over his grave is a notable recumbent statue of him by Edward
Virginius Valentine (b. 1838). The Virginia Military Institute
was established in March 1839, when its cadet corps supplanted
the company of soldiers maintained by the state to garrison
the Western Arsenal at Lexington. The first superintendent
(1839-1890) was General Francis Henney Smith (1812-1890),
a graduate (1833) of the United States Military Academy;
and from 1851 until the outbreak of the Civil War " Stonewall "
Jackson was a professor in the Institute — he is buried in the
Lexington cemetery and his grave is marked by a monument.
On the campus of the institute is a fine statue, " Virginia
Mourning Her Dead," by Moses Ezekiel (b. 1844), which com-
memorates the gallantry of a battalion of 250 cadets from the
institute, more than 50 of whom were killed or wounded during
the engagement at New Market on the isth of May 1864. In
1908-1909 the institute had 21 instructors and 330 cadets.
Flour is manufactured in Lexington and lime in the vicinity.
The town owns and operates its water-works. The first settlers
of Rockbridge county established themselves in 1737 near the
North river, a short distance below Lexington. The first
permanent settlement on the present site was made about 1778.
On the nth of June 1864, during the occupation of the town by
Federal troops under General David Hunter, most of the buildings
in the town and those of the university were damaged and all
those of the institute, except the superintendent's headquarters,
were burned.
LEYDEN, JOHN (1775-1811), British orientalist and man of
letters, was born on the 8th of September 1775 at Denholm on the
Teviot, not far from Hawick. Leyden's father was a shepherd,
but contrived to send his son to Edinburgh University to study
for the ministry. Leyden was a diligent but somewhat miscel-
laneous student, reading everything apparently, except theology,
for which he seems to have had no taste. Though he completed
his divinity course, and in 1798 received licence to preach from
the presbytery of St Andrews, it soon became clear that the
pulpit was not his vocation. In 1794 Leyden had formed the
acquaintance of Dr Robert Anderson, editor of The British Poets,
and of The Literary Magazine. It was Anderson who introduced
him to Dr Alexander Murray, and Murray, probably, who led
him to the study of Eastern languages. They became warm
friends and generous rivals, though Leyden excelled, perhaps, in
the rapid acquisition of new tongues and acquaintance with
their literature, while Murray was the more scientific philologist.
Through Anderson also he came to know Richard Heber, by
whom he was brought under the notice of Sir Walter Scott, who
was then collecting materials for his Minstrelsy of the Scottish
Border. Leyden was admirably fitted for helping in this kind of
work, for he was a borderer himself, and an enthusiastic lover of
old ballads and folk-lore. Scott tells how, on one occasion,
Leyden walked 40 m. to get the last two verses of a ballad, and
returned at midnight, singing it all the way with his loud, harsh
voice, to the wonder and consternation of the poet and his
household.
Early
history.
Leyden meanwhile compiled a work on the Discoveries and
Settlements of Europeans in Northern and Western Africa, sug-
gested by Mungo Park's travels, edited The Complaint of Scotland,
printed a volume of Scottish descriptive poems, and nearly
finished his Scenes of Infancy, a diffuse poem based on border
scenes and traditions. He also made some translations from
Eastern poetry, Persian and Arabic. At last bis friends got
him an appointment in India on the medical staff, for which he
qualified by a year's hard work. In 1803 he sailed for Madras,
and took his place in the general hospital there. He was pro-
moted to be naturalist to the commissioners going to survey
Mysore, and in 1807 his knowledge of the languages of India
procured him an appointment as professor of Hindustani at
Calcutta; this he soon after resigned for a judgeship, and that
again to be a commissioner in the court of requests in 1809, a
post which required a familiarity with several Eastern tongues.
In 1811 he joined Lord Minto in the expedition to Java. Having
entered a library which was said to contain many Eastern MSS.,
without having the place aired, he was seized with Batavian
fever, and died, after three days' illness, on the 28th of August
1811.
LEYDEN JAR, or CONDENSER, an electrical appliance con-
sisting in one form of a thin glass jar partly coated inside and
outside with tin foil, or in another of a number of glass plates
similarly coated. When the two metal surfaces are connected
for a short time with the terminals of some source of electro-
motive force, such as an electric machine, an induction coil or
a voltaic battery, electric energy is stored up in the condenser
in the form of electric strain in the glass, and can be recovered
again in the form of an electric discharge.
The earliest form of Leyden jar consisted of a glass vial or thin
Florence flask, partly full of water, having a metallic nail in-
serted through the cork which touched the water. The
bottle was held in the hand, and the nail presented
to the prime conductor of an electrical machine. If
the person holding the bottle subsequently touched the nail, he
experienced an electric shock. This experiment was first made
by E. G. von Kleist of Kammin in Pomerania in 1745,' and it
was repeated in another form in 1746 by Cunaeus and P. van
Musschenbroek, of the university of Leyden (Leiden) , whence the
term Leyden jar.2 J. H. Winkler discovered that an iron chain
wound round the bottle could be substituted for the hand, and Sir
William Watson in England shortly afterward showed that iron
filings or mercury could replace the water within the jar. Dr
John Bevis of London suggested, in 1746, the use of sheet lead
coatings within and without the jar, and subsequently the use
of tin foil or silver leaf made closely adherent to the glass.
Benjamin Franklin and Bevis devised independently the form of
condenser known as a Franklin or Leyden pane, which consists
of a sheet of glass, partly coated on both sides with tin foil or
silver leaf, a margin of glass all round being left to insulate the
two tin foils from each other. Franklin in 1747 and 1748 made
numerous investigations on the Leyden jar, and devised a method
of charging jars in series as well as in parallel. In the former
method, now commonly known as charging in cascade, the jars
are insulated and the outside coating of one jar is connected to
the inside coating of the next and so on for a whole series, the
inside coating of the first jar and the outside coating of the last
jar being the terminals of the condenser. For charging in
parallej a number of jars are collected in a box, and all the out-
side coatings are connected together metallically and all the
inside coatings brought to one common terminal. This arrange-
ment is commonly called a battery of Leyden jars. To Franklin
also we owe the important knowledge that the electric charge
resides really in the glass and not in the metal coatings, and that
when a condenser has been charged the metallic coatings can
be exchanged for fresh ones and yet the electric charge of the
condenser remains.
In its modern form the Leyden jar consists of a wide-
mouthed bottle of thin English flint glass of uniform thickness,
1 Park Benjamin, The Intellectual Rise in Electricity, p. 512.
* Ibid. p. 519.
LEYS— LHASA
529
Modern
construc-
tion.
free from flaws. About half the outside and half the inside
surface is coated smoothly with tin foil, and the remainder of
the glazed surface is painted with shellac varnish. A
wooden stopper closes the mouth of the jar, and through
it a brass rod passes which terminates in a chain, or
better still, three elastic brass springs, which make good
contact with the inner coating. The rod terminates externally
in a knob or screw terminal. The jar has a certain capacity C
which is best expressed in microfarads or electrostatic units (see
ELECTROSTATICS), and is determined by the surface of the tin
foil and thickness and quality of the glass. The jar can be
charged so that a certain potential difference V, reckoned in
volts, exists between the two coatings. If a certain critical
potential is exceeded, the glass gives way under the electric
strain and is pierced. The safe voltage for most glass jars is
about 20,000 volts for glass i^th in. in thickness; this corre-
sponds with an electric spark of about 7 millimetres in length.
When the jar is charged, it is usually discharged through a
metallic arc called the discharging tongs, and this discharge is
in the form of an oscillatory current (see ELECTROKINETICS).
The energy stored up in the jar in joules is expressed by the value
of j CV2, where C is the capacity measured in farads and V the
potential difference of the coatings in volts. If the capacity C
is reckoned in microfarads then the energy storage is equal to
CV2/2Xio6 joules or 0-737 CV2/2Xio6 foot-pounds. The size
of jar commonly known as a quart size may have a capacity
from T^th to s-Juth of a microfarad, and if charged to 20,000
volts stores up energy from a quarter to half a joule or from
T^-ths to f ths of a foot-pound.
Leyden jars are now much employed for the production of
the high frequency electric currents used in wireless telegraphy
(see TELEGRAPHY, WIRELESS). For this purpose they are made
by Moscicki in the form of glass tubes partly coated by silver
chemically deposited on the glass on the inner and outer surfaces.
The tubes have walls thicker at the ends than in the middle,
as the tendency to puncture the glass is greatest at the edges of
the coatings. In other cases, Leyden jars or condensers take
the form of sheets of mica or micanite or ebonite partly coated
with tin foil or silver leaf on both sides; or a pile of sheets of
alternate tin foil and mica may be built up, the tin foil sheets
having lugs projecting out first on one side and then on the other.
All the lugs on one side are connected together, and so also are
all the lugs on the other side, and the two sets of tin foils separ-
ated by sheets of mica constitute the two metallic surfaces of
the Leyden jar condenser. For the purposes of wireless tele-
graphy, when large condensers are required, the ordinary Leyden
High Jar °ccupies too much space in comparison with its
tension electrical capacity, and hence the best form of con-
conden- denser consists of a number of sheets of crown glass,
each partly coated on both sides with tin foil. The
tin foil sheets have lugs attached which project beyond the glass.
The plates are placed in a vessel full of insulating oil which pre-
vents the glow or brush discharge taking place over their edges.
All the tin foils on one side of the glass plates are connected
together and all the tin foils on the opposite sides, so as to con-
struct a condenser of any required capacity. The box should
be of glass or stoneware or other non-conducting material. When
glass tubes are used it is better to employ tubes thicker at the
ends than in the middle, as it has been found that when the safe
voltage is exceeded and the glass gives way under electric strain,
the piercing of the glass nearly always takes place at the edges
of the tin foil.
Glass is still commonly used as a dielectric because of its
cheapness, high dielectric strength or resistance to electric
Com- puncture, and its high dielectric constant (see ELECTRO-
presserf STATICS). It has been found, however, that very
aircon- efficient condensers can be made with compressed air
Brs° as dielectric. If a number of metal plates separated by
small distance pieces are enclosed in an iron box which is pumped
full of air to a pressure, say, of 100 Ib. to i sq. in., the dielectric
strength of the air is greatly increased, and. the plates may there-
fore be brought very near to one another without causing a spark
to pass under such voltage as would cause discharge in air at
normal pressure. Condensers of this kind have been employed
by R. A. Fessenden in wireless telegraphy, and they form a very
excellent arrangement for standard condensers with which to
compare the capacity of other Leyden jars. Owing to the
variation in the value of the dielectric constant of glass with the
temperature and with the frequency of the applied electromotive
force, and also owing to electric, glow discharge from the edges
of the tin foil coatings, the capacity of an ordinary Leyden jar
is not an absolutely fixed quantity, but its numerical value varies
somewhat with the method by which it is measured, and with
the other circumstances above mentioned. For the purpose of
a standard condenser a number of concentric metal tubes may
be arranged on an insulating stand, alternate tubes being con-
nected together. One coating of the condenser is formed by one
set of tubes and the other by the other set, the air between being
the dielectric. Paraffin oil or any liquid dielectric of constant
inductivity may replace the air.
See J. A. Fleming, Electric Wave Telegraphy (London, 1906);
R. A. Fessenden, " Compressed Air for Condensers," Electrician,
I9°5. 55. P- 795; Moscicki, " Construction of High Tension Con-
densers," L'Eclairage electrique, 1904, 41, p. 14, or Engineering,
1904, p. 865. (J. A. F.)
LEYS, HENDRIK, BARON (1815-1869), Belgian painter, was
born at Antwerp on the i8th of February 1815. He studied
under Wappers at the Antwerp Academy. In 1833 he painted
" Combat d'un grenadier et d'un cosaque," and in the following
year " Combat de Bourguignons et Flamands." In 1835 he
went to Paris where he .was influenced by the Romantic move-
ment. Examples of this period of his painting are " Massacre
des echevins de Louvain," " Manage flamand," " Le Roi des
arbaletriers " and other works. Leys was an imitative painter
in whose works may rapidly be detected the schools which he had
been studying before he painted them. Thus after his visit to
Holland in 1839 he reproduced many of the characteristics of the
Dutch genre painters in such works as " Franz Floris se rendant
a une fete " (1845) and " Service divin en Hollande " (1850).
So too the methods of Quentin Matsys impressed themselves
upon him after he had travelled in Germany in 1852. In 1862
Leys was created a baron. At the time of his death, which
occurred in August 1869, he was engaged in decorating with
fresco the large hall of the Antwerp Hotel de Ville.
LEYTON, an urban district forming one of the north-eastern
suburbs of London, England, in the Walthamstow (S.W.)
parliamentary division of Essex. Pop. (1891) 63,106; (1901)
98,912. It lies on the east (left) bank of the Lea, along the flat
open valley of which runs the boundary between Essex and the
county of London. The church of St Mary, mainly a brick
reconstruction, contains several interesting memorials; including
one to William Bowyer the printer (d. 1737), erected by his son
and namesake, more famous in the same trade. Here is also
buried John Strype the historian and biographer (d. 1737),
who held the position of curate and lecturer at this church.
Leyton is in the main a residential as distinct from a manufactur-
ing locality. Its name is properly Low Leyton, and the parish
includes the district of Leytonstone to the east. Roman remains
have been discovered here, but no identification with a Roman
station by name has been made with certainty. The ground of
the Essex County Cricket Club is at Leyton.
LHASA (LHASSA, LASSA, " God's ground "), the capital of
Tibet. It lies in 29° 39' N., 91° 5' E., 11,830 ft. above sea-level.
Owing to the inaccessibih'ty of Tibet and the political and religious
exclusiveness of the lamas, Lhasa was long closed to European
travellers, all of whom during the latter half of the igth century
were stopped in their attempts to reach it. It was popularly
known as the " Forbidden City." But its chief features were
known by the accounts of the earlier Romish missionaries who
visited it and by the investigations, in modern times, of native
Indian secret explorers, and others, and the British armed
mission of 1904 (see TIBET).
Site and General Aspect. — The city stands in a tolerably level
plain, which is surrounded on all sides by hills. Along its
530
LHASA
southern side, about 5 m. south of Lhasa, runs a considerable
river called the Kyichu (Ki-chu) or Kyi, flowing here from E.N.E.,
and joining the great Tsangpo (or upper course of the Brahma-
putra) some 38 m. to the south-west. The hills round the city
are barren. The plain, however, is fertile, though in parts
marshy. There are gardens scattered over it round the city, and
these are planted with fine trees. The city is screened from view
from the west by a rocky ridge, lofty and narrow, with summits
at the north and south, the one flanked and crowned by the
majestic buildings of Potala, the chief residence of the Dalai
lama, the other by the temple of medicine. Groves, gardens
and open ground intervene between this ridge and the city itself
for a distance of about i m. A gate through the centre of the
ridge gives access from the west; the road thence to the north
part of the city throws off a branch to the Yutok sampa or
turquoise-tiled covered bridge, one of the noted features of
Lhasa, which crosses a former channel of the Kyi, and carries
the road to the centre of the town.
The city is nearly circular in form, and less than i m. in dia-
meter. It was walled in the latter part of the i;th century,
but the walls were destroyed during the Chinese occupation in
1722. The chief streets are fairly straight, but generally of no
great width. There is no paving or metal, nor any drainage
system, so that the streets are dirty and in parts often flooded.
The inferior quarters are unspeakably filthy, and are rife with
evil smells and large mangy dogs and pigs. Many of the houses
are of clay and sun-dried brick, but those of the richer people are
of stone and brick. All are frequently white-washed, the doors
and windows being framed in bands of red and yellow. In the
suburbs there are houses entirely built of the horns of sheep and
oxen set in clay mortar. This construction is in some cases very
roughly carried out, but in others it is solid and highly
picturesque. Some of the inferior huts of this type are inhabited
by the Ragyaba or scavengers, whose chief occupation is that of
disposing of corpses according to the practice of cutting and
exposing them to the dogs and birds of prey. The houses gener-
ally are of two or three storeys. Externally the lower part
generally presents dead walls (the ground floor being occupied
by stables and similar apartments); above these rise tiers of
large windows with or without projecting balconies, and over
all flat broad-eaved roofs at varying levels. In the better houses
there are often spacious and well-finished apartments, and the
principal halls, the verandahs and terraces are often highly
ornamented in brilliant colours. In every house there is a kind
of chapel or shrine, carved and gilt, on which are set images and
sacred books.
Temples and Monasteries. — In the centre of the city is an open
square which forms the chief market-place. Here is the great temple
of the " Jo " or Lord Buddha, called the Jokhang,1
i It, regarded as the centre of all Tibet, from which all the main
""*' roads are considered to radiate. This is the great metro-
politan sanctuary and church-centre of Tibet, the St Peter's or
Lateran of Lamaism. It is believed to have been founded by the
Tibetan Constantine, Srong-tsan-gampo, in 652, as the shrine of one
of those two very sacred Buddhist images which were associated
with his conversion and with the foundation of the civilized monarchy
in Tibet. The exterior of the building is not impressive; it rises
little above the level of other buildings which closely surround it,
and the effect of its characteristic gilt roof, though conspicuous and
striking from afar, is lost close at hand.
The main building of the Jokhang is three storeys high. The
entrance consists of a portico supported on timber columns, carved
and gilt, while the walls are engraved with Chinese, Mongolian and
Tibetan characters, and a great prayer-wheel stands on one side.
Massive folding doors, ornamented with scrollwork in iron, lead to
an antehall, and from this a second gate opens into a courtyard
surrounded by a verandah with many pillars and chapels, and frescoes
on its walls. On the left is the throne of the grand lama, laid with
cushions, together with the seats of other ecclesiastical dignitaries,
variously elevated according to the rank of their occupants. An
inner door with enclosed vestibule gives access to the quadrangular
choir or chancel, as it may be called, though its centre is open to
the sky. On either side of it are three chapels, and at the extremity
is the rectangular "holy of holies," flanked by two gilded images
of the coming Buddha, and screened by lattice-work. In it is the
shrine on which sits the great image of Sakya, set about with small
•The name given by Koppen (Die lamaische Kirche, Berlin,
1859, p. 74) is " La Brang," by which it is sometimes known.
figures, lamps and a variety of offerings, and richly jewelled, though
the workmanship of the whole is crude. In the second and third
storeys of the temple are shrines and representations of a number
of gods and goddesses. The temple contains a vast accumulation
of images, gold and silver vessels, lamps, reliquaries and precious
bric-a-brac of every kind. The daily offices are attended by crowds
of worshippers, and a sacred way which leads round the main build-
ing is constantly traversed by devotees who perform the circuit as
a work of merit, always in a particular direction. The temple was
found by the members of the British mission who visited it to be
exceedingly dirty, and the atmosphere was foul with the fumes of
butter-lamps.
Besides the convent-cells, halls of study and magazines of precious
lumber, buildings grouped about the Jokhang are occupied by the
civil administration, e.g. as treasuries, customs office, courts of
justice, &c., and there are also private apartments for the grand
lama and other high functionaries. No woman is permitted to pass
the night within the precinct.
In front of the main entrance to the Jokhang, in the shadow of a
sacred willow tree, stands a famous monument, the Doring monolith,
which bears the inscribed record of a treaty of peace concluded in
822 (or, according to another view, in 783) between the king of Tibet
and the emperor of China. Before this monument the apostate
from Lamaism, Langdharma, brother and successor of the last-named
king, is said to have been standing when a fanatic recluse, who had
been stirred by a vision to avenge his persecuted faith, assassinated
him.
The famous Potala hill, covered by the palace of the Dalai lama,
forms a majestic mountain of building; with its vast inward-sloping
walls broken only in the upper parts by straight rows of ' potaia.
many windows, and its flat roofs at various levels, it is
not unlike a fortress in appearance. At the south base of the rock
is a large space enclosed by walls and gates, with great porticoes
on the inner side. This swarms with lamas and with beggars. A
series of tolerably easy staircases, broken by intervals of gentle
ascent, leads to the summit of the rock. The whole width of this is
occupied by the palace. The central part of this group of buildings
(for the component parts of Potala are of different dates) rises in a
vast quadrangular mass above its satellites to a great height, terminat-
ing in gilt canopies similar to those on the Jokhang. Here on the
lofty terrace is the grand lama's promenade, and from this great
height he looks down upon the crowds of his votaries far below.
This central member of Potala is called the red palace from its
crimson colour, which distinguishes it from the rest. It contains
the principal halls and chapels and shrines of past Dalai lamas.
There is in these much rich decorative painting, with jewelled work,
carving and other ornament, but the interior of Potala as a whole
cannot compare in magnificence with the exterior. Among the
numerous other buildings of note on or near Potala hill, one is
distinguished by the Chinese as one of the principal beauties of
Lhasa. This is a temple not far from the base of the hill, in the
middle of a lake which is surrounded by trees and shrubberies.
This temple, called Lu-kang, is circular in form, with a loggia or
portico running all round and adorned with paintings. Its name,
the serpent house," comes from the tradition of a serpent or dragon,
which dwelt here and must be propitiated lest it should cause the
waters to rise and flood Lhasa.
Another great and famous temple is Ramo-che1, at the north side
of the city. This is also regarded as a foundation of "Srong-tsan-
gampo, and is said to contain the body of his Chinese wife and the
second of the primeval palladia, the image that she brought with
her to the Snow-land; whence it is known as the " small Jokhang."
This temple is noted for the practice of magical arts. Its buildings
are in a neglected condition.
Another monastery within the city is that of Moru, also on the
north side, remarkable for its external order and cleanliness. Though
famous as a school of orthodox magic, it is noted also for the printing-
house in the convent garden. This convent was the temporary
residence of the regent during the visit of the British mission in
1904. Other monasteries in or near the city are the Tsamo Ling or
Chomoling at the north-west corner; the Tangya Ling or Tengyeling
at the west of the city; the Kunda Ling or Kundeling about i m.
west of the city, at the foot of a low isolated hill called Chapochi.
Three miles south, beyond the rive,r, is the Tsemchog Ling or Tsecho-
ling. These four convents are known as " The Four Ling." From
their inmates the Dalai lama's regent, during his minority, was
formerly chosen. The temple of medicine, as already stated, crowns
the summit (Chagpa) at the end of the ridge west of the city, opposite
to that on which stands the Potala. It is natural that in a country
possessing a religious system like that of Tibet the medical profession
should form a branch of the priesthood. " The treatment of disease,
though based in some measure upon a judicious use of the commoner
simple drugs of the country, is, as was inevitable amongst so super-
stitious a people, saturated with absurdity " (Waddell, Lhasa and its
Mysteries).
The three great monasteries in the vicinity of Lhasa, all claiming
to be foundations of Tsongkhapa (1356-1418), the medieval reformer
and organizer of the modern orthodox Lama Church, " the yellow
caps," are the following: —
i. Debung (written 'Bras spungs) is 6 m. west of Lhasa at the loot
LHASA
of the hills which flank the plain on the north. It is one of the
largest monasteries in the world, having some 8000 monks. In the
middle of the convent buildings rises a kind of pavilion, brilliant with
colour and gilding, which is occupied by the Dalai Lama when he
visits Debung once a year and expounds to the inmates. The place
is frequented by the Mongol students who come to Lhasa to graduate,
and is known in the country as the Mongol convent; it has also
been notorious as a centre of political intrigue. Near it is the seat
of the chief magician of Tibet, the Nachung Chos-kyong, a building
picturesque in itself and in situation.
2. Sera is 3 m. north of the city on the acclivity of the hills and
close to the road by which pilgrims enter from Mongolia. From a
distance the crowd of buildings and temples, rising in amphitheatre
against a background of rocky mountains, forms a pleasing picture.
In the recesses of the hill, high above the convent, are scattered
cells of lamas adopting the solitary life. The chief temple of Sera,
a highly ornate building, has a special reputation as the resting-
place of a famous Dorje, i.e. the Vajra or Thunderbolt of Jupiter,
the symbol of the strong and indestructible, which the priest grasps
and manipulates in various ways during prayer. The emblem is a
bronze instrument, shaped much like a dumbbell with pointed ends,
and it is carried solemnly in procession to the Jokhang during the
New Year's festival.
The hill adjoining Sera is believed to be rich in silver ore, but it
is not allowed to be worked. On the summit is a spring and a holy
place of the Lhasa Mahommedans, who resort thither. Near the
monastery there is said to be gold, which is worked by the monks.
" Should they . . . discover a nugget of large size, it is immediately
replaced in the earth, under the impression that the large nuggets
. . . germinate in time, producing the small lumps which they are
privileged to search for " (Nain Singh).
3. Galdan. — This great convent is some 25 m. east of Lhasa, on
the other side of the Kyichu. It is the oldest monastery of the
' Yellow " sect, having been founded by Tspngkhapa and having
had him for its first superior. Here his body is said to be preserved
with miraculous circumstances; here is his tomb, of marble and
malachite, with a great shrine said to be of gold, and here are other
relics of him, such as the impression of his hands and feet.
Samye is another famous convent intimately connected with Lhasa,
being said to be used as a treasury by the government, but it lies
some 36 m. south-east on the left bank of the great Tsangpo. It
was founded in 770, and is the oldest extant monastery in Tibet.
It is surrounded by a very high circular stone wall, I J m. in circum-
ference, with gates facing the four points of the compass. On this
wall Nain Singh, who was here on his journey in 1874, counted
1030 votive piles of brick. One very large temple occupies the
centre, and round it are four smaller but still large temples. Many
of the idols are said to be of pure gold, and the wealth is very great.
The interiors of the temples are covered with beautiful writing in
enormous characters, which the vulgar believe to be the writing of
Sakya himself.
Population and Trade. — The total population of Lhasa,
including the lamas in the city and vicinity, is probably about
30,000; a census in 1854 made the figure 42,000, but it is known
to have greatly decreased since. There are only some 1500
resident Tibetan laymen and about 5500 Tibetan women. The
permanent population embraces, besides Tibetans, settled
families of Chinese (about 2000 persons), as well as people from
Nepal, from Ladak, and a few from Bhotan and Mongolia. The
Ladakis and some of the other foreigners are Mahommedans,
and much of the trade is in their hands. Desideri (1716) speaks
also of Armenians and even "Muscovites." The Chinese have
a crowded burial-ground at Lhasa, tended carefully after their
manner. The Nepalese (about 800) supply the mechanics and
metal-workers. There are among them excellent gold- and
silversmiths; and they make the elaborate gilded canopies
crowning the temples. The chief industries are the weaving
of a great variety of stuffs from the fine Tibetan wool; the
making of earthenware and of the wooden porringers (varying
immensely in elaboration and price) of which every Tibetan
carries one about with him; also the making of certain fragrant
sticks of incense much valued in China and elsewhere.
As Lhasa is not only the nucleus of a cluster of vast monastic
establishments, which attract students and aspirants to the
religious life from all parts of Tibet and Mongolia, but is also
a great place of pilgrimage, the streets and public places swarm
with visitors from every part of the Himalayan plateau,1 and
from all the steppes of Asia between Manchuria and the Balkhash
Lake. Naturally a great traffic arises quite apart from^ the
1 Among articles sold in the Lhasa bazaars are fossil bones, called
by the people " lightning bones," and believed to have healing
virtues.
pilgrimage. The city thus swarms with crowds attracted by
devotion and the love of gain, and presents a great diversity of
language, costume and physiognomy; though, in regard to the
last point, varieties of the broad face and narrow eye greatly
predominate. Much of the retail trade of the place is in the
hands of the women. The curious practice of the women in
plastering their faces with a dark-coloured pigment is less common
in Lhasa than in the provinces.
During December especially traders arrive from western
China by way of Tachienlu bringing every variety of silk-stuffs,
carpets, china-ware and tea; from Siningfu come silk, gold lace,
Russian goods, carpets of a superior kind, semi-precious stones,
horse furniture, horses and a very large breed of fat-tailed sheep;
from eastern Tibet, musk in large quantities, which eventually
finds its way to Europe through Nepal; from Bhotan and
Sikkim, rice; from Sikkim also tobacco; besides a variety
of Indian and European goods from Nepal and Darjeeling, and
charas (resinous exudation of hemp) and saffron from Ladakh
and Kashmir. The merchants leave Lhasa in March, before
the setting in of the rains renders the rivers impassable.
The tea importation from China is considerable, for tea is an
absolute necessary to the Tibetan. The tea is of various qualities,
from the coarsest, used only for " buttered " tea (a sort of broth),
to the fine quality drunk by the wealthy. This is pressed into
bricks or cakes weighing about 55 Ib, and often passes as currency.
The quantity that pays duty at Tachienlu is about 10,000,000 Ib,
besides some amount smuggled. No doubt a large part of this
comes to Lhasa.
Lhasa Festivities. — The greatest of these is at the new year. This
lasts fifteen days, and is a kind of lamaic carnival, in which masks
and mummings, wherein the Tibetans take especial delight, play a
great part. The celebration commences at midnight, with shouts
and clangour of bells, gongs, chank-shells, drums and all the noisy
repertory of Tibetan music; whilst friends exchange early visits
and administer coarse sweetmeats and buttered tea. On the second
day the Dalai Lama gives a grand banquet, at which the Chinese
and native authorities are present, whilst in the public spaces and in
front of the great convents all sorts of shows and jugglers' perform-
ances go on. Next day a regular Tibetan exhibition takes place.
A long cable, twisted of leather thongs, is stretched from a high point
in the battlements of Potala slanting down to the plain, where it is
strongly moored. Two men slide from top to bottom of this huge
hypothenuse, sometimes lying on the chest (which is protected by a
breast-plate of strong leather), spreading their arms as if to swim,
and descending with the rapidity of an arrow-flight. Occasionally
fatal accidents occur in this performance, which is called " the dance
of the gods "; but the survivors are rewarded by the court, and the
Grand Lama himself is always a witness of it. This practice occurs
more or less over the Himalayan plateau, and is known in the neigh-
bourhood of the Ganges as Barat. It is employed as a kind of
expiatory rite in cases of pestilence and the like. Exactly the same
performance is described as having been exhibited in St Paul's Church-
yard before King Edward VI., and again before Philip of Spain,
as well as, about 1750, at Hertford and other places in England (see
Strutt's Sports, &c., 2nd ed., p. 198).
The most remarkable celebration of the new year's festivities is
the great jubilee of the Monlam (sMon-lam, " prayer "), instituted
by Tsongkhapa himself in 1408. Lamas from all parts of Tibet, but
chiefly from the great convents in the neighbourhood, flock to Lhasa,
and every road leading thither is thronged with troops of monks on
foot or horseback, on yaks or donkeys, carrying with them their
breviaries and their cooking-pots. Those who cannot find lodging
bivouac in the streets and squares, or pitch their little black tents
in the plain. The festival lasts six days, during which there reigns
a kind of saturnalia. Unspeakable confusion and disorder reign,
while gangs of lamas parade the streets, shouting, singing and coming
to blows. The object of this gathering is, however, supposed to be
devotional. Vast processions take place, with mystic offerings and
lama-music, to the Jokhang and Moru convents; the Grand Lama
himself assists at the festival, and from an elevated throne beside
the Jokhang receives the offerings of the multitude and bestows his
benediction.
On the isth of the first month multitudes of torches are kept
ablaze, which lighten up the city to a great distance, whilst the
interior of the Jokhang is illuminated throughout the night by in-
numerable lanterns shedding light on coloured figures in bas-relief,
framed in arabesques of animals, birds and flowers, and representing
the history of Buddha and other subjects, all modelled in butter.
The figures are executed on a large scale, and, as described by Hue,
who witnessed the festival at Kunbum on the frontier of China,
with extraordinary truth and skill. These singular works of art
occupy some months in preparation, and on the morrow are thrown
532
L'HOPITAL
away. On other days horse-races take place from Sera to Potala,
and foot-races from Potala to the city. On the 27th of the month
the holy Dorje is carried in solemn procession from Sera to the
Jokhang, and to the presence of the lama at Potala.
Of other great annual feasts, one, in the fourth month, is assigned
to the conception of Sakya, but appears to connect itself with the
old nature-feast of the entering of spring, and to be more or less
identical with the HuK of India. A second, the consecration of the
waters, in September-October, appears, on the confines of India,
to be associated with the Dasehra.
On the 3Oth day of the second month there takes place a strange
ceremony, akin to that of the scapegoat (which is not unknown in
India). It is called the driving out of the demon. A man is hired to
perform the part of demon (or victim rather), a part which sometimes
ends fatally. He is fantastically dressed, his face mottled with white
and black, and is then brought forth from the Jokhang to engage in
quasi-theological controversy with one who represents the Grand
Lama. This ends in their throwing dice against each other (as it
were for the weal or woe of Lhasa). If the demon were to win the
omen would be appalling; so this is effectually barred by false dice.
The victim is then marched outside the city, followed by the troops
and by the whole populace, hooting, shouting and firing volleys after
him. Once he is driven off, the people return, and he is carried off
to the Samy£ convent. Should he die shortly after, this is auspicious ;
if not, he is kept in ward at Samy6 for a twelvemonth.
Nain Singh, whose habitual accuracy is attested by many facts,
mentions a strange practice of comparatively recent origin, according
to which the civil power in the city is put up to auction for the first
twenty-three days of the new year. The purchaser, who must be a
member of the Debung monastery, and is termed the Jalno, is a kind
of lord of misrule, who exercises arbitrary authority during that time
for his own benefit, levying taxes and capricious fines upon the
citizens.
History. — The seat of the princes whose family raised Tibet
to a position among the powers of Asia was originally on the
Yarlung river, in the extreme east of the region now occupied
by Tibetan tribes. It was transplanted to Lhasa in the 7th
century by the king Srong-tsan-gampo, conqueror, civilizer
and proselytizer, the founder of Buddhism in Tibet, the intro-
ducer of the Indian alphabet. On the three-peaked crag now
occupied by the palace-monastery of the Grand Lama this king
is said to have established his fortress, while he founded in the
plain below temples to receive the sacred images, brought
respectively from Nepal and from China by the brides to whom
his own conversion is attributed.
Tibet endured as a conquering power some two centuries,
and the more famous among the descendants of the founder
added to the city. This-rong-de-tsan (who reigned 740-786) is
said to have erected a great temple-palace of which the basement
followed the Tibetan style, the middle storey the Chinese, and the
upper storey the Indian — a combination which would aptly
symbolize the elements that have moulded the culture of Lhasa.
His son, the last of the great orthodox kings, in the next century,
is said to have summoned artists from Nepal and India, and
among many splendid foundations to have erected a sanctuary
(at Samye) of vast height, which had nine storeys, the three lower
of stone, the three middle of brick, the three uppermost of
timber. With this king the glory of Tibet and of ancient Lhasa
reached its zenith, and in 822, a monument recording his treaty
on equal terms with the Great T'ang emperor of China was
erected in the city. There followed dark days for Lhasa and the
Buddhist church in the accession of this king's brother Lang-
•dharma, who has been called the Julian of the lamas. This
king rejected the doctrine, persecuted and scattered its ministers,
and threw down its temples, convents and images. It was more
than a century before Buddhism recovered its hold and its
convents were rehabilitated over Tibet. The country was
then split into an infinity of petty states, many of them ruled
from the convents by warlike ecclesiastics; but, though the old
monarchy never recovered, Lhasa seems to have maintained
some supremacy, and probably never lost its claim to be the chief
city of that congeries of principalities, with a common faith
and a common language, which was called Tibet.
The Arab geographers of the loth century speak of Tibet,
but without real knowledge, and none speaks of any city that
we can identify with Lhasa. The first passage in any Western
author in which such identification can be probably traced
occurs in the narrative of Friar Odoric of Pordenone (c. 1330).
This remarkable traveller's route from Europe to India, and
thence by sea to China, can be traced satisfactorily, but of his
journey homeward through Asia the indications are very frag-
mentary. He speaks, however, on this return journey of the
realm of Tibet, which lay on the confines of India proper:
" The folk of that country dwell in tents made of black felt.
But the chief and royal city is all built with walls of black and
white, and all its streets are very well paved. In this city no
one shall dare to shed the blood of any, whether man or beast,
for the reverence they bear a certain idol that is there worshipped.
In that city dwelleth the Abassi, i.e. in their tongue the pope,
who is the head of all the idolaters, and has the disposal of all
their benefices such as they are after their manner."
We know that Kublai Khan had constituted a young prince of
the Lama Church, Mati Dhwaja, as head of that body, and
tributary ruler of Tibet, but besides this all is obscure for a
century. This passage of Odoric shows that such authority
continued under Kublai's descendants, and that some foreshadow
of the position since occupied by the Dalai Lama already existed.
But it was not till a century after Odoric that the strange
heredity of the dynasty of the Dalai Lamas of Lhasa actually
began. In the first two centuries of its existence the residence
of these pontiffs was rather at Debung or Sera than at Lhasa
itself, though the latter was the centre of devout resort. A
great event for Lhasa was the conversion, or reconversion,
of the Mongols to Lamaism (c. 1577), which made the city the
focus of sanctity and pilgrimage to so vast a tract of Asia. It
was in the middle of the I7th century that Lhasa became the
residence of the Dalai Lama. A native prince, known as the
Tsangpo, with his seat at Shigatse, had made himself master
of southern Tibet, and threatened to absorb the whole. The
fifth Dalai Lama, Nagwang Lobzang, called in the aid of a
Kalmuck prince, Gushi Khan, from the neighbourhood of the
Koko-nor, who defeated and slew the Tsangpo and made over
full dominion in Tibet to the lama (1641). The latter now
first established his court and built his palace on the rock-site
of the fortress of the ancient monarchy, which apparently
had fallen into ruin, and to this he gave the name of Potala.
The founder of Potala died in 1681. He had appointed as
" regent " or civil administrator (Deisri, or Deba) one supposed
to be his own natural son. This remarkable personage, Sangye
Gyamtso, of great ambition and accomplishment, still renowned
in Tibet as the author of some of the most valued works of the
native literature, concealed the death of his master, asserting
that the latter had retired, in mystic meditation or trance, to
the upper chambers of the palace. The government continued
to be carried on in the lama's name by the regent, who leagued
with Galdan Khan of Dzungaria against the Chinese (Manchu)
power. It was not till the great emperor Kang-hi was marching
on Tibet that the death of the lama, sixteen years before, was
admitted. A solemn funeral was then performed, at which
108,000 lamas assisted, and a new incarnation was set up in the
person of a youth of fifteen, Tsangs-yang Gyamtso. This young
man was the scandal of the Lamaist Church in every kind of
evil living and debauchery, so that he was deposed and assassin-
ated in 1701. But it was under him and the regent Sangye
Gyamtso that the Potala palace attained its present scale of
grandeur, and that most of the other great buildings of Lhasa
were extended and embellished.
For further history and bibliography, see TIBET. Consult also
LAMAISM. (H. Y.; L. A. W.)
L'HdPITAL (or L'HOSPITAL), MICHEL DE (c. 1505-1573),
French statesman, was born near Aigueperse in Auvergne (now
Puy-de-D&me). His father, who was physician to the constable
Charles of Bourbon, sent him to study at Toulouse, whence
at the age of eighteen he was driven, a consequence of the evil
fortunes of the family patron, to Padua, where he studied law
and letters for about six years. On the completion of his studies
he joined his father at Bologna, and afterwards, the constable
having died, went to Rome in the suite of Charles V. For some
time he held a position in the papal court at Rome, but about
1534 he returned to France, and becoming an advocate, his
LIAO-YANG— LIAS
533
marriage, in 1537, procured for him the post of counsellor to the
parlement of Paris. This office he held until 1547, when he was
sent by Henry II. on a mission to Bologna, where the council
of Trent was at that time sitting; after sixteen months of
wearisome inactivity there, he was by his own desire recalled
at the close of 1548. L'H6pital now for some time held the
position of chancellor to the king's sister, Margaret, duchess
of Berry. In 1553, on the recommendation of the Cardinal of
Lorraine, he was named master of the requests, and afterwards
president of the chambre des comptes. In 1559 he accompanied
the princess Margaret, now duchess of Savoy, to Nice, where,
in the following year, tidings reached him that he had been
chosen to succeed Francois Olivier (1487-1560) in the chancellor-
ship of France.
One of his first acts after entering on the duties of his office
was to cause the parlement of Paris to register the edict of
Romorantin, of which he is sometimes, but erroneously, said to
have been the author. Designed to protect heretics from the
secret and summary methods of the Inquisition, it certainly had
his sympathy and approval. In accordance with the consistent
policy of inclusion and toleration by which the whole of his
official life was characterized, he induced the council to call the
assembly of notables, which met at Fontainebleau in August 1560
and agreed that the States General should be summoned, all
proceedings against heretics being meanwhile suppressed, pending
the reformation of the church by a general or national council.
The States General met in December; the edict of Orleans
(January 1 561) followed, and finally, after the colloquy of Poissy,
the edict of January 1 562, the most liberal, except that of Nantes,
ever obtained by the Protestants of France. Its terms, however,
were not carried out, and during the war which was the inevitable
result of the massacre of Vassy in March, L'Hopital, whose
dismissal had been for some time urged by the papal legate
Hippolytus of Este, found it necessary to retire to his estate
at Vignay, near Etampes, whence he did not return until after
the pacification of Amboise (March 19, 1563). It was by his
advice that Charles IX. was declared of age at Rouen in August
1563, a measure which really increased the power of Catherine
de' Medici; and it was under his influence also that the royal
council in 1 564 refused to authorize the publication of the acts
of the council of Trent, on account of their inconsistency with
the Gallican liberties. In 1564-1566 he accompanied the young
king on an extended tour through France; and in 1566 he was
instrumental in the promulgation of an important edict for the
reform of abuses in the administration of justice. The renewal
of the religious war in September 1567, however, was at once
a symptom and a cause of diminished influence to L'H6pital,
and in February 1 568 he obtained his letters of discharge, which
were registered by the parlement on the nth of May, his titles,
honours and emoluments being reserved to him during the re-
mainder of his life. Henceforward he lived a life of unbroken
seclusion at Vignay, his only subsequent public appearance
being by means of a memoire which he addressed to the king in
1570 under the title Le But de la guerre et de la paix, ou discours
du chancdier I'Hospital pour exhorter Charles IX. a donner la
paix a ses sujets. Though not exempt from considerable danger,
he passed in safety through the troubles of St Bartholomew's eve.
His death took place either at Vignay or at Bellebat on the I3th
of March 1573.
After his death Pibrac, assisted by De Thou and SceVole de
Sainte-Marthe, collected a volume of the Poemata of L'HSpital,
and in 1585 his grandson published Epistolarum seu Sermonum
libri sex. The complete (Eumes de I'Hopital were published for the
first time by P. J. S. Dufey (5 vols., Paris, 1824-1825). They include
his " Harangues " and " Remonstrances," the Epistles, the Memoirs
to Charles IX., a Traite de la reformation de la justice, and his will.
See also A. F. Villemain, Vie du Chancelier de I'Hopital (Paris, 1874) ;
R. G. E. T. St-Ren6 Taillandier, Le Chancelier de I'Hospital (Paris,
1861); Dupr6-Lasalle, Michel de I'Hospital avant son elevation au
paste de Chancelier de France (Paris, 1875-1899) ; Amphoux, Michel
de I'Hospital et la liberte de conscience au XVI' siecle (Paris, 1900);
C. T. Atkinson, Michel de I'Hospital (London, 1900), containing an
appendix on bibliography and sources; A. E. Shaw, Michjl de
I'Hospital and his Policy (London, 1905); and Eugene and Emile
Haag, La France protestante (2nd ed., 1877 seq.).
LIAO-YANG, a city of China, formerly the chief town of the
province of Liao-tung or Sheng-king (southern Manchuria),
35 m. S. of Mukden. It is situated in a rich cotton district in
the fertile valley of the Liao, on the road between Niuchwang
and Mukden, and carries on a considerable trade. The walls
include an area about 2\ m. long by 2 m. broad, and there are
fairly extensive suburbs; but a good deal even of the enclosed
area is under cultivation. The population is estimated at 100,000.
Liao-yang was one of the first objectives of the Japanese during
the Russo-Japanese War, and its capture by them resulted
in some of the fiercest fighting during the campaign, from the
24th of August to the 4th of September 1904.
LIAS, in geology, the lowermost group of Jurassic strata.
Originally the name seems to have been written " Lyas "; it is
most probably a provincial form of " layers," strata, employed
by quarrymen in the west of England; it has been suggested,
however, that the Fr. liais, Breton leach = a. stone, Gaelic leoc =
a flat stone, may have given rise to the English " Lias." Liassic
strata occupy an important position in England, where they crop
out at Lyme Regis on the Dorsetshire coast and extend thence
by Bath, along the western flank of the Cotswold Hills, forming
Edge Hill and appearing at Banbury, Rugby, Melton, Grantham,
Lincoln, to Redcar on the coast of Yorkshire. They occur also
in Glamorganshire, Shropshire, near Carlisle, in Skye, Raasay
(Pabba, Scalpa and Broadfoot beds), and elsewhere in the north
of Scotland, and in the north-east of Ireland. East of the belt of
outcrop indicated, the Lias is known to occur beneath the younger
rocks for some distance farther east, but it is absent from beneath
London, Reading, Ware, Harwich, Dover, and in the southern
portion of the area in which these towns lie; the Liassic rocks
are probably thinned out against a concealed ridge of more ancient
rocks. The table on following page will serve to illustrate the
general characters of the English Lias and the subdivisions adopted
by the Geological Survey. By the side are shown the principal
zonal ammonites, and, for comparison, the subdivisions preferred
by Messrs Tate and Blake and by A. de Lapparent.
The important fact is clearly demonstrated in the table, that
where the Lias is seen in contact with the Trias below or the
Inferior Oolite above, there is, as a rule, a gradual passage from
the Liassic formation, both downwards and upwards; hence
Professor de Lapparent includes in his Liassique System the
zone of Ammonites opalinus at the top, and the Rhaetic beds
at the bottom (see OOLITE; RHAETIC). Owing to the trans-
gression of the Liassic sea the strata rest in places upon older
Palaeozoic rocks. The thickness of the Lias varies considerably;
in Dorsetshire it is 900 ft., near Bath it has thinned to 280 ft.,
and beneath Oxford it is further reduced. In north Gloucester-
shire it is 1360 ft., Northampton 760 ft., Rutland 800 ft., Lincoln-
shire 950 ft., and in Yorkshire about 500 ft.
The Lias of England was laid down in conditions very similar
to those which obtained at the same time in north France and
north Germany, that is to say, on the floor of a shallow sea; but
in the Alpine region limestones are developed upon a much greater
scale. Many of the limestones are red and crystalline marbles
such as the " ammonitico-rosso-inferiore " of the Apennines;
a grey, laminated limestone is known as the " Fleckenmergel."
The whitish " Hierlatzkalke," the Adnet beds and the " Grestener
beds" in the eastern Alps and Balkan Mountains are important
phases of Alpine Lias. The Grestener beds contain a considerable
amount of coal. The Lias of Spain and the Pyrenees contains
much dolomitic limestone. This formation is widely spread in
western Europe; besides the localities already cited it occurs in
Swabia, the Rhenish provinces, Alsace-Lorraine, Luxemburg,
Ardennes, Normandy, Austria-Hungary, the Balkan States,
Greece and Scania. It has not been found north of Kharkov
in Russia, but it is present in the south and in the Caucasus, in
Anatolia, Persia and the Himalayas. It appears on the eastern
side of Japan, in Borneo, Timor, New Caledonia and New
Zealand (Bastion beds); in Algeria, Tunisia and elsewhere in
North Africa, and on the west coast of Madagascar. In South
America it isfound in the Bolivian Andes, in Chile and Argentina;
it appears also on the Pacific coast of North America.
534
LIBANIUS— LIBAU
The economic products of the Lias are of considerable importance.
In the Lower Lias of Lincolnshire and the Middle Lias of Oxfordshire,
Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire, Leicestershire and Yorkshire the
beds of ironstone are of great value. Most of these ores are limestones
that have been converted into iron carbonate with some admixture
of silicates; they weather near the surface into hydrated peroxide.
He removed his school to Nicomedia, where he remained five
years. After another attempt to settle in Constantinople, he
finally retired to Antioch (354). Though a pagan, he enjoyed
the favour of the Christian emperors. When Julian, his special
patron, restored paganism as the state religion, Libanius showed
S.W. England and Midlands.
Yorkshire.
Ammonite Zones.1
Divisions according to
A. de Lapparent.2
is
Midford Sands (passage beds)
Clays with Cement-stones
Limestones and Clays
Alum shale
Jet Rock
Grey Shale
Am. jurensis
„ communis
, , serpentinus j
,, annulatus
h
(Including the opalinus zone
of the Inferior Oolite.)
Toarcien.
JH
•o «
"O ^
s3
Marlstone and Sands
(Rock Bed and Ironstones)
Micaceous Clays and Sands
Ironstone Series
Sandy Series
Am. spinatus
, , margaritalus
»M.
h
Charmouthien.
en
.2
1
o
Clays with occasional bands
of Limestone
Limestones and Clays
Upper Series with
Ironstone nodules
Lower Series with
Sandy and Marly-
Beds
Am. capricornus
,, Jamesoni
and
,, armatus ^
„ oxynotus
,, Bucklandi
„ angulatus
„ planorbis
Sin6mourien.
Hettangien including "White
Lias."
Rh6tien.
1 The brackets indicate the divisions made by R. Tate and J. F. Blake.
2 Traite de geologic (sth ed., Paris, 1906).
At Frodingham in Lincolnshire the oolitic iron ore reaches 30 ft. in
thickness, of which 12 ft. are workable. In Gloucestershire the top
beds of the Lower Lias and lower beds of the Middle division are the
most ferruginous; the best ores near Woodstock and Banbury
and between Market Harborough and Leicester are at the summit
of the Middle Lias in the Marlstone or Rock bed. The ironstone of
Fawler is sometimes known as Blenheim ore. The ores of the Cleve-
land district in Yorkshire have a great reputation ; the main seam is
ii ft. thick at Eston, where it rests directly upon the Pecten Seam,
the two together aggregating 15 ft. 6 in. Similar iron ores of this age
are worked at Meurthe-et-Moselle, Villerupt, Marbache, Longuy,
Champagneulles, &c. Some of the Liassic limestones are used as
building stones, the more important ones being the Lower Lias
Sutton stone of Glamorganshire and Middle Lias Hornton stone, the
best of the Lias building stones, from Edge Hill. The limestones are
often used for paving. The limestones of the Lower Lias are much
used for the production of hydraulic cement and " Blue Lias " lime
at Rugby, Barrow-on-Soar, Barnstone, Lyme Regis, Abertham
and many other places. Roman cement has been made from the
nodules in the Upper Lias of Yorkshire ; alum is obtained from the
same horizon. A considerable trade was formerly done in jet, the
best quality being obtained from the " Serpentinus " beds, but
" bastard " or soft jet is found in many of the other strata in the
Yorkshire Lias. Both Lower and Upper Lias clays have been used
in making bricks and tiles.
Fossils are abundant in the Lias; Lyme Regis, Shepton Mallet,
Rugby, Robin Hood's Bay, Ilminster, Whitby and Golden Cap near
Charmouth are well-known localities. The saurian reptiles, Ichthyo-
saurus and Plesiosaurus, are found in excellent preservation along
with the Pterodactyl. Among the fishes are Hybodus, Dapedius,
Pholidophorus, Acrodus. The crinoids, Pentacrinus and Extracrinus
are locally abundant. Insect remains are very abundant in certain
beds. Many ammonites occur in this formation in addition to the
forms used as zonal indexes mentioned in the table. Lima gigantea,
Posidonomya Bronni, Inoceramus dubius, Gryphaea cymbium and
G. arcuata are common pelecypods. Amberleya capitanea, Pleuroto-
maria anglica are Lias gasteropods. Leptaena, Spiriferina, Terebra-
tella and Rhynchonella tetrahedra and R. variabilis are among the
brachiopods.
Certain dark limestones with regular bedding which occur in the
Carboniferous System are sometimes called " Black Lias " by
quarrymen.
See " The Lias of England and Wales " (Yorkshire excepted),
by H. B. Woodward, Geol. Survey Memoir (London, 1893); and, for
Yorkshire, " The Jurassic Rocks of Britain," vol. i., " Yorkshire,"
by C. Fox-Strangways, Geol. Survey Memoir. See also JURASSIC.
(J. A. H.)
LIBANIUS (A.D. 314-393), Greek sophist and rhetorician,
was born at Antioch, the capital of Syria. He studied at Athens,
and spent most of his earlier manhood in Constantinople and
Nicomedia. His private classes at Constantinople were much
more popular than those of the public professors, who had him
expelled in 346 (or earlier) on the charge of studying magic.
no intolerance. Among his pupils he numbered John Chryso-
stom, Basil (bishop of Caesarea) and Ammianus Marcellinus.
His works, consisting chiefly of orations (including his autobio-
graphy), declamations on set topics, letters, life of Demosthenes,
and arguments to all his orations are voluminous. He devoted
much time to the classical Greek writers, and had a thorough
contempt for Rome and all things Roman. His speeches and
letters throw considerable light on the political and literary
history of the age. The letters number 1607 in the Greek
original; with these were formerly included some 400 in Latin,
purporting to be a translation, but now proved to be a forgery
by the Italian humanist F. Zambeccari (i5th century).
Editions: Orations and declamations, J. J. Reiske (1791-
1797); letters, J. C. Wolf (1738); two additional declamations,
R. Forster (Hermes, ix. 22, xii. 217), who in 1903 began the publica-
tion of a complete edition; Apologia Socratis, Y. H. Rogge (1891).
See also E. Monnier, Histoire de Libanius (1866); L. Petit, Essai
sur la vie el la correspondence du sophists Libanius (1866); G. R.
Sievers, Das Leben des Libanius (1868) ; R. Forster, F . Zambeccari
und die Briefe des Libanius (1878). Some letters from the emperor
Julian to Libanius will be found in R. Hercher, Epistolographi
Graeci (1873). Sixteen letters to Julian have been translated by
J. Duncombe (The Works of the Emperor Julian, i. 303-332, 3rd ed.,
London, 1798). The oration on the emperor Julian is translated by
C. W. King (in Bohn's " Classical Library/' London, 1888), and
that in Defence of the Temples of the Heathen by Dr Lardner (in
a volume of translations by Thomas Taylor, from Celsus and others,
1830). See further J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Classical Scholarship, i.
(1906), and A. Harrent, Les Efoles d' Antioche (1898).
LIBATION (Lat. libatio, from libare, to take a portion of
something, to taste, hence to pour out as an offering to a deity,
&c.; cf. Gr. \elj3av), a drink offering, the pouring out of a
small quantity of wine, milk or other liquid as a ceremonial act.
Such an act was performed in honour of the dead (Gr. xo<"> Lat.
profusiones),in making of treaties (Gr. airovofi, <rirev5tiv= libare,
whence ffirovSai, treaty), and particularly in honour of the gods
(Gr. Xoi/3ii, Lat. libalio, libamentum, libamen). Such libations to
the gods were made as part of the daily ritual of domestic worship,
or at banquets or feasts to the Lares, or to special deities, as by
the Greeks to Hermes, the god of sleep, when going to rest.
LIBAU (Lettish, Leepaya), a seaport of Russia, in the govern-
ment of Courland, 145 m. by rail S.W. of Riga, at the northern
extremity of a narrow sandy peninsula which separates Lake
Libau (12 m. long and 2 m. wide) from the Baltic Sea. Its
population has more than doubled since 1881 (30,000), being
64,505 in 1897. The town is well built of stone, with good
gardens, and has a naval cathedral (1903). The harbour was
LIBEL AND SLANDER
535
2 m. S. of the town until a canal was dug through the peninsula
in 1697; it is now deepened to 23 ft., and is mostly free from
ice throughout the year. Since being brought, in 1872, into
railway connexion with Moscow, Orel and Kharkov, Libau has
become an important port. New Libau possesses large factories
for colours, explosives, machinery belts, sails and ropes, tobacco,
furniture, matches, as well as iron works, agricultural machinery
works, tin-plate works, soap works, saw-mills, breweries, oil-
mills, cork and linoleum factories and flour-mills. The exports
reach the annual value of £3,250,000 to £5,500,000, oats being
the chief export, with flour, wheat, rye, butter, eggs, spirits,
flax, linseed, oilcake, pork, timber, horses and petroleum. The
imports average £1,500,000 to £2/000,000 annually. Shipbuilding,
including steamers for open-sea navigation, is on the increase.
North of the commercial harbour and enclosing it the Russian
government made (1893-1906) a very extensive fortified naval
port, protected by moles and breakwaters. Libau is visited for
sea-bathing in summer.
The port of Libau, Lyra portus, is mentioned as early as 1 263 ;
it then belonged to the Livonian Order or Brothers of the Sword.
In 1418 it was burnt by the Lithuanians, and in 1560 it was
mortgaged by the grandmaster of the Teutonic Order, to which
it had passed, to the Prussian duke Albert. In 1701 it was
captured by Charles XII. of Sweden, and was annexed to Russia
in 1795.
See Wegner, Geschichle der Stadt Libau (Libau, 1898).
LIBEL and SLANDER, the terms employed in English law
to denote injurious attacks upon a man's reputation or character
by words written or spoken, or by equivalent signs. In most
early systems of law verbal injuries are treated as a criminal or
quasi-criminal offence, the essence of the injury lying not in
pecuniary loss, which may be compensated by damages, but in
the personal insult which must be atoned for — a vindictive
penalty coming in the place of personal revenge. By the law
of the XII. Tables, the composition of scurrilous songs and
gross noisy public affronts were punished by death. Minor
offences of the same class seem to have found their place under
the general conception of injuria, which included ultimately
every form of direct personal aggression which involved con-
tumely or insult. In the later Roman jurisprudence, which has,
on this point, exercised considerable influence over modern
systems of law, verbal injuries are dealt with in the edict under
two heads. The first comprehended defamatory and injurious
statements made in a public manner (convicium contra bonos
mores). In this case the essence of the offence lay in the un-
warrantable public proclamation. In such a case the truth of
the statements was no justification for the unnecessarily public
and insulting manner in which they had been made. The second
head included defamatory statements made in private, and in
this case the offence lay in the imputation itself, not in the
manner of its publication. The truth was therefore a sufficient
defence, for no man had a right to demand legal protection for
a false reputation. Even belief in the truth was enough, because
it took away the intention which was essential to the notion of
injuria. The law thus aimed at giving sufficient scope for the
discussion of a man's character, while it protected him from
needless insult and pain. The remedy for verbal injuries was
long confined to a civil action for a money penalty, which was
estimated according to the gravity of the case, and which,
although vindictive in its character, doubtless included practi-
cally the element of compensation. But a new remedy was
introduced with the extension of the criminal law, under which
many kinds of defamation were punished with great severity.
At the same time increased importance attached to the publica-
tion of defamatory books and writings, the libri or libelli famosi,
from which we derive our modern use of the word libel; and
under the later emperors the latter term came to be specially
applied to anonymous accusations or pasquils, the dissemination
of which was regarded as peculiarly dangerous, and visited with
very severe punishment, whether the matter contained in them
were true or false.
The earlier history of the English law of defamation is some-
what obscure. Civil actions for damages seem to have been
tolerably frequent so far back as the reign of Edward I. There
was no distinction drawn between words written and spoken.
When no pecuniary penalty was involved such cases fell within
the old jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts, which was only
finally abolished in the igth century. It seems, to say the least,
uncertain whether any generally applicable criminal process
was in use. The crime of scandalum magnatum, spreading false
reports about the magnates of the realm, was established by
statutes, but the first fully reported case in which libel is affirmed
generally to be punishable at common law is one tried in the
star chamber in the reign of James I. In that case no English
authorities are cited except a previous case of the same nature
before the same tribunal; the law and terminology appear to
be taken directly from Roman sources, with the insertion that
libels tended to a breach of the peace; and it seems probable
that that not very scrupulous tribunal had simply found it
convenient to adopt the very stringent Roman provisions regard-
ing the libelli famosi without paying any regard to the Roman
limitations. From that time we find both the criminal and civil
remedies in full operation, and the law with regard to each at
the present time may now be considered.
Civil Law. — The first important distinction encountered is
that between slander and libel, between the oral and written
promulgation of defamatory statements. In the former case the
remedy is limited. The law will not take notice of every kind
of abusive or defamatory language. It must be shown either
that the plaintiff has suffered actual damage as a direct conse-
quence of the slander, or that the imputation is of such a nature
that we are entitled to infer damage as a necessary consequence.
The special damage on which an action is founded for slanderous
words must be of the nature of pecuniary loss. Loss of reputa-
tion or of position in society, or even illness, however clearly it
may be traced to the slander, is insufficient. When we cannot
prove special damage, the action for slander is only allowed upon
certain strictly defined grounds. These are the imputation of a
crime or misdemeanour which is punishable corporeally, e.g.
by imprisonment; the imputation of a contagious or infectious
disease; statements which tend to the disherison of an apparent
heir (other cases of slander of title when the party is in possession
requiring the allegation of special damage); the accusing a
woman of unchastity (Slander of Women Act 1891); and, lastly,
slanders directed against a man's professional or business
character, which tend directly to prejudice him in his trade,
profession, or means of livelihood. In the latter case the words
must either be directly aimed at a man in his business or official
character, or they must be such as necessarily to imply unfitness
for his particular office or occupation. Thus words which merely
reflect generally upon the moral character of a tradesman or
professional man are not actionable, but they are actionable
if directed against his dealings in the course of his trade or
profession. But, in the case of a merchant or trader, an allega-
tion which affects his credit generally is enough, and it has been
held that statements are actionable which affect the ability
or moral characters of persons who hold offices, or exercise
occupation which require a high degree of ability, or infer peculiar
confidence. In every case the plaintiff must have been at the time
of the slander in the actual exercise of the occupation or enjoy-
ment of the office with reference to which the slander is supposed
to have affected him.
The action for libel is not restricted in the same way as that for
slander. Originally there appears to have been no essential
distinction between them, but the establishment of libel as a
criminal offence had probably considerable influence, and it soon
became settled that written defamatory statements, or pictures
and other signs which bore a defamatory meaning, implied
greater malice and deliberation, and were generally fraught
with greater injury than those made by word of mouth. The
result has been that the action for libel is not limited to special
grounds, or by the necessityof proving special damage. It may
be founded on any statement which disparages a man's private
or professional character, or which tends to hold him up to hatred,
536
LIBEL AND SLANDER
contempt or ridicule. In one of the leading cases, for example,
the plaintiff obtained damages because it was said of him that
he was a hypocrite, and had used the cloak of religion for un-
worthy purposes. In another case a charge of ingratitude
was held sufficient. In civil cases the libel must be published
by being brought by the defendant under the notice of a third
party; it has been held that it is sufficient if this has been done
by gross carelessness, without deliberate intention to publish.
Every person is liable to an action who is concerned in the
publication of a libel, whether he be the author, printer or
publisher; and the extent and manner of the publication,
although not affecting the ground of the action, is a material
element in estimating the damages.
It is not necessary that the defamatory character of the words
or writing complained of should be apparent on their face. They
may be couched in the form of an insinuation, or may derive
their sting from a reference to circumstances understood by the
persons to whom they are addressed. In such a case the plaintiff
must make the injurious sense clear by an averment called an
innuendo, and it is for the jury to say whether the words bore
the meaning thus ascribed to them.
In all civil actions for slander and libel the falsity of the
injurious statements is an essential element, so that the defendant
is always entitled to justify his statements by their truth; but
when the statements are in themselves defamatory, their falsity
is presumed, and the burden of proving their truth is laid upon
the defendant. There are however a large class of false
defamatory statements, commonly called privileged, which are
not actionable on account of the particular circumstances in which
they are made. The general theory of law with regard to these
cases is this. It is assumed that in every case of defamation
intention is a necessary element; but in the ordinary case,
when a statement is false and defamatory, the law presumes
that it has been made or published with an evil intent, and will
not allow this presumption to be rebutted by evidence or sub-
mitted as matter of fact to a jury. But there are certain circum-
stances in which the natural presumption is quite the other
way. There are certain natural and proper occasions on which
statements may be made which are in themselves defamatory,
and which may be false, but which naturally suggest that the
statements may have been made from a perfectly proper motive
and with entire belief in their truth. In the cases of this kind
which are recognized by law, the presumption is reversed.
It lies with the plaintiff to show that the defendant was actuated
by what is called express malice, by an intention to do harm,
and in this case the question is not one of legal inference for the
court, but a matter of fact to be decided by the jury. Although,
however, the theory of the law seems to rest entirely upon natural
presumption of intention, it is pretty clear that in determining
the limits of privilege the courts have been almost wholly guided
by considerations of public or general expediency.
In some cases the privilege is absolute, so that we cannot have
an action for defamation even although we prove express malice.
Thus no action of this kind can be maintained for statements
made in judicial proceedings if they are in any sense relevant
to the matter in hand. In the same way no statements or
publications are actionable which are made in the ordinary course
of parliamentary proceedings. Papers published under the
authority of parliament are protected by a special act, 3 & 4 Viet.
c. 9, 1840, which was passed after a decree of the law courts
adverse to the privilege claimed. The reports of judicial and
parliamentary proceedings stand in a somewhat different
position, which has only been attained after a long and interesting
conflict. The general rule now is that all reports of parliamentary
or judicial proceedings are privileged in so far as they are honest
and impartial. Even ex parte proceedings, in so far as they take
place in public, now fall within the same rule. But if the report
is garbled, or if part of it only is published, the party who is
injured in consequence is entitled to maintain an action, and to
have the question of malice submitted to a jury.
Both absolute and qualified privilege are given to newspaper
reports under certain conditions by the Law of Libel Amendment
Act 1888. The reports must, however, be published in a news-
paper as defined in the Newspaper Libel and Registration Act
1881. Under this act a newspaper must be published "at
intervals not exceeding twenty-six days."
By s. 3 of the act of 1888 fair and accurate reports of judicial pro-
ceedings are absolutely privileged provided that the report is pub-
lished contemporaneously with the proceedings and no blasphemous
or indecent matter is contained therein. By s. 4 a limited privilege
is given to fair and accurate reports (i) of the proceedings of a bona
fide public meeting lawfully held for a lawful purpose and for the
furtherance and discussion of any matter of public concern, even
when the admission thereto is restricted; (2) of any meeting, open
either to the public or to a reporter, of a vestry, town council, school
board, board of guardians, board of local authority, formed or
constituted under the provisions of any act of parliament, or of any
committee appointed by any of these bodies; or of any meeting of
any commissioners authorized to act by letters patent, act of parlia-
ment, warrant under royal sign manual, or other lawful warrant or
authority, select committees of either House of parliament, justices
of the peace in quarter sessions assembled for administrative or
deliberative purposes ; (3) of the publication of any notice or report
issued for the information of the public by any government office
or department, officer of state, commissioner of police or chief
constable, and published at their request. But the privilege given
in s. 4 does not authorize the publication of any blasphemous or
indecent matter; nor is the protection available as a defence if it be
proved that the reports or notices were published maliciously, in the
legal sense of the word, or the defendant has been requested to insert
in the newspaper in which the report was issued a reasonable letter
or statement by way of contradiction or explanation, and has refused
or neglected to do so. Moreover, nothing in s. 4 is to interfere with
any privilege then existing, or to protect the publication of any
matter not of public concern, or in cases where publication is not
for the public benefit. Consequently no criminal prosecution should
be commenced where the interests of the public are not affected.
By the Law of Libel Amendment Act 1888, s. 8, no criminal prose-
cution for libel is to be commenced against any newspaper proprietor,
publisher or editor unless the order of a judge at chambers has been
first obtained. This protection does not cover the actual writer of
the alleged libel.
In private life a large number of statements are privileged so
long as they remain matters of strictly private communication.
It is difficult to define the limits of private privilege without
extensive reference to concrete cases; but generally it may be
said that it includes all communications made in performance
of a duty not merely legal but moral or social, answers to bona
fide inquiries, communications made by persons in confidential
relations regarding matters in which one or both are interested,
and even statements made within proper limits by persons in
the bona fide prosecution of their own interest. Common ex-
amples of this kind of privilege are to be found in answer to
inquiries as to the character of servants or the solvency of a
trader, warnings to a friend, communications between persons
who are jointly interested in some matters of business. But
in every case care must be taken not to exceed the limits of
publication required by the occasion, or otherwise the privilege
is lost. Thus defamatory statements may be privileged when
made to a meeting of shareholders, but not when published to
others who have no immediate concern in the business.
In a few instances in which an action cannot be maintained
even by the averment of malice, the plaintiff may maintain an
action by averring not only malice but also want of reasonable
and probable cause. The most common instances of this kind
are malicious charges made in the ordinary course of justice and
malicious prosecutions. In such cases it would be contrary to
public policy to punish or prevent every charge which was made
from a purely malicious motive, but there is no reason for pro-
tecting accusations which are not only malicious, but destitute
of all reasonable probability.
Criminal Law. — Publications which are blasphemous, immoral
or seditious are frequently termed libels, and are punishable
both at common law and by various statutes. The matter,
however, which constitutes the offence in these publications lies
beyond our present scope. Libels upon individuals may be
prosecuted by criminal information or indictment, but there can
be no criminal prosecution for slander. So far as concerns the
definition of libel, and its limitation by the necessity of proving
in certain cases express malice, there is no substantial difference
between the rules which apply to criminal prosecutions arid to
LIBELLATICI
537
civil actions, with the one important exception (now considerably
modified) that the falsity of a libel is not in criminal law an
essential element of the offence. If the matter alleged were in
itself defamatory, the court would not permit inquiry into its
truth. The sweeping application of this rule seems chiefly due
to the indiscriminate use, in earlier cases, of a rule in Roman law
which was only applicable to certain modes of publication, but
has been supported by various reasons of general policy, and
especially by the view that one main reason for punishing a
libel was its tendency to provoke a breach of the peace.
An important dispute about the powers of the jury incases
of libel arose during the igth century in connexion with some
well-known trials for seditious libels. The point is familiar
to readers of Macaulay in connexion with the trial of the seven
bishops, but the cases in which it was brought most prominently
forward, and which led to its final settlement, were those against
Woodfall (the printer of Junius), Wilkes and others, and especi-
ally the case against Shipley, the dean of St Asaph (21 St. Tr.
925), in which the question was fought by Lord Erskine with
extraordinary energy and ability. The controversy turned upon
the question whether the jury were to be strictly confined to
matters of fact which required to be proved by evidence, or
whether in every case they were entitled to form their own
opinion upon the libellous character of the publication and
the intention of the author. The jury, if they pleased, had it
in their power to return a general verdict of guilty or not guilty,
but both in theory and practice they were subject in law to the
directions of the court, and had to be informed by it as to what
they were to take into consideration in determining upon their
verdict. There is no difficulty about the general application of
this principle in criminal trials. If the crime is one which is
inferred by law from certain facts, the jury are only concerned
with these facts, and must accept the construction put upon
them by law. Applying these principles to the case of libel,
juries were directed that it was for the court to determine
whether the publication fell within the definition of libel, and
whether the case was one in which malice was to be inferred by
construction of law. If the case were one in which malice was
inferred by law, the only facts left to the jury were the fact of
publication and the meaning averred by innuendoes; they could
not go into the question of intention, unless the case were one
of privilege, in which express malice had to be proved. In
general principle, therefore, the decisions of the court were in
accordance with the ordinary principles of criminal law. But
there were undoubtedly some peculiarities in the case of libel.
The sense of words, the inferences to be drawn from them, and
the effect which they produce are not so easily defined as gross
matters of fact. They seem to belong to those cases in which
the impression made upon a jury is more to be trusted than the
decision of a judge. Further, owing to the mode of procedure,
the defendant was often punished before the question of law
was determined. But, nevertheless, the question would scarcely
have been raised had the libels related merely to private matters.
The real ground of dispute was the liberty to be accorded to
political discussion. Had the judges taken as wide a view of
privilege in discussing matters of public interest as they do now,
the question could scarcely have arisen; for Erskine's whole
contention really amounted to this, that the jury were entitled
to take into consideration the good or bad intent of the authors,
which is precisely the question which would now be put before
them in any matter which concerned the public. But at that
time the notion of a special privilege attaching to political discus-
sion had scarcely arisen, or was confined within very narrow
limits, and the cause of free political discussion seemed to be
more safely entrusted to juries than to courts. The question was
finally settled by the Libel Act 1792, by which the jury were
entitled to give a general verdict on the whole matter put in issue.
Scots Law. — In Scots law there were originally three remedies
for defamation. It might be prosecuted by or with the concurrence
of the lord advocate before the court of justiciary ; or, secondly, a
criminal remedy might be obtained in the commissary (ecclesiastical)
courts, which originally dealt with the defender by public retractation
or penance, but subsequently made use of fines payable to their own
procurator or to the party injured, these latter being regarded as
solatium to his feelings; or, lastly, an action of damages was com-
petent before the court of session, which was strictly civil in its
character and aimed at the reparation of patrimonial loss. The first
remedy has fallen into disuse ; the second and third (the commissary
courts being now abolished) are represented by the present action
for damages or solatium. Originally the action before the court of
session was strictly for damages — founded, not upon the animus
injuriandi, but upon culpa, and could be defended by proving the
truth of the statements. But in time the court of session began to
assume the original jurisdiction of the commissary courts, and enter-
tained actions for solatium in which the animus injuriandi was a
necessary element, and to which, as in Roman law, the truth was not
necessarily a defence. Ultimately the two actions got very much
confused. We find continual disputes as to the necessity for the
animus injuriandi and the applicability of the plea of veritas convicii,
which arose from the fact that the courts were not always conscious
that they were dealing with two actions, to one of which these notions
were applicable, and to the other not. On the introduction of the
jury court, presided over by an English lawyer, it was quite natural
that he, finding no very clear distinction maintained between damage
and solatium, applied the English plea of truth as a justification
to every case, and retained the animus injuriandi both in ordinary
cases and cases of privilege in the same shape as the English concep-
tion of malice. The leading and almost only differences between
the English and Scots law now are that the latter makes no essential
distinction between oral and written defamation, that it practically
gives an action for every case of defamation, oral or written, upon
which in England a civil action might be maintained for libel, and
that it possesses no criminal remedy. In consequence of the latter
defect and the indiscriminate application of the plea of veritas to
every case both of damages and solatium, there appears to be no
remedy in Scotland even for the widest and most needless publication
of offensive statements if only they are true.
American Law. — American law scarcely if at all differs from that of
England. Insofar indeed as the common law is concerned, they may
be said to be substantially identical. The principal statutes which
have altered the English criminal law are represented by equivalent
legislation in most American states.
See generally W. B. Odgers, Libel and Slander; Eraser, Law of
Libel and Slander.
LIBELLATICI, the name given to a class of persons who,
during the persecution of Decius, A.D. 250, evaded the con-
sequences of their Christian belief by procuring documents
(libelli} which certified that they had satisfied the authorities
of their submission to the edict requiring them to offer incense
or sacrifice to the imperial gods. As thirty-eight years had
elapsed since the last period of persecution, the churches had
become in many ways lax, and the number of those who failed
to hold out under the persecution was very great. The procedure
of the courts which had cognizance of the matter was, howevef,
by no means strict, and the judges and subordinate officials
were often not ill-disposed towards Christians, so that evasion
was fairly easy. Many of those who could not hold out were
able to secure certificates which gave them immunity from
punishment without actually renouncing the faith, just as
" parliamentary certificates " of conformity used to be given
in England without any pretext of fact. It is to the persons who
received such certificates that the name libellatici belonged
(those who actually fulfilled the edict being called thurificali
or sacrificati) . To calculate their number would be impossible,
but we know from the writings of Cyprian, Dionysius of Alex-
andria and other contemporaries, that they were a numerous
class, and that they were to be found in Italy, in Egypt and in
Africa, and among both clergy and laity. Archbishop Benson
is probably right in thinking that " there was no systematic
and regular procedure in the matter," and that the libelli may
have been of very different kinds. They must, however, as a
general rule, have consisted of a certificate from the authorities
to the effect that the accused person had satisfied them. [The
name libellus has also been applied to another kind of document
— to the letters given by confessors, or by those who were about
to suffer martyrdom, to persons who had fallen, to be used to
secure forgiveness for them from the authorities of the Church.
With such libelli we are not here concerned.] The subject has
acquired a fresh interest from the fact that two of these actual
libelli have been recovered, in 1893 and 1894 respectively, both
from Egypt; one is now in the Brugsch Pasha collection in the
Berlin Museum; the other is in the collection of papyri belonging
to the Archduke Rainer. The former is on a papyrus leaf about
538 LIBER AND LIBERA— LIBER ROMANORUM PONTIFICUM
8 by 3 in., the latter on mere fragments of papyrus which have
been pieced together. The former was first deciphered and
described by Dr Fritz Krebs, the latter by Dr K. Wessely:
both are given and commented upon by Dr Benson. There is a
remarkable similarity between them: in each the form is that N.
" was ever constant in sacrificing to the gods" ; and that he now, in
the presence of the commissioners of the sacrifices (oi ripriufvoi ruv
OvffSiv), has both sacrificed and drunk [or has poured libations],
and has tasted of the victims, in witness whereof he begs them to
sign this certificate. Then follows the signature, with attesta-
tions. The former of the two is dated, and the date must fall
in the year 250. It is impossible to prove that either of the
documents actually refers to Christians: they may have been
given to pagans who had been accused and had cleared them-
selves, or to former Christians who had apostatized. But no
doubt libelli in this same form were delivered, in Egypt at least,
to Christians who secured immunity without actual apostasy;
and the form in Italy and Africa probably did not differ widely
from this. The practice gave rise to complicated problems of
ecclesiastical discipline, which are reflected in the correspondence
of Cyprian and especially in the Novatian controversy.
See E. W. Benson, Cyprian (London, 1897); Theol. Literatur-
zeitung, zoth of January and 1 7th of March 1894. (W. E. Co.)
LIBER and LIBERA, in Roman mythology, deities, male
and female, identified with the Greek Dionysus and Persephone.
In honour of Liber (also called Liber Pater and Bacchus) two
festivals were celebrated. In the country feast of the vintage,
held at the time of the gathering of the grapes, and the city
festival of March i7th called Liberalia (Ovid, Fasti, iii. 711)
we find purely Italian ceremonial unaffected by Greek religion.
The country festival was a great merry-making, where the first-
fruits of the new must were offered to the gods. It was char-
acterized by the grossest symbolism, in honour of the fertility of
nature. In the city festival, growing civilization had impressed
a new character on the primitive religion, and connected it with
the framework of society. At this time the youths laid aside
the boy's toga praelexta and assumed the man's toga libera or
virilis (Fasti, iii. 771). Cakes of meal, honey and oil were
offered to the two deities at this festival. Liber was originally
an old Italian god of the productivity of nature, especially of the
vine. His name indicated the free, unrestrained character of his
worship. When, at an early period, the Hellenic religion of
Demeter spread to Rome, Liber and Libera were identified
with Dionysus and Persephone, and associated with another
Italian goddess Ceres, who was identified with Demeter. By
order of the Sibylline books, a temple was built to these three
deities near the Circus Flaminius; the whole cultus was borrowed
from the Greeks, down even to the terminology, and priestesses
were brought from the Greek cities.
LIBERAL PARTY, in Great Britain, the name given to and
accepted by the successors of the old Whig party (see WHIG AND
TORY), representing the political party opposed to Toryism or
Conservatism, and claiming to be the originators and champions
of political reform and progressive legislation. The term came
into general use definitely as the name of one of the .two great
parties in the state when Mr Gladstone became its leader, but
before this it had already become current coin, as a political
appellation, through a natural association with the use of such
phrases as " liberal ideas," in the sense of " favourable to
change," or " in support of political freedom and democracy."
In this respect it was the outcome of the French Revolution,
and in the early years of the ipth century the term was used
in a French form; thus Southey in 1816 wrote about the " British
Liberates." But the Reform Act and the work of Bentham and
Mill resulted in the crystallization of the term. In Leigh Hunt's
autobiography (1850) we read of " newer and more thorough-
going Whigs . . . known by the name of Radicals . . . since
called Liberals" ; and J. S. Mill in 1865 wrote (from his own
Liberal point of view), " A Liberal is he who looks forward for
his principles of government; a Tory looks backward." The
gradual adoption of the term for one of the great parties, super-
seding " Whig," was helped by the transition period of " Liberal
Conservatism," describing the position of the later Peelites;
and Mr Gladstone's own career is the best instance of its changing
signification; moreover the adjective " liberal " came meanwhile
into common use in other spheres than that of parliamentary
politics, e.g. in religion, as meaning " intellectually advanced "
and free from the trammels of tradition. Broadly speaking,
the Liberal party stands for progressive legislation in accordance
with freedom of social development and advanced ethical ideas.
It claims to represent government by the people, by means of
trust in the people, in a sense which denies genuine popular
sympathy to its opponents. Being largely composed of dis-
senters, it has identified itself with opposition to the vested
interests of the Church of England; and, being apt to be thwarted
by the House of Lords, with attempts to override the veto of that
house. Its old watchword, " Peace, retrenchment and reform,"
indicated its tendency to avoidance of a " spirited " foreign
policy, and to parsimony in expenditure. But throughout its
career the Liberal party has always been pushed forward by its
extreme Radical wing, and economy in the spending of public
money is no longer cherished by those who chiefly represent
the non-taxpaying classes. The party organization lends itself
to the influence of new forces. In 1861 a central organization
was started in the " Liberal Registration Association," composed
" of gentlemen of known Liberal opinions "; and a number of
" Liberal Associations " soon rose throughout the country. Of
these, that at Birmingham became, under Mr J. Chamberlain
and his active supporter Mr Schnadhorst, particularly active
in the 'seventies; and it was due to Mr Schnadhorst that in
1877 a conference was held at Birmingham which resulted in the
formation of the " National Federation of Liberal Associations,"
or " National Liberal Federation," representing a system of
organization which was dubbed by Lord Beaconsfield " the
Caucus." The Birmingham Caucus and the Central Liberal
Association thus coexisted, the first as an independent democratic
institution, the second as the official body representing the whips
of the party, the first more advanced and " Radical," the second
inclined to Whiggishness. Friction naturally resulted, but the
1880 elections confirmed the success of the Caucus and con-
solidated its power. And in spite of the Home Rule crisis in 1886,
resulting in the splitting off of the Liberal Unionists — " dis-
sentient Liberals," as Mr Gladstone called them — from the
Liberal party, the organization of the National Liberal Federation
remained, in the dark days of the party, its main support.
Its headquarters were, however, removed to London, and under
Mr Schnadhorst it was practically amalgamated with the old
Central Association.
It is impossible here to write in detail the later history of the
Liberal party, but the salient facts will be found in such articles
as those on Mr Gladstone, Mr J. Chamberlain, Lord Rosebery,
Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, Mr H. H. Asquith and Mr
David Lloyd George.
See, apart from general histories of the period, M. Ostrogorski's
Democracy and the Organization of Political Parties (Eng. trans. 1902).
LIBER DIURNUS ROMANORUM PONTIFICUM, or " Journal
of the Roman Pontiffs," the name given to a collection of formulae
used in the papal chancellery in preparing official documents,
such as the installation of a pope, the bestowal of the pallium
and the grant of papal privileges. It was compiled between
685 and 751, and was constantly employed until the nth
century, when, owing to the changed circumstances of the
Church, it fell into disuse, and was soon forgotten and lost.
During the i7th century a manuscript of the Liber was dis-
covered in Rome by the humanist, Lucas Holstenius, who pre-
pared an edition for publication; for politic reasons, however,
the papal authorities would not allow this to appear, as the book
asserted the superiority of a general council over the pope. It
was, however, published in France by the Jesuit, Jean Gamier,
in 1680, and other editions quickly followed.
The best modern editions are one by Eugene de Roziere (Paris,
1869) and another by T. E. von Sichel (Vienna, 1889), both of which
contain critical introductions. The two existing manuscripts of the
Liber are in the Vatican library, Rome, and in the library of St
Ambrose at Milan.
LIBERIA
539
LIBERIA, a negro republic in West Africa, extending along
the coast of northern Guinea about 300 m., between the British
colony of Sierra Leone on the N.W. and the French colony of the
Ivory Coast on the S.E. The westernmost point of Liberia (at
the mouth of the river Mano) lies in about 6° 55' N. and 11°
32' W. The southernmost point of Liberia, and at the same time
almost its most eastern extension, is at the mouth of the Cavalla,
beyond Cape Palmas, only 4° 22' N. of the equator, and in about
7° 33' W. The width of Liberia inland varies very considerably;
it is greatest, about 200 m., from N.E. to S.W. The Liberia-Sierra
Leone boundary was determined by a frontier commission in
1903. Commencing at the mouth of the river Mano, it follows
the Mano up stream till that river cuts 10° 40' W. It then
followed this line of longitude to its intersection with N. latitude
9° 6', but by the Franco-Liberian understanding of 1907 the
frontier on this side was withdrawn to 8° 25' N., where the river
Makona crosses 10° 40' W. The Liberian frontier with the
adjacent French possessions was defined by the Franco-Liberian
treaty of 1892, but as the definition therein given was found
to be very difficult of reconciliation with geographical features
(for in 1892 the whole of the Liberian interior was unmapped)
further negotiations were set on foot. In 1905 Liberia proposed
to France that the boundary line should follow the river Moa
from the British frontier of Sierra Leone up stream to near the
source of the Moa (or Makona), and that from this point the
boundary should run eastwards along the line of water-parting
between the system of the Niger on the north and that of the
coast rivers (Moa, Lofa, St Paul's) on the south, until the 8th
degree of N. latitude was reached, thence following this 8th
degree eastwards to where it cuts the head stream of the Cavalla
river. From this point the boundary between France and Liberia
would be the course of the Cavalla river from near its source to
the sea. Within the limits above described Liberia would
possess a total area of about 43,000 to 45,000 sq. m. But after
deliberation and as the result of certain " frontier incidents "
France modified her counter-proposals in 1907, and the actual
definition of the northern and eastern frontiers of Liberia is
as follows: —
Starting from the point on the frontier of the British colony of
Sierra Leone where the river Moa or Makona crosses that frontier,
the Franco-Liberian frontier shall follow the left bank of the river
Makona up stream to a point 5 kilometres to the south of the town of
Bofosso. From this point the frontier shall leave the line of the
Makona and be carried in a south-easterly direction to the source of
the most north-westerly affluent of the Nuon river or Western
Cavalla. This line shall be so drawn as to leave on the French side
of the boundary the following towns: Kutumai, Kisi Kurumai,
Sundibu, Zuapa, Nzibila, Koiama, Bangwedu and Lola. From the
north-westernmost source of the Nuon the boundary shall follow
the right bank of the said Nuon river down stream to its presumed
confluence with the Cavalla, and thenceforward the right bank of the
river Cavalla down to the sea. If the ultimate destination of the
Nuon is not the Cavalla river, then the boundary shall follow the
right bank of the Nuon down stream as far as the town of Tuleplan.
A line shall then be drawn from the southern outskirts of the town
of Tuleplan due E. to the Cavalla river, and thence shall follow the
right bank of the Cavalla river to the sea.
(The delimitation commission proved that the Nuon does not flow'
into the Cavalla, but about 6° 30' N. it flows very near the north-
westernmost bend of that river. Tuleplan is in about lat. 6° 50' N.
The river Makona takes a much more northerly course than had been
estimated. The river Nuon also is situated 20 or 30 m. farther to
the east than had been supposed. Consequently the territory of
Liberia as thus demarcated is rather larger than it would appear
on the uncorrected English maps of 1907 — about 41,000 sq. m.)
It is at the southern extremity of Liberia, Cape Palmas, that
the West African coast from Morocco to the southernmost
extremity of Guinea turns somewhat abruptly eastwards and
northwards and faces the Gulf of Guinea. As the whole coastline
of Liberia thus fronts the sea route from Europe to South Africa
it is always likely to possess a certain degree of strategical
importance. The coast, however, is unprovided with a single
good harbour. The anchorage at Monrovia is safe, and with
some expenditure of money a smooth harbour could be made in
front of Grand Basa.
Coast Features. — The coast is a good deal indented, almost all the
headlands projecting from north-east to south-west. A good deal
of the seaboard is dangerous by reason of the sharp rocks which lie
near the surface. As most of the rivers have rapids or falls actually
at the sea coast or close to it, they are, with the exception of the
Cavalla, useless for penetrating far inland, and the whole of this
part of Africa from Cape Palmas north-west to the Senegal suggests
a sunken land. In all probability the western projection of Africa
was connected by a land bridge with the opposite land of Brazil
as late as the Eocene period of the Tertiary epoch. The Liberian
coast has few lagoons compared with the adjoining littoral of Sierra
Leone or that of the Ivory Coast. The coast, in fact, rises in some
places rather abruptly from the sea. Cape Mount (on the northern
side of which is a large lagoon — Fisherman Lake) at its highest point
is 1050 ft. above sea .level. Cape Mesurado is about 350 ft., Cape
Palmas about 200 ft. above the sea. There is a salt lake or lagoon
between the Cape Palmas river and the vicinity of the Cavalla.
Although very little of the coast belt is actuajly swampy, a kind of
natural canalization connects many of the rivers at their mouths
with each other, though some of these connecting creeks are as yet
unmarked on maps.
Mountains. — Although there are patches of marsh— ^generally the
swampy bottoms of valleys — the whole surface of Liberia inclines
to be hilly or even mountainous at a short distance inland from the
coast. In the north-east, French explorers have computed the alti-
tudes of some mountains at figures which would make them the
highest land surfaces of the western projection of Africa — from 6000
to 9000 ft. But these altitudes are largely matters of conjecture.
The same mountains have been sighted by English explorers coming
up from the south and are pronounced to be " very high." It is
possible that they may reach to 6000 ft. in some places. Between the
western bend of the Cavalla river and the coast there is a somewhat
broken mountain range with altitudes of from 2000 to 5000 ft.
(approximate). The Po range to the west of theSt Paul's river may
reach in places to 3000 ft.
Rivers. — The work of the Franco-Liberian delimitation commission
in 1908-1909 cleared up many points connected with the hydro-
graphy of the country. Notably it traced the upper Cavalla, proving
that that river was not connected either with the Nuon on the west
or the Ko or Zo on the east. The upper river and the left bank of
the lower river of the Cavalla are in French territory. It rises in
about 7° 50' N., 8° 30' W. in the Nimba mountains, where also rise
the Nuon, St John's and Dukwia rivers. After flowing S.E. the
Cavalla, between 7° and 6° N., under the name of Dugu, makes a
very considerable elbow to the west, thereafter resuming its south-
easterly course. It is navigable from the sea for some 8pm. from its
mouth and after a long series of rapids is again navigable. Un-
fortunately the Cavalla does not afford a means of easy penetration
into the rich hinterland of Liberia on account of the bad bar at its
mouth. The Nuon (or Nipwe) , which up to 1908 was described some-
times as the western Cavalla and sometimes as the upper course of
the St John's river, has been shown to be the upper course of the
Cestos. About 6° 30' N. it approaches within 16 m. of the Cavalla.
It rises in the Nimba mountains some 10 m. S. of the source of the
Cavalla, and like all the Liberian rivers (except the Cavalla) it has a
general S.W. flow. The St Paul, though inferior to the Cavalla in
length, is a large river with a considerable volume of water. The
main branch rises in the Bella country nearly as far north as 9° N.
under the name of Diani. Between 8° and 7° N. it is joined by the
We from the west and the Wale from the east. The important river
Lofa flows nearly parallel with the St Paul's river and enters the sea
about 40 m. to the west, under the name of Little Cape Mount river.
The Mano or Bewa river rises in the dense Gora forest, but is of no
great importance until it becomes the frontier between Liberia and
Sierra Leone. The Dukwia and Farmington are tortuous rivers
entering the sea under the name of the river Junk (Portuguese,
Junco). The Farmington is a short stream, but the Dukwia is
believed to be the lower course of the Mani, which rises as the Tigney
(Tige), north of the source of the Cavalla, just south of 8° N. The
St John's river of the Basa country appears to be of considerable
importance and volume. The Sino river rises in the Niete mountains
and brings down a great volume of water to the sea, though it is
not a river of considerable length. The Duobe rises at the back of
the Satro Mountains and flows nearly parallel with the Cavalla,
which it joins. The Moa or Makona river is a fine stream of con-
siderable volume, but its course is perpetually interrupted by
rocks and rapids. Its lower course is through the territory of Sierra
Leone, and it enters the sea as the Sulima.
Climate and Rainfall. — Liberia is almost everywhere well watered.
The climate and rainfall over the whole of the coast region for about
1 20 m. inland are equatorial, the rainfall in the western half of the
country being about 150 in. per annum and in the eastern half
about 100 in. North of a distance of about 120 m. inland the climate
is not quite so rainy, and the weather is much cooler during the dry
season. This region beyond the hundred-miles coast belt is far more
agreeable and healthy to Europeans.
Forests.— Outside a coast belt of about 20 m. and south of 8° N.
the country is one vast forest, except where the natives have cleared
the land for cultivation. In many districts the land has been cleared
and cultivated and then abandoned, and has relapsed into scrub
and jungle which is gradually returning to the condition of forest.
The densest forest of all would seem to be that known as Gora,
540
LIBERIA
which is almost entirely uninhabited and occupies an area of about
6000 sq. m. between the Po hills and the British frontier. There is
another very dense forest stretching with little interruption from the
eastern side of the St Paul's river nearly to the Cavalla. The Nidi
forest is noteworthy for its magnificent growth of Funtumia rubber
trees. It extends between the Duobe and the Cavalla rivers. The
extreme north of Liberia is still for the most part a very well-watered
country, covered with a rich vegetation, but there are said to be a
few breaks that are rather stony and that have a very well-marked
dry season in which the vegetation is a good deal burnt up. In the
main Liberia is the forest country par excellence of West Africa,
and although this region of dense forests overlaps the political
frontiers of both Sierra Leone and the Ivory Coast, it is a feature of
physical geography so nearly coincident with the actual frontiers
of Liberia as to give this country special characteristics clearly
marked in its existing fauna.
Fauna. — The fauna of Liberia is sufficiently peculiar, at any rate
as regards vertebrates, to make it very nearly identical with a
" district " or sub-province of the West African province, though
in this case the Liberian " district " would not include the northern-
most portions of the country and would overlap on the east and west
into Sierra Leone and the French Ivory Coast. It is probable that
the Liberian chimpanzee may offer one or more distinct varieties;
there is an interesting local development of the Diana monkey,
sometimes called the bay-thighed monkey (Cercopithecus diana
ignita) on account of its brilliant orange-red thighs. One or more
species of bats are peculiar to the country — Vespertilio stampflii,
and perhaps Roussettus buttikoferi; two species of shrew (Crocidura),
one dormouse (Graphiurus nagtglasii) ; the pygmy hippopotamus
(H. liberiensis)^-diner\ng from the common hippopotamus by its
much smaller size and by the reduction of the incisor teeth to a
single pair in either jaw, or occasionally t j the odd number of three ;
and two remarkable Cephalophus antelopes peculiar to this region
so far as is known — these are the white-shouldered duiker, Cephalo-
phus jentinki, and the zebra antelope, C. doriae, a creature the size
of a small goat, of a bright bay brown, with broad black zebra-like
stripes. Amongst other interesting mammals are four species of the
long-haired Colobus monkeys (black, black and white, greenish-
grey and reddish-brown) ; the Potto lemur, fruit bats of large size
with monstrous heads (Hypsignathus monstrosus) ; the brush-
tailed African porcupine; several very brightly coloured squirrels;
the scaly-tailed flying Anomalurus ; the common porcupine; the
leopard, serval, golden cat (Felis celidogaster) in two varieties, the
copper-coloured and the grey, possibly the same animal at different
ages; the striped and spotted hyenas (beyond the forest region);
two large otters; the tree hyrax, elephant and manati; the red
bush pig (Potamochoerus porous); the West African chevrotain
(Dorcatherium) ; the Senegalese buffalo; Bongo antelope (Boocercus) ;
large yellow-backed duiker (Cephalophus sylvicultrix) , black duiker,
West African hartebeest (beyond the forest), pygmy antelope
(Neotragus) ; and three species of Manis or pangolin (M. gigantea,
M. longicaudata and M. tricuspis).
The birds of Liberia are not quite so peculiar as the mammals.
There is the interesting white-necked guineafowl, Agelastes (which is
found on the Gold Coast and elsewhere west of the lower Niger) ;
there is one peculiar species of eagle owl (Bubo lettii) and a very
handsome sparrow-hawk (Accipiter buttikoferi) ; a few sun-birds,
warblers and shrikes are peculiar to the region. The other birds
are mainly those of Senegambia and of the West African forest region
generally. A common and handsome bird is the blue plantain-eater
(Corythaeola). The fishing vulture (Gypohierax) is found in all the
coast districts, but true vultures are almost entirely absent except
from the north, where the small brown Percnopterus makes its
appearance. A flamingo (Phoeniconaias) visits Fisherman Lake,
and there are a good many species of herons. Cuckoos are abundant,
some of them of lovely plumage, also rollers, kingfishers and horn-
bills. The last family is well represented, especially by the three
forest forms — the elate hornbill and black hornbill (Ceratogymna) ,
and the long-tailed, white-crested hornbill (Ortholophus leucotophus) .
There is one trogon — green and crimson, a brightly coloured ground
thrush (Pitta), numerous woodpeckers and barbets; glossy starlings,
the black and white African crow and a great variety of brilliantly
coloured weaver birds, waxbills, shrikes and sun-birds.
As regards reptiles, there are at least seven poisonous snakes —
two cobras, two puff-adders and three vipers. The brilliantly coloured
red and blue lizard (Agama colonorum) is found in the coast region
of eastern Liberia. There are three species of crocodile, at least two
chameleons (probably more when the forest is further explored), the
large West African python (P. sebae) and a rare Boine snake (Cala-
baria). On the sea coast there is the leathery turtle (Dermochelis)
and also the green turtle (Chelone). In the rivers and swamps there
are soft-shelled turtle (Trionyx and Sternothaerus) . The land tor-
toises chiefly belong to the genus Cynyxis. The fresh-water fish
seem in their affinities to be nearly allied to those of the Niger and
the Nile. There is a species of Polypterus, and it is probable that the
Protopterus or lung fish is also found there, though its existence has
not as yet been established by a specimen. As regards invertebrates,
very few species or genera are peculiar to Liberia so far as is yet
known, though there are probably one or two butterflies of local
range. The gigantic scorpions (Pandinus imperator) — more than 6 in.
long — are a common feature in the forest. One noteworthy feature
in Liberia, however, is the relative absence of mosquitoes, and the
white ants and some other insect pests are not so troublesome here
as in other parts of West Africa. The absence or extreme paucity of
mosquitoes no doubt accounts for the infrequency of malarial fever
in the interior.
Flora. — Nowhere, perhaps, does the flora of West Africa attain a
more wonderful development than in the republic of Liberia and in
the adjoining regions of Sierra Leone and the Ivory Coast. This is
partly due to the equatorial position and the heavy rainfall. The
region of dense forest, however, does not cover the whole of Liberia;
the Makona river and the northern tributaries of the Lofa and St
Paul's flow through a mountainous country covered with grass and
thinly scattered trees, while the ravines and watercourses are still
richly forested. A good deal of this absence of forest is directly due
to the action of man. Year by year the influence of the Mahommedan
tribes on the north leads to the cutting down of the forest, the ex-
tension of both planting and pasture and the introduction of cattle
and even horses. In the regions bordering the coast also a good
deal of the forest has disappeared, its place being taken (where the
land is not actually cultivated) by very dense scrub. The most
striking trees in the forest region are, in the basin of the Cavalla,
the giant Funtumia elastica, which grows to an altitude of 200 ft.;
various kinds of Parinarium, Oldfieldia and Khaya; the bombax
or cotton tree, giant dracaenas, many kinds of fig; Borassus palms,
oil palms, the climbing Calamus palms, and on the coast the coco-
nut. The most important palm of the country perhaps is the
Raphia vinifera, which produces the piassava fibre of commerce.
There are about twenty-two different trees, shrubs and vines pro-
ducing rubber of more or less good quality. These belong chiefly
to the Apocynaceous order. In this order is the (jenus Strophanthus,
which is represented in Liberia by several species, amongst others
S. gratus. This Strophanthus is not remarkable for its rubber —
which is mere bird lime — but for the powerful poison of its seeds,
often used for poisoning arrows, but of late much in use as a drug
for treating diseases of the heart. Coffee of several species is in-
digenous and grows wild. The best known is the celebrated Coffea
liberica. The kola tree is also indigenous. Large edible nuts are
derived from Coula edulis of the order Olacineae. The country is
exceedingly rich in Aroids, many of which are epiphytic, festooning
the trunks of tall trees with a magnificent drapery of abundant
foliage. A genus much represented is Culcasia, and swampy localities
are thickly set with the giant Cyrtosperma arum, with flower spathes
that are blotched with deep purple. Ground orchids and tree orchids
are well represented; Polystachya liberica, an epiphytic orchid
with sprays of exquisite small flowers of purple and gold, might well
be introduced into horticulture for its beauty. The same might be
said of the magnificent Lissochilus roseus, a terrestrial orchid, growing
to 7 ft. in height, with rose-coloured flowers nearly I in. long; there
are other orchids of fantastic design in their green and white flowers,
some of which have spurs (nectaries) nearly 7 in. long.
Many trees offer magnificent displays of flowers at certain seasons
of the year; perhaps the loveliest effect is derived from the bushes
and trailing creepers of the Combretum genus, which, during the
" winter " months from December to March, cover the scrub and the
forest with mantles of rose colour. Smaelhmannia trees are thickly
set at this season with large blossoms of waxen white. Very beautiful
also are the red velvet or white velvet sepals of the Mussaenda
genus. Bamboos of the genus Oxytenanthera are indigenous. Tree
ferns are found on the mountains above 4000 ft. The bracken grows
in low sandy tracts near the coast. The country in general is a fern
paradise, and the iridescent creeping Selaginella (akin to Lycopodium)
festoons the undergrowth by the wayside. The cultivated trees and
plants of importance are, besides rubber, the manioc or cassada,
the orange tree, lime, cacao, coffee, pineapple (which now runs wild
over the whole of Liberia), sour sop, ginger, papaw, alligator apple,
avocado pear, okro, cotton (Gossypium peruvianum — the kidney
cotton), indigo, sweet potato, capsicum (chillie), bread-fruit, arrow-
root (Maranta), banana, yam, " coco "-yam (Colocasia antiquorum,
var. esculenta), maize, sorghum, sugar cane, rice and eleusine (Eleu-
sine), besides gourds, pumpkins, capbages and onions.
Minerals. — The hinterland of Liberia has been but slightly ex-
Clored for mineral wealth. In a general way it is supposed that the
inds lying between the lower St Paul's river and the Sierra Leone
frontier are not much mineralized, except that in the vicinity of
river mouths there are indications of bitumen. The sand of nearly
all the rivers contains a varying proportion of gold. Garnets and
mica are everywhere found. There have been repeated stories of
diamonds obtained from the Finley Mountains (which are volcanic)
in the central province, but all specimens sent home, except one,
have hitherto proved to be quartz crystals. There are indications
of sapphires and other forms of corundum. Corundum indeed is
abundantly met with in the eastern half of Liberia. The sand of the
rivers contains monazite. Graphite has been discovered in the P6
Hills. Lead has been reported from the Nidi or Niete Mountains.
Gold is present in some abundance in the river sand of central
Liberia, and native reports speak of the far interior as being rich
in gold. Iron — haematite — is present almost everywhere. There
are other indications of bitumen, besides those mentioned, in the
coast region of eastern Liberia.
LIBERIA
History and Population. — Tradition asserts that the Liberian
coast was first visited by Europeans when it was reached by the
Dieppois merchant-adventurers in the i4th century. The
French in the I7th century claimed that but for the loss of the
archives of Dieppe they would be able to prove that vessels from
this Norman port had established settlements at Grand Basa,
Cape Mount, and other points on the coast of Liberia. No proof
has yet been forthcoming, however, that the Portuguese were
not the first white men to reach this coast. The first Portuguese
pioneer was Pedro de Sintra, who discovered and noted in 1461
the remarkable promontory of Cape Mount, Cape Mesurado
(where the capital, Monrovia, is now situated) and the mouth of
the Junk river. In 1462 de Sintra returned with another
Portuguese captain, Sueiro da Costa, and penetrated as far as
Cape Palmas and the Cavalla river.. Subsequently the Portu-
guese mapped the whole coast of Liberia, and nearly all the
prominent features — capes, rivers, islets — off that coast still
bear Portuguese names. From the i6th century onwards,
English, Dutch, German, French and other European traders
contested the commerce of this coast with the Portuguese, and
finally drove them away. In the i8th century France once or
twice thought of establishing colonies here. At the end of the
i8th century, when the tide was rising in favour of the abolition
of slavery and the repatriation of slaves, the Grain Coast [so
called from the old trade in the " Grains of Paradise " or Amomum
pepper] was suggested once or twice as a suitable home for
repatriated negroes. Sierra Leone, however, was chosen first
on account of its possessing an admirable harbour. But in 1821
Cape Mesurado was selected by the American Colonization
Society as an appropriate site for the first detachment of
American freed negroes, whom difficulties in regard to extending
the suffrage in the United States were driving away from a still
slave-holding America. From that date, 1821, onwards to the
present day, negroes and mulattos — freed slaves or the descend-
ants of such — have been crossing the Atlantic in small numbers
to settle on the Liberian coast. The great migrations took place
d<uring the first half of the igth century. Only two or three
thousand American emigrants — at most — have come to Liberia
since 1860.
The colony was really founded by Jehudi Ashmun, a white
American, between 1822 and 1828. The name " Liberia " was
invented by the Rev. R. R. Gurley in 1824. In 1847 the American
colonists declared their country to be an independent republic,
and its status in this capacity was recognized in 1848-1849 by
most of the great powers with the exception of the United States.
Until 1857 Liberia consisted of two republics — Liberia and
Maryland. These American settlements were dotted at intervals
along the coast from the mouth of the Sewa river on the west to
the San Pedro river on the east (some 60 m. beyond Cape Palmas).
Some tracts of territory, such as the greater part of the Kru
coast, still, however, remain without foreign — American —
settlers, and in a state of quasi-independence. The uncertainty
of Liberian occupation led to frontier troubles with Great
Britain and disputes with France. Finally, by the English and
French treaties of 1885 and 1892 Liberian territory on the coast
was made continuous, but was limited to the strip of about
300 m. between the Mano river on the west and the Cavalla river
on the east. The Sierra Leone-Liberia frontier was demarcated
in 1903; then followed the negotiations with France for the
exact delimitation of the Ivory Coast-Liberia frontier, with the
result that Liberia lost part of the hinterland she had claimed.
Reports of territorial encroachments aroused much sympathy
with Liberia in America and led in February 1909 to the appoint-
ment by President Roosevelt of a commission which visited
Liberia in the summer of that year to investigate the condition
of the country. As a result of the commissioners' report negotia-
tions were set on foot for the adjustment of the Liberian debt
and the placing of United States officials in charge of the Liberian
customs. In July 1910 it was announced that the American
government, acting in general agreement with Great Britain,
France and Germany, would take charge of the finances, military
organization, agriculture and boundary questions of the re-
public. A loan for £400,000 was also arranged. Meantime
the attempts of the Liberian government to control the Kru
coast led to various troubles, such as the fining or firing upon
foreign steamships for alleged contraventions of regulations.
During 1910 the natives in the Cape Palmas district were at
open warfare with the Liberian authorities.
One of the most notable of the Liberian presidents was J. J.
Roberts, who was nearly white, with only a small proportion of
negro blood in his veins. But perhaps the ablest statesman that
this American-Negro republic has as yet produced is a pure-
blooded negro — President Arthur Barclay, a native of Barbados
in the West Indies, who came to Liberia with his parents in the
middle of the igth century, and received all his education there.
President Barclay was of unmixed negro descent, but came of a
Dahomey stock of superior type.1 Until the accession to power of
President Barclay in 1904 (he was re-elected in 1907), the Americo-
Liberian government on the coast had very uncertain relations
with the indigenous population, which is well armed and tenacious
of local independence. But of late Liberian influence has been
extending, more especially in the counties of Maryland and
Montserrado.
The president is now elected for a term of four years. There
is a legislature of eight senators and thirteen representatives.
The type of the constitution is very like that of the United
States. Increasing attention is being given to education, to
deal with which there are several colleges and a number of
schools. The judicial functions are discharged by four grades of
officials — the local magistrates, the courts of common pleas,
the quarterly courts (five in number) and the supreme court.
The customs service includes British customs officers lent to
the Liberian service. A gunboat for preventive service purchased
from the British government and commanded by an Englishman,
with native petty officers and crew, is employed by the Liberian
government. The language of government and trade is English,
which is understood far and wide throughout Liberia. As the
origin of the Sierra Leonis and the Americo-Liberian settlers
was very much the same, an increasing intimacy is growing up
between the English-speaking populations of these adjoining
countries. Order is maintained in Liberia to some extent by a
militia.
The population of Americo-Liberian origin in the coast regions
is estimated at from 12,000 to 15,000. To these must be added
about 40,000 civilized and Christianized negroes who make
common cause with the Liberians in most matters, and have
gradually been filling the position of Liberian citizens.
For administrative purposes the country is divided into four
counties, Montserrado, Basa, Sino and Maryland, but Cape
Mount in the far west and the district round it has almost the
status of a fifth county. .The approximate revenue for 1906
was £65,000, and the expenditure about £60,000, but some of
the revenue was still collected in paper of uncertain value. There
are three custom-houses, or ports of entry on the Sierra Leone
land frontier between the Moa river on the north and the Mano
on the south, and nine ports of entry along the coast. At all
of these Europeans are allowed to settle and trade, and with
very slight restrictions they may now trade almost anywhere in
Liberia. The rubber trade is controlled by the Liberian Rubber
Corporation, which holds a special concession from the Liberian
government for a number of years, and is charged with the pre-
servation of the forests. Another English company has con-
structed motor roads in the Liberian hinterland to connect
centres of trade with the St Paul's river. The trade is done
almost entirely with Great Britain, Germany and Holland, but
friendly relations are maintained with Spain, as the Spanish
plantations in Fernando Po are to a great extent worked by
Liberian labour.
The indigenous population must be considered one of the
assets of Liberia. The native population — apart from the
American element — is estimated at as much as 2,000,000; for
1 Amongst other remarkable negroes that Liberian education
produced was Dr E. W. Blyden (b. 1832), the author of many works
dealing with negro questions.
542
LIBERIUS— LIBERTAD
although large areas appear to be uninhabited forest, other
parts are most densely populated, owing to the wonderful
fertility of the soil. The native tribes belong more or less to
the following divisions, commencing on the west, and proceeding
eastwards: (i) Vai, Gbandi, Kpwesi, Mende, Buzi and Mandingo
(the Vai, Mende and Mandingo are Mahommedans) ; all these
tribes speak languages derived from a common stock. (2) In
the densest forest region between the Mano and the St Paul's
river is the powerful Gora tribe of unknown linguistic affinities.
(3) In the coast region between the St Paul's river and the
Cavalla (and beyond) are the different tribes of Kru stock and
language family — De, Basil, Gibi, Kru, Grebo, Putu, Sikoft, &c.
&c. The actual Kru tribe inhabits the coast between the river
Cestos on the west and Grand Sesters on the east. It is known
all over the Atlantic coasts of Africa, as it furnishes such a large
proportion of the seamen employed on men-of-war and merchant
ships in these tropical waters. Many of the indigenous races
of Liberia in the forest belt beyond 40 m. from the coast still
practise cannibalism. In some of these forest tribes the women
still go quite naked, but clothes of a Mahommedan type are fast
spreading over the whole country. Some of the indigenous
races are of very fine physique. In the Nidi country the women
are generally taller than the men. No traces of a Pygmy race
have as yet been discovered, nor any negroes of low physiognomy.
Some of the Krumen are coarse and ugly, and this is the case
with the Mende people; but as a rule the indigenes of Liberia
are handsome, well-proportioned negroes, and some of the
Mandingos have an almost European cast of feature.
AUTHORITIES. — Col. Wauwerman, Liberia; Histoire de la fondation
d'un etat negre (Brussels, 1885); J. Biittikofer, Reisebilder aus
Liberia (Leiden, 1890) ; Sir Harry Johnston, Liberia (2 vols., London,
1906), with full bibliography; Maurice Delafosse, Vocabulaires
comparatifs de plus de 60 langues et dialectes paries a la Cdte d'lvoire
et dans la region limitrophe (1904), a work which, though it professes
to deal mainly with philology, throws a wonderful light on the
relationships and history of the native tribes of Liberia.
(H. H. J.)
LIBERIUS, pope from 352 to 366, the successor of Julius I.,
was consecrated according to the Catalogus Liberianus on the
22nd of May. His first recorded act was, after a synod had
been held at Rome, to write to Constantius, then in quarters at
Aries (353-354), asking that a council might be called at Aquileia
with reference to the affairs of Athanasius; but his messenger
Vincentius of Capua was compelled by the emperor at a con-
ciliabulum held in Aries to subscribe against his will a con-
demnation of the orthodox patriarch of Alexandria. In 355
Liberius was one of the few who, along with Eusebius of Vercelli,
Dionysius of Milan and Lucifer of Cagliari, refused to sign the
condemnation of Athanasius, which had anew been imposed at
Milan by imperial command upon all the Western bishops; the
consequence was his relegation to Beroea in Thrace, Felix II.
(antipope) being consecrated his successor by three " catascopi
haud episcopi," as Athanasius called them. At the end of an
exile of more than two years he yielded so far as to subscribe a
formula giving up the " homoousios," to abandon Athanasius,
and to accept the communion of his adversaries — a serious
mistake, with which he has justly been reproached. This sub-
mission led the emperor to recall him from exile; but, as the
Roman see was officially occupied by Felix, a year passed before
Liberius was sent to Rome. It was the emperor's intention that
Liberius should govern the Church jointly with Felix, but on
the arrival of Liberius, Felix was expelled by the Roman people.
Neither Liberius nor Felix took part in the council of Rimini
(359). After the death of the emperor Constantius in 361,
Liberius annulled the decrees of that assembly, but, with the
concurrence of SS. Athanasius and Hilarius, retained the bishops
who had signed and then withdrawn their adherence. In 366
Liberius gave a favourable reception to a deputation of the
Eastern episcopate, and admitted into his communion the more
moderate of the old Arian party. He died on the 24th of
September 366.
His biographers used to be perplexed by a letter purporting to be
from Liberius, in the works of Hilary, in which he seems to write,
in 352, that he had excommunicated Athanasius at the instance of
the Oriental bishops; but the document is now held to be spurious.
See Hefele, Conciliengesch. i. 648 seq. Three other letters, though
contested by Hefele, seem to have been written by Liberius at the
time of his submission to the emperor. (L. D.*)
LIBER PONTIFICALIS, or GESTA PONTITICUM ROMANORUM
(i.e. book of the popes), consists of the lives of the bishops of
Rome from the time of St Peter to the death of Nicholas I. in
867. A supplement continues the series of lives almost to the
close of the gth century, and several other continuations were
written later. During the. i6th century there was some dis-
cussion about the authorship of the Liber, and for some time it
was thought to be the work of an Italian monk, Anastasius
Bibliothecarius (d. 886). It is now, however, practically certain
that it was of composite authorship and that the earlier part of
it was compiled about 530, three centuries before the time of
Anastasius. This is the view taken by Louis Duchesne and
substantially by G. Waitz and T. Mommsen, although these
scholars think that it was written about a century later. The
Liber contains much information about papal affairs in general,
and about endowments, martyrdoms and the like, but a con-
siderable part of it is obviously legendary. It assumes that the
bishops of Rome exercised authority over the Christian Church
from its earliest days.
The Liber, which was used by Bede for his Historia Ecclesiastica,
was first printed at Mainz in 1602. Among other editions is the one
edited by T. Mommsen for the Monumenta Germaniae historica.
Cesta Romanorum ppntificum, Band i., but the best is the one by
L. Duchesne, Le Liber pontificalis: texte, introduction, commentaire
(Paris, 1884-1892). See also the same writer's Etude sur le Liber
pontificalis (Paris, 1877); and the article by A. Brackmann in
Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopddie, Band xi. (Leipzig, 1902).
LIBERTAD, or LA LIBERTAD,' a coast department of Peru,
bounded N. by Lambayeque and Cajamarca, E. by San Martin,
S. by Ancachs, S.W. and W. by the Pacific. Pop. (1906 esti-
mate) 188,200; area 10,209 SQ- m- Libertad formerly included
the present department of Lambayeque. The Western Cordillera
divides it into two nearly equal parts; the western consisting
of a narrow, arid, sandy coast zone and the western slopes
of the Cordillera broken into valleys by short mountain spurs,
and the eastern a high inter-Andine valley lying between
the Western and Central Cordilleras and traversed by the upper
Maranon or Amazon, which at one point is less than 90 m. in
a straight line from the Pacific coast. The coast region is
traversed by several short streams, which are fed by the melting
snows of the Cordillera and are extensively used for irrigation.
These are (the names also applying to their valleys) the Jequete-
peque or Pacasmayo, in whose valley rice is an important product,
the Chicama, in whose valley the sugar plantations are among
the largest and best in Peru, the Moche, Viru, Chao and Santa;
the last, with its northern tributary, the Tablachaca, forming the
southern boundary line of the department. The Santa Valley
is also noted for its sugar plantations. Cotton is produced in
several of these valleys, coffee in the Pacasmayo district, and
coca on the mountain slopes about Huamachuco and Otuzco,
at elevations of 3000 to 6000 ft. above sea-level. The upland
regions, which have a moderate rainfall and a cool, healthy
climate, are partly devoted to agriculture on a small scale
(producing wheat, Indian corn, barley, potatoes, quinua, alfalfa,
fruit and vegetables), partly to grazing and partly to mining.
Cattle and sheep have been raised on the upland pastures of
Libertad and Ancachs since early colonial times, and the llama
and alpaca were reared throughout this " sierra " country long
before the Spanish conquest. Gold and silver mines are worked
in the districts of Huamachuco, Otuzco and Pataz, and coal has
been found in the first two. The department had 169 m. of rail-
way in 1906, viz.: from Pacasmayo to Yonan (in Cajamarca)
with a branch to Guadalupe, 60 m.; from Salaverry to Trujillo
with its extension to Ascope, 47 m.; from Trujillo to Laredo,
Galindo and Menocucho, 18^ m.; from Huanchaco to Roma,
25 m.; and from Chicama to Pampas, 185 m. The principal
ports are Pacasmayo and Salaverry, which have long iron piers
built by the national government; Malabrigo, Huanchuco,
Guanape and Chao are open roadsteads. The capital of the
department is Trujillo. The other principal towns are San
LIBERTARIANISM— LIBERTY PARTY
543
Pedro, Otuzco, Huamachuco, Santiago de Chuco and Tuyabamba
— all provincial capitals and important only through their
mining interests, except San Pedro, which stands in the fertile
district of the Jequetepeque. The population of Otuzco (35 m.
N.E. of Trujillo) was estimated to be about 4000 in 1896, that
of Huamachuco (65 m. N.E. of Trujillo) being perhaps slightly
less.
LIBERTARIANISM (from Lat. libertas, freedom), in ethics,
the doctrine which maintains the freedom of the will, as opposed
to necessitarianism or determinism. It has been held in various
forms. In its extreme form it maintains that the individual
is absolutely free to chose this or that action indifferently (the
liberum arbitrium indijferentiae) , but most libertarians admit
that acquired tendencies, environment and the like, exercise
control in a greater or less degree.
LIBERTINES, the nickname, rather than the name, given to
various political and social parties. It is futile to deduce the
name from the Libertines of Acts vi. 9; these were " sons of
freedmen," for it is vain to make them citizens of an imaginary
Libertum, or to substitute (with Beza) Libustines, in the sense
of inhabitants of Libya. In a sense akin to the modern use
of the term " libertine," i.e a person who sets the rules of
morality, &c., at defiance, the word seems first to have been
applied, as a stigma, to Anabaptists in the Low Countries (Mark
Pattison, Essays, ii. 38). It has become especially attached
to the liberal party in Geneva, opposed to Calvin and carrying on
the tradition of the Liberators in that city; but the term was
never applied to them till after Calvin's death (F. W. Kamp-
schulte, Johann Calvin). Calvin, who wrote against the
" Libertins qui se nomment Spirituelz " (1545), never confused
them with his political antagonists in Geneva, called Perrinistes
from their leader Amadeo Perrin. The objects of Calvin's
polemic were the Anabaptists above mentioned, whose first
obscure leader was Coppin of Lisle, followed by Quintin of
Hennegau, by whom and his disciples, Bertram des Moulins
and Claude Perseval, the principles of the sect were disseminated
in France. Quintin was put to death as a heretic at Tournai
in 1546. His most notable follower was Antoine Pocquet, a
native of Enghien, Belgium, priest and almoner (1540-1549),
afterwards pensioner of the queen of Navarre, who was a guest
of Bucerat Strassburg (1543-1544) and died some time after 1560.
Calvin (who had met Quintin in Paris) describes the doctrines
he impugns as pantheistic and antinomian.
See Choisy in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie (1902).
(A. Go.*)
LIBERTINES, SYNAGOGUE OF THE, a section of the Hellen-
istic Jews who attacked Stephen (Acts vi. 9). The passage
reads, rives TUV « rijs ffvvaydiy^ TTJS \tyonevris Aipfprlvuif, Kai
KupTjvcucoi' Kai 'A\tt;a.v5pibiv, Kai rSiv air6 KtXt/das Kai 'Acrias,
and opinion is divided as to the number of synagogues here
named. The probability is that there are three, corresponding
to the geographical regions involved, (i) Rome and Italy, (2)
N.E. Africa, (3) Asia Minor. In this case " the Synagogue
of the Libertines " is the assembly of " the Freedmen " from
Rome, descendants of the Jews enslaved by Pompey after his
conquest of Judaea 63 B.C. If, however, we take AifiepTivwv Kai
Kv/ntvaicav Kai 'Aktfcvdptuv closely together, the first name must
denote the people of some city or district. The obscure town
Libertum (inferred from the title Episcopus Libertinensis in
connexion with the synod of Carthage, A.D. 411) is less likely
than the reading (Aifiiwv or) Aiftvarivciiv underlying certain
Armenian versions and Syriac commentaries. The Greek
towns lying west from Cyrene would naturally be called Libyan.
In any case the interesting point is .that these returned Jews,
instead of being liberalized by their residence abroad, were more
tenacious of Judaism and more bitter against Stephen than
those who had never left Judaea.
LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free), generally the state
of freedom, especially opposed to subjection, imprisonment
or slavery, or with such restricted or figurative meaning as the
circumstances imply. The history of political liberty is in
modern days identified practically with the progress of civiliza-
tion. In a more particular sense, " a liberty " is the term for
a franchise, a privilege or branch of the crown's prerogative
granted to a subject, as, for example, that of executing legal
process; hence the district over which the privilege extends.
Such liberties are exempt from the jurisdiction of the sheriff
and have separate commissions of the peace, but for purposes of
local government form part of the county in which they are
situated. The exemption from the jurisdiction of the sheriff
was recognized in England by the Sheriffs Act 1887, which
provides that the sheriff of a county shall appoint a deputy at the
expense of the lord of the liberty, such deputy to reside in or
near the liberty. The deputy receives and opens in the sheriff's
name all writs, the return or execution of which belongs to the
bailiff of the liberty, and issues to the bailiff the warrant re-
quired for the due execution of such writs. The bailiff then
becomes liable for non-execution, mis-execution or insufficient
return of any writs, and in the case of non-return of any writ,
if the sheriff returns that he has delivered the writ to a bailiff
of a liberty, the sheriff will be ordered to execute the writ not-
withstanding the liberty, and must cause the bailiff to attend
before the high court of justice and answer why he did not
execute the writ.
In nautical phraseology various usages of the term are derived
from its association with a sailor's leave on shore, e.g. liberty-man,
liberty-day, liberty-ticket.
A History of Modern Liberty, in eight volumes, of which the third
appeared in 1906, has been written by James Mackinnon; see also
Lord Acton's lectures, and such works as J. S. Mill's On Liberty
and Sir John Seeley's Introduction to Political Science.
LIBERTY PARTY, the first political party organized in the
United States to oppose the spread and restrict the political power
of slavery, and the lineal precursor of the Free Soil and Republican
parties. It originated in the Old North-west. Its organization
was preceded there by a long anti-slavery religious movement.
James G. Birney (q.ii.}, to whom more than to any other man
belongs the honour of founding and leading the party, began to
define the political duties of so-called " abolitionists " about
1836; but for several years thereafter he, in common with other
leaders, continued to disclaim all idea of forming a political
party. In state and local campaigns, however, non-partisan
political action was attempted through the questioning of Whig
and Democratic candidates. The utter futility of seeking to
obtain in this way any satisfactory concessions to anti-slavery
sentiment was speedily and abundantly proved. There arose,
consequently, a division in the American Anti-slavery Society
between those who were led by W. L. Garrison (q.v.), and advo-
cated political non-resistance — and, besides, had loaded down
their anti-Slavery views with a variety of religious and social
vagaries, unpalatable to all but a small number — and those who
were led by Birney, and advocated independent political action.
The sentiment of the great majority of " abolitionists " was,
by 1838, strongly for such action; and it was clearly sanctioned
and implied in the constitution and declared principles of the
Anti-slavery Society; but the capture of that organization by
the Garrisonians, in a " packed " convention in 1830, made it
unavailable as a party nucleus — even if it had not been already
outgrown — and hastened a separate party organization. A
convention of abolitionists at Warsaw, New York, in November
1839 had resolved that abolitionists were bound by every
consideration of duty and expediency to organize an independent
political party. Accordingly, the political abolitionists, in
another convention at Albany, in April 1840, containing delegates
from six states but not one from the North-west, launched the
" Liberty Party," and nominated Birney for the presidency.
In the November election he received 7069 votes.1
The political " abolitionists " were abolitionists only as they
were restrictionists: they wished to use the federal government
to exclude (or abolish) slavery from the federal Territories and
the District of Columbia, but they saw no opportunity to attack
slavery in the states — i.e. to attack the institution per se; also
1 Mr T. C. Smith estimates that probably not one in ten of even
professed abolitionists supported Birney ; only in Massachusetts
did he receive as much as I % of the total vote cast.
544
LIBITINA— LIBO
they declared there should be " absolute and unqualified division
of the General Government from slavery " — which implied an
amendment of the constitution. They proposed to use ordinary
moral and political means to attain their ends — not, like the
Garrisonians, to abstain from voting, or favour the dissolution of
the Union.
After 1840 the attempt began in earnest to organize the
Liberty Party thoroughly, and unite all anti-slavery men.
The North-west, where " there was, after 1840, very little known
of Garrison and his methods "(T. C. Smith), was the most promis-
ing field, but though the contest of state and local campaigns
gave morale to the party, it made scant political gains (in 1843
it cast hardly 10% of the total vote); it could not convince the
people that slavery should be made the paramount question in
politics. In 1844, however, the Texas question gave slavery
precisely this pre-eminence in the presidential campaign. Until
then, neither Whigs nor Democrats had regarded the Liberty
Party seriously; now, however, each party charged that the
Liberty movement was corruptly auxiliary to the other. As the
campaign progressed, the Whigs alternately abused the Liberty
men and made frantic appeals for their support. But the
Liberty men were strongly opposed to Clay personally; and
even if his equivocal campaign letters (see CLAY, HENRY) had
not left exceedingly small ground for belief that he would resist
the annexation of Texas, still the Liberty men were not such as
to admit that an end justifies the means; therefore they again
nominated Birney. He received 62,263 votes' — many more
than enough in New York to have carried that state and the
presidency for Clay, had they been thrown to his support. The
Whigs, therefore, blamed the Liberty Party for Democratic
success and the annexation of Texas; but— quite apart from
the issue of political ethics — it is almost certain that though
Clay's chances were injured by the Liberty ticket, they were
injured much more outside the Liberty ranks, by his own
quibbles.2 After 1844 the Liberty Party made little progress.
Its leaders were never very strong as politicians, and its ablest
organizer, Birney, was about this time compelled by an accident
to abandon public life. Moreover, the election of 1844 was in a
way fatal to the party; for it seemed to prove that though
" abolition " was not the party programme, still its antecedents
and personnel were too radical to unite the North; and above
all it could not, after 1844, draw the disaffected Whigs, for
though their party was steadily moving toward anti-slavery
their dislike of the Liberty Party effectually prevented union.
Indeed, no party of one idea could hope to satisfy men who had
been Whigs or Democrats. At the same time, anti-slavery Whigs
and Democrats were segregating in state politics, and the issue
of excluding slavery from the new territory acquired from Mexico
afforded a golden opportunity to unite all anti-slavery men on
the principle of the Wilmot Proviso (1846). The Liberty Party
reached its greatest strength (casting 74,017 votes) in the state
elections of 1846. Thereafter, though growing somewhat in
New England, it rapidly became ineffective in the rest of the
North. Many, including Birney, thought it should cease to be
an isolated party of one idea — striving for mere balance of
power between Whigs and Democrats, welcoming small conces-
sions from them, almost dependent upon them. Some wished
to revivify it by making it a party of general reform. One result
was the secession and formation of the Liberty League, which in
1847 nominated Gerrit Smith for the presidency. No adequate
effort was made to take advantage of the disintegration of other
parties. In October 1847, at Buffalo, was held the third and last
national convention. John P. Hale — whose election to the
United States Senate had justified the first successful union .of
1 Birney's vote was reduced by a disgraceful election trick by
the Whigs (the circulation of a forged letter on the eve of the election) ;
a trick to which he had exposed himself by an ingenuoisly honest
reception of Democratic advances in a matter of local good-govern-
ment in Michigan.
2 E.g. Horace Greeley made the Whig charge ; but in later life he
repeatedly attributed Clay's defeat simply to Clay's own letters;
and for Millard Fillmore's important opinion see footnote to KNOW
NOTHING PARTY.
Liberty men with other anti-slavery men in state politics — was
nominated for the presidency. But the nomination by the
Democrats of Lewis Cass shattered the Democratic organization
in New York and the North-west ; and when the Whigs nominated
General Taylor, adopted a non-committal platform, and showed
hostility to the Wilmot Proviso, the way was cleared for a union
of all anti-slavery men. The Liberty Party, abandoning there-
fore its independent nominations, joined in the first convention
and nominations of the Free Soil Party (q.v.), thereby practically
losing its identity, although it continued until after the organiza-
tion of the Republican Party to maintain something of a semi-
independent organization. The Liberty Party has the unique
honour among third-parties in the United States of seeing its
principles rapidly adopted and realized.
See T. C. Smith, History of the Liberty and Free Soil Parties in the
Northwest (Harvard University Historical Studies, New York, 1897),
and lives and writings of all the public men mentioned above; also
of G. W. Julian, J. R. Giddings and S. P. Chase.
LIBITINA, an old Roman goddess of funerals. She had a
sanctuary in a sacred grove (perhaps on the Esquiline), where,
by an ordinance of Servius Tullius, a piece of money (lucar
Libitinae) was deposited whenever a death took place. Here
the undertakers (libitinarii) , who carried out all funeral arrange-
ments by contract, had their offices, and everything necessary
was kept for sale or hire; here all deaths were registered for
statistical purposes. The word Libitina then came to be used
for the business of an undertaker, funeral requisites, and (in the
poets) for death itself. By later antiquarians Libitina was
sometimes identified with Persephone, but more commonly
(partly or completely) with Venus Lubentia or Lubentina, an
Italian goddess of gardens. The similarity of name and the fact
that Venus Lubentia had a sanctuary in the grove of Libitina
favoured this idea. Further, Plutarch (Quaest. Rom. 23)
mentions a small statue at Delphi of Aphrodite Epitymbia
(A. of tombs = Venus Libitina), to which the spirits of the dead
were summoned. The inconsistency of selling funeral requisites
in the temple of Libitina, seeing that she is identified with Venus,
is explained by him as indicating that one and the same goddess
presides over birth and death; or the association of such things
with the goddess of love and pleasure is intended to show that
death is not a calamity, but rather a consummation to be desired.
Libitina may, however, have been originally an earth goddess,
connected with luxuriant nature and the enjoyments of life
(cf . lub-et, lib-ido) ; then, all such deities being connected with the
underworld, she also became the goddess of death, and that side
of her character predominated in the later conceptions.
See Plutarch, Nutna, 12; Dion. Halic. iv. 15; Festus xvi., s.v.
" Rustica Vinalia "; Juvenal xii. 121, with Mayor's note; G. Wis-
sowa in Roscher's Lexicon der Mythologie, s.v.
LIBMANAN, a town of the province of Ambos Camarines,
Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the Libmanan river, n m. N.W.of
Nueva Caceres, the capital. Pop. (1903) 17,416. It is about
45 m. N.E. of the Bay of San Miguel. Rice, coco-nuts, hemp,
Indian corn, sugarcane, bejuco, arica nuts and camotes, are
grown in the vicinity, and the manufactures include hemp goods,
alcohol (from coco-nut-palm sap), copra, and baskets, chairs,
hammocks and hats of bejuco and bamboo. The Libmanan
river, a tributary of the Bicol, into which it empties 2 m. below
the town, is famous for its clear cold water and for its sulphur
springs. The language is Bicol.
LIBO, in ancient Rome, the name of a family belonging to the
Scribonian gens. It is chiefly interesting for its connexion with
the Puteal Scribonianum or Puteal Libonis in the forum at
Rome,3 dedicated or restored by one of its members, perhaps
the praetor of 204 B.C., or the tribune of the people in 149. In
its vicinity the praetor's tribunal, removed from the comitium
in the and century B.C., held its sittings, which led to the place
becoming the haunt of litigants, money-lenders and business
people. According to ancient authorities, the Puteal Libonis
1 Puteal was the name given to an erection (or enclosure) on a
spot which had been struck by lightning; it was so called from its
resemblance to the stone kerb or low enclosure round a well (puteus).
LIBON— LIBRARIES
545
was between the temples of Castor and Vesta, near the Porticus
Julia and the Arcus Fabiorum, but no remains have been dis-
covered. The idea that an irregular circle of travertine blocks,
found near the temple of Castor, formed part of the puteal is
now abandoned.
See Horace, Sat. ii. 6. 35, Epp. \. 19. 8; Cicero, Pro Sestio, 8; for
the well-known coin of L. Scnbonius Libo, representing the puteal
of Libo, which rather resembles a cippus (sepulchral monument)
or an altar, with laurel wreaths, two lyres and a pair of pincers or
tongs below the wreaths (perhaps symbolical of Vulcanus as forger
of lightning), see C. Hulsen, The Roman Forum (Eng. trans, by
J. B. Carter, 1906), p. 150, where a marble imitation found at Veii
is also given.
LIBON, a Greek architect, born at Elis, who was employed to
build the great temple of Zeus at Olympia (q.v.) about 460 B.C.
(Pausanias v. 10. 3).
LIBOURNE, a town of south-western France, capital of an
arrondissement of the department of Gironde, situated at the
confluence of the Isle with the Dordogne, 22m. E.N.E. of Bor-
deaux on the railway to Angouleme. Pop. (1906) town, 15,280;
commune, 19,323. The sea is 56 m. distant, but the tide affects
the river so as to admit of vessels drawing 14 ft. reaching the
town at the highest tides. The Dordogne is here crossed by a
stone bridge 492 ft. long, and a suspension bridge across the Isle
connects Libourne with Fronsac, built on a hill on which in
feudal times stood a powerful fortress. Libourne is regularly
built. The Gothic church, restored in the igth century, has a
stone spire 232 ft. high. On the quay there is a machicolated
clock- tower which is a survival of the ramparts of the i4th
century; and the town-house, containing a small museum and
a library, is a quaint relic of the i6th century. There is a
statue of the Due Decazes, who was born in the neighbourhood.
The sub-prefecture, tribunals of first instance and of commerce,
and a communal college are among the public institutions.
The principal articles of commerce are the wines and brandies
of the district. Printing and cooperage are among the industries.
Like other sites at the confluence of important rivers, that of
Libourne was appropriated at an early period. Under the
Romans Condate stood rather more than a mile to the south of
the present Libourne; it was destroyed during the troubles
of the 5th century. Resuscitated by Charlemagne, it was
rebuilt in 1 269, under its present name and on the site and plan
it still retains, by Roger de Leybourne (of Leybourne in Kent),
seneschal of Guienne, acting under the authority of King
Edward I. of England. It suffered considerably in the struggles
of the French and English for the possession of Guienne in the
1 4th century.
See R. Guinodie, Hist, de Libourne (2nd ed., 2 vols., Libourne,
1876-1877).
LIBRA (" THE BALANCE "), in astronomy, the 7th sign of the
zodiac (<?.».), denoted by the symbol =2=, resembling a pair of
cales, probably in allusion to the fact that when the sun enters
bis part of the ecliptic, at the autumnal equinox, the days and
nights are equal. It is also a constellation, not mentioned by
Eudoxus or Aratus, but by Manetho (3rd century B.C.) and
}eminus (ist century B.C.), and included by Ptolemy in his
48 asterisms; Ptolemy catalogued 17 stars, Tycho Brahe 10, and
levelius 20. 5 Librae is an Algol (q.v.) variable, the range of
nagnitude being 5-0 to 6-2, and the period 2 days 7 hrs. 51 min.;
ind the cluster M. 5 Librae is a faint globular cluster of which
only about one star in eleven is variable.
LIBRARIES. A library (from Lat. liber, book), in the modern
ense, is a collection of printed or written literature. As such, it
nplies an advanced and elaborate civilization. If the term be
extended to any considerable collection of written documents,
it must be nearly as old as civilization itself. The earliest
se to which the invention of inscribed or written signs was put
vas probably to record important religious and political trans-
ctions. These records would naturally be preserved in sacred
places, and accordingly the earliest libraries of the world were
probably temples, and the earliest librarians priests. And
ndeed before the extension of the arts of writing and reading the
priests were the only persons who could perform such work as,
xvi. 18
e.g. the compilation of the Annales Maximi, which was the duty
of the pontifices in ancient Rome. The beginnings of literature
proper in the shape of ballads and songs may have continued to
be conveyed orally only from one generation to another, long after
the record of important religious or civil events was regularly
committed to writing. The earliest collections of which we
know anything, therefore, were collections of archives. Of this
character appear to have been such famous collections as that
of the Medians at Ecbatana, the Persians at Susa or the hiero-
glyphic archives of Knossos discovered by A. J. Evans (Scripla
Minoa, 1909) of a date synchronizing with the Xllth Egyptian
dynasty. It is not until the development of arts and sciences,
and the growth of a considerable written literature, and even of
a distinct literary class, that we find collections of books which
can be called libraries in our modern sense. It is of libraries
in the modern sense, and not, except incidentally, of archives
that we are to speak.
ANCIENT LIBRARIES
The researches which have followed the discoveries of P. E.
Botta and Sir H. Layard have thrown unexpected light
not only upon the history but upon the arts, the
sciences and the literatures of the ancient civilizations
of Babylonia and Assyria. In all these wondrous revelations no
facts are more interesting than those which show the existence
of extensive libraries so many ages ago, and none are more
eloquent of the elaborateness of these forgotten civilizations.
In the course of his excavations at Nineveh in 1850, Layard
came upon some chambers in the south-west palace, the floor of
which, as well as the adjoining rooms, was covered to the depth
of a foot with tablets of clay, covered with cuneiform characters,
in many cases so small as to require a magnifying glass. These
varied in size from i to 12 in. square. A great number of them
were broken, as Layard supposed by the falling in of the roof,
but as George Smith thought by having fallen from the upper
storey, upon which he believed the collection to have been placed.
These tablets formed the library of the great monarch Assur-
bani-pal — the Sardanapalus of the Greeks — the greatest patron
of literature amongst the Assyrians. It is estimated that this
library consisted of some ten thousand distinct works and docu-
ments, some of the works extending over several tablets. The
tablets appear to have been methodically arranged and cata-
logued, and the library seems to have been thrown open for the
general use of the king's subjects.1 A great portion of this
library has already been brought to England and deposited in
the British museum, but it is calculated that there still remain
some 20,000 fragments to be gathered up. For further details
as to Assyrian libraries, and the still earlier Babylonian libraries
at Tello, the ancient Lagash, and at Niffer, the ancient Nippur,
from which the Assyrians drew their science and literature, see
BABYLONIA and NIPPUR.
Of the libraries of ancient Egypt our knowledge is scattered
and imperfect, but at a time extending to more than 6000 years
ago we find numerous scribes of many classes who re-
corded official events in the life of their royal masters
or details of their domestic affairs and business trans- Libraries.
actions. Besides this official literature we possess
examples of many commentaries on the sacerdotal books, as well
as historical treatises, works on moral philosophy and proverbial
wisdom, science, collections of medical receipts as well as a great
variety of popular novels and humoristic pieces. At an early
date Heliopolis was a literary centre of great importance with
culture akin to the Babylonian. Attached to every temple
were professional scribes whose function was partly religious
and partly scientific. The sacred books of Thoth constituted as
it were a complete encyclopaedia of religion and science, and on
these books was gradually accumulated an immense mass of
exposition and commentary. We possess a record relating to
" the land of the collected works [library] of Khufu," a monarch
of the IVth dynasty, and a similar inscription relating to the
library of Khafra, the builder of the second pyramid. At Edfu
1 See Menant, Bibliothbque du palais de Ninive (Paris, 1880).
54-6
LIBRARIES
[ANCIENT
Greece.
the library was a small chamber in the temple, on the wall of
which is a list of books, among them a manual of Egyptian
geography (Brugsch, History of Egypt, 1881, i. 240). The exact
position of Akhenaten's library (or archives) of clay tablets is
known and the name of the room has been read on the books
of which it has been built. A library of charred books has been
found at Mendes (Egypt Expl. Fund, Two Hieroglyphic Papyri),
and we have references to temple libraries in the Silsileh " Nile "
stelae and perhaps in the great Harris papyri. The most famous
of the Egyptian libraries is that of King Osymandyas, described
by Diodorus Siculus, who relates that it bore an inscription
which he renders by the Greek words ^TXHS IATPEION " the
Dispensary of the Soul." Osymandyas has been identified with
the great kingRameses II. (1300-1236 B.C.) and the seat of the
library is supposed to have been the Ramessaeum at Western
Thebes. Amen-em-hant was the name of one of the directors of
the Theban libraries. Papyri from the palace, of a later date,
have been discovered by Professor W. F. Flinders Petrie. At
Thebes the scribes of the " Foreign Office " are depicted at work
in a room which was perhaps rather an office than a library.
The famous Tel-el-Amarna tablets (1383-1365 B.C.) were stored
in " the place of the records of the King." There were record
offices attached to the granary and treasury departments and
we know of a school or college for the reproduction of books,
which were kept in boxes and in jars. According to Eustathius
there was a great collection at Memphis. A heavy blow was
dealt to the old Egyptian literature by the Persian invasion,
and many books were carried away by the conquerors. The
Egyptians were only delivered from the yoke of Persia to suc-
cumb to that of Greece and Rome and henceforward their civiliza-
tion was dominated by foreign influences. Of the Greek libraries
under the Ptolemies we shall speak a little further on.
Of the libraries of ancient Greece we have very little know-
ledge, and such knowledge as we possess comes to us for the
most part from late compilers. Amongst those who
are known to have collected books are Pisistratus,
Polycrates of Samos, Euclid the Athenian, Nicocrates of Cyprus,
Euripides and Aristotle (Athenaeus i. 4). At'Cnidus there is
said to have been a special collection of works upon medicine.
Pisistratus is reported to have been the first of the Greeks who
collected books on a large scale. Aulus Gellius, indeed, tells us,
in language perhaps " not well suited to the 6th century B.C.,"1
that he was the first to establish a public library. The authority
of Aulus Gellius is hardly sufficient to secure credit for the
story that this library was carried away into Persia by Xerxes
and subsequently restored to the Athenians by Seleucus Nicator.
Plato is known to have been a collector; and Xenophon tells
us of the library of Euthydemus. The library of Aristotle was
bequeathed by him to his disciple Theophrastus, and by Theo-
phrastus to Neleus, who carried it to Scepsis, where it is said to
have been concealed underground to avoid the literary cupidity
of the kings of Pergamum. Its subsequent fate has given rise
to much controversy, but, according to Strabo (xiii. pp. 608, 609),
it was sold to Apellicon of Teos, who carried it to Athens, where
after Apellicon's death it fell a prey to the conqueror Sulla, and
was transported by him to Rome. The story told by Athenaeus
(i. 4) is that the library of Neleus was purchased by Ptolemy
Philadelphus. The names of a few other libraries in Greece are
barely known to us from inscriptions; of their character and
contents we know nothing. If, indeed, we are to trust Strabo
entirely, we must believe that Aristotle was the first person who
collected a library, and that he communicated the taste for
collecting to the sovereigns of Egypt. It is at all events certain
that the libraries of Alexandria were the most important as they
were the most celebrated of the ancient world. Under
andr/a. tne enlightened rule of the Ptolemies a society of
scholars and men of science was attracted to their
capital. It seems pretty certain that Ptolemy Soter had already
begun to collect books, but it was in the reign of Ptolemy Phila-
delphus that the libraries were properly organized and established
in separate buildings. Ptolemy Philadelphus sent into every
1 Grote, History of Greece, iv. 37, following Becker.
part of Greece and Asia to secure the most valuable works, and
no exertions or expense were spared in enriching the collections.
Ptolemy Euergetes, his successor, is said to have caused all
books brought into Egypt by foreigners to be seized for the
benefit of the library, while the owners had to be content with
receiving copies of them in exchange. Nor did the Alexandrian
scholars exhibit the usual Hellenic exclusiveness, and many of
the treasures of Egyptian and even of Hebrew literature were
by their means translated into Greek. There were two libraries
at Alexandria; the larger, in the Brucheum quarter, was in
connexion with the Museum, a sort of academy, while the smaller
was placed in the Serapeum. The number of volumes in these
libraries was very large, although it is difficult to attain any
certainty as to the real numbers amongst the widely varying
accounts. According to a scholium of Tzetzes, who appears to
draw his information from the authority of Callimachus and
Eratosthenes, who had been librarians at Alexandria, there
were 42,800 vols. or rolls in the Serapeum and 490,000 in the
Brucheum.2 This enumeration seems to refer to the librarianship
of Callimachus himself under Ptolemy Euergetes. In any case
the figures agree tolerably well with those given by Aulus Gellius*
(700,000) and Seneca4 (400,000). It should be observed that, as.
the ancient roll or volume usually contained a much smaller
quantity of matter than a modern book — so that, e.g. the history
of Herodotus might form nine " books " or volumes, and the
Iliad of Homer twenty-four — these numbers must be discounted
for the purposes of comparison with modern collections. The
series of the first five librarians at Alexandria appears to be
pretty well established as follows: Zenodotus, Callimachus,
Eratosthenes, Apollonius and Aristophanes; and their activity
covers a period of about a century. The first experiments in
bibliography appear to have been made in producing catalogues
of the Alexandrian libraries. Amongst other lists, two cata-
logues were prepared by order of Ptolemy Ph'iladelphus, one of
the tragedies, the other of the comedies contained in the collec-
tions. The HivaKfs of Callimachus formed a catalogue of all the
principal books arranged in 120 classes. When Caesar set fire
to the fleet in the harbour of Alexandria, the flames accidentally
extended to the larger library of the Brucheum, and it was
destroyed.5 Antony endeavoured to repair the loss by presenting
to Cleopatra the library from Pergamum. This was very probably
placed in the Brucheum, as this continued to be the literary
quarter of Alexandria until the time of Aurelian. Thenceforward
the Serapeum became the principal library. The usual statement
that from the date of the restoration of the Brucheum under
Cleopatra the libraries continued in a flourishing condition until
they were destroyed after the conquest of Alexandria by the
Saracens in A.D. 640 can hardly be supported. It is very possible
that one of the libraries perished when the Brucheum quarter
was destroyed by Aurelian, A.D. 273. In 389 or 391 an edict of
Theodosius ordered the destruction of the Serapeum, and its
books were pillaged by the Christians. When we take into
account the disordered condition of the times, and the neglect
into which literature and science had fallen, there can be little
difficulty in believing that there were but few books left to be
destroyed by the soldiers of Amru. The familiar anecdote of
the caliph's message to his general rests mainly upon the evidence
of Abulfaraj, so that we may be tempted to agree with Gibbon
that the report of a stranger who wrote at the end of six hundred
years is overbalanced by the silence of earlier and native annalists.
It is, however, so far from easy to settle the question that a
cloud of names could easily be cited upon either side, while some
of the most careful inquirers confess the difficulty of a decision5
(see ALEXANDRIA, III.).
The magnificence and renown of the libraries of the Ptolemies
excited the rivalry of the kings of Pergamum, who vied with
the Egyptian rulers in their encouragement of literature. The
2 Ritschl, Die alexandrinischen Bibliotheken, p. 22; Opusc. phil.
i. § 123.
3 N.A. vi. 17. * De tranq. an. 9.
5 Parthey (Alexandrinisches Museum) assigns topographical reasons
for doubting this story.
• Some of the authorities have been collected by Parthey, op. cit.
ANCIENT]
LIBRARIES
547
Per-
gamum
German researches in the acropolis of Pergamum between 1878
and 1886 revealed four rooms which had originally been appro-
priated to the library (Alex. Conze, Die pergamen.
Blbliothek, 1884). Despite the obstacles presented by
the embargo placed by the Ptolemies upon the export
of papyrus, the library of the Attali attained considerable
importance, and, as we have seen, when it was transported
to Egypt numbered 200,000 vols. We learn from a notice in
Suidas that in 221 B.C. Antiochus the Great summoned the poet
and grammarian Euphorion of Chalcis to be his librarian.
The early Romans were far too warlike and practical a people
to devote much attention to literature, and it is not until the
Rome 'ast centurv °f tne republic that we hear of libraries
in Rome. The collections of Carthage, which fell into
their hands when Scipio sacked that city (146 B.C.), had no
attractions for them; and with the exception of the writings of
Mago upon agriculture, which the senate reserved for translation
into Latin, they bestowed all the books upon the kinglets of
Africa (Pliny, H.N. xviii. 5). It is in accordance with the
military character of the Romans that the first considerable
collections of which we hear in Rome were brought there as the
spoils of war. The first of these was that brought by Aemilius
Paulus from Macedonia after the conquest of Perseus (167 B.C.).
The library of the conquered monarch was all that he reserved
from the prizes of victory for himself and his sons, who were fond
of letters. Next came the library of Apellicon the Teian, brought
from Athens by Sulla (86 B.C.). This passed at his death into
the hands of his son, but of its later history nothing is known.
The rich stores of literature brought home by Lucullus from his
eastern conquests (about 67 B.C.) were freely thrown open to his
friends and to men of letters. Accordingly his library and the
neighbouring walks were much resorted to, especially by Greeks.
It was now becoming fashionable for rich men to furnish their
libraries well, and the fashion prevailed until it became the
subject of Seneca's scorn and Lucian's wit. The zeal of Cicero
and Atticus in adding to their collections is well known to every
reader of the classics. Tyrannion is said to have had 30,000 vols.
of his own; and that M. Terentius Varro had large collections
we may infer from Cicero's writing to him: " Si hortum in
bibliotheca habes, nihil deerit." Not to prolong the list of
private collectors, Serenus Sammonicus is said to have left to
his pupil the young Gordian no less than 62,000 vols. Amongst
the numerous projects entertained by Caesar was that of pre-
senting Rome with public libraries, though it is doubtful whether
any steps were actually taken towards its execution. The task
of collecting and arranging the books was entrusted to Varro.
This commission, as well as his own fondness for books, may
have led Varro to write the book upon libraries of which a few
words only have come down to us, preserved by a grammarian.
The honour of being the first actually to dedicate a library to
the public is said by Pliny and Ovid to have fallen to G. Asinius
Pollio, who erected a library in the Atrium Libertatis on Mount
Aventine, defraying the cost from the spoils of his Illyrian
campaign. The library of Pollio was followed by the public
libraries established by Augustus. That emperor, who did so
much for the embellishment of the city, erected two libraries,
the Octavian and the Palatine. The former was founded
(33 B.C.) in honour of his sister, and was placed in the Porticus
Octaviae, a magnificent structure, the lower part of which served
as a promenade, while the upper part contained the library.
The charge of the books was committed to C. Melissus. The
other library formed by Augustus was attached to the temple of
Apollo on the Palatine hill, and appears from inscriptions to
have consisted of two departments, a Greek and a Latin one,
which seem to have been separately administered. The charge
of the Palatine collections was given to Pompeius Macer, who
was succeeded by Julius Hyginus, the grammarian and friend of
Ovid. The Octavian library perished in the fire which raged
at Rome for three days in the reign of Titus. The Palatine was,
at all events in great part, destroyed by fire in the reign of
Commodus. The story that its collections were destroyed by
order of Pope Gregory the Great in the 6th century is now
generally rejected. The successors of Augustus, though they
did not equal him in their patronage of learning, maintained the
tradition of forming libraries. Tiberius, his immediate suc-
cessor, established one in his splendid house on the Palatine, to
which Gellius refers as the " Tiberian library," and Suetonius
relates that he caused the writings and images of his favourite
Greek poets to be placed in the public libraries. Vespasian
established a library in the Temple of Peace erected after the
burning of the city under Nero. Domitian restored the libraries
which had been destroyed in the same conflagration, procuring
books from every quarter, and even sending to Alexandria to
have copies made. He is also said to have founded the Capitoline
library, though others give the credit to Hadrian. The most
famous and important of the imperial libraries, however, was
that created by Ulpius Trajanus, known as the Ulpian library,
which was first established in the Forum of Trajan, but was
afterwards removed to the baths of Diocletian. In this library
were deposited by Trajan the " libri lintei " and " libri ele-
phantini," upon which the senatus consulta and other trans-
actions relating to the emperors were written. The library of
Domitian, which had been destroyed by fire in the reign of
Commodus, was restored by Gordian, who added to it the books
bequeathed to him by Serenus Sammonicus. Altogether in the
4th century there are said to have been twenty-eight public
libraries in Rome.
Nor were public libraries confined to Rome. We possess
records of at least 24 places in Italy, the Grecian provinces,
Asia Minor, Cyprus and Africa in which libraries had
been established, most of them attached to temples, Roman
usually through the liberality of generous individuals. l
The library which the younger Pliny dedicated to his
townsmen at Comum cost a million sesterces and he contributed
a large sum to the support of a library at Milan. Hadrian
established one at Athens, described by Pausanias, and recently
identified with a building called the Stoa of Hadrian, which
shows a striking similarity with the precinct of Athena at
Pergamum. Strabo mentions a library at Smyrna; Aulus
Gellius one at Patrae and another at Tibur from which books
could be borrowed. Recent discoveries at Ephesus in Asia
Minor and Timegad in Algeria have furnished precise information
as to the structural plan of these buildings. The library at
Ephesus was founded by T. Julius Aquila Polemaeanus in
memory of his father, pro-consul of Asia in the time of Trajan,
about A.D. 106-107. The library at Timegad was established at
a cost of 400,000 sesterces by M. Julius Quintianus Flavius
Rogatianus, who probably lived in the 3rd century (R. Cagnat,
" Les Bibliotheques municipales dans 1'Empire Remain," 1906,
Mem. de I'Acod. des Insc., torn, xxxviii. pt. i). At Ephesus
the light came through a circular opening in the roof; the
library at Timegad greatly resembles that discovered at Pompeii
and possesses a system of book stores. All these buildings
followed the same general plan, consisting of a reading-room and
more or less ample book stores; the former was either rect-
angular or semi-circular in shape and was approached under a
stately portico and colonnade. In a niche facing the entrance a
statue was always erected; that formerly at Pergamum — a
figure of Minerva — is now preserved at Berlin. From a well-
known line of Juvenal (Sat. iii. 219) we may assume that a statue
of the goddess was usually placed in libraries. The reading-
room was also ornamented with busts or life-sized images of
celebrated writers. The portraits or authors were also painted
on medallions on the presses (armaria) in which the books or rolls
were preserved as in the library of Isidore, of Seville; some-
times these medallions decorated the walls, as in a private library
discovered by Lanciani in 1883 at Rome (Ancient Rome, 1888,
p. 193). Movable seats, known to us by pictorial representations,
were in use. The books were classified, and the presses (framed
of precious woods and highly ornamented) were numbered to
facilitate reference from the catalogues. A private library
discovered at Herculaneum contained 1756 MSS. placed on
shelves round the room to a height of about 6 ft. with a central
press. In the public rooms some of the books were arranged
LIBRARIES
[MEDIEVAL (
in the reading-room and some in the adjacent book stores.
The Christian libraries of later foundation closely followed the
classical prototypes not only in their structure but also in
smaller details. The general appearance of a Roman library
is preserved in the library of the Vatican fitted up by Sextus V.
in 1587 with painted presses, busts and antique vases.
As the number of libraries in Rome increased, the librarian,
who was generally a slave or freedman, became a recognized
public functionary. The names of several librarians are pre-
served to us in inscriptions, including that of C. Hymenaeus,
who appears to have fulfilled the double function of physician
and librarian to Augustus. The general superintendence of the
public libraries was committed to a special official. Thus from
Nero to Trajan, Dionysius, an Alexandrian rhetorician, dis-
charged this function. Under Hadrian it was entrusted to his
former tutor C. Julius Vestinus, who afterwards became ad-
ministrator of the Museum at Alexandria.
When the seat of empire was removed by Constantine to
his new capital upon the Bosporus, the emperor established a
collection there, in which Christian literature was
probably admitted for the first time into an imperial
library. Diligent search was made after the Christian
books which had been doomed to destruction by Diocletian.
Even at the death of Constantine, however, the number of books
which had been brought together amounted only to 6900. The
smallness of the number, it has been suggested, seems to show
that Constantine's library was mainly intended as a repository
of Christian literature. However this may be, the collection
was greatly enlarged by some of Constantine's successors,
especially by Julian and Theodosius, at whose death it is said
to have increased to 100,000 vols. Julian, himself a close student
and voluminous writer, though he did his best to discourage
learning among the Christians, and to destroy their libraries,
not only augmented the library at Constantinople, but founded
others, including one at Nisibis, which was soon afterwards de-
stroyed by fire. From the Theodosian code we learn that in
the time of that emperor a staff of seven copyists was attached
to the library at Constantinople under the direction of the
librarian. The library was burnt under the emperor Zeno in
477, but was again restored.
Meanwhile, as Christianity made its way and a distinctively
Christian literature grew up, the institution of libraries became
part of the ecclesiastical organization. Bishop Alexander (d. A.D.
250) established a church library at Jerusalem, and it became
the rule to attach to every church a collection necessary for the
inculcation of Christian doctrine. There were libraries at Cirta,
at Constantinople and at Rome. The basilica of St Lawrence at
Rome contained a library or archivum founded by Pope Damasus
at the end of the 4th century. Most of these collections were
housed in the sacred edifices and consisted largely of copies of
the Holy Scriptures, liturgical volumes and works of devotion.
They also included the Gesta Martyrum and Matriculae Pauperum
and official correspondence. Many of the basilicas had the apse
subdivided into three smaller hemicycles, one of which contained
the library (Lanciani, op. cil. p. 187). The largest of these
libraries, that founded by Pamphilus (d. A.D. 309) at Caesarea,
and said to have been increased by Eusebius, the historian of
the church, to 30,000 vols., is frequently mentioned by St
Jerome. St Augustine bequeathed his collection to the library
of the church at Hippo, which was fortunate enough to escape
destruction at the hands of the Vandals. The hermit com-
munities of the Egyptian deserts formed organizations which
developed into the later monastic orders of Western Europe and
the accumulation of books for the brethren was one of their
cares.
The removal of the capital to Byzantium was in its result
a serious blow to literature. Henceforward the science and
learning of the East and West were divorced. The libraries
of Rome ceased to collect the writings of the Greeks, while the
Greek libraries had never cared much to collect Latin literature.
The influence of the church became increasingly hostile to the
study of pagan letters. The repeated irruptions of the barbarians
Gaul.
soon swept the old learning and libraries alike from the soil of
Italy. With the close of the Western empire in 476 the ancient
history of libraries may be said to cease.
MEDIEVAL PERIOD
During the first few centuries after the fall of the Western
empire, literary activity at Constantinople had fallen to its
lowest ebb. In the West, amidst the general neglect
of learning and literature, the collecting of books,
though not wholly forgotten, was cared for by few. Sidonius
Apollinaris tells us of the libraries of several private collectors in
Gaul. Publius Consentius possessed a library at his villa near
Narbonne which was due to the labour of three generations.
The most notable of these appears to have been the prefect
Tonantius Ferreolus, who had formed in his villa of Prusiana,
near Nimes, a collection which his friend playfully compares to
that of Alexandria. The Goths, who had been introduced to the
Scriptures in their own language by Ulfilas in the 4th century,
began to pay some attention to Latin literature. Cassiodorus,
the favourite minister of Theodoric, was a collector as well as
an author, and on giving up the cares of government retired to a
monastery which he founded in Calabria, where he employed
his monks in the transcription of books.
Henceforward the charge of books as well as of education fell
more and more exclusively into the hands of the church. While
the old schools of the rhetoricians died out new monasteries
arose everywhere. Knowledge was no longer pursued for its
own sake, but became subsidiary to religious and theological
teaching. The proscription of the old classical literature, which
is symbolized in the fable of the destruction of the Palatine
library by Gregory the Great, was only too effectual. The
Gregorian tradition of opposition to pagan learning long con-
tinued to dominate the literary pursuits of the monastic orders
and the labours of the scriptorium.
During the 6th and 7th centuries the learning which had
been driven from the Continent took refuge in the British Islands,
where it was removed from the political disturbances
of the mainland. In the Irish monasteries during this
period there appear to have been many books, and the Venerable
Bede was superior to any scholar of his age. Theodore of Tarsus
brought a considerable number of books to Canterbury from
Rome in the 7th century, including several Greek authors. The
library of York, which was founded by Archbishop Egbert, was
almost more famous than that of Canterbury. The verses are
well known in which Alcuin describes the extensive library
under his charge, and the long list of authors whom he enumerates
is superior to that of any other library possessed by either
England or France in the i2th century, when it was unhappily
burnt. The inroads of the Northmen in the 9th and loth
centuries had been fatal to the monastic libraries on both sides
of the channel. It was from York that Alcuin came to Charle-
magne to superintend the school attached to his palace; and it
was doubtless inspired by Alcuin that Charles issued the memor-
able document which enjoined that in the bishoprics and
monasteries within his realm care should be taken that there
shall be not only a regular manner of life, but also the study of
letters. When Alcuin finally retired from the court to the abbacy
of Tours, there to carry out his own theory of monastic discipline
and instruction, he wrote to Charles for leave to send to York
for copies of the books of which they had so much need at
Tours. While Alcuin thus increased the library at Tours,
Charlemagne enlarged that at Fulda, which had been
founded in 774, and which all through the middle ages
stood in great respect. Lupus Servatus, a pupil of
Hrabanus Maurus at Fulda, and afterwards abbot of Ferrieres,
was a devoted student of the classics and a great collector of
books. His correspondence illustrates the difficulties which
then attended the study of literature through the paucity and
dearness of books, the declining care for learning, and the in-
creasing troubles of the time. Nor were private collections of
books altogether wanting during the period in which Charlemagne
and his successors laboured to restore the lost traditions of
Alcuin.
Charle-
magne.
MEDIEVAL]
LIBRARIES
549
liberal education and literature. Pepin le Bref had indeed met
with scanty response to the request for books which he addressed
to the pontiff Paul I. Charlemagne, however, collected a con-
siderable number of choice books for his private use in two
places. Although these collections were dispersed at his death,
his son Louis formed a library which continued to exist under
Charles the Bald. About the same time Everard, count of Friuli,
formed a considerable collection which he bequeathed to a
monastery. But the greatest private collector of the middle
ages was doubtless Gerbert, Pope Sylvester II., who showed the
utmost zeal and spent large sums in collecting books, not only
in Rome and Italy, but from Germany, Belgium and even from
Spain.
The hopes of a revival of secular literature fell with the decline
of the schools established by Charles and his successors. The
knowledge of letters remained the prerogative of the
Benedict, church, and for the next four or five centuries the
collecting and multiplication of books were almost
entirely confined to the monasteries. Several of the greater
orders made these an express duty; this was especially the case
with the Benedictines. It was the first care of St Benedict,
we are told, that in each newly founded monastery there should
be a library, " et velut curia quaedam illustrium auctorum. "
Monte Cassino became the starting-point of a long line of in-
stitutions which were destined to be the centres of religion and
of literature. It must indeed be remembered that literature in
the sense of St Benedict meant Biblical and theological works,
the lives of the saints and martyrs, and the lives and writings of
the fathers. Of the reformed Benedictine orders the Carthusians
and the Cistercians were those most devoted to literary pursuits.
The abbeys of Fleury, of Melk and of St Gall were remarkable
for the splendour of their libraries. In a later age the labours of
the congregation of St Maur form one of the most striking
chapters in the history of learning. The Augustinians and the
Dominicans rank next to the Benedictines in their care for
literature. The libraries of St Genevieve and St Victor, belong-
ing to the former, were amongst the largest of the monastic
collections. Although their poverty might seem to put them at
a disadvantage as collectors, the mendicant orders cultivated
literature with much assiduity, and were closely connected with
the intellectual movement to which the universities owed their
rise. In England Richard of Bury praises them for their extra-
ordinary diligence in collecting books. Sir Richard Whittington
built a large library for the Grey Friars in London, and they
possessed considerable libraries at Oxford.
It would be impossible to attempt here an account of all
the libraries established by the monastic orders. We must be
content to enumerate a few of the most eminent.
In Italy Monte Cassino is a striking example of the dangers
and vicissitudes to which monastic collections were exposed.
Ruined by the Lombards in the 6th century, the
libraries, monastery was rebuilt and a library established, to
fall a prey to Saracens and to fire in the gth. The
collection then reformed survived many other chances and
changes, and still exists. Boccaccio gives a melancholy de-
scription of its condition in his day. It affords a conspicuous
example of monastic industry in the transcription not only of
theological but also of classical works. The library of Bobbio,
which owed its existence to Irish monks, was famous for its
palimpsests. The collection, of which a catalogue of the loth
century is given by Muratori (Antiq. Hal. Med. Aev. iii. 817-824),
was mainly transferred to the Ambrosian library at Milan. Of
the library of Pomposia, near Ravenna, Montfaucon has printed
a catalogue dating from the nth century (Diarium Italicum,
chap. xxii.).
Of the monastic libraries of France the principal were those of
Fleury, of Cluny, of St Riquier and of Corbie. At Fleury
Abbot Macharius in 1146 imposed a contribution for library
purposes upon the officers of the community and its dependencies,
an example which was followed elsewhere. After many vicissi-
tudes, its MSS., numbering 238, were deposited in 1793 in the
town library of Orleans. The library of St Riquier in the time
of Louis the Pious contained 256 MSS., with over 500 works.
Of the collection at Corbie in Picardy we have also catalogues
dating from the I2th and from the i7th centuries. Corbie was
famous for the industry of its transcribers, and appears to have
stood in active literary intercourse with other monasteries. In
1638,400 of its choicest manuscripts were removed to St Germain-
des-Pres. The remainder were removed after 1794, partly to
the national library at Paris, partly to the town library of
Amiens.
The chief monastic libraries of Germany were at Fulda, Corvey,
Reichenau and Sponheim. The library at Fulda owed much to
Charlemagne and to its abbot Hrabanus Maurus. Under Abbot
Sturmius four hundred monks were hired as copyists. In 1561
the collection numbered 774 volumes. The library of Corvey
on the Weser, after being despoiled of some of its treasures in the
Reformation age, was presented to the university of Marburg in
1811. It then contained 109 vols., with 400 or 500 titles. The
library of Reichenau, of which several catalogues are extant,
fell a prey to fire and neglect, and its ruin was consummated by
the Thirty Years' War. The library of Sponheim owes its great
renown to John Tritheim, who was abbot at the close of the
iSth century. He found it reduced to 10 vols., and left it with
upwards of 2000 at his retirement. The library at St Gall,
formed as early as 816 by Gozbert, its second abbot, still exists.
In England the principal collections were those of Canter-
bury, York, Wearmouth, Jarrow, Whitby, Glastonbury, Croy-
land, Peterborough and Durham. Of the library of
the monastery of ChristChurch, Canterbury, originally
founded by Augustine and Theodore, and restored by Lanfranc
and Anselm, a catalogue has been preserved dating from the I3th
or 1 4th century, and containing 698 volumes, with about 3000
works. Bennet Biscop, the first abbot of Wearmouth, made five
journeys to Rome, and on each occasion returned with a store of
books for the library. It was destroyed by the Danes about
867. Of the library at Whitby there is a catalogue dating from
the 1 2th century. The catalogue of Glastonbury has been
printed by Hearne in his edition of John of Glastonbury. When
the library of Croyland perished byfire in 1091 it contained about
700 vols. The library at Peterborough was also rich; from a
catalogue of about the end of the i4th century it had 344 vols.,
with nearly 1700 titles. The catalogues of the library at the
monastery of Durham have been printed by the Surtees Society,
and form an interesting series. These catalogues with many
others1 afford abundant evidence of the limited character of
the monkish collections, whether we look at the number of their
volumes or at the nature of their contents. The scriptoria were
manufactories of books and not centres of learning. That in
spite of the labours of so many transcribers the costliness and
scarcity of books remained so great may have been partly, but
cannot have been wholly, due to the scarcity of writing materials.
It may be suspected that indolence and carelessness were the
rule in most monasteries, and that but few of the monks keenly
realized the whole force of the sentiment expressed by one of
their number in the i2th century — " Claustrum sine armario
quasi castrum sine armamentario." Nevertheless it must be
1 The oldest catalogue of a western library is that of the monastery
of Fontanelle in Normandy compiled in the 8th century. Many
catalogues may be found in the collections of D'Achery, Martene
and Durand, and Fez, in the bibliographical periodicals of Naumann
and Petzholdt and the Centralblatt f. Bibliothekswissenschaft. The
Rev. Joseph Hunter has collected some particulars as to the contents
of the English monastic libraries, and Ed. Edwards has printed a list
of the catalogues (Libraries and Founders of Libraries, 1865, pp.
,148-454). See also G. Becker, Catalogi Bibliothecarum Antiqui
(1885). There are said to be over six hundred such catalogues in the
Royal Library at Munich. In the I4th century the Franciscans
compiled a general catalogue of the MSS. in 160 English libraries and
about the year 1400 John Boston, a Benedictine monk of Bury,
travelled over England and a part of Scotland and examined the
libraries of 195 religious houses (Tanner, Bibliotheca Brit. Hibern.
1748). Leland's list of the books he found during his visitation of
the houses in 1539-1545 is printed in his Collectanea (ed. Hearne,
1715, 6 vols.). T. W. Williams has treated Gloucestershire and
Bristol medieval libraries and their catalogues in a paper in the
Bristol and Gloucestershire Arch. Soc. vol. xxxi.
550
LIBRARIES
[MEDIEVAL
admitted that to the labours of the monastic transcribers we are
indebted for the preservation of Latin literature.
The subject of the evolution of the arrangement of library
rooms and fittings as gradually developed throughout medieval
Europe should not be passed over.1 The real origin
ttcvcio - °^ library organization in the Christian world, one may
meat of almost say the origin of modern library methods,
library began with the rule of St Benedict early in the 6th
range- centurv jn the 48th chapter the monks were ordered
to borrow a book apiece and to read it straight through.
There was no special apartment for the books in the primitive
Benedictine house. After the books became too numerous to
be kept in the church they were preserved in armaria, or chests,
in the cloister; hence the word armarius, the Benedictine
librarian, who at first joined with it the office of precentor.
The Benedictine regulations were developed in the stricter obser-
vances of the Cluniacs, which provided for a kind of annual report
and stocktaking. The Carthusians were perhaps the first to lend
books away from the convent; and the Cistercians to possess a
separate library official as well as a room specially devoted to
books. The observances of the Augustinians contained rules for
the binding, repairing, cataloguing and arranging the books by
the librarian, as well as a prescription of the exact kind of chest
to be used. Among the Premonstratensians or Reformed
Augustinians, it was one of the duties of the librarian to provide
for the borrowing of books elsewhere for the use of the monks.
The Mendicant Friars found books so necessary that at last
Richard de Bury 'tells us with some exaggeration that their
libraries exceeded all others. Many volumes still exist which
belonged to the library at Assisi, the parent house of the Francis-
cans, of which a catalogue was drawn up in 1381. No authentic
monastic bookcase can now be found; the doubtful example
shown at Bayeux probably contained ecclesiastical utensils.
At the Augustinian priory at Barnwell the presses were lined
with wood to keep out the damp and were partitioned off both
vertically and horizontally. Sometimes there were recesses in
the walls of the cloisters fitted with shelves and closed with a
door. These recesses developed into a small windowless room
in the Cistercian houses. At Clairvaux, Kirkstall, Fountains,
Tintern, Netley and elsewhere this small chamber was placed
between the chapter-house and the transept of the church. At
Meaux in Holderness the books were lodged on shelves against
the walls and even over the door of such a chamber. In many
houses the treasury or spendiment contained two classes of books
— one for the monks generally, others more closely guarded. A
press near the infirmary contained books used by the reader in
the refectory. By the end of the isth century the larger
monasteries became possessed of many volumes and found
themselves obliged to store the books, hitherto placed in various
parts of the building, in a separate apartment. We now find
libraries being specially built at Canterbury, Durham, Citeaux,
Clairvaux and elsewhere, and with this specialization there grew
up increased liberality in the use of books and learned strangers
were admitted. Even at an early date students were permitted
to borrow from the Benedictines at St Germain-des-Pres at Paris,
of which a later foundation owned in 1513 a noble library
erected over the south wall of the cloister, and enlarged and made
very accessible to the outer world in the lyth and i8th centuries.
The methods and fittings of college libraries of early foundation
closely resembled those of the monastic libraries. There was
in both the annual giving out and inspection of what we would
now call the lending department for students; while the books,
fastened by chains — a kind of reference department kept in the
library chamber for the common use of the fellows — followed a
similar system in monastic institutions. By the isth century
collegiate and monastic libraries were on the same plan, with
the separate room containing books placed on their sides on
desks or lecterns, to which they were attached by chains to a
1 This subject has been specially treated by J. Willis Clark in
several works, of which the chief is a masterly volume, The Care of
Books (1901). See also Dom Gasquet, " On Medieval Monastic
Libraries," in his Old English Bible (1897).
horizontal bar. As the books increased the accommodation was
augmented by one or two shelves erected above the desks. The
library at Cesena in North Italy may still be seen in its original
condition. The Laurentian library at Florence was designed by
Michelangelo on the monastic model. Another good example
of the old form may be seen in the library of Merton College at
Oxford, a long narrow room with bookcases standing between
the windows at right angles to the walls. In the chaining
system one end was attached to the wooden cover of the book
while the other ran freely on a bar fixed by a method of double
locks to the front of the shelf or desk on which the book rested.
The fore edges of the volumes faced the reader. The seat and
shelf were sometimes combined. Low cases were subsequently
introduced between the higher cases, and the seat replaced by a
step. Shelf lists were placed at the end of each case. There
were no chains in the library of the Escorial, erected in 1584,
which showed for the first time bookcases placed against the
walls. Although chains were no longer part of the appliances
in the newly erected libraries they continued to be used and
were ordered in bequests in England down to the early part of
the 1 8th century. Triple desks and revolving lecterns, raised
by a wooden screw, formed part of the library furniture. The
English cathedral libraries were fashioned after the same principle.
The old methods were fully reproduced in the fittings at West-
minster, erected at a late date. Here we may see books on shelves
against the walls as well as in cases at right angles to the walls;
the desk-like shelves for the chained volumes (no longer in
existence) have a slot in which the chains could be suspended,
and are hinged to allow access to shelves below. An ornamental
wooden tablet at the end of each case is a survival of the old
shelf list. By the end of the I7th century the type of the public
library developed from collegiate and monastic prototypes,
became fixed as it were throughout Europe (H. R. Tedder,
" Evolution of the Public Library," in Trans, of 2nd Int. Library
Conference, 1897, 1898).
The first conquests of the Arabians, as we have already seen,
threatened hostility to literature. But, as soon as their con-
quests were secured, the caliphs became the patrons
of learning and science. Greek manuscripts were
eagerly sought for and translated into Arabic, and colleges
and libraries everywhere arose. Baghdad in the east and Cor-
dova in the west became the seats of a rich development of
letters and science during the age when the civilization of Europe
was most obscured. Cairo and Tripoli were also distinguished
for their libraries. The royal library of the Fatimites in Africa
is said to have numbered 100,000 manuscripts, while that col-
lected by the Omayyads of Spain is reported to have contained
six times as many. It is said that there were no less than seventy
libraries opened in the cities of Andalusia. Whether these
figures be exaggerated or not — and they are much below those
given by some Arabian writers, which are undoubtedly so — it is
certain that the libraries of the Arabians and the Moors of Spain
offer a very remarkable contrast to those of the Christian nations
during the same period.2
The literary and scientific activity of the Arabians appears
to have been the cause of a revival of letters amongst the Greeks
of the Byzantine empire in the 9th century. Under
Leo the Philosopher and Constantine Porphyrogenitus
the libraries of Constantinople awoke into renewed life.
The compilations of such writers as Stobaeus, Photius and
Suidas, as well as the labours of innumerable critics and com-
mentators, bear witness to the activity, if not to the lofty
character of the pursuits, of the Byzantine scholars. The
labours of transcription were industriously pursued in the
libraries and in the monasteries of Mount Athos and the Aegean,
and it was from these quarters that the restorers of learning
brought into Italy so many Greek manuscripts. In this way
many of the treasures of ancient literature had been already
2 Among the Arabs, however, as among the Christians, theological
bigotry did not always approve of non-theological literature, and the
great library of Cordova was sacrificed by Almanzor to his reputation
for orthodoxy, 978 A.D.
Arabians.
Renais-
sance.
MODERN]
LIBRARIES
551
conveyed to the West before the fate which overtook the libraries
of Constantinople on the fall of the city in 1453.
Meanwhile in the West, with the reviving interest in literature
which already marks the i4th century, we find arising outside
the monasteries a taste for collecting books. St Louis of France
and his successors had formed small collections, none of which
survived its possessor. It was reserved for Charles V. to form
a considerable library which he intended to be permanent.
In 1373 he had amassed 910 volumes, and had a catalogue of them
prepared, from which we see that it included a good deal of the
new sort of literature. In England Guy, earl of Warwick,
formed a curious collection of French romances, which he
bequeathed to Bordesley Abbey on his death in 1315. Richard
d'Aungervyle of Bury, the author of the Philobiblon, amassed a
noble collectiop of books, and had special opportunities of
doing so as Edward III.'s chancellor and ambassador. He
founded Durham College at Oxford, and equipped it with a
library a hundred years before Humphrey, duke of Gloucester,
made his benefaction of books to the university. The taste for
secular literature, and the enthusiasm for the ancient classics,
gave a fresh direction to the researches of collectors. A dis-
position to encourage literature began to show itself amongst the
great. This was most notable amongst the Italian princes.
Cosimo de' Medici formed a library at Venice while living there
in exile in 1433, and on his return to Florence laid the foundation
of the great Medicean library. The honour of establishing the
first modern public library in Italy had been already secured by
Niccolo Niccoli, who left his library of over 800 volumes for the use
of the public on his death in 1436. Frederick, duke of Urbino,
collected all the writings in Greek and Latin which he could
procure, and we have an interesting account of his collection
written by his first librarian, Vespasiano. The ardour for
classical studies led to those active researches for the Latin
writers who were buried in the monastic libraries which are
especially identified with the name of Poggio. For some time
before the fall of Constantinople, the perilous state of the
Eastern empire had driven many Greek scholars from that capital
into western Europe, where they had directed the studies and
formed the taste of the zealous students of the Greek language
and literature. The enthusiasm of the Italian princes extended
itself beyond the Alps. Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary,
amassed a collection of splendidly executed and magnificently
bound manuscripts, which at his death are said to have reached
the almost incredible number of 50,000 vols. The library was
not destined long to survive its founder. There is reason to
believe that it had been very seriously despoiled even before it
perished at the hands of the Turks on the fall of Buda in 1527.
A few of its treasures are still preserved in some of the libraries
of Europe. While these munificent patrons of learning were
thus taking pains to recover and multiply the treasures of
ancient literature by the patient labour of transcribers and
calligraphers, an art was being elaborated which was destined
to revolutionize the whole condition of literature and libraries.
With the invention of printing, so happily coinciding with the
revival of true learning and sound science, the modern history
of libraries may be said to begin.
MODERN LIBRARIES
In most of the European countries and in the United States
libraries of all kinds have during the last twenty years been
undergoing a process of development and improvement which
has greatly altered their policy and methods. At one time
libraries were regarded almost entirely as repositories for the
storage of books to be used by the learned alone, but now they
are coming to be regarded more and more as workshops or as
places for intellectual recreation adapted for every depart-
ment of life. This is particularly to be found as the ideal in
the public libraries of the Anglo-Saxon races throughout the
world.
The following details comprise the chief points in the history,
equipment and methods of the various libraries and systems
noticed.
The United Kingdom.
State Libraries. — The British Museum ranks in importance
before all the great libraries of the world, and excels in the
arrangement and accessibility of its contents. The
library consists of over 2,000,000 printed volumes
and 56,000 manuscripts, but this large total does
not include pamphlets and other small publications which are
usually counted in other libraries. Adding these together it is
probable that over 5,000,000 items are comprised in the collec-
tions. This extraordinary opulence is principally due to the
enlightened energy of Sir Anthony Panizzi (q.v.). The number
of volumes in the printed book department, when he took the
keepership in 1837, was only 240,000; and during the nineteen
years he held that office about 400,000 were added, mostly by
purchase, under his advice and direction. It was Panizzi like-
wise who first seriously set to work to see that the national
library reaped all the benefits bestowed upon it by the Copyright
Act.
The foundation of the British Museum dates from 1753, when
effect was given to the bequest (in exchange for £20,000 to be
paid to his executors) by Sir Hans Sloane, of his books, manu-
scripts, curiosities, &c., to be held by trustees for the use of the
nation. A bill was passed through parliament for the purchase
of the Sloane collections and of the Harleian MSS., costing
£10,000. To these, with the Cottonian MSS., acquired by the
country in 1700, was added by George II., in 1757, the royal
library of the former kings of England, coupled with the privilege,
which that library had for many years enjoyed, of obtaining
a copy of every publication entered at Stationers' Hall. This
addition was of the highest importance, as it enriched the
museum with the old collections of Archbishop Cranmer, Henry
prince of Wales, and other patrons of literature, while the transfer
of the privilege with regard to the acquisition of new books, a
right which has been maintained by successive Copyright Acts,
secured a large and continuous augmentation. A lottery having
been authorized to defray the expenses of purchases, as well as
for providing suitable accommodation, the museum and library
were established in Montague House, and opened to the public
15th January 1759. In 1763 George III. presented the well-
known Thomason collection (in 2220 volumes) of books and
pamphlets issued in England between 1640 and 1662, embracing
all the controversial literature which appeared during that period.
The Rev. C. M. Cracherode, one of the trustees, bequeathed his
collection of choice books in 1799; and in 1820 Sir Joseph Banks
left to the nation his important library of 16,000 vols. Many
other libraries have since then been incorporated in the museum,
the most valuable being George III.'s royal collection (15,000
vols. of tracts, and 65,259 vols. of printed books, including
many of the utmost rarity, which had cost the king about
£130,000), which was presented (for a pecuniary consideration,
it has been said) by George IV. in 1823, and that of the Right
Honourable Thomas Grenville (20,240 vols. of rare books, all in
fine condition and binding), which was acquired under bequest
in 1846. The Cracherode, Banksian, King's and Grenville
libraries are still preserved as separate collections. Other
libraries of minor note have also been absorbed in a similar way,
while, at least since the time of Panizzi, no opportunity has been
neglected of making useful purchases at ail the British and
Continental book auctions.
The collection of English books is far from approaching
completeness, but, apart from the enormous number of volumes,
the library contains an extraordinary quantity of rarities. Few
libraries in the United States equal either in number or value the
American books in the museum. The collection of Slavonic
literature, due to the initiative of Thomas Watts, is also a re-
markable feature. Indeed, in cosmopolitan interest the museum
is without a rival in the world, possessing as it does the best
library in any European language out of the territory in which
the language is vernacular. The Hebrew, the Chinese, and
printed books in other Oriental languages are important and
represented in large numbers. Periodical literature has not been
552
LIBRARIES
[MODERN
forgotten, and the series of newspapers is of great extent and
interest. Great pains are taken by the authorities to obtain
the copies of the newspapers published in the United Kingdom
to which they are entitled by the provisions of the Copyright
Act, and upwards of 3400 are annually collected, filed and
bound.
The department of MSS. is almost equal in importance to that
of the printed books. The collection of MSS. in European
languages ranges from the 3rd century before Christ down to our
own times, and includes the Codex Alexandrinus of the Bible.
The old historical chronicles of England, the charters of the
Anglo-Saxon kings, and the celebrated series of Arthurian
romances are well represented; and care has been taken to
acquire on every available opportunity the unprinted works of
English writers. The famous collections of MSS. made by Sir
Robert Cotton and Robert Harley, earl of Oxford, have already
been mentioned, and from these and other sources the museum
has become rich in early Anglo-Saxon and Latin codices, some of
them being marvels of skill in calligraphy and ornamentation,
such as the charters of King Edgar and Henry I. to Hyde Abbey,
which are written in gold letters; or the Lindisfarne gospels
(A.D. 700) containing the earliest extant Anglo-Saxon version
of the Latin gospels. The Burney collection of classical MSS.
furnished important additions, so that from this source and
from the collection of Arundel MSS. (transferred from the Royal
Society in 1831), the museum can boast of an early copy of the
Iliad, and one of the earliest known codices of the Odyssey.
Among the unrivalled collection of Greek papyri are the unique
MSS. of several works of ancient literature. Irish, French and
Italian MSS. are well represented. Special reference may be
made to the celebrated Bedford Hours, illuminated for the duke
of Bedford, regent of France, to the Sforza Book of Hours
and to Queen Mary's Psalter. The Oriental collection is also
extremely valuable, including the library formed by Mr Rich
(consul at Baghdad in the early part of the ipth century), and a
vast quantity of Arabic, Persian and Turkish MSS. ; the Chambers
collection of Sanskrit MSS.; several other collections of Indian
MSS. ; and a copious library of Hebrew MSS. (including that of
the great scholar Michaelis, and codices of great age, recently
brought from Yemen). The collection of Syriac MSS., embrac-
ing the relics of the famous library of the convent of St Mary
Deipara in the Nitrian desert, formed by the abbot Moses of
Nisibis, in the loth century, is. the most important in existence;
of the large store of Abyssinian volumes many were amassed
after the campaign against King Theodore. The number of
genealogical rolls and documents relating to the local and family
history of Great Britain is very large. Altogether there are
now more than 56,000 MSS. (of which over 9000 are Oriental),
besides more than 75,000 charters and rolls. There is a very
large and valuable collection of printed and manuscript
music of all kinds, and it is probable that of separate pieces
there are nearly 200,000. The catalogue of music is partly
in manuscript and partly printed, and a separate printed
catalogue of the MS. music has been published. The number
of maps is also very large, and a printed catalogue has been
issued.
The general catalogue of the printed books was at one time kept
in MS. in large volumes, but since 1880 the entries have gradu-
ally been superseded by the printed titles forming part of the large
alphabetical catalogue which was completed in 1900. This im-
portant work is arranged in the order of authors' names, with
occasional special entries at words like Bible, periodicals and bio-
graphical names. It is being constantly supplemented and forms an
invaluable bibliographical work of reference.
The other printed catalogues of books commence with one published
in 2 vols. folio (1787), followed by that of 1813-1819 in 7 vols. 8vo;
the next is that of the library of George III. (1820-1829, 5 vo's- folio,
with 2 vols. 8vo, 1834), describing the geographical and topographical
collections; and then the Bibliotheca Grenvilliana (1842-1872, 4 vols.
8vo). The first vol. (letter A) of a general catalogue appeared in 1841
in a folio volume which has never been added to. The octavo
catalogue of the Hebrew books came out in -1867; that of the
Sanskrit and Pali literature is in 4to (1876); and the Chinese cata-
logue is also in 4^0 (1877). There is a printed list of the books of
reference (1910) in the reading-room.
The printed catalogues of the MSS. are — that of the old Royal
Library (1734, 4_to), which in 1910 was shortly to be superseded by
a new one; the Sloane and others hitherto undescribed (1782, 2 vols.
4to); the Cottonian (1802, folio); the Harleian (1808, 4 vols. folio);
the Hargrave (1818, 410); the Lansdowne (1819, folio); the Arundel
(1840, folio); the Burney (1840, folio); the Stowe (1895-1896, 410);
the Additional, in periodical volumes since 1836; the Greek Papyri
(1893-1910); the Oriental (Arabic and Ethiopic), 5 pts., folio (1838-
1871); the Syriac (1870-1873, 3 pts., 4to); the Ethiopic (1877, 4to) ;
the Persian (1879-1896, 4 vols. 410); and the Spanish (1875-1893,
4 vols. 8vo); Turkish (1888); Hebrew and Samaritan (1900-1909,
3 vols.); Sanskrit (1903); Hindi, &c. (1899); Sinhalese (1900).
There are also catalogues of the Greek and Egyptian papyri (1839-
1846, 5 pts., folio). Many other special catalogues have been issued,
including one of the Thomason Collection of Civil War pamphlets,
Incunabula (vol. i.), Romances (MSS.), Music, Seals and Arabic,
Hebrew and other Oriental books, maps, prints and drawings.
Perhaps the most useful catalogue of all is the Subject-index to Modern
Works issued in 1881-1905 (4 vols.) and compiled by Mr G. K.
Fortescue.
The Rules for compiling catalogues in the department of printed books
were revised and published in 1906.
The building in which the library is housed forms part of the
fine group situated in Great Russell Street in central London,
and is distinguished by a stately circular reading-room designed
by Sydney Smirke from suggestions and sketches supplied by Sir
A. Panizzi. This was begun in 1855 and opened in 1857. The
room is surrounded by book stores placed in galleries with iron
floors, in which, owing to congestion of stock, various devices
have been introduced, particularly a hanging and rolling form
of auxiliary bookcase. The presses inside the reading-room,
arranged in three tiers, contain upwards of 60,000 vols., those
on the ground floor (20,000) being books of reference to which
readers have unlimited access. The accommodation for readers
is comfortable and roomy, each person having a portion of
table fitted with various conveniences. Perhaps not the least
convenient arrangement here is the presence of the staff in
the centre of the room, at the service of readers who require
aid.
In order to enjoy the privilege of reading at the British Museum,
the applicant (who must be over twenty-one years of age) must
obtain a renewable ticket of admission through a recommendation
from a householder addressed to the principal librarian.
The pressure upon the space at the command of the library has
been so great that additional land at the rear and sides of the existing
buildings was purchased by the government for the further extension
of the Museum. One very important wing facing Torrington
Square was nearly completed in 1910. The Natural History Museum,
South Kensington, a department of the British Museum under
separate management, has a library of books on the natural sciences
numbering nearly 100,000 vols.
Next in importance to the British Museum, and superior to
it in accessibility, is the Library of the Patent Office in South-
ampton Buildings, London. This is a department of
the Board of Trade, and though primarily intended
for office use and patentees, it is really a public library
freely open to anyone. The only formality required from
readers is a signature in a book kept in the entrance hall. After
this readers have complete access to the shelves. The library
contains considerably over 110,000 vols., and possesses complete
sets of the patents specifications of all countries, and a remark-
able collection of the technical and scientific periodicals of all
countries. The library was first opened in 1855, in somewhat
unsuitable premises, and in 1897 it was transferred to a handsome
new building.
The reading-room is provided with two galleries and the majority
of the books are open to public inspection without the need for
application forms. A printed catalogue in author-alphabetical form
has been published with supplement, and in addition, separate subject
catalogues are issued. This is one of the most complete libraries of
technology in existence, and its collection of scientific transactions
and periodicals is celebrated.
Another excellent special library is the National Art Library,
founded in 1841 and transferred to South Kensington in 1856.
It contains about half a million books, prints, drawings
and photographs, and is used mostly by the students stafj
attending the art schools, though the general public libraries.
can obtain admission on payment of sixpence per week.
A somewhat similar library on the science side is the
Patent
Office.
MODERN]
LIBRARIES
553
Science Library of the Victoria and Albert Museum, South
Kensington, which was founded in 1857. It is a general science
collection and incorporates most of the books which at one time
were in the Museum of Practical Geology.
The only other state library which is open to the public is
that of the Board of Education in Whitehall, which was opened
in a new building in 1908. It contains a large collection of
works on educational subjects for which a special classification
has been devised and printed.
The other state libraries in London may be briefly noted as
follows: Admiralty (1700), 40,000 vols. ; College of Arms, or
Heralds College, 15,000 vols.; Colonial Office, c. 15,000 vols.;
Foreign Office, c. 80,000 vols.; Home Office (1800) c. 10,000 vols.;
House of Commons (1818), c. 50,000 vols.; House of Lords (1834),
50,000 vols.; India Office (1800), c. 86,000 vols.; Kew, Royal
Botanic Gardens (1853), 22,000 vols.; and Royal Observatory
(Greenwich), c. 20,000 vols.
Outside London the most important state library is the National
Library of Ireland, Dublin, founded in 1877 and incorporating the
library of the Royal Dublin Society. It is housed in a handsome
building (1890) and contains about 200,000 vols., classified on the
Decimal system, and catalogued in various forms. The library of the
Museum of Science and Art at Edinburgh, containing over 20,000
vols., was opened to the public in 1890. Practically every department
of the state has a reference library of some kind for the use of the
staff, and provision is also made for lending libraries and reading-
rooms in connexion with garrisons, naval depots and other services
of the army and navy.
No professional qualifications are required for positions in
British state libraries, most of the assistants being merely
second-division clerks who have passed the Civil Service ex-
aminations. It would be an advantage from an administrative
point of view if the professional certificates of the Library
Association were adopted by the Civil Service Commissioners as
compulsory requirements in addition to their own examination.
The official recognition of a grade of properly trained librarians
would tend to improve the methods and efficiency of the state
libraries, which are generally behind the municipal libraries in
organization and administration.
University and Collegiate Libraries. — The Bodleian Library,
Oxford, though it had been preceded by various efforts towards
Oxford. a university library, owed its origin to Sir Thomas
Bodley (<?.».). Contributing largely himself, and pro-
curing contributions from others, he opened the library with
upwards of 2000 vols. in 1602. In 1610 he obtained a grant
from the Stationers' Company of a copy of every work printed
in the country, a privilege still enjoyed under the provisions of
the various copyright acts. The additions made to the library
soon surpassed the capacity of the room, and the founder pro-
ceeded to enlarge it. By his will he left considerable property
to the university for the maintenance and increase of the library.
The example set by Bodley found many noble imitators.
Amongst the chief benefactors have been Archbishop Laud,
the executors of Sir Kenelm Digby, John Selden, Sir Thomas
(Lord) Fairfax, Richard Gough, Francis Douce, Richard Raw-
linson, and the Rev. Robert Mason. The library now contains
almost 800,000 printed vols., and about 41,000 manuscripts.
But the number of volumes, as bound up, conveys a very in-
adequate idea of the size or value of the collection. In the
department of Oriental manuscripts it is perhaps superior to
any other European library; and it is exceedingly rich in other
manuscript treasures. It possesses a splendid series of Greek
and Latin editiones principes and of the earliest productions of
English presses. Its historical manuscripts contain most valu-
able materials for the general and literary history of the country.
The last general catalogue of the printed books was printed in
4 vols. folio (1843-1851). In 1859 it was decided to prepare a new
manuscript catalogue on the plan of that then in use at the British
Museum, and this has been completed in duplicate. In 1910 it was
being amended with a view to printing. It is an alphabetical
author-catalogue; and the Bodleian, like the British Museum, has
no complete subject-index. A slip-catalogue on subjects was, how-
ever, in course of preparation in 1910, and there are classified
hand-lists of accessions since 1883. There are also printed catalogues
of the books belonging to several of the separate collections. The
MSS. are in general catalogued according to the collections to which
they belong, and they are all indexed. A number of the catalogues
of manuscripts have been printed.
In 1860 the beautiful Oxford building known as the " Radcliffe
Library," now called the "Radcliffe Camera," was offered to
the curators of the Bodleian by the Radcliffe trustees. The
Radcliffe Library was founded by the famous physician Dr
John Radcliffe, who died in 1714, and bequeathed, besides a
permanent endowment of £350 a year, the sum of £40,000 for
a building. The library was opened in 1749. Many years ago
the trustees resolved to confine their purchases of books to
works on medicine and natural science. When the university
museum and laboratories were built in 1860, the trustees allowed
the books to be transferred to the museum. It is used as a
storehouse for the more modern books, and it also serves as a
reading-room. It is the only room open after the hour when
the older building is closed owing to the rule as to the exclusion
of artificial light. In 1889 the gallery of the Radcliffe Camera
was opened as an addition to the reading-room.
A Staff Kalendar has been issued since 1902, which with a Supple-
ment contains a complete list of cataloguing rules, routine work of the
libraries and staff, and useful information of many kinds concerning
the library methods.
The Bodleian Library is open by right to all graduate members
of the university, and to others upon producing a satisfactory
recommendation. No books are allowed to be sent out of the
library except by special leave of the curators and convocation
of the university. The administration and control of the library
are committed to a librarian and board of thirteen curators. The
permanent endowment is comparatively small; the ordinary
expenditure, chiefly defrayed from the university chest, is about
£10,000. Within recent years the use of wheeling metal
bookcases has been greatly extended, and a large repository
has been arranged for economical book storage under-
ground.
The Taylor Institution is due to the benefaction of Sir Robert
Taylor, an architect, who died in 1788, leaving his property to found
an establishment for the teaching of modern languages. The library
was established in 1848, and is devoted to the literature of the modern
European languages. It contains a fair collection of works on
European philology, with a special Dante collection, about 1000
Mazarinades and 400 Luther pamphlets. The Finch collection, left
to the university in 1830, is also kept with the Taylor Library.
Books are lent out to members of the university and to others on a
proper introduction. The endowment affords an income of £800 to
£1000 for library purposes.
The libraries of the several colleges vary considerably in extent and
character, although, owing chiefly to limited funds, the changes and
growth of all are insignificant. That of All Souls was established in
1443 by Archbishop Chichele, and enlarged in 1710 by the munificent
bequest of Christopher Codrington. It devotes special attention to
jurisprudence, of which it has a large collection. It possesses 40,000
printed volumes and 300 MSS., and fills a splendid hall 200 ft. long.
The library of Brasenose College has a special endowment fund, so
that it has, for a college library, the unusually large income of £200.
The library of Christ Church is rich in divinity and topography. It
embraces the valuable library bequeathed by Charles Boyle, 4th
earl of Orrery, amounting to 10,000 volumes, the books and MSS.
of Archbishop Wake, and the Morris collection of Oriental books.
The building was finished in 1761, and closely resembles the basilica
of Antoninus at Rome, now the Dogana. Corpus possesses a fine
collection of Aldines, many of them presented by its founder, Bishop
Fox, and a collection of 17th-century tracts catalogued by Mr
Edwards, with about 400 MSS. Exeter College Library has 25,000
volumes, with special collections of classical dissertations and English
theological and political tracts. The library of Jesus College has few
books of later date than the early part of the last century. Many of
them are from the bequest of Sir Leoline Jenkins, who built the
existing library. There are also some valuable Welsh MSS. The
library of Keble College consists largely of theology, including the
MSS. of many of Keble's works. The library of Magdalen College
has about 22,500 volumes (including many volumes of pamphlets)
and 250 MSS. It has scientific and topographical collections. The
library of Merton College has of late devoted itself to foreign modern
history. New College Library has about 17,000 printed volumes
and about 350 MSS., several of which were presented by its founder,
William of Wykeham. Oriel College Library, besides its other
possessions, has a special collection of books on comparative philology
and mythology, with a printed catalogue. The fine library of Queen's
College is strong in theology, in English and modern European
history, and in English county histories. St John's College Library
is largely composed of the literature of theology and jurisprudence
before 1750, and possesses a collection of medical books of the i6th
and 1 7th centuries. The newer half of the library building was
554
LIBRARIES
[MODERN
erected by Inigo Jones at the expense of Laud, who also gave many
printed and manuscript books. The room used as a library at
Trinity College formed part of Durham College, the library of which
was established by Richard of Bury. Wadham College Library
includes a collection of botanical books bequeathed by Richard
Warner in 1775 and a collection of books, relating chiefly to the
Spanish Reformers, presented by the executors of Benjamin Wiffen.
Worcester College Library has of late specially devoted itself to
rfasdral archaeology. It is also rich in old plays.
The college libraries as a rule have not been used to the extent they
deserve, and a good deal must be done before they can be said to be
as useful and efficient as they might be.
The history of the University Library at Cambridge dates
from the earlier part of the isth century. Two early lists of
its contents are preserved, the first embracing 52 vols.
'brij-f dating from about 1425, the second a shelf-list, ap-
parently of 330 vols., drawn up by the outgoing proctors
in 1473. Its first great benefactor was Thomas Scott of Rother-
ham, archbishop of York, who erected hi 1475 the building in
which the library continued until 1755. He also gave more than
200 books and manuscripts to the library, some of which still
remain. The library received other benefactions, but neverthe-
less appeared " but mean " to John Evelyn when he visited
Cambridge in 1634. In 1666 Tobias Rustat presented a sum of
money to be invested to buy the choicest and most useful books.
In 1715 George I. presented the library of Bishop Moore, which
was very rich in early English printed books, forming over
30.000 vols. of printed books and manuscripts. .The funds
bequeathed by William Worts and John Manistre, together with
that of Rustat. produce at present about £1500 a year. The
share of university dues appropriated to library purposes
amounts to £3000 a year. In addition the library is entitled to
new books under the Copyright Acts. The number of printed
volumes in the library cannot be exactly stated, as no recent
calculation on the subject «*Ti<ts. It has been estimated at half
a million. It includes a fine series of ediiioitts priitfipts of the
classics and of the early productions of the English press. The
MSS. number over 6000, in which are included a considerable
number of adversaria or printed books with MS. notes, which
form a leading feature in the collection. The most famous of
the MSS. is the celebrated copy of the four gospels and the Acts
of the Apostles, which is known as Codex Boat, and which was
presented to the university by that Reformer.
A catalogue of the MSS. has been published in 4 vols. (1856-1861),
and this has been followed up by the publication of a number of
separate catalogues of Persian, Syriac, Hebrew, Chinese. &c . MSS.
There is no published catalogue of the books, although the catalogue
is in print, the accessions bang printed and cut up and arranged in
volumes. A catalogue of English books before 1640 is in course of
publication. The regulations of the library with regard to the
lending of books are very liberal, as many as ten volumes being
allowed out to one borrower at the same time. The annual income
is about £7000.
There is a library attached to the Fitzwflliam Museum, be-
queathed to the university in 1816. It consists of the entire
library of Lord Fitzwflliam, with the addition of an archaeological
library bought from the executors of Colonel Leake, and a small
number of works, chiefly on the history of an, since added by
purchase or bequest. It contains a collection of engravings of
old masters, a collection of musk, printed and MS., and a
collection of illuminated MSS., chiefly French and Flemish, of
the i4th to i6th centuries. The books are not allowed to be
taken out. Catalogues and reprints of some of the music and
other collections have been published.
The Kbrary of Trinity College, which is contained in a magnificent
hall built by Sir Christopher Wren, has about 90.000 printed and
1918 MS vols.. and is especially strong in theology, classics and
bibliography. It owes to numerous gifts and bequests the possession
of a great number of rare books and manuscripts. Amongst these
special collections are the Capell collection of early dramatic and
especially Shakespearian literature, the collection of German theology
and •philosophy bequeathed by Archdeacon Hare, and the Grylls
is that of Trinity Hall, in which the original bookcases and benches
are preserved, and many books are seen chained to the cases, as used
formerly to be the practice.
None of the other college libraries rivals Trinity in the number of
books. The library of Christ's College received its first books from
the foundress. Clare College Library includes a number of Italian
and Spanish plays of the end of the 1 6th century left by George
Ruggte. The library of Corpus Christi College first became notable
through the bequest of books and MSS. made by Archbishop Parker
in 1575. The printed books are less than 5000 in number, and the
additions now made are chiefly in such branches as throw light on
the extremely valuable collection of ancient MSS., which attracts
scholars from all parts of Europe. There is a printed catalogue of
these MSS. Gonville and Caius College Library is of early foundation.
A catalogue of the MSS. was printed in 1849, with pictorial illustra-
tions, and a list of the incunabula in 1850. The printed books of
King's College includes the fine collection bequeathed by Jacob
Bryant, in 1804. The MSS. are almost wholly Oriental, chiefly
Persian and Arabic, and a catalogue of them has been printed.
Magdalene College possesses the curious library formed by Pepys
and bequeathed by him to the college, together with his collections
of prints and drawings and of rare British portraits. It is remarkable
for its treasures of popular literature and English ballads, as well as
for the Scottish manuscript poetry collected by Sir Richard Mait land.
The books are kept in Pepys's own cases, and remain just as he
arranged them himself. The library of Peterhouse is the oldest
library in Cambridge, and possesses a catalogue of some 600 or 700
books dating from 141 8, in which year it was completed. It is chiefly
theological, though it possesses a valuable collection of modern works
on geology and natural science, and a unique collection of MS. music.
Queen's College Library contains about 30,000 vols. mainly in
theology-, classics and Semitic literature, and has a printed class-
catalogue. The library of St John's College is rich in early printed
books, and possesses a large collection of English historical tracts.
Of the MSS. and rare books there is a printed catalogue.
The library of the university of London, founded in 1837,
has over 60,000 vols. and includes the Goldsmith Library of
economic literature, numbering 30,000 vols. Other
collections are De Morgan's collection of mathematical
books, Grate's Hassiral library, &c. There is a printed catalogue
of 1897, with supplements. Since its removal to South Kensing-
ton, this library has been greatly improved and extended.
University College Library. Gower Street, established in 1829,
has close upon 120.000 vols. made up chiefly of separate collec-
tions which have been acquired from time to time. Many of
these collections overlap, and much duplicating results, leading
to congestion. These collections include Jeremy Bentham's
library, Morrison's Chinese library, Barlow's Dante library,
collections of law. mathematical, Icelandic, theological, art,
oriental and other books, some of them of great value.
King's College Library, founded in 1828, has over 30.000 vols,
chiefly of a scientific character. In dose association with the
university of London is the London School of Economics and
Political Science in Clare Market, in which is housed the British
Library of Political Science with 50,000 vols. and a large number
of official reports and pamphlets.
The collegiate library at Dulwich dates from 1619, and a
list of its earliest accessions, in the handwriting of the founder,
may still be seen. There are now about 17,000 vols. of mis-
cellaneous works of the I7th and i8th centuries, with a few
rare books. A catalogue of them was printed in 1880; and one
describing the MSS. (567) and the muniments (606) was issued
during the succeeding year. The last two classes are very im-
portant.- and include the well-known " Alleyn Papers " and the
theatrical diary of Philip Henslow. Sion College is a gild of the
parochial clergy of the city and suburbs of London, and the
library was founded in 1629 for their use; laymen may also
read (but not borrow) the books when recommended by some
beneficed metropolitan clergyman. The library is especially
rich in liturgies, Port-Royal authors, pamphlets, &c., and contains
about 100.000 vols. classified on a modification of the Decimal
system. The copyright privilege was commuted in 1835 for an
annual sum of £363, 1 55. ad. The present building was opened
in 1886 and is one of the **rfHng buildings of the Victoria
Embankment.
Most of the London couegjate or teaching institutions have
libraries attached to them, and it wul only be necessary to mention a
few of the more important to get an idea of their variety: Baptist
College (1810). 13.000 vols.; Bedford College (for women), 17,000
MODERN]
LIBRARIES
555
Scotland.
\
vols. ; Birkbeck College (1823), 12,000 vols. ; Congregational
Library (1832-1893), 14,000 vols.; the Royal College of Music, con-
taining the library of trie defunct Sacred Harmonic Society; Royal
Naval College (Greenwich, 1873), 7000 vols.; St Bartholomew's
Hospital (1422), 15,000 vols.; St Paul's School (1509), 10,000 vols.;
the Working Men's College (1854), 5000 vols.; and all the Poly-
technic schools in the Metropolitan area.
The university library of Durham (1832) contains about 35,000
vols., and all the modern English universities — Birmingham,
Mason University College (1880), 27,000 vols.; Leeds,
Liverpool (1882), 56,000 vols.; Manchester, Victoria
University, which absorbed Owens College (1851),
115,000 vols.; Newcastle-upon-Tyne ; Sheffield (1907), &c.
— have collections of books. The libraries in connexion with
theological colleges and public schools throughout England are
often quite extensive, and reference may be made to Eton
College (1441), 25,000 vols.; Haileybury (1862), 12,000 vols.;
Harrow (Vaughan Library), 12,000 vols.; Mill Hill; Oscott
College, Erdington (1838), 36,000 vols.; Rugby (1878), 8000
vols.; Stonyhurst College (1794), c. 40,000 vols., &c. The new
building for the university of Wales at Bangor has ample
accommodation for an adequate library, and the University
College at Aberystwith is also equipped with a library.
The origin of the University Library of Edinburgh is to be
found in a bequest of his books of theology and law made to
the town in 1580 by Clement Little, advocate. This
was two years before the foundation of the university,
and in 1 584 the town council caused the collection to be removed
to the college, of which they were the patrons. As it was the
only library in the town, it continued to grow and received many
benefactions, so that in 1615 it became necessary to erect a
library building. Stimulated perhaps by the example of Bodley
at Oxford, Drummond of Hawthornden made a large donation
of books, of which he printed a catalogue in 1627, and circulated
an appeal for assistance from others. In 1678 the library
received a bequest of 2000 vols. from the Rev. James Nairne.
In 1709 the library became entitled to the copy privilege, which
has since been commuted for a payment of £575 per annum.
In 1831 the books were removed to the present library buildings,
for which a parliamentary grant had been obtained. The main
library hall (190 ft. in length) is one of the most splendid apart-
ments in Scotland. One of the rooms is set apart as a memorial
to General Reid, by whose benefaction the library has greatly
benefited. Amongst the more recent accessions have been the
Halliwell-Phillips Shakespeare collection, the Laing collection of
Scottish MSS., the Baillie collection of Oriental MSS. (some of
which are of great value), and the Hodgson collection of works
on political economy. The library now consists of about 210,000
vols. of printed books with over 2000 MSS. Recently it has been
found necessary to make considerable additions to the shelving.
The library of the university of Glasgow dates from the isth
century, and numbers George Buchanan and many other
distinguished men amongst its early benefactors. A classified
subject-catalogue has been printed, and there is also a printed
dictionary catalogue. The annual accessions are about 1500,
and the commutation-grant £707. Connected with the uni-
versity, which is trustee for the public, is the library of the
Hunterian Museum, formed by the eminent anatomist Dr
William Hunter. It is a collection of great bibliographical
interest, as it is rich in MSS. .and in fine specimens of early
printing, especially in Greek and Latin classics. There are about
200,000 vols. in the library.
The first mention of a library at St Andrews is as early as 1456.
The three colleges were provided with libraries of their own about the
time of their foundation— St Salvator's 1455, St Leonard's 1512, St
Mary's 1537. The University Library was established about 1610
by King James VI., and in the course of the i8th century the college
jibraries were merged in it. The copyright privilege was commuted
in 1 837. The collection numbers 1 20,000 vols. exclusive of pamphlets,
with about 200 MSS., chiefly of local interest. A library is supposed
to have existed at Aberdeen since the foundation of King's College
by Bishop Elphinstone in 1494. The present collection combines the
libraries of King's College and Marischal College, now incorporated in
the university. The latter had its origin in a collection of books
formed by the town authorities at the time of the Reformation, and
for some time kept in one of the churches. The library has benefited
by the Melvin bequest, chiefly of classical books, and those of Hender-
son and Wilson, and contains some very valuable books. The general
library is located in Old Aberdeen in a room of imposing design,
while the medical and law books are in the New Town in Marischal
College. The library has a grant, in lieu of the copyright privilege,
of £320. The annual income of the library is £2500, and it contains
over 180,000 vols. The books are classified on a modification of the
decimal system, and there are printed author and MS. subject-cata-
logues. By arrangement with the municipal library authority, books
are lent to non-students. All the technical schools, public schools,
and theological and other colleges in Scotland are well equipped with
libraries as the following list will show: — Aberdeen: Free Church
College, 17,000 vols. Edinburgh: Fettes College, c. 5000 vols.;
Heriot's Hospital (1762), c. 5000 vols.; New College (1843), 50,000
vols. Glasgow: Anderson's College (containing the valuable Euing
music library), 16,000 vols.; United Free Church Theological
College, 33,000 vols. Trinity College, Glenalmond, 5000 vols.
The establishment of the library of Trinity College, Dublin,
is contemporaneous with that of the Bodleian at Oxford, and it
is an interesting circumstance that, when Challoner
and Ussher (afterwards the archbishop) were in
London purchasing books to form the library, they met Bodley
there, and entered into friendly intercourse and co-operation with
him to procure the choicest and best books. The commission
was given to Ussher and Challoner as trustees of the singular
donation which laid the foundation of the library. In the year
1601 the English army determined to commemorate their victory
over the Spanish troops at Kinsale by some permanent monu-
ment. Accordingly they subscribed the sum of £1800 to establish
a library in the university of Dublin. For Ussher's own collection,
consisting of 10,000 vols. and many valuable MSS., the college
was also indebted to military generosity. On his death in 1655
the officers and soldiers of the English army then in Ireland
purchased the whole collection for £22,000 with the design of
presenting it to the college. Cromwell, however, interfered,
alleging that he proposed to found a new college, where the
books might more conveniently be preserved. They were
deposited therefore in Dublin Castle, and the college only
obtained them after the Restoration. In 1674 Sir Jerome
Alexander left his law books with some valuable MSS. to the
college. In 1726 Dr Palliser, archbishop of Cashel, bequeathed
over 4000 vols. to the library; and ten years later Dr Gilbert
gave the library nearly 13,000 vols. which he had himself col-
lected and arranged. In 1745 the library received a valuable
collection of MSS. as a bequest from Dr Stearne. In 1802 the
collection formed by the pensionary Fagel, which had been
removed to England on the French invasion of Holland, was
acquired for £10,000. It consisted of over 20,000 vols. In
1805 Mr Quin bequeathed a choice collection of classical and
Italian books. There have been many other smaller donations,
in addition to which the library is continually increased by the
books received under the Copyright Act. The library now
contains 300,000 vols. and over 2000 MSS. There is no per-
manent endowment, and purchases are made by grants from the
board. The whole collections are contained in one building,
erected in 1732, consisting of eight rooms. The great library
hall is a magnificent apartment over 200 ft. long. A new reading-
room was opened in 1848. A catalogue of the books acquired
before 1872 has been printed (1887). There is a printed catalogue
of the MSS. and Incunabula (1890). Graduates of Dublin,
Oxford, and Cambridge are admitted to read permanently, and
temporary admission is granted by the board to any fit person
who makes application.
The library of Queen's College, Belfast (1849), contains about
60,000 vols., while Queen's College, Cork (1849), has over 32,000 vols.
St Patrick's College, Maynooth (1795), has about 60,000, and other
collegiate libraries are well supplied with books.
With one or two exceptions, libraries are attached to the
cathedrals of England and Wales. Though they are of course
intended for the use of the cathedral or diocesan cathedral
clergy, they are in most cases open to any respectable and
person who may be properly introduced. They seldom church
contain very much modern literature, chiefly consisting
of older theology, with more or less addition of
libraries.
classical
and historical literature. They vary in extent from a few
volumes, as at Llandaff or St David's, to 20,000 vols., as at
556
LIBRARIES
[MODERN
Durham. Together they possess nearly 150,000 printed and
manuscript vols. As a rule, very little is spent upon them, and
they are very little used. The chamber in the old cloisters, in
which the library of the dean and chapter of Westminster is
preserved, is well known from the charming description by
Washington Irving in his Sketch Book. There are about 14,000
vols., mostly of old theology and history, including many rare
Bibles and other valuable books. The library of the dean and
chapter of St Paul's Cathedral was founded in very early times,
and now numbers some 22,000 vols. and pamphlets, mainly
theological, with a good collection of early Bibles and Testa-
ments, Paul's Cross Sermons, and works connected with the
cathedral.
Perhaps the best library of Catholic theology in London is
that of the Oratory at South Kensington, established in 1849,
and now containing nearly 35,000 vols. The Catholic Cathedral
of Westminster, of recent foundation, contains about 22,000 vols.
The archiepiscopal library at Lambeth was founded in 1610
by Archbishop Bancroft, and has been enriched by the gifts of
Laud, Tenison, Manners Sutton, and others of his successors;
it is now lodged in the noble hall built by Juxon. The treasures
consist of the illuminated MSS., and a rich store of early printed
books; of the latter two catalogues have been issued by Samuel
Roffey Maitland (1792-1866). The MSS. are described in H. J.
Todd's catalogue, 1812. The total number of printed books
and manuscripts is nearly 45,000.
The library of Christ Church, Oxford, belongs alike to the college
and the cathedral, but will be more properly described as a college
library. The cathedral library of Durham dates from monastic times,
and possesses many of the books which belonged to the monastery.
These were added to by Dean Sudbury, the second founder of the
library, and Bishop Cosin. The collection has been considerably
increased in more modern times, and now contains 15,000 vols. It is
especially rich in MSS., some of which are of great beauty and value ;
a catalogue of them was printed in 1825. The library has good
topographical and entomological collections. The chapter spend
£370 per annum in salaries and in books. The library at York
numbers about 1 1,000 vols., and has been very'liberally thrown open
to the public. It is kept in the former chapel of the archbishop's
palace, and has many valuable MSS. and early printed books. The
foundation of the library at Canterbury dates probably from the
Roman mission to England, A.D. 596, although the library does not
retain any of the books then brought over, or even of the books said
to have been sent by Pope Gregory to the first archbishop in 601.
It is recorded that among Lanfranc's buildings was a new library, and
Becket is said to have collected books abroad to present to the
library. The collection now numbers about 9900 printed books, with
about no MS. vols., and between 6000 and 7000 documents. A
catalogue was printed in 1802. The present building was erected in
1867 on part of the site of the monastic dormitory. The library at
Lincoln contains 7400 vols., of which a catalogue was printed in 1859.
It possesses a fine collection of political tracts of the age of Elizabeth,
James and Charles I. The present collection at Chichester dates
from the Restoration only; that at Ely is rich in books and tracts
relating to the non-jurors. The library at Exeter possesses many
Saxon MSS. of extreme interest, one of them being the gift of Leofric,
the first bishop. The treasures of Lichfield were destroyed by the
Puritans during the civil war, and the existing library is of later
formation. Frances, duchess of Somerset, bequeathed to it nearly
looo vols., including the famous Evangeliary of St Chad. The
collection at Norwich is chiefly modern, and was_ presented by Dr
Sayers. The earlier library at Peterborough having almost wholly
perished in the civil war, Bishop White Kennett became the virtual
founder of the present collection. Salisbury is rich in incunabula,
and a catalogue has recently been printed. Winchester Cathedral
Library is mainly the bequest of Bishop Morley in the I7th century.
The library at Bristol, then numbering 6000. or 7000 vols., was burnt
and pillaged by the mob in the riots of 1831. Only about 1000
vols. were saved, many of which were recovered, but few additions
have been made to them. .At Chester in 1691 Dean Arderne be-
queathed his books and part of his estate " as the beginning of a
public library for the clergy and city." The library of Hereford is a
good specimen of an old monastic library; the books are placed in
the Lady Chapel, and about 230 choice MSS. are chained to oaken
desks. The books are ranged with the edges outwards upon open
shelves, to which they^ are attached by chains and bars. Another
most interesting " chained " library is that at Wimborne Minster,
Dorset, which contains about 280 books in their original condition.
The four Welsh cathedrals were supplied with libraries by a deed of
settlement in 1709. The largest of them, that of St Asaph, has about
1750 vols. The Bibliotheca Leightoniana, or Leightonian Library,
founded by Archbishop Leighton in 1684 in Dunblane Cathedral,
Scotland, contains about 2000 vols., and is the only cathedral library
in Scotland of any historic interest. The library of St Benedict's
Abbey, Fort Augustus (1878) with 20,000 vols. is an example of a
recent foundation. The public library in St Patrick's Cathedral,
Dublin, sometimes Called Marsh's Library after its founder, was
established about 1694 by Archbishop Marsh, was incorporated by
act of parliament in 1707, and endowed by its founder at his death in
1713. The building was erected by the founder, and the original
oak fittings still remain. There is no room for additions, and a large
collection of modern books was refused a few years ago on that ac-
count. The endowment is top small to allow of purchases from the
funds of the library, so that it still retains the character of a 17th-
century library. The books are chiefly theological, and in the
learned languages; they include the libraries of Bishop Stillingfleet
and of Elias Bouhereau, a French refugee, who was the first librarian.
Endowed libraries may be defined as those which have been
directly established by the bequests of individuals or corporate
bodies, excluding those which have been assisted by
donors or are merely named after them. As com- libraries
pared with the United States, the endowed libraries of
Britain are few in number, although several are of great import-
ance. London possesses very few libraries which have been
endowed by individual donors. The principal are the Bishops-
gate Institute (1891), which was founded out of sundry City of
London charities, and now contains about 44,000 vols., and is
celebrated for a fine collection of local prints, drawings and
maps. It is open free to persons in the east part of the City.
The Cripplegate Institute (1896) in Golden Lane, also founded
out of charity moneys, has three branches — St Bride's Foundation
Institute (18,000 vols.), jointly; Queen Street, Cheapside,
Branch (8000 voJs.); and St Luke's Institute (5000 vols.) — and
contains 28,000 vols. Lectures and other entertainments are
features of both these libraries. Dr Williams' library was
founded by the will of an eminent Presbyterian divine of that
name; it was opened in 1729. The books (50,000) are housed
in a new building in Gordon Square, completed in 1873. Theology
of all schools of opinion is represented, and there are special
collections of theosophical books and MSS., the works of Boehme,
Law, and other mystical writers. The MSS. include the original
minutes of the Westminster Assembly, letters and treatises of
Richard Baxter, &c. The St Bride Foundation Technical
Reference Library (1895) is a very complete collection of books
and specimens of printing and the allied arts, including the
libraries of William Blades and Talbot Baines Reed, and a
number of more modern books presented by Mr Passmore
Edwards. It contains about 18,000 vols., and is open to all
persons interested in printing, lithography, &c., and also to the
general public.
The most notable of the English provincial endowed libraries are
those established in Manchester. The fine old library established by
Humphrey Chetham in 1653 is still housed in the old collegiate
buildings where Sir Walter Raleigh was once entertained by Dr Dee.
The collection consists largely of older literature, and numbers about
60,000 volumes and MSS. It is freely open to the public, and may
be said to have been the first free library in England. Catalogues
in broad classified form were issued in 1791—1863, and there have
been supplements since. A remarkable instance of a great library
established by private munificence is that of the John Rylands
Library at Manchester, which was founded, erected and endowed by
Mrs E. A. Rylands in memory of her husband, and is contained in a
magnificent building designed by Basil Champneys and opened in
1899. The collection was formed largely on the famous Althorp
Library, made by Earl Spencer (40,000 vols.), one of the most re-
markable collections of early printed books and rare Bibles ever
brought together. The present number of volumes is about 1 15,000,
of which over 2500 are incunabula. A short-title catalogue, 3 vols.
4to., and one of English books, have been published, and a manu-
script dictionary catalogue has been provided. Several valuable
special catalogues and descriptive lists have been issued, one of the
latest being a special catalogue of the architectural works contained
in all the Manchester libraries.
The William Salt Library, a special Staffordshire library with
numerous MSS. and other collections, formed to bring together
materials for a history of Staffordshire, was opened to the public in
1874 in tne. town °f Stafford. It contains nearly 20,000 books, prints
and other items.
Other endowed libraries in the English provinces which deserve
mention are the Bingham Public Library (1905) at Cirencester;
the Guille-Alles Library (1856), Guernsey; St Deiniol's Library
(1894), Hawarden, founded by William Ewart Gladstone, the great
statesman; and the Shakespeare Memorial Library and theatre
(1879) at Stratford-upon-Avon.
MODERN]
LIBRARIES
557
Libraries
of socie-
ties and
learned
bodies.
The most important endowed library in Scotland is the Mitchell
Library in Glasgow, founded by Stephen Mitchell, tobacco-manu-
facturer (1874), who left £70,000 for the purpose. It was opened in
1877 in temporary premises, and after various changes will soon be
transferred to a very fine new building specially erected. It con-
tains some very valuable special collections, among which may be
mentioned Scottish poetry, Burns' works, Glasgow books and print-
ing, and a choice collection of fine books on art and other subjects
given by Robert Jeffrey. It contains nearly 200,000 vols. and is the
reference library for the Glasgow public library system. Another
older Glasgow public library, also founded by a tobacco merchant,
is Stirling's and Glasgow Public Library (1791), which was endowed
by Walter Stirling, and amalgamated with an existing subscription
library. It contains 60,000 vols. and is free to reference readers,
but a subscription is charged for borrowing privileges. Still another
Glasgow institution is Baillie's Institution Free Reference Library,
established under the bequest of George Baillie (1863), but not
opened till 1887. It contains over 24,000 vols. Other Scottish
endowed libraries are the Anderson Library, Woodside, Aberdeen
(1883); the Taylor Free Library, Crieff (1890); the Elder Free
Library, Govan (1900); and the Chambers Institution, Peebles
(1859), founded by William Chambers, the well-known publisher.
The public library of Armagh, Ireland, was founded by Lord Primate
Robinson in 1770, who gave a considerable number of books and an
endowment. The books are freely available, either on the spot, or
by loan on deposit of double the value of the work applied for.
There are many libraries belonging to societies
devoted to the study of every kind of subject, and
it is only necessary to mention a few of the principal.
Full particulars of most of them will be found in
Reginald A. Rye's Libraries of London: a Guide for
Students (1910), a work of accuracy and value.
Of the law libraries, that at Lincoln's Inn, London, is the oldest
and the largest. It dates from 1497, when John Nethersale, a member
of the society, made a bequest of forty marks, part of which was to
be devoted to the building of a library for the benefit of the students
of the laws of England. A catalogue of the printed books was
published in 1859 and since supplemented, and the MSS. were cata-
logued by the Rev. Joseph Hunter in 1837. There are about 72,000
vols. The library of the Inner Temple is known to have existed in
1540. In the middle of the I7th century it received a considerable
benefaction from William Petyt, the well-known keeper of the Tower
records. There are now about 60,000 vols., including the pamphlets
collected by John Adolphus for his History of England, books on
crime and prisons brought together by Mr Crawford, and a selection
of works on jurisprudence made by John Austin. A library in con-
nexion with the Middle Temple was in existence during the reign of
Henry VIII., but the date usually assigned to its foundation is 1641,
when Robert Ashley left his books to the inn of which he had been
a member. There are now about 50,000 vols. Gray's Inn Library
(21,000 vols.) was perhaps established before 1555. In 1669 was
made the first catalogue of the books, and the next, still extant, in
1689. The Law Society (1828) has a good law and general library
(50,000 vols.), including the best collection of private acts of parlia-
ment in England. The library of the Royal Society (1667), now
housed in Burlington House, contains over 80,000 vols., of which
many are the transactions and other publications of scientific bodies.
The Royal Institution of Great Britain (1803) possesses a reference
library of 60,000 vols. Some of its early catalogues were in classified
form. The London Institution (1805), in the City, is a general
library of reference and lending books open to members only. There
are about 150,000 vols., and lectures are given in connexion with the
institution. The Royal Society of Arts has a library numbering
about 11,000 vols., chiefly the publications of other learned bodies.
__ The best library of archaeology and kindred subjects is that of the
Society of Antiquaries, Burlington House, consisting of nearly
40,000 printed vols. and many MSS. It is rich in early printed books,
topography, heraldry and numismatics, and includes a curious
collection of books on pageants presented by Mr Fairholt, and the
remarkable assemblage of lexicographical works formerly belonging
to Albert Way.
Of libraries devoted to the natural sciences may be mentioned
those of the Geological Society of London (1807), with over 30,000
vols. and maps; the Linnean Society (1788), 35,000 vols.; the
Zoological Society (1829), about 31 ,000 vols. Of libraries associated
with medicine there are those of the Royal Society of Medicine (1907),
incorporating a number of medical societies, over 95,000 vols., about
to be housed in a new building; the Royal College of Physicians
(i525). 26,000 vols.; the British Medical Association, 20,000 vols.;
the Royal College of Surgeons of England (1800), 60,000 vols., with a
MS. catalogue on cards; the_ Chemical Society (1841), over 25,000
vols.; and the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain (1841),
about 15,000 vols. Other important London society libraries are —
the Royal Geographical Society (1830), 50,000 vols., and numerous
maps in a special room, open to the public for reference; the Royal
Colonial Institute (1868), 70,000 vols. of British colonial literature;
the Royal United Service Institution, Whitehall (1831), has 32,000
works on military and naval subjects and a museum. Large and
interesting collections of books are owned by the British and Foreign
Bible Society, the Institution of Civil Engineers, the Institution of
Electrical Engineers (containing the Ronalds Library), the Royal
Academy, the Royal Institute of British Architects, and practic-
ally every other working society in London.
The English provincial libraries connected with societies or learned
bodies are mostly attached to those concerned with law, medicine,
and various antiquarian, literary and scientific subjects. The head-
quarters of most national societies being in London to some extent
accounts for the comparatively small number of these special
libraries in the provinces.
The most important libraries of this description outside London
are situated in Scotland and Ireland, and one at least is practically
a national collection.
The principal library in Scotland is that of the Faculty of Advo-
cates at Edinburgh, who in 1680 appointed a committee of their
number, which reported that " it was fitt that, seeing if the recusants
could be made pay their entire money, there wold be betwixt three
thousand and four thousand pounds in cash; that the same be im-
ployed on the best and fynest lawers and other law bookes, conforme
to a catalogue to be condescended upon by the Facultie, that the
samen may be a fonde for ane Bibliothecque whereto many lawers
and others may leave their books." In 1682 the active carrying out
of the scheme was committed to the Dean of Faculty, Sir George
Mackenzie of Rosehaugh, who may be regarded as the founder of the
library. In 1684 the first librarian was appointed, and the library
appears to have made rapid progress, since it appears from the
treasurer's accounts that in 1686 the books and furniture were
valued at upwards of £i 1,000 Scots, exclusive of donations. In the
year 1700, the rooms in the Exchange Stairs, Parliament Close, in
which the library was kept, being nearly destroyed by fire the
collection was removed to the ground floor of the Parliament House,
where it has ever since remained. The library retains the copyright
privilege conferred upon it in 1709. Of the special collections the
most important are the Astorga collection of old Spanish books,
purchased by the faculty in 1824 for £4000; the Thorkelin collection,
consisting of about 1200 vols., relating chiefly to the history and
antiquities of the northern nations, and including some rare books on
old Scottish poetry; the Dietrich collection of over 100,000 German
pamphlets and dissertations, including many of the writings of
Luther and Melanchthon, purchased for the small sum of £80; and
the Combe collection.
The faculty appear early to have turned their attention to the
collection of MSS., and this department of the library now numbers
about 3000 vols. Many of them are of great interest and value,
especially for the civil and ecclesiastical history of Scotland before and
after the Reformation. There are thirteen monastic chartularies
which escaped the destruction of the religious houses to which they
belonged. The MSS. relating to Scottish church history include the
collections of Spottiswoode, Wodrow and Calderwood. The
Wodrow collection consists of 154 vols., and includes his correspond-
ence, extending from 1694 to 1726. Sir James Balfour's collection
and the Balcarres papers consist largely of original state papers, and
include many interesting royal letters of the times of James V.,
Queen Mary and James VI. The Sibbald papers, numbering over
30 vols., are largely topographical. The Riddel notebooks, number-
ing 156 vols., contain collections to illustrate the genealogy of
Scottish families. There are about one hundred volumes of Icelandic
MSS., purchased in 1825 from Professor Finn Magnusson, and some
Persian and Sanskrit, with a few classical, manuscripts. The de-
partment has some interesting treasures of old poetry, extending to
73 vols. The most important are the Bannatyne MS., in 2 vols. folio,
written by George Bannatyne in 1568, and the Auchinleck MS., a
collection of ancient English poetry, named after Alexander Boswell
of Auchinleck, who presented it in 1774.
The first catalogue of the printed books was compiled in 1692, and
contains a preface by Sir George Mackenzie. Another was prepared
under the care of Ruddiman in 1742. In 1853 the late Mr Halkett
commenced a catalogue, which has been printed in 6 vols. 410, with
a supplement, and includes all the printed books in the library at
the end of 1871, containing about 260,000 entries. The library,
managed by a keeper and staff, under a board of six curators, is
easily accessible to all persons engaged in literary work, and now
contains about 500,000 vols.
The library of the Writers, to the Signet was established by the
Society at Edinburgh in 1755. At first it consisted of law books
exclusively, but in 1 788 they began to collect the best editions of works
in other departments of literature. During the librarianship of
Macvey Napier (1805-1837) the number of volumes was more than
sextupled, and in 1812 the library was removed to the new hall
adjoining the Parliament House. In 1834 the upper hall was de-
voted to the collection. This is a magnificent apartment 142 ft.
long, with a beautiful cupola painted by Sfothard. The library now
contains over 1 10,000 vols. and includes some fine specimens of early
printing, as well as many other rare and costly works. It is especially
rich in county histories and British topography and antiquities. _A
catalogue of the law books was printed in 1856. The late David
Laing, who became librarian in 1837, published the first volume of a
new catalogue in 1871, and in 1891 this was completed with a subject
558
LIBRARIES
[MODERN
index. The books are lent out to the writers and even to strangers
recommended by them.
The library of the Royal Irish Academy at Dublin was established
on the formation of the Academy in 1785 for the purpose of promot-
ing the study of science, literature and antiquities in Ireland. The
library possesses about 80,000 printed vpls. and MSS. There is a
large collection of MSS. and books relating to the history, ancient
language, and antiquities of Ireland. They include the Betham
collection, acquired partly by public subscription in 1851. The
library is partly supported by a government grant and is freely open
on a proper introduction. The publication of Irish MSS. in the
library was begun in 1870, and has since continued; the general
catalogue is in manuscript form.
The library of King's Inns was founded, pursuant to a bequest of
books and legal MSS. under the will of Mr Justice Robinson in 1787,
to form the nucleus of a library for law students. It is partly sup-
ported from the funds of the benchers, but partly also by a treasury
grant in lieu of the copyright privilege.
It is needless to describe the other society libraries, as most of them
are described in annuals like the Literary Year-book and similar
publications, with statistics of stock, issues, &c., brought up to date.
Proprietary and subscription libraries were at one time more
common than now, as, owing to the steady advance of the
Proprie- municipal library, the minor subscription libraries
tary and have been gradually extinguished. A striking example
subscrip- of this is furnished by the mechanics' institutes which
tloa used to flourish all over the country. In most cases
libraries. these nave been handed over to the local authorities
by the owners to form the nucleus of the public rate-supported
library, and in this way the older libraries have been preserved
and valuable aid has been given to the popular library move-
ment. Somewhat akin to the mechanics' institutes are the
libraries established in connexion with various co-operative
societies in the north of England. Together with working men's
club libraries, there must be nearly 100 libraries of the class just
mentioned, ranging in size from a few hundred vols. to 30,000 or
40,000 vols. The affiliated clubs of the Working Men's Club and
Institute Union possess among them over 100,000 vols.
Among subscription libraries, the London Library stands
first in order of importance. It was founded in 1841 as a> lending
library for the use of scholars, and Dean Milman, Sir G. C. Lewis,
W. E. Gladstone, Thomas Carlyle, Henry HaUam and other
eminent men took part in its formation. By means of a moderate
subscription, funds were raised for the purchase of books on
general subjects, which now amount to about 250,000 vols.
Of these elaborate and excellent author and subject catalogues
have been printed. The last is valuable as a classified guide to
the contents of the library.
Some mention should be made also of the more important subscrip-
tion or proprietary libraries, which were formed for the most part in
the latter half of the 1 8th century. The earliest circulating library in
the metropolis was established about the middle of the l8th century.
The first in Birmingham was opened by Hutton in 1757. The idea
of a proprietary library appears to have been first carried out at
Liverpool in 1758. The library then formed still flourishes at the
Lyceum, and possesses a collection of 55,000 vols. and an income of
£1000 a year. In 1760 a library was formed at Warrington which
has been merged in the Warrington Museum. The Leeds library
was established in 1768, and now has 64,000 vols. In 1772 the Bristol
museum and library was formed, and numbered Coleridge, Southey
and Landor among its earlier members. It has now been merged in
the reference collection of the Bristol public libraries. The Birming-
ham (old) library was formed in 1779, and its rules were drawn up
by Dr Priestley. The library has now about 80,000 vols.
Other English proprietary libraries have been established at
Leicester, Liverpool (Athenaeum, 1798), Manchester, Nottingham
and elsewhere. In Scotland the first subscription library was started
by Allan Ramsay, the poet, at Edinburgh in 1725, and since that time
commercial subscription libraries have increased greatly in number
and size, Mudie's and The Times Book Club being typical modern
examples.
Many of the principal clubs possess libraries; that of the
Athenaeum (London) is by far the most important. It now
numbers about 75,°°° vols. of books in all departments
°^ literature, and is especially rich in well-bound and
fine copies of works on the fine arts, archaeology,
topography and history. The pamphlets, of which there is a
complete printed catalogue, as well as of the books, form a
remarkable series, including those collected by Gibbon and
Mackintosh. Next comes the Reform Club, with about 60,000
vols., chiefly in belles-lettres, with a fair proportion of parlia-
mentary and historical works. The National Liberal Club,
containing the Gladstone Library, has about 45,000 vols., and
may be used occasionally by non-members. The Oxford and
Cambridge Club has 30,000 vols. in general and classical literature.
At the Garrick there is a small dramatic collection; and the
(Senior) United Service Club, besides a number of books on
professional subjects, possesses the fine library which formerly
belonged to Dugald Stewart.
Other London clubs which possess libraries are the Carlton with
25,000 vols.; the Constitutional with 12,000 vols.; Grand Lodge of
Freemasons, 10,000 vols.; Alpine, 5000 vols.; Travellers, 8000
vols.; and Junior Carlton, 6000 vols. In the provinces and in
Scotland and Ireland every club of a social character has a reading-
room, and in most cases a library is attached.
The first act of parliament authorizing the establishment of
public libraries ,in England was obtained by William Ewart,
M. P. for the Dumfries Burghs, in 1850. This arose out
of the report of a special parliamentary committee libraries.
appointed to enquire into the management of the
British Museum in 1835, and a more general report on
libraries in 1849, at which much evidence was submitted to>
prove the necessity for providing public libraries. Ewart
obtained both committees and also, in 1845, procured an act
for " encouraging the establishment of museums in large towns."
Neither the 1845 nor 1850 acts proved effective, owing chiefly
to the limitation of the library rate to |d. in the £ of rental,
which produced in most cases an insufficient revenue. In 1853
the Library Act of 1850 was extended to Ireland and Scotland,
and in 1854 Scotland obtained an act increasing the rate limit
from |d. to id. in the £. In 1855 Ireland also obtained a penny
rate, and later in the same year England obtained the same
power by an act which remained the principal library act, with
some intermediate amendments, till 1892, when a Public Library
Consolidation Act was passed. In the following year, 1893, the
power of adopting the acts, or putting them in operation, was
transferred from the ratepayers to the local authority, save in
the case of rural parishes and the metropolitan vestries. By
the London Government Act of 1899, however, the metropolitan
boroughs were given the power of adopting the acts of 1892-1893
without consulting the ratepayers, so that as the law at present
stands, any urban district can put the public libraries acts in
force without reference to the voters. Rural parishes are still
required by the provisions of the Local Government Act 1894
to adopt the 1892 Libraries Act by means of a parish meeting,
or if a poll is demanded, by means of a poll of the voters.
The main points in British jibrary legislation are as follows: —
(a) The acts are permissive in character and not compulsory, and
can only be put in force by a vote of a majority of members in an
urban district or city, or of a majority of voters in rural districts.
(6) The amount of rate which can be collected is limited to one
penny in the pound of the rateable value of the district, though in
some towns power has been obtained by special legislation for
local purposes to increase the amount to 2d. In a few cases, as at
Birmingham, no limit is fixed. The incomes produced by the penny
in the pound range from less than £10 in a rural district to over
£25,000 in a large city.
(c) Municipal libraries are managed by committees appointed
by the local authorities, who may, if so disposed, delegate to them all
their powers and duties under section 15 of the act of 1892. The
local authorities in England have also power to appoint persons on
such committees who are not members of the council. By the Scottish
principal act of 1887 committees are to consist of one-half councillors
and one-half non-councillors, not to exceed a total of 20, and these
committees become independent bodies not subject to the councils.
Glasgow has contracted out of this arrangement by means of a
special act. In Ireland, committees are appointed much on the same
system as in England.
(d) Power is given to provide libraries, museums, schools for
science, art galleries and schools for art. Needless to say it is im-
possible to carry on so many departments with the strictly limited
means provided by the acts, although some towns have attempted
to do so. The Museums and Gymnasiums Act of 1891 enables an
additional rate of id. to be raised for either purpose, and many places
which have established museums or art galleries under the pro-
visions of the Libraries Acts have also adopted the Museums Act in
order to increase their revenues.
(e) The regulation and management of public libraries are en-
trusted to the library authority, which may either be the local
MODERN]
LIBRARIES
559
authority, or a committee with a full or partial delegation of powers.
The library authority can buy books, periodicals, specimens of art
and science, and make all necessary rules for the proper working of
the libraries A staff can be appointed, and arrangements may be
made with adjoining local authorities for the joint use of one or more
libraries. Buildings may also be erected, and money borrowed for
the purpose on the security of the local rates. These are the main
provisions of the library legislation of the United Kingdom as at
present existing. Revision and amendment are wanted as regards
the abolition or raising of the rate limitation, and some clearer
definitions as to powers which can be exercised, as, for example, the
right to spend money on lectures. The rate limitation is the most
serious obstacle to progress, and it affects the smaller towns to a
much greater degree than large cities or areas.
Between 1850 and 1910 about 630 local government areas of
all kinds adopted the Public Libraries Acts. Of these a consider-
able number had in 1910 not yet put the acts in operation, whilst
the London Government Act 1899, by joining various previously
independent vestries or boards, extinguished about 23 library
areas. The Metropolitan County of London in 1910 comprised
25 library areas, or counting also the City, 26, and only Maryle-
bone, Bethnal Green and parts of Finsbury and Paddington
remained unprovided. Practically every large city or district
council has adopted the Public Libraries Acts or obtained special
legislation, and the only important places, in addition to Maryle-
bone and Bethnal Green, unprovided in 1910 were Bacup,
Crewe, Dover, Jarrow, Scarborough, Swindon, Weymouth,
Llandudno, Govan, Leith, Pollokshaws and Wishaw. In all,
556 places had library systems in operation, and among them
they possessed about 925 buildings.
The progress of the public library movement was very slow up to
1887, the year of Queen Victoria's jubilee. From 1887, however,
when many districts established libraries as memorials to Queen
Victoria, the progress has been much more rapid. An immense
stimulus to the movement was given from about 1000, when Mr
Andrew Carnegie (q.v.) began to present library buildings to towns
in England as well as to Scotland and the United States. The result
of this action was to increase the number of municipal libraries from
146 in 1886 to 556 in 1910; and in the 10 years up to 1910 during
which Mr Carnegie's gifts had been offered, no fewer than 163 places
had put the acts in operation, a yearly average of over 16 adoptions.
There is one municipal library whose importance demands
special mention, although it is not rate-supported under the
provisions of the Public Libraries Acts. This is the Guildhall
library of the Corporation of the City of London, which is a free
public reference library with a periodicals reading-room, and a
lending department for officials and members of the corporation.
A library was established for London by Sir Richard Whittington
between 1421-1426, and several notices in the civic records show
how well in those times the citizens cared for their books. But
it did not remain without accident; in 1522 the Lord Protector
Somerset carried off three cart-loads of books, and during the
great fire of 1666 the remainder was destroyed together with the
library buildings. Nothing was done to repair the loss until
1824, when a committee was appointed, and rooms set apart for
library purposes. In 1840 a catalogue of 10,000 vols. was
printed, and in 1859 a second was prepared of 40,000 vols.
In consequence of the large and increasing number of the readers,
the present fine building was commenced about ten years later,
and, after having cost £90,000, was opened in 1873 as a free
public library.
There are now upwards of 136,000 printed vols. and 5900 MSS. in
the Guildhall library. The contents are of a general character, and
include a special collection of books about London, the Solomons
Hebrew and rabbinical library, and the libraries of the Clockmakers
Company and the old Dutch church in Austin Friars. Recently the
fine collection of books by and about Charles Dickens, called the
National Dickens Library, was added, and other special libraries of
a valuable nature, as well as an extensive and well-cared-f or collection
of London prints, and drawings.
BHtish There is such a variety of library buildings in the
library United Kingdom that it is not possible to single out
examPles for special description, but a brief statement
of their work and methods will help to give some idea
of the extent of their activities.
The total number of borrowers enrolled in 1910 was l about
2,200,000, 59% males and 41% females, 48% under 20 years
1 Guide to LibrariansMp by J. D. Brown (1909).
of age and 52% over 20. Industrial and commercial occupations
were followed by 49% of the borrowers, the balance of 51%
being domestic, professional, unstated, and including 20% of
students and scholars. To these borrowers 60,000,000 vols.
are circulated every year for home-reading, and of this large
number 54% represented fiction, including juvenile literature.
The Reference libraries issued over 11,000,000 vols., exclusive
of books consulted at open shelves, and to the Reading-rooms,
Magazines, Newspapers, Directories, Time-tables, &c., allowing
only one consultation for each visit, 85,000,000 visits are made
per annum. Allowing 5 % for the reading of fiction in current
magazines, it appears that the percentage of fiction read in
British municipal libraries, taking into account the work of
every issuing or consulting department, is only about 24%.
This fact should be carefully recorded, as in the past municipal
libraries have suffered in the esteem of all sections of the public,
by being erroneously described as mere centres for the distribu-
tion of common novels. The quality of the fiction selected is
the best obtainable, and, as shown above, it is not read to an
unreasonable or unnecessary extent.
The changes in character, policy and methods which have
marked library administration in the United Kingdom, have
affected libraries of all kinds, but on the whole the municipal
libraries have been most active in the promotion of improve-
ments. It is evident, moreover, even to the most casual observer,
that a complete revolution in library practice has been effected
since 1882, not only in the details of administration, but in the
initiation of ideas and experiments. One of the most notable
changes has been the gradual disappearance of the unclassified
library. Previous to 1882 very little had been accomplished in
the way of scientific classification schemes equipped with suitable
notations, although the Decimal method of Mr Melvil Dewey
had been applied in the United States. After that date this
system began to be adopted for reference departments in British
municipal libraries, till in 1910 at least 120 places had been
classified by means of the scheme. An English scheme, called
the " Adjustable," with a notation, but not fully expanded, has
been adopted in 53 places, and a very complete and minute
scheme called the " Subject," also English, has been used in
nearly 40 libraries, although it only dates from 1906. That
much remains to be accomplished in this direction is indicated
by the fact that over 340 municipal libraries were in 1910 not
closely classified, but only arranged in broad numerical or
alphabetical divisions. The adoption of exact schemes of
classification for books in libraries may be said to double their
utility almost mechanically, and in course of time an unclassified
municipal library will be unknown. The other kinds of library —
state, subscription, university, &c. — are very often not classified,
but some use the Decimal system, while others, like the Patent
Office, have systems peculiar to themselves.
The catalogue, as a means of making known the contents of
books, has also undergone a succession of changes, both in
policy and mechanical construction. At one period, before
access to the shelves and other methods of making known the
contents of libraries had become general, the printed catalogue
was relied upon as practically the sole guide to the books. Many
excellent examples of such catalogues exist, in author, subject
and classified form, and some of them are admirable contributions
to bibliography. Within recent years, however, doubts have
arisen in many quarters, both in Europe and America, as to the
wisdom of printing the catalogues of general popular libraries
which possess comparatively few rare or extraordinary books.
A complete catalogue of such a library is out of date the moment
it is printed, and in many cases the cost is very great, while
only a small number is sold. For these and other reasons,
modern libraries have begun to compile complete catalogues
only in MS. form, and to issue comparatively cheap class-lists
at intervals, supplemented by monthly or quarterly bulletins
or lists of recent accessions, which in combination will answer
most of the questions likely to be put to a catalogue. Various
improvements in the mechanical construction of manuscript
catalogues have contributed to popularize them, and many
56°
LIBRARIES
[MODERN
libraries use the card, sheaf and other systems which allow
constant and infinite intercalation coupled with economy and
ease in making additions.
The idea of using separate slips or cards for cataloguing books,
in order to obtain complete powers of arrangement and revision
is not new, having been applied during the French revolutionary
period to the cataloguing of libraries. More recently the system
has been applied to various commercial purposes, such as book-
keeping by what is known as the " loose-leaf ledger," and in this
way greater public attention has been directed to the possibilities
of adjustable methods both in libraries and for business. The
card system is perhaps the most generally used at present, but
many improvements in the adjustable binders, called by
librarians the " sheaf system," will probably result in this latter
form becoming a serious rival. The card method consists of a
series of cards in alphabetical or other order kept on edge in trays
or drawers, to which projecting guides are added in order to
facilitate reference. Entries are usually made on one side of the
card, and one card serves for a single entry. The sheaf method
provides for slips of an uniform size being kept in book form in
volumes capable of being opened by means of a screw or other
fastening, for the purpose of adding or withdrawing slips. In
addition to the advantage of being in book-form the sheaf system
allows both sides of a slip to be used, while in many cases from
two to twelve entries may be made on one slip. This is a great
economy and leads to considerable saving of space. A great
advantage resulting from the use of an adjustable manuscript
catalogue, in whatever form adopted, is the simplicity with
which it can be kept up-to-date. This is an advantage which in
the view of many librarians outweighs the undoubted valuable
qualities of comparative safety and multiplication of copies
possessed by the printed form. There are many different forms
of both card and sheaf systems, and practically every library
now uses one or other of them for cataloguing or indexing
purposes.
One other modification in connexion with the complete
printed catalogue has been tried with success, and seems worthy
of brief mention. After a complete manuscript catalogue has
been provided in sheaf form, a select or eclectic catalogue is
printed, comprising all the most important books in the library
and those that represent special subjects. This, when supple-
mented by a printed list or bulletin of additions, seems to supply
every need.
The most striking tendency of the modern library movement
is the great increase in the freedom allowed to readers both in
reference and lending departments. Although access to the
shelves was quite a common feature in the older subscription
libraries, and in state libraries like the British Museum and
Patent Office, it is only within comparatively recent years that
lending library borrowers were granted a similar privilege.
Most municipal reference libraries grant access to a large or
small collection of books, and at Cambridge, Birmingham and
elsewhere in the United Kingdom, the practice is of long standing.
So also in the United States, practically every library has its
open shelf collection. On the continent of Europe, however,
this method is not at all general, and books are guarded with a
jealousy which in many cases must militate against their utility.
The first " safe-guarded " open access municipal lending library
was opened at Clerkenwell (now Finsbury), London, in 1893, and
since then over one hundred cities and districts of all sizes in
Britain have adopted the system. The British municipal
libraries differ considerably from those of the United States in
the safeguards against abuse which are employed, and the
result is that their losses are insignificant, whilst in America
they are sometimes enormous. Pawtucket and Cleveland in
America were pioneers to some extent of the open shelf system
for lending libraries, but the methods employed had little
resemblance to the safe-guarded system of British libraries.
The main features of the British plan are: exact classification;
class, shelf and book guiding; the provision of automatic
locking wickets to regulate the entrance and exit of borrowers,
and the rule that borrowers must be registered before they can
obtain admission. This last rule is not always current in
America, and in consequence abuses are liable to take place.
The great majority of British and American libraries, whether
allowing open access or not, use cards for charging or registering
books loaned to borrowers. In the United Kingdom a consider-
able number of places still use indicators for this purpose,
although this mechanical method is gradually being restricted
to fiction, save in very small places.
Other activities of modern libraries which are common to both
Britain and America are courses of lectures, book exhibitions, work
with children, provision of books for the blind and for foreign
residents, travelling libraries and the education of library assistants.
In many of the recent buildings, especially in those erected from the
gifts of Mr Andrew Carnegie, special rooms for lectures and exhibi-
tions and children are provided. Courses of lectures in connexion
with the Liverpool and Manchester public libraries date from 1860,
but during the years 1900-1910 there was a very great extension
of this work. As a rule these courses are intended to direct attention
to the literature of the subjects treated, as represented in the
libraries, and in this way a certain amount of mutual advantage is
secured. In some districts the libraries work in association with the
education authorities, and thus it is rendered possible to keep schools
supplied with books, over which the teachers are able to exercise
supervision. This connexion between libraries and schools is much
less common in the United Kingdom than in the British colonies and
the United States, where the libraries are regarded as part of the
national system of education. Excellent work has been accom-
plished within recent years by the Library Association in the training
of librarians, and it is usual for about 300 candidates to come forward
annually for examination in literary history, bibliography, classifica-
tion, cataloguing, library history and library routine for which
subjects certificates and diplomas are awarded. The profession of
municipal librarian is not by any means remunerative as compared
with employment in teaching or in the Civil Service, and until the
library rate is increased there is little hope of improvement.
The usefulness of public libraries has been greatly increased by the
work of the Library Association, founded in 1877, during the first
International Library Conference held in London in October 1877.
A charter of incorporation was granted to the association in 1898.
It holds monthly and annual meetings, publishes a journal, conducts
examinations, issues certificates, holds classes for instruction, and
has greatly helped to improve the public library law. The Library
Assistants Association (1895) publishes a journal. A second Inter-
national Library Conference was held at London in 1897, and a third
at Brussels in 1910. Library associations have been started in most
of the countries of Europe, and the American Library Association, the
largest and most important in existence, was established in 1876.
These associations are giving substantial aid in the development and
improvement of library methods and the status of librarians, and it
is certain that their influence will in time produce a more scientific
and valuable type of library than at present generally exists.
British Colonies and India.
The majority of the British Colonies and Dependencies have
permissive library laws on lines very similar to those in force
in the mother country. There are, however, several points
of difference which are worth mention. The rate limit is not
so strict in every case, and an effort is made to bring the libraries
into closer relations with the educational machinery of each
colony. There is, for example, no rate limit in Tasmania; and
South Australia may raise a library rate equivalent to 3d. in the
£, although, in both cases, owing to the absence of large towns,
the legislation existing has not been adopted. In Africa,
Australia and Canada the governments make grants to public
libraries up to a certain amount, on condition that the reading-
rooms are open to the public, and some of the legislatures are
even in closer touch with the libraries. The Canadian and
Australian libraries are administered more or less on American
lines, whilst those of South Africa, India, &c., are managed on
the plan followed in England.
Africa.
There are several important libraries in South Africa, and
many small town libraries which used to receive a government
grant equal to the subscriptions of the members, but in no case
did such grants exceed £150 for any one library in one year.
These grants fluctuate considerably owing to the changes and
temper of successive governments, and since the last war they
have been considerably reduced everywhere. One of the oldest
libraries is the South African Public Library at Cape Town
established in 1818, which enjoys the copyright-privilege of
MODERN]
LIBRARIES
561
receiving a free copy of every publication issued in Cape Colony.
This library contains the great collection of colonial books
bequeathed by Sir George Grey. The libraries of the various
legislatures are perhaps the best supported and most important,
but mention should be made of the public libraries of Port
Elizabeth, Cape Colony, which published an excellent catalogue,
and the public libraries at Kimberley; Durban, Natal; Bloemfon-
tein, Orange River Colony; Bulawayo, Rhodesia; Johannesburg,
Transvaal; and the public and university libraries at Pretoria.
None of the libraries of North Africa are specially notable,
although there are considerable collections at Cairo and Algiers.
Australasia. .
All the public libraries, mechanics' institutes, schools of arts
and similar institutes receive aid from the government, either
in the form of grants of money or boxes of books sent from
some centre. The public library of New South Wales, Sydney
(1869), which includes the Mitchell Library of over 50,000 vols.,
now possesses a total of nearly 250,000 vols., and circulates
books to country libraries, lighthouses and teachers' associations
to the number of about 20,000 vols. per annum. The public
library of Victoria, Melbourne (1853), with about 220,000 vols.,
also sends books to 443 country libraries of various kinds, which
among them possess 750,000 vols., and circulate annually con-
siderably over 25 million vols. The university library at Mel-
bourne (1855) has over 20,000 vols., and the libraries connected
with the parliament and various learned societies are important.
The public library of South Australia, Adelaide, has about
75,000 vols., and is the centre for the distribution of books to
the institutes throughout the colony. These institutes possess
over 325,000 vols. There is a good public library at Brisbane,
Queensland, and there are a number of state-aided schools of
arts with libraries attached. The Library of Parliament in
Brisbane possesses over 40,000, and the Rockhampton School
of Arts has 10,000 vols. Western Australia has a public library
at Perth, which was established in 1887, and the small town
institutes are assisted as in the other colonies.
Tasmania has several good libraries in the larger towns, but
none of them had in 1910 taken advantage of the act passed in
1867 which gives municipalities practically unlimited powers
and means as far as the establishment and maintenance of
public libraries are concerned. At Hobart the Tasmanian
Public Library (1849) is one of the most important, with 25,000
vols.
New Zealand is well equipped with public libraries established
under acts dating from 1869 to 1877, as well as subscription,
college and government libraries. At Auckland the Free Public
Library (1880) has 50,000 vols., including Sir George Grey's
Australasian collection; the Canterbury Public Library,
Christchurch (1874), has 40,000 vols.; the University of Otago
Library, Dunedin (1872), 10,000 vols.; and the public library at
Wellington (1893) contains 20,000 vols.
India and the East.
Apart from government and royal libraries, there are many
college, society, subscription and others, both English and
oriental. It is impossible to do more than name a few of the
most notable. Lists of many of the libraries in private hands
including descriptions of their MS. contents have been issued by
the Indian government. At Calcutta the Sanskrit college has
1652 printed Sanskrit volumes and 2769 Sanskrit MSS., some as
old as the i4th century; there is also a large collection of Jain
MSS. The Arabic library attached to the Arabic department of
the Madrasa was founded about 1781, and now includes 731
printed volumes, 143 original MSS. and 151 copies; the English
library of the Anglo-Persian department dates from 1854, and
extends to 3254 vols. The library of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal was founded in 1784, and now contains 15,000 printed
vols., chiefly on eastern and philological subjects, with a valuable
collection of 9500 Arabic and Persian MSS.
At Bombay the library of the Bombay branch of the Royal
Asiatic Society, established in 1804 as the Literary Society of
Bengal, is now an excellent general and oriental collection of
75,000 printed vols. and MSS., described in printed catalogues.
The Moolla Feroze Library was bequeathed for public use by
Moolla Feroze, head priest of the Parsis of the Kudmi sect in
1831, and consisted chiefly of MSS., in Arabic and Persian on
history, philosophy and astronomy; some additions of English
and Gujarati works have been made, as well as of European
books on Zoroastrianism. The Native General Library (1845)
has 11,000 vols., and there are libraries attached to Elphinstone
College and the university of Bombay.
The library of Tippoo Sahib, consisting of 2000 MSS., fell into
the hands of the British, and a descriptive catalogue of them
by Charles Stewart was published at Cambridge in 1809, 4to.
A few were presented to public libraries in England, but
the majority were placed in the college of Fort William, then
recently established. The first volume, containing Persian and
Hindustani poetry, of the Catalogue of the Libraries of the King of
Oudh, by A. Sprenger, was published at Calcutta in 1854. The
compiler shortly afterwards left the Indian service, and no
measures were taken to complete the work. On the annexation
of the kingdom in 1856 the ex-king is believed to have taken
some of the most valuable MSS. to Calcutta, but the largest
portion was left behind at Lucknow. During the siege the
books were used to block up windows, &c., and those which were
not destroyed were abandoned and plundered by the soldiers.
Many were burnt for fuel; a few, however, were rescued and
sold by auction, and of these some were purchased for the
Asiatic Society of Bengal.
Perhaps the most remarkable library in India is that of the raja
of Tanjore, which dates from the end of the i6th or beginning
of the 1 7th century, when Tanjore was under the rule of the
Telugu Naiks, who collected Sanskrit MSS. written in the
Telugu character. In the i8th century the Mahrattas conquered
the country, and since that date the library increased but
slowly. By far the greater portion of the store was acquired by
Sharabhojl Raja during a visit to Benares in 1820-1830; his
successor Sivaji added a few, but of inferior value. There are
now about 18,000 MSS. written in Devanagari, Nandinagari,
Telugu, Kannada, Granthi, Malayalam, Bengali, Panjabi or
Kashmiri, and Uriya; 8000 are on palm leaves. Dr Burnell's
printed catalogue describes 12,375 articles.
The Royal Asiatic Society has branches with libraries attached
in many of the large cities of India, the Straits Settlements,
Ceylon, China, Japan, &c. At Rangoon in Burma there are
several good libraries. The Raffles Library at Singapore was
established as a proprietary institution in 1844, taken over by
the government in 1874, and given legal status by an ordinance
passed in 1878. It now contains about 35,000 vols. in general
literature, but books relating to the Malayan peninsula and
archipelago have been made a special feature, and since the
acquisition of the collection of J. R. Logan in 1879 the library
has become remarkably rich in this department. In Ceylon
there is the Museum Library at Colombo (1877), which is main-
tained by the government, and there are many subscription and
a few oriental libraries.
Canada.
The public libraries of the various provinces of Canada have
grown rapidly in importance and activity, and, assisted as they
are by government and municipal grants, they promise to rival
those of the United States in generous equipment. Most of the
library work in Canada is on the same lines as that of the United
States, and there are no special points of difference worth
mention. The library laws of the Dominion are embodied in a
series of acts dating from 1854, by which much the same powers
are conferred on local authorities as by the legislation of Britain
and the United States. An important feature of the Canadian
library law is the close association maintained between schools
and libraries, and in some provinces the school libraries are
established by the school and not the library laws. There is
also an important extension of libraries to the rural districts,
so that in every direction full provision is being made for the
after-school education and recreation of the people.
562
LIBRARIES
[MODERN
The province of Ontario has a very large and widespread library
system of which full particulars are given in the annual reports of the
minister of education. The library portion has been printed separ-
ately, and with its illustrations and special articles forms quite a
handbook of Canadian library practice. There are now 413 public
libraries described as free and not free, and of these 131 free and 234
not free reported in 1909. The free libraries possessed 775,976 vols.
and issued 2,421,049 vols. The not free libraries, most of which
receive legislative or municipal grants, possessed 502,879 vols. and
issued 650,826 vols. This makes a grand total of 1,278,855 vols. in
municipal and assisted subscription libraries without counting the
university and other libraries in the province. The most important
other libraries in Ontario are-^Queen's University, Kingston (1841),
40,000 vols. ; Library of Parliament, Ottawa, about 250,000 vols. ;
university of Ottawa, 35,000 vols.; Legislative Library of Ontario,
Toronto, about 100,000 vols.; university of Toronto (1856), 50,000
vols. The Public (municipal) Library of Toronto has now over
152,000 vols.
In the province of Quebec, in addition to the state-aided libraries
there are several large and important libraries, among which may be
mentioned the Eraser Institute, Montreal, 40,000 vols. ; McGill
University, Montreal (1855), 125,000 vols., comprising many im-
portant collections; the Seminary of St Sulpice, Montreal, about
80,000 vols.; Laval University, Quebec, 125,000 vols.; and the
library of the Legislature (1792), about 100,000 vols. In the western
provinces several large public, government and college libraries have
been formed, but none of them are as old and important as those in
the eastern provinces.
In Nova Scotia there are now 279 cases of books circulating among
the school libraries, containing about 40,000 vols., and in addition
2800 vols. were stocked for the use of rural school libraries. The
rural school libraries of Nova Scotia are regulated by a special law,
and a little handbook has been printed, somewhat similar to that
published by the French educational authorities for the communale
libraries. The Legislative Library at Halifax contains nearly 35,000
vols., and the Dalhousie University (1868), in the same town, contains
about 20,000 vols. The Legislative Library of Prince Edward
Island, Charlottetown, containing the Dodd Library, issues books for
home use. The school law of New Brunswick provides for grants
being made in aid of school libraries by the Board of Education equal
to one half the amount raised by a district, and a series of rules has
been published. The only other British libraries in America of much
consequence are those in the West Indian Islands. The Institute of
Jamaica, Kingston (1879) has about 15,000 vols.; the Trinidad
Public Library (1841), recently revised and catalogued, 23,000 vols.;
and there are a few small legislative and college libraries in addition.
AUTHORITIES. — For the history of British libraries see H. B.
Adams, Public Libraries and Popular Education (Albany, N.Y., 1900) ;
J. D. Brown, Guide to Librarianship (1909); G. F. Chambers and
H. W. Fovargue, The Law relating to Public Libraries (4th ed., 1899) ;
J. W. Clark, The Care of Books (1909) ; E. Edwards, Memoirs of
Libraries (1859); T. Greenwood, Edward Edwards (1901) and
Public Libraries (4th ed., revised, 1891) ; J. J. Ogle, The Free Library
(1897); Maurice Pellisson, Les Bibliotheques populaires a I'etranger el
en France (Paris, 1906); R. A. Rye, The Libraries of London (1910);
E. A. Savage, The Story of Libraries and Book- Collectors (1909).
For library economy consult J. D. Brown, Manual of Library
Economy (1907); F. J. Burgoyne, Library Construction, &c. (1897);
A. L. Champneys, Public Libraries: a Treatise on their Design (1907) ;
J. C. Dana, A Library Primer (Chicago, 1910); Arnim Graesel,
Handbuch der Bibliothekslehre (Leipzig, 1902) ; Albert Maire, Manuel
pratique du bibliothecaire (Paris, 1896). On the subject of classifica-
tion consult J. D. Brown, Manual of Library Classification (1898) and
Subject Classification (1906); C. A. Cutter, Expansive Classification
(1891-1893) (not yet completed); M. Dewey, Decimal Classification
(6th ed., 1899), and Institut International de Bibliographic: Classifica-
tion bibliographique dfcimale (Brussels, 1905); E. C. Richardson,
Classification: Theoretical and Practical (1901).
Various methods of cataloguing books are treated in Cataloguing
Rules, author and title entries, compiled by the Committees of the
American Library Association and the Library Association (1908);
C. A. Cutter, Rules for a Printed Dictionary Catalogue (Washington,
1904); M. Dewey, Rules for Author and Classed Catalogues (1892);
T. Hitchler, Cataloguing for Small Libraries (Boston, 1905) ; K. A.
Linderfelt, Eclectic Card Catalog Rules (Boston, 1890); J. H. Quinn,
Manual of Library Cataloguing (1899); E. A. Savage, Manual of
Descriptive Annotation (1906); J. D. Stewart, The Sheaf Catalogue
(1909); H. B. Wheatley, How to Catalogue a Library (1889).
United States of America.
The libraries of the United States are remarkable for their
number, size, variety, liberal endowment and good administra-
tion. The total number of libraries with over 1000 vols. was
5383 in 1 900, including those attached to schools and institutions,
and in 1910 there were probably at least 10,000 libraries having
looo vols. and over. It is impossible to do more than glance
at the principal libraries and activities, where the field is so
immense, and a brief sketch of some of the chief federal, state,
university, endowed and municipal libraries will therefore be
presented.
The Library of Congress was first established in 1800 at
Washington, and was burned together with the Capitol by the
British army in 1814. President Jefferson's books
were purchased to form the foundation of a new libraries.
library, which continued to increase slowly until 1851,
when all but 20,000 vols. were destroyed by fire. From this
time the collection has grown rapidly, and now consists of
about 1,800,000 vols. In 1866 the library of the Smithsonian
Institution, consisting of 40,000 vols., chiefly in natural science,
was transferred to the Library of Congress. The library is
specially well provided in history, jurisprudence, the political
sciences and Americana. Since 1832 the law collections have
been constituted into a special department. This is the national
library. In 1870 the registry of copyrights was transferred to it
under the charge of the librarian of Congress, and two copies of
every publication which claims copyright are required to be
deposited. Cards for these are now printed and copies are sold
to other libraries for an annual subscription fixed according to
the number taken. The building in which the library is now
housed was opened in 1897. It covers 35 acres of ground,
contains 10,000,000 cub. ft. of space, and has possible accom-
modation for over 4 million vols. Its cost was $6,500,000, or
including the land, $7,000,000. It is the largest, most ornate
and most costly building in the world yet erected for library
purposes. Within recent years the appropriation has been
largely increased, and the bibliographical department has been
able to publish many valuable books on special subjects. The
A.L.A. Catalog (1904) and A.L.A. Portrait Index (1906), may
be mentioned as of especial value. The classification of the
library is being gradually completed, and in every respect this is
the most active government library in existence.
Other important federal libraries are those attached to the
following departments at Washington: Bureau of Education
(1868); Geological Survey (1882); House of Representatives;
Patent Office (1836); Senate (1868); Surgeon General's Office
(1870), with an elaborate analytical printed catalogue of world-
wide fame.
Although the state libraries of Pennsylvania and New Hamp-
shire are known to have been established as early as 1777, it
was not until some time after the revolution that any
general tendency was shown to form official libraries libraries.
in connexion with the state system. It is especially
within the last thirty years that the number of these libraries has
so increased that now every state and territory possesses a
collection of books and documents for official and public pur-
poses. These collections depend for their increase upon annual
appropriations by the several states, and upon a systematic
exchange of the official publications of the general government
and of the several states and territories. The largest is that of
the state of New York at Albany, which contains nearly 500,000
vols., and is composed of a general and a law library. Printed
and MS. card catalogues have been issued. The state libraries
are libraries of reference, and only members of the official classes
are allowed to borrow books, although any well-behaved person
is admitted to read in the libraries.
The earliest libraries formed were in connexion with educa-
tional institutions, and the oldest is that of Harvard (1638).
It was destroyed by fire in 1764, but active steps were
at once taken for its restoration. From that time to
the present, private donations have been the great
resource of the library. In 1840 the collection was
removed to Gore Hall, erected for the purpose with a noble be-
quest from Christopher Gore (1758-1829), formerly governor of
Massachusetts. There are also ten special libraries connected
with the different departments of the university. The total
numbers of vols. in all these collections is over 800,000. There is
a MS. card-catalogue in two parts, by authors and subjects,
which is accessible to the readers. The only condition of ad-
mission to use the books in Gore Hall is respectability; but only
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563
members of the university and privileged persons may borrow
books. The library of Yale College, New Haven, was founded
in 1701, but grew so slowly that, even with the 1000 vols. received
from Bishop Berkeley in 1733, it had only increased to 4000
vols. in 1766, and some of these were lost in the revolutionary
war. During the ipth century the collection grew more speedily,
and now the library numbers over 550,000 vols.
Other important university and college libraries are Amherst
College, Mass. (1821), 93,000 vols.; Brown University, R.I. (1767),
156,000 vols.; Columbia University, N.Y. (1763), 430,000 vols.;
Cornell University, N.Y. (1868), 355,000 vols.; Dartmouth College,
N.H. (1769), 106,000 vols.; Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore
(1876), 220,000 vols.; Lehigh University, Pa. (1877), 150,000 vols.;
Leland Stanford University, Cal. (1891), 113,000 vols.; Princeton
University, N.J. (1746), 260,000 vols.; University of California
(1868), 240,000 vols.; University of Chicago, 111. (1892), 480,000
vols.; University of Michigan (1837), 252,000 vols.; University of
Pennsylvania (1749), 285,000 vols. There are numerous other college
libraries, several of them even larger than some of those named
above.
The establishment of proprietary or subscription libraries runs
back into the first half of the i8th century, and is connected
Subscrtp- with the name of Benjamin Franklin. It was at
lion ana Philadelphia, in the year 1731, that he set on foot
Endowed what he called " his first project of a public nature, that
Libraries. ^Qf & subscription library. . . . The institution soon
manifested its ability, was imitated by other towns and in
other provinces." The Library Company of Philadelphia was
soon regularly incorporated, and gradually drew to itself other
collections of books, including the Loganian Library, which
was vested in the company by the state legislature in 1792 in
trust for public use. Hence the collection combines the character
of a public and of a proprietary library, being freely open for
reference purposes, while the books circulate only among the
subscribing members. It numbers at present 226,000 vols., of
which 11,000 belong to the Loganian Library, and may be
freely lent. In 1869 Dr James Rush left a bequest of over one
million dollars for the purpose of erecting a building to be called
the Ridgeway branch of the library. The building is very
handsome, and has been very highly spoken of as a library
structure. Philadelphia has another large proprietary library —
that of the Mercantile Library Company, which was established
in 1821. It possesses 200,000 vols., and its members have
always enjoyed direct access to the shelves. The library of the
Boston Athenaeum was established in 1807, and numbers
235,000 vols. It has published an admirable dictionary-cata-
logue. The collection is especially rich in art and in history, and
possesses a part of the library of George Washington. The
Mercantile Library Association of New York, which was founded
in 1820, has over 240,000 vols. New York possesses two other
large proprietary libraries, one of which claims to have been
formed as early as 1700 as the " public " library of New York.
It was organized as the New York Society Library in 1754, and
has been especially the library of the old Knickerbocker families
and their descendants, its contents bearing witness to its history.
It contains about 100,000 vols. The Apprentices' Library
(1820) has about 100,000 vols., and makes a special feature of
works on trades and useful arts.
The Astor Library in New York was founded by a bequest of
John Jacob Astor, whose example was followed successively
by his son and grandson. The library was opened to the public
in 1854, and consists of a careful selection of the most valuable
books upon all subjects. It is a library of reference, for which
purpose it is freely open, and books are not lent out. It is " a
working library for studious persons." The Lenox Library was
established by James Lenox in 1870, when a body of trustees
was incorporated by an act of the legislature. In addition to
the funds intended for the library building and endowment,
amounting to $1,247,000, the private collection of books which
Mr Lenox had long been accumulating is extremely valuable.
Though it does not rank high in point of mere numbers, it is
exceedingly rich in early books on America, in Bibles, in Shake-
speriana and in Elizabethan poetry. Both those libraries, are
now merged in the New York Public Library. The Peabody
Institute at Baltimore was established by George Peabody
in 1857, and contains a reference library open to all comers.
The institute has an endowment of $1,000,000, which, however,
has to support, besides the library, a conservatoire of music, an
art gallery, and courses of popular lectures. It has a very fine
printed dictionary catalogue and now contains nearly 200,000
vols. In the same city is the Enoch Pratt Free Library (1882)
with 257,000 vols. In the city of Chicago are two very im-
portant endowed libraries, the Newberry Library (1887) with
over 200,000 vols., and the John Crerar Library (1894), with
235,000 vols. Both of these are reference libraries of great
value, and the John Crerar Library specializes in science, for
which purpose its founder left $3,000,000.
It will be sufficient to name a few of the other endowed libraries
to give an idea of the large number of donors who have given money
to libraries. Silas Bronson (Waterbury), Annie T. Howard (New
Orleans), Joshua Bates (Boston), Charles E. Forbes (Northampton,
Mass.), Mortimer F. Reynolds (Rochester, N.Y.), Leonard Case
(Cleveland), I. Osterhout (Wilkes-Barre, Pa.), and above all Andrew
Carnegie, whose library benefactions exceed $53,000,000.
It remains to mention another group of proprietary and society
libraries.
Since the organization of the government in 1789, no less than
one hundred and sixty historical societies have been formed in
the United States, most of which still continue to exist. Many of
them have formed considerable libraries, and possess extensive
and valuable manuscript collections. The oldest of them is the
Massachusetts Historical Society, which dates from 1791.
The earliest of the scientific societies, the American Philosophical
Society (1743), has 73,000 vols. The most extensive collection is that
of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, which consists
of 80,000 vols. and pamphlets. For information as to the numerous
professional libraries of the United States — theological, legal and
medical — the reader may be referred to the authorities quoted below.
In no country has the movement for the development of
municipal libraries made such progress as in the United States;
these institutions called free or public as the case may
be are distinguished for their work, enterprise and the Libraries'.
liberality with which they are supported. They are
established under laws passed by the different states, the
first to pass such an enactment being Massachusetts, which
in 1848 empowered the city of Boston to establish a free
public library. This was subsequently extended to the whole
state in 1851. Other states followed, all with more or less
variation in the provisions, till practically every state in the
Union now has a body of library laws. In general the American
library law is much on the same lines as the English. In most
states the acts are permissive. In New Hampshire aid
is granted by the state to any library for which a town-
ship contracts to make a definite annual appropriation.
A limit is imposed in most states on the library tax which may
be levied, although there are some, like Massachusetts and New
Hampshire, which fix no limit. In every American town the
amount derived from the library tax usually exceeds by double
or more the same rate raised in Britain in towns of similar
size. For example, East Orange, N.J., with a population of
35,000, expends £2400, while Dumfries in Scotland, with 23,000
pop. expends £500. Cincinnati, 345,000 pop., expenditure
£26,000; Islington (London), 350,000 pop., expenditure £8200,
is another example. In the smaller towns the difference is not
so marked, but generally the average American municipal
library income is considerably in excess of the British one.
Many American municipal libraries have also endowments
which add to their incomes.
In one respect the American libraries differ from those of the
United Kingdom. They are usually managed by a small com-
mittee or body of trustees, about five or more in American
number, who administer the library independent of Library
the city council. This is akin to the practice in ^^miai-
Scotland, although there, the committees are larger. stratloa-
In addition to the legislation authorizing town libraries to be
established, thirty-two states have formed state library com-
missions. These are small bodies of three or five trained persons
appointed by the different states which, acting on behalf of the
state, encourage the formation of local libraries, particularly in
towns and villages, and in many cases have authority to aid
LIBRARIES
[MODERN
their establishment by the grant out of the state funds of a
certain sum (usually $100) towards the purchase of books, upon
the appropriation of a similar sum by the local authorities.
These commissions are prepared to aid further with select lists
of desirable books, and with suggestions or advice in the
problems of construction and maintenance. Such commissions
are in existence in Alabama, California, Colorado, Connecticut,
Delaware, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas,
Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri,
Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North
Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee,
Texas, Utah, Vermont, Washington and Wisconsin.
The reports and other documents issued by some of these
commissioners are very interesting and valuable, especially as
regards the light they throw on the working of the travelling
libraries in country districts. These to some extent are a
revival of the " itinerating " library idea of Samuel Brown of
Haddington in Scotland, who from 1817 to 1836 carried on
a system of travelling subscription libraries in that country.
At the time of his death there were 3850 vols. in 47 libraries.
The American travelling libraries, often under state supervision,
are well organized and numerous, and the books are circu-
lated free. New York was the pioneer in this movement which
now extends to most of the states which have established
library commissions. There are also town travelling libraries
and deposit stations in addition to branches, so that every
effort is made to bring people in outlying districts into touch
with books.
The municipal libraries of the United States work in con-
junction with the schools, and it is generally considered that
they are part of the educational machinery of the country.
In the case of New York the state libraries have been put under
the control of the university of the state of New York, which
also inaugurated the travelling libraries. Work with the schools
and children generally is more cultivated in the libraries of the
United States than elsewhere. In some cases the libraries send
collections of books to the schools; in others provision is made
for children's reading-rooms and lending departments at the
library buildings. At Cleveland (Ohio), Pittsburg (Pa.), New
York and many other pjaces, elaborate arrangements are in
force for the convenience and amusement of children. There
is a special school, the Carnegie Library training school for
children's librarians, at Pittsburg, and within recent years the
instruction has included the art of telling stories to children at
the libraries. This " story-hour " idea has been the cause of
considerable discussion in the United States, librarians and
teachers being divided in opinion as to the value of the service.
The chief factors in children's work in American libraries, often
overlooked by critics, are the number of non-English reading
adults and the large number of children of foreign origin. The
adults do not use the libraries to any large extent, but the
children, who learn English at the schools, are brought into
close touch with the juvenile departments of the libraries. In
this way many libraries are obliged to undertake special work
for children, and as a rule it is performed in a sane, practical
and economical manner. The preponderance of women librarians
and their natural sentimental regard for children has tended
to make this work loom rather largely in some quarters, but with
these exceptions the activity on behalf of children is justified
on many grounds. But above all, it is manifest that a rapidly
growing nation, finding homes for thousands of foreigners and
their children annually, must use every means of rapidly
educating their new citizens, and the public library is one of the
most efficient and ready ways of accomplishing this great
national object.
With regard to methods, the American libraries are working
on much the same plan as those of the United Kingdom. They
allow access to the shelves more universally, and there is much
more standardization in classification and other internal matters.
The provision of books is more profuse, although there is, on the
whole, more reading done in the United Kingdom. The largest
municipal library system in America, and also in the world, is
that of New York City, which, after struggling with a series of
Free Circulating Libraries, blossomed out in 1895 into the
series of combinations which resulted in the present great
establishment. In that year, the Astor and Lenox libraries (see
above) were taken over by the city, and in addition, $2,000,000
was given by one of the heirs of Mr S. J. Tilden, who had be-
queathed about $4,000,000 for library purposes in New York
but whose will had been upset in the law courts. In 1901
Mr Andrew Carnegie gave about £1,500,000 for the purpose
of providing 65 branches, and these are now nearly all erected.
A very fine central library building has been erected, and when
the organization is completed there will be no system of
municipal libraries to equal that of New York. It possesses
about 1,400,000 vols. in the consolidated libraries. Brooklyn,
although forming part of Greater New York, has an inde-
pendent library system, and possesses about 560,000 vols.
distributed among 26 branches and including the old Brooklyn
Library which has been absorbed in the municipal library
system. At Boston (Mass.) is one of the most renowned public
libraries in the United States, and also the oldest established
by act of legislature. It was first opened to the public in
1854, and is now housed in a very magnificently decorated
building which was completed in 1895. The central library
contains many fine special collections, and there are 28 branch
and numerous school libraries in connexion. It possesses
about 1,000,000 vols. altogether, its annual circulation is about
1,500,000 vols., and its annual expenditure is nearly £70,000.
Other notable municipal libraries are those of Philadelphia (1891),
Chicago (1872); Los Angeles (Cal.), 1872; Indianapolis (1868),
Detroit (1865), Minneapolis (1885), St Louis (1865), Newark, N.j.
(1889), Cincinnati (1856), Cleveland (1869), Allegheny (1890),
Pittsburg (1895), Providence, R.I. (1878), Milwaukee (1875),
Washington, D.C. (1898), Worcester, Mass. (1859), Buffalo (1837).
AUTHORITIES. — The Annual Library Index (New York, 1908) —
contains a select list of libraries in the United States; Arthur E.
Bostwick, The American Public Library, illust. (New York, 1910) —
the most comprehensive general book; Bureau of Education,
Statistics of Public Libraries in the United States and Canada (1893)
— this has been succeeded by a list of " Public, Society and School
Libraries," reprinted at irregular intervals from the Report of the
Commissioner of Education and giving a list of libraries containing
over 5000 vols. with various other particulars; Clegg, International
Directory of Booksellers (1910) and earlier issues — contains a list of
American libraries with brief particulars; John C. Dana, A Library
Primer (Chicago, 1910) — the standard manual of American library
practice ; Directory of Libraries in the United States and Canada (6th
ed., Minneapolis, 1908) — a brief list of 4500 libraries, with indica-
tion of the annual income of each ; Wm. I. Fletcher, Public Libraries
in America (and ed., Boston, 1899), illust.; T. W. Koch, Portfolio
of Carnegie Libraries (1908); Cornelia Marvin, Small Library
Buildings (Boston, 1908) ; A. R. Spofford, A Book for all Readers. . .
the Formation of Public and Private Libraries (1905).
France.
French libraries (other than those in private hands) belong
either to the state, to the departments, to the communes or to
learned societies, educational establishments and other public
institutions; the libraries of judicial or administrative bodies are
not considered to be owned by them, but to be state property.
Besides the unrivalled library accommodation of the capital,
France possesses a remarkable assemblage of provincial libraries.
The communal and school libraries also form striking features of
the French free library system. Taking as a basis for compari-
son the Tableau statislique des bibliolhequcs publiques (1857),
there were at that date 340 departmental libraries with a
total of 3,734,260 vols., and 44,436 MSS. In 1908 the number
of volumes in all the public libraries; communal, university,
learned societies, educational and departmental, was more than
20,060,148 vols., 93,986 MSS. and 15,530 incunabula. Paris
alone now possesses over 10,570,000 printed vols., 147,543 MSS.,
5000 incunabula, 609,439 maps and plans, 2,000,000 prints
(designs and reproductions).
The Bibliotheque Nationale (one of the most extensive libraries
in the world) has had an advantage over others in the length
of time during which its contents have been accumu- pafjli
lating, and in the great zeal shown for it by several
kings and other eminent men. Enthusiastic writers find the
MODERN]
LIBRARIES
565
original of this library in the MS. collections of Charlemagne and
Charles the Bald, but these were dispersed in course of time, and
the few precious relics of them which the national library now
possesses have been acquired at a much later date. Of the
library which St Louis formed in the I3th century (in imitation
of what he had seen in the East) nothing has fallen into' the
possession of the Bibliotheque Nationale, but much has remained
of the royal collections made by kings of the later dynasties.
The real foundation of the institution (formerly known as the
Bibliotheque du Roi) may be said to date from the reign of King
John, the Black Prince's captive, who had a considerable taste
for books, and bequeathed his " royal library " of MSS. to his
successor Charles V. Charles V. organized his library in a very
effective manner, removing it from the Palais de la Cite to the
Louvre, where it was arranged on desks in a large hall of three
storeys, and placed under the management of the first librarian
and cataloguer, Claude Mallet, the king's valet-de-chambre.
His catalogue was a mere shelf -list, entitled Inventaire des Limes
du Roy noslre Seigneur estans au chastel du Louvre; it is still
extant, as well as the further inventories made by Jean Blanchet
in 1380, and by Jean le Begue in 1411 and 1424. Charles V.
was very liberal in his patronage of literature, and many of the
early monuments of the French language are due to his having
employed Nicholas Oresme, Raoul de Presle and other scholars
to make translations from ancient texts. Charles VI. added some
hundreds of MSS. to the royal library, which, however, was
sold to the regent, duke of Bedford, after a valuation had been
established by the inventory of 1424. The regent transferred it
to England, and it was finally dispersed at his death in 1435.
Charles VII. and Louis XI. did little to repair the loss of the
precious Louvre library, but the news of the invention of printing
served as a stimulus to the creation of another one, of which the
first librarian was Laurent Paulmier. The famous miniaturist,
Jean Foucquet of Tours, was named the king's enlumineur, and
although Louis XI. neglected to avail himself of many precious
opportunities that occurred in his reign, still the new library
developed gradually with the help of confiscation. Charles VIII.
enriched it with many fine MSS. executed by his order, and
also with most of the books that had formed the library of the
kings of Aragon, seized by him at Naples. Louis XII., on
coming to the throne, incorporated the Bibliotheque du Roi
with the fine Orleans library at Blois, which he had inherited.
The Blois library, thus augmented, and further enriched by
plunder from the palaces of Pavia, and by the purchase of the
famous Gruthuyse collection, was described at the time as one of
the four marvels of France. Francis I. removed it to Fontaine-
bleau in 1534, enlarged by the addition of his private library.
He was the first to set the fashion of fine artistic bindings, which
was still more cultivated by Henry II., and which has never
died out in France. During the librarianship of Amyot (the
translator of Plutarch) the library was transferred from Fontaine-
bleau to Paris, not without the loss of several books coveted by
powerful thieves. Henry IV. removed it to the College de
Clermont, but in 1604 another change was made, and in 1622
it was installed in the Rue de la Harpe. Under the librarianship
of J. A. de Thou it acquired the library of Catherine de' Medici,
and the glorious Bible of Charles the Bald. In 1617 a decree was
passed that two copies of every new publication should be
deposited in the library, but this was not rigidly enforced till
Louis XIV. 's time. The first catalogue worthy of the name
•was finished in 1622, and contains a description of some 6000
vols., chiefly MSS. Many additions were made during Louis
XIII.'s reign, notably that of the Dupuy collection, but a new
era dawned for the Bibliotheque du Roi under the patronage of
Louis XIV. The enlightened activity of Colbert, one of the
greatest of collectors, so enriched the library that it became
necessary for want of space to make another removal. It was
therefore in 1666 installed in the Rue Vivien (now Vivienne) not
far from its present habitat. The departments of engravings
and medals were now created, and before long rose to nearly
equal importance with that of books. Marolles's prints, Fouc-
quet's books, and many from the Mazarin library were added to
the collection, and, in short, the Bibliotheque du Roi had its
future pre-eminence undoubtedly secured. Nic. Clement made
a catalogue in 1684 according to an arrangement which has been
followed ever since (that is, in twenty-three classes, each one
designated by a letter of the alphabet), with an alphabetical index
to it. After Colbert's death Louvois emulated his predecessor's
labours, and employed Mabillon, Thevenot and others to procure
fresh accessions from all parts of the world. A new catalogue
was compiled in 1688 in 8 vols. by several distinguished scholars.
The Abbe Louvois, the minister's son, became head of the library
in 1691, and opened it to all students — a privilege which although
soon withdrawn was afterwards restored. Towards the end of
Louis XIV. 's reign it contained over 70,000 vols. Under the
management of the Abbe Bignon numerous additions were made
in all departments, and the library was removed to its present
home in the Rue Richelieu. Among the more important ac-
quisitions were 6000 MSS. from the private library of the Colbert
family, Bishop Huet's forfeited collection, and a large number
of Oriental books imported by missionaries from the farther East,
and by special agents from the Levant. Between 1739 and 1753
a catalogue in n vols. was printed, which enabled the adminis-
tration to discover and to sell its duplicates. In Louis XVI. 's
reign the sale of the La Valliere library furnished a valuable
increase both in MSS. and printed books. A few years before
the Revolution broke out the latter department contained over
300,000 vols. and opuscules. The Revolution was serviceable
to the library, now called the Bibliotheque Nationale, by in-
creasing it with the forfeited collections of the emigres, as well as
of the suppressed religious communities. In the midst of the
difficulties of placing and cataloguing these numerous acquisitions,
the name of Van Praet appears as an administrator of the first
order. Napoleon increased the amount of the government grant ;
and by the strict enforcement of the law concerning new publica-
tions, as well as by the acquisition of several special collections,
the Bibliotheque made considerable progress during his reign
towards realizing his idea that it should be universal in character.
At the beginning of last century the recorded numbers were
250,000 printed vols., 83,000 MSS., and 1,500,000 engravings.
After Napoleon's downfall the MSS. which he had transferred
from Berlin, Hanover, Florence, Venice, Rome, the Hague and
other places had to be returned to their proper owners. The
MacCarthy sale in 1817 brought a rich store of MSS. and
incunabula. From that time onwards to the present, under the
enlightened administration of MM. Taschereau and Delisle and
Marcel, the accessions have been very extensive.
According to the statistics for 1908 the riches of the Biblioth&jue
Nationale may be enumerated as follows: (i) De'partement des
Imprimes: more than 3,000,000 vols.; Maps and plans, 500,000
in 28,000 vols. (2) De'partement des Manuscrits: 110,000 MSS.
thus divided: Greek 4960, Latin 21,544, French 44,913, Oriental and
miscellaneous 38,583. (3) De'partement des Estampes: 1,000,000
pieces. (4) De'partement des Medailles: 207,096 pieces.
Admittance to the " salle de travail " is obtained through a card
procured from the secretarial office; the " salle publique ' contains
344 places for readers, who are able to consult more than 50,000 vols.
of books of reference. Great improvements have lately been intro-
duced into the service. A " salle de lecture publique " is free to all
readers and is much used. New buildings are in process of con-
struction. The slip catalogue bound in volumes dates from 1882 and
gives a list of all accessions since that date; it is divided into two
parts, one for the names of authors and the other for subjects. There
is not yet, as at the British Museum, an alphabetical catalogue of all
the printed works and kept up by periodical supplements, but since
1897 a Catalogue general des livres imprimis has been begun. In
1909 the 38th vol. containing letters A to Delp had appeared.
Some volumes are published each year, but the earlier volumes only
contain a selection of the books; this inconvenience has now been
remedied. Among the other catalogues published by the Printed
Book Department, the following may be mentioned: Repertoire
alphabetique des livres mis a la disposition des lecteurs dans la salle de
travail (1896, 8vo), Liste des periodiques franc,ais et Strangers mis a la
disposition des lecteurs (1907, 4to, autogr.), Liste des periodiques
etrangers (new ed., 1896, 8vo) and Supplement (1902, 8vo), Bulletin
des recentes publications franQaises (from 1882, 8vo), Catalogue des
dissertations et ecrits academiques provenant des ^changes avec les
universitts ttrangeres (from 1882, 8vo). The other extensive cata-
logues apart from those of the 1 8th century are: Catalogue de
I'histoire de France (1885-1889, 410, II vols.); Table des auteurs,
566
LIBRARIES
[MODERN
par P. Marchal (1895, 410), with the following autographed supple
merits: Histoire locale (1880); Histoire genealogique et biographic
(1884); Maurs et coutumes, archeologie (1885); Histoire maritime e
militaire (1894); Histoire constitutionnelle (1895) ; Sciences medicate
(1857-1889, 3 vols., 4to); Histoire de la Grande- Bretagne (1875-
1878, autogr.); Histoire de I'Espagne et du Portugal (1883, autogr.)
Histoire de I'Asie (1894); Histoire de VAfrique (1895, autogr.)
Histoire de I'Amerique, par G. Barringer (1903-1908, autogr.)
Factums et autres documents judiciaires anterieurs a 1790, par Cordi.
et A. Trudon des Ormes (1890-1907, 8 vols., 8vo); Catalogue
general des incunables des bibliotheques publiques de France, par M
Pellechet et L. Polain, t. i.-iii. (1897-1909, 8vo); Limes d'heures
imprimes au XV' siecle conserves dans les bibliotheques publiques de
Paris, par P. Lacombe (1907, 8vo), &c. In the Geographica
section there is L. Valise's Catalogue des cartes et plans relatifs i
Paris et aux environs de Paris (1908, 8vo). The following should be
mentioned: Bibliographic generale des travaux historiques et archeo-
logiques publics par les societes savantes de la France, par R. de
Lasteyrie avec la collaboration d'E. Lefevre-Pontalis, S. Bougenot
A. Vidier, t. i.-vi. (1885-1908, 4to). The scientific division of this
work (in two parts) is by Deniker. The printed catalogues and the
autographed and manuscript lists of the Departement des Manu-
scrits are very numerous and greatly facilitate research. For the
French there are: H. Omont, Catalogue general des manuscrits
franfais (1895-1897, 9 vols. 8vo) ; H. Omont, Nouvelles acquisitions
(continuation of the same catalogue, 1899-1900, 3 vols. 8vo); H.
Omont, Anciens Inventaires de la Bibliotheque Nationale (1908-1909,
I VpU. 8vo); E. Coyecque, Inventaire de la Collection Anisson sur
I'histoire de I'imprimerie et de la librairie_ (1900, 2 vols. 8vo). Without
repeating the catalogues mentioned in the tenth edition of the
Encyclopaedia Britannica, it is yet necessary to mention the follow-
ing: Catalogue de la collection Baluze; Inventaire des sceaux de
la collection Clairambault; Catalogue de la collection des cinq-cents
et des melanges Colbert; Catalogue des collections Duchesne et de
Brequigny; those of the Dupuy, Joly de Fleury, and Moreau collec-
tions, and that of provincial history, &c. For the Greek collection
the most important catalogues have been made by H. Omont, the
present Keeper of the Manuscripts, and these are: Inventaire som-
maire des MSS. grecs (1886-1898, 4 vols. 8vo); Catalogus codicum
hagiographicorum graecorum (1896, 8vo); Facsimiles des plus
anciens MSS. grecs en onciale et en minuscule du IX' au XIV' siecle
(1891, fol.); as well as Description des peintures et autres ornements
contenus dans les MSS. latins, par H. Bordier (1883, 410). The lists
of the Latin MSS. are: Inventaire des manuscrits latins et nouvelles
acquisitions jusqu'en 1874 (1863-1874, 7 pts. 8vo) and Manuscrits
latins etfranfais ajoutes auxfonds des nouvelles acquisitions 1875-1881
(1891, 2 vols. 8vo), by M. Delisle; M. Omont published Nouvelles
Acquisitions du departement des manuscrits (1892-1907, 8 pts. 8vo),
and B. Haureau, Notices et extraits de quelques manuscrits latins
(1890-1893, 6 vols. 8vo). The principal modern catalogues of the
oriental collection are : B. de Slane, Catalogue des MSS. arabes avec
supplement (1883-1895, 410); E. Blochet, Catalogue des MSS.
arabes, persons, et turcs de la collection Schefer (1900); E. Blochet,
Inventaire des MSS. arabes de la collection Decourtemanche (1906); F.
Macler, Catalogue des MSS. armeniens et georgiens (1908). For other
oriental languages the following catalogues have been compiled:
MSS. birmans et cambodgiens (1879); MSS. chinois, careens et
indo-
mazdeens (1900) ; MSS. mexicains (1899) ; MSS. "persons', t. i
(1905); MSS. sanscrits et p&lis (1899, 1907-1908); MSS. siamois
(1887); MSS. synaques et sabeens (1874-1896); MSS. thibetains (in
the press), &c. The catalogues of manuscripts in modern languages
are nearly all completed. The Departements des Mcdailles et des
Estampes possess excellent catalogues, and the following should be
mentioned: E. Babelon, Catalogue des monnaies grecques (1890-
1893); E. Babelon, Inventaire sommaire de la collection Waddington
(1898); Medailles fausses recueillies, par Hoffmann (1902); Muret et
Chabouillet, Catalogue des monnaies gauloises (1889-1892); Prou,
Catalogue des monnaies franc,aises (1892-1896); H. de la Tour|
Catalogue de la collection Rouyer, \" partie (1899); Catalogues des
monnaies et medailles d' Alsace (1902); Cat. des monnaies de
I'Amerique du Nord (1861); Cat. des monnaies musulmanes ( 1 887-
1891); Cat. des plombs (1900); Cat. des bronzes antiques (1889);
Cat. des camees antiques et modernes (1897-1899); Cat. des vases
peints (1902-1904, 2 vols.). In the D6partcment des Estampes the
following should be mentioned: F. Courboin, Catalogue sommaire
des gravures el lithographies de la Reserve (1900-1901); Duplessis,
Cat. des portraits franfais et strangers (1896-1907, 6 vofs.);H.
Bouchot, Les Portraits au crayon des XVI' et XVII' siecles (1884)-
Cat. des dessins relatifs a I'histoire du theatre (1896); F. Courboin,
Inventaire des dessins, photographies et gravures relatives a I'histoire
generale de I' art (1895, 2 vols.), &c.
The Bibliotheque de PArsenal was founded by the marquis
de Paulmy (Antoine-Rene d'Argenson) in the i8th century; it
received in 1 786 80,000 vols. from the due de La Valliere. Before
its confiscatipn as national property it had belonged to the
comte d'Artois, who had bought it from the marquis de Paulmy
in his lifetime. It contains at the present time about 600,000
vols., 10,000 manuscripts, 120,000 prints and the Bastille
collection (2500 portfolios) of which the inventory is complete;
it is the richest library for the literary history of France and has
more than 30,000 theatrical pieces.
L'lnyentaire des manuscrits was made by H. Martin (1885-1899,
t. i.-viii.); the other catalogues and lists are: Extrait du catalogue
des journaux conserves a la Bibliotheque de I' Arsenal (" Bulletin des
biblioth. et des archives " t. i.) ; Archives de la Bastille, par F. Funck-
Brentano (1892-1894, 3 vols. 8vo); Notice sur les depots litteraires
par J. B. Labiche (1880, 8vo); Catalogue des estampes, dessins et
cartes composant le cabinet des estampes de la bibliotheque de V Arsenal
par G. Schefer (1894-1905, 8 pts. 8vo).
The Bibliotheque Mazarine owes its origin to the great cardinal,
who confided the direction to Gabriel Naude; it was open to the
public in 1642, and was transferred to Rue de Richelieu in
1648. Dispersed during the Fronde in the lifetime of Mazarin,
it was reconstituted after the death of the cardinal in 1661,
when it contained 40,000 vols. which were left to the College des
Quatre-Nations, which in 1691 made it again public. It now has
250,000 vols.; with excellent manuscript catalogues.
The catalogues of incunabula and manuscripts are printed: P.
Marais et A. Dufresne de Saint-Leon, Catalogue des incunables de la
bibliotheque Mazarine (1893, 8vo); Supplement, additions et correc-
tions (1898, 4 vols. 8vo) ; Catalogue des MSS., par A. Molinier (1885-
1892, 4 vols. 8vo); Inventaire sommaire des MSS. grecs, par H
Omont.
The first library of the Genovefains had nearly disappeared
owing to bad administration when Cardinal Francois de la
Rochefoucauld, who had charge of the reformation of that re-
ligious order, constituted in 1642 a new library with his own
books. The Bibliotheque Ste-Genevieve in 1716 possessed
45,000 vols.; important gifts were made by Letellier in 1791,
and the due d'Orleans increased it still more. It became
national property in 1791, and was called the Bibliotheque du
Pantheon and added to the Lycee Henri IV. under the empire.
In 1908 the library contained 350,000 printed vols., 1225 incuna-
bula, 3510 manuscripts, 10,000 prints (including 7357 portraits
and 3000 maps and plans).
The printed catalogues at present comprise: Poiree et Lamoureux,
Catalogue abrege de la bibliotheque Ste-Genevieve (1891, 8vo) • 3
supplements (1890-1896, 1897-1899, 1900-1902); Catalogue des
incunables de la bibliotheque Ste-Genevieve, redige par Daunou publi6
par M. Pellechet (1892, 8vo) ; Catalogue general des MSS., par Ch.
Kohler (1894-1896, 2 vols. 8vo); Inventaire sommaire des MSS.
grecs, par H. Omont; Notices sur quelques MSS. normands, par E.
Deville (1904-1906, 10 pts. 8vo), &c.
The Bibliotheque des Archives nationales, founded in 1808
by Daunou, contains 30,000 vols. on sciences auxiliary to
history. It is only accessible to the officials.
It would be impossible to describe all the official, municipal and
academic libraries of Paris more or less open to the public, which
are about 200 in number, and in the following survey we deal only
with those having 10,000 vols. and over.
The Bibliotheque du Ministere des affaires etrangeres was founded
)y the marquis de Torcy, minister for foreign affairs under Louis
CIV.; it contains 80,000 vols. and is for official use only. The
Bibliotheque du Ministere de 1'Agriculture dates from 1 882 and has
only 4000 vols. At the Ministry for the Colonies the library (of
10,000 vols.) dates from 1897; the catalogue was published in 1905;
the library of the Colonial office is attached to this ministry; sup-
pressed in 1896, it was re-established in 1899, and now contains 6000
vols., 7400 periodicals and 5000 photographs; it is open to the
public. There are 30,000 vols. in the Bibliotheque du Ministere du
commerce et de 1'industrie; the Bibliotheque du Ministere des
inances was burnt at the Commune, but has been reconstituted and
low contains 35,000 vols. ; connected with it are the libraries of the
ollowing offices: Contributions directes, Contributions indirectes,
inregistrement et inspection des finances; the contents of these
our libraries make a total of 13,500 vols. The Bibliotheque du
Vlinistere de la Guerre was formed by Louvois and possesses 130,000
vols. and 800 MSS. and an income of 20,000 francs; the catalogues
are Bibliotheque du depdt de la guerre: Catalogue (1883-1890);
Supplements (1893-1896); Catalogue des MSS., par t. Lemoine
^1910). The following libraries are connected with this department:
-omit<5 de sant6 (10,000 vols.), Ecole supeVieure de guerre (70,000
/ols.), Comit£ technique de 1'artillerie (24,000 vols.). The Biblio-
heque du Ministere de 1'Interieur was founded in '1793 and has
to.ooo vols. The Bibliotheque du Ministere de la Justice possesses
0,000 vols., and L'Imprimerie Nationale which is connected with it
las a further 19,000 vols. There are also the following law libraries:
MODERN]
LIBRARIES
567
Cour d'appel (12,000 vols.); Ordre des avocats, dating from 1871
(56,000 vols., with a catalogue printed in 1880-1882); the Biblio-
theque des avocats de la cour de Cassation (20,000 vols.) ; that of the
Cour de Cassation (40,000 vols.). The Bibliotheque du Ministeire de
la Marine is of old formation (catalogue 1838-1843); it contains
100,000 vols. and 356 MSS.; the catalogue of manuscripts was
compiled in 1907. The Biblioth&que du service hydrographique de
la Marine has 65,000 vols. and 250 MSS. The Ministere des Travaux
publics possesses 12,000 vols., and the Sous- Secretariat des postes
et t<S16graphes a further 30,000 vols. The Bibliotheque de la Chambre
des d6put6s (1796) possesses 250,000 printed books and 1546 MSS.
(Catalogue des manuscrits, by E. Coyecque et H. Debray, 1907;
Catalogue des livres de jurisprudence, d' economic politique, de finances,
et d' administration, 1883). The Bibliotheque du Sdnat (1818)
contains 150,000 vols. and 1343 MSS. The Bibliotheique du Conseil
d'Etat has 30,000 vols. All these libraries are only accessible to
officials except by special permission.
The Bibliotheque Historique de la ville de Paris was destroyed in
1871, but Jules Cousin reconstituted it in 1872; it possesses 400,000
vols., 3500 MSS. and 14,000 prints; the principal printed catalogues
are Catalogue des imprimes de la Reserve by M. Poete (1910), Catalogue
des manuscrits_, by F. Bournon (1893); a Bulletin has been issued
periodically since 1906. The Biblioth&que administrative de la
prefecture de la Seine is divided into two sections: French (40,000
vols.) and foreign (22,000 vols.); it is only accessible to officials and
to persons having a card of introduction; the catalogues are printed.
The other libraries connected with the city of Paris are that of the
Conseil municipal (20,000 vols.), the Biblioth&ques Municipales
Populaires, 82 in number with a total of 590,000 books; those of the
22 Hospitals (92,887 vols.), the Prefecture de police (10,000 vols.),
the Bibliotheque Forney (10,000 vols. and 80,000 prints), the five
Ecoles municipales supeVieures (19,700 vols.), the six professional
schools (14,200 vols.).
The libraries of the university and the institutions dealing with
higher education in Paris are well organized and their catalogues
generally printed.
The Bibliotheque de I'Universite, although at present grouped as
a system in four sections in different places, historically considered
is the library of the Sorbonne. This was founded in 1762 by Montem-
puis and only included the faculties of Arts and Theology. It
changed its name several times; in 1800 it was the Bibliotheque
du Prytan^e, in 1808 Bibliotheque des Quatre Lycees and in 1812
Bibliotheque de l'Universit6 de France. The sections into which the
Bibliotheque de l'Universit6 is now divided are: (i) Facultes de
Sciences et des Lettres 4 la Sorbonne, (2) Facult6 de M6decine, (3)
Faculte de droit, (4) Ecole supeYieure de pharmacie. Before the
separation of Church and State there was a fifth section, that of
Protestant theology. After the Bibliotheque nationale it is the
richest in special collections, and above all as regards classical philo-
logy, archaeology, French and foreign literature and literary
criticism, just as the library of the Facult6 des Sciences et des
Lettres is notable for philosophy, mathematics and chemico-physical
sciences. The great development which has taken place during the
last thirty years, especially under the administration of M. J. de
Chantepie du D6zert, its installation since 1897 in the buildings of
the New Sorbonne, have made it a library of the very first rank.
The reading-room only seats about 300 persons. The average attend-
ance per day is 1200, the number of books consulted varies from
150010 3000 vols. a day, and the loans amount to 14,000 vols. per
year. The store-rooms, although they contain more than 1200
metres of shelves and comprise two buildings of five storeys each, are
insufficient for the annual accessions, which reach nearly 10,000 vols.
by purchase and presentation. Amongst the latter the most im-
portant are the bequests of Leclerc, Peccot, Lavisse, Derenbourg and
Beljame; the last-named bequeathed more than 3000 vols., including
an important Shakespearean library. The first section contains more
than 550,000 vols., 2800 periodicals which include over 70,000 vols.,
320 incunabula, 2106 MSS., more than 2000 maps and plans and
some prints. The alphabetical catalogues are kept up day by day
on slips. The classified catalogues were in 1910 almost ready for
printing, and some had already been published: Periodiques (1905);
Cartulaires (1907); Melanges jubilaires et publications commemora-
tives (1908); Inventaires des MSS., by E. Chatelain (1892); Incun-
ables, by E. Chatelain (1902) ; and Supplement, Reserve de la biblio-
theque 1401-1540, by Ch. Beaulieux (1909); Nouvelles acquisitions
(1905-1908); Catalogue des livres de G. Duplessis donnes d I'Uni-
versite de Paris (1907), Catalogue collectif des bibliotheques universi-
taires by F6camp (1898-1901). For French theses, of which the
library possesses a rich collection, the catalogues are as follows:
Mourier et Deltour, Catalogue des theses de lettres (1809, &c.); A.
Maire, Repertoire des theses de lettres (1809-1900); A. Maire, Cata-
logue des theses de sciences (1809-1890) with Supplement to 1900 by
Estanave; Catalogue des theses publie par le Ministere de V Instruction
publique (1882, &c.).
At the Sorbonne are also to be found the libraries of A. Dumont and
V. Cousin (15,000 vols.), and those of the laboratories, of which the
richest is the geological (30,000 specimens and books). The section
relating to medicine, housed since 1891 in the new buildings of the
Facultd de Me'decine, includes 180,000 vols. and 88 MSS. (catalogue
1910). The Bibliotheque de la facult6 de droit dates from 1772
and contains 80,000 vols., 239 MSS. The fourth section, 1'Ecple
supeYieure de pharmacie, greatly developed since 1882, now contains
50,000 vols.
The other libraries connected with higher education include that
of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts (40,000 vols., 100,000 reproductions,
14,000 drawings). The library of the Ecole normale sup6rieure
(1794), established in the Rue d'Ulm in 1846, has received legacies
from Verdet (1867), Caboche (1887), Lerambert-Whitcomb (1890),
and a portion of Cuvier's library; the system of classification in use is
practically the same as that of the Sorbonne, being devised by
Philippe Lebas (librarian of the Sorbonne) about 1845; there are
200,000 vols. The library of the Museum d'histoire naturelle dates
from the l8th century, and contains 220,000 vols., 2000 MSS., 8000
original drawings on vellum beginning in 1631. The Bibliotheque
de 1'Office et Mus6e de 1'Instruction publique (formerly Muste
p&lagogique), founded only in 1880, has 75,000 vols. In 1760 was
founded the Bibliotheque de 1'Institut de France, which is very rich;
its acquisitions come particularly from gifts and exchanges (400,000
vols., numerous and scarce; valuable MSS., especially modern ones).
The following may be briefly mentioned : Conservatoire national
de musique (1775), which receives everything published in France
relating to music (200,000 vols.); the Bibliotheque du theatre de
l'Op6ra (25,000 vols., 5000 songs, 20,000 romances, and a dramatic
library of 12,000 vols. and 20,000 prints) ; the Theatre frangais
(40,000 vols.) ; the Academic de me'decine (15,000 vols., 10,000 vols.
of periodicals, 5000 portraits), 1'Observatoire (18,400 vols.); the
Bureau des Longitudes (15,000 vols. and 850 MSS.). The scholastic
libraries are : L'Ecole centrale des arts et manufactures (i 6,000 vols.) ;
1'Ecole coloniale (11,000 vols.); 1'Ecole d'application du service de
sant6 militaire (23,000 vols.) ; 1'Ecole d'application du g6nie mari-
time (14,000 vols.) ; 1'Ecole libre des sciences politiques (25,000
vols., 250 periodicals); 1'Ecole normale d'instituteurs de la Seine
(10,000 vols.); 1'Ecole normale Israelite (30,000 vols., 250 MSS.);
1'Ecole nationale des ponts-et-chausees (9000 vols., 5000 MSS., 5000
photographs); Bibliotheque de 1'Institut catholique (160,000 vols.) ;
1'Institut national agronomique (25,000 vols.); Facult6 libre de
thfologie protestante (36,000 vols.); Conservatoire des arts et
m6tiers (46,000 vols., 2500 maps and plans); Bibliotheque polonaise,
administered by the Acaddmie des Sciences de Cracovie (80,000 vols.,
30,000 prints); S6minaire des Missions etrangeres (25,000 vols.);
1'Association Valentin Hauy, established 1885 (2000 vols. printed in
relief) which lends out 40,000 books per annum; 1'Association
generate des Etudiants (22,000 vols.), which lends and allows refer-
ence on the premises to books by students; Bibliotheque de la
Chambre de Commerce (40,000 vols.), the catalogues of which were
printed in 1879, 1889 and 1902; the Societ6 nationale d'agriculture
(20,000 vols.); the Societ6 d'anthropologie (23,000 vols.); the
Societe1 asiatique (12,000 vols., 200 MSS.) ; the Soci6t6 chimique de
France (10,000 vols.), the catalogue of which was published in 1907;
the Societ6 de chirurgie, dating from 1843 (20,000 vols.) ; the Soci6t6
entomologique (30,000 vols.); the Soci6t6 de geographic founded
1821 (60,000 vols., 6000 maps, 22,000 photographs, 2200 portraits,
80 MSS. of which the catalogue was printed in 1901); the Soci6t6
g4ologique de France (15,000 vols., 30,000 specimens, 800 periodicals) ;
the Soci6t6 de 1'histoire du protestantisme frangais, founded in 1852
(50,000 vols., 1000 MSS. ; income 25,000 frs.) ; the Societ6 d'encourage-
ment pour 1'industrie nationale (50,000 vols., income 8000 frs.); the
Soci6t6 des Ing6nieurs civils (47,000 vols.; catalogue made in 1894);
the Soci6t6 de legislation comparfe (15,000 vols., 4500 pamphlets);
and lastly the Bibliotheque de la Societ6 de Statistique de Paris,
founded in 1860 (60,000 vols., with a printed catalogue).
Before the Revolution there were in Paris alone i too libraries
containing altogether 2,000,000 vols. After the suppression of
the religious orders the libraries were confiscated, and in 1791
more than 800,000 vols. were seized in 162 religious houses and
transferred to eight literary foundations in accordance with a
decree of November 14, 1789. In the provinces 6,000,000 vols.
were seized and transferred to local depositories. The organiza-
tion of the central libraries under the decree of 3 Brumaire An
IV. (October 25, 1795) came to nothing, but the consular edict
of January 28, 1803 gave definitive organization to the books in
the local depositories. From that time the library system was
reconstituted, alike in Paris and the provinces. Unfortunately
many precious books and MSS. were burnt, since by the decree
of 4 Brumaire An II. (October 25, 1793) the Committee of In-
struction ordered, on the proposition of its president the deputy
Romme, the destruction or modification of books and objects
of art, under the pretext that they recalled the outward signs of
feudalism.
The books in the provincial libraries, not including those in
private hands or belonging to societies, number over 9,200,000
vols., 15,540 incunabula and 93,986 MSS. The number in the
colonies and protected states outside France is uncertain, but
it extends to more than 200,000 vols.; to this number must be
568
LIBRARIES
[MODERN
added the 2,428,954 vols. contained in the university libraries.
There are over 300 departmental libraries, and as many
Libraries belong to learned societies. The increase in the
of the provincial libraries is slower than that of the Parisian
Depart- collections. With the exception of 26 libraries con-
ments. nected specially with the state, the others are municipal
and are administered under state control by municipal librarians.
The original foundation of most of the libraries dates but a short
time before the Revolution, but there are a few exceptions.
Thus the Bibliotheque d' Angers owes its first collection to Alain
de la Rue about 1376; it now contains 72,485 vols., 134 incuna-
bula and 2039 MSS. That of Bourges dates from 1466 (36,856
vols., 325 incunabula, 741 MSS.). The library of Carpentras was
established by Michel Anglici between 1452 and 1474 (50,000
vols., 2154 MSS.). Mathieu de la Porte is said to be the founder
of the library at Clermont-Ferrand at the end of the 1 5th century ;
it contained rather more than 49,000 vols. at the time of its
union with the Bibliotheque Universitaire.
Amongst the libraries which date from the l6th century must be
mentioned that at Lyons founded by Francois I. in 1527 ; it possesses
1 13,168 vols., 870 incunabula and 5243 MSS. That of the Palais des
Arts has 82,079 vols., 64 incunabula and 311 MSS.
In the I7th century were established the following libraries:
Abbeville, by Charles Sanson in 1685 (46,929 vols., 42 incunabula,
342 MSS.); Besancon by Abb6 Boisot in 1696 (93,580 vols., 1000
incunabula, 2247 MSS.). In 1604 the Consistoire reform*; de la
Rochelle established a library which possesses to-day 58,900 vols.,
14 incunabula, 1715 MSS. St Etienne, founded by Cardinal de
Villeroi, has 50,000 vols., 8 incunabula, 343 MSS.
The principal libraries founded during the l8th century are the
following: Aix-en- Provence, established by Tournon and Mejane in
1705 (160,000 vols., 300 incunabula, 1351 MSS.); Bordeaux, 1738
(200,000 vols., 3491 MSS.); ChambeVy, 1736 (64,200 vols., 47 in-
cunabula, 155 MSS.); Dijon, 1701, founded by P. Fevret (125,000
vols., 211 incunabula, 1669 MSS.); Grenoble, 1772 (260,772 vols.,
635 incunabula, 2485 MSS.); Marseilles, 1799 (111,672 vols., 143
incunabula, 1691 MSS.); Nancy, founded in 1750 by Stanislas
(126,149 vols., 205 incunabula, 1695 MSS.); Nantes, 1753 (103,328
vols., 140 incunabula, 2750 MSS.); Nice, founded in 1786 by Abb6
Massa (55,000 vols., 300 incunabula, 150 MSS.) ; Nimes, founded by
J. T. de Seguier in 1778 (80,000 vols., 61 incunabula, 675 MSS.);
Niort, by Jean de Dieu and R. Bion in 1771 (49,413 vols., 67 incuna-
bula, 189 MSS.); Perpignan, by Marechal de Mailly in 1759 (27,200
vols., 80 incunabula, 127 MSS.); Rennes, 1733 (110,000 vols., 116
incunabula, 602 MSS., income 8950 frs.) ; Toulouse, by archbishop
of Brienne in 1782 (213,000 vols., 859 incunabula, 1020 MSS.).
Nearly all the other municipal libraries date from the Revolution,
or rather from the period of the redistribution of the books in 1803.
The following municipal libraries possess more than 100,000 vols. :
Avignon (135,000 vols., 698 incunabula, 4152 MSS.), of which the first
collection was the legacy of Calvet in 1810; Caen (122,000 vols., 109
incunabula, 665 MSS.); Montpellier (130,300 vols., 40 incunabula,
251 MSS.); Rouen (140,000 vols., 400 incunabula, 4000 MSS.);
Tours (123,000 vols., 451 incunabula, 1999 MSS.) ; Versailles (161,000
vols., 436 incunabula, 1213 MSS.).
The following towns have libraries with more than 50,000 volumes :
Amiens, Auxerre, Beaune, Brest, Douai, le Havre, Lille, le Mans,
Orleans, Pau, Poitiers, Toulon and Verdun.
The catalogues of the greater part of the municipal libraries are
printed. Especially valuable is the Catalogues des MSS. des biblio-
theques de Paris et des Departements, which began to appear in 1885;
the MSS. of Paris fill 18 octavo volumes, and those of the provinces
5°-
The libraries of the provincial universities, thanks to their re-
organization in 1882 and to the care exhibited by the general in-
spectors, are greatly augmented. Aix has 74,658 vols. ; Alger 160,489;
Besangon 24,275; Bordeaux 216,278; Caen 127,542; Clermont
173,000; Dijon 117,524; Grenoble 127,400; Lille 215,427; Lyons
425,624; Marseilles 53,763; Montpellier 210,938; Nancy 139,036;
Poitiers 180,000; Rennes l66>427; Toulouse 232,000.
Since 1882 the educational libraries have largely developed; in
1877 they were 17,764 in number; in 1907 they were 44,021, con-
taining 7,757,917 vols. The purely scholastic libraries have de-
creased; in 1902 there were 2674 libraries with 1,034,132 vols.,
whilst after the reorganization (Circulaire of March 14,1904) there
were only 1131 with 573,279 vols. The Socie'te' Franklin pour la
propagation des bibliothegues populaires et militaires distributed
among the libraries which it controls 55, 185 vols., between the years
1900 and 1909.
AUTHORITIES. — Information has been given for this account by
M. Albert Maire, librarian at the Sorbonne. See also the following
works: — Bibliotheque Nationale: I. Bdtiments, collections, organisation,
departement des estampes, departement des medailles et antiques, par
Henri Marcel, Henri Bouchot et Ernest Babelon. II. Le Departe-
ment des imprimis et la section de geographie. ie Departement des
manuscrits, par Paul Marchal et Camille Couderc (Paris, 1907, 2
vols.); Felix Chambon, Notes sur la bibliotheque de I'Universite de
Paris de 1763 a 1905 (Ganat, 1905); Fosseyeux, La Bibliotheque
des hopitaux de Paris (Revue des bibliotheques, t. 18, 1908); Alfred
Franklin, Guide des savants, des litterateurs et des artistes dans les
bibliotheques de Paris (Paris, 1908); Instruction du 7 Mars 1899 sur
I' organisation des bibliotheques militaires (Paris, 1899); Henri
Jadart, Les Anciennes bibliotheques de Reims, leur sort en IJQO-IJQI
et la formation de la bibliotheque publique (Reims, 1891); Henry
Marcel, Rapport adresse au Ministre de I' Instruction Publique, sur
I'ensemble des services de la bibliotheque nationale en 1903 (Journal
Officiel, 1906); Henry Martin, Histoire de la bibliotheque de I Arsenal
(Paris, 1899) ; E. Morel, Le Developpement des bibliotheques publiques
(Paris, 1909); The'od. Mortreuil, La Bibliotheque nationale, son
origine et ses accroissements; notice historique (Paris, 1878); Abb6
L. V. Pe'cheur, Histoire des bibliotheques publiques du departement de
I'Aisne existant a Soissons, Laon et Saint-Quentin (Soissons, 1884);
M. Poete, E. Beaurepaire and E. Clouzot, Une visile d, la bibliotheque
de la ville de Paris (Paris, 1907) ; E. de Saint-Albin, Les Biblio-
theques municipales de la ville de Paris (Paris, 1896); B. Subercaze,
Les Bibliotheques populaires, scolaires et pedagogiques (Paris, 1892).
Germany (with Austria-Hungary and Switzerland).
Germany is emphatically the home of large libraries; her
former want of political unity and consequent multiplicity of
capitals have had the effect of giving her many large Germaay
state libraries, and the number of her universities has
tended to multiply considerable collections; 1617 libraries were
registered by P. Schwenke in 1891. As to the conditions, hours
of opening, &c., of 200 of the most important of them, there is
a yearly statement in the Jahrbuch der deutschen Bibliotheken,
published by the Verein deutscher Bibliothekare.
The public libraries of the German empire are of four distinct
types: state libraries, university libraries, town libraries and
popular libraries. The administration and financial affairs of
the state and university libraries are under state control. The
earlier distinction between these two classes has become less and
less marked. Thus the university libraries are no longer re-
stricted to professors and students, but they are widely used by
scientific workers, and books are borrowed extensively, especially
in Prussia. In Prussia, as a link between the state and the
libraries, there has been since 1907 a special office which deals
with library matters at the Ministry of Public Instruction.
Generally the state does not concern itself with the town
libraries and the popular libraries, but there is much in common
between these two classes. Sometimes popular libraries are under
the supervision of a scientifically administered town library as in
Berlin, Dantzig, &c.; elsewhere, as at Magdeburg, we see an
ancient foundation take up the obligations of a public library.
Only in Prussia and Bavaria are regulations in force as to the
professional education of librarians. Since 1904 the librarians of
the Prussian state libraries have been obliged to complete their
university courses and take up their doctorate, after which they
have to work two years in a library as volunteers and then under-
go a technical examination. The secretarial officials since 1909
have to reach a certain educational standard and must pass an
examination. This regulation has been in force as regards
librarians in Bavaria from 1905.
Berlin is well supplied with libraries, 268 being registered by P.
Schwenke and A. Hortzschansky in 1906, with about 5,000,000
printed vols. The largest of them is the ; Royal Library, Berlin
which was founded by the " Great Elector " Frederick
William, and opened as a public library in a wing of the electoral
palace in 1661. From 1699 the library became entitled to a copy of
every book published within the royal territories, and it has received
many valuable accessions by purchase and otherwise. It now in-
cludes 1,230,000 printed vols. and over 30,000 MSS. The amount
yearly expended upon binding and the acquisition of books, &c., is
£i 1,326. The catalogues are in manuscript, and include two general
alphabetical catalogues, the one in volumes, the other on slips,
as well as a systematic catalogue in volumes. The following annual
printed catalogues are issued : Verzeichnis der aus der neu erschienenen
Literalur von der K. Bibliothek und den Preussischen Universildts-
Bibliotheken erworbenen Druckschriften (since 1892) ; Jahresverzeichnis
der an den Deutschen Universitaten erschienenen Schriften (since
1887); Jahresverzeichnis der an den Deutschen Schulanstalten
erschienenen Abhandlungen (since 1889). There is besides a printed
Verzeichnis der im grossen Lesesaal aufgestellten Handbibliothek (4th ed.
1909), the alphabetical Verzeichnis der laufenden Zeitschriften (last
ed., 1908), and the classified Verzeichnis der laufenden Zeitschriften
MODERN]
LIBRARIES
569
(1908). The catalogue of MSS. are mostly in print, vols. 1-13,
16^23 (1853-1905). The library is specially rich in oriental MSS.,
chiefly due to purchases of private collections. The musical MSS. are
very remarkable and form the richest collection in the world as re-
gards autographs. The building, erected about 1780 by Frederick
the Great, has long been too small, and a new one was completed in
1909. The building occupies the whole space between the four
streets: Unter den Linden, Dprotheenstrasse, Universitatsstrasse
and Charlottenstrasse, and besides the Royal Library, houses the
University Library and the Academy of Sciences. The conditions
is to the use of the collections are, as in most German libraries, very
liberal. Any adult person is allowed to have books in the reading-
room. Books are lent out to all higher officials, including those
holding educational offices in the university, &c., and by guarantee
to almost any one recommended by persons of standing; borrowing
under pecuniary security is also permitted. By special leave of the
librarian, books and MSS. may be sent to a scholar at a distance, or,
if especially valuable, may be deposited in some public library where
he can conveniently use them. In 1908-1909 264,000 vols. were used
in the reading-rooms, 312,000 were lent inside Berlin, and 32,000
outside. There is a regular system of exchange between the Royal
Library and a great number of Prussian libraries. It is the same in
Bavaria, Wurttemberg and Baden ; the oldest system is that between
Darmstadt and Giessen (dating from 1837). There is either no
charge for carriage to the borrower or the cost is very small. The
reading-room and magazine hall are, with the exception of Sundays
and holidays, open daily from 9 to 9, the borrowing counter from
9 to 6.
Associated with the Royal Library are the following undertakings :
the Gesamtkatalog der Preussischen wissenschaftlichen BMiotheken
(describing the printed books in the Royal Library and the Prussian
University Libraries in one general catalogue upon slips), the
Auskunftsbureau der Deutschen Bibliotheken (bureau to give
information where any particular book may be consulted), and the
Kommission fur den Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke (to draw up a
complete catalogue of books printed before 1500).
The University Library (1831) numbers 220,000 vols. together with
250,000 academical and school dissertations. The number of volumes
lent out in 1908-1909 was 104,000. The library possesses the right
to receive a copy of every work published in the province of Branden-
burg.
Some of the governmental libraries are important, especially those
of the Statistisches Landesamt (184,000 vols.); Reichstag (181,000
vols.) ; Patent-Amt (l 18,000 vols.) ; Haus der Abgeordneten (100,000
vols.); Auswartiges-Amt (118,000 vols.).
The public library of Berlin contains 102,000 vojs. ; connected
therewith 28 municipal Volksbibliotheken and 14 municipal reading-
rooms. The 28 Volksbibliotheken contain (1908) 194,000 vols.
The Prussian university libraries outside Berlin include Bonn
(332,000 printed vols., 1500 MSS.); Breslau (330,000 printed vols.,
3700 MSS.); Gottingen, from its foundation in 1736/7 the best
administered library of the l8th century (552,000 printed vols., 6800
MSS.); Greifswald (200,000 printed vols., 800 MSS.); Halle
(261,000 printed vols., 2000 MSS.); Kiel (278,000 printed vols.,
2400 MSS.); Konigsberg (287,000 printed vols., 1500 MSS.);
Marburg (231,000 printed vols. and about 8po MSS.); Munster
(191,000 printed vols., 800 MSS.). Under provincial administration
are the Konigliche and Provinzialbibliothek at Hanover (203,000
printed vols., 4000 MSS.) ; the Landesbibliothek at Cassel (230,000
printed vols., 4400 MSS.); and the Kaiser- Wilhelm-Bibliothek at
Posen (163,000 printed vols.). A number of the larger towns possess
excellent municipal libraries; Aix-la-Chapelle (112,000 vols.);
Breslau (164,000 vols., 4000 MSS.); Dantzig (145,600 vols., 2900
MSS.); Frankfort a/M (342,000 vols. besides MSS.); Cassel
Murhardsche Bibliothek (141,000 vols., 6300 MSS.); Cologne
(235,000 vols.); Treves (100,000 vols., 2260 MSS.); Wiesbaden
(158,000 vols.).
The libraries of Munich, though not so numerous as those of Berlin,
include two of great importance. The Royal Library, for a long time
„ . . the largest collection of books in Germany, was founded
by Duke Albrecht V. of Bavaria (1550-1579), who made
numerous purchases from Italy, and incorporated the libraries of the
Nuremberg physician and historian Schedel, of Widmannstadt, and
of J. J. Fugger. The number of printed vols. is estimated at about
1,100,000 and about 50,000 MSS. The library is especially rich in
incunabula, many of them being derived from the libraries of over
150 monasteries closed in 1803. The oriental MSS. are numerous and
valuable, and include the library of Martin Haug. The amount
annually spent upon books and binding is £5000. The catalogues
of the printed books are in manuscript, and include (i) a general
alphabetical catalogue, (2) an alphabetical repertorium of each of the
195 subdivisions of the library, (3) biographical and other subject
catalogues. A printed catalogue of MSS. in 8 vols. was in 1910 nearly
complete; the first was published in 1858. The library is open on
weekdays from 8 to I (November to March 8.30 to I ), and on Monday
to Friday (except from August I to September 15) also from 3 to 8.
The regulations for the use of the library are very similar to those of
the Royal Library at Berlin. The building was erected for this
collection under King Louis I. in 1832-1843. The archives are
bestowed on the ground floor, and the two upper floors are devoted
to the library, which occupies seventy-seven apartments. The
University Library was originally founded at Ingolstadt in 1472, and
removed with the university to Munich in 1826. At present the
number of vols. amounts to 550,000; the MSS. number 2000.
Forty-six Munich libraries are described in Schwenke's Adressbuch,
15 of which possessed in 1909 about 2,000,000 printed vols. and
about 60,000 MSS. After the two mentioned above the most note-
worthy is the Koniglich Bayrische Armee- Bibliothek (100,000
printed vols., 1000 MSS.).
The chief Bavarian libraries outside Munich are the Royal Library
at Bamberg (350,000 vols., 4300 MSS.) and the University Library at
Wiirzburg (390,000 vols., 1500 MSS.); both include rich monastic
libraries. The University Library at Erlangen has 237,000 vols.
The Staats-Kreis and Stadtbibliothek at Augsburg owns 200,000
vols., and 2000 MSS.; Nuremberg has two great collections, the
Bibliothek des Germanischen National-museums (250,000 vols.,
3550 MSS.) and the Stadtbibliothek (104,000 vols., 2500 MSS.).
In 1906 there were in Dresden 78 public libraries with about
1,495,000 vols. The Royal Public Library in the Japanese Palace
was founded in the i6th century. Among its numerous n
acquisitions have been the library of Count Blinau in uresaea-
1764, and the MSS. of Ebert. Special attention is devoted to history
and literature. The library possesses more than 520,000 vols. (1909) ;
the MSS. number 6000. Admission to the reading-room is granted to
any respectable adult on giving his name, and books are lent out to
persons qualified by their position or by a suitable guarantee. Here,
as at other large libraries in Germany, works of belles-lettres are only
supplied for a literary purpose. The number of persons using the
reading-room in a year is about 14,000, and about 23,000 vols. are
lent. The second largest library in Dresden, the Bibliothek des
Statistischen Landes-Amtes, has 120,000 vols.
Leipzig is well equipped with libraries; that of the University has
550,000 vols. and 6500 MSS. The Bibliothek des Reichsgerichts has
151,000 vols., the Padagogische Central-Bibliothek der Comenius-
Stiftung 150,000 vols., and the Stadtbibliothek 125,000 vols., with
1500 MSS.
The Royal Public Library of Stuttgart, although only established
in 1765, has grown so rapidly that it now possesses about 374,000
vols. of printed works and 5300 MSS. There is a famous _, ft
collection of Bibles, containing over 7200 vols. The '
annual expenditure devoted to books and binding is £2475. The
library also enjoys the copy-privilege in Wurttemberg. The annual
number of borrowers is over 2600, who use nearly 29,000 vols. The
number issued in the reading-room is 41,000. The number of parcels
despatched from Stuttgart is nearly 23,000. Admission is also gladly
granted to the Royal Private Library, founded in 1810, which con-
tains about 137,000 vols.
Of the other libraries of Wurttemberg the University Library of
Tubingen (500,000 vols. and 4100 MSS.) need only be noted.
The Grand-ducal Library of Darmstadt was established by the
grand-duke Louis I. in 1819, on the basis of the still older
library formed in the i?th century, and includes 510,000
vols. and about 3600 MSS. (1909). The number of vols. used
in the course of the year is about 90,000, of which 14,000 are lent out.
Among the other libraries of the Grand Duchy of Hesse the most
remarkable are the University Library at Giessen (230,000 vols.,
1500 MSS.), and the Stadtbibliothek at Mainz (220,000 vols., 1200
MSS.) to which is attached the Gutenberg Museum.
In the Grand Duchy of Baden are the Hof- und Landes-bibliothek
at Carlsruhe (202,000 vols., 3800 MSS.), the University Library at
Freiburg i/B (300,000 vols., 700 MSS.), and the University Library
at Heidelberg. This, the oldest of the German University libraries,
was founded in 1386. In 1623 the whole collection, described by
Joseph Scaliger in 1608 as " locupletior et meliorum librorum quam
Vaticana," was carried as a gift to the pope and only the German
MSS. were afterwards returned. The library was re-established in
1703, and after 1800 enriched with monastic spoils; it now contains
about 400,000 vols. and 3500 MSS. for the most part of great value.
Among the State or University libraries of other German states
should be mentioned Detmold (110,000 vols.); Jena (264,000 vols.);
Neustrelitz (130,000 vols.); Oldenburg (126,000 vols.); Rostock
(275,000 vols.); Schwerin (225,000 vols.); and Weimar (270,000),
all possessing rich collections of MSS.
The Ducal Library of Gotha was established by Duke Ernest the
Pious in the 1 7th century, and contains many valuable books and
MSS. from monastic collections. It numbers about nathm
192,000 vols., with 7400 MSS. The catalogue of the
oriental MSS., chiefly collected by Seetzen, and forming one-half of
the collection, is one of the best in existence.
The Ducal Library at Wolfenbuttel, founded in the second half
of the l6th century by Duke Julius, was made over to the university
of Helmstedt in 1614, whence the most important treasures were
returned to Wolfenbuttel in the igth century; it now numbers
300,000 vols., 7400 MSS.
The chief libraries of the Hanse towns are: Bremen (Stadt-
bibliothek, 141,000 vols.), and Lubeck (Stadtbibliothek, 121,000
vols.) ; the most important being the Stadtbibliothek at Hamburg,
made public since 1648 (383,000 vols., 7300 MSS., among them many
Mexican). Hamburg has also in the Kommerzbibliotnek (120,000
vols.) a valuable trade collection, and the largest Volksbibliothek
Darm*
stadt.
570
LIBRARIES
[MODERN
(about 100,000 vols.) after that at Berlin. Alsace-Lorraine has the
most recently formed of the great German collections — the Uni-
versitats- und Landesbibliothek at Strassburg, which, though
founded only in 1871 to replace that which had been destroyed in the
siege, already ranks amongst the largest libraries of the empire.
Its books amount to 922,000 vols., the number of MSS. is 5900.
The Adressbuch der Bibliolheken der Oesterreich-ungarischen
Monarchic by Bohatta and Holzmann (1900) describes 1014
Austria. libraries in Austria, 656 in Hungary, and 23 in Bosnia
and Herzegovina. Included in this list, however, are
private lending libraries.
The largest library in Austria, and one of the most important
collections in Europe, is the Imperial Public Library at Vienna,
apparently founded by the emperor Frederick III. in 1440,
although its illustrious librarian Lambecius, in the well-known
inscription over the entrance to the library which summarizes
its history attributes this honour to Frederick's son Maximilian.
However this may be, the munificence of succeeding emperors
greatly added to the wealth of the collection, including a not
inconsiderable portion of the dispersed library of Corvinus.
Since 1808 the library has also been entitled to the copy-privilege
in respect of all books published in the empire. The sum
devoted to the purchase and binding of books is £6068 annually.
The number of printed vols. is 1,000,000; 8000 incunabula.
The MSS. amount to 27,000, with 100,000 papyri of the collection
of Archduke Rainer. The main library apartment is one of the
most splendid halls in Europe. Admission to the reading-room
is free to everybody, and books are also lent out under stricter
limitations. The University Library of Vienna was established
by Maria Theresa. The reading-room is open to all comers,
and the h'brary is open from ist Oct. to 3Oth June from 9 a.m.
to 8 p.m.; in the other months for shorter hours. In 1909
447,391 vols. were used in the library, 45,000 vols. lent out in
Vienna, and 6519 vols. sent carriage free to borrowers outside
Vienna. The number of printed vols. is 757,000. For the pur-
chase of books and binding the Vienna University Library has
annually 60,000 crowns from the state as well as 44,000 crowns
from matriculation fees and contributions from the students.
The total number of libraries in Vienna enumerated by Bohatta
and Holzmann is 165, and many of them are of considerable extent.
One of the oldest and most important libraries of the monarchy is the
University Library at Cracow, with 380,000 vols. and 8169 MSS.
The number of monastic libraries in Austria is very considerable.
They possess altogether more than 2,500,000 printed vols., 25,000
incunabula and 25,000 MSS. The oldest of them, and the oldest in
Austria, is that of the monastery of St Peter at Salzburg, which was
established by Archbishop Arno (785-821). It includes 70,000 vols.,
nearly 1500 incunabula. The three next in point of antiquity are
Kremsmunster (100,000), Admont (86,000) and Melk (70,000), all of
them dating from the nth century. Many of the librarians of
these monastic libraries are trained in the great Vienna libraries.
There is no official training as in Prussia and Bavaria.
Information about income, administration, accessions, &c., of
the chief libraries in the Hungarian kingdom, are given in the
Hua Hungarian Statistical Year Book annually. The largest
library in Hungary is the Szechenyi-Nationalbibliothek
at Budapest, founded in 1802 by the gift of the library of Count
Franz Szechenyi. It contains 400,000 printed vols., 16,000 MSS.,
and has a remarkable collection of Hungarica. The University
Library of Budapest includes 273,000 printed books and more
than 2000 MSS. Since 1897 there has been in Hungary a Chief
Inspector of Museums and Libraries whose duty is to watch
all public museums and libraries which are administered by
committees, municipalities, religious bodies and societies. He
also has undertaken the task of organizing a general catalogue
of all the MSS. and early printed books in Hungary.
The libraries of the monasteries and other institutions of the
Catholic Church are many in number but not so numerous as in
Austria. _ The chief among them, the library of the Benedictines at
St Martinsberg, is the central library of the order in Hungary and
contains nearly 170,000 vols. It was reconstituted in 1802 after the
re-establishment of the order. The principal treasures of this abbey
(nth century) were, on the secularization of the monasteries under
Joseph II., distributed among the state libraries in Budapest.
Among the Swiss libraries, which numbered 2096 in 1868,
there is none of the first rank. Only three possess over 200,000
vols.— the University Library at Basle founded in 1460, the
Cantonal Library at Lausanne, and the Stadtbibliothek at
Berne, which since 1905 is united to the University
Library of that city. One great advantage of the ^Ja""
Swiss libraries is that they nearly all possess printed
catalogues, which greatly further the plan of compiling a great
general catalogue of all the libraries of the republic. A valuable
co-operative work is their treatment of Helvetiana. All the
literature since 1848 is collected by the Landes-Bibliothek at
Berne, established in 1895 for this special object. The older
literature is brought together in the Burgerbibliothek at Lucerne,
for which it has a government grant. The monastic libraries
of St Gall and Einsiedeln date respectively from the years 830
and 946, and are of great historical and literary interest.
AUTHORITIES. — Information has been supplied for this account by
Professor Dr A. Hortzschansky, librarian of the Royal Library,
Berlin. See also Adressbuch der deutschen Bibliotheken by Paul
Schwenke (Leipzig, 1893); Jahrbuch der deutschen Bibliotheken
(Leipzig, 1902-1910); Berliner Bibliothekenfuhrer , by P. Schwenke
and A. Hortzschansky (Berlin, 1906); A. Hortzschansky, Die K.
Bibliothek zu Berlin (Berlin, 1908) ; Ed. Zarncke, Leipziger Biblio-
thekenfuhrer (Leipzig, 1909) ; J. Bohatta and M. Holzmann, Adressbuch
der Bibliotheken der osterreich-ungarischen Monarchic (Vienna, 1900);
Ri. Kukula, Die osterreichischen Studienbibliotheken (1905) ; A. Httbl,
Die osterreichischen Klosterbibliotheken in den Jahren 1848-1008 (1908) ;
P. Gulyas, DasungarischeOberinspektoratderMuseen und Bibliotheken
(1909); Die liber 10,000 Bande zdhlenden offentlichen-Bibliotheken
Ungarns, im Jahre 1008 (Budapest, 1910); H. Escher, " Bibliotheks-
wesen " in Handbuch der Schweizer Volkswirtschaft, vol. i. (1903).
Italy.
As the former centre of civilization, Italy is, of course, the
country in which the oldest existing libraries must be looked for,
and in which the rarest and most valuable MSS. are preserved.
The Vatican at Rome and the Laurentian Library at Florence
are sufficient in themselves to entitle Italy to rank before most
other states in that respect, and the venerable relics at Vercelli,
Monte Cassino and La Cava bear witness to the enlightenment
of the peninsula while other nations were slowly taking their
places in the circle of Christian polity. The local rights and
interests which so long helped to impede the unification of Italy
were useful in creating and preserving at numerous minor
centres many libraries which otherwise would probably have
been lost during the progress of absorption that results from such
centralization as exists in England. In spite of long centuries
of suffering and of the aggression of foreign swords and foreign
gold, Italy is still rich in books and MSS. The latest official
statistics (1806) give particulars of 1831 libraries, of which
419 are provincial and communal. In 1893 there were 542
libraries of a popular character and including circulating libraries.
The governmental libraries (biblioteche governative) number 36
and are under the authority of the minister of public instruction.
The Regolamento controlling them was issued in the Bol-
lelino Ufficiale, 5 Dec. 1907. They consist of the national Oovera-
central libraries of Rome (Vittorio Emanuele) and Caries.
Florence, of the national libraries of Milan (Braidense),
Naples, Palermo, Turin and Venice (Marciana); the Biblioteca
governativa at Cremona; the Marucelliana, the Mediceo-Lau-
renziana and the Riccardiana at Florence; the governativa at
Lucca; the Estense at Modena; the Brancacciana and that of
San Giacomo at Naples; the Palatina at Parma; the Angelica,
the Casanatense, and the Lancisiana at Rome; the university
libraries of Bologna, Cagliari, Catania, Genoa, Messina, Modena,
Naples, Padua, Pavia, Pisa, Rome and Sassari ; the Ventimiliana
at Catania (joined to the university library for administrative
purposes) ; the Vallicelliana and the musical library of the R.
Accad. of St Cecilia at Rome; the musical section of the Palatine
at Parma; and the Lucchesi-Palli (added to the national library
at Naples). There are provisions whereby small collections can
be united to larger libraries in the same place and where there
are several government libraries in one city a kind of corporate
administration can be arranged. The libraries belonging to
bodies concerned with higher education, to the royal scientific
and literary academies, fine art galleries, museums and scholastic
institutions are ruled by special regulations. The minister of
public instruction is assisted by a technical board.
LIBRARIES
The librarians and subordinates are divided into (i) librarians,
or keepers of MSS.; (2) sub-librarians, or sub-keepers of MSS.;
(3) attendants, or book distributors; (4) ushers, &c. Those of
class i constitute the " board of direction," which is presided
over by the librarian, and meets from time to time to consider
important measures connected with the administration of the
library. Each library is to possess, alike for books and MSS.,
a general inventory, an accessions register, an alphabetical
author-catalogue and a subject-catalogue. When they are
ready, catalogues of the special collections are to be compiled,
and these the government intends to print. A general catalogue
of the MSS. was in 1910 being issued together with catalogues of
oriental codices and incunabula. Various other small registers
are provided for. The sums granted by the state for library
purposes must be applied to (i) salaries and the catalogues of the
MSS.; (2) maintenance and other expenses; (3) purchase of
, books, binding and repairs, &c. Books are chosen by the
librarians. In the university libraries part of the expenditure
is decided by the librarians, and part by a council formed by the
professors of the different faculties. The rules (Boll. Ufficiale,
Sept. 17, 1908) for lending books and MSS. allow them to be
sent to other countries under special circumstances.
The 36 biblioteche governative annually spend about 300,000
lire in books. From the three sources of gifts, copyright and
purchases, their accessions in 1908 were 142,930, being 21,122
more than the previous year. The number of readers is in-
creasing. In 1908 there were 1,176,934, who made use of
1,650,542 vols., showing an increase of 30,456 readers and
67,579 books as contrasted with the statistics of the previous
year. Two monthly publications catalogue the accessions of
these libraries, one dealing with copyright additions of Italian
literature, the other with all foreign books.
The minister of public instruction has kept a watchful eye upon
the literary treasures of the suppressed monastic bodies. In
1875 there were 1700 of these confiscated libraries, containing
two millions and a half of volumes. About 650 of the collections
were added to the contents of the public libraries already in
existence;, the remaining 1050 were handed over to the different
local authorities, and served to form 371 new communal libraries,
and in 1876 the number of new libraries so composed was 415.
The Biblioteca Vaticana stands in the very first rank among
European libraries as regards antiquity and wealth of MSS.
ttican We can trace back the history of the Biblioteca
Vaticana to the earliest records of the Scrinium
Sedis Apostolicae, which was enshrined in safe custody at the
Lateran, and later on partly in the Turris Chartularia; but of
all the things that used to be stored there, the only survival,
and that is a dubious example, is the celebrated Codex Amiatinus
now in the Laurentian Library at Florence. Of the new period
inaugurated by Innocent III. there but remains to us the
inventory made under Boniface VIII. The library shared in
the removal of the Papal court to Avignon, where the collection
was renewed and increased, but the Pontifical Library at Avignon
has only in part, and in later times, been taken into the Library
of the Vatican. This latter is a new creation of the great
humanist popes of the i5th century. Eugenius IV. planted the
first seed, but Nicholas V. must be looked upon as the real
founder of the library, to which Sixtus IV. consecrated a definite .
abode, ornate and splendid, in the Court of the Pappagallo.
Sixtus V. erected the present magnificent building in 1588, and
greatly augmented the collection. The library increased under
various popes and librarians, among the most noteworthy of
whom were Marcello Cervini, the first Cardinale Bibliotecario, later
Pope Marcel II., Sirleto and A. Carafa. In 1600 it was further
enriched by the acquisition of the valuable library of Fulvio
Orsini, which contained the pick of the most precious libraries.
Pope Paul V. (1605-1621) separated the library from the
archives, fixed the progressive numeration of the Greek and
Latin MSS., and added two great halls, called the Pauline, for
the new codices. Under him and under Urban VIII. a number
of MSS. were purchased from the Convento of Assisi, of the
Minerva at Rome, of the Capranica College, &c. Especially
noteworthy are the ancient and beautiful MSS. of the
monastery of Bobbio, and those which were acquired in various
ways from the monastery of Rossano. Gregory XV. (1622)
received from Maximilian I., duke of Bavaria, by way of com-
pensation for the money supplied by him for the war, the valuable
library of the Elector Palatine, which was seized by Count Tilly
at the capture of Heidelberg. Alexander VII. (1658), having
purchased the large and beautiful collection formerly belonging
to the dukes of Urbino, added the MSS. of it to the Vatican
library. The Libreria della Regina, i.e. of Christina, queen of
Sweden, composed of very precious manuscripts from ancient
French monasteries, from St Gall in Switzerland, and others —
also of the MSS. of Alexandre Petau, of great importance for
their history and French literature, was purchased and in great
part presented to the Vatican library by Pope Alexander VIII.
(Ottoboni) in 1689, while other MSS. came in later with the
Ottoboni library. Under Clement XI. there was the noteworthy
purchase of the 54 Greek MSS. which had belonged to Pius II.,
and also the increase of the collection of Oriental MSS. Under
Benedict XIV. there came into the Vatican library, as a legacy,
the library of the Marchese Capponi, very rich in rare and
valuable Italian editions, besides 285 MSS.; and by a purchase,
the Biblioteca Ottoboniana, which, from its wealth in Greek,
Latin, and even Hebrew MSS., was, after that of the
Vatican, the richest in all Rome. Clement XIII. in 1758,,
Clement XIV. in 1769, and Pius VI. in 1775 were also bene-
factors. During three centuries the vast and monumental
library grew with uninterrupted prosperity, but it was to undergo
a severe blow at the end of the i8th century. In 1798, as a
sequel to the Treaty of Tolentino, 500 MSS. picked from the
most valuable of the different collections were sent to Paris
by the victorious French to enrich the Bibliotheque Nationale
and other libraries. These, however, were chiefly restored in
1815. Most of the Palatine MSS., which formed part of the
plunder, found their way back to the university of Heidelberg.
Pius VII. acquired for the Vatican the library of Cardinal Zelada
in 1800, and among other purchases of the igth century must
be especially noted the splendid Cicognara collection of archaeo-
logy and art (1823); as well as the library in 40,000 vols. of
Cardinal Angelo Mai (1856). Recent more important purchases,
during the Pontificate of Leo XIII., have been the Borghese
MSS., about 300 in number, representing part of the ancient
library of the popes at Avignon; the entire precious library of
the Barberini; the Borgia collection De Propaganda Fide,
containing Latin and Oriental MSS., and 500 incunabula.
Few libraries are so magnificently housed as the Biblioteca
Vaticana. The famous Codici Vaticani are placed in the salone
or great double hall, which is decorated with frescoes depicting
ancient libraries and councils of the church. At the end of the
great hall an immense gallery, also richly decorated, and ex-
tending to 1200 ft., opens out from right to left. Here are
preserved in different rooms the codici Palatini, Regin., Otto-
boniani, Capponiani, &c. The printed books only are on open
shelves, the MSS. being preserved in closed cases. The printed
books that were at first stored in the Borgia Apartment, now
with the library of Cardinal Mai, constitute in great part the
Nuova Sala di Consultazione, which was opened to students under
the Pontificate of Leo XIII. Other books, on the other hand,
are still divided into i" and 2da raccolta, according to the ancient
denomination, and are stored in adjacent halls.
Well-reasoned calculations place the total number of printed
books at 400,000 vols.; of incunabula about 4000, with many
vellum copies; 500 Aldines and a great number of bibliographical
rarities. The Latin manuscripts number 31,373; the Greek
amount to 4148; the Oriental MSS., of which the computation
is not complete, amount to about 4000. Among the Greek and
Latin MSS. are some of the most valuable in the world, alike for
antiquity and intrinsic importance. It is sufficient to mention
the famous biblical Codex Vaticanus of the 4th century, the two
Virgils of the 4th and sth centuries, the Bembo Terence, the
palimpsest De Republica of Cicero, conjectured to be of the 4th
century, discovered by Cardinal Mai, and an extraordinary
572
LIBRARIES
er
number of richly ornamented codices of great beauty and costli-
ness. The archives are apart from the library, and are accessible
in part to the public under conditions. Leo XIII. appointed
a committee to consider what documents of general interest
might expediently be published.
The Biblioteca Vaticana is now open from October ist to Easter
every morning between 9 and i o'clock, and from Easter to
June 29 from 8 o'clock to 12, with the exception of Sundays,
Thursdays and the principal feast days.
Catalogues of special classes of MSS. have been published.
The Oriental MSS. have been described by J. S. Assemani, Biblio-
theca orientalis Clementino-Vaticana (Rome, 1719-1728, 4 vols.
folio), and Bibl. Vat. codd. MSS. catalogus ab S. E. et J. S.
Assemano redactus (ib., 1756-1759, 3 vols. folio), and by Cardinal
Mai in Script. Vet. nova collectio. The Coptic MSS. have been
specially treated by G. Zoega (Rome, 1810, folio) and by F. G.
Bonjour (Rome, 1699, 4to). There are printed catalogues of the
Capponi (i 747) and the Cicognara (1820) libraries. The following
catalogues have lately been printed: E. Stevenson, Codd.
Palatini Graeci (1885), Codd. Gr. Reg. Sueciae et Pit II. (1888);
Feron-Battaglini, Codd. Ottobon. Graeci (1893); C. Stornaiolo,
Codd. Urbinates Gr. (1895); E. Stevenson, Codd. Palatini Lat.
torn, i (1886); G. Salvo-Cozzo, Codici Capponiani (1897);
M. Vattasso and P. Franchi de' Cavalieri, Codd. Lat. Vaticani,
torn, i (1902); C. Stornaiolo, Codices Urbinates Lalini, torn, i
(1902); E. Stevenson, Inventario dei libri stampati Palatino-
Vaticani (1886-1891); and several volumes relating to Egyptian
papyri by O. Marucchi. Some of the greatest treasures have
been reproduced in facsimile.
The most important library in Italy for modern requirements is
the Nazionale Centrale Vittorio Emanuele. From its foundation in
1875, incorporating the biblioteca maior o secreta of the
Jesuits in the Collegio Romano, and all the cloister
libraries of the Provincia Romana which had devolved to
the state through the suppression of the Religious Orders,
it has now, by purchases, by donations, through the operation of the
law of the press increased to about 850,000 printed vols., and is
continually being ameliorated. It possesses about 1600 incunabula
and 6200 MSS. Noteworthy among these are the Farfensi and the
Sessoriani MSS. of Santa Croce in Jerusalem, and some of these last
of the 6th to the 8th centuries are real treasures. The library has
been recently reorganized. It is rich in the history of the renaissance,
Italian and foreign reviews, and Roman topography. A monthly
Bolicttino is issued of modern foreign literature received by the
libraries of Italy.
The Biblioteca Casanatense, founded by Cardinal Casanate in
1698, contains about 200,000 printed vols., over 2000 incunabula,
with many Roman and Venetian editions, and more than 5000 MSS.,
among which are examples of the 8th, gth and loth centuries. They
are arranged in eleven large rooms, the large central hall being one
of the finest in Rome. It is rich in theology, the history of the
middle ages, jurisprudence and the economic, social and political
sciences. An incomplete catalogue of the printed books by A.
Audiffredi still remains a model of its kind (Roma, 1761-1788,
4 vols. folio, and part of vol. v.).
The Biblioteca Angelica was founded in 1605 by Monsignor Angelo
Rocca, an Augustinian, and was the first library in Rome to throw
open its doors to the public. It contains about 90,000 vols., of which
about loop are incunabula; 2570 MSS., of which 120 are Greek,
and 91 Oriental. It includes all the authentic acts of the Congre-
gatio de Auxiliis and the collections of Cardinal Passionei and Lucas
Holstenius.
The Biblioteca Universitaria Alessandrina was founded by Pope
Alexander VII., with the greater part of the printed books belonging
to the dukes of Urbino, and was opened in 1676. In 1815 Pius VII.
granted to it the right to receive a copy of every printed book in the
States of the Church, which grant at the present time, by virtue of
the laws of Italy, is continued, but limited to the province of Rome.
The library possesses 130,000 printed books, 600 incunabula, 376 MSS.
The library of the Senate was established at Turin in 1848. It
contains nearly 87,000 vols. and is rich in municipal history and the
statutes of Italian cities, the last collection extending to 2639 statutes
or vols. for 679 municipalities. The library of the Chamber of
Deputies contains 120,000 vols. and pamphlets. It is rich in modern
works, and especially in jurisprudence, native and foreign history,
economics and administration.
The Biblioteca Vallicelliana was founded by Achille Stazio (1581),
and contains some valuable manuscripts, including a Latin Bible of
the 8th century attributed to Alcuin, and some inedited writings of
Baronius. It now contains 28,000 vols. and 2315 MSS. Since 1884 it
has been in the custody of the R. Societa Romana di Storia Patria.
The Biblioteca Lancisiana, founded in 1711 by G. M. Lancisi, is
valuable for its medical collections.
In 1877 Professor A. Sarti presented to the city of Rome his
collection of fine-art books, 10,000 vols., which was placed in charge
of the Accademia di San Luca, which already possessed a good
artistic library. The Biblioteca Centrale Militare (1893) includes
66,000 printed vols. and 72,000 maps and plans relating to military
affairs; and the Biblioteca della R. Accad. di S. Cecilia (1875), a
valuable musical collection of 40,000 volumes and 2300 MSS.
Among the private libraries accessible by permission, the Chigiana
(1660) contains 25,000 vols. and 2877 MSS. The Corsiniana, founded
by Clement XII. (Lorenzo Corsini) is rich in incunabula, and includes
one of the most remarkable collections of prints, the series of Marc-
Antonios being especially complete. It was added to the Accademia
dei Lincei in 1884 and now extends to 43,000 vols. The library of
the Collegium de Propaganda Fide was established by Urban VIII.
in 1626. It owes its present richness almost entirely to testamentary
gifts, among which may be mentioned those of Cardinals Borgia,
Caleppi and Di Pietro. It is a private collection for the use of the
congregation and of those who belong to it, but permission may be
obtained from the superiors. There are at least thirty libraries in
Rome which are more or less accessible to the public. At -
Subiaco, about 40 m. from Rome, the library of the Bene-
dictine monastery of Santa Scolastica is not a very large one, com-
prising only 6000 printed vols. and 400 MSS., but the place is re-
markable as having been the first seat of typography in Italy. It
was in this celebrated Protocpenobium that Schweynheim and
Pannartz, fresh from the dispersion of Fust and Schpeffer's workmen
in 1462, established their press and produced a series of very rare
and important works which are highly prized throughout Europe.
The Subiaco library, although open daily to readers, is only visited
by students who are curious to behold the cradle of the press in Italy,
and to inspect the series of original editions preserved in their
first home.
The Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale of Florence, formed from the
union of Magliabechi's library with the Palatina, is the largest after
the Vittorio Emanuele at Rome. The Magliabechi col- „.
lection became public property in 1714, and with accessions
from time to time, held an independent place until 1862, when the
Palatina (formed by Ferdinand III., Grand Duke of Tuscany), was
incorporated with it. An old statute by which a copy of every work
printed in Tuscany was to be presented to the Magliabechi library
was formerly much neglected, but has been maintained more
rigorously in force since 1860. .Since 1870 it receives by law a copy of
every book published in the kingdom. A Bollettino is issued describ-
ing these accessions. There are many valuable autograph originals
of famous works in this library, and the MSS. include the most im-
portant extant codici of Dante and later poets, as well as of the
historians from Villani to Machiavelli and Guicciardini. Amongst
the printed books is a very large assemblage of rare early impressions,
a great number of the Rappresentazioni of the i6th century, at least
200 books printed on vellum, and a copious collection of municipal
histories and statutes, of testi di lingua and of maps. The Galileo
collection numbers 308 MSS. The MS. portolani, 25 in number, are
for the most part of great importance; the oldest is dated 1417, and
several seem to be the original charts executed for Sir Robert Dudley
(duke of Northumberland) in the preparation of his Arcano del Mare.
The library contains (1909) 571,698 printed vols., 20,222 MSS., 9037
engravings, 21,000 portraits, 3847 maps, and 3575 incunabula. In
1902 the Italian parliament voted the funds for a new building which
is being erected on the Corso dei Tintori close to the Santa Croce
Church.
The Biblioteca Nazionale of Milan, better known as the Braidense,
founded in 1770 by Maria Theresa, consists of 243,000 printed vols.
1 787 MSS. and over 3000 autographs. It comprises nearly Milan
2300 books printed in the 1 5th century (including the
rare Monte Santo di Dio of Bettini, 1477), 913 Aldme impressions,
and a xylographic Biblia Pauperum. Amongst the MSS. are an
early Dante and autograph letters of Galileo, some poems in Tassp's
autograph, and a fine series of illustrated service-books, with minia-
tures representing the advance of Italian art from the I2th to the
1 6th century. One room is devoted to the works of Manzoni.
The Biblioteca Nazionale at Naples, though only opened to the
public in 1804, is the largest library of that city. The nucleus from
which it developed was the collection of Cardinal Seri- Nuaies
pando, which comprised many MSS. and printed books of
great value. Acquisitions came in from other sources, especially
when in the year 1848 many private and conventual libraries were
thrown on the Neapolitan market, and still more so in 1860. The
Biblical section is rich in rarities, commencing with the Mainz Bible
of 1462, printed on vellum. Other special features are the collection
of testi di lingua, that of books on volcanoes, the best collection in
existence of tne publications of Italian literary and scientific societies
and a nearly complete set of the works issued by the Bodoni press.
The MSS. include a palimpsest containing writings of the 3rd, 5th
and 6th centuries under a grammatical treatise of the 8th, 2 Latin
papyri of the 6th century, over 50 Latin Bibles, many illuminated
books with miniatures, and the autographs of G. Leoparfli. There
are more than 40 books printed on vellum in the I5th and l6th
LIBRARIES
573
centuries, including a fine first Homer; and several MS. maps and
portolani, one dating from the end of the I4th century. The library
contains about 389,100 printed vols., 7990 MSS. and 4217 incunabula.
The Biblioteca Nazionale of Palermo, founded from the Collegio
Massimo of the Jesuits, with additions from other libraries of that
„ . suppressed order, is rich in 15th-century books, which
have been elaborately described in a catalogue printed in
1875, and in Aldines and bibliographical curiosities of the l6th and
following centuries, and a very complete series of the Sicilian publica-
tions of the l6th century, many being unique. The library contains
167,898 printed vols., 2550 incunabula, 1537 MSS.
The Biblioteca Nazionale U niversitatia of Turin took its origin in
the donation of the private library of the House of Savoy, which in
1720 was made to the University by Vittorio Amedeo II.
The disastrous fire of January 1904 destroyed about 24,000
out of the 300,000 vols. which the library possessed, and of the MSS.,
the number of which was 4138, there survive now but 1500 in a
more or less deteriorated condition. Among those that perished
were the palimpsests of Cicero, Cassidorus, the Codex Theodosianus
and the famous Lime d'Heures. What escaped the fire entirely was
the valuable collection of 1095 incunabula, the most ancient of which
is the Rationale Divinorum Officiorum of 1459. Since the fire the
library has been enriched by new gifts, the most conspicuous of
which is the collection of 30,000 vols. presented by Baron Alberto
Lumbroso, principally relating to the French Revolution and
empire. The library was in 1910 about to be transferred to the
premises of the Palazzo of the Debito Publico. The Biblioteca
Marciana, or library of St Mark at Venice, was traditionally founded
in 1362 by a donation of MSS. from the famous Petrarch
(all of them now lost) and instituted as a library by
Cardinal Bessarione in 1468. The printed vols. number 417,314.
The precious contents include 12,106 MSS. of great value, of which
more than 1000 Greek codices were given by Cardinal Bessarione,
important MS. collections of works on Venetian history, music and
theatre, rare incunabula, and a great number of volumes, unique or
exceedingly rare, on the subject of early geographical research.
Amongst the MSS. is a Latin Homer, an invaluable codex of the laws
of the Lombards, and the autograph MS. of Sarpi's History of the
Council of Trent. Since the fall of the republic and the suppression
of the monasteries a great many private and conventual libraries
have been incorporated with the Marciana, which had its first abode
in the Libreria del Sansovino, from which in turn it was transferred
in 1812 to the Palazzo Ducale, and from this again in 1904 to the
Palazzo della Zecca (The Mint).
Among the university libraries under government control some
deserve special notice. First in historical importance comes the
.. . „ Biblioteca della Universita at Bologna, founded by the
Ubrries naturalist U. Aldrovandi, who bequeathed by his will in
1605 to the senate of Bologna his collection of 3800
printed books and 360 MSS. Count Luigi F. Marsili increased
the library by a splendid gift in 1712 and established an Istituto
delle Scienze, reconstituted as a public library by Benedict
XIV. in 1756. The printed books number 255,000 vols., and the
MSS. 5000. The last comprise a rich Oriental collection of 547 MSS.
in Arabic, 173 in Turkish, and several in Persian, Armenian and
Hebrew. Amongst the Latin codices is a Lactantius of the 6th or
7th century. The other noteworthy articles include a copy of the
Armenian gospels (i2th century), the Avicenna, with miniatures
dated 1 194, described in Montfaucon's Diarium Italicum, and some
unpublished Greek texts. Amongst the Italian MSS. is a rich assem-
blage of municipal histories. Mezzofanti was for a long time the
custodian here, and his own collection of books has been incorporated
in the library, which is remarkable likewise for the number of early
editions and Aldines which it contains. A collection of drawings by
Agostino Caracci is another special feature of worth. The grand
hall with its fine furniture in walnut wood merits particular attention.
The Biblioteca della Universita at Naples was established by Joachim
Murat in 1812 in the buildings of Monte Oliveto, and has thence been
sometimes called the " Biblioteca Gioacchino." Later it was trans-
ferred to the Royal University of studies, and was opened to the
G' lie in 1827. It was increased by the libraries of several monastic
ies. The most copious collections relate to the study of medicine
and natural science. It possesses about 300,000 printed books, 404
incunabula, 203 Aldines, and 196 Bodoni editions, but the more
important incunabula and MSS. about the middle of the igth
century went to enrich the Biblioteca Nazionale. Other important
university libraries are those of Catania (1755), 130,000 vols. ; Genoa
(l773)> 132,000 vols., 1588 MSS.; Pavia (1763), 250,000 vols.,
noo MSS.; Padua (200,000 vols., 2356 MSS.), which in 1910 was
housed in a new building; Cagliari (90,000 vols.); Sassari (74,000
vols.). Messina, destroyed in the earthquake of 1908, preserved,
however, beneath its ruins the more important part of its furniture
and fittings, and in 1910 was already restored to active work, as
regards the portion serving for the reawakened Faculty of Law in
the University.
Chief among the remaining government libraries comes the world-
famed Biblioteca Mediceo-Laurenziana at Florence, formed from the
collections of Cosimo the Elder, Pietro de' Medici, and Lorenzo the
Magnificent (which, however, passed away from the family after
Medlceo-
Laurea-
zlaaa.
the expulsion of the Medici from Florence, and were repurchased
in 1508 by Cardinal Giovanni, afterwards Leo X.). It was first
constituted as a public library in Florence by Clement
VII., who charged Michelangelo to construct a suitable
edifice for its reception. It was opened to the public by
Cosimo I. in 1571, and has ever since gone on increasing in
value, the accessions in the l8th century alone being enough to
double its former importance. The printed books it contains are
probably no more than 11,000 in number, but are almost all of the
highest rarity and interest, including 242 incunabula of which 151
editiones principes. It is, however, the precious collection of MSS.,
amounting to 9693 articles, which gives its chief importance to this
library. They comprise more than 700 of dates earlier than the
nth century. Some of them are the most valuable codices in the
world — the famous Virgil of the 4th or 5th century, Justinian's
Pandects of the 6th, a Homer of the loth, and several other very
early Greek and Latin classical and Biblical texts, as well as copies
in the handwriting of Petrarch, about loo codices of Dante, a
Decameron copied by a contemporary from Boccaccio's own MS., and
Cellini's MS. of his autobiography. Bandini's catalogue of the MSS.
occupies 13 vols. folio, printed in 1764-1778. Administratively
united to the Laurentian is the Riccardiana rich in MSS. of Italian
literature, especially the Florentine (33,000 vols., 3905 MSS.). At
Florence the Biblioteca Marucelliana, founded in 1 703, remarkable for
its artistic wealth of early woodcuts and metal engravings, was
opened to the public in 1753. The number of these and of original
drawings by the old masters amounts to 80,000 pieces; the printed
volumes number 200,000, the incunabula 620, and the MSS. 1500.
At Modena is the famous Biblioteca Estense, so called from
having been founded by the Este family at Ferrara in
X393; it was transferred to Modena by Cesare D'Este in 1598.
Muratori, Zaccaria and Tiraboschi were librarians here, and made
good use of the treasures of the library. It is particularly rich in
early printed literature and valuable codices. Between 1859 and
1867 it was known as the Biblioteca Palatina. The printed vols.
number 150,570, the incunabula 1600, the MSS. 3336, besides the
4958 MSS. and the 100,000 autographs of the Campori collection.
The oldest librar
at Naples is the Biblioteca Brancacciana, with
many valuable MSS. relating to the history of Naples. Two plani-
spheres by Coronelli are preserved here. It was founded parma.
in 1673 by Cardinal F. M. Brancaccio, and opened by his
heirs in 1675; 150,000 vols. and 3000 MSS. The Regia Biblioteca di
Parma, founded definitively in 1779, owes its origin to the grand-duke
Philip, who employed the famous scholar Paciaudi to organize it. It
is now a public library containing 308,770 vols. and 4890 MSS.
Amongst its treasures is De Rossi's magnificent collection of Biblical
and rabbinical MSS. Also worthy of note are the Bibl. Pubblica or
governation of Lucca (1600) with 214,000 vols., 725 incunabula and
3091 MSS. and that of Cremona (1774), united to that of the Museo
Civico.
Among the great libraries not under government control, the most
important is the famous Biblioteca Ambrosiana at Milan, founded
in 1609 by Cardinal Fed. Borromeo. It contains 230,000
printed vols. and 8400 MSS. Amongst the MSS. are a
Greek Pentateuch of the 5th century, the famous Peshito
and Syro-Hexaplar from the Nitrian convent of St Maria Deipara, a
Josephus written on papyrus, supposed to be of the 5th century,
several palimpsest texts, including an early Plautus, and St Jerome's
commentary on the Psalms in a volume of 7th-century execution, full
of contemporary glosses in Irish, Gothic fragments of Ulfilas, and a
Virgil with notes in Petrarch's handwriting. Cardinal Mai was
formerly custodian here. In 1879 Professor C. Mensinger presented
his " Biblioteca Europea," consisting of 2500 vols., 300 maps and
5000 pieces, all relating to the literature and linguistics of European
countries. The Melzi and Trivulzio libraries should not pass with-
out mention here, although they are private and inaccessible without
special permission. The former is remarkable for its collection_of
early editions with engravings, including the Dante of 1481, with
twenty designs by Baccio Bandinelli. The latter is rich in MSS.
with miniatures of the finest and rarest kind, and in printed books
of which many are unique or nearly so. It consists of 70,000 printed
vols. At Genoa the Biblioteca Franzoniana, founded about 1770 for
the instruction of the poorer classes, is noteworthy as being the first
European library lighted up at night for the use of readers.
The foundation of the monastery of Monte Cassino is due to St
Benedict, who arrived there in the year 529, and established the
prototype of all similar institutions in western Europe. uonte
The library of printed books now extends to about 20,000 casslao
vols., chiefly relating to the theological sciences, but in-
cluding some rare editions. A collection of the books belonging to
the monks contains about the same number of volumes. But the
chief glory of Monte Cassino consists of the archivio, which is quite
apart; and this includes more than 30,000 bulls, diplomas, charters
and other documents, besides 1000 MSS. dating from the 6th century
downwards. The latter comprehend some very early Bibles and
important codices of patristic and other medieval writings. There
are good written catalogues, and descriptions with extracts are
published in the Bibliotheca Casinensis. The monastery was declared
a national monument in 1866. At Ravenna the Biblioteca Classense
Amhro*
siana.
574
LIBRARIES
has a loth-century codex of Aristophanes and two 14th-century
codices of Dante. At Vercelli the Bibhoteca dell' Archivio Capitolare,
the foundation of which can be assigned to no certain date,
Verceul. but must be referred to the early days when the barbarous
conquerors of Italy had become christianized, comprises nothing but
MSS., all of great antiquity and value. Amongst them is an Evangel-
iarium S. Eusebii in Latin, supposed to be of the 4th century; also
the famous codex containing the Anglo- Saxon homilies which have
been published by the ^Elfric Society.
The Biblioteca del Monastero della S. Trinita, at La Cava del
Tirreni in the province of Salerno, is said to date from the foundation
of the abbey itself (beginning of the nth century). It
La Cava. contains only some 10,000 vols., but these include a
number of MSS. of very great rarity and value, ranging from the
8th to the I4th century. Amongst these is the celebrated Codex
Legum Longobardorum, dated 1004, besides a well-known geographi-
cal chart of the I2th century, over 100 Greek MSS., and about 1000
charters beginning with the year 840, more than 200 of which belong
to the Lombard and Norman periods. The library is now national
property, the abbot holding the office of Keeper of the Archives.
Not a few of the communal and municipal libraries are of great
extent and interest: Bologna (1801), 191,000 vols., 5060 MSS.;
Brescia, Civica Quiriniana, 125,000 vols., 1500 MSS.; Ferrara (1753),
91,000 vols., 1698 MSS., many Ferrarese rarities; Macerata, the
Mozzi-Borgetti (1783-1835, united 1855), 50,900 vols.; Mantua,
70,000 vols., 1300 MSS.; Novara, Negroni e Civica (1847 and 1890),
75,000 vols.; Padua, 90,000 vols., 1600 MSS.; Palermo (1760),
216,000 vols., 3263 MSS., coins and Sicilian collection; Perugia
(1852), founded by P. Podiani, 70,000 vols., 915 MSS.; Siena
(1758), founded by S. Bandini, fine art collection, 83,250 vols., 5070
MSS.; Venice, Museo Civico Correr, 50,000 vols., 11,000 MSS. ;
Verona (1792, public since 1802), 180,000 vols., 2650 MSS. ; Vicenza,
Bertoliana (1708), local literature, archives of religious corporations,
175,000 vols., 6000 MSS.
Popular libraries have now been largely developed in Italy, chiefly
through private or municipal enterprise; they enjoy a small state
subvention of £1000. The government report for 1908 stated that
319 communes possessed biblioteche popolari numbering altogether
415. Of these, 313 were established by municipalities, 113 by
individuals, 8 by business houses, 80 by working men's societies and
15 by ministers of religion; 225 are open to the public, 358 lend
books, 221 gratuitously, and 127 on payment of a small fee. In order
to establish these institutions throughout the kingdom, a Bollettino
has been published at Milan since 1907, and a National Congress was
held at Rome in December 1908.
Information has been given for this account by Dr G. Staderini
of the Biblioteca Casanatense, Rome. See also F. Bluhme, Her
Italicum (Berlin, 1824-1836); Notizie suite biblioteche governative
del regno d' Italia (Roma, 1893); Le biblioteche governative Italiane
nel 1098 (Roma, 1900); Slatistica delle biblioteche (Roma, 1893—
1896, 2 pts.) ; Le biblioteche popolari in Italia, relazione al Ministro
della Pubb. Istruzione (Roma, 1898); Bollettino delle biblioteche
popolari (Milano, 1907, in progress); E. Fabietti, Manuale per le
biblioteche popolari (2** ediz., Milano); Le biblioteche pop. al i°
Congresso Naz. 1908 (Milano, 1910).
Latin America.
Much interest in libraries has not been shown in south, central
and other parts of Latin America. Most of the libraries which
exist are national or legislative libraries.
As the libraries of the republic of Cuba are more Spanish than
American in character, it will be convenient to consider them here.
The chief libraries are in Havana, and the best are the
Cuba. Biblioteca Publica and the University Library. The
Biblioteca Publica has within recent years been completely over-
hauled, and is now one of the most actively-managed libraries in
Latin America.
Out of the twenty-nine states and territories of the Mexican
republic about half have public libraries, and only a small proportion
of the contents consists of modern literature. Many
Mexico. possess rare and valuable books, of interest to the biblio-
grapher and historian, which have come from the libraries of the sup-
pressed religious bodies. There is a large number of scientific and
literary associations in the republic, each possessing-books. The Society
of Geography and Statistics, founded in 1851 in Mexico City,
is the most important of them, and owns a fine museum and excellent
library. After the triumph of the Liberal party the cathedral, uni-
versity and conventual libraries of the city of Mexico came into the
possession of the government, and steps were taken to form them into
one national collection. No definite system was organized, however,
until 1867, when the church of San Augustin was taken and fitted up
for the purpose. In 1884 it was opened as the Biblioteca Nacionai,
and now possesses over 200,000 vols. Two copies of every book
printed in Mexico must be presented to this library. Most of the
libraries of Mexico, city or provincial, are subscription, and belong
to societies and schools of various kinds.
The importance of public libraries has been fully recognized in
Argentina, and more than two hundred of them are in the country.
They are due to benefactions, but the government in every
case adds an equal sum to any endowment. A central Argentina.
commission exists for the purpose of facilitating the acquisition
of books and to promote a uniform excellence of administra-
tion. The most considerable is the Biblioteca Nacionai at Buenos
Aires, which is passably rich in MSS., some of great interest, con-
cerning the early history of the Spanish colonies. There is also the
Biblioteca Municipal with about 25,000 vols. There are libraries
attached to colleges, churches and clubs, and most of the larger
towns possess public libraries.
The chief library in Brazil is the Bibliotheca Publica Nacionai
at Rio de Janeiro (1807) now comprising over 250,000 printed
vols. with many MSS. National literature and works
connected with South America are special features of this Brazil,
collection. A handsome new building has been erected which has
been fitted up in the most modern manner. Among other libraries
of the capital may be mentioned those of the Faculty of Medicine,
Marine Library, National Museum, Portuguese Literary Club,
Bibliotheca Fluminense, Benedictine Monastery, and the Bibliotheca
Municipal. There are various provincial and public libraries through-
out Brazil, doing good work, and a typical example is the public
library of Maranhao.
The Biblioteca Nacionai at Santiago is the chief library in Chile.
The catalogue is printed, and is kept up by annual supple-
ments. It possesses about 100,000 vols. There is also a Chile.
University Library at Santiago, and a fairly good Biblioteca Publica
at Valparaiso.
The Biblioteca Nacionai at Lima was founded by a decree of the
liberator San Martin on the 28th of August 1821, and placed in the
house of the old convent of San Pedro. The nucleus of the
library consisted of those of the university of San Marcos
and of several monasteries, and a large present of books was also made
by San Martin. The library is chiefly interesting from containing
so many MSS. and rare books relating to the history of Peru in vice-
regal times.
Spain and Portugal.
Most of the royal, state and university libraries of Spain and
Portugal have government control and support. In Portugal
the work of the universities is to a certain extent connected up,
and an official bulletin is published in which the laws and acces-
sions of the libraries are contained.
The chief library in Spain is the Biblioteca Nacionai (formerly the
Biblioteca Real) at Madrid. The printed volumes number 600,000
with 200,000 pamphlets. Spanish literature is of course well
represented, and, in consequence of the numerous accessions from
the libraries of the suppressed convents, the classes of theology,
canon law, history, &c., are particularly complete. There are 30,000
MSS., including some finely illuminated codices, historical documents,
and many valuable autographs. The collection of prints extends to
120,000 pieces, and was principally formed from the important series
bought from Don Valentin Carderera in 1865. The printed books
have one catalogue arranged under authors' names, and one under
titles; the departments of music, maps and charts, and prints have
subject-catalogues as well. There is a general index of the MSS.,
with special catalogues of the Greek and Latin codices and genea-
logical documents. The cabinet of medals is most valuable and well
arranged. Of the other Madrid libraries it is enough to mention the
Biblioteca de la Real Academia de la Historia, 1758 (20,000 vols. and
1500 MSS.), which contains some printed and MS. Spanish books of
great value, including the well-known Salazar collection. The history
of the library of the Escorial (g.f.) has been given elsewhere. In
1808, before the invasion, the Escorial is estimated to have contained
30,000 printed vols. and 3400 MSS.; Joseph removed the collection
to Madrid, but when it was returned by Ferdinand 10,000 vols. were
missing. There are now about 40,000 printed vols. The Arabic
MSS. have been described by M. Casiri, 1760-1770; and a catalogue
of the Greek codices by M tiller was issued at the expense of the French
government in 1848. There is a MS. catalogue of the printed books.
Permission to study at the Escorial, which is one of the royal private
libraries, must be obtained by special application. The Biblioteca
Provincial y Universitaria of Barcelona (1841) contains about
155,000 vols., and that of Seville (1767) has 82,000 vols. Other cities
in Spain possess provincial or university libraries open to students
under various restrictions, among them may be mentioned the
Biblioteca Universitaria of Salamanca (1254) with over 80,000 vols.
Among the libraries of Portugal the Bibliotheca Nacionai at Lisbon
(1796) naturally takes the first place. In 1841 it was largely increased
from the monastic collections, which, however, seem to
have been little cared for according to a report prepared
by the principal librarian three years later. There are now said to
be 400,000 vols. of printed books, among which theology, canon law,
history and Portuguese and Spanish literature largely predominate.
The MSS. number 16,000 including many of great value. There is
also a cabinet of 40,000 coins and medals. The Bibliotheca da
Academia, founded in 1780, is preserved in the suppressed convent
LIBRARIES
575
of the Ordem Terceira da Penitencia. In 1836 the Academy acquired
the library of that convent, numbering 30,000 vols., which have since
been kept apart. The Archive Nacional, in the same building,
contains the archives of the kingdom, brought here after the de-
struction of the Torre do Castellp during the great earthquake.
The Biblioteca Publica Municipal at Oporto is the second largest
in Portugal, although only dating from the gth of July 1833, the
anniversary of the debarcation of D. Pedro, and when the memorable
siege was still in progress; from that date to 1874 it was styled the
Real Biblioteca do Porto. The regent (ex-emperor of Brazil) gave to
the town the libraries of the suppressed convents in the northern
provinces, the municipality undertaking to defray the expense of
keeping up the collection. Recent accessions consist mainly of
Portuguese and French books. The important Camoens collection is
described in a printed catalogue (Oporto, 1880). A notice of the MSS.
may be found in Catalogo dos MSS. da B. Publica Eborense, by H.
da Cunha Rivara (Lisbon, 1850-1870), 3 vols. folio, and the first part
of an Indice preparatorio do Catalogo dos Manuscriptos was produced
in 1880. The University Library of Coimbra (1591) contains about
100,000 vols., and other colleges possess libraries.
Netherlands.
Since 1900 there has been considerable progress made in both
Belgium and Holland in the development of public libraries, and
several towns in the latter country have established popular
libraries after the fashion of the municipal libraries of the
United Kingdom and America.
The national library of Belgium is the Bibliotheque Royale at
Brussels, of which the basis may be said to consist of the famous
Bibliotheque des dues de Bourgogne, the library of the
Belgium. Austrian sovereigns of the Low Countries, which had
gradually accumulated during three centuries. After suffering many
losses from thieves and fire, in 1772 the Bibliotheque de Bourgogne
received considerable augmentations from the libraries of the sup-
pressed order of Jesuits, and was thrown open to the public. On
the occupation of Brussels by the French in 1794 a number of books
and MSS. were confiscated and transferred to Paris (whence the
majority were returned in 1815) ; in 1795 the remainder were formed
into a public library under the care of La Serna Santander, who was
also town librarian, and who was followed by van Hulthem. At the
end of the administration of van Hulthem a large part of the precious
collections of the Bollandists was acquired. In 1830 the Bibliotheque
de Bourgogne was added to the state archives, and the whole made
available for students. Van Hulthem died in 1832, leaving one of
the most important private libraries in Europe, described by Voisin
in Bibliotheca Hulthemiana (Brussels, 1836), 5 vols., and extending to
60,000 printed vols. and 1016 MSS., mostly relating to Belgian
history. The collection was purchased by the government in 1837,
and, having been added to the Bibliotheque de Bourgogne (open
since 1772) and the Bibliotheque de la Ville (open since 1794),
formed what has since been known as the Bibliotheque Royale de
Belgique. The printed volumes now number over 600,000 with
30,000 MSS., 105,000 prints and 80,000 coins and medals. The
special collections, each with a printed catalogue, consist of the
Fonds van Hulthem, for national history; the Fonds Fetis, for
music; the Fonds Goethals, for genealogy; and the Fonds Muller,
for physiology. The catalogue of the MSS. has been partly printed,
and catalogues of accessions and other departments are also in course
of publication. There are libraries attached to most of the depart-
ments of the government, the ministry of war having 120,000 vols.
and the ministry of the interior, 15,000 vols. An interesting library
is the Bibliotheque Collective des Societes Savantes founded in 1906
to assemble in one place the libraries of all the learned societies of
Brussels. It contains about 40,000 vols. which have been catalogued
on cards. The Bibliotheque du Conservatoire royal de Musique
(1832) contains 12,000 vols. and 6000 dramatic works. The popular
or communal libraries of Brussels contain about 30,000 vols. and
those of the adjoining suburbs about 50,000 vols., most of which are
distributed through the primary and secondary schools. At Antwerp
the Stadt Bibliothck (1805) has now 70,000 vols., and is partly sup-
ported by subscriptions and endowments. The valuable cojlection
of books in the Musee Plantin-Moretus (1640) should also be
mentioned. It contains 11,000 MSS. and 15,000 printed books,
comprising the works issued by the Plantin family and many I5th-
ceatury books.
The University Library of Ghent, known successively as the
Bibliotheque de 1'Ecole Centrale and Bibliotheque Publique de la
Ville, was founded upon the old libraries of the Conseil de Flandres,
of the College des Echevins, and of many suppressed religious com-
munities. It was declared public in 1797, and formally opened in
1798. On the foundation of the university in 1817 the town placed the
collection at its disposal, and the library has since remained under
state control. The printed volumes now amount to 353,000. There
are important special collections on archaeology, Netherlands litera-
ture, national history, books printed in Flanders, and 23,000 historical
pamphlets of the i6th and I7th centuries. The main catalogue is in
MS. on cards. There are printed catalogues of the works on juris-
prudence (1839), and of the MSS. (1852). The Bibliotheque de
I'Universite Catholique of Louvain is based upon the collection of
Beyerlinck, who bequeathed it to his alma mater in 1627; this
example was followed by Jacques Remain, professor of medicine,
but the proper organization of the library bej*an in 1636. There are
now said to be 211,000 vols. The Bibliotheque de I'Universite of
Liege dates from 1817, when on the foundation of the university
the old Bibliotheque de la Ville was added to it. There are now
350,000 printed vols., pamphlets, MSS., &c. The Liege collection
(of which a printed catalogue appeared in 3 vols. 8vo., 1872), be-
queathed by M. Ulysse Capitaine, extends to 12,061 vols. and
pamphlets. There are various printed catalogues. The Bibliotheques
Populaires of Liege established in 1862, now number.five, and contain
among them 50,000 vols. which are circulated to the extent of
130,000 per annum among the school children. The Bibliotheque
publique of Bruges (1798) contains 145,600 printed books and MSS.,
housed in a very artistic building, once the Tonlieu or douane, 1477.
There are communal libraries at Alost, Arlon (1842), Ath (1842),
Courtrai, Malines(l864), Mons (1797), Namur ( 1 800) , Ostend (1861),
Tournai (1794, housed in the H6tel des Anciens PrStres, 1755),
Ypres (1839) and elsewhere, all conducted on the same system as the
French communal libraries. Most of them range in size from 5000
to 40,000 vols. and they are open as a rule only part of the day.
Every small town has a similar library, and a complete list of them,
together with much other information, will be found in the Annuaire
de la Belgique, scientifique, artistique et litteraire (Brussels 1908 and
later issues).
The national library of Holland is the Koninklijke Bibliotheek at
Hague, which was established in 1798, when it was decided to
join the library of the princes of Orange with those of the
defunct government bodies in order to form a library for Houana.
the States-General, to be called the National Bibliotheek. In 1805
the present name was adopted; and since 1815 it has become the
national library. In 1848 the Baron W. Y. H. van Westreenen van
Tiellandt bequeathed his valuable books, MSS., coins and antiquities
to the country, and directed that they should be preserved in his
former residence as a branch of the royal library. There are now
upwards of 500,000 vols. of printed books, and the MSS. number
6000, chiefly historical, but including many fine books of hours with
miniatures. Books are lent all over the country. The library boasts
of the richest collection in the world of books on chess, Dutch
incunabula, Elzevirs and Spinozana. There is one general written
catalogue arranged in classes, with alphabetical indexes. . In 1800
a printed catalogue was issued, with four supplements down to 181 1 ;
and since 1866 a yearly list of additions has been published. Special
mention should be made of the excellent catalogue of the incunabula
published in 1856.
The next library in numerical importance is the famous Bibliotheca
Academiae Lugduno-Batavae, which dates from the foundation of
the university of Leiden by William I., prince of Orange, on the 8th
of February 1575. It has acquired many valuable additions from
the books and MSS. of the distinguished scholars, Golius, Joseph
Scaliger, Isaac Voss, Ruhnken and Hemsterhuis. The MSS. compre-
hend many of great intrinsic importance. The library of the Society
of Netherland Literature has been placed here since 1877; this is
rich in the national history and literature. The Arabic and Oriental
MSS. known as the Legatum Warnerianum are of great value and
interest; and the collection of maps bequeathed in 1870 by J. J.
Bode] Nyenhuis is also noteworthy. The library is contained in a
building which was formerly a church of the Beguines, adapted in
1860 somewhat after the style of the British Museum. The catalogues
(one alphabetical and one classified) are on slips, the titles being
printed. A catalogue of books and MSS. was printed in 1716, one of
books added between 1814 and 1847 and a supplementary part of
MSS. only in 1850. A catalogue of the Oriental MSS. was published
in 6 vols. (1851-1877). The Bibliotheek der Rijks Universiteit (1575)
at Leiden contains over 190,000 vols.
The University Library at Utrecht dates from 1582, when certain
conventual collections were brought together in order to form a
public library, which was shortly afterwards enriched by the books
bequeathed by Hub. Buchelius and Ev. Pollio. Upon the founda-
tion of the university in 1636, the town library passed into its charge.
Among the MSS. are some interesting cloister MSS. and the famous
" Utrecht Psalter," which contains the oldest text of the Athanasian
creed. The last edition of the catalogue was in 2 vols. folio, 1834,
with supplement in 1845, index from 1845-1855 in 8vo., and additions
1856-1870, 2 vols. 8vo. A catalogue of the MSS. was issued in 1887.
The titles of accessions are now printed in sheets and pasted down for
insertion. There are now about 250,000 vols. in the library.
The basis of the University Library at Amsterdam consists of a
collection of books brought together in the I5th century and pre-
served in the Nieuwe Kerk. At the time of the Reformation in 1578
they became the property of the city, but remained in the Nieuwe
Kerk for the use of the public till 1632, when they were transferred
to the Athenaeum. Since 1877 the collection has been known as the
University Library, and in 1881 it was removed to a building de-
signed upon the plan of the new library and reading-room of the
British Museum. The library includes the best collection of medical
works in Holland, and the Bibliotheca Rosenthaliana of Hebrew and
Talmudic literature is of great fame and value; a catalogue of the
last was printed in 1875. The libraries of the Dutch Geographical
576
LIBRARIES
and other societies are preserved here. A general printed catalogue
was issued in 6 vols. 8vo., Amsterdam (1856-1877); one describing
the bequests of J. de Bosch Kemper, E. J. Potgieter and F. W. Rive,
in 3 vols., 8vo. (1878-1879); a catalogue of the MSS. of Professor
Moll was published in 1880, and one of those of P. Camper in 1881.
Other catalogues have been published up to 1902, including one of
the MSS. The library contains about half a million volumes. There
are popular subscription libraries with reading-rooms in all parts of
Holland, and in Rotterdam there is a society for the encouragement
of social culture which has a large library as part of its equipment.
At Hague, Leiden, Haarlem, Dordrecht and other towns popular
libraries have been established, and there is a movement of recent
growth, in favour of training librarians on advanced English lines.
The library of the Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen at
Batavia contains books printed in Netherlandish India, works re-
lating to the Indian Archipelago and adjacent countries, and the
history of the Dutch in the East. There are 20,000 printed vols. and
1630 MSS., of which 243 are Arabic, 445 Malay, 303 Javanese, 60
Batak and 517 on lontar leaves, in the ancient Kawi, Javanese
and Bali languages, &c. Printed catalogues of the Arabic, Malay,
Javanese and Kawi MSS. have been issued.
Scandinavia.
Owing largely to so many Scandinavian librarians having
been trained and employed in American libraries, a greater
approach has been made to Anglo-American library ideals in
Norway, Sweden and Denmark than anywhere else on the
continent of Europe.
The beginning of the admirably managed national library of
Denmark, the great Royal Library at Copenhagen (Det Store
Kongelige Bibliothek) may be said to have taken place
Denmark, during the reign of Christian III. (1533-1559), who took
pride in importing foreign books and choice MSS.; but the true
founder was Frederick III. (1648-1670); to him is mainly due the
famous collection of Icelandic literature and the acquisition of Tycho
Brahe's MSS. The present building (in the Christiansborg castle)
was begun in 1667. Among notable accessions may be mentioned
the collections of C. Reitzer, the count of Danneskjold (8000 vols.
and 500 MSS.) and Count de Thott ; the last bequeathed 6039 vols.
printed before 1531, and the remainder of his books, over 100,000
vols., was eventually purchased. In 1793 the library was opened to
the public, and it has since remained under state control. Two copies
of every book published within the kingdom must be deposited here.
The incunabula and block books form an important series. There is
a general classified catalogue in writing for the use of readers; and
an alphabetical one on slips arranged in boxes for the officials. A
good catalogue of the de Thott collection was printed in 12 vols. 8vo.
(i 7855-1 795); a catalogue of the French MSS. appeared in 1844;
of Oriental MSS., 1846; of the Danish collection, 1875, 8vo. Annual
reports and accounts of notable MSS. have been published since 1864.
The library now contains over 750,000 vols.
The University Library, founded in 1482, was destroyed by fire
in 1728, and re-established shortly afterwards. A copy of every
Danish publication must be deposited here. The MSS. include the
famous Arne-Magnean collection. There are now about 400,000
vols. in this library. The Statsbiblioteket of Aarhus (1902) possesses
about 200,000 vols. and the Landsbokasafn Islands (National
Library) of Reykjavik, Iceland, has about 50,000 printed books and
5500 MSS. In Copenhagen there are II popular libraries supported
in part by the city, and there are at least 50 towns in the provinces
with public libraries and in some cases reading-rooms. An associa-
tion for promoting public libraries was formed in 1905, and in 1909
the minister of public instruction appointed a special adviser in
library matters. About 800 towns and villages are aided by the
above named association, the state and local authorities, and it is
estimated that they possess among them 500,000 vols., and circulate
over 1,000,000 vols. annually.
The chief library in Norway is the University Library at Christiania,
established at the same time as the university, September 2nd, 1811,
by Frederick II., with a donation from the king of many
Norway. thousands of duplicates from the Royal Library at
Copenhagen, and since augmented by important bequests. Annual
catalogues are issued and there are now over 420,000 vols. in the
collection. The Deichmanske Bibliothek in Christiania was founded
by Carl Deichmann in 1780 as a free library. In 1898 it was reorgan-
ized, and in 1903 the open shelf method was installed by Haakon
Nyhuus, the librarian, who had been trained in the United States.
The library is partly supported by endowment, partly by grants from
the municipality. It now contains about 85,000 vols., and is a typical
example of a progressive library. The Free Library at Bergen (1872)
has about 90,000 vols. and has recently been re-housed in a new
building. A free library, with open shelves, has also been opened at
Trondhjem. The library connected with the Kongellige Videns-
kabers Selskab at Trondhjem now contains about 120,000 vols.
Owing to the absence of small towns and villages in Norway, most of
the library work is concentrated in the coast towns.
The Royal Library at Stockholm was first established in 1585.
The original collection was given to the university of Upsala by
Gustavus II., that formed by Christina is at the Vatican, and the
library brought together by Charles X. was destroyed by fire in 1697.
The present library was organized shortly afterwards.
The Benzelstjerna-Engestrom Library (14,500 printed Sweden.
vols. and 1200 MSS.) rich in materials for Swedish history) is now
annexed to it. Natural history, medicine and mathematics are left
to other libraries. Among the MSS. the Codex Aureus of the 6th or
7th century, with its interesting Anglo-Saxon inscription, is particu-
larly noteworthy. The catalogues are in writing, and are both
alphabetical and classified; printed catalogues have been issued of
portions of the MSS. The present building was opened in 1882.
The library now contains about 320,000 printed books and over
11,000 MSS. The Karolinska Institutet in Stockholm, contains a
library of medical books numbering over 40,000.
The University Library at Upsala was founded by Gustavus
Adolphus in 1620, from the remains of several convent libraries; he
also provided an endowment. The MSS. chiefly relate to the history
of the country, but include the Codex Argenteus, containing the Gothic
gospels of Ulfilas. The general catalogue is in writing. A catalogue
was printed in 1814; special lists of the foreign accessions have been
published each year from 1850; the Arabic, Persian and Turkish
MSS. are described by C. J Tornberg, 1846. It now contains about
340,000 printed books and MSS. The library at Lund dates from the
foundation of the university in 1668, and was based upon the old
cathedral library. The MSS. include the de la Gardie archives,
acquired in 1848. There are about 200,000 vols. in the library.
The Stadsbibliotek of Gothenburg contains about 100,000 vols.,
and has a printed catalogue.
Russia.
The imperial Public Library at St Petersburg is one of the
largest libraries in the world, and now possesses about 1,800,000
printed vols. and 34,000 MSS., as well as large collections of
maps, autographs, photographs, &c. The beginning of this
magnificent collection may be said to have been the books
seized by the Czar Peter during his invasion of Courland in 1714;
the library did not receive any notable augmentation, however,
till the year 1795, when, by the acquisition of the famous Zaluski
collection, the Imperial Library suddenly attained a place in the
first rank among great European libraries. The Zaluski Library
was formed by the Polish count Joseph Zaluski, who collected
at his own expense during forty-three years no less than 200,000
vols., which were added to by his brother Andrew, bishop of
Cracow, by whom in 1747 the library was thrown open to the
public. At his death it was left under the control of the Jesuit
College at Warsaw; on the suppression of the order it was
taken care of by the Commission of Education; and finally in
1795 it was transferred by Suwaroff to St Petersburg as a trophy
of war. It then extended to 260,000 printed vols. and 10,000
MSS., but in consequence of the withdrawal of many medical
and illustrated works to enrich other institutions, hardly 238,000
vols. remained in 1810. Literature, history and theology formed
the main features of the Zaluski Library; the last class
alone amounted to one-fourth of the whole number. Since the
beginning of the igth century, through the liberality of the
sovereigns, the gifts of individuals, careful purchases, and the
application of the law of 1810, whereby two copies of every
Russian publication must be deposited here, the Imperial Library
has attained its present extensive dimensions. Nearly one
hundred different collections, some of them very valuable and
extensive, have been added from time to time. They include,
for example, the Tolstoi Sclavonic collection (1830), Tischendorf's
MSS. (1858), the Dolgorousky Oriental MSS. (1859), and the
Firkowitsch Hebrew (Karaite) collection (1862-1863), the
librariis of Adelung (1858) and Tobler (1877), that of the Slavonic
scholar Jungmann (1856), and the national MSS. of Karamzin
(1867). This system of acquiring books, while it has made some
departments exceedingly rich, has left others comparatively
meagre. The library was not regularly opened to the public
until 1814; it is under the control of the minister of public
instruction. There are fine collections of Aldines and Elzevirs,
and the numerous incunabula are instructively arranged.
The manuscripts include 26,000 codices, 41,340 autographs,
4689 charters and 576 maps. The glory of this department is
the celebrated Codex Sinaiticus of the Greek Bible, brought from
the convent of St Catherine on Mount Sinai by Tischendorf in
1859. Other important Biblical and patristic codices are to be
found among the Greek and Latin MSS.; the Hebrew MSS.
LIBRARIES
577
include some of the most ancient that exist, and the Samaritan
collection is one of the largest in Europe; the Oriental MSS.
comprehend many valuable texts, and among the French are
some of great historical value. The general catalogues are in
writing, but many special catalogues of the MSS. and printed
books have been published.
The nucleus of the library at the Hermitage Palace was formed by
the empress Catherine II., who purchased the books and MSS. of
Voltaire and Diderot. In the year 1861 the collection amounted to
150,000 vols., of which nearly all not relating to the history of art
were then transferred to the Imperial Library. There are many
large and valuable libraries attached to the government departments
in St Petersburg, and most of the academies and colleges and
learned societies are provided with libraries.
The second largest library in Russia is contained in the Public
Museum at Moscow. The class of history is particularly rich, and
Russian early printed books are well represented. The MSS. number
5000, including many ancient Sclavonic codices and historical docu-
ments of value. One room is devoted to a collection of Masonic
MSS., which comprehend the archives of the lodges in Russia between
1816 and 1821. There is a general alphabetical catalogue in writing;
the catalogue of the MSS. has been printed, as well as those of some
of the special collections. This large and valuable library now
contains close upon 1 ,000,000 printed books and MSS. The Imperial
University at Moscow (1755) has a library of over 310,000 vols., and
the Duchovnaja Academy has 120,000 vols. The Imperial Russian
Historical Museum (1875-1883) in Moscow contains nearly 200,000
vols. and most of the state institutions and schools are supplied
with libraries. All the Russian universities have libraries, some of
them being both large and valuable — Dorpat (1802) 400,000 vols.;
Charkov (1804) 180,000 vols.; Helsingfors (1640-1827) 193,000
vols.; Kasan (1804) 242,000 vols.; Kiev (1832) 125,000 vols.;
Odessa (1865) 250,000 vols. ; and Warsaw (1817) 550,000 vols. There
are also communal or public libraries at Charkov (1886) 110,000
vols.; Odessa (1830) 130,000 vols.; Reval (1825) 40,000 vols.;
Riga, 90,000 vols. ; Vilna (1856) 210,000 vols. and many other towns.
A text-book on library economy, based on Graesel and Brown, was
issued at St Petersburg in 1904.
Eastern Europe.
At Athens the National Library (1842) possesses about
260,000 vols., and there is also a considerable library at
the university. The Public Library at Corfu has about 40,000
vols. Belgrade University Library has 60,000 vols. and the
University Library of Sofia has 30,000 vols. Constantinople
University in 1910 had a library in process of formation, and
there are libraries at the Greek Literary Society (20,000 vols.)
and Theological School (11,000 vols.).
China.
Chinese books were first written on thin slips of bamboo, which
were replaced by silk or cloth scrolls in the 3rd century B.C.,
paper coming into use in the beginning of the 2nd century.
These methods were customary down to the icth or i ith century.
There were no public libraries in the western sense.
The practice of forming national collections of the native literature
originated in the attempts to recover the works de'stroyed in the
" burning of the books " by the " First Emperor " (220 B.C.). In
190 B.C. the law for the suppression of literary works was repealed,
but towards the close of the 1st century B.C. many works were still
missing. Hsiao Wu (139-86 B.C.) formed the plan of Repositories,
in which books might be stored, with officers to transcribe them.
Liu Hsiang (80—9 B.C.) was specially appointed to classify the
literature and form a library. His task was completed by his son,
and the resume of their labours is a detailed catalogue with valuable
notes describing 11,332 "sections" (volumes) by 625 authors.
Similar national collections were formed by nearly every succeeding
dynasty. The high estimation in which literature has always been
held has led to the formation of very large imperial, official and
private collections of books. Large numbers of works, chiefly re-
lating to Buddhism and Taoism, are also stored in many of the
temples. Chinese books are usually in several, and frequently in
many volumes. The histories and encyclopaedias are mostly of vast
dimensions. Collections of books are kept in wooden cupboards or
on_open shelves, placed on their sides, each set (t'ao) of volumes
(pen) being protected and held together by two thin wooden or
card boards, one forming the front cover (in a European book) and
the other the back cover, joined by two cords or tapes running round
the whole. By untying and tying these tapes the t'ao is opened and
closed. The titles of the whole work and of each section are written
on the edge (either the top or bottom in a European book) and so
face outwards as it lies on the shelf. Catalogues are simple lists
with comments on the books, not the systematic and scientific
productions used in Western countries. There are circulating libraries
in large numbers in Peking, Canton and other cities.
See E. T. C. Werner, " Chinese Civilisation " (in H. Spencer's
Descriptive Sociology, pt. ix.).
Japan.
The ancient history of libraries in Japan is analogous to that
of China, with whose civilization and literature it had close
relations. Since about 1870, however, the great cities and
institutions have established libraries on the European model.
Perhaps the most extensive library of the empire is that of the
Imperial Cabinet (1885) at Tokio with over 500,000 vols., consisting
of the collections of the various government departments, and is for
official use alone. The University Library (1872) is the largest open
to students and the public; it contains over 400,000 vols. of which
230,000 are Chinese and Japanese. The Public Library and reading-
room (Tosho-Kwan) at Ueno Park (1872) was formed in 1872 and
contains over 250,000 vols., of which about one-fifth are European
books. At Tokio are also to be found the Ohashi Library (1902) with
60,000 vols. and the Hibaya Library (1908) with 130,000 vols. and
the Nanki Library (1899) with 86,000 vols. The library of the
Imperial University of Kyoto contains nearly 200,000 vols., of which
over 90,000 are in European languages. To this is attached the
library of the Fukuoka Medical College with 113,000 vols. The
Municipal Library of Kyoto (1898) contains 46,000 vols. Other im-
portant municipal libraries in Japan are those at Akita in the province
of Ugo (1899), 47,000 vols., at Mito, province of Hitachi (1908),
25,000 vols., Narita, province of Shimosa (1901), 36,000 vols., chiefly
Buddhistic, Yamaguchi, province of Suo (1907), 23,000 vols. The
libraries of the large temples often contain books of value to the
philologist. Lending libraries of native and Chinese literature have
existed in Japan from very early times.
LIBRARY ASSOCIATIONS AND TRAINING
The first and largest association established for the study of
librarianship was the American Library Association (1876). The
Library Association of the United Kingdom was formed in 1877
as an outcome of the first International Library Conference,
held at London, and in 1898 it received a royal charter. It
publishes a Year Book, the monthly Library Association Record,
and a number of professional handbooks. It also holds examina-
tions in Literary History, Bibliography and Library Economy,
and issues certificates and diplomas. There are also English
and Scottish district library associations. The Library Assistants
Association was formed in 1895 and has branches in different
parts of England, Wales and Ireland. It issues a monthly
magazine entitled The Library Assistant. There is an important
Library Association in Germany which issues a year-book giving
information concerning the libraries of the country, and a
similar organization in Austria-Hungary which issues a magazine
at irregular intervals. An Association of Archivists and Lib-
rarians was formed at Brussels in 1907, and there are similar
societies in France, Italy, Holland and elsewhere. In every
country there is now some kind of association for the study of
librarianship, archives or bibliography. International conferences
have been held at London, 1877; London, 1897; Paris (at
Exhibition), 1903; St Louis, 1904; Brussels (preliminary),
1908; and Brussels, 1910.
LIBRARY PERIODICALS. — The following is a list of the current
periodicals which deal with library matters, with the dates of their
establishment and place of publication: The Library Journal
(New York, 1876); The Library (London, 1889); Public Libraries
(Chicago, 1896); The Library World (London, 1898); The Library
Assistant (1898); The Library Association Record (1899); Library
Work (Minneapolis, U.S., 1906); Bulletin of the American Library
Association (Boston, 1907); Revue des biblwtheques (Paris, 1891);
Bulletin des bibliotheques populaires (Paris, 1906); Courrier des
Bibliotheques (Paris); Bulletin de I'institut international de biblio-
graphie (Brussels, 1895); Revue des bibliotheques et archives de
Belgique (Brussels, 1903) ; Tijdschrift voor boekund bibliothekwezen
(Hague, 1903) ; De Boekzaal (Hague, 1907) ; Bogsamlingsbladet
(Copenhagen, 1906) ; For Folke-og Barnboksamlinger (Christiania,
1906); Folkebibliotheksbladet (Stockholm, 1903); Zentralblatt fur
Bibliothekswesen (Leipzig, 1884) ; Blatter fur Volksbibliotheken und
Lesehallen (1899; occasional supplement to the above); Biblio-
graphie des Btbliotheks- und Buchwesens (ed. by Adalbert Hortz-
schansky, 1904; issued in the Zentralblatt); Jahrbuch der Deutschen
Bibliotheken (Leipzig, 1902); Minerva. Jahrbuch der gelehrten Welt
(Strassburg, 1 890) ; Mitteilungen des osterreichischen Vereins fur
Bibliothekswesen (Vienna, 1896); Ceskd Osveta (Novy Bydzov,
Bohemia, 1905); Revista delle biblioteche e degli archivi (Florence,
1890); Bollettino delle biblioteche popolari (Milan, 1907); Revista de
Archives, Bibliotecas y Museos Madrid (1907); The Gakuto (Tokio,
Japan, 1897). (H. R. T.; J. D. BR.)
xvi. 19
578
LIBRATION— LICHENS
LIBRATION (Lat. libra, a balance), a slow oscillation, as of
a balance; in astronomy especially the seeming oscillation of
the moon around her axis, by which portions of her surface near
the edge of the disk are alternately brought into sight and swung
out of sight.
LIBYA, the Greek name for the northern part of Africa, with
which alone Greek and Roman history are concerned. It is
mentioned as a land of great fertility in Homer (Odyssey, iv. 85),
but no indication of its extent is given. It did not originally
include Egypt, which was considered part of Asia, and first
assigned to Africa by Ptolemy, who made the isthmus of Suez
and the Red Sea the boundary between the two continents.
The name Africa came into general use through the Romans.
In the early empire, North Africa (excluding Egypt) was divided
into Mauretania, Numidia, Africa Propria and Cyrenaica. The
old name was reintroduced by Diocletian, by whom Cyrenaica
(detached from Crete) was divided into Marmarica (Libya
inferior) in the east, and Cyrenaica (Libya superior) in the west.
A further distinction into Libya interior and exterior is also
known. The former (ft ivrbs) included the interior (known
and unknown) of the continent, as contrasted with the N. and
N.E. portion; the latter (17 e£co, called also simply Libya, or
Libyae nomos), between Egypt and Marmarica, was so called
as having once formed an Egyptian " nome." See AFRICA,
ROMAN.
LICATA, a seaport of Sicily, in the province of Girgenti,
24 m. S.E. of Girgenti direct and 54 m. by rail. Pop. (1901)
22,931. It occupies the site of the town which Phintias of
Acragas (Agrigentum) erected after the destruction of Gela,
about 281 B.C., by the Mamertines, and named after himself.
The river Salso, which flows into the sea on the east of the
town, is the ancient Himera Meridionalis. The promontory
. at the foot of which the town is situated, the Poggio di Sant'
Angela, is the Ecnomus (Eknomon) of the Greeks, and upon
its slopes are scanty traces of ancient structures and rock
tombs. It was off this promontory that the Romans gained
the famous naval victory over the Carthaginians in the
spring of 256 B.C., while the plain to the north was the
scene of the defeat of Agathocles by Hamilcar in 310 B.C.
The modern town is mainly important as a shipping port for
sulphur.
LICENCE (through the French from Lat. licentia, licere, to
be lawful), permission, leave, liberty, hence an abuse of liberty,
licentiousness; in particular, a formal authority to do some
lawful act. Such authority may be either verbal or written;
when written, the document containing the authority is called
a " licence." Many acts, lawful in themselves, are regulated
by statutory authority, and licences must be obtained. For the
sale of alcoholic liquor see LIQUOR LAWS.
LICHEN (lichen rttber), in medical terminology, a papu-
lar disease of the skin, consisting of an eruption in small
thickly set, slightly elevated red points, more or less widely
distributed over the body, and accompanied by slight febrile
symptoms.
LICHENS, in botany, compound or dual organisms each
consisting of an association of a higher fungus, with a usually
unicellular, sometimes filamentous, alga. The fungal part of
the organism nearly always consists of a number of the Disco-
mycetes or Pyrenomycetes, while the algal portion is a member
of the Schizophyceae (Cyanophyceae or Blue-green Algae) or
of the Green Algae; only in a very few cases is the fungus a
member of the Basidiomycetes. The special fungi which
take part in the association are, with rare exceptions, not
found growing separately, while the algal forms are constantly
found free. The reproductive organs of the lichen are of a
typically fungal character, i.e. are apothecia or perithecia
(see FUNGI) and spermogonia. The algal cells are never
known to form spores while part of the lichen-thallus, but
they may do so when separated from it and growing free.
The fungus thus clearly takes the upper hand in the
association.
Owing to their peculiar dual nature, lichens are able to live
in situations where neither the alga nor fungus could exist alone.
The enclosed alga is protected by the threads (hyphae) of the
fungus, and supplied with water and salts and,' possibly, organic
nitrogenous substances; in its turn the alga by means of its
green or blue-green colouring matter and the sun's energy
manufactures carbohydrates which are used in part by the
fungus. An association of two organisms to their mutual
advantage is known as symbiosis, and the lichen in botanical
language is described as a symbiotic union of an alga and a
fungus. This form of relationship is now known in other
groups of plants (see BACTERIOLOGY and FUNGI), but it was
first discovered in the lichens. The lichens are charac-
terized by their excessively slow growth and their great length
of life.
Until comparatively recent times the lichens were considered
as a group of simple organisms on a level with algae and fungi.
The green (or blue-green) cells were termed gonidia by Wallroth,
who looked upon them as asexual reproductive cells, but when it
was later realized that they were not reproductive elements
they were considered as mere outgrowths of the hyphae of the
thallus which had developed chlorophyll. In 1865 De Bary
suggested the possibility that such lichens as Collema, Ephebe,
&c., arose as a result of the attack of parasitic Ascomycetes upon
the algae, Nostoc, Chroococcus, &c. In 1867 the observations
of Famintzin and Baranetzky showed that the gonidia, in certain
cases, were able to live outside the lichen-thallus, and in the case
of Physcia, Evernia and Cladonia were able to form zoospores.
Baranetzky therefore concluded that a certain number, if not
all of the so-called algae were nothing more than free living
lichen-gonidia. In 1869 Schwendener put forward the really
illuminating view — exactly opposite to that of Baranetzky —
that the gonidia in all cases were algae which had been attacked
by parasitic fungi. Although Schwendener supported this
view of the " dual " nature of lichens by very strong evidence
and identified the more common lichen-gonidia with known
free-living algae, yet the theory was received with a storm of
opposition by nearly all lichenologists. These workers were
unable to consider with equanimity the loss of the autonomy
of their group and its reduction to the level of a special
division of the fungi. The observations of Schwendener,
however, received ample support from Bornet's (1873) exami-
nation of 60 genera. He investigated the exact relation of
fungus and alga and showed that the same alga is able to
combine with a number of different fungi to form lichens;
thus Chroolepns umbrinus is found as the gonidia of 13 different
lichen genera.
The view of the dual nature of lichens had hitherto been
based on analysis; the final proof of this view was now supplied
by the actual synthesis of a lichen from fungal and algal con-
stituents. Rees in 1871 produced the sterile thallus of a Collema
from its constituents; later Stahl did the same for three species.
Later Bonnier (1886) succeeded in producing fertile thalli by
sowing lichen spores and the appropriate algae upon sterile
glass plates or portions of bark, and growing them in sterilized
air (fig. i). Moller also in 1887 succeeded in growing small
lichen-thalli without their algal constituent (gonidia) on nutri-
tive solutions; in the case of Calicium pycnidia were actually
produced under these conditions.
The thallus or body of the lichen is of very different form in
different genera. In the simplest filamentous lichens (e.g. Ephebe
pubescens) the form of thallus is the form of the filamentous alga
which is merely surrounded by the fungal hyphae (fig. 2). The
next simplest forms are gelatinous lichens (e.g. Collemaceae); in
these the algae are Chroococcaceae and Nostocaceae, and the
fungus makes its way into the gelatinous membranes of the
algal cells and ramifies there (fig. 3) . We can distinguish this class
of forms as lichens with a homoiomerous thallus, i.e. one in which
the alga and fungus are equally distributed. The majority of the
lichens, however, possess a stratified thallus in which the gonidia
are found as a definite layer or layers embedded in a pseudo-
parenchymatous mass of fungal hyphae, i.e. they are hetero-
merous (figs. 8 and 9) . Obviously these two conditions may merge
LICHENS
579
into one another, and the distinction is not of classificatory
value.
In external form the heteromerous thallus presents the following
modifications, (a) The foliaceous (leaf-like) thallus, which may be
either peltate, i.e. rounded and entire, as in Umbilicaria, &c., or
variously lobed and laciniated, as in Sticta, Parmelia, Cetraria (fig. 4),
&c. This is the highest type of its development, and is sometimes very
considerably expanded. (b) Thefruticose thallus may be either erect,
becoming pendulous, as in Usnea (fig. 5), Ramalina, &c., or prostrate,
as in Alectoria jubata, var. chalybeiformis. It is usually divided into
branches and branchlets, bearing some resemblance to a miniature
shrub. An erect cylindrical thallus terminated by the fruit is termed
a podetium, as in Cladonia (fig. 7). (c) The crustaceans thallus, which
is the most common of all, forms a mere crust on the substratum,
varying in thickness, and may be squamose (in Squamaria) , radiate
(in Placodium), areolate, granulose or pulverulent (in various
Lecanorae and Lecideae). (d) The hypophloeodal thallus is often
concealed beneath the bark of trees (as in some Verrucariae and
Arthoniae), or enters into the fibres of wood (as in Xylographa and
After Bonnier, from v. Tavel, X 500. From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Bolanik, by
permission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. I. — Xanthoria parietina. By the fusion of the hyphae in the
middle of the mycelium a pseudo-parenchymatous cortical layer
has begun to form.
I, Germinating ascospore (sp) 2, Thallus in process of forma-
with branching germ-tube tion.
applied to the Cystococcus sp, Two ascosppres.
cells (a). p, Cystococcus cells.
Agyrium), being indicated externally only by a very thin film
(figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8). In colour also the thallus externally is
very variable. In the dry and more typical state it is most fre-
quently white or whitish, and almost as often greyish or greyish
glaucous. Less commonly it is of different shades of brown, red,
yellow and black. In the moist state of the thallus these colours are
much less apparent, as the textures then become more or less trans-
lucent, and the thallus usually prevents the greenish colour of the
gonidia (e.g. Parmelia Borreri, Peltidea aphthosa, Umbilicaria
pustulata and pulverulent Lecideae}.
The thallus may be free upon the surface of the substratum (e.g.
Collema) or may be fixed more or less closely to it by special hyphae
or rhizoids. These may penetrate but slightly into the substratum,
but the connexion established may be so close that it is impossible
to remove the thallus from the substratum without injury (e.g.
Physcia, Placodium). In some cases the rhizoids are united together
into larger strands, the rhizines,
The typical heteromerous thallus shows on section a peripheral,
thin and therefore transparent, layer, the cortical layer, and centrally
a mass of denser tissue the so-called medullary layer, between these
two layers is the algal zone or gonidial layer (figs. 8 and 9).
The term epithallus is sometimes applied to the superficial dense
portion of the cortical layer and the term hypothallus to the layer,
when specially modified, in immediate contact with the substratum;
the hypothallus is usually dark or blackish. The cylindrical branches
of the fruticose forms are usually radially symmetrical, but the
flattened branches of these forms and also the thalli of the foliaceous
form show a difference in the cortex of the upper and lower side.
The cortical layer is usually more developed on the side towards the
light, while in many lichens this is the only side provided with a
cortical layer. The podetia of some species of Cladonia possess no
cortical layer at all. The surface of the thallus often exhibits out-
growths in the form of warts, hairs, &c. The medullary layer,
which usually forms the main part of the thallus, is distinguished
from the cortical layer by its looser consistence and the presence in
it of numerous, large, air-containing spaces.
Gonidia. — It has been made clear above that the gonidia
are nothing more than algal cells, which have been ensnared
by fungal hyphae and made to
develop in captivity (fig. i).
Funfstuck gives ten free living
algae which have been identified
as the gonidia of lichens. Pleura-
coccus (Cystococcus) humicola in the
majority of lichens, e.g. Usnea,
Cladonia, Physcia, Parmelia, Cali-
cium, many species of Lecidea, &c.,
Trentepohlia (Chroolepus) umbrina
in many species of Verrucaria,
Graphidieae and Lecidea; Palmella
botry aides in Epigloea; Pleurococcus
•oulgaris in Acarospora, Dermato-
carpon, Catillaria; Dactylococcus
infusionum in Solorina, Nephromia;
After Sachs, from De Bary's
Vergleifhende Morphologic und
Biologic der Pilze, Mycetozoen
und Baclerien, by permission of
Wilhelm Engelmann.
FIG. 2. — Ephebe pubes-
cens, Fr. (Mag. 500 times.)
A branched filiform thal-
lus of Stigonema with the
hyphae of the fungus grow-
ing through its gelatinous
membranes. Extremity
of a branch of the thal-
lus with a young lateral
branch a; h, hyphae;
g, cells of the alga ; gs, the
apex of the thallus.
FIG. 3. — Section of Homoiomerous
Thallus of Collema conglomeratum, with
Nostoc threads scattered among the
hyphae.
Nostoc lichenoides in most of the Collemaceae; Rivularia
rutida in Omphalaria; Lichina, &c., Polycoccus punctiformis
in Peltigera, Pan-
naria and Stictina;
Gloeocapsa polyder-
inatica in Baeomyces
and Omphalaria;.
Sirosiphon pulvina- [
tus in Ephebe pu-
bescens. The ma-
jority of lichens are ^k/ v>
confined to one
particular kind of
gonidium (i.e. species
of alga) but a few
forms are known
(Lecanora granatina,
Solorina crocea)
which make use of
more than one kind
i™ tVioir rl«rolr,n From Strasburger's Ldtrbuch der Bolanik, by pennis-
m their develop- sion ot Gustav Fischer. -
ment. In the case FIG. 4. — Cetraria islandica. (Nat. size.)
of Solorina, for ex- ap, Apothecium.
ample, the principal
alga is a green alga, one of the Palmellaceae, but Nostoc (a
blue-green alga) is also found playing a subsidiary part as
580
LICHENS
gonidia. In L. granatina the primary alga is Pleurococcus, the
secondary, Gleococapsa.
Cephalodia. — In about 100 species of lichens peculiar growths
are developed in the interior of the thallus which cause a slight
projection of the upper
or lower surface. These
structures are known as
cephalodia and they
usually occupy a definite
position in the thallus.
They are distinguished by
possessing as gonidia algae
foreign to the ordinary
(fa part of the thallus. The
" foreign algae are always
members of the Cyano-
phyceae and on the same
individual and even in the
same cephalodium more
than one type of gonidium
may be found. The func-
tion of these peculiar
structures is unknown.
Zukal has suggested that
they may play the part of
water-absorbing organs.
The exact relation of
FIG. s.-Usnea barbata. (Nat. size.) f nidia .and hyPhae has
ap, Apothecium. been investigated es-
pecially by Bornet and
also by Hedlund, and very considerable differences have
been shown to exist in different genera. In Physma,
Arnoldia, Phylliscum and other genera the gonidia are
killed sooner or later by special hyphal branches, haustoria,
which pierce the membrane of the algal cell, penetrate the proto-
plasm and absorb the contents (fig. n, C). In other cases,
e.g. Synalissa, Micarea, the haustoria pierce the membrane,
but do not penetrate the protoplasm (fig. u, D). In many
other cases, especially those algae possessing Pleurococcus
as their gonidia, there are no penetrating hyphae, but merely
"" **"**' by
From Strasburger's Lehrbuck der Botanik,
by permission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 6. — Cladonia rangiferina.
(Nat. size.)
A, Sterile.
B, With ascus-fruit at the ends of
the branches.
From Strasburger's Lehr-
bucft der Botanik, by per-
mission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 7. — Cladonia
cocci/era. Podetia
bearing apothecia.
(Nat. size.)
t, Scales of primary
thallus.
special short hyphal branches which are in close contact with
the membrane of the algal cell (fig. 3).
Reproduction.
There are three methods of reproduction of the lichen: by
fragmentation, by soredia, by the formation of fungal spores.
In the first process, portions of thallus containing gonidia may
be accidentally separated and so may start new plants. The
second method is only a special process of fragmentation. The
soredia are found in a large number of lichens, and consist
of a single gonidium or groups of gonidia, surrounded by a
sheath and hyphae. They arise usually in the gonidial layer
of the thallus by division of the gonidia and the development
around them of the hyphal investment; their increase in number
leads to the rupture of the enclosing cortical layer and the soredia
escape from the thallus as a powdery mass (fig. 12). Since
they are provided with both fungal and algal elements, they
are able to develop directly, under suitable conditions, into
a new thallus. The soredia are the most successful method
of reproduction in lichens, for not only are some forms nearly
always without spore-formation and in others the spores laregly
abortive, but in all cases the spore represents only the fungal
component of the thallus, and its success in the development
of a new lichen-thallus depends on the chance meeting, at the
time of germination, with the appropriate algal component.
Conidia. — Contrary to the behaviour of the non-lichen forming
Ascomycetes the lichen-fungi show very few cases of ordinary
conidial formation. Bornet describes free conidia in Arnoldia
minitula, and Placodium decipiens and CowzVWa-formation has teen
described by Neubner in the Caliciae.
Spermatia. — In the majority of genera of lichens small flask-shaped
structures are found embedded in the thallus (fig. 13). These were
investigated by Tulasne
in 1853, who gave them x
the name spermogonia.
The lower, ventral por-
tion of the spermo-
gonium is lined by
delicate hyphae, the
slerigmata, which give
origin to minute colour-
less cells, the spermatia.
The sterigmata are
either simple (fig. 13, C)
or septate — the so-
called arthrosterigmata
(fig. 13, B). Thespermo-
gonia open by a small
pore at the apex, to-
wards which the sterig-
mata converge and
through which the sper-
matia escape (fig. 13).
There are two views as
to the nature of the
spermatia. In one view
they are mere asexual
conidia, and the term
pycnoconidia is accord-
ingly applied since they
are borne in structures
like the
pycnidia of other fungi.
In the other view the
spermatia are the male
, After Sachs, from De Bary's Vergleichende Mor-
. ..vii-il pkologie und Biolagie der Pilze, Mycetozom unil
11 Battcrim, by permission of Wilhelm Engelmann.
FIG. 8. — Usnea barbata. (Mag. nearly 100
times.)
sexual cells and thus A, Optical longitudinal section of the ex-
tremity of a thin branch of the thallus
which has become transparent in
solution of potash.
Transverse section through a stronger
branch with the point of origin of an
adventitious branch (sa).
Cortical layer.
are rightly named; it
should, however, be
pointed out that this
was not the view of B,
Tulasne, though we owe
to him the designation
which carries with it
the sexual significance, m, Medullary layer.
The question is one x, Stout axile strand,
very difficult to settle g. The algal zone (Cystococcus).
owing to the fact that s, Apex of the branch,
the majority of sper-
matia appear to be functionless. In favour of the comdial view is
the fact that in the case of Collema and a few other forms the sper-
matia have been made to germinate in artificial cultures, and in the
case of Calicium parietinum Moller succeeded in producing a sper-
mogonia bearing thallus from a spermatium. For the germination
of the spermatia in nature there is only the observation of Hedlund,
that in Catillaria denigrata, and C. prasena a thallus may be derived
from the spermatia under natural conditions. In relation to the
view that the spermatia are sexual cells, or at least were primitively
so, it must be pointed out that although the actual fusion of the
spermatial nucleus with a female nucleus has not been observed,
yet in a few cases the spermatia have been seen to fuse with a
projecting portion (trichogyne) of the ascogonium, as in Collema
and Physcia, and there is very strong circumstantial evidence that
fertilization takes place (see later in section on development of
ascocarp). The resemblance of the spermatia and spermogonia to
those of Uredineae should be pointed out, where also there is consider-
able evidence for their original sexual nature, though they appear in
that group to be functionless in all cases. The observations of Moller,
&c., on the germination cannot be assumed to negative the sexual
hypothesis for the sexual cells of Ulothrix and Eclocarpus, for example
LICHENS
581
are able to develop with or without fusion. The most satisfactory
view in the present state of our knowledge seems to be that the sper-
matia are male cells which,
while retaining their fertiliz-
ing action in a few cases are
now mainly functionless. The
female sexual organs, the
ascogonia, would thus in the
majority of cases develop by
the aid of some reduced
sexual process or the asco-
carps be developed without
relation to sexual organs.
A further argument in sup-
port of this view is that it is
in complete agreement with
what we know of the sexuality
of the ordinary, free-living
ascomycetes, where we find
both normal and reduced
forms (see FUNGI).
Fruit Bodies.— We find
two chief types of fruit
bodies in the lichens, the
perithecium and apothecium;
the first when the fungal
element is a member of the
Pyrenomycetes division of
the Ascomycetes, the second
__ when the fungus belongs to
famBtamtmrWiatiudH^HdimB^tik the Discomycetes division.
FIG. 9.— Section of Heteromerous In the two genera of lichens
Lichen Thallus. — the Basidiolichens — in
a. Upper cortical layer. which the fungus is a mem-
ber of the Basidiomycetes,
we have the fructification
characteristic of that class
of. fungi : these are dealt with separately. The perithecium
is very constant in form and since the gonidia take no part
d,
c,
b,
Medullary layer.
Gonidial kyer.
After Schwendener, from De Bary's Verglcichende Uor
ihologie and Biologic der Pilze, Myietozoen uad Baclerien,
iy permission of Wilhelm Engelmann.
variations E.K of value in classification some more details may
be added.
They present various shapes, of which the following are the
principal: (a) peltate, which are large, rounded, without any
distinct thalline margin ' (e.g. Usnea, Peltigera) ; (b) lecanorine, or
scutelliform, which are orbicular and surrounded by a distinct,
more or less prominent thalline margin (e.g. Parmelia, Lecanora),
having sometimes also in addition a proper one * (e.g. Thelotrema,
Urceolaria) ; (c) lecideine, or patelliform, which are typically orbicular,
with only a proper margin (e.g. Lecidea), sometimes obsolete, and
which are occa-
sionally irregular
in shape, angular
or flexuose (e.g.
Lecidea jurana, L.
myrmecina), or
complicated and
gyrosc (e.g. Gyro-
phora), and even
s t i p i t a t e (e.g.
Baeomyces) ; (d)
hrelliform, which flG- I2- — Usnea barbata. (Mag. more than
are of very irregu- 5°° times.)
lar figure, elon- c< An 'solated mature soredium, with an algal
gated, branched or ce" (Pleurococcus) in the envelope or hyphae.
flexuose, with only d< Another with several algal cells in optical
a proper margin longitudinal section.
(e.g. Xylographa, e> J< lwo soredia in the act of germinating; the
Gr -aphis, &c.) or hyphal envelope has grown out below into
none (eg some rhizoid branches, and above shows already
Arthoniae), and the structure of the apex of the thallus (see
often very variable "8- 9)-
even in the same species. In colour the apothecia are extremely
variable, and it is but rarely that they are the same colour as
the thallus (e.g. Usnea, Ramalina). Usually they are of a different
colour, and may be black, brown, yellowish, or also less frequently
rose-coloured, rusty-red, orange-reddish, saffron, or of various
intermediate shades. Occasionally in the same species their colour
is very variable (e.g. Lecanora metaboloides, Lecidea decolorant), while
sometimes they are white or glaucous, rarely greenish, pruinose.
Lecideine apothecia, which are not black, but otherwise variously
coloured, are termed biatorine.
The two principal parts of which an apothecium consists are the
hypothecium and the hymenium, or thecium. The
hypothecium is the basal part of the apothecium on
which the hymenium is borne; the latter consists of
asci (thecae) with ascospores, and paraphyses. The
paraphyses (which may be absent entirely in the
Pyrenolichens) are erect, colourless filaments which are
After Tulasne, from De Bary's Vcrgleichende Morphologic mid
Biologic der Pilzc, Mycetozoen uad Bacterial, by permission of Wilhelm
Engelmann.
FIG. 13. — A , B, Gyrophora cylindrica. (A mag. 90,
B 390 times, C highly magnified.)
After Bornet, from De Bary's Vergleichende Morphologic und Biologic der Pilze, Mycetozoen und
hn/ Iff ifn. by permission of Wilhelm Engelmann.
FIG. n. — Lichen-forming Algae. (A, C, D, E mag. 950, B 650 times.) The
alga is in all cases indicated by the letter g, the assailing hyphae by h.
A, A vertical median sec-
tion through a sper-
mogonium imbedded
in the thallus.
o, Upper rind.
u, Under rind. [thallus.
m, Medullary layer of the
B, Portion of a very thin
section from the base
of the spermogonium.
w. Its wall from which
proceed sterigmata
with rod-like sper-
matia (s).
m. Medullary hyphae of
the thallus.
C, Cladonia novae A ngliae,
Delise ; sterigmata
with spermatia from
the spermogonium.
A, Pleurococcus, Ag. (Cystococcus, Nag.)
attacked by the germ-tube from a
spore of Physica parietina.
B, Scytonema from the thallus of
Stereocaulon ramulosum.
C, Nostoc from the thallus of Physma
chalazanum.
D, Gloeocapsa from the thallus of
Synalissa Symphorea.
E, Pleurococcus Sp. (Cystococcus) from
the thallus of Cladonia furcata.
in the formation of this organ or that of the apothecium it
has the general structure characteristic of that divisioli of
fungi. The apothecia, though of the normal fungal type and
usually disk-shaped, are somewhat more variable, and since the
usually dilated and coloured at the apex; the apices
are usually cemented together into a definite layer, the
epithecium (fig. 14). The spores themselves may be
unicellular without a septum or multicellular with
one or more septa. Sometimes the two cavities are
restricted to the two ends of the spore, the polari-
bilocular type and the two loculi may be united
1 The thalline margin (margo thallinus) is the projecting edge of a
special layer of thallus, the amphithecium, round the actual
apothecium; the proper margin (margo proprius) is the projecting
edge of the apothecium itself.
582
LICHENS
by a narrow channel (fig. 15). At other times the spores are
divided by both transverse and longitudinal septa producing the
muriform (murali-divided) spore so called from the resemblance
of the individual chambers to the stones in a wall. The very large
single spores of Pertusaria have been shown to contain numerous
nuclei and when they germinate develop a large number of germ
tubes.
Development of the Ascocarps. — As the remarks on the nature of
the spermatia show, the question of the sexuality of the lichens
has been hotly disputed in common with that of the rest of the
Ascomycetes. As indicated above, the weight of evidence seems to
favour what has been put forward in the case of the non-lichen-
forming fungi (see FUNGI), that in some cases the ascogonia develop
as a result of a previous fertilization by spermatia, in other cases
the ascogonia develop without such a union, while in still other
Epttheclum Asci
Proper margin .Thecium (Hymeolu.-n) ,\ Paralyses
/ i **' / ] f Parathecium
Tnaffine margin i mtnlllllllllllflllll"HlllfWlff"lllllllfWl"limilllll m .'' Cortel
After Darbishire, from BcrichU der deutschen botaniscken GeseUscbaft, by permission
of Borntraeger & Co.
FIG. 14. — Diagram showing Apothecium in Section and sur-
rounding Portion of Thallus, and special terms used to designate
these parts.
cases the reduction goes still farther and the ascogenous hyphae
instead of developing from the ascogonia are derived directly from
the vegetative hyphae.
The first exact knowledge as to the origin of the ascocarp was the
work of Stahl on Collema in 1877. He showed that the archicarp
consisted of two parts, a lower coiled portion, the ascogonium, and
an upper portion, the trichogyne, which projected from the thallus.
Only when a spermatium was found attached to the trichogyne did
the further development of the ascogonium take place. From these
observations he drew the natural conclusion that the spermatium
was a male, sexual cell. This view was hotly contested by many
workers and it was sought to explain the trichogyne — without much
success — as a respiratory organ, or as a boring organ which made
a way for the developing
apothecium. It was not till
l898- however, that Stahl's
work received confirmation
and addition at the hands
of Baur (fig. 16). The latter
showed that in Collema
crispum there are two kinds
of thalli, one with numerous
apothecia, the other quite
sterile or bearing only a few.
The sterile thalli possessed
no spermogonia, but were
found to show sometimes
as many as 1000 archicarps
with trichogynes; yet none
orvery few cameto maturity.
The fertile thalli were shown
to bear either spermogonia
or to be in immediate con-
FlG. 15. — Vertical Section of Apothe- nexion with spermogonia-
cium of Xanthoria parietina. bearing thalli. Furthermore
a Paraohvses Baur snowed that after the
b, Asci (thecae) with bilocular spores. f™ °f th<? spermatium
c, Hypothecium. ™th the tnchogyne the
transverse walls of that
organ became perforated.
There was thus very strong circumstantial evidence in favour of
fertilization, although the male nucleus was not traced. The
further work of Baur, and that of Darbishire, Funfstuck and
Lindau, have shown that in a number of other cases trichogynes are
present. Thus ascogonia with trichogynes have been observed in
Endocarpon, Collema, Pertusaria, Lecanora, Gyrophora, Parmclia,
Ramalina, Physcia, Anaptychia and Cladonia. In Nephroma,
Peltigera, Peltiaea and Solorina a cogonia without trichogynes have
been observed. In Collema and a form like Xanthoria parietina it is
probable that actual fertilization takes place, and possibly also in
some of the other forms. It is probable, however, that in the
majority of cases the ascogonia develop without normal fertilization,
as is necessarily the case where the ascogonia have no trichogynes
or the spermatia are absent. In these cases we should expect
to find some reduced process of fertilization similar to that of
Humaria granulata among the ordinary
Ascomycetes, where in the absence of
the antheridia the female nuclei fuse
in pairs. In other lichens we should
expect to find the ascogenous hyphae
arising directly from the vegetative
hyphae as in Humaria rutilans among
the ordinary fungi, where the process
is associated with the fusion of vege-
tative nuclei. It is possible that So-
lorina saccata belongs to this class.
Cytological details of nuclear behaviour
among the lichens are, however, difficult
to obtain owing to the slow growth of
these forms and the often refractory
nature of the material in the matter
of preparation for microscopical ex-
amination.
Ejection of Spores. — The spores are
ejected from the apothecia and peri-
thecia as in the fungi by forcible ejacu-
lation from the asci. In the majority
of forms it is clear that the soredia
rather than the ascospore must play
the more important part in lichen dis-
tribution as the development of the
ordinary spores is dependent on their
finding the proper alga on the sub-
stratum on which they happen to fall.
In a number of forms (Endocarpon
pusillum, Stigmaatonima cataleplum,
various species of Staurothele) , however,
there is a special arrangement by which
the spores are on ejection, associated ,
withgomdia. In these forms gonidia are F l6.— Collema crispum.
found in connexion with the young . „
fruit; such algal cells undergo numerou! A- Carppgonium, c, with its
divisions becoming very small in size R trichogyne MX4O5).
and penetrating into the hymenium B- APt,x °( the tnchogyne
amongdie asci Ind paraphyses. When with, the spermatium,
the spores are thrown out some of these
hymenial gonidia, as they are called, are
carried with them. When the spores
germinate the germ-tubes surround the algal cells, which now in-
crease in size and become the normal gonidia of the thallus.
A
After E. Baur, from Strasburger's
per-
s, (X405)
(XII25).
attached
A
Basidiolichens.
As is clear from the above, nearly all the lichens are pro-
duced by the association of an ascomycetous fungus with
algae. For some obscure reason the Basidiomycetes do not
readily form lichens, so that only a few forms are known in which
the fungal element is a member of this family. The two best-
known genera are Cora
and Dictyonema; Corella,
whose hymenium is un-
known, is also placed
here by Wainio. The
so-called Gasterolichens,
Trichocoma and Emeri-
cella, have been shown
to be merely ascomy-
cetous fungi. Clavaria
mucida, however, has
apparently some claims
to be considered as a
Basidiolichen, since the
base of the fruit body
and the thallus from From Strasburger's Lchrbuch der Bolanit, by
Which it arises, according Permission of Gustav Fischer. .... .
„ , FIG. 17. — Cora pavonia. A, Viewed
to Coker, always shows from ab^ve. B £rom bdow. hym<
a mixture of hyphae and hymenium. (Nat. size.)
algae.
The best-known species is Cora pavonia, which is found in
tropical regions growing on the bare earth and on trees; the
gonidia belong to the genus Chroococcus while the fungus belongs,
apparently, to the Thelephoreae (see FUNGI). This lichen
seems unique in the fact that the fungal element is also found
growing and fruiting entirely devoid of algae, while in the
ynw
B
LICHENS
583
ascolichens the fungus portion seems to have become so special-
ized to its symbiotic mode of life that it is never found growing
independently.
The genus Dictyonema has gonidia belonging to the blue-
green alga, Scytonema. When the fungus predominates in
the thallus it has a bracket-like mode of growth and is found
projecting from the branches of trees with the hymenium on
the under side. When the alga is predominant it forms felted
patches on the bark of trees, the Laudatea form. It is said
that the fungus of Cora pavonia and of Dictyonema is identical,
the difference being m the nature of the alga.
Mode of Life.
Lichens are found growing in various situations such as
bare earth, the bark of trees, dead wood, the surface of stones
and rocks, where they have little competition to fear from
ordinary plants. As is well known, the lichens are often found
in the most exposed and arid situations; in the extreme polar
regions these plants are practically the only vegetable forms
of life. They owe their capacity to live under the most in-
hospitable conditions to the dual nature of the organism, and to
their capacity to withstand extremes of heat, cold and drought
without destruction. On a bare rocky surface a fungus would
die from want of organic substance and an alga from drought
and want of mineral substances. The lichen, however, is
able to grow as the alga supplies organic food material and
the fungus has developed a battery of acids (see below) which
enable it actually to dissolve the most resistant rocks. It is
owing to the power of disintegrating by both mechanical and
chemical means the rocks on which they are growing that lichens
play such an important part in soil-production. The resistance
of lichens is extraordinary; they may be cooled to very low
temperatures and heated to high temperatures without being
killed. They may be dried so thoroughly that they can easily
be reduced to powder yet their vitality is not destroyed but
only suspended; on being supplied with water they absorb
it rapidly by their general surface and renew their activity. The
life of many lichens thus consists of alternating periods of
activity when moisture is plentiful, and completely suspended
animation under conditions of dryness. Though so little sensitive
to drought and extremes of temperature lichens appear to be
very easily affected by the presence in the air of noxious sub-
stances such as are found in large cities or manufacturing
towns. In such districts lichen vegetation is entirely or almost
entirely absent. The growth of lichens is extremely slow and
many of them take years before they arrive at a spore-bearing
stage. Xanthoria parietina has been known to grow for forty-
five years before bearing apothecia. This slowness of growth
is associated with great length of life and it is probable that
individuals found growing on hard mountain rocks or on the
trunks of aged trees are many hundreds of years old. It is
possible that specimens of such long-lived species as Lecidea
geographica actually outrival in longevity the oldest trees.
Relation of Fungus and Alga.
The relation of the two constituents of the lichen have been
briefly stated in the beginning of this article. The relation of
the fungus to the alga, though it may be described in general
terms as one of symbiosis, partakes also somewhat of the nature
of parasitism. The algal cells are usually controlled in their
growth by the hyphae and are prevented from forming zoospores,
and in some cases, as already described, the algal cells are killed
sooner or later by the fungus. The fungus seems, on the other
hand, to stimulate the algal cells to special development, for those
in the lichen are larger than those in the free state, but this is
not necessarily adverse to the idea of parasitism, for it is well
known that an increase in the size of the cells of the host is
often the result of the attacks of parasitic fungi. It must be
borne in mind that the exact nutritive relations of the two
constituents of the lichen have not been completely elucidated,
and that it is very difficult to draw the line between symbiosis
and parasitism. The lichen algae are not alone in their specializa-
tion to the symbiotic (or parasitic) mode of life, for, as stated
earlier, the fungus appear in the majority of cases to have com-
pletely lost the power of independent development since with
very rare exceptions they are not found alone. They also differ
very markedly from free living fungi in their chemical reactions.
Chemistry of Lichens.
The chemistry of lichens is very complex, not yet fully investi-
gated and can only be very briefly dealt with here. The wall of the
hyphae of the fungus give in the young state the ordinary reactions
of cellulose but older material shows somewhat different reactions,
similar to those of the so-called fungus-cellulose. In many lichen-
fungi the wall shows various chemical modifications. In numerous
lichens, e.g. Cetraria islandica, the wall contains Lichenin (CeHioOs),
a gummy substance which swells in cold water and dissolves in hot.
Besides this substance, a very similar one, Isolichenin, is also found
which is distinguished from lichenin by the fact that it dissolves in
cold water and turns blue under the reaction of Iodine. Calcium
oxalate is a very common substance, especially in crustaceous
lichens; fatty oil in the form of drops or as an infiltration in the
membrane is also common; it sometimes occurs in special cells
and in extreme cases may represent 90% of the dry substance as
in Verrucaria calciseda, Biatora immersa.
Colouring Matters. — Many lichens, as is well known, exhibit a vivid
colouring which is usually due to the incrustation of the hyphae
with crystalline excretory products. These excretory products
have usually an acid nature and hence are generally known as
lichen-acids. A large number of these acids, which are mostly
benzene derivatives, have been isolated and more or less closely
investigated. They are characterized by their insolubility or very
slight solubility in water; as examples may be mentioned erythrinic
acid in Roccella and Lecanora; eyernic acid in species of Evernia,
Ramalina and Cladonia; lecanoric acid in Lecanora, Gyrophora.
The so-called chrysophanic acid found in Xanthoria (Physcia)
parietina is not an acid but a quinone and is better termed physcion.
Colour Reactions of Lichens. — The classification of lichens is unique
in the fact that chemical colour reactions are used by many lichen-
ologists in the discrimination of species, and these reactions are
included in the specific diagnoses. The substances used as tests in
these reactions are caustic potash and calcium hypochlorite ; the
former being the substance dissolved in an equal weight of water
and the latter a saturated extract of bleaching powder in water.
These substances are represented by lichenologists by the signs K
and CaCl respectively, and the presence or absence of the colour
reactions are represented thus, K+, CaCl-f , or K — , CaCl — . If
the cortical layer should exhibit positive reaction and the medulla
of the same species a negative reaction with both reagents, the
result is represented thus, K^CaCl*. If a reaction is only
producfed after the consecutive addition of the two reagents, this
is symbolized by K(CaCl)+. A solution of iodine is also used as a
test owing to the blue or wine-red colour which the thallus, hymenium
or spores may give with this reagent. The objection to the case of
these colour reactions is due to the indefinite nature of the reaction
and the doubt as to the constant presence of a definite chemical
compound in a given species. A yellow colour with caustic potash
solution is produced not only by atranoric acid but also by evernic
acid, thamnolic acid, &c. Again in the case of Xanthoria parietina
vulpinic acid is only to be found in young thalli growing on sand-
stone; in older forms or in those growing on another substratum
it is not to be detected. A similar relation between oil formation
and the nature of the substratum has been observed in many lichens.
Considerations such as these should make one very wary in placing
reliance on these colour reactions for the purposes of classification.
Economic Uses of Lichens.
In the arts, as food and as medicine, many lichens have been
highly esteemed, though others are not now employed for the
same purposes as formerly.
i. Lichens Used in the Arts. — Of these the most important are
such as yield, by maceration in ammonia, the dyes known in
commerce as archil, cudbear and litmus. These, however, may
with propriety be regarded as but different names for the same
pigmentary substance, the variations in the character of which
are attributable to the different modes in which the pigments
are manufactured. Archil proper is derived from several species
of Roccella (e.g. R. Montaguei, R. tinctoria), which yield a rich
purple dye; it once fetched a high price in the market. Of
considerable value is the " perelle " prepared from Lecanora
parella, and used in the preparation of a red or crimson dye.
Inferior to this is " cudbear," derived from Lecanora lartarea,
which was formerly very extensively employed by the peasantry
of north Europe for giving a scarlet or purple colour to woollen
cloths. By adding certain alkalies to the other ingredients used
584
LICHENS
in the preparation of these pigments, the colour becomes indigo-
blue, in which case it is the litmus of the Dutch manufacturers.
Amongst other lichens affording red, purple or brown dyes may
be mentioned Ramalina scopulorum, Partnelia, saxatilis and
P. omphalodes, Umbilicaria puslulata and several species of
Gyrophora, Urceolaria scruposa, all of which are more or less
employed as domestic dyes. Yellow dyes, again, are derived
from Chlorea vulpina, Plalysma juniperinum, Parmelia caperata
and P. conspersa, Physcia flavicans, Ph. parietina and Ph.
lychnea, though like the preceding they do not form articles
of commerce, being merely used locally by the natives of the
regions in which they occur most plentifully. In addition to
these, many exotic lichens, belonging especially to Parmelia and
Sticta (e.g. Parmelia tinctorum, Sticta argyracea), are rich in
colouring matter, and, if obtained in sufficient quantity, would
yield a dye in every way equal to archil. These pigments
primarily depend upon special acids contained in the thalli of
lichens, and their presence may readily be detected by means of
the reagents already noticed. In the process of manufacture,
however, they undergo various changes, of which the chemistry
is still but little understood. At one time also some species
were used in the arts for supplying a gum as a substitute for
gum-arabic. These were chiefly Ramalina fraxinea, Evernia
prunastri and Parmelia physodes, all of which contain a consider-
able proportion of gummy matter (of a much inferior quality,
however, to gum-arabic), and were employed in the process of
calico-printing and in the making of parchment and cardboard.
In the 1 7th century some filamentose and fruticulose lichens,
viz. species of Usnea and Ramalina, also Evernia furfuracea and
Cladonia rangiferina, were used in the art of perfumery. From
their supposed aptitude to imbibe and retain odours, their
powder was the basis of various perfumes, such as the celebrated
" Poudre de Cypre " of the hairdressers, but their employment
in this respect has long since been abandoned.
2. Nutritive Lichens. — Of still greater importance is the
capacity of many species for supplying food for man and beast.
This results from their containing starchy substances, and in
some cases a small quantity of saccharine matter of the nature of
mannite. One of the most useful nutritious species is Cetraria
islandica, " Iceland moss," which, after being deprived _of its
bitterness by boiling in water, is reduced to a powder and made
into cakes, or is boiled and eaten with milk by the poor Icelander,
whose sole food it often constitutes. Similarly Cladonia rangi-
ferina and Cl. sylvatica, the familiar " reindeer moss," are
frequently eaten by man in times of scarcity, after being powdered
and mixed with flour. Their chief importance, however, is that
in Lapland and other northern countries they supply the winter
food of the reindeer and other animals, who scrape away the snow
and eagerly feed upon them. Another nutritious lichen is the
" Tripe de Roche " of the arctic regions, consisting of several
species of the Gyrophorei, which when boiled is often eaten by
the Canadian hunters and Red Indians when pressed by hunger.
But the most singular esculent lichen of all is the " manna lichen,"
which in times of drought and famine has served as food for large
numbers of men and cattle in the arid steppes of various countries
stretching from Algiers to Tartary. This is derived chiefly
from Lecanora esculenta, which grows unattached on the ground
in layers from 3 to 6 in. thick over large tracts of country in
the form of small irregular lumps of a greyish or white colour.
In connexion with their use as food we may observe that of
recent years in Scandinavia and Russia an alcoholic spirit has
been distilled from Cladonia rangiferina and extensively con-
sumed, especially in seasons when potatoes were scarce and
dear. Formerly also Sticta ptdmonaria was much employed in
brewing instead of hops, and it is said that a Siberian monastery
was much celebrated for its beer which was flavoured with the
bitter principle of this species.
3. Medicinal Lichens. — During the middle ages, and even in
some quarters to a much later period, lichens were extensively
used in medicine in various European countries. Many species
had a great repute as demulcents, febrifuges, astringents, tonics,
purgatives and anthelmintics. The chief of those employed
for one or other, and in some cases for several, of these purposes
were Cladonia pyxidata, Usnea barbala, Ramalina farinacea,
Evernia prunastri, Cetraria islandica, Sticta ptdmonaria,
Parmelia saxatilis, Xanthoria parietina and Pertusaria amara.
Others again were believed to be endowed with specific virtues,
e.g. Peltigera canina, which formed the basis of the celebrated
" pulvis antilyssus " of Dr Mead, long regarded as a sovereign
cure for hydrophobia; Platysma juniperinum, lauded as a specific
in jaundice, no doubt on the similia similibus principle from a
resemblance between its yellow colour and that of the jaundiced
skin; Peltidea aphthosa, which on the same principle was regarded
by the Swedes, when boiled in milk, as an effectual remedy for
the aphthae or rash on their children. Almost all of these virtues,
general or specific, were imaginary; and at the present day,
except perhaps in some remoter districts of northern Europe,
only one of them is employed as a remedial agent. This is the
" Iceland moss " of the druggists' shops, which is undoubtedly
an excellent demulcent in various dyspeptic and chest complaints.
No lichen is known to be possessed of any poisonous properties
to man, although Chlorea vulpina is believed by the Swedes to
be so. Zukal has considered that the lichen acids protect the
lichen from the attacks of animals; the experiments of Zopf,
however, have cast doubt on this; certainly lichens containing
very bitter acids are eaten by mites though some of the acids
appear to be poisonous to frogs.
Classification.
The dual nature of the lichen thallus introduces at the outset
a classificatory difficulty. Theoretically the lichens may be
classified on the basis of their algal constituent, on the basis of
their fungal constituent, or they may be classified as if they were
homogeneous organisms. The first of these systems is impractic-
able owing to the absence of algal reproductive organs and the
similarity of the algal cells (gonidia) in a large number of different
forms. The second system is the most obvious one, since the
fungus is the dominant partner and produces reproductive
organs. The third system was that of Nylander and his followers,
who did not accept the Schwenderian doctrine of duality. In
actual practice the difference between the second and third
methods is not very great since the fungus is the producer of the
reproductive organs and generally the main constituent. Most
systems agree in deriving the major divisions from the characters
of the reproductive organs (perithecia, apothecia, or basidiospore
bearing fructification), while the characters of the algal cells
and those of the thallus generally are used for the minor divisions.
The difference between the various systems lies in the relative
importance given to the reproductive characters on the one hand
and the vegetative characters on the other. In the system
(1854-1855) of Nylander the greater weight is given to the latter,
while in more modern systems the former characters receive
the more attention.
A brief outline of a system of classification, mainly that of
Zahlbruckner as given in Engler and Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien,
is outlined below.
There are two main divisions of lichens, Ascolichenes and
Basidiolichenes, according to the nature of the fungal element,
whether an ascomycete or basidiomycete. The Ascolichenes
are again divided into Pyrenocarpeae or Pyrenolichenes and
Gymnocarpeae or Discolichenes; the first having an ascocarp
of the nature of aperithecium, the second bearing their ascospores
in an open apothecium.
PYRENOLICHENES
f
Series I. Perithecium simple not divided.
a. With Pleurococcus or Palmella gonidia.
Moriolaceae, Verrucariaceae, Pyrenothamnaceae.
b. With Chroolepus gonidia.
Pyrenulaceae, Parathcliaceae.
c. With Phyllactidium or Cephaleurus gonidia.
Strigulaceae.
d. With Nostoc or Scytonema gonidia.
Pyrenidiaceae.
Series II. Perithecia divided or imperfectly divided by cross-walls.
Mycoporaceae with Palmella or Chroolepus gonidia.
LICHENS
585
DlSCOLICHENES
Series I. Coniocarpineae. The paraphyses branch and form a net-
work (capillitium) over the asci, the capillitium and ejected
spores forming a long persistent powdery mass (mazaedium).
Caliciaceae, Cypheliaceae, Sphaerophoraceae.
Series II. Graphidineae. Apothecia seldom round, usually elongated-
ellipsoidal, no capillitium.
Arthoniaceae, Graphidiaceae, Roccellaceae.
Series III. Cyclocarpineae, Apothecium usually circular, no capil-
litium.
A. Spores usually two-celled, either with a strongly thickened
cross-wall often perforated by a narrow canal or with cross-
wall only slightly thickened. In the first case the spores are
usually colourless, the second case always brown.
Buelliaceae, Physciaceae.
B. Spores unicellular, parallel-multicellular or muriform, usually
colourless, cross-walls usually thin.
a Thallus in moist state more or less gelatinous.
Gonidia always belonging to the Cyanophyceae,
Lichinaceae, Ephebaceae, Collemaceae, Pyrenopsi-
daceae.
/3 Thallus not gelatinous.
Coenogoniaceae, Lecideaceae, Cladoniaceae, Leca-
noraceae, Pertusariaceae, Peltigeraceae, Stictaceae,
Pannariaceae, Gyrophoraceae, Parmeliaceae, Clado-
niaceae, Usneaceae.
BASIDIOLICHENES (Hymenolichenes)
Cora, Dictyonema (incl. Laudatea), Corella (doubtfully placed here
as the hymenium is unknown).
Habitats and Distribution of Lichens.
i. Habitats. — These are extremely varied, and comprise
a great number of very different substrata. Chiefly, however,
they are the bark of trees, rocks, the ground, mosses and, rarely,
perennial leaves, (a) With respect to corticolous lichens, some
prefer the rugged bark of old trees (e.g. Ramalina, Parmelia,
Stictei) and others the smooth bark of young trees and shrubs
(e.g. Graphidei and some Lecideae). Many are found principally
in large forests (e.g. Usnea, Alectoria jubata) ; while a few occur
more especially on trees by roadsides (e.g. Physcia parietina and
Ph. pulverulenta). In connexion with corticolous lichens may
be mentioned those lignicole species which grow on decayed,
or decaying wood of trees and on old pales (e.g. Caliciei, various
Lecideae, Xylographa), (b) As to saxicolous lichens, which occur
on rocks and stones, they may be divided into two sections,
viz. calcicolous and calcifugous. To the former belong such as
are found on calcareous and cretaceous rocks, and the mortar
of walls (e.g. Lecanora calcarea, Lecidea calcivora and several
Verrucariae), while all other saxicolous lichens may be regarded
as belonging to the latter, whatever may be the mineralogical
character of the substratum. It is here worthy of notice that
the apothecia of several calcicolous lichens (e.g. Lecanora
Prevostii, Lecidea calcivora) have the power of forming minute
cavities in the rock, in which they are partially buried, (c)
With respect to terrestrial species, some prefer peaty soil (e.g.
Cladonia, Lecidea decolorans), others calcareous soil (e.g. Lecanora
crassa, Lecidea decipiens), others sandy soil or hardened mud
(e.g. Collema limosum, Peltidea venosa); while many may be
found growing on all kinds of soil, from the sands of the sea-shore
to the granitic detritus of lofty mountains, with the exception
of course of cultivated ground, there being no agrarian lichens.
(d) Muscicolous lichens again are such as are most frequently
met with on decayed mosses and Jungermannia, whether on
the ground, trees or rocks (e.g. Leptogium muscicola, Gomphillus
calicioides) . (e) The epiphyllous species are very peculiar as
occurring upon perennial leaves of certain trees and shrubs,
whose vitality is not at all affected by their presence as it is by
that of fungi. In so far, however, as is known, they are very
limited in number (e.g. Lecidea, Bouteillei, Strigula).
Sometimes various lichens occur abnormally in such un-
expected habitats as dried dung of sheep, bleached bones of
reindeer and whales, old leather, iron and glass, in districts
where the species are abundant. It is apparent that in many
cases lichens are quite indifferent to the substrata on which
they occur, whence we infer that the preference of several for
certain substrata depends upon the temperature of the locality
or that of the special habitat. Thus in the case of saxicolous
lichens the mineralogical character of the rock has of itself little
or no influence upon lichen growth, which is influenced more
especially and directly by their physical properties, such as their
capacity for retaining heat and moisture. As a rule lichens
grow commonly in open exposed habitats, though some are
found only or chiefly in shady situations; while, as already
observed, scarcely any occur where the atmosphere is impreg-
nated with smoke. Many species also prefer growing in moist
places by streams, lakes and the sea, though very few are normally
and probably none entirely, aquatic, being always at certain
seasons exposed for a longer or shorter period to the atmosphere
(e.g. Lichina, Leptogium rivulare, Endocarponfluviatile, Verrucaria
maura). Some species are entirely parasitical on other lichens
(e.g. various Lecideae and Pyrenocarpei), and may be peculiar
to one (e.g. Lecidea vilellinaria) or common to several species
(e.g. Habrothallus parmeliarum) . A few, generally known as
erratic species, have been met with growing unattached to any
substratum (e.g. Parmelia revoluta, var. concentrica, Lecanora
esculenta); but it can hardly be that these are really free ab
initio (vide Crombie in Journ. Bot., 1872, p. 306). It is to the
different characters of the stations they occupy with respect
to exposure, moisture, &c., that the variability observed in
many types of lichens is to be attributed.
2. Distribution. — From what has now been said it will readily
be inferred that the distribution of lichens over the surface of
the globe is regulated, not only by the presence of suitable
substrata, but more especially by climatic conditions. At the
same time it may safely be affirmed that their geographical range
is more extended than that of any other class of plants, occurring
as they do in the coldest and warmest regions — on the dreary
shores of arctic and antarctic seas and in the torrid valleys of
tropical climes, as well as on the greatest mountain elevations
yet attained by man, on projecting rocks even far above the snow-
line (e.g. Lecidea geographical) . In arctic regions lichens form by
far the largest portion of the vegetation, occurring everywhere
on the ground and on rocks, and fruiting freely; while terrestrial
species of Cladonia and Stereocaulon are seen in the greatest
luxuriance and abundance spreading over extensive tracts
almost to the entire exclusion of other vegetation. The lichen
flora of temperate regions again is essentially distinguished
from the preceding by the frequenoy of corticolous species
belonging to Lecanora, Lecidea and Graphidei. In intertropical
regions lichens attain their maximum development (and beauty)
in the foliaceous Stictei and Parmeliei, while they are especially
characterized by epiphyllous species, as Strigula, and by many
peculiar corticole Thelotremei, Graphidei and Pyrenocarpei.
Some lichens, especially saxicolous ones, seem to be cosmopolitan
(e.g. Lecanora subfusca, Cladonia pyxidata); and others, not
strictly cosmopolitan, have been observed in regions widely
apart. . A considerable number of species, European and exotic,
seem to be endemic, but further research will no doubt show that
most of them occur in other ch'matic regions similar to those in
which they have hitherto alone been detected. To give any
detailed account, however, of the distribution of the different
genera (not to speak of that of individual species) of lichens
would necessarily far exceed available limits.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — General: Engler and Prantl, Die naturlichen
Pflanzenfamilien, Teil I, Abt. I * where full literature will be found
up to 1898. M. Funfstuck, " Der gegenwartige Stand der Flechten-
kunde," Refer. Generalvers. d. deut. hot. Ges. (1902). Dual Nature:
J. Baranetzky, " Beitrage zur Kenntnis des selbststandigen Lebens
der F-lechtengonidien," Prings. Jahrb. /.• wiss. Bot. vii. (1869); E.
Bornet, " Recherches sur les gonidies des lichens," Ann. de sci.
nat. bdt., 5 ser. n. 17 (1873); G. Bonnier, " Recherches sur la
synthese des lichens," Ann. de sci. nat. hot., 7 ser. n. 9 (1889);
A. Famintzin and J. Baranetzky, " Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte
der Gonidien u. Zoosporenbildung der Lichenen," Bot. Zeit. (1867,
p. 189, 1868, p. 169); S. Schwendener, Die Algentypen der Flechten-
gonidien (Basel, 1869); A. Moller, Vber die Kultur flechtenbildender
Ascomyceten ohne Algen. (Miinster, 1887). Sexuality: E. Stahl.
Beitrage zur .Entwickelungsgeschichte der Flechten (Leipzig, 1877) ?
G. Lindau, Uber Anlage und Entwickelung einiger Flechtenapothecten
(Flora, 1888) ; E. Baur, " Zur Frage nach der Sexualitat der
Collemaceae," Ber. d. deut. bot. Ges. (1898); " Uber Anlage und
586
LICHFIELD— LICHTENBERG, G. C.
Entwickelung einiger Flechtenapothecien " (Flora, Bd. 88, 1901);
" Untersuchungen tiber die Entwickelungsgeschichte der Flechtena-
pothecien," Bot. Zeit. (1904); O. V. Darbishire, " Uber die Apothe-
cium-entwickelung der Flechte, Physcia pulverulenta," Nyl. Prings.
Jahrb. (Bd. 54, 1900). Chemistry. — VV. Zopf, " Vergleichende Pro-
dukte," Beitr. z. hot. Centralbl. (Bd. 14, 1903); Die Flechtenstoffe
(Jena, 1907). (J. M. C; V. H. B.)
LICHFIELD, a city, county of a city, and municipal borough
in the Lichfield parliamentary division of Staffordshire, England,
118 m. N.W. from London. Pop. (1901) 7902. The London
and North- Western railway has stations at Trent Valley Junction
on the main line, and in the city on a branch westward. The town
lies in a pleasant country, on a small stream draining eastward
to the Trent, with low hills to the E. and S. The cathedral is
small (the full internal length is only 370 ft., and the breadth
of the nave 68 ft.), but beautiful in both situation and style.
It stands near a picturesque sheet of water named Minster Pool.
The present building dates from various periods in the i3th and
early i4th centuries, but the various portions cannot be allocated
to fixed years, as the old archives were destroyed during the
Civil Wars of the 1 7th century. The earlier records of the church
are equally doubtful. A Saxon church founded by St Chad, who
was subsequently enshrined here, occupied the site from the
close of the 7th century; of its Norman successor portions of
the foundations have been excavated, but no record exists
either of its date or of its builders. The fine exterior of the
cathedral exhibits the feature, unique in England, of a lofty
central and two lesser western spires, of which the central,
252 ft. high, is a restoration attributed to Sir Christopher Wren
after its destruction during the Civil Wars. The west front is
composed of three stages of ornate arcading, with niches contain-
ing statues, of which most are modern. Within, the south
transept shows simple Early English work, the north transept
and chapter house more ornate work of a later period in that
style, the nave, with its geometrical ornament, marks the
transition to the Decorated style, while the Lady chapel is a
beautiful specimen of fully developed Decorated work with an
apsidal east end. The west front probably falls in date between
the nave and the Lady chapel. Among numerous monuments
are — memorials to Samuel Johnson, a native of Lichfield, and
to David Garrick, who spent his early life and was educated here;
a monument to Major Hodson, who fell in the Indian mutiny,
and whose father was canon of Lichfield; the tomb of Bishop
Racket, who restored the cathedral after the Civil Wars; and a
remarkable effigy of Perpendicular date displaying Sir John
Stanley stripped to the waist and awaiting chastisement. Here
is also the" Sleeping Children," a masterpiece by Chantrey (1817) .
A picturesque bishop's palace (1687) and a theological college
(1857) are adjacent to the cathedral. The diocese covers the
greater part of Staffordshire and about half the parishes in
Shropshire, with small portions of Cheshire and Derbyshire.
The church of St Chad is ancient though extensively restored;
on its site St Chad is said to have occupied a hermit's cell. The
principal schools are those of King Edward and St Chad. There
are many picturesque half-timbered and other old houses, among
which is that in which Johnson was born, which stands in the
market-place, and is the property of the corporation and opened
to the public. There is also in the market place a statue to
Johnson. A fair is held annually on Whit-Monday, accompanied
by a pageant of ancient origin. Brewing is the principal industry,
and in the neighbourhood are large market gardens. The city
is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area,
347 S acres.
There is a tradition that " Christianfield " near Lichfield was
the site of the martyrdom of a thousand Christians during the
persecutions of Maximian about 286, but there is no evidence in
support of the tradition. At Wall, 3 m. from the present city,
there was a Romano-British village called Letocetum (" grey
wood "), from which the first half of the name Lichfield is
derived. The first authentic notice of Lichfield (Lyecidfelth,
Lychfdd, Lilchfidd) occurs in Bede's history where it is mentioned
as the place where St Chad fixed the episcopal see of the Mercians.
After the foundation of the see by St Chad in 669, it was raised in
786 by Pope Adrian through the influence of Offa, King of
Mercia, to the dignity of an archbishopric, but in 803 the primacy
was restored to Canterbury. In 1075 the see of Lichfield was
removed to Chester, and thence a few years later to Coventry,
but it was restored in 1148. At the time of the Domesday
Survey Lichfield was held by the bishop of Chester: it is not
called a borough, and it was a small village, whence, on account
of its insignificance, the see had been moved. The lordship and
manor of the town were held by the bishop until the reign of
Edward VI., when they were leased to the corporation. There
is evidence that a castle existed here in the time of Bishop Roger
Clinton (temp. Henry I.), and a footpath near the grammar-
school retains the name of Castle-ditch. Richard II. gave a
charter (1387) for the foundation of the gild of St Mary and St
John the Baptist; this gild obtained the whole local government,
which it exercised until its dissolution by Edward VI., who
incorporated the town (1548), vesting the government in two
bailiffs and twenty-four burgesses; further charters were given
by Mary, James I. and Charles II. (1664), the last, incorporating
it under the title of the " bailiffs and citizens of the city of Lich-
field," was the governing charter until 1835; under this charter
the governing body consisted of two bailiffs and twenty-four
brethren. Lichfield sent two members to the parliament of 1304
and to a few succeeding parliaments, but the representation did
not become regular until 1552; in 1867 it lost one member, and
in 1885 its representation was merged in that of the county.
By the charter of James I. the market day was changed from
Wednesday to Tuesday and Friday; the Tuesday market
disappeared during the igth century; the only existing fair is a
small pleasure fair of ancient origin held on Ash- Wednesday;
the annual fete on Whit-Monday claims to date from the time
of Alfred. In the Civil Wars Lichfield was divided. The
cathedral authorities with a certain following were for the
king, but the townsfolk generally sided with the parliament,
and this led to the fortification of the close in 1643. Lord Brooke,
notorious for his hostility to the church, came against it, but
was killed by a deflected bullet on St Chad's day, an accident
welcomed as a miracle by the Royalists. The close yielded and
was retaken by Prince Rupert in this year; but on the break-
down of the king's cause in 1646 it again surrendered. The
cathedral suffered terrible damage in these years.
See Rev. T. Harwood, Hist, and Antiquities of Church and City of
Lichfield (1806), Victoria County History, Stafford.
LICH-GATE, or LYCH-GATE (from O. Eng. lie " a body, a
corpse "; cf. Ger. Leiche), the roofed-in gateway or porch-entrance
to churchyards. Lich-gates existed in England certainly thirteen
centuries ago, but comparatively few early ones survive, as they
were almost always of wood. One at Bray, Berkshire, is dated
1448. Here the clergy meet the corpse and some portion of
the service is read. The gateway was really part of the church;
it also served to shelter the pall-bearers while the bier was
brought from the church. In some lich-gates there stood large
flat stones called lich-stones upon which the corpse, usually
uncoffined, was laid. The most common form of lich-gate is a
simple shed composed of a roof with two gabled ends, covered
with tiles or thatch. At Berrynarbor, Devon, there is a lich-gate
in the form of a cross, while at Troutbeck, Westmorland, there
are three lich-gates to one churchyard. Some elaborate gates
have chambers over them. The word lick entered into com-
position constantly in old English, thus, lich-bell, the hand-bell
rung before a corpse; lich-way, the path along which a corpse
was carried to burial (this in some districts was supposed to
establish a right-of-way); lich-owl, the screech-owl, because its
cry was a portent of death; and lyke-wake, a night watch over
a corpse.
LICHTENBERG, GEORG CHRISTOPH (1742-1799), German
physicist and satirical writer, was born at Oberramstadt, near
Darmstadt, on the istof July 1742. In 1763 he entered Gottingen
university, where in 1769 he became extraordinary professor of
physics, and six years later ordinary professor. This post he
held till his death on the 24th of February 1799. As a physicist
LICHTENBERG— LICINIUS MACER CALVUS
he is best known for his investigations in electricity, more
especially as to the so-called Lichtenberg figures, which are
fully described in two memoirs Super nova, methodo motum ac
naturam fluidi electrici investigandi (Gottingen, I777~i778).
These figures, originally studied on account of the light they
were supposed to throw on the nature of the electric fluid or
fluids, have reference to the distribution of electricity over
the surface of non-conductors. They are produced as follows:
A sharp-pointed needle is placed perpendicular to a non-con-
ducting plate, such as of resin, ebonite or glass, with its point
very near to or in contact with the plate, and a Leyden jar is
discharged into the needle. The electrification of the plate is
now tested by sifting over it a mixture of flowers of sulphur
and red lead. The negatively electrified sulphur is seen to attach
itself to the positively electrified parts of the plate, and the
positively electrified red lead to the negatively electrified parts.
In addition to the distribution of colour thereby produced, there
is a marked difference in the form of the figure, according to the
nature of the electricity originally communicated to the plate.
If it be positive, a widely extending patch is seen on the plate,
consisting of a dense nucleus, from which branches radiate in
all directions; if negative the patch is much smaller and has a
sharp circular boundary entirely devoid of branches. If the plate
receives a mixed charge, as, for example, from an induction
coil, a " mixed " figure results, consisting of a large red central
nucleus, corresponding to the negative charge, surrounded by
yellow rays, corresponding to the positive charge. The difference
between the positive and negative figures seems to depend
on the presence of the air; for the difference tends to disappear
when the experiment is conducted in vacuo. Riess explains it
by the negative electrification of the plate caused by the friction
of the water vapour, &c., driven along the surface by the explosion
which accompanies the disruptive discharge at the point. This
electrification would favour the spread of a positive, but hinder
that of a negative discharge. There is, in all probability, a
connexion between this phenomenon and the peculiarities of
positive and negative brush and other discharge in air.
As a satirist and humorist Lichtenberg takes high rank among
the German writers of the i8th century. His biting wit involved
him in many controversies with well-known contemporaries,
such as Lavater, whose science of physiognomy he ridiculed,
and Voss, whose views on Greek pronunciation called forth a
powerful satire, Uber die Pronunciation der Schopse des alien
Griechenlandes (1782). In 1769 and again in 1774 he resided for
some time in England and his Briefe aus England (1776-1778),
with admirable descriptions of Garrick's acting, are the most
attractive of his writings. He contributed to the Gottinger
Taschenkalender from 1778 onwards, and to the Gottingisches
Magazin der Literalur und Wissenschaft, which he edited for
three years (1780-1782) with J. G. A. Forster. He also published
in 1794-1709 an Ausfuhrliche Erklarung der Hogarthschen
Kupfersliche.
Lichtenberg's Vermischte Schriften were published by F. Kries
in 9 vols. (1800-1805) ; new editions in 8 vols. (1844-1846 and 1867).
Selections by E. Grisebach, Lichtenbergs Gedanken und Maximen
(1871); by F. Robertag (in Kurschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur
(vol. 141, 1886); and by A. Wilbrandt (1893). Lichtenberg's
Briefe have been published in 3 vols. by C. Schuddekopf and A.
Leitzmann (1900-1902); his Aphorismen by A. Leitzmann (3 vols.,
1902-1906). [See also R. M. Meyer, Swift und Lichtenberg (1886);
F. Lauchert, Lichtenbergs schriftstellerische Tdtigkeit (1893) ; and A.
Leitzmann, Aus Lichtenbergs Nachlass (1899).
LICHTENBERG, formerly a small German principality on
the west bank of the Rhine, enclosed 'by the Nahe, the Blies
and the Glan, now belonging to the government district of Trier
Prussian Rhine province. The principality was constructed oi
parts of the electorate of Trier, of Nassau-Saarbriicken and other
districts, and lay between Rhenish Bavaria and the old Prussian
province of the Rhine. Originally called the lordship of Baum-
holder, it owed the name of Lichtenberg and its elevation in
1819 to a principality to Ernest, duke of Saxe-Coburg, to whom
it was ceded by Prussia, in 1816, in accordance with terms
agreed upon at the congress of Vienna. The duke, however,
restored it to Prussia in 1834, in return for an annual pension
of £12,000 sterling. The area is about 210 sq. m.
LICINIANUS, GRANIUS, Roman annalist, probably lived in
the age of the Antonines (2nd century A.D.). He was the author
of a brief epitome of Roman history based upon Livy, which he
utilized as a means of displaying his antiquarian lore. Accounts
of omens, portents, prodigies and other remarkable things
apparently took up a considerable portion of the work. Some
fragments of the books relating to the years 163-178 B.C. are
preserved in a British Museum MS.
EDITIONS. — C, A. Pertz (1857); seven Bonn students (1858);
M. Flemisch (1904); see also J. N. Madvig, Kleine philologische
Schriften (1875), and the list of articles in periodicals in Flemisch's
edition (p. iv.).
LICINIUS [FLAVIUS GALERIUS VALERIUS LICINIANUS], Roman
emperor, A.D. 307-324, of Illyrian peasant origin, was born
probably about 250. After the death of Flavius Valerius
Severus he was elevated to the rank of Augustus by Galerius,
his former friend and companion in arms, on the i ith of November
307, receiving as his immediate command the provinces of
Illyricum. On the death of Galerius, in May 311, he shared the
entire empire with Maximinus, the Hellespont and the Thracian
Bosporus being the dividing line. In March 313 he married
Constantia, half-sister of Constantine, at Mediolanum (Milan),
in the following month inflicted a decisive defeat on Maximinus
at Heraclea Pontica, and established himself master of the
East, while his brother-in-law, Constantine, was supreme in
the West. In 314 his jealousy led him to encourage a treasonable
enterprise on the part of Bassianus against Constantine. When
his perfidy became known a civil war ensued, in which he was
twice severely defeated — first near Cibalae in Pannonia (October
8th, 314), and next in the plain of Mardia in Thrace; the out-
ward reconciliation, which was effected in the following December,
left Licinius in possession of Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria and
Egypt, but added numerous provinces to the Western empire.
In 323 Constantine, tempted by the " advanced age and un-
popular vices " of his colleague, again declared war against him,
and, having defeated his army at Adrianople (3rd of July 323),
succeeded in shutting him up within the walls of Byzantium.
The defeat of the superior fleet of Licinius by Flavius Julius
Crispus, Constantine's eldest son, compelled his withdrawal
to Bithynia, where a last stand was made; the battle of
Chrysopolis, near Chalcedon (i8th of September), finally resulted
in his submission. He was interned at Thessalonica and executed
in the following year on a charge of treasonable correspondence
with the barbarians.
See Zosimus ii. 7-28 ; Zonaras xiii. I ; Victor, Goes. 40, 41 ;
Eutropius x. 3 ; Orosius vii. 28.
LICINIUS CALVUS STOLO, GAIUS, Roman statesman, the
chief representative of the plebeian Licinian gens, was tribune
in 377 B.C., consul in 361. His name is associated with the
Licinian or Licinio-Sextian laws (proposed 377, passed 367),
which practically ended the struggle between patricians and
plebeians. He was himself fined for possessing a larger share
of the public land than his own law allowed.
See ROME: History, II. " The Republic."
LICINIUS MACER CALVUS, GAIUS (82-47 B-C-), Roman
poet and orator, was the son of the annalist Licinius Macer.
As a poet he is associated with his friend Catullus, whom he
followed in style and choice of subjects. As an orator he was
the leader of the opponents of the florid Asiatic school, who took
the simplest Attic orators as their model and attacked even
Cicero as wordy and artificial. Calvus held a correspondence
on questions connected with rhetoric, perhaps (if the reading be
correct) the commentarii alluded to by Tacitus (Dialogus, 23;
compare also Cicero, Ad Fam. xv. 21). Twenty-one speeches
by him are mentioned, amongst which the most famous were
those delivered against Publius Vatinius. Calvus was very
short of stature, and is alluded to by Catullus (Ode 53) as Sala-
putium disertum (eloquent Lilliputian).
For Cicero's opinion see Brutus, 82; Quintilian x. I. 115;
Tacitus, Dialogus, 18. 21; the monograph by F. Plessis (Paris,
1896) contains a collection of the fragments (verse and prose).
588
LICODIA EUBEA— LIDDON
LICODIA EUBEA, a town of Sicily in the province of Catania,
4 m. W. of Vizzini, which is 39 m. S.W. of Catania by rail. Pop.
(1901) 7033. The name Eubea was given to the place in 1872
owing to a false identification with the Greek city of Euboea,
a colony of Leontini, founded probably early in the 6th century
B.C. and taken by Gelon. The town occupies the site of an
unknown Sicel city, the cemeteries of which have been explored.
A few vases of the first period were found, but practically all
the tombs explored in 1898 belonged to the fourth period (700-
500 B.C.) and show the gradual process of Hellenization among
the Sicels.
See Romische Mitteilungen, 1898, 305 seq.; Notizie degli scavi,
1902, 219. (T. As.)
LICTORS (lictores), in Roman antiquities, a class of the
attendants (apparitores) upon certain Roman and provincial
magistrates.1 As an institution (supposed by some to have
been borrowed from Etruria) they went back to the regal period
and continued to exist till imperial times. The majority of the
city lictors were freedmen; they formed a corporation divided
into decuries, from which the lictors of the magistrates in office
were drawn; provincial officials had the nomination of their
own. In Rome they wore the toga, perhaps girded up; on a
campaign and at the celebration of a triumph, the red military
cloak (sagulum) ; at funerals, black. As representatives of magis-
trates who possessed the imperium, they carried the fasces and
axes in front of them (see FASCES). They were exempt from
military service; received a fixed salary; theoretically they were
nominated for a year, but really for life. They were the constant
attendants, both in and out of the house, of the magistrate to
whom they were attached. They walked before him in Indian
file, cleared a passage for him (summovere) through the crowd,
and saw that he was received with the marks of respect due to
his rank. They stood by him when he took his seat on the
tribunal; mounted guard before his house, against the wall of
which they stood the fasces; summoned offenders before him,
seized, bound and scourged them, and (in earlier times) carried
out the death sentence. It should be noted that directly a
magistrate entered an allied, independent state, he was obliged
to dispense with nis lictors. The king had twelve lictors; each
of the consuls (immediately after their institution) twelve,
subsequently limited to the monthly officiating consul, although
Caesar appears to have restored the original arrangement; the
dictator, as representing both consuls, twenty-four; the emperors
twelve, until the time of Domitian, who had twenty-four. The
Flamen Dialis, each of the Vestals, the magister vicorum (over-
seer of the sections into which the city was divided) were also
accompanied by lictors. These lictors were probably supplied
from the lictores curiatii, thirty in number, whose functions were
specially religious, one of them being in attendance on the
pontifex maximus. They originally summoned the comitia
curiata, and when its meetings became merely a formality, acted
as the representatives of that assembly. Lictors were also
assigned to private individuals at the celebration of funeral
games, and to the aediles at the games provided by them and
the theatrical representations under their supervision.
For the fullest account of the lictors, see Mommsen, Romisches
Staalsrecht, i. 355, 374 (3rd ed., 1887).
LIDDELL. HENRY GEORGE (1811-1898), English scholar
and divine, eldest son of the Rev. Henry George Liddell, younger
brother of the first Baron Ravensworth, was born at Binchester,
near Bishop Auckland, on the 6th of February 1811. He was
educated at Charterhouse and Christ Church, Oxford. Gaining
a double first in 1833, Liddell became a college tutor, and was
ordained in 1838. In the same year Dean Gaisford appointed
him Greek reader in Christ Church, and in 1846 he was appointed
1 The Greek equivalents of lictor are l>a.0Sovx<n,
pa£5oi>A/iof (rod-bearer) ; the Latin word is variously derived
from : (a) ligare, to bind or arrest a criminal ; (6) licere, to summon,
as convoking assemblies or haling offenders before the magistrate;
(c) licium, the girdle with which (according to some) their toga
was held up; (d) Plutarch (Quatstiones Romanae, 67), assuming an
older form Xtrup, suggests an identification with \ttrovpyln, one
who performs a public office.
to the headmastership of Westminster School. Meanwhile his
life work, the great Lexicon (based on the German work of
F. Passow), which he and Robert Scott began as early as 1834,
had made good progress, and the first edition appeared in 1843.
It immediately became the standard Greek-English dictionary
and still maintains this rank, although, notwithstanding the
great additions made of late to our Greek vocabulary from
inscriptions, papyri and other sources, scarcely any enlargement
has been made since about 1880. The 8th edition was published
in 1897. As headmaster of Westminster Liddell enjoyed a
period of great success, followed by trouble due to the outbreak
of fever and cholera in the school. In 1855 he accepted the
deanery of Christ Church, then vacant by the death of Gaisford.
In the same year he brought out a History of Ancient Rome
(much used in an abridged form as the Student's History of Rome)
and took a very active part in the first Oxford University Com-
mission. His tall figure, fine presence and aristocratic mien
were for many years associated with all that was characteristic
of Oxford life. Coming just at the transition period when the
" old Christ Church," which Pusey strove so hard to preserve,
was inevitably becoming broader and more liberal, it was chiefly
due to Liddell that necessary changes were effected with the
minimum of friction. In 1859 Liddell welcomed the then prince
of Wales when he matriculated at Christ Church, being the first
holder of that title who had matriculated since Henry V. In
conjunction with Sir Henry Acland, Liddell did much to en-
courage the study of art at Oxford, and his taste and judgment
gained him the admiration and friendship of Ruskin. In 1891,
owing to advancing years, he resigned the deanery. The last
years of his life were spent at Ascot, where he died on the
i8th of January 1898. Dean Liddell married in July 1846 Miss
Lorina Reeve (d. 1910), by whom he had a numerous family.
See memoir by H. L. Thompson, Henry George Liddell (1899).
LIDDESDALE, the valley of Liddel Water, Roxburghshire,
Scotland, extending in a south-westerly direction from the
vicinity of Peel Fell to the Esk, a distance of 2 1 m. The Waverley
route of the North British railway runs down the dale, and the
Catrail, or Picts' Dyke, crosses its head. At one period the points
of vantage on the river and its affluents were occupied with
freebooters' peel-towers, but many of them have disappeared
and the remainder are in decay. Larriston Tower belonged
to the Elliots, Mangerton to the Armstrongs and Park to
" little Jock Elliot," the outlaw who nearly killed Bothwell in
an encounter in 1566. The chief point of interest in the valley,
however, is Hermitage Castle, a vast, massive H -shaped fortress
of enormous strength, one of the oldest baronial buildings in
Scotland. It stands on a hill overlooking Hermitage Water,
a tributary of the Liddel. It was built in 1 244 by Nicholas de
Soulis and was captured by the English in David II. "s reign.
It was retaken by Sir William Douglas, who received a grant
of it from the king. In 1492 Archibald Douglas, 5th earl of
Angus, exchanged it for Bothwell Castle on the Clyde with
Patrick Hepburn, ist earl of Bothwell. It finally passed to the
duke of Buccleuch, under whose care further ruin has been
arrested. It was here that Sir Alexander Ramsay of Dalhousie
was starved to death by Sir William Douglas in 1342, and that
James Hepburn, 4th earl of Bothwell, was visited by Mary,
queen of Scots, after the assault referred to.
To the east of the castle is Ninestane Rig, a hill 943 ft. high,
4 m. long and I m. broad, where it is said that William de Soulis,
hated for oppression and cruelty, was (in 1320) boiled by his own
vassals in a copper cauldron, which was supported on two of the nine
stones which composed the " Druidical " circle that gave the ridge
its name. Only five of the stones remain. James Telfer (1802-
1862), the writer of ballads, who was born in the parish of Southdean
(pronounced Soudan), was for several years schoolmaster of Saugh-
tree, near the head of the valley. The castle of the lairds of Liddes-
dale stood near the junction of Hermitage Water and the Liddel
and around it grew up the village of Casueton.
LIDDON, HENRY PARRY (1829-1890), English divine, was
the son of a naval captain and was born at North Stoneham,
Hampshire, on the 2oth of August 1829. He was educated at
King's College School, London, and at Christ Church, Oxford,
LIE, J. L. E.
589
where he graduated, taking a second class, in 1850. As vice-
principal of the theological college at Cuddesdon (1854-1859)
he wielded considerable influence, and, on returning to Oxford
as vice-principal of St Edmund's Hall, became a growing force
among the undergraduates, exercising his influence in strong
opposition to the liberal reaction against Tractarianism, which
had set in after Newman's secession in 1845. In 1864 the bishop
of Salisbury (W. K. Hamilton), whose examining chaplain he
had been, appointed him prebendary of Salisbury cathedral. In
1866 he delivered his Bampton Lectures on the doctrine of the
divinity of Christ. From that time his fame as a preacher,
which had been steadily growing, may be considered established.
In 1870 he was made canon of St Paul's Cathedral, London.
He had before this published Some Words for God, in which,
with great power and eloquence, he combated the scepticism
of the day. His preaching at St Paul's soon attracted vast
crowds. The afternoon sermon, which fell to the lot of the canon
in residence, had usually been delivered in the choir, but soon
after Liddon's appointment it became necessary to preach the
sermon under the dome, where from 3000 to 4000 persons used
to gather to hear the preacher. Few orators belonging to the
Church of England have acquired so great a reputation as
Liddon. Others may have surpassed him in originality, learning
or reasoning power, but for grasp of his subject, clearness of
language, lucidity of arrangement, felicity of illustration, vivid-
ness of imagination, elegance of diction, and above all, for
sympathy with the intellectual position of those whom he
addressed, he has hardly been rivalled. In the elaborate arrange-
ment of his matter he is thought to have imitated the great
French preachers of the age of Louis XIV. In 1870 he had
also been made Ireland professor of exegesis at Oxford. The
combination of the two appointments gave him extensive
influence over the Church of England. With Dean Church he
may be said to have restored the waning influence of the Trac-
tarian school, and he succeeded in popularizing the opinions
which, in the hands of Pusey and Keble, had appealed to thinkers
and scholars. His forceful spirit was equally conspicuous in his
opposition to the Church Discipline Act of 1874, and in his
denunciation of the Bulgarian atrocities of 1876. In 1882 he
resigned his professorship and utilized his thus increased leisure
by travelling in Palestine and Egypt, and showed his interest
in the Old Catholic movement by visiting Dollinger at Munich.
In 1886 he became chancellor of St Paul's, and it is said that he
declined more than one offer of a bishopric. He died on the
9th of September 1890, in the full vigour of his intellect and at
the zenith of his reputation. He had undertaken and nearly
completed an elaborate life of Dr Pusey, for whom his admiration
was unbounded; and this work was completed after his death
by Messrs Johnston and Wilson. Liddon's great influence
during his life was due to his personal fascination and the beauty
of his pulpit oratory rather than to any high qualities of intellect.
As a theologian his outlook was that of the i6th rather than the
1 9th century; and, reading his Bampton Lectures now, it is
difficult to realize how they can ever have been hailed as a great
contribution to Christian apologetics. To the last he maintained
the narrow standpoint of Pusey and Keble, in defiance of all the
developments of modern thought and modern scholarship; and
his latter years were embittered by the consciousness that the
younger generation of the disciples of his school were beginning
to make friends of the Mammon of scientific unrighteousness.
The publication in 1889 of Lux Mundi, a series of essays attempt-
ing to harmonize Anglican Catholic doctrine with modern
thought, was a severe blow to him, for it showed that even at
the Pusey House, established as the citadel of Puseyism at
Oxford, the principles of Pusey were being departed from.
Liddon's importance is now mainly historical. He was the last
of the classical pulpit orators of the English Church, the last
great popular exponent of the traditional Anglican orthodoxy.
Besides the works mentioned, Liddon published several volumes
of Sermons, a volume of Lent lectures entitled Some Elements
of Religion (1870), and a collection of Essays and Addresses
•on such themes as Buddhism, Dante, &c.
See Life and Letters, by J. O. Johnston (1904); G. W. E. Russell,
H. P. Liddon (1903); A. B. Donaldson, Five Great Oxford Leaders
(1900), from which the life of Liddon was reprinted separately in
'90S-
LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833-1908), Norwegian
novelist, was born on the 6th of November 1833 close to Hougsund
(Eker), near Drammen. In 1838, his father being appointed
sheriff of Tromso, the family removed to that Arctic town.
Here the future novelist enjoyed an untrammelled childhood
among the shipping of the little Nordland capital, and gained
acquaintance with the wild seafaring life which he was after-
wards to describe. In 1846 he was sent to the naval school at
Frederiksvaern, but his extreme near-sight unfitted him for the
service, and he was transferred to the Latin school at Bergen.
In 1851 he went to the university of Christiania, where Ibsen
and Bjornson were among his fellow-students. Jonas Lie,
however, showed at this time no inclination to literature. He
pursued his studies as a lawyer, took his degrees in law in 1858,
and settled down to practice as a solicitor in the little town
of Kongsvinger. In 1860 he married his cousin, Thomasine
Lie, whose collaboration in his work he acknowledged in 1893
in a graceful article in the Samtiden entitled " Min hustru."
In 1866 he published his first book, a volume of poems. He
made unlucky speculations in wood, and the consequent financial
embarrassment induced him to return to Christiania to try
his luck as a man of letters. As a journalist he had no success,
but in 1870 he published a melancholy little romance, Den Frem-
synte (Eng. trans., The Visionary, 1894), which made him famous.
Lie proceeded to Rome, and published Tales in 1871 and Tre-
masteren " Fremtiden " (Eng. trans., The Barque " Future,"
Chicago, 1879), a novel, in 1872. His first great book, however,
was Lodsen og hans Hustru (The Pilot and his Wife, 1874),
which placed him at the head of Norwegian novelists; it was
written in the little town of Rocca di Papa in the Albano moun-
tains. From that time Lie enjoyed, with Bjornson and Ibsen,
a stipend as poet from the Norwegian government. Lie spent
the next few years partly in Dresden, partly in Stuttgart, with
frequent summer excursions to Berchtesgaden in the Bavarian
highlands. During his exile he produced the drama in verse
called Faustina Strozzi (1876). Returning to Norway, Lie
began a series of romances of modern life in Christiania, of
which Thomas Ross (1878) and Adam Schroder (1879) were the
earliest. He returned to Germany, and settled first in Dresden
again, then in Hamburg, until 1882, when he took up his abode
in Paris, where he lived in close retirement in the society of
Scandinavian friends. His summers were spent at Berchtes-
gaden in Tirol. The novels of his German period are Rutland
(1881) and Gaa paa ("Go Ahead!" 1882), tales of life in the
Norwegian merchant navy. His subsequent works, produced
with great regularity, enjoyed an immense reputation in Norway.
Among the best of them are: Livsslaven (1883, Eng. trans.,
" One of Life's Slaves," 1895); Familjen paa Gilje (" The Family
of Gilje," 1883); Malstroem (1885), describing the gradual
ruin of a Norwegian family; Et Samliv (" Life in Common,"
1887), describing a marriage of convenience. Two of the most
successful of his novels were The Commodore's Daughters (1886)
and Niobe (1894), both of which were presented to English readers
in the International library, edited by Mr Gosse. In 1891-1892
he wrote, under the influence of the new romantic impulse,
twenty-four folk-tales, printed in two volumes entitled Trold.
Some of these were translated by R. N. Bain in Weird Tales
(1893), illustrated by L. Housman. Among his later works
were the romance Naar Sol gaar ned (" When the Sun goes down,"
1895), the powerful novel of Dyre Rein (1896), the fairy drama
of Lindelin (1897), Paste Forland (1899), a romance which con-
tains much which is autobiographical, When the Iron Curtain
falls (1901), and The Consul (1904). His Samlede Vaerker
were published at Copenhagen in 14 vols. (1902-1904). Jonas
Lie left Paris in 1891, and, after spending a year in Rome,
returned to Norway, establishing himself at Holskogen, near
Christiansand. He died at Christiania on the 5th of July 1908.
As a novelist he stands with those minute and unobtrusive
590
LIE, M. S.— LIEBIG
painters of contemporary manners who defy arrangement in
this or that school. He is with Mrs Gaskell or Ferdinand Fabre ;
he is not entirely without relation with that old-fashioned
favourite of the public, Fredrika Bremer.
His son, Erik Lie (b. 1868), published a successful volume of
stories, Med Blyanten, in 1890; and is also the author of various
works on literary history. An elder son, Mons Lie (b. 1864), studied
the violin in Paris, but turned to literature in 1894. Among his
works are the plays Tragedier om Kjaerlighed (1897) ; Lombardo and
Agrippina (1898); Don Juan (1900); and the novels, Siofareren
(1901); Adam Ravn (1903) and /. Kvindensnet (1904). (E. G.)
LIE, HARIUS SOPHUS (1842-1899), Norwegian mathemati-
cian, was born at Nordfjordeif, near Bergen, on the tyth of
December 1842, and was educated at the university of Christi-
ania, where he took his doctor's degree in 1868 and became
extraordinary professor of mathematics (a chair created specially
for him) four years later. In 1886 he was chosen to succeed
Felix Klein in the chair of geometry at Leipzig, but as his fame
grew a special post was arranged for him in Christiania. But
his health was broken down by too assiduous study, and he died
at Christiania on the i8th of February 1899, six months after
his return. Lie's work exercised a great influence on the progress
of mathematical science during the later decades of the igth
century. His primary aim has been declared to be the advance-
ment and elaboration of the theory of differential equations,
and it was with this end in view that he developed his theory
of transformation groups, set forth in his Theorie der Trans-
Jormalionsgruppen (3 vols., Leipzig, 1888-1893), a work of
wide range and great originality, by which probably his name
is best known. A special application of his theory of continuous
groups was to the general problem of non-Euclidean geometry.
The latter part of the book above mentioned was devoted
to a study of the foundations of geometry, considered from
the standpoint of B. Riemann and H. von Helmholtz; and
he intended to publish a systematic exposition of his geometrical
investigations, in conjunction with Dr G. Scheffers, but only
one volume made its appearance (Geometric der Beriihrungs-
transformationen, Leipzig, 1896). Lie was a foreign member
of the Royal Society, as well as an honorary member of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society and the London Mathematical
Society, and his geometrical inquiries gained him the much-
coveted honour of the Lobatchewsky prize.
An analysis of Lie's works is given in the BMiotheca Mathematica
(Leipzig, 1900).
LIEBER, FRANCIS (1800-1872), German-American publicist,
was born at Berlin on the i8th of March 1800. He served
with his two brothers under Bliicher in the campaign of 1815,
fighting at Ligny, Waterloo and Namur, where he was twice
dangerously wounded. Shortly afterwards he was arrested
for his political sentiments, the chief evidence against him
being several songs of liberty which he had written. After
several months he was discharged without a trial, but was
forbidden to pursue his studies at the Prussian universities.
He accordingly went to Jena, where he took his degrees in 1820,
continuing his studies at Halle and Dresden. He subsequently
took part in the Greek War of Independence, publishing his
experiences in his Journal in Greece (Leipzig, 1823, and under
the title The German Anacharsis, Amsterdam, 1823). For a
year he was in Rome as tutor to the son of the historian Niebuhr,
then Prussian ambassador. Returning to Berlin in 1823, he
was imprisoned at Koepenik, but was released after some months
through the influence of Niebuhr. In 1827 he went to the
United States and as soon as possible was naturalized as a
citizen. He settled at Boston, and for five years edited The
Encyclopaedia Americana (13 vols.). From 1835 to 1856 he was
professor of history and political economy in South Carolina
College at Columbia, S.C., and during this period wrote his
three chief works, Manual of Political Ethics (1838), Legal and
Political Hermeneutics (1839), and Civil Liberty and Self Govern-
ment (1853). In 1856 he resigned and next year was elected
to a similar post in Columbia College, New York, and in 1865
became professor of constitutional history and public law in the
same institution. During the Civil War Lieber rendered services
of great value to the government. He was one of the first to
point out the madness of secession, and was active in upholding
the Union. He prepared, upon the requisition of the president,
the important Code of War for the Government of the Armies
of the United States in the Field, which was promulgated by
the Government in General Orders No. 100 of the war depart-
ment. ThiscodesuggestedtoBluntschlihiscodification of thelaw
of nations, as may be seen in the preface to his Droit International
Codifie. During this period also Lieber wrote his Guerilla
Parties with Reference to the Laws and Usages of War. At the
time of his death he was the umpire of the commission for the
adjudication of Mexican claims. He died on the 2nd of October
1872. His books were acquired by the University of California,
and his papers were placed in the Johns Hopkins University.
His Miscellaneous Writings were published by D. C. Gilman
(Philadelphia, 1881). See T. S. Perry, Life and Letters (1882), and
biography by Harby (1899).
LIEBERMANN, MAX (1840- ), German painter and
etcher, was born in Berlin. After studying under Steffeck,
he entered the school of art at Weimar in 1869. Though the
straightforward simplicity of his first exhibited picture, " Women
plucking Geese," in 1872, presented already a striking contrast
to the conventional art then in vogue, it was heavy and
bituminous in colour, like all the artist's paintings before his
visit to Paris at the end of 1872. A summer spent at Barbizon
in 1873, where he became personally acquainted with Millet
and had occasion to study the works of Corot, Troyon, and
Daubigny, resulted in the clearing and brightening of his palette,
and taught him to forget the example of Munkacsy, under whose
influence he had produced his first pictures in Paris. He sub-
sequently went to Holland, where the example of Israels con-
firmed him in the method he had adopted at Barbizon; but on
his return to Munich in 1878 he caused much unfavourable
criticism by his realistic painting of " Christ in the Temple,'*
which was condemned by the clergy as irreverent and remained
his only attempt at a scriptural subject. Henceforth he devoted
himself exclusively to the study of free-light and to the painting
of the life of humble folk. He found his best subjects in the
orphanages and asylums for the old in Amsterdam, among the
peasants in the fields and village streets of Holland, and in the
beer-gardens, factories, and workrooms of his own country.
Germany was reluctant, however, in admitting the merit of an
artist whose style and method were so markedly at variance
with the time-honoured academic tradition. Only when his
fame was echoed back from France, Belgium, and Holland
did his compatriots realize the eminent position which is his due
in the history of German art. It is hardly too much to say that
Liebermann has done for his country what Millet did for France.
His pictures hold the fragrance of the soil and the breezes of
the heavens. His people move in their proper atmosphere,
and their life is stated in all its monotonous simplicity, without
artificial pathos or melodramatic exaggeration. His first success
was a medal awarded him for " An Asylum for Old Men " at
the 1 88 1 Salon. In 1884 he settled again in Berlin, where he
became professor of the Academy in 1 898. He became a member
of the Societe nationale des Beaux Arts, of the Societe royale
beige des Aquarellistes, and of the Cercle des Aquarellistes at
the Hague. Liebermann is represented in most of the Ger-
man and other continental galleries. The Berlin National
Gallery owns "The Flax-Spinners"; the Munich Pinakothek,
"The Woman with Goats"; the Hamburg Gallery, "The
Net-Menders "; the Hanover Gallery, the " Village Street in
Holland." " The Seamstress " is at the Dresden Gallery;
the " Man on the Dunes " at Leipzig; " Dutch Orphan Girls "
at Strassburg; " Beer-cellar at Brandenburg " at the Luxem-
bourg Museum in Paris, and the " Knopflerinnen " in Venice.
His etchings are to be found in the leading print cabinets of
Europe.
LIEBIG, JUSTUS VON, BARON (1803-1873), German chemist,
was born at Darmstadt, according to his baptismal certificate,
on the 1 2th of May 1803 (4th of May, according to his mother).
His father, a drysalter and dealer in colours, used sometimes to
LIEBIG
591
make experiments in the hope of finding improved processei
for the production of his wares, and thus his son early acquirec
familiarity with practical chemistry. For the theoretical sid
he read all the text-books which he could find, somewhat to th'
detriment of his ordinary school studies. Having determinec
to make chemistry his profession, at the age of fifteen he enterec
the shop of an apothecary at Appenheim, near Darmstadt
but he soon found how great is the difference between practica
pharmacy and scientific chemistry, and the explosions and other
incidents that accompanied his private efforts to increase his
chemical knowledge disposed his master to view without regret
his departure at the end of ten months. He next entered the
university of Bonn, but migrated to Erlangen when the professor
of chemistry, K. W. G. Kastner (1783-1857), was appointed in
1821 to the chair of physics and chemistry at the latter university.
He followed this professor to learn how to analyse certain
minerals, but in the end he found that the teacher himself was
ignorant of the process. Indeed, as he himself said afterwards,
it was a wretched time for chemistry in Germany. No labora-
tories were accessible to ordinary students, who had to content
themselves with what the universities could give in the lecture-
room and the library, and though both at Bonn and Erlangen
Liebig endeavoured to make up for the deficiencies of the
official instruction by founding a students' physical and chemical
society for the discussion of new discoveries and speculations,
he felt that he could never become a chemist in his own country.
Therefore, having graduated as Ph.D. in 1822, he left Erlangen —
where he subsequently complained that the contagion of the
" greatest philosopher and metaphysician of the century "
(Schelling), in a period " rich in words and ideas, but poor in
true knowledge and genuine studies," had cost him two precious
years of his life — and by the liberality of Louis I., grand-duke
of Hesse-Darmstadt, was enabled to go to Paris. By the help
of L. J. Thenard he gained admission to the private laboratory
of H. F. Gaultier de Claubry (1792-1873), professor of chemistry
at the Ecole de Pharmacie, and soon afterwards, by the influence
of A. von Humboldt, to that of Gay-Lussac, where in 1824 he
concluded his investigations on the composition of the fulminates.
It was on Humboldt's advice that he determined to become a
teacher of chemistry, but difficulties stood in his way. As a
native of Hesse-Darmstadt he ought, according to the academical
rules of the time, to have studied and graduated at the university
of Giessen, and it was only through the influence of Humboldt
that the authorities forgave him for straying to ^ the foreign
university of Erlangen. After examination his Erlangen degree
was recognized, and in 1824 he was appointed extraordinary
professor of chemistry at Giessen, becoming ordinary professor
two years later. In this small town his most important work
was accomplished. His first care was to persuade the Darmstadt
government to provide a chemical laboratory in which the
students might obtain a proper practical training. This labora-
tory, unique of its kind at the time, in conjunction with Liebig's
unrivalled gifts as a teacher, soon rendered Giessen the most
famous chemical school in the world; men flocked from every
country to enjoy its advantages, and many of the most accom-
plished chemists of the igth century had to thank it for their
early training. Further, it gave a great impetus to the progress
of chemical education throughout Germany, for the continued
admonitions of Liebig combined with the influence of his pupils
induced many other universities to build laboratories modelled
on the same plan. He remained at Giessen for twenty-eight years,
until in 1852 he accepted the invitation of the Bavarian govern-
ment to the ordinary chair of chemistry at Munich university,
and this office he held, although he was offered the chair at
Berlin in 1865, until his death, which occurred at Munich on
the loth of April 1873.
Apart from Liebig's labours for the improvement of chemical
teaching,_ the influence of his experimental researches and of his
contributions to chemical thought was felt in every branch of the
•science. In regard to methods and apparatus, mention should be
made of his improvements in the technique of organic analysis,
his plan for determining the natural alkaloids and for ascertaining
the molecular weights of organic bases by. means of their chlpro-
platinates, his process for determining the quantity of urea in a
solution— the first step towards the introduction of precise chemical
methods into practical medicine — and his invention of the simple
iorm of condenser known in every laboratory. His contributions
to inorganic chemistry were numerous, including investigations on
the compounds of antimony, aluminium, silicon, &c., on the separa-
tion of nickel and cobalt, and on the analysis of mineral waters but
they are outweighed in importance by his work on organic sub-
stances. In this domain his first research was on the fulminates of
mercury and silver, and his study of these bodies led him to the
discovery of the isomerism of cyanic and fulminic acids, for the
composition of fulminic acid as found by him was the same as that
of cyanic acid, as found by F. Wohler, and it became necessary to
admit them to be two bodies which differed in properties, though
of the same percentage composition. Further work on cyanogen
and connected substances yielded a great number of interesting
derivatives, and he described an improved method for the manu-
facture of potassium cyanide, an agent which has since proved of
enormous value in metallurgy and the arts. In 1832 he published,
jointly with Wohler, one of the most famous papers in the history
of chemistry, that on the oil of bitter almonds (benzaldehyde),
wherein it was shown that the radicle benzoyl might be regarded
as forming an unchanging constituent of a long series of compounds
obtained from oil of bitter almonds, throughout which it behaved
like an element. Berzelius hailed this discovery as marking the
dawn of a new era in organic chemistry, and proposed for benzoyl
the names " Proi'n " or " Orthrin " (from irpwi and opflpus). A
continuation of their work on bitter almond oil by Liebig and
Wohler, who remained firm friends for the rest of their lives, resulted
in the elucidation of the mode of formation of that substance and in
the discovery of the ferment emulsin as well as the recognition of the
first glucoside, amygdalin, while another and not less important
and far-reaching inquiry in which they collaborated was that on
uric acid, published in 1837. About 1832 he began his investigations
into the constitution of ether and alcohol and their derivatives.
These on the one hand resulted in the enunciation of his ethyl
theory, by the light of which he looked upon those substances as
compounds of the radicle ethyl (C2H6), in opposition to the view
of J. B. A. Dumas, who regarded them as hydrates of olefiant gas
(ethylene); on the other they yielded chloroform, chloral and
aldehyde, as well as other compounds of less general interest, and
also the method of forming mirrors by depositing silver from a
slightly ammoniacal solution by acet aldehyde. In 1837 with
Dumas he published a note on the constitution of organic acids, and
in the following year an elaborate paper on the same subject appeared
under his own name alone; by this work T. Graham's doctrine of
polybasicity was extended to the organic acids. Liebig also did
much to further the hydrogen theory of acids.
These and other studies in pure chemistry mainly occupied his
attention until about 1838, but the last thirty-five years of his life were
devoted more particularly to the chemistry of the processes of life,
30th animal and vegetable. In animal physiology he set himself
:o trace out the operation of determinate chemical and physical
aws in the maintenance of life and health. To this end he examined
such immediate vital products as blood, bile and urine ; he analysed
:he juices of flesh, establishing the composition of creatin and
nvestigating its decomposition products, creatinin and sarcosin;
le classified the various articles of food in accordance with the
special function performed by each in the animal economy, and
expounded the philosophy of cooking; and in opposition to many
of the medical opinions of his time taught that the heat of the
>ody is the result of the processes of combustion and oxidation
jerformed within the organism. A secondary result of this line of
study was the preparation of his food for infants and of his extract
of meat. Vegetable physiology he pursued with special reference
:o agriculture, which he held to be the foundation of all trade
ind industry, but which could not be rationally practised without
he guidance of chemical principles. His first publication on this
iubject was Die Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und
''hysiologie in 1840, which was at once translated into English by
.yon Playfair. Rejecting the old notion that plants derive their
nourishment from humus, he taught that they get carbon and
nitrogen from the carbon dioxide and ammonia present in the.
atmosphere, these compounds being returned by them to the
atmosphere by the processes of putrefaction and fermentation —
which latter he regarded as essentially chemical in nature — while
heir potash, soda, lime, sulphur, phosphorus, &c., come from the
oil. Of the carbon dioxide and ammonia no exhaustion can take
>lace, but of the mineral constituents the supply is limited because
he soil cannot afford an indefinite amount of them ; hence the chief
are of the farmer, and the function of manures, is to restore to the
oil those minerals which each crop is found, by the analysis of its
ashes, to take up in its growth. On this theory he prepared artificial
manures containing the essential mineral substances together with
a small quantity of ammoniacal salts, because he held that the air
loes not supply ammonia fast enough in certain cases, and carried
nit systematic experiments on ten acres of poor sandy land which
le obtained from the town of Giessen in 1845. But in practice the
esults were not wholly satisfactory, and it was a long time before
recognized one important reason for the failure in the fact that
592
LIEBKNECHT— LIECHTENSTEIN
to prevent the alkalis from being washed away by the rain he had
taken pains to add them in an insoluble form, whereas, as was
ultimately suggested to him by experiments performed by J. T.
Way about 1850, this precaution was not only superfluous but
harmful, because the soil possesses a power of absorbing the soluble
saline matters required by plants and of retaining them, in spite of
rain, for assimilation by the roots.
Liebig's literary activity was very great. The Royal Society's
Catalogue of Scientific Papers enumerates 318 memoirs under his
name, exclusive of many others published in collaboration with
other investigators. A certain impetuousness of character which
disposed him to rush into controversy whenever doubt was cast
upon the views he supported accounted for a great deal of writing,
and he also carried on an extensive correspondence with Wohler
and other scientific men. In 1832 he founded the Annalen der
Pharmazie, which became the Annalen der Chemie und Pharmazie
in 1840 when Wohler became joint-editor with himself , and in 1837
with Wohler and Poggendorff he established the Handworterbuch
der reinen und angewandten Chemie. After the death of Berzelius
he continued the Jahresbericht with H. F. M. Kopp. The following
are his most important separate publications, many of which were
translated into English and French almost as soon as they ap-
peared: Anleitung zur Analyse der organischen Korper (1837);
Die Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agrikultur und Physiologie
(1840) ; Die Thier-Chemie oder die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwen-
dung auf Physiologie und Pathologic (1842); Handbuch der organi-
schen Chemie mil Riicksicht auf Pharmazie (1843); Chemische Brief e
(1844); Chemische Untersuchungen iiber das Fleisch und seine
Zubereitung zum Nahrungsmittel (1847); Die Grundsdtze der Agri-
kultur-Chemie (1855); Ober Theorie und Praxis in der Landwirth-
schaft (1856); Naturwissenschafttiche Brief e iiber die moderne Land-
wirthschaft (1859). A posthumous collection of his miscellaneous
addresses and publications appeared in 1874 as Reden und A bhand-
lungen, edited by his son George (b. 1827). His criticism of Bacon,
Vber Francis von Verulam, was first published in 1863 in the Augs-
burger allgemeine Zeitung, where also most of his letters on chemistry
made their first appearance.
See The Life Work of Liebig (London, 1876), by his pupil A. W.
von Hoftnann, which is the Faraday lecture delivered before the
London Chemical Society in March 1875, and is reprinted in Hof-
mann's Zur Erinnerung an vorangegangene Freunde; also W. A.
Shenstone, Justus von Liebig, his Life and Work (1895).
LIEBKNECHT, WILHELM (1826-1900), German socialist,
was born at Giessen on the 29th of March 1826. Left an orphan
at an early age, he was educated at the gymnasium in his native
town, and attended the universities of Giessen, Bonn and
Marburg. Before he left school he had become affected by
the political discontent then general in Germany; he had already
studied the writings of St Simon, from which he gained his first
interest in communism, and had been converted to the extreme
republican theories of which Giessen was a centre. He soon
came into conflict with the authorities, and was expelled from
Berlin apparently in consequence of the strong sympathy he
displayed for some Poles, who were being tried for high treason.
He proposed in 1846 to migrate to America, but went instead
to Switzerland, where he earned his living as a teacher. As soon
as the revolution of 1848 broke out he hastened to Paris, but
the attempt to organize a republican corps for the invasion of
Germany was prevented by the government. In September,
however, in concert with Gustav von Struve, he crossed the
Rhine from Switzerland at the head of a band of volunteers,
and proclaimed a republic in Baden. The attempt collapsed;
he was captured, and, after suffering eight months' imprisonment,
was brought to trial. Fortunately for him, a new rising had
just broken out; the mob .burst into the court, and he was
acquitted. During the short duration of the revolutionary
government he was an active member of the most extreme
party, but on the arrival of the Prussian troops he succeeded in
escaping to France. Thence he went to Geneva, where he
came into intercourse with Mazzini; but, unlike most of the
German exiles, he was already an adherent of the socialist creed,
which at that time was more strongly held in France. Expelled
from Switzerland he went to London, where he lived for thirteen
years in close association with Karl Marx. He endured great
hardships, but secured a livelihood by teaching and writing;
he was a correspondent of the Augsburger Allgemeine Zeitung.
The amnesty of 1861 opened for him the way back to Germany,
and in 1862 he accepted the post of editor of the Norddeutsche
Allgemeine Zeitung, thefounder of which was an old revolutionist.
Only a few months elapsed before the paper passed under
Bismarck's influence. There is no more curious episode in
German history than the success with which Bismarck acquired
the services of many of the men of 1848, but Liebknecht remained
faithful to his principles and resigned his editorship. He became
a member of the Arbeiterverein, and after the death of Ferdinand
Lassalle he was the chief mouthpiece in Germany of Karl Marx,
and was instrumental in spreading the influence of the newly-
founded International. Expelled from Prussia in 1865, he
settled at Leipzig, and it is primarily to his activity in Saxony
among the newly-formed unions of workers that the modern
social democrat party owes its origin. Here he conducted the
Demokratisches Wochenblatt. In 1867 he was elected a member
of the North German Reichstag, but in opposition to Lassalle's
followers he refused all compromise with the " capitalists,"
and avowedly used his position merely for purposes of agitation
whilst taking every opportunity for making the parliament
ridiculous. He was strongly influenced by the " great German "
traditions of the democrats of 1848, and, violently anti-Prussian,
he distinguished himself by his attacks on the policy of 1866
and the " revolution from above," and by his opposition to
every form of militarism. His adherence to the traditions of
1848 are also seen in his dread of Russia, which he maintained
to his death. His opposition to the war of 1870 exposed him to
insults and violence, and in 1872 he was condemned to two
years' imprisonment in a fortress for treasonable intentions.
The union of the German Socialists in 1874 at the congress of
Gotha was really a triumph of his influence, and from that time
he was regarded as founder and leader of the party. From 1874
till his death he was a member of the German Reichstag, and
for many years also of the Saxon diet. He was one of the chief
spokesmen of the party, and he took a very important part in
directing its policy. In 1881 he was expelled from Leipzig,
but took up his residence in a neighbouring village. After the
lapse of the Socialist law (1890) he became chief editor of the
Vorwarts, and settled in Berlin. If he did not always find it
easy in his later years to follow the new developments, he
preserved to his death the idealism of his youth, the hatred both
of Liberalism and of State Socialism; and though he was to
some extent overshadowed by Bebel's greater oratorical power,
he was the chief support of the orthodox Marxian tradition.
Liebknecht was the author of numerous pamphlets and books,
of which the most important were: Robert Blum und seine Zeit
(Nuremberg, 1892); Geschichte der Franzosischen Revolution
(Dresden, 1890); Die Emser Depesche (Nuremberg, 1899) and
Robert Owen (Nuremberg, 1892). He died at Charlottenburg
on the 6th of August 1900.
See Kurt Eisner, Wilhelm Liebknecht, sein Leben und Wirken
(Berlin, 1900).
LIECHTENSTEIN, the smallest independent state in Europe,
save San Marino and Monaco. It lies some way S. of the Lake
of Constance, and extends along the right bank of the Rhine,
opposite Swiss territory, between Sargans and Sennwald, while
on the E. it also comprises the upper portion of the Samina
glen that joins the III valley at Frastanz, above Feldkirch.
It is about 12 m. in length, and covers an area of 61-4 or 68-8
sq. m. (according to different estimates). Its loftiest point
rises at the S.E. angle of the state, in the Rhatikon range, and
is named to Naafkopf or the Rothe Wand (8445 ft.) ; on its
summit the Swiss, Vorarlberg, and Liechtenstein frontiers join.
In 1901 the population was 9477 (of whom 4890 were women
and 4587 men). The capital is Vaduz (1523 ft.), with about
1 100 inhabitants, and 2 m. S. of the Schaan railway station,
which is 2 m. from Buchs (Switz.). Even in the I7th century
the Romonsch language was not extinguished in the state, and
many Romonsch place-names still linger, e.g. Vaduz, Samina,
Gavadura, &c. Now the population is German-speaking and
Romanist. The constitution of 1862 was amended in 1878,
1895 and 1901. All males of 24 years of age are primary electors,
while the diet consists of 12 members, holding their seats for
4 years and elected indirectly, together with 3 members nomi-
nated by the prince. The prince has a lieutenant resident at
Vaduz, whence there is an appeal to the prince's court at Vienna,
LIEGE
593
with a final appeal (since 1884) to the supreme district court at
Innsbruck. Compulsory military service was abolished in 1868,
the army having till then been 91 strong. The principality
forms ecclesiastically part of the diocese of Coire, while as regards
customs duties it is joined with the Vorarlberg, and as regards
postal and coinage arrangements with Austria, which (according
to the agreement of 1852, renewed in 1876, by which the princi-
pality entered the Austrian customs union) must pay it at least
40,000 crowns annually. In 1904 the revenues of the principality
amounted to 888,931 crowns, and its expenditure to 802,163
crowns. There is no public debt.
The county of Vaduz and the lordship of Schellenberg passed
through many hands before they were bought in 1613 by the
count of Hohenems (to the N. of Feldkirch). In consequence
of financial embarrassments, that family had to sell both (the
lordship in 1699, the county in 1713) t6 the Liechtenstein family,
which had since the I2th century owned two castles of that
name (both now ruined), one in Styria and the other a little
S.W. of Vienna. In 1719 these new acquisitions were raised
by the emperor into a principality under the name of Liechten-
stein, which formed part successively of the Holy Roman
Empire (till 1806) and of the German Confederation (1815-1866),
having been sovereign 1806-1815 as well as since 1866.
See J. Falke's Geschichte d.fiirstlichen Hauses Liechtenstein (3 vols.,
Vienna, 1868-1883); J- C. Heer, Vorarlberg und Liechtenstein
(Feldkirch, 1906) ; P. Kaiser, Geschichte d. Fiirstenlhums Liechten-
stein (Coire, 1847); F. Umlauft, Das Fiirstenthum Liechtenstein
(Vienna, 1891); E. Walder, Aus den Bergen (Zurich, 1896); A.
Waltenberger, Algdu, Vorarlberg, und Westtirol (Rtes. 25 and 26)
(loth ed., Innsbruck, 1906). (W. A. B. C.)
LI^GE, one of the nine provinces of Belgium, touching on
the east the Dutch province of Limburg and the German district
of Rhenish Prussia. To a certain extent it may be assumed
to represent the old prince-bishopric. Besides the city of Liege it
contains the towns of Verviers, Dolhain, Seraing, Huy, &c.
The Meuse flows through the centre of the province, and its
valley from Huy down to Herstal is one of the most productive
mineral districts in Belgium. Much has been done of late years
to develop the agricultural resources of the Condroz district south
of the Meuse. The area of the province is 723,470 acres, or
1130 sq. m. The population in 1904 was 863,254, showing an
average of 763 per sq. m.
Ll£GE (Walloon, Lige, Flemish, Luik, Ger. Luttich), the capital
of the Belgian province that bears its name. It is finely situated
on the Meuse, and was long the seat of a prince-bishopric. It is
the centre of the Walloon country, and Scott commits a curious
mistake in Quentin Durward in making its people talk Flemish.
The Liege Walloon is the nearest existing approach to the old
Romance language. The importance of the city to-day arises
from its being the chief manufacturing centre in Belgium, and
owing to its large output of arms it has been called the Birming-
ham of the Netherlands. The productive coal-mines of the
Meuse valley, extending from its western suburb of Seraing to its
northern faubourg of Herstal, constitute its chief wealth. At
Seraing is established the famous manufacturing firm of Cockerill,
whose offices are in the old summer palace of the prince-bishops.
The great cathedral of St Lambert was destroyed and sacked
by the French in 1794, and in 1802 the church of St Paul, dating
from the loth century but rebuilt in the i3th, was declared the
cathedral. The law courts are installed in the old palace of the
prince-bishops, a building which was constructed by Bishop
Everard de la Marck between 1508 and 1540. The new boule-
vards are well laid out, especially those flanking the river, and
the views of the city and surrounding country are very fine.
The university, which has separate schools for mines and arts and
manufactures, is one of the largest in the country, and enjoys
a high reputation for teaching in its special line.
Liege is a fortified position of far greater strength than is
generally appreciated. In the wars of the i8th century Liege
played but a small part. It was then defended only by the
citadel and a detached fort on the right side of the Meuse, but
at a short distance from the river, called the Chartreuse. Marl-
borough captured these forts in 1 703 in preparation for his advance
in the following year into Germany which resulted in the victory
of Blenheim. The citadel and the Chartreuse were still the only
defences of Liege in 1888 when, after long discussions, the Belgian
authorities decided on adequately fortifying the two important
passages of the Meuse at Liege and Namur. A similar plan was
adopted at each place, viz. the construction of a number of
detached forts along a perimeter drawn at a distance varying
from 4 to 6 m. of the town, so a"s to shelter it so far as possible from
bombardment. At Liege twelve forts were constructed, six on
the right bank and six on the left. Those on the right bank
beginning at the north and following an eastern curve are
Barchon, Evegnee, Fleron, Chaudfontaine, Embourg and
Boncelles. The average distance between each fort is 4 m., but
Fleron and Chaudfontaine are separated by little over i m.
in a direct line as they defend the main line of railway from
Germany. The six forts on the left bank also commencing
at the north, but following a western curve, are Pontisse, Liers,
Lantin, Loncin, Hollogne and Flemalle. These forts were
constructed under the personal direction of General Brialmont,
and are on exactly the same principle as those he designed for
the formidable defences of Bucarest. All the forts are con-
structed in concrete with casemates, and the heavy guns are
raised and lowered automatically. Communication is main-
tained between the different forts by military roads in all cases,
and by steam tramways in some. It is estimated that 25,000
troops would be required for the defence of the twelve forts,
but the number is inadequate for the defence of so important
and extensive a position. The population of Liege, which in
1875 was only 117,600, had risen by 1900 to 157,760, and in
1905 it was 168,532.
History. — Liege first appears in history about the year 558, at
which date St Monulph, bishop of Tongres, built a chapel near
the confluence of the Meuse and the Legia. A century later
the town, which had grown up round this chapel, became the
favourite abode of St Lambert, bishop of Tongres, and here
he was assassinated. His successor St Hubert raised a splendid
church over the tomb of the martyred bishop about 720 and
made Liege his residence. It was not, however, until about 930
that the title bishop of Tongres was abandoned for that of bishop
of Liege. The episcopate of Notger (972-ioo8)was marked by
large territorial acquisitions, and the see obtained recognition
as an independent principality of the Empire. The popular
saying was " Liege owes Notger to God, and everything else to
Notger." By the munificent encouragement of successive
bishops Liege became famous during the nth century as a centre
of learning, but the history of the town for centuries records
little else than the continuous struggles of the citizens to free
themselves from the exactions of their episcopal sovereigns;
the aid of the emperor and of the dukes of Brabant being fre-
quently called in to repress the popular risings. In 1316 the
citizens compelled Bishop Adolph de la Marck to sign a charter,
which made large concessions to the popular demands. It was,
however, a triumph of short duration, and the troubles continued,
the insurgent subjects now and again obtaining a fleeting
success, only to be crushed by the armies of the powerful relatives
of the bishops, the houses of Brabant or of Burgundy. During
the episcopate of Louis de Bourbon (1456-^1484) the Liegeois,
having expelled the bishop, had the temerity to declare war on
Philip V., duke of Burgundy. Philip's son, Charles the Bold,
utterly defeated them in 1467, and razed the walls of the town to
the ground. In the following year the citizens again revolted,
and Charles being once more successful delivered up the city
to sack and pillage for three days, and deprived the remnant of
the citizens of all their privileges. This incident is narrated in
Quentin Durward. The long episcopate of Eberhard de la Marck
(1505-1538) was a time of good administration and of quiet,
during which the town regained something of its former pros-
perity. The outbreak of civil war between two factions, named
the Cluroux and the Grignoux, marked the opening of the i7th
century. Bishop Maximilian Henry of Bavaria (1650-1688)
at last put an end to the internal strife and imposed a regulation
(reglement) which abolished all the free institutions of the citizens
594
LIEGE— LIEN
and the power of the gilds. Between this date and the outbreak
of the French Revolution the chief efforts of the prince-bishops
were directed to maintaining neutrality in the various wars, and
preserving their territory from being ravaged by invading armies.
They were only in part successful. Liege was taken by Marl-
borough in 1702, and the fortress was garrisoned by the Dutch
until 1718. The French revolutionary armies overran the
principality in 1792, and from 1794 to the fall of Napoleon it
was annexed to France, and was known as the department of
the Ourthe. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 decreed that Liege
with the other provinces of the southern Netherlands should
form part of the new kingdom of the Netherlands under the
rule of William I., of the house of Orange. The town of Liege
took an active part in the Belgian revolt of 1830, and since that
date the ancient principality has been incorporated in the
kingdom of Belgium.
The see, which at first bore the name of the bishopric of
Tongres, was under the metropolitan jurisdiction of the arch-
bishops of Cologne. The principality comprised besides the
town of Liege and its district, the counties of Looz and Hoorn,
the marquessate of Franchimont, and the duchy of Bouillon.
AUTHORITIES. — Theodore Bouille, Histoire de la ville et du pays
de Liege (3 vols., Liege, 1725-1732); A. Borgnet, Histoire de la
revolution liegepise (2 vols., Liege, 1865); Baron B. C. de Gerlache,
Histoire de Liege (Brussels, 1843); J. Daris, Histoire du diocese et
de la principaute de Liege (10 vols., Liege, 1868-1885); Ferdinand
Henaux, Histoire du pays de Liege (2 vols., Liege, 1857); L. Polain,
Histoire de I'ancien pays de Liege (2 vols., Liege, 1844-1847). For
full bibliography see Ulysse Chevalier, Repertoire des sources histo-
riques. Topo-bibliographie, s.v. (Montbeliard, 1900).
LIEGE, an adjective implying the mutual relationship of
a feudal superior and his vassal; the word is used as a sub-
stantive of the feudal superior, more usually in this sense,
however, in the form " liege lord, " and also of the vassals, his
"lieges." Hence the word is often used of the loyal subjects
of a sovereign, with no reference to feudal ties. It appears
that ligeitas or ligenlia, the medieval Latin term for this relation-
ship, was restricted to a particular form of homage. According
to N. Broussel (Nouvel examen de I' usage general des fiefs en
France, 1727) the homage of a "liege" was a stronger form
of the ordinary homage, the especial distinction being that,
while the ordinary vassal only undertook forty days' military
service, the liege promised to serve as long as the war might
last, in which his superior was engaged (cf. Ducange, Glossarium,
s.v. " Ligius ").
The etymology of the word has been much discussed. It
comes into English through the O. Fr. lige or liege, Med.
Lat. ligius. This was early connected with the Lat. ligatus,
bound, ligare, to bind, from the sense of the obligation of the
vassal to his lord, but this has been generally abandoned.
Broussel takes the Med. Lat. liga, i.e., foedus, confederatio,
the English " league," as the origin. Ducange connects it with
the word lilies, which appears in a gloss of the Salic law, and
is defined as a scriptitius, servus glebae. The more usually
accepted derivation is now from the Old High Ger. ledic, or
ledig, meaning " free " (Mod. Ger. ledig means unoccupied,
vacuus). This is confirmed by the occurrence in a charter of
Otto of Benthem, 1253, of a word " ledigh-man " (quoted in
Ducange, Glossarium, s.v.), Proinde afiecti sumus ligius homo,
quod Teutonice dictur Ledighman. Skeat, in explaining the
application of " free " to such a relationship as that subsisting
between a feudal superior and his vassal, says " ' a liege lord '
seems to have been the lord of a free band; and his lieges,
though serving under him, were privileged men, free from all
other obligations; their name being due to their freedom, not
to their service " (Etym. Did., ed. 1898). A. Luchaire (Manuel
des institutions franfaises, 1892, p. 189, n. i) considers it difficult
to call a man " free " who is under a strict obligation to another;
further that the " liege " was not free from all obligation to a
third party, for the charters prove without doubt that the
" liege men " owed duty to more than one lord.
LIEGNITZ, a town in Germany, in the Prussian province
of Silesia, picturesquely situated on the Katzbach, just above
its junction with the Schwarzwasser, and 40 m. W.N.W. of
Breslau, on the main line of railway to Berlin via Sommerfeld.
Pop. (1885) 43,347, (1905) 59,710. It consists of an old town,
surrounded by pleasant, shady promenades, and several well-
built suburbs. The most prominent building is the palace,
formerly the residence of the dukes of Liegnitz, rebuilt after
a fire in 1835 and now used as the administrative offices of
the district. The Ritter Akademie, founded by the emperor
Joseph I. in 1708 for the education of the young Silesian nobles,
was reconstructed as a gymnasium in 1810. The Roman Catholic
church of St John, with two fine towers, contains the burial
vault of the dukes. The principal Lutheran church, that of
SS. Peter and Paul (restored in 1892-1894), dates from the
1 4th century. The manufactures are considerable, the chief
articles made being cloth, wool, leather, tobacco, pianos and
machinery. Its trade in grain and its cattle-markets are like-
wise important. The large market gardens in the suburbs
grow vegetables of considerable annual value.
Liegnitz is first mentioned in an historical document in
the year 1004. In 1163 it became the seat of the dukes of
Liegnitz, who greatly improved and enlarged it. The dukes
were members of the illustrious Piast family, which gave many
kings to Poland. During the Thirty Years' War Liegnitz was
taken by the Swedes, but was soon recaptured by the Imperialists.
The Saxon army also defeated the imperial troops near Liegnitz
in 1634. On the death of the last duke of Liegnitz in 1675,
the duchy came into the possession of the Empire, which retained
it until the Prussian conquest of Silesia in 1742. On the isth of
August 1 760 Frederick the Great gained a decisive victory near
Liegnitz over the Austrians, and in August 1813 Bliicher defeated
the French in the neighbourhood at the battle of the Katzbach.
During the igth century Liegnitz rapidly increased in population
and prosperity. In 1906 the German autumn manoeuvres
were held over the terrain formerly the scene of the great battles
already mentioned.
See Schuchard, Die Stadt Liegnitz (Berlin, 1868); Sammter and
Kraffert, Chronik von Liegnitz (Liegnitz, 1861-1873); Jander,
Liegnitz in seinem Entwickelungsgange (Liegnitz, 1905) ; and Fiihrer
fiir Liegnitz und seine Umgebung (Liegnitz, 1897) ; and the Urkunden-
buch der Stadt Liegnitz bis 1455, edited by Schirrmacher (Liegnitz,
1866).
LIEN, in law. The word lien is literally the French for a
band, cord or chain, and keeping in mind that meaning we
see in what respect it differs from a pledge on the one hand
and a mortgage on the other. It is the bond which attaches
a creditor's right to a debtor's property, but which gives no right
ad rem, i.e. to property in the thing; if the property is in the
possession of the creditor he may retain it, but in the absence
of statute he cannot sell to recover what is due to him without
the ordinary legal process against the debtor; and if it is not
in possession, the law would indeed assist him to seize the
property, and will hold it for him, and enable him to sell it in
due course and pay himself out of the proceeds, but does not
give him the property itself. It is difficult to say at what
period the term lien made its appearance in English law; it
probably came from more than one source. In fact, it was used
as a convenient phrase for any right against the owner of property
in regard to the property not specially defined by other better
recognized species of title.
The possessory lien of a tradesman for work done on the thing,
of a carrier for his hire, and of an innkeeper for his bill, would
seem to be an inherent right which must have been in existence
from the dawn, or before the dawn, of civilization. Probably
the man who made or repaired weapons in the Stone Age was
careful not to deliver them until he received what was stipulated
for, but it is also probable that the term itself resulted from
the infusion of the civil law of Rome into the common law of
England which the Norman Conquest brought about, and that
it represents the " tacit pledge " of the civil law. As might
be expected, so far as the possessory lien is concerned the common
law and civil law, and probably the laws of all countries, whether
civilized or not, coincide; but there are many differences with
respect to other species of lien. For instance, by the common
LIEN
595
law— in this respect a legacy of the feudal system — a landlord
has a lien over his tenant's furniture and effects for rent due,
which can be enforced without the assistance of the law simply
by the landlord taking possession, personally or by his agent,
and selling enough to satisfy his claim; whereas the maritime
lien is more distinctly the product of the civil law, and is only
found and used in admiralty proceedings, the high court of
admiralty having been founded upon the civil law, and still
(except so far as restrained by the common-law courts prior
to the amalgamation and co-ordination of the various courts
by the Judicature Acts, and as affected by statute law) acting
upon it. The peculiar effects of this maritime lien are discussed
below. There is also a class of liens, usually called equitable
liens (e.g. that of an unpaid vendor of real property over the
property sold), which are akin to the nature of the civil law
rather than of the common law. The word lien does not frequently
occur in statute law, but it is found in the extension of the
common-law " carriers' or shipowners' lien " in the Merchant
Shipping Act 1894; in the definition, extension and limitation
of the vendor's lien; in the Factors Act 1877, and the Sale
of Goods Act 1893; in granting a maritime lien to a shipmaster
for his wages and disbursements, and in regulating that of the
seamen in the Merchant Shipping Act 1894; and in the equity
jurisdiction of the county courts 1888.
Common-Law Liens. — These may be either particular, i.e.
a right over one or more specified articles for a particular debt,
or gerieral, i.e. for all debts owing to the creditor by the debtor.
The requisites for a particular lien are, firstly, that the creditor
should be in possession of the article; secondly, that the debt
should be incurred with reference to the article; and thirdly,
that the amount of the debt should be certain. It may be created
by express contract, by implied contract (such as the usage of a
particular trade or business), or as a consequence of the legal
relation existing between the parties. As an example of the first,
a shipowner at common law has a lien on the cargo for the
freight; but though the shipper agrees to pay dead freight in
addition, i.e. to pay freight on any space in the ship which he
fails to occupy with his cargo, the shipowner has no lien on the
cargo for such dead freight except by express agreement. The
most usual form of the second is that which is termed a possessory
lien — the right a ship-repairer has to retain a ship in his yard
till he is paid for the repairs executed upon her,1 and the right a
cobbler has to retain a pair of shoes till he is paid for the repairs
done to them. But this lien is only in respect of the work done
on, and consequent benefit received by, the subject of the lien.
Hence an agistor of cattle has no lien at common law upon them
for the value of the pasturage consumed, though he may have one
by agreement; nor a conveyancer upon deeds which he has not
drawn, but which are in his possession for reference, The most
common example of the third is that of a carrier, who is bound by
law to carry for all persons, and has, therefore, a lien for the price
of the carriage on the goods carried. It has been held that even
if the goods are stolen, and entrusted to the carrier by the thief,
the carrier can hold them for the price of the carriage against the
rightful owner. Of the same nature is the common-law lien of an
innkeeper on the baggage of his customer for the amount of his
account, he being under a legal obligation to entertain travellers
generally. Another instance of the same class is where a person
has obtained possession of certain things over which he claims
to hold a lien in the exercise of a legal right. For example,
when a lord of a manor has seized cattle as estrays, he has a lien
upon them for the expense of their keep as against the real
owner; but the holder's claim must be specific, otherwise a
general tender of compensation releases the lien.
A general lien is a right of a creditor to retain property, not
merely for charges relating to it specifically, but for debts due
on a general account. This not being a common-law right, is
viewed by the English courts with the greatest jealousy, and to be
enforced must be strictly proved. This can be done by proof
either of an express or implied contract or of a general usage of
1 This right, however, is not absolute, but depends on the custom
of the port (Raitt v. Mitchell, 1815, 4 Camp. 146).
trade. The first of these is established by the ordinary methods
or by previous dealings between the parties on such terms; the
second is recognized in certain businesses; it would probably be
exceedingly difficult, if not impossible, to extend it at the present
time to any other trades. When, however, a lien by general
usage has once been judicially established, it becomes part of
the Law Merchant, and the courts are bound to recognize and
enforce it. The best known and most important instance is
the right of a solicitor to retain papers in his hands belonging to
his client until his account is settled. The solicitor's lien,
though probably more commonly enforced than any other, is of
no great antiquity in English law, the earliest reported case
of it being in the reign of James II. ; but it is now of a twofold
nature. In the first place there is the retaining lien. This
is similar in kind to other possessory liens, but of a general
nature attaching to all papers of the client, and even to his
money, up to the amount of the solicitor's bill, in the hands of
the solicitor in the ordinary course of business. There are certain
exceptions which seem to have crept in for the same reason as
the solicitor's lien itself, i.e. general convenience of litigation;
such exceptions are the will of the client after his decease, and
proceedings in bankruptcy. In this latter case the actual
possessory lien is given up, the solicitor's interests and priorities
being protected by the courts, and it may be said that the giving
up the papers is really only a means of enforcing the lien they
give in the bankruptcy proceedings. In the second place
there is what is called a charging lien — more correctly classed
under the head of equitable lien, since it does not require posses-
sion, but is a lien the solicitor holds over property recovered or
preserved for his client. He had the lien on an order by the court
upon a fund in court by the common law, but as to property
generally it was only given by 23 & 24 Viet. c. 127, § 28; and
it has been held to attach to property recovered in a probate
action (ex parte Tweed, C.A. 1899, 2 Q.B. 167). A banker's lien
is the right of a banker to retain securities belonging to his
customer for money due on a general balance. Other general
liens, judicially established, are those of wharfingers, brokers and
factors (which are in their nature akin to those of solicitors and
bankers), and of calico printers, packers of goods, fullers (at all
events at Exeter), dyers and millers; but in all these special
trades it is probable that the true reason is that the account
due was for one continuous transaction. The calico would
come to be printed, the goods to be packed, the cloth to be
bleached, the silk to be dyed, and the corn to be ground, in
separate parcels, and at different times, but all as one under-
taking; and they are therefore, though spoken of as instances of
general lien, only adaptations by the courts of the doctrine of
particular lien to special peculiarities of business. In none of
these cases would the lien exist, in the absence of special agree-
ment, for other matters of account, such as money lent or goods
sold.
Equitable Liens. — " Where equity has jurisdiction to enforce
rights and obligations growing out of an executory contract,"
e.g. in a suit for specific performance, " this equitable theory of
remedies cannot be carried out unless the notion is admitted
that the contract creates some right or interest in or over specific
property, which the decree of the court can lay hold of, and
by means of which the equitable relief can be made efficient.
The doctrine of equitable liens supplies this necessary element;
and it was introduced for the sole purpose of furnishing a ground
for these specific remedies which equity confers, operating upon
particular identified property instead of the general pecuniary
recoveries granted by courts of common law. It follows, therefore,
that in a large class of executory contracts express and implied,
which the common law regards as creating no property, right
nor interest analogous to property, but only a mere personal
right'to obligation, equity recognizes in addition to the personal
obligation a particular right over the thing with which the con-
tract deals, which it calls a lien, and which though not property is
analogous to property, and by means of which the plaintiff is
enabled to follow the identical thing and to enforce the defendant's
obligation by a remedy which operates directly on the thing.
596
LIEN
The theory of equitable liens has its ultimate foundation,
therefore, in contracts express or implied which either deal or
in some manner relate to specific property, such as a tract of
land, particular chattels or securities, a certain fund and the
like. It is necessary to divest oneself of the purely legal notion
concerning the effects of such contracts, and to recognize the
fact that equity regards them as creating a charge upon, or
hypothecation of, the specific thing, by means of which the
personal obligation arising from the agreement may be more
effectively enforced than by a mere pecuniary recovery at
law " (Pomeroy, 2 Eq. Jur. 232).
This description from an American text-book seems to give
at once the fullest and most concise definition and description
of an equitable lien. It differs essentially from a common-law
lien, inasmuch as in the latter possession or occupation is as a
rule necessary, whereas in the equitable lien the person claiming
the lien is seldom in possession or occupation of the property,
its object being to obtain the possession wholly or partially.
A special instance of such a lien is that claimed by a publisher
over the copyright of a book which he has agreed to publish
on terms which are not complied with — for example, the author
attempting to get the book published elsewhere. It cannot
perhaps be said that this has been absolutely decided to exist,
but a strong opinion of the English court of exchequer towards
the close of the i8th century was expressed in its favour (Brook
v. Wenlivorth, 3 Anstruther 881). Other instances are the
charging lien of a solicitor, and the lien of a person on improve-
ments effected by him on the property of another who " lies
by " and allows the work to be done before claiming the property.
So also of a trustee for expenses lawfully incurred about the
trust property. The power of a limited liability company to
create a lien upon its own shares was in 1901 established (Allen
v. Gold Reefs, &c., C.A. 1900, i Ch. 656).
Maritime Liens. — Maritime lien differs from all the others
yet considered, in its more elastic nature. Where a maritime
lien has once attached to property — and it may and generally
does attach without possession — it will continue to attach,
unless lost by laches, so long as the thing to which it attaches
exists, notwithstanding changes in the possession of and pro-
perty in the thing, and notwithstanding that the new possessor
or owner may be entirely ignorant of its existence; and even
if enforced it leaves the owner's personal liability for any balance
unrealized intact (the "Gemma," 1899, P. 285). So far as England
is concerned, it must be borne in mind that the courts of admiralty
were conducted in accordance with the principles of civil law,
and in that law both the pledge with possession and the hypothe-
cation without possession were well recognized. The extreme
convenience of such a right as the latter with regard to such
essentially movable chattels as ships is apparent. Strictly
speaking, a maritime lien is confined to cases arising in those
matters over which the courts of admiralty had original juris-
diction, viz. collisions at sea, seamen's wages, salvage and
bottomry, in all of which cases the appropriate remedy is a
proceeding in rem in the admiralty court. In the first of these —
collisions at sea — if there were no maritime lien there would
frequently be no remedy at all. When two ships have collided
at sea it may well be that the innocent ship knows neither the
name nor the nationality of the wrongdoer, and the vessel
may escape with slight damage and not have to make a port
of refuge in the neighbourhood. Months afterwards it is ascer-
tained that she was a foreign ship, and in the interval she has
changed owners. Then, were it not a fact that a maritime
lien invisible to the wrongdoer nevertheless attaches itself to
his ship at the moment of collision, and continues to attach,
the unfortunate owner of the innocent ship would have no
remedy, except the doubtful one of pursuing the former owner
of the wrong-doing vessel in his own country in a personal
action where such proceedings are allowed — which is by no means
the case in all foreign countries. The same reasons apply,
though not possibly with quite the same force, to the other
classes of cases mentioned.
Between 1840 and 1873 the jurisdiction of the admiralty
court was largely extended. At the latter date it was merged
in the probate, divorce and admiralty division of the High Court
of Justice. Since the merger questions have arisen as to how
far the enlargement of jurisdiction has extended the principle
of maritime lien. An interesting article on this subject byj.
Mansfield, barrister-at-law, will be found in the Law Quarterly
Review, vol. iv., October 1888. It must be sufficient to state-
here that where legislation has extended the already existing
jurisdiction to which a maritime lien pertained, the maritime
lien is extended to the subject matter, but that where a new
jurisdiction is given, or where a jurisdiction formerly existing
without a maritime lien is extended, no maritime lien is given,
though even then the extended jurisdiction can be enforced
by proceedings in rem. Of the first class of extended jurisdictions
are collisions, salvage and seamen's wages. Prior to 1840 the
court of admiralty only had jurisdiction over these when occurring
or earned on the high seas. The jurisdiction, and with it the
maritime lien, is extended to places within the body of a county
in collision or salvage; and as to seamen's wages, whereas they
were dependent on the earning of freight, they are now free
from any such limitation; and also, whereas the remedy in rem
was limited to seamen's wages not earned under a special con-
tract, it is now extended to all seamen's wages, and also to a
master's wages and disbursements, and the maritime lien
covers all these. The new jurisdiction given over claims for
damage to cargo carried into any port in England or Wales,
and on appeal from the county courts over all claims for damage
to cargo under £300, though it may be prosecuted by proceedings
in rem, i.e. by arrest of the ship, yet confers no maritime lien;
and so also in the case of claims by material men (builders and
fitters-out of ships) and for necessaries. Even though in the
latter case the admiralty court had jurisdiction previously to
1840 where the necessaries were supplied on the high seas,
yet as it could not be shown that such jurisdiction had ever
been held to confer a maritime lien, no such lien is given. Even
now there is much doubt as to whether towage confers a maritime
lien or not, the services rendered being pursuant to contract,
and frequently to a contract made verbally or in writing on
the high seas, and being rendered also to a great extent on the
high seas. In these cases and to that extent the high court of
admiralty would have had original jurisdiction. But prior to
1840 towage, as now rendered by steam tugs expressly employed
for the service, was practically unknown, and therefore there was
no established catena of precedent to show the exercise of a
maritime lien. It may be argued on the one hand that towage
is only a modified form of salvage, and therefore entitled to a
maritime lien, and on the other that it is only a form of necessary
power supplied like a new sail or mast to a ship to enable her
to complete her voyage expeditiously, and therefore of the
nature of necessaries, and as such not entitled to a maritime
lien. The matter is not of academical interest only, for though
in the case of an inward-bound ship the tug owner can make use
of his statutory .tight of proceeding in rem, and so obtain much
of the benefit of a maritime lien, yet in the case of an outward-
bound ship, if she once gets away without payment, and the agent
or other authorized person refuses or is unable to pay, the tug
owner's claim may, on the return of the ship to a British port,
be met by an allegation of a change of ownership, which defeats
his right of proceeding at all if he has no maritime lien; whereas
if he has a maritime lien he can still proceed against the ship
and recover his claim, if he has not been guilty of laches.
A convenient division of the special liens other than possessory
on ships may be made by classifying them as maritime, statutory-
maritime or quasi-maritime, and statutory. The first attach only
in the case of damage done by collision between ships on the high
seas, salvage on the high seas, bottomry and seamen's wages so
far as freight has been earned ; the second attach in cases of damage
by collision within the body of a county, salvage within the body of
a county, life salvage everywhere, seamen's wages even if no freight
has been earned, master's wages and disbursements. These two
classes continue to attach notwithstanding a change of ownership
without notice of the lien, if there have been no laches in enforcing
it(the"BoldBucdeuch," 1852, 7 Moo. P.C. 267; the " Kong Magnus,
1891, P. 223). The third class, which only give a right to proceed
LIEN
597
in rem, i.e. against the ship itself, attach, so long as there is no
bona fide change of ownership, without citing the owners, in all
cases of claims for damage to ship and of claims for damage to
cargo where no owner is domiciled in England or Wales. Irrespective
of this limitation, they attach in all cases not only of damage to
cargo, but also of breaches of contract to carry where the damage
does not exceed £300, when the suit must be commenced in a county
court having admiralty jurisdiction; and in cases of claims for
necessaries supplied elsewhere than in the ship's home port, for
wages earned even under a special contract by masters and mariners,
and of claims for towage. In all three classes the lien also exists
over cargo where the suit from its nature extends to it, as in salvage
and in some cases of bottomry or respondentia, and in cases where
proceedings are taken against cargo by the shipowner for a breach
of contract (cargoes " Argos " and the " Hewsons," 1873, L.R. 5 P.C.
134; the " Alina," 1880, 5 Ex. D. 227).
Elsewhere than in England, and those countries such as the
United States which have adopted her jurisprudence in maritime
matters generally, the doctrine of maritime lien, or that which is
substituted for it, is very differently treated. Speaking generally,
those states which have adopted the Napoleonic codes or modifica-
tions of them — France, Italy, Spain, Holland, Portugal, Belgium,
Greece, Turkey, and to some extent Russia — have instead of a
maritime lien the civil-law principle of privileged debts. Amongst
these in all cases are found claims for salvage, wages, bottomry
under certain restrictions, and necessaries. Each of these has a
privileged claim against the ship, and in some cases against freight
and cargo as well, but it is a matter of very great importance that,
except in Belgium, a claim for collision damage (which as we have
seen confers a maritime lien, and one of a very high order, in Great
Britain) confers no privilege against the wrong-doing ship, whilst
in all these countries an owner can get rid of his personal liability
by abandoning the ship and freight to his creditor, and so, if the
ship is sunk, escape all liability whilst retaining any insurance
there may be. This, indeed, was at one time the law of Great
Britain; the measure of damage was limited by the value of the
res; and in the United States at the present time a shipowner can
get rid of his liability for damage by abandoning the ship and freight.
A different rule prevails in Germany and the Scandinavian states.
There claims relating to the ship, unless the owner has specially
rendered himself liable, confer no personal claim at all against him.
The claim is limited ab initio to ship and freight, except in the case
of seamen's wages, which do confer a personal claim so far as they
have been earned on a voyage or passage completed prior to the loss
of the ship. In all maritime states, however, except Spain, a pro-
visional arrest of the ship is allowed, and thus between the privilege
accorded to the debt and the power to arrest till bail is given or the
ship abandoned to creditors, a condition of things analogous to the
maritime lien is established; especially as these claims when the
proper legal steps have been taken to render them valid — usually
by endorsement on the ship's papers on board, or by registration
at her port of registry — attach to the ship and follow her into the
hands of a purchaser. They are in fact notice to him of the incum-
brance.
Duration of Lien. — So long as the party claiming the lien
at common law retains the property, the lien continues, not-
withstanding the debt in respect of which it is claimed becoming
barred by the Statute of Limitations (Higgins v. Scott, 1831,
2 B. & Aid. 413). But if he takes proceedings at law to recover
the debt, and on a sale of the goods to satisfy the judgment
purchases them himself, he so alters the nature of the possession
that he loses his lien (Jacobs v. Latour, 5 Bing. 130). An equit-
able lien probably in all cases continues, provided the purchaser
of the subject matter has notice of the lien at the time of his
purchase. A maritime lien is in no respect subject to the Statute
of Limitations, and continues in force notwithstanding a change
in the ownership of the property without notice, and is only
terminated when it has once attached, by laches on the part
of the person claiming it (the " Kong Magnus," 1891, P. 223).
There is an exception in the case of seamen's wages, where by
4 Anne c. 16 (Slat. Rev. 4 & 5 Anne c. 3) all suits for seamen's
wages in the Admiralty must be brought within six years.
Ranking of Maritime Liens. — There may be several claimants
holding maritime and other liens on the same vessel. For
example, a foreign vessel comes into collision by her own fault
and is damaged and her cargo also; she is assisted into port
by salvors and ultimately under a towage agreement, and
put into the hands of a shipwright who does necessary repairs.
The innocent party to the collision has a maritime lien for
his damage, and the seamen for their wages; the cargo owner
has a suit in rem or a statutory lien for damage, and the ship-
wright a possessory lien for the value of his repairs, while the
tugs certainly have a right in rem and possibly a maritime lien
also in the nature of salvage. The value of the property may
be insufficient to pay all claims, and it becomes a matter of great
consequence to settle whether any, and if so which, have priority
over the others, or whether all rank alike and have to divide
the proceeds of the property pro raid amongst them. The
following general rules apply: liens for benefits conferred
rank against the fund in the inverse, and those for the reparation
of damage sustained in the direct order of their attaching to the
res; as between the two classes those last mentioned rank before
those first mentioned of earlier date; as between liens of the
same class and the same date, the first claimant has priority
over others who have not taken action. The courts of admiralty,
however, allow equitable considerations, and enter into the
question of marshalling assets. For example, if one claimant
has a lien on two funds, or an effective right of action in addition
to his lien, and another claimant has only a lien upon one fund,
the first claimant will be obliged to exhaust his second remedy
before coming into competition with the second. As regards
possessory liens, the shipwright takes the ship as she stands,
i.e. with her incumbrances, and it appears that the lien for
seaman's wages takes precedence of a solicitor's lien for costs,
under a charging order made in pursuance of the Solicitors
Act 1860, § 28.
Subject to equitable considerations, the true principle appears
to be that services rendered under an actual or implied contract,
which confer a maritime lien, make the holder of the lien in some
sort a proprietor of the vessel, and therefore liable for damage done
by her — hence the priority of the damage lien — but, directly it has
attached, benefits conferred on the property by enabling it to reach
port in safety benefit the holder of the damage lien in common with
all other prior holders of maritime liens. It is less easy to see why of
two damage liens the earlier should take precedence of the later,
except on the principle that the res which came into collision the
second time is depreciated in value by the amount of the existing
lien upon her for the first collision, and where there was more than
one damage lien, and also liens for benefits conferred prior to
the first collision between the two collisions and subsequent to the
second, the court would have to make a special order to meet the
peculiar circumstances. The claim of a mortgagee naturally is
deferred to all maritime liens, whether they are for benefits conferred
on the property in which he is interested or for damage done by it,
and also for the same reason to the possessory lien of the shipwright,
but both the possessory lien of the shipwright and the claim of the
mortgagee take precedence over a claim for necessaries, which only
confers a statutory lien or a right to proceed in rem in certain cases.
In other maritime states possessing codes of commercial law, the
privileged debts are all set out in order of priority in these codes,
though, as has been already pointed put, the lien for damage by
collision — the most important in English law — has no counterpart
in most of the foreign codes.
Stoppage in Transilu. — This is a lien held by an unpaid
vendor in certain cases over goods sold after they have passed
out of his actual possession. It has been much discussed whether
it is an equitable or common-law right or lien. The fact appears
to be that it has always been a part of the Law Merchant, which,
properly speaking, is itself a part of the common law of England
unless inconsistent with it. This particular right was, in the
first instance, held by a court of equity to be equitable and not
contrary to English law, and by that decision this particular
part of the Law Merchant was approved and became part of
the common law of England (see per Lord Abinger in Gibson
v. Carruthers, 8 M. & W., p. 336 et seq.). It may be described
as a lien by the Law Merchant, decided by equity to be part
of the common law, but in its nature partaking rather of the
character of an equitable lien than one at common law. " It
is a right which arises solely upon the insolvency of the buyer,
and is based on the plain reason of justice and equity that one
man's goods shall not be applied to the payment of another
man's debts. If, therefore, after the vendor has delivered the
goods out of his own possession and put them in the hands
of a carrier for delivery to the buyer, he discovers that the
buyer is insolvent,' he may re-take the goods if he can before
they reach the buyer's possession, and thus avoid having his
property applied to paying debts due by the buyer to other
people " (Benjamin on Sales, 2nd ed., 289). This right, though
only recognized by English law in 1690, is highly favoured by
LIEN
the courts on account of its intrinsic justice, and extends to
quasi-vendors, or persons in the same position, such as consignors
who have bought on behalf of a principal and forwarded the
goods. It is, however, defeated by a lawful transfer of the docu-
ment of title to the goods by the vendor to a third person, who
takes it bond fide and for valuable consideration (Factors Act
1889; Sale of Goods Act 1893).
Assignment or Transfer of Lien. — A lien being a personal
right acquired in respect of personal services, it cannot, as
a rule, be assigned or transferred; but here again there are
exceptions. The personal representative of the holder of
a possessory lien on his decease would probably in all cases
be held entitled to it ; and it has been held that the lien over a
client's papers remains with the firm of solicitors notwithstanding
changes in the constitution of the firm (Gregory v. Cresswell,
14 L.J. Ch. 30x3). So also where a solicitor, having a lien on
documents for his costs, assigned the debt to his bankers with
the benefit of the lien, it was held that the bankers might enforce
such lien in equity. But though a tradesman has a lien on
the property of his customer for his charges for work done
upon it, where the property is delivered to him by a servant
acting within the scope of his employment, such lien cannot
be transferred to the servant, even if he has paid the money
himself; and the lien does not exist at all if the servant was
acting without authority in delivering the goods, except where
(as in the case of a common carrier) he is bound to receive
the goods, in which case he retains his lien for the carriage
against the rightful owner. Where, however, there is a lien
on property of any sort not in possession, a person acquiring
the property with knowledge of the lien takes it subject to
such lien. This applies to equitable liens, and cannot apply
to those common-law liens in which possession is necessary.
It is, however, true that by statute certain common-law liens
can be transferred, e.g. under the Merchant Shipping Act a
master of a ship having a lien upon cargo for his freight can
transfer the possession of the cargo to a wharfinger, and with
it the lien (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, § 494). In this case,
however, though the matter is simplified by the statute, if the
wharfinger was constituted the agent or servant of the ship-
master, his possession would be the possession of the shipmaster,
and there would be no real transfer of the lien; therefore the
common-law doctrine is not altered, only greater facilities
for the furtherance of trade are given by the statute, enabling
the wharfinger to act in his own name without reference to
his principal, who may be at the other side of the world. So
also a lien may be retained, notwithstanding that the property
passes out of possession, where it has to be deposited in some
special place (such as the Custom-House) to comply with the
law. Seamen cannot sell or assign or in any way part with
their maritime lien for wages (Merchant Shipping Act 1894,
§ 156), but, nevertheless, with the sanction of the court, a person
who pays seamen their wages is entitled to stand in their place
and exercise their rights (the Cornelia Henrietta, 1866, L.R.
i Ad. & EC. 51).
Waiver. — Any parting with the possession of goods is in
general a waiver of the lien upon them; for example, when a
factor having a lien on the goods of his principal gives them to a
carrier to be carried at the expense of his principal, even if
undisclosed, he waives his lien, and has no right to stop the goods
in transitu to recover it; so also where a coach-builder who has
a lien on a carriage for repairs allows the owner from time to
time to take it out for use without expressly reserving his lien,
he has waived it, nor has he a lien for the standage of the carriage
except by express agreement, as mere standage does not give a
possessory lien. It has even been held that where a portion of
goods sold as a whole for a lump sum has been taken away and
paid for proportionately, the conversion has taken place and the
lien for the residue of the unpaid purchase-money has gone
(Gurr v. Ctithbert, 1843, I2 L.J. Ex. 309). Again, an acceptance
of security for a debt is inconsistent with the existence of a lien,
as it substitutes the credit of the owner for the material guarantee
of the thing itself, and so acts as a waiver of the lien. For the
same reason even an agreement to take security is a waiver of
the lien, though the security is not, in fact, given (Alliance Bank
v. Droon, n L.T. 332).
Sale of Goods under Lien. — At common law the lien only gives
a right to retain the goods, and ultimately to sell by legal process,
against the owner; but in certain cases a right has been given
by statute to sell without the intervention of legal process, such
as the right of an innkeeper to sell the goods of his customer for
his unpaid account (Innkeepers Act 1878, § i), the right of a
wharfinger to sell goods entrusted to him by a shipowner with
a lien upon them for freight, and also for their own charges
(Merchant Shipping Act 1894, §§ 497, 498), and of a railway
company to sell goods for their charges (Railway Clauses Act
1845, § 97). Property affected by an equitable lien or a maritime
lien cannot be sold by the holder of the lien without the inter-
position of the court to enforce an order, or judgment of the
court. In Admiralty cases, where a sale is necessary, no bail
having been given and the property being under arrest, the
sale is usually made by the marshal in London, but may be
elsewhere on the parties concerned showing that a better price
is likely to be obtained.
AMERICAN LAW. — In the United States, speaking very gener-
ally, the law relating to liens is that of England, but there are
some considerable differences occasioned by three principal
causes, (i) Some of the Southern States, notably Louisiana,
have never adopted the common law of England. When that
state became one of the United States of North America it had
(and still preserves) its own system of law. In this respect the
law is practically identical with the Code Napoleon, which,
again speaking generally, substitutes privileges for liens, i.e.
gives certain claims a prior right to others against particular
property. These privileges being strictissimae interpretationis,
cannot be extended by any principle analogous to the English
doctrine of equitable liens. (2) Probably in consequence of the
United States and the several states composing it having had a
more democratic government than Great Britain, in their earlier
years at all events, certain liens have been created by statute
in several states in the interest of the working classes which have
no parallel in Great Britain, e.g. in some states workmen
employed in building a house or a ship have a lien upon the
building or structure itself for their unpaid wages. This statutory
lien partakes rather of the nature of an equitable than of a
common-law lien, as the property is not in the possession of the
workman, and it may be doubted whether the right thus conferred
is more beneficial to the workman than the priority his wages
have in bankruptcy proceedings in England. Some of the states
have also practically extended the maritime lien to matters
over which it was never contended for in England. (3) By the
constitution of the United States the admiralty and inter-state
jurisdiction is vested in the federal as distinguished from the
state courts, and these federal courts have not been liable to
have their jurisdiction curtailed by prohibition from courts of
common law, as the court of admiralty had in England up to the
time of the Judicature Acts; consequently the maritime lien
in the United States extends further than it does in England,
even after recent enlargements; it covers claims for necessaries
and by material men (see Maritime Lien), as well as collision,
salvage, wages, bottomry and damage to cargo.
Difficulties connected with lien occasionally arise in the
federal courts in admiralty cases, from a conflict on the subject
between the municipal law of the state where the court happens
to sit and the admiralty law; but as there is no power to prohibit
the federal court, its view of the admiralty law based on the
civil law prevails. More serious difficulties arise where a federal
court has to try inter-state questions, where the two states have
different laws on the subject of lien; one for example, like
Louisiana, following the civil law, and the other the common
law and equitable practice of Great Britain. The question as
to which law is to govern in such a case can hardly be said to be
decided. " The question whether equitable liens can exist to
be enforced in Louisiana by the federal courts, notwithstanding
its restrictive law of privileges, is still an open one " (Derris,
LIERRE— LIEUTENANT
599
Contracts of Pledge, 517; and see Burdon Sugar Refining Co. v.
Payne, 167 U.S. 127).
BRITISH COLONIES. — In those colonies which before the
Canadian federation were known as Upper Canada and the
Maritime Provinces of British North America, and in the several
Australasian states where the English common law is enforced
except as modified by colonial statute, the principles of lien,
whether by common law or equitable or maritime, discussed
above with reference to England, will prevail; but questions
not dissimilar to those treated of in reference to the United States
may arise where colonies have come to the crown of Great
Britain by cession, and where different systems of municipal
law are enforced. For example, in Lower Canada the law of
France prior to the Revolution occupies the place of the common
law in England, but is generally regulated by a code very similar
to the Code Napoleon; in Mauritius and its dependencies the
Code Napoleon itself is in force except so far as modified by
subsequent ordinances. In South Africa, and to some extent
in Ceylon and Guiana, Roman-Dutch law is in 'force; in the
island of Trinidad old Spanish law, prior to the introduction of
the present civil code of Spain, is the basis of jurisprudence.
Each several system of law requires to be studied on the point;
but, speaking generally, apart from the possessory lien of work-
men and the maritime lien of the vice-admiralty courts, it may be
assumed that the rules of the civil law, giving a privilege or
priority in certain specified cases rather than a lien as understood
in English law, prevail in those colonies where the English
law is not in force. (F. W. RA.)
LIERRE (Flemish, Lier), a town in the province of Antwerp,
Belgium; 9 m. S.E. of Antwerp. Pop. (1904) 24,229. It
carries on a brisk industry in silk fabrics. Its church of St
Gommaire was finished in 1557 and contains three fine glass
windows, the gift of the archduke Maximilian, to celebrate
his wedding with Mary of Burgundy.
LIESTAL, the capital (since 1833) of the half canton of Basel-
Stadt in Switzerland. It is a well-built but uninteresting
industrial town, situated on the left bank of the Ergolz stream,
and is the most populous town in the entire canton of Basel,
after Basel itself. By rail it is 91 m. S.E. of Basel, and 15! m.
N.W. of Olten. In the isth-century town hall (Rathaus) is
preserved the golden drinking cup of Charles the Bold, duke of
Burgundy, which was taken at the battle of Nancy in 1477. In
1900 the population was 5403, all German-speaking and mainly
Protestants. The town was sold in 1302 by its lord to the
bishop of Basel who, in 1400, sold it to the city of Basel, at whose
hands it suffered much in the Peasants' War of 1653, and so
consented gladly to the separation of 1833.
LIEUTENANT, one who takes the place, office and duty of
and acts on behalf of a superior or other person. The word
in English preserves the form of the French original (from lieu,
place, tenant, holding), which is the equivalent of the Lat.
locum tenens, one hplding the place of another. The usual
English pronunciation appears early, the word being frequently
spelled lie/tenant, lyeflenant or luf tenant in the I4th and isth
centuries. The modern American pronunciation is lewtenant,
while the German is represented by the present form of the
word Leulnant. In French history, lieutenant du roi (locum
lenens regis) was a title borne by the officer sent with military
powers to represent the king in certain provinces. With wider
powers and functions, both civil as well as military, and holding
authority throughout an entire province, such a representative
of the king was called lieutenant general du roi. The first appoint-
ment of these officials dates from the reign of Philip IV. the
Fair (see CONSTABLE). In the i6th century the administration
of the provinces was in the hands of gouverneurs, to whom the
lieutenants du roi became subordinates. The titles lieutenant
civil or criminel and lieutenant general de police have been borne
by certain judicial officers in France (see CHXTELET and BAILIFF:
Bailli). As the title of the representative of the sovereign,
" lieutenant " in English usage appears in the title of the lord
lieutenant of Ireland, and of the lords lieutenant of the counties
of the United Kingdom (see below).
The most general use of the word is as the name of a grade
of naval and military officer. It is common in this application
to nearly every navy and army of the present day. In Italy and
Spain the first part of the word is omitted, and an Italian and
Spanish officer bearing this rank are called tenente or teniente
respectively. In the British and most other navies the lieu-
tenants are the commissioned officers next in rank to com-
manders, or second class of captains. Originally the lieutenant
was a soldier who aided, and in case of need replaced, the captain,
who, until the latter half of the i7th century, was not necessarily
a seaman in any navy. At first one lieutenant was carried, and
only in the largest ships. The number was gradually increased,
and the lieutenants formed a numerous corps. At the close
of the Napoleonic War in 1815 there were 3211 lieutenants in the
British navy. Lieutenants now often qualify for special duties
such as navigation, or gunnery, or the management of torpedoes.
In the British army a lieutenant is a subaltern officer rank-
ing next below a captain and above a second lieutenant. In
the United States of America subalterns are classified as first
lieutenants and second lieutenants. In France the two grades
are lieutenant and sous-lieutenant, while in Germany the Leutnant
is the lower of the two ranks, the higher being Ober-leutnant
(formerly Premier-leutnant] . A " captain lieutenant " in the
British army was formerly the senior subaltern who virtually
commanded the colonel's company or troop, and ranked as
junior captain, or " puny captain," as he was called by Cromwell's
soldiers.
The lord lieutenant of a county, in England and Wales and in
Ireland, is the principal officer of a county. His creation dates from
the reign of Henry VIII. (or, according to some, Edward VI.), when
the military functions of the sheriff were handed over to him. He
was responsible for the efficiency of the militia of the county, and
afterwards of the yeomanry and volunteers. He was commander
of these forces, whose officers he appointed. By the Regulation of
the Forces Act 1871, the jurisdiction, duties and command exercised
by the lord lieutenant were revested in the crown, but the power of
recommending for first appointments was reserved to the lord
lieutenant. By the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907, the
lord lieutenant of a county was constituted president of the county
association. The office of lord lieutenant is honorary, and is held
during the royal pleasure, but virtually for life. Appointment to the
office is by letters patent under the great seal. Usually, though not
necessarily, the person appointed lord lieutenant is also appointed
custos rotulorum (q.v.). Appointments to the county bench of
magistrates are usually made on the recommendation of the lord
lieutenant (see JUSTICE OF THE PEACE).
A deputy lieutenant (denoted frequently by the addition of the
letters D.L. after a person's name) is a deputy of a lord lieutenant
of a county. His appointment and qualifications previous to 1908
were regulated by the Militia Act 1882. By s. 30 of that act the
lieutenant of each county was required from time to time to appoint
such properly qualified persons as he thought fit, living within the
county, to be deputy lieutenants. At least twenty had to be ap-
pointed for each county, if there were so many qualified ; if less than
that number were qualified, then all the duly qualified persons in
the county were to be appointed. The appointments were subject
to the sovereign's approval, and a return of all appointments to,
and removals from, the office had to be laid before parliament
annually. To qualify for the appointment of deputy lieutenant a
person had to be (a) a peer of the realm, or the heir-apparent of such
a peer, having a place of residence within the county ; or (6) have in
possession an estate in land in the United Kingdom of the yearly
value of not less than £200; or (c) be the heir-apparent of such a
person; or (d) have a clear yearly income from personalty within
the United Kingdom of not less than £200 (s. 33). If the lieutenant
were absent from the United Kingdom, or through illness or other
cause were unable to act, the sovereign might authorize any three
deputy lieutenants to act as lieutenant (s. 31), or might appoint a
deputy lieutenant to act as vice-lieutenant. Otherwise, the duties
of the office were practically nominal, except that a deputy lieu-
tenant might attest militia recruits and administer the oath of
allegiance to them. The reorganization in 1907 of the forces of the
British crown, and the formation of county associations to ad-
minister the territorial army, placed increased duties on deputy
lieutenants, and it was publicly announced that the king's approval
of appointments to that position would only be given in the case
of gentlemen who had served for ten years in some force of the
crown, or had rendered eminent service in connexion with a county
association.
The lord lieutenant of Ireland is the head of the executive in that
country. He represents his sovereign and maintains the formalities
of government, the business of government being entrusted to the
6oo
LIFE
department of his chief secretary, who represents the Irish govern-
ment in the House of Commons, and may have a seat in the cabinet.
The chief secretary occupies an important position, and in every
cabinet either the lord lieutenant or he has a seat.
Lieutenant-governor is the title of the governor of an Indian
province, in direct subordination to the governor-general in council.
The lieutenant-governor comes midway in dignity between the
governors of Madras and Bombay, who are appointed from England,
and the chief commissioners of smaller provinces. In the Dominion
of Canada the governors of provinces also have the title of
lieutenant-governor. The representatives of the sovereign in the
Isle of Man and the Channel Islands are likewise styled lieutenant-
governors.
LIFE, the popular name for the activity peculiar to proto-
plasm (<?.».). This conception has been extended by analogy to
phenomena different in kind, such as the activities of masses
of water or of air, or of machinery, or by another analogy, to the
duration of a composite structure, and by imagination to real
or supposed phenomena such as the manifestations of incorporeal
entities. From the point of view of exact science life is associated
with matter, is displayed only by living bodies, by all living
bodies, and is what distinguishes living bodies from bodies that
are not alive. Herbert Spencer's formula that life is " the
continuous adjustment of internal relations to external relations "
was the result of a profound and subtle analysis, but omits the
fundamental consideration that we know life only as a quality
of and in association with living matter.
In developing our conception we must discard from considera-
tion the complexities that arise from the organization of the
higher living bodies, the differences between one living animal
and another, or between plant and animal. Such differentiations
and integrations of living bodies are the subject-matter of
discussions on evolution ; some will see in the play of circum-
ambient media, natural or supernatural, on the simplest forms
of living matter, sufficient explanation of the development of
such matter into the highest forms of living organisms; others
will regard the potency of such living matter so to develop as a
mysterious and peculiar quality that must be added to the
conception of life. Choice amongst these alternatives need not
complicate investigation of the nature of life. The explanation
that serves for the evolution of living matter, the vehicle of life,
will serve for the evolution of life. What we have to deal with
here is life in its simplest form.
The definition of life must really be a description of the
essential characters of life, and we must set out with an investiga-
tion of the characters of living substance with the special object
of detecting the differences between organisms and unorganized
matter, and the differences between dead and living organized
matter.
Living substance (see PROTOPLASM), as it now exists in all
animals and plants, is particulate, consisting of elementary
organisms living independently, or grouped in communities,
the communities forming the bodies of the higher animals and
plants. These small particles or larger communities are subject
to accidents, internal or external, which destroy them, immedi-
ately or slowly, and thus life ceases; or they may wear out,
or become clogged by the products of their own activity. There
is no reason to regard the mortality of protoplasm and the
consequent limited duration of life as more than the necessary
consequence of particulate character of living matter (see
LONGEVITY).
Protoplasm, the living material, contains only a few elements,
all of which are extremely common and none of which is peculiar
to it. These elements, however, form compounds characteristic
of living substance and for the most part peculiar to it. Proteid,
which consists of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and
sulphur, is present in all protoplasm, is the most complex of all
organic bodies, and, so far, is known only from organic bodies.
A multitude of minor and simpler organic compounds, of which
carbohydrates and fats are the best known, occur in different
protoplasm in varying forms and proportions, and are much less
isolated from the inorganic world. They may be stages in the
elaboration or disintegration of protoplasm, and although they
were at one time believed to occur only as products of living
matter, are gradually being conquered by the synthetic chemist.
Finally, protoplasm contains various inorganic substances,
such as salts and water, the latter giving it its varying degrees
of liquid consistency.
We attain, therefore, our first generalized description of life
as the property or peculiar quality of a substance composed of
none but the more common elements, but of these elements
grouped in various ways to form compounds ranging from
proteid, the most complex of known substances to the simplest
salts. The living substance, moreover, has its mixture of
elaborate and simple compounds associated in a fashion that is
peculiar. The older writers have spoken of protoplasm or the
cell as being in a sense " manufactured articles "; in the more
modern view such a conception is replaced by the statement
that protoplasm and the cell have behind them a long historical
architecture. Both ideas, or both modes of expressing what is
fundamentally the same idea, have this in common, that life
is not a sum of the qualities of the chemical elements con-
tained in protoplasm, but a function first of the peculiar
architecture of the mixture, and then of the high complexity
of the compounds contained in the mixture. The qualities of
water are no sum of the qualities of oxygen and hydrogen,
and still less can we expect to explain the qualities of life
without regard to the immense complexity of the living
substance.
We must now examine in more detail the differences which
exist or have been alleged to exist between living organisms
and inorganic bodies. There is no essential difference in structure.
Confusion has arisen in regard to this point from attempts
to compare organized bodies with crystals, the comparison
having been suggested by the view that as crystals present
the highest type of inorganic structure, it was reasonable
to compare them with organic matter. Differences between
crystals and organized bodies have no bearing on the problem
of life, for organic substance must be compared with a liquid
rather than with a crystal, and differs in structure no more from
inorganic liquids than these do amongst themselves, and less
than they differ from crystals. Living matter is a mixture of
substances chiefly dissolved in water; the comparison with the
crystals has led to a supposed distinction in the mode of growth,
crystals growing by the superficial apposition of new particles
and living substance by intussusception. But inorganic liquids
also grow in the latter mode, as when a soluble substance is
added to them.
The phenomena of movement do not supply any absolute
distinction. Although these are the most obvious characters
of life, they cannot be detected in quiescent seeds, which we
know to be alive, and they are displayed in a fashion very like
life by inorganic foams brought in contact with liquids of
different composition. Irritability, again, although a notable
quality of living substance, is not peculiar to it, for many in-
organic substances respond to external stimulation by definite
changes. Instability, again, which lies at the root of Spencer's
definition " continuous adjustment of internal relations to
external relations " is displayed by living matter in very varying
degrees from the apparent absolute quiescence of frozen seeds
to the activity of the central nervous system, whilst there is a
similar range amongst inorganic substances.
The phenomena of reproduction present no fundamental
distinction. Most living bodies, it is true, are capable of reproduc-
tion, but there are many without this capacity, whilst, on the
other hand, it would be difficult to draw an effective distinction
between that reproduction of simple organisms which consists
of a sub-division of their substance with consequent resumption
of symmetry by the separate pieces, and the breaking up of a
drop of mercury into a number of droplets.
Consideration of the mode of origin reveals a more real if
not an absolute distinction. All living substance so far as is
known at present (see BIOGENESIS) arises only from already
existing living substance. It is to be noticed, however, that green
plants have the power of building up living substance from
inorganic material, and there is a certain analogy between the
LIFE
601
building up of new living material only in association with
pre-existing living material, and the greater readiness with which
certain inorganic reactions take place if there already be present
some trace of the result of the reaction.
The real distinction between living matter and inorganic
matter is chemical. Living substance always contains proteid,
and although we know that proteid contains only common
inorganic elements, we know neither how these are combined
to form proteid, nor any way in which proteid can be brought
into existence except in the presence of previously existing
proteid. The central position of the problem of life lies in the
chemistry of proteid, and until that has been fully explored,
we are unable to say that there is any problem of life behind
the problem of proteid.
Comparison of living and lifeless organic matter presents
the initial difficulty that we cannot draw an exact line between
a living and a dead organism. The higher " warm-blooded "
creatures appear to present the simplest case and in their life-
history there seems to be a point at which we can say " that
which was alive is now dead'" We judge from some major arrest
of activity, as when the heart ceases to beat. Long after this,
however, various tissues remain alive and active, and the event
to which we give the name of death is no more than a super-
ficially visible stage in a series of changes. In less highly
integrated organisms, such as " cold-blooded " vertebrates,
the point of death is less conspicuous, and when we carry our
observations further down the scale of animal life, there ceases
to be any salient phase in the slow transition from life to
death.
The distinction between life and death is made more difficult
by a consideration of cases of so-called " arrested vitality."
If credit can be given to the stories of Indian fakirs, it appears
that human beings can pass voluntarily into a state of suspended
animation that may last for weeks. The state of involuntary
trance, sometimes mistaken for death, is a similar occurrence.
A. Leeuwenhoek, in 1719, made the remarkable discovery,
since abundantly confirmed, that many animalculae, notably
tardigrades and rotifers, may be completely desiccated and
remain in that condition for long periods without losing the power
of awaking to active life when moistened with water. W.
Preyer has more recently investigated the matter and has given
it the name " anabiosis." Later observers have found similar
occurrences in the cases of small nematodes, rotifers and bacteria.
The capacity of plant seeds to remain dry and inactive for very
long periods is still better known. It has been supposed that
in the case of the plant seeds and still more in that of the animals,
the condition of anabiosis was merely one in which the metabolism
was too faint to be perceptible by ordinary methods of observa-
tion, but the elaborate experiments of W. Kochs would seem
to show that a complete arrest of vital activity is com-
patible with viability. The categories, " alive " and " dead,"
are not sufficiently distinct for us to add to our conception
of life by comparing them. A living organism usually
displays active metabolism of proteid, but the metabolism
may slow down, actually cease and yet reawaken; a dead
organism is one in which the metabolism has ceased and
does not reawaken.
Origin of Life. — It is plain that we cannot discuss adequately
the origin of life or the possibility of the artificial construction
of living matter (see ABIOGENESIS and BIOGENESIS) until the
chemistry of protoplasm and specially of proteid is more advanced.
The investigations of O. Biitschli have shown how a model of
protoplasm can be manufactured. Very finely triturated
soluble particles are rubbed into a smooth paste with an oil
of the requisite consistency. A fragment of such a paste brought
into a liquid in which the solid particles are soluble, slowly
expands into a honeycomb like foam, the walls of the minute
vesicles being films of oil, and the contents being the soluble
particles dissolved in droplets of the circumambient liquid.
Such a model, properly constructed, that is to say, with the
vesicles of the foam microscopic in size, is a marvellous imitation
of the appearance of protoplasm, being distinguishable from it
only by a greater symmetry. The nicely balanced conditions
of solution produce a state of unstable equilibrium, with the
result that internal streaming movements and changes of shape
and changes of position in the model simulate closely the corre-
sponding manifestations in real protoplasm. The model has no
power of recuperation; in a comparatively short time equilibrium
is restored and the resemblance with protoplasm disappears.
But it suggests a method by which, when the chemistry of proto-
plasm and proteid is better known, the proper substances which
compose protoplasm may be brought together to form a simple
kind of protoplasm.
It has been suggested from time to time that conditions very
unlike those now existing were necessary for the first appearance
of life, and must be repeated if living matter is to be constructed
artificially. No support for such a view can be derived from
observations of the existing conditions of life. The chemical
elements involved are abundant; the physical conditions of
temperature pressure and so forth at which living matter is
most active, and within the limits of which it is confined, are
familiar and almost constant in the world around us. On the
other hand, it may be that the initial conditions for the synthesis
of proteid are different from those under which proteid and living
matter display their activities. E. Pfliiger has argued that the
analogies between living proteid and the compounds of cyanogen
are so numerous that they suggest cyanogen as the starting-
point of protoplasm. Cyanogen and its compounds, so far as we
know, arise only in a state of incandescent heat. Pfliiger suggests
that such compounds arose when the surface of the earth was
incandescent, and that in the long process of cooling, compounds
of cyanogen and hydrocarbons passed into living protoplasm
by such processes of transformation and polymerization as are
familiar in the chemical groups in question, and by the acquisition
of water and oxygen. His theory is in consonance with the inter-
pretation of the structure of protoplasm as having behind it a
long historical architecture and leads to the obvious conclusion
that if protoplasm be constructed artificially it will be by a
series of stages and that the product will be simpler than any
of the existing animals or plants.
Until greater knowledge of protoplasm and particularly of
proteid has been acquired, there is no scientific room for the
suggestion that there is a mysterious factor differentiating
living matter from other matter and life from other activities.
We have to scale the waUs, open the windows, and explore the
castle before crying out that it is so marvellous that it must
contain ghosts.
As may be supposed, theories of the origin of life apart from
doctrines of special creation or of a primitive and slow spontaneous
generation are mere fantastic speculations. The most striking of
these suggests an extra-terrestrial origin. H. E. Richter appears
to have been the first to propound the idea that life came to this
planet as cosmic dust or in meteorites thrown off from stars and
planets. Towards the end of the igth century Lord Kelvin
(then Sir W. Thomson) and H. von Helmholtz independently
raised and discussed the possibility of such an origin of terrestrial
life, laying stress on the presence of hydrocarbons in meteoric
stones and on the indications of their presence revealed by the
spectra of the tails of comets. W. Preyer has criticized such
views, grouping them under the phrase " theory of cosmozoa,"
and has suggested that living matter preceded inorganic matter.
Preyer's view, however, enlarges the conception of life until it can
be applied to the phenomena of incandescent gases and has no
relation to ideas of life derived from observation of the living
matter we know.
REFERENCES. — O. Biitschli, Investigations on Microscopic Foams
and Protoplasm (Eng. trans, by E. A. Minchin, 1894), with a
useful list of references; H. von Helmholtz, Vortrage und Reden,
ii. (1884); W. Kochs, Allgemeine Naturkunde, x. 673 (1890);
A. Leeuwenhoek, Epistolae ad Societatem regiam Anglicam (1719);
E. Pfltigcr, " Uber einige Gesetze des Eiweissstoffwechsels," in
Archill. Ges. Physiol. liv. 333 (1893); W. Preyer, Die Hypothesen
tiber den Ursprung des Lebens (1880); H. E. Richter, Zur Darwin-
ischen Lehre (1865); Herbert Spencer, Principles of Biology; Max
Verworm, General Physiology (English trans, by F. S. Lee, 1899),
with a very full literature. (P. C. M.)
602
LIFE-BOAT, AND LIFE-SAVING SERVICE
LIFE-BOAT, and LIFE-SAVING SERVICE. The article on
DROWNING AND LITE-SAVING (g.v.) deals generally with the
means of saving life at sea, but under this heading it is convenient
to include the appliances connected specially with the life-boat
service. The ordinary open boat is unsuited for life-saving in
a stormy sea, and numerous contrivances, in regard to which
the lead came from England, have been made for securing the
best type of life-boat.
The first life-boat was conceived and designed by Lionel
Lukin, a London coachbuilder, in 1785. Encouraged by the
prince of Wales (George IV.), Lukin fitted up a Norway yawl
as a life-boat, took out a patent for it, and wrote a pamphlet
descriptive of his " Insubmergible Boat." Buoyancy he obtained
by means of a projecting gunwale of cork and air-chambers inside
— one of these being at the bow, another at the stern. Stability
he secured by a false iron keel. The self-righting and self-empty-
ing principles he seems not to have thought of; at all events he
did not compass them. Despite the patronage of the prince,
Lukin went to his grave a neglected and disappointed man.
But he was not altogether unsuccessful, for, at the request of the
Rev Dr Shairp, Lukin fitted up a coble as an " unimmergible "
life-boat, which was launched at Bamborough, saved several
lives the first year and afterwards saved many lives and much
property.
Public apathy in regard to shipwreck was temporally swept
away by the wreck of the " Adventure " of Newcastle in 1789.
This vessel was stranded only 300 yds. from the shore, and her
crew dropped, one by one, into the raging breakers in presence
of thousands of spectators, none of whom dared to put off in
an ordinary boat to the rescue. An excited meeting among the
people of South Shields followed; a committee was formed,
and premiums were offered for the best models of a life-boat.
This called forth many plans, of which those of William Would-
have, a painter, and Henry Greathead, a boatbuilder, of South
Shields, were selected. The committee awarded the prize to
the latter, and, adopting the good points of both models, gave
the order for the construction of their boat to Greathead. This
boat was rendered buoyant by nearly 7 cwts. of cork, and had
very raking stem and stern-posts, with great curvature of keel.
It did good service, and Greathead was well rewarded; neverthe-
less no other life-boat was launched till 1798, when the duke of
Northumberland ordered Greathead to build him a life-boat which
he endowed. This boat also did good service, and its owner
ordered another in 1800 for Oporto. In the same year Mr Cath-
cart Dempster ordered one for St Andrews, where, two years
later, it saved twelve lives. Thus the value of life-boats began
to be recognized, and before the end of 1803 Greathead had built
thirty-one boats — eighteen for England, five for Scotland and
eight for foreign lands. Nevertheless, public interest in life-boats
was not thoroughly aroused till 1823.
In that year Sir William Hillary, Bart., stood forth to champion
the life-boat cause. Sir William dwelt in the Isle of Man, and had
assisted with his own hand in the saving of three hundred and
five lives. In conjunction with two members of parliament —
Mr Thomas Wilson and Mr George Hibbert — Hillary founded
the " Royal National Institution for the Preservation of Life
from Shipwreck." This, perhaps the grandest of England's
charitable societies, and now named the " Royal National
Life-boat Institution," was founded on the 4th of March 1824.
The king patronized it; the archbishop of Canterbury presided
at its birth; the most eloquent men in the land — among them
Wilberforce — pleaded the cause; nevertheless, the institution
began its career with a sum of only £9826. In the first year
twelve new life-boats were built and placed at different stations,
besides which thirty-nine life-boats had been stationed on the
British shores by benevolent individuals and by independent
associations over which the institution exercised no control
though it often assisted them. In its early years the institution
placed the mortar apparatus of Captain Manby at many stations,
and provided for the wants of sailors and others saved from
shipwreck, — a duty subsequently discharged by the " Ship-
wrecked Fishermen and Mariners' Royal Benevolent Society."
At the date of the institution's second report it had contributed
to the saving of three hundred and forty-two lives, either by
its own life-saving apparatus or by other means for which it
had granted rewards. With fluctuating success, both as regards
means and results, the institution continued its good work —
saving many lives, and occasionally losing a few brave men in
its tremendous battles with the sea. Since the adoption of the
self-righting boats, loss of life in the service has been com-
paratively small and infrequent.
Towards the middle of the igth century the life-boat cause
appeared to lose interest with the British public, though the life-
saving work was prosecuted with unremitting zeal, but the
increasing loss of life by shipwreck, and a few unusually severe
disasters to life-boats, brought about the reorganization of the
society in 1850. The Prince Consort became vice-patron of
the institution in conjunction with the king of the Belgians,
and Queen Victoria, who had been its patron since her accession,
became an annual contributor to its funds. In 1851 the duke of
Northumberland became president, and from that time forward
a tide of prosperity set in, unprecedented in the history of
benevolent institutions, both in regard to the great work accom-
plished and the pecuniary aid received. In 1850 its committee
undertook the immediate superintendence of all the life-boat
work on the coasts, with the aid of local committees. Periodical
inspections, quarterly exercise of crews, fixed rates of payments
to coxswains and men, and quarterly reports were instituted,
at the time when the self-righting self-emptying boat came into
being. This boat was the result of a hundred-guinea prize, offered
by the president, for the best model of a life-boat, with another
hundred to defray the cost of a boat built on the model
chosen. In reply to the offer no fewer than two hundred and
eighty models were sent in, not only from all parts of the
United Kingdom, but from France, Germany, Holland and the
United States of America. The prize was gained by Mr James
Beeching of Great Yarmouth, whose model, slightly modified
by Mr James Peake, one of the committee of inspection,
was still further improved as time and experience suggested
(see below).
The necessity of maintaining a thoroughly efficient life-boat
service is now generally recognized by the people not only
ot Great Britain, but also of those other countries on the European
Continent and America which have a sea-board, and of the
British colonies, and numerous life-boat services have been
founded more or less on the lines of the Royal National Life-
boat Institution. The British Institution was again reorganized
in 1883; it has since greatly developed both in its life-saving
efficiency and financially, and has been spoken of in the highest
terms as regards its management by successive governments —
a Select Committee of the House of Commons in 1897 reporting
to the House that the thanks of the whole community were
due to the Institution for its energy and good management.
On the death of Queen Victoria in January 1901 she was succeeded
as patron of the Institution by Edward VII., who as prince
of Wales had been its president for several years. At the close
of 1908 the Institution's fleet consisted of 280 life-boats, and
the total number of lives for the saving of which the committee
of management had granted rewards since the establishment
of the Institution in 1824 was 47,983. At this time there were
only seventeen life-boats on the coast of the United Kingdom
which did not belong to the Institution. In 1882 the total
amount of money received by the Institution from all sources
was £57,797, whereas in 1901 the total amount received had
increased to £107,293. In 1908 the receipts were £115,303,
the expenditure £90,335.
In 1882 the Institution undertook, with the view of diminishing
the loss of life among the coast fishermen, to provide the masters
and owners of fishing-vessels with trustworthy aneroid barometers,
at about a third of the retail price, and in 1883 the privilege was
extended to the masters and owners of coasters under 100 tons
burden. At the end of 1901 as many as 4417 of these valuable
instruments had been supplied. In 1889 the committee of manage-
ment secured the passing of the Removal of Wrecks Act 1877
Amendment Act, which provides for the removal of wrecks in non-
navigable waters which might prove dangerous to life-boat crews
LIFE-BOAT, AND LIFE-SAVING SERVICE
603
and others. Under its provisions numerous highly dangerous wrecks
have been removed.
In 1893 the chairman of the Institution moved a resolution in
the House of Commons that, in order to decrease the serious loss of
life from shipwreck on the coast, the British Government should
provide either telephonic or telegraphic communication between all
the coast-guard stations and signal stations on the coast of the
United Kingdom ; and that where there are no coast-guard stations
the post offices nearest to the life-boat stations should be electrically
connected, the object being to give the earliest possible information
to the life-boat authorities at all times, by day and night, when the
life-boats are required for service; and further, that a Royal Com-
mission should be appointed to consider the desirability of electrically
connecting the rock lighthouses, light-ships, &c., with the shore.
The resolution was agreed to without a division, and its intention
has been practically carried out, the results obtained having proved
most valuable in the saving of life.
On the 1st of January 1898 a pension and gratuity scheme was
introduced by the committee of management, under which life-boat
coxswains, bowmen and signalmen of long and meritorious service,
retiring on account of old age, accident, ill-health or abolition of
office, receive special allowances as a reward for their good services.
While these payments act as an incentive to the men to discharge
their duties satisfactorily, they at the same time assist the committee
of management in their effort to obtain the best men for the work.
For many years the Institution has given compensation to any who
may have received injury while employed in the service, besides
granting liberal help to the widows and dependent relatives of any
in the service who lose their own lives when endeavouring to rescue
others.
A very marked advance in improvement in design and suit-
ability for service has been made in the life-boat since the re-
organization of the Institution in 1883, but principally since
FIG. I. — The 33-ft., Double-banked, Ten-oared, Self-righting and
Self -empty ing Life-boat (1881) of the Institution on its Transporting
Carriage, ready for launching.
1887, when, as the result of an accident in December 1886
to two self-righting life-boats in Lancashire, twenty-seven out
of twenty-nine of the men who manned them were drowned.
At this time a permanent technical sub-committee was ap-
pointed by the Institution, whose object was, with the assistance
of an eminent consulting naval architect — a new post created —
and the Institution's official experts, to give its careful attention
to the designing of improvements in the life-boat and its equip-
ment, and to the scientific consideration of any inventions
or proposals submitted by the public, with a view to adopting
them if of practical utility. Whereas in 1881 the self-righting
life-boat of that time was looked upon as the Institution's
special life-boat, and there were very few life-boats in the
Institution's fleet not of that type, at the close of 1901 the
life-boats of the Institution included 60 non-self-righting boats
of various types, known by the following designations: Steam
life-boats 4, Cromer 3, Lamb and White i, Liverpool 14, Norfolk
and Suffolk 19, tubular i, Watson 18. In 1901 a steam-tug
was placed at Padstow for use solely in conjunction with the
life-boats on the north coast of Cornwall. The self-righting
life-boat of 1901 was a very different boat from that of 1881.
The Institution's present policy is to allow the men who man
the life-boats, after having seen and tried by deputation the
various types, to select that in which they have the most con-
fidence.
The present life-boat of the self-righting type (fig. 2) differs
materially from its predecessor, the stability being increased
and the righting power greatly improved. The test of efficiency
in this last quality was formerly considered sufficient if the
boat would quickly right herself in smooth water without her
crew and gear, but every self-righting life-boat now built by
the Institution will right with her full crew and gear on board,
with her sails set and the anchor down. Most of the larger
self-righting boats are furnished with " centre-boards " or
DECK. PLAN .
BODY PLAN.
MIDSHIP SECTION
FIG. 2. — Plans, Profile and Section of Modern English Self-
righting Life-boat.
A, Deck. E,
B, Relieving valves for automatic dis- F,
charge of water off deck.
C, Side air-cases above deck.
D, End air compartments, usually G,
called " end-boxes," an important H,
factor in self-righting.
Wale, or fender.
Iron keel ballast, import-
ant in general stability
and self-righting.
Water-ballast tanks.
Drop- keel.
" drop-keels " of varying size and weight, which can be used
at pleasure, and materially add to their weather qualities.
The drop-keel was for the first time placed in a life-boat in
1885.
Steam was first introduced into a life-boat in 1890, when
the Institution, after very full inquiry and consideration,
PROFILE.
DECK PIAN.
BODY PLAN
MIDSHIP SECTION
FIG. 3. — Plans, Profile and Section of English Steam Life-boat.
A, Cockpit.
a, Deck.
6, Propeller hatch.
c, Relief valves.
B, Engine-room.
C, Boiler-room.
D, Water-tight compartments.
E, Coal-bunkers.
F, Capstan.
G, Hatches to engine-and boiler-
rooms.
H, Cable reel.
I, Anchor davit.
stationed on the coast a steel life-boat, 50 ft. long and 12 ft.
beam, and a depth of 3 ft. 6 in., propelled by a turbine wheel
driven by engines developing 170 horse-power. It had been
604
LIFE-BOAT, AND LIFE-SAVING SERVICE
previously held by all competent judges that a mechanically-
propelled life-boat, suitable for service in heavy weather, was
a problem surrounded by so many and great difficulties that
even the most sanguine experts dared not hope for an early
solution of it. This type of boat (fig. 3) has proved very useful.
It is, however, fully recognized that boats of this description
can necessarily be used at only a very limited number of stations,
and where there is a harbour which never dries out. The highest
speed attained by the first hydraulic steam life-boat was rather
more than 9 knots, and that secured in the latest 95 knots.
In 1909 the fleet of the Institution included 4 steam life-boats
and 8 motor life-boats. The experiments with motor life-boats
in previous years had proved successful.
The other types of pulling and sailing life-boats are all non-
self-righting, and are specially suitable for the requirements
of the different parts of the coast on which they are placed.
Their various qualities will be understood by a glance at the
illustrations (figs. 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8).
The Institution continues to build life-boats of different
sizes according to the requirements of the various points of
the coast at which they are placed, but of late years the tendency
has been generally to increase the dimensions of the boats.
This change of policy is mainly due to the fact that the small
DICK PLAN.
BODY PIAH. MIDSHIP SCCTIOM.
FIG. 4. — Plans, Profile and Section of Cromer Type of Life-boat.
A, Deck. C, Side air-cases above deck.
B, Relieving valves for auto- E, Wale, or fender.
matic discharge of water off G, Water-ballast tanks,
deck.
coasters and fishing-boats have in great measure disappeared,
their places being taken by steamers and steam trawlers. The
cost of the building and equipping of pulling and sailing life-
boats has materially increased, more especially since 1898,
the increase being mainly due to improvements and the seriously
augmented charges for materials and labour. In 1881 the
average cost of a fully-equipped life-boat and carriage was
£650, whereas at the end of 1901 it amounted to £1000, the
average annual cost of maintaining a station having risen
to about £125.
The trans parting-carriage continues to be a most important
part of the equipment of life-boats, generally of the self-righting
type, and is indispensable where it is necessary to launch the
boats at any point not in the immediate vicinity of the boat-
house. It is not, however, usual to supply carriages to boats
of larger dimensions than 37 ft. in length by 9 ft. beam, those
in excess as regards length and beam being either launched
by means of special slipways or kept afloat. The transporting-
carriage of to-day has been rendered particularly useful at
places where the beach is soft, sandy or shingly, by the intro-
duction in 1888 of Tipping's sand-plates. They are composed
of an endless plateway or jointed wheel tyre fitted to the main
wheels of the carriage, thereby enabling the boat to be trans-
ferred with rapidity and with greatly decreased labour over
beach and soft sand. Further efficiency in launching has also
been attained at many stations by the introduction in 1890
of pushing-poles, attached to the transporting-carriages, and
•ODY PLAN.
MIDSHIP SECTION.
FIG. 5. — Plans, Profile and Section of Liverpool Type of Life-boat.
A, B, C, E, G, as in fig. 3; D, end air-compartments; F, iron keel;
H, drop-keels.
of horse launching-poles, first used in 1892. Fig. 9 gives a
view of the modern transporting-carriage fitted with Tipping's
sand- or wheel-plates.
The life-belt has since 1898 been considerably improved,
being now less cumbersome than formerly, and more comfortable.
The feature of the principal improvement is the reduction in
length of the corks under the arms of the wearer and the rounding-
off of the upper portions, the result being that considerably
more freedom is provided for the arms. The maximum extra
buoyancy has thereby been reduced from 25 Ib to 22 Ib, which
is more than sufficient to support a man heavily clothed with
his head and shoulders above the water, or to enable him to
MIDSHIP SECTION.
FIG. 6.— Plans, Profile and Section of Norfolk and Suffolk Type
of Life-boat. A, B, E, F, G, H, as in fig. 4; A, side deck; I, cable-
well.
support another person besides himself. Numerous life-belts
of very varied descriptions, and made of all sorts of materials,
have been patented, but it is generally agreed that for life-boat
work the cork life-belt of the Institution has not yet been
equalled.
Life-saving rafts, seats for ships' decks, dresses, buoys, belts. &c.t
LIFE-BOAT, AND LIFE-SAVING SERVICE
605
have been produced in all shapes and sizes, but apparently
nothing indispensable has as yet been brought out. Those
interested in life-saving appliances were hopeful that the Paris
-,
i /^ — ' V
K *
- ~^t
PROFILE.
V
MIDSHIP SECTION.
FIG. 7. — Plan, Profile and Section of Tubular Type of Life-boat.
A, deck; E, wale, or fender; H, drop-keel.
Exhibition of 1900 would have produced some life-saving
invention which might prove a benefit to the civilized world,
but so lacking in real merit were the life-saving exhibits that
the jury of experts were unable to award to any of the 435
competitors the Andrew Pollok prize of £4000 for the best
method or device for saving life from shipwreck.
The rocket apparatus, which in the United Kingdom is under
the management of the coast-guard, renders excellent service
in life-saving. This, next to the life-boat, is the most important
and successful means by which shipwrecked persons are rescued
BODY PLAN MIDSHIP SECTION.
FIG. 8. — Plans, Profile and Section of Watson Type of Life-boat.
Lettering as in fig. 5, but C, side air-cases above deck and thwarts.
on the British shores. Many vessels are cast every year on the
rocky parts of the coasts, under cliffs, where no life-boat could
be of service. In such places the rocket alone is available.
The rocket apparatus consists of five principal parts, viz. the
rocket, the rocket-line, the whip, the hawser and the sling1 life-buoy.
The mode of working it is as follows. A rocket, having a light line
attached to it, is fired over the wreck. By means of this line the
wrecked crew haul out the whip, which is a double or endless line,
rove through a block with a tail attached to it. The tail-block,
having been detached from the rocket-line, is fastened to a mast, or
other portion of the wreck, high above the water. By means of the
whip the rescuers haul off the hawser, to which is hung the travel-
ling or sling life-buoy. When one end of the .hawser has been made
fast to the mast, about 18 in. above the whip, and its other end
to tackle fixed to an anchor on shore, the life-buoy is run out by the
rescuers, and the shipwrecked persons, getting into it one at a time,
are hauled ashore. Sometimes, in cases of urgency, the life-buoy is
worked by means of the whip alone, without the hawser. Captain
G. W. Manby, F.R.S., in 1807 invented, or at least introduced, the
mortar apparatus, on which the system of the rocket apparatus,
which superseded it in England, is founded. Previously, however,
in 1791, the idea of throwing a rope from a wreck to the shore by
means of a shell from a mortar had occurred to Serjeant Bell of the
Royal Artillery, and about the same time, to a Frenchman named
La Fere, both of whom made successful experiments with their
apparatus. In the same year (1807) a rocket was proposed by Mr
Trengrouse of Helston in Cornwall, also a hand and lead line as
means of communicating with vessels in distress. The heaving-
cane_ was a fruit of the latter suggestion. In 1814 forty-five mortar
stations were established, and Manby received £2000, in addition
to previous grants, in acknowledgment of the good service rendered
by his invention. Mr John Dennett of Newport, Isle of Wight,
introduced the rocket, which was afterwards extensively used. In
1826 four places in the Isle of Wight were supplied with Dennett's
rockets, but it was not till after government had taken the apparatus
xpg
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nffin
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FORE BCD.
FIG. 9. — Life-boat Transporting-Carriage with Tipping's
Wheel-Plates.
under its own control, in 1855, that the rocket invented by Colonel
Boxer was adopted. Its peculiar characteristic lies in the com-
bination of two rockets in one case, one being a continuation of the
other, so that, after the first compartment has carried the machine
to its full elevation, the second gives it an additional impetus
whereby a great increase of range is obtained. (R. M.B.;C. Dl.)
UNITED STATES. — In the extent of coast line covered, magni-
tude of operations and the extraordinary success which has
crowned its efforts, the life-saving service of the United States
is not surpassed by any other institution of its kind in the
world. Notwithstanding the exposed and dangerous nature
of the coasts flanking and stretching between the approaches to
the principal seaports, and the immense amount of shipping
concentrating upon them, the loss of life among a total of 121,459
persons imperilled by marine casualty within the scope of the
operations of the service from its organization in 1871 to the 3oth
of June 1907, was less than i %, and even this small proportion
is made up largely of persons washed overboard immediately
upon the striking of vessels and before any assistance could
reach them, or lost in attempts to land in their own boats, and
people thrown into the sea by the capsizing of small craft. In
the scheme of the service, next in importance to the saving of
life is the saving of property from marine disaster, for which no
salvage or reward is allowed. During the period named vessels
and cargoes to the value of nearly two hundred million dollars
were saved, while only about a quarter as much was lost.
6o6
LIFE-BOAT, AND LIFE-SAVING SERVICE
The first government life-saving stations were plain boat-houses
erected on the coast of New Jersey in 1848, each equipped with
a fisherman's surf-boat and a mortar and life-car with accessories.
Prior to this time, as early as 1789, a benevolent organization
known as the Massachusetts Humane Society had erected rude
huts along the coast of that state, followed by a station at
Cohasset in 1807 equipped with a boat for use by volunteer crews.
Others were subsequently added. Between 1849 and 1870 this
society secured appropriations from Congress aggregating
$40,000. It still maintains sixty-nine stations on the Massa-
chusetts coast. The government service was extended in 1849
to the coast of Long Island, and in 1850 one station was placed
on the Rhode Island coast. In 1854 the appointment of keepers
for the New Jersey and Long Island stations, and a superintendent
for each of these coasts, was authorized by law. Volunteer
crews were depended upon until 1870, when Congress authorized
crews at each alternate station for the three winter months.
The present system was inaugurated in 1871 by Sumner I.
Kimball, who in that year was appointed chief of the Revenue
Cutter Service, which had charge of the few existing stations.
He recommended an appropriation of $200,000 and authority
for the employment of crews for all stations foi such periods
as were deemed necessary, which were granted. The existing
stations were thoroughly overhauled and put in condition for
the housing of crews; necessary boats and equipment were
furnished; incapable keepers, who had been appointed largely
for political reasons, were supplanted by experienced men;
additional stations were established; all were manned by
capable surfmen; the merit system for appointments and
promotions was inaugurated; a beach patrol system was
introduced, together with a system of signals; and regulations
for the government of the service were promulgated. The
result of the transformation was immediate and striking. At
the end of the year it was found that not a life had been lost
within the domain of the service; and at the end of the second
year the record was .almost identical, but one life having been
lost, although the service had been extended to embrace the
dangerous coast of Cape Cod. Legislation was subsequently
secured, totally eliminating politics in the choice of officers and
men, and making other provisions necessary for the completion
of the system. The service continued to grow in extent and
importance until, in 1878, it was separated from the Revenue
Cutter Service and organized into a separate bureau of the
Treasury, its administration being placed in the hands of a
general superintendent appointed by the president and con-
firmed by the senate, his term of office being limited only by the
will of the president. Mr Kimball was appointed to the position,
which he still held in 1909.
The service embraces thirteen districts, with 280 stations located
at selected points upon the sea and lake coasts. Nine districts on
the Atlantic and Gulf coasts contain 201 stations, including nine
houses of refuge on the Florida coast, each in charge of a keeper
only, without crews; three districts on the Great Lakes contain 61
stations, including one at the falls of the Ohio river, Louisville,
Kentucky; and one district on the Pacific coast contains 18 stations,
including one at Nome, Alaska.
The general administration of the service is conducted by a
general superintendent; an inspector of life-saving stations and
two superintendents of construction of life-saving stations detailed
from the Revenue Cutter Service; a district superintendent for
each district; and assistant inspectors of stations, also detailed
from the Revenue Cutter Service " to perform such duties in con-
nexion with the conduct of the service as the general superintendent
may require." There is also an advisory board on life-saving
appliances consisting of experts, to consider devices and inventions
submitted by the general superintendent.
Station crews are composed of a keeper and from six to eight
surfmen, with an additional man during the winter months at
most of the stations on the Atlantic coast. The surfmen are re-
enlisted from year to year during good behaviour, subject to a
thorough physical examination. The keepers are also subject to
annual physical examinations after attaining the age of fifty-five.
Stations on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts are manned from August
1st to May 3ist. On the lakes the active season covers the period
of navigation, from about April 1st to early in December. The
falls station at Louisville, and all stations on the Pacific coast, are
in commission continuously. One station, located in Dorchester
Bay, an expanse of water within Boston harbour, where numerous
yachts rendezvous and many accidents occur, which, with the one
at Louisville are believed to be the only floating life-saving stations
in the world, is manned from May 1st to November I5th. Its
equipment includes a steam tug and two gasoline launches, the
latter being harboured in a slip cut into the after-part of the station
and extending from the stern to nearly amidships. The Louisville
stations guard the falls of the Ohio river, where life is much en-
dangered from accidents to vessels passing over the falls and small
craft which are liable to be drawn into the chutes while attempting
to cross the river. Its equipment includes two river skiffs which
can be instantly launched directly from the ways at one end of the
station. These skiffs are small boats modelled much like surf -boats,
designed to be rowed by one or two men. Other equipments are
provided for the salvage of property. The stations, located as
near as practicable to a launching place, contain as a rule convenient
quarters for the residence of the keeper and crew and a boat and
apparatus room. In some instances the dwelling- and boat-house
are built separately. Each station has a look-out tower for the day
watch.
The principal apparatus consists of surf- and life-boats, Lyle
gun and breeches-buoy apparatus and life-car. The Hunt gun and
Cunningham line-carrying rocket are available at selected stations
on account of their greater range, but their use is rarely necessary.
The crews are drilled daily in some portion of rescue work, as practice
in manoeuvring, upsetting and righting boats, with the breeches-
buoy, in the resuscitation of the apparently drowned and in sig-
nalling. The district officers upon their quarterly visits examine
the crews orally and by drill, recording the proficiency of each
member, including the keeper, which record accompanies their
report to the general superintendent. For watch and patrol the
day of twenty-four hours is divided into periods of four or five hours
each. Day watches are stood by one man in the look-out tower or
at some other point of vantage, while two men are assigned to
each night watch between sunset and sunrise. One of the men
remains on watch at the station, dividing his time between the
beach look-out and visits to the telephone at specified intervals to
receive messages, the service telephone system being extended from
station to station nearly throughout the service, with watch tele-
phones at half-way points. The other man patrols the beach to
the end of his beat and returns, when he takes the look-out and his
watchmate patrols in the opposite direction. A like patrol and
watch is maintained in thick or stormy weather in the daytime.
Between adjacent stations a record of the patrol is made by the
exchange of brass checks; elsewhere the patrolman carries a watch-
man's clock, on the dial of which he records the time of his arrival
at the keypost which marks the end of his beat. On discovering a
vessel standing into danger the patrolman burns a Coston signal,
which emits a brilliant red flare, to warn the vessel of her danger.
The number of vessels thus warned averages about two hundred in
each year, whereby great losses are averted, the extent of which
can never be known. When a stranded vessel is discovered, the
patrolman's Coston signal apprises the crew that they -are seen
and assistance is at hand. He then notifies his station, by telephone
if possible. When such notice is received at the station, the keeper
determines the means with which to attempt a rescue, whether by
boat or beach-apparatus. If the beach-apparatus is chosen, the
apparatus cart is hauled to a point directly opposite the wreck by
horses, kept at most of the stations during the inclement months,
or by the members of the crew. The gear is unloaded, and while
being set up — the members of the crew performing their several
allotted parts simultaneously — the keeper fires a line over the
wreck with the Lyle gun, a small bronze cannon weighing, with its
I81b elongated iron projectile to which the line is attached, slightly
more than 200 ft, and having an extreme range of about 700 yds.,
though seldom available at wrecks for more than 400 yds. This
Ean was the invention of Lieutenant (afterwards Colonel) David A.
yle, U.S. Army. Shotline? are of three sizes, j^, ,s and ^ of an
inch diameter, designated respectively Nos. 4, 7 and 9. The two
larger are ordinarily used, the No. 4 for extreme range. A line
having been fired within reach of the persons on the wreck, an endless
rope rove through a tail-block is sent out by it with instructions,
printed in English and French on a tally-board, to make the tail
fast td a mast or other elevated portion of the wreck. This done, a
3-in. hawser is bent on to the whip and hauled off to the wreck,
to be made fast a little above the tail-block, after which the shore
end is hauled taut over a crotch by means of tackle attached to a
sand anchor. From this hawser the breeches-buoy or life-car is
suspended and drawn between the ship and shore of the endless
whip-line. The life-car can also be drawn like a boat between ship
and shore without the use of a hawser. The breeches-buoy is a
cork life-buoy to which is attached a pair of short canvas breeches,
the whole suspended from a traveller block by suitable lanyards.
It usually carries one person at a time, although two have frequently
been brought ashore together. The life-car, first introduced in
1848, is a boat of corrugated iron with a convex iron cover, having
a hatch in the top for the admission of passengers, which can be
fastened either from within or without, and a few perforations to
admit air, with raised edges to exclude water. At wreck operations
during the night the shore is illuminated by powerful acetylene
(calcium carbide) lights. If any of the rescued persons are frozen,
LIFE-BOAT, AND LIFE-SAVING SERVICE
607
as often happens, or are injured or sick, first aid and simple
remedies are furnished them. Dry clothing, supplied by the Women's
National Relief Association, is also furnished to survivors, which the
destitute are allowed to keep.
however, have now been transformed into power boats without
the sacrifice of any of their essential qualities. The installation of
power is effected by introducing a 25 H.P. four-cycle gasoline motor,
weighing with its fittings, tanks, &c., about 800 Ib. The engine is
Scale of Feel
AC: Air Chamber (air tight copper tanks, moulded
to fit the spaces they occupy, 82 la number)
FIG. 10. — American Power Life-boat.
Several types of light open surf-boats are used, adapted to the
special requirements of the different localities and occasions. They
are built of cedar, from 23 to 27 ft. long, and are provided with
end air chambers and longitudinal air cases on each side under the
thwarts.
installed in the after air chamber, with the starting crank, reversing
clutches, &c., recessed into the bulkhead to protect them from
accidents. These boats attain a speed of from 7 to 9 m. an hour,
and have proved extremely efficient. A new power life-boat (fig. 10)
on somewhat improved lines, 36 ft. in length, and equipped with
FIG. ii.— Beebe-McLellan Self-bailing Boat.
Self-righting and self-bailing life-boats, patterned after those
used in England and other countries, have heretofore been used at
most of the Lake stations and at points on the ocean coast where
they can be readily launched from ways. Most of these boats,
a 35-4° H.P. gasoline engine, promises to prove still more efficient.
A number of surf-boats have also been equipped with gasoline
engines of from 5 to 7 H.P., for light and quick work, with very
satisfactory results.
6o8
LIFFORD— LIGHT
A distinctively American life-boat extensively used is the Beebe-
McLellan self -bailing boat (fig. n), which for all round life-saving
work is held in the highest esteem. It possesses all the qualities of
the self-righting and self-bailing life-boats in use in all life-saving
institutions, except that of self-righting; and the sacrifice of this
quality is largely counteracted by the ease with which it can be
righted by its crew when capsized. For accomplishing this the
crews are thoroughly drilled. In drill a trained crew can upset and
numerous branches with local committees. The Imperial govern-
ment contributes an annual subsidy of 20,000 yen (£2000). The
members of the Institution consist of three classes — honorary,
ordinary and sub-ordinary, the amount contributed by the member
determining the class in which he is placed. The chairman and
council are not, as in Great Britain, appointed by the subscribers,
but by the president, who must always be a member of the imperial
family. The Institution bestows three medals: (a) the meda) of
Scale of Feet
_4 5
FIG. 12. — Details of boat shown in Fig. 10.
right the boat and resume their places at the oars in twenty seconds.
The boat is built of cedar, weighs about 1200 Ib, and can be used
at all stations and launched by the crew directly off the beach
from the boat-wagon especially made for it. The self-bailing
quality is secured- by a water-tight deck at a level a little above the
load water line with relieving tubes fitted with valves through
which any water shipped runs back into the sea by gravity. Air
cases along the sides under the thwarts, inclining towards the
middle of the boat, minimize the quantity of water taken in, and the
water-ballast tank in the bottom increases the stability by the
weight of the water which can be admitted by opening the valve.
When transported along the land it is empty. The Beebe-McLellan
boat is 25 ft. long, 7 ft. beam, and will carry 12 to 15 persons in
addition to its crew. Some of these boats, intended for use in
localities where the temperature of the water will not permit of
frequent upsetting and righting drills, are built with end air cases
which render them self-righting.
In addition to the principal appliances described, a number of
minor importance are included in the equipment of every life-saving
station, such as launching carriages for life-boats, roller boat-skids,
heaving sticks and all necessary tools. Members of all life-saving
crews are required on all occasions of boat practice or duty at
wrecks to wear life-belts of the prescribed pattern. (A. T. T.)
Life-boat Service in other Countries. — Good work is done by the
life-boat service in other countries, most of these institutions
having been formed on the lines of the Royal National Life-boat
Institution of Great Britain. The services are operating in the
following countries: —
Belgium. — Established in 1838. Supported entirely by govern-
ment.
Denmark. — Established in 1848. Government service.
Sweden. — Established in 1856. Government service.
France. — Established in 1865. Voluntary association, but assisted
by the government.
Germany.— Established in 1885. Supported entirely by voluntary
contributions.
Turkey (Black Sea). — Established in 1868. Supported by dues.
Russia. — Established in 1872. Voluntary association, but re-
ceiving an annual grant from the government.
Italy. — Established in 1879. Voluntary association.
Spain. — Established in 1880. Voluntary association, but receiving
annually a grant of £1440 from government.
Canada. — Established in 1880. Government service.
Holland. — Established in 1884. Voluntary association, but
assisted by a government subsidy.
Norway. — Established in 1891. Voluntary association, but re-
ceiving a small annual grant from government.
Portugal. — Established in 1898. Voluntary society.
India (East Coast). — Voluntary association. •
Australia (South). — Voluntary association.
New Zealand. — Voluntary association.
Japan. — The National Life-boat Institution of Japan was founded
.in 1889. It is a voluntary society, assisted by government. Its
attairs are managed by a president and a vice-president, supported
by a very influential council. The head office is at T6ky& ; there are
merit, to be awarded to persons rendering distinguished service to
the Institution; (b) the medal of membership, to be held by honorary
and ordinary members or subscribers ; and (c) the medal of praise,
which is bestowed on those distinguishing themselves by special
service in the work of rescue.
LIFFORD, the county town of Co. Donegal, Ireland, on the
left bank of the Foyle. Pop. (1901) 446. The county gaol,
court house and infirmary are here, but the town is practically
a suburb of Strabane, across the river, in Co. Londonderry.
Lifford, formerly called Ballyduff, was a chief stronghold of the
O'Donnells of Tyrconnell. It was incorporated as a borough
(under the name of Liffer) in the reign of James I. It returned
two members to the Irish parliament until the union in 1800.
LIGAMENT (Lat. ligamentum, from ligare, to bind), anything
which binds or connects two or more parts; in anatomy a piece
of tissue connecting different parts of an organism (see CON-
NECTIVE TISSUES and JOINTS).
LIGAO, a town near the centre of the province of Albay,
Luzon, Philippine Islands, close to the left bank of a tributary
of the Bicol river, and on the main road through the valley.
Pop. (1903) 17,687. East of the town rises Mayon, an active
volcano, and the rich volcanic soil in this region produces hemp,
rice and coco-nuts. Agriculture is the sole occupation of the
inhabitants. Their language is Bicol.
LIGHT. Introduction.— § i. "Light" may be defined sub-
jectively as the sense-impression formed by the eye. This is
the most familiar connotation of the term, and suffices for the
discussion of optical subjects which do not require an objective
definition, and, in particular, for the treatment of physiological
optics and vision. The objective definition, or the " nature of
light," is the ultima Thule of optical research. " Emission
theories," based on the supposition that light was a stream of
corpuscles, were at first accepted. These gave place during the
opening decades of the igth century to the " undulatory or wave
theory," which may be regarded as culminating in the " elastic
solid theory " — so named from the lines along which the mathe-
matical investigation proceeded — and according to which light
is a transverse vibratory motion propagated longitudinally
though the aether. The mathematical researches of James
Clerk Maxwell have led to the rejection of this theory, and it is
now held that light is identical with electromagnetic disturbances,
such as are generated by oscillating electric currents or moving
magnets. Beyond this point we cannot go at present. To quote
Arthur Schuster (Theory of Optics, 1904), "So long as the char-
acter of the displacements which constitute the waves remains
undefined we cannot pretend to have established a theory of
LIGHT
609
light. " It will thus be seen that optical and electrical phenomena
are co-ordinated as a phase of the physics of the " aether," and
that the investigation of these sciences culminates in the deriva-
tion of the properties of this conceptual medium, the existence
of which was called into being as an instrument of research.1
The methods of the elastic-solid theory can still be used with
advantage in treating many optical phenomena, more especially
so long as we remain ignorant of fundamental matters concerning
the origin of electric and magnetic strains and stresses; in
addition, the treatment is more intelligible, the researches on
the electromagnetic theory leading in many cases to the deriva-
tion of differential equations which express quantitative relations
between diverse phenomena, although no precise meaning can
be attached to the symbols employed. The school following
Clerk Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz has certainly laid the founda-
tions of a complete theory of light and electricity, but the methods
must be adopted with caution, lest one be constrained to say
with Ludwig Boltzmann as in the introduction to his Vorlesungen
ilber Maxwell's Theorie der Eleklricitat und des Lichtes: —
" So soli ich denn mit saurem Schweiss
Euch lehren, was ich selbst nicht weiss."
GOETHE, Faust.
The essential distinctions between optical and electromagnetic
phenomena may be traced to differences in the lengths of light-
waves and of electromagnetic waves. The aether can probably
transmit waves of any wave-length, the velocity of longitudinal
propagation being about 3-ic10 cms. per second. The shortest
waves, discovered by Schumann and accurately measured by
Lyman, have a wave-length of o-oooi mm.; the ultra-violet,
recognized by their action on the photographic plate or by their
promoting fluorescence, have a wave-length of 0-0002 mm.;
the eye recognizes vibrations of a wave-length ranging from
about 0-0004 rnm. (violet) to about 0-0007 (red) ; the infra-red
rays, recognized by their heating power or by their action on
phosphorescent bodies, have a wave-length of o-ooi mm.; and
the longest waves present in the radiations of a luminous source
are the residual rays (" Rest-strahlen ") obtained by repeated
reflections from quartz (-0085 mm.), from fluorite (0-056 mm.),
and from sylvite (0-06 mm.) . The research-field of optics includes
the investigation of the rays which we have just enumerated.
A delimitation may then be made, inasmuch as luminous sources
yield no other radiations, and also since the next series of waves,
the electromagnetic waves, have a minimum wave-length of 6 mm.
§ 2. The commonest subjective phenomena of light are colour
and visibility, i.e. why are some bodies visible and others not,
or, in other words, what is the physical significance of the words
" transparency,"" colour "and" visibility." What is ordinarily
understood by a transparent substance is one which transmits
all the rays of white light without appreciable absorption —
that some absorption does occur is perceived when the substance
is viewed through a sufficient thickness. Colour is due to the
absorption of certain rays of the spectrum, the unabsorbed
rays being transmitted to the eye, where they occasion the
sensation of colour (see COLOUR; ABSORPTION OF LIGHT).
Transparent bodies are seen partly by reflected and partly by
transmitted light, and opaque bodies by absorption. Refraction
also influences visibility. Objects immersed in a liquid of
the same refractive index and dispersion would be invisible;
for example, a glass rod can hardly be seen when immersed in
Canada balsam; other instances occur in the petrological
examination of rock-sections under the microscope. In a complex
rock-section the boldness with which the constituents stand
out are measures of the difference between their refractive in-
dices and the refractive index of the mounting medium, and the
1 The invention of " aethers " is to be carried back, at least, to
the Greek philosophers, and with the growth of knowledge they
were empirically postulated to explain many diverse phenomena.
Only one " aether " has survived in modern science — that associated
with light and electricity, and of which Lord Salisbury, in his pre-
sidential address to the British Association in 1894, said, " For more
than two generations the main, if not the only, function of the word
' aether ' has been to furnish a nominative case to the verb ' to
undulate.' " (See AETHER.)
XVI. 20
more nearly the indices coincide the less defined become the
boundaries, while the interior of the mineral may be most advan-
tageously explored. Lord Rayleigh has shown that transparent
objects can only be seen when non-uniformly illuminated,
the differences in the refractive indices of the substance and the
surrounding medium becoming inoperative when the illumination
is uniform on all sides. R. W. Wood has performed experiments
which confirm this view.
The analysis of white light into the spectrum colours, and the
re-formation of the original light by transmitting the spectrum
through a reversed prism, proved, to the satisfaction of Newton
and subsequent physicists until late in the ipth century, that the
various coloured rays were present in white light, and that the
action of the prism was merely to sort out the rays. This view,
which suffices for the explanation of most phenomena, has now
been given up, and the modern view is that the prism or grating
really does manufacture the colours, as was held previously to
Newton. It appears that white light is a sequence of irregular
wave trains which are analysed into series of more regular
trains by the prism or grating in a manner comparable with
the analytical resolution presented by Fourier's theorem. The
modern view points to the mathematical existence of waves of
all wave-lengths in white light, the Newtonian view to the
physical existence. Strictly, the term " monochromatic "
light is only applicable to light of a single wave-length (which
can have no actual existence), but it is commonly used to denote
light which cannot be analysed by the instruments at our disposal ;
for example, with low-power instruments the light emitted by
sodium vapour would be regarded as homogeneous or mono-
chromatic, but higher power instruments resolve this light into
two components of different wave-lengths, each of which is of
a higher degree of homogeneity, and it is not impossible that
these rays may be capable of further analysis.
§ 3. Divisions of the Subject. — In the early history of the
science of light or optics a twofold division was adopted: Cat-
optrics (from Gr. KO.TOTTTPOV, a mirror), embracing the phenomena
of reflection, i.e. the formation of images by mirrors; and
Dioptrics (Gr. 5id, through), embracing the phenomena of
refraction, i.e. the bending of a ray of light when passing ob-
liquely through the surface dividing two media.2 A third
element, Chromatics (Gr. xpoi/xa, colour), was subsequently
introduced to include phenomena involving colour transforma-
tions, such as the iridescence of mother-of-pearl, feathers, soap-
bubbles, oil floating on water, &c. This classification has
been discarded (although the terms, particularly " dioptric "
and " chromatic," have survived as adjectives) in favour of
a twofold division: geometrical optics and physical optics.
Geometrical optics is a mathematical development (mainly
effected by geometrical methods) of three laws assumed to
be rigorously true: (i) the law of rectilinear propagation, viz.
that light travels in straight lines or rays in any homogeneous
medium ; (2) the law of reflection, viz. that the incident and
reflected rays at any point of a surface are equally inclined
to, and coplanar with, the normal to the surface at the point
of incidence; and (3) the law of refraction, viz. that the incident
and refracted rays at a surface dividing two media make angles
with the normal to the surface at the point of incidence whose
sines are in a ratio (termed the " refractive index ") which is
constant for every particular pair of media, and that the incident
and refracted rays are coplanar with the normal. Physical
optics, on the other hand, has for its ultimate object the elucida-
tion of the question: what is light? It investigates the
nature of the rays themselves, and, in addition to determining
the validity of the axioms of geometrical optics, embraces
phenomena for the explanation of which an expansion of these
assumptions is necessary.
Of the subordinate phases of the science, " physiological
optics " is concerned with the phenomena of vision, with the
eye as an optical instrument, with colour-perception, and
2 With the Greeks the word " Optics " or 'Oirroci (from OTTOIKU,
the obsolete present of 6p£, I see) was restricted to questions
concerning vision, &c., and the nature of light.
6io
LIGHT
[HISTORY
with such allied subjects as the appearance of the eyes of a cat
and the luminosity of the glow-worm and firefly; " meteoro-
logical optics " includes phenomena occasioned by the atmo-
sphere, such as the rainbow, halo, corona, mirage, twinkling of
stars and colour of the sky, and also the effects of atmospheric
dust in promoting such brilliant sunsets as were seen after
the eruption of Krakatoa; " magneto-optics " investigates
the effects of electricity and magnetism on optical properties;
" photo-chemistry," with its more practical development
photography, is concerned with the influence of light in effect-
ing chemical action; and the term " applied optics " may
be used to denote, on the one hand, the experimental investiga-
tion of material for forming optical systems, e.g. the study of
glasses with a view to the formation of a glass of specified optical
properties (with which may be included such matters as the
transparency of rock-salt for the infra-red and of quartz for
the ultra-violet rays), and, on the other hand, the application
of geometrical and physical investigations to the construction
of optical instruments.
§ 4. Arrangement of the Subject. — The following three divisions
of this article deal with: (I.) the history of the science of light;
(II.) the nature of light; (III.) the velocity of light; but a
summary (which does not aim at scientific precision) may
here be given to indicate to the reader the inter-relation of
the various optical phenomena, those phenomena which are
treated in separate articles being shown in larger type.
The simplest subjective phenomena of light are COLOUR
and intensity, the measurement of the latter being named
PHOTOMETRY. When light falls on a medium, it may be re-
turned by REFLECTION or it may suffer ABSORPTION; or it may
be transmitted and undergo REFRACTION, and, if the light
be composite, DISPERSION; or, as in the case of oil films on
water, brilliant colours are seen, an effect which is due to INTER-
FERENCE. Again, if the rays be transmitted in two directions,
as with certain crystals, " double refraction " (see REFRACTION,
DOUBLE) takes place, and the emergent rays have undergone
POLARIZATION. A SHADOW is cast by light falling on an opaque
object, the complete theory of which involves the phenomenon
of DIFFRACTION. Some substances have the property of trans-
forming luminous radiations, presenting the phenomena of
CALORESCENCE, FLUORESCENCE and PHOSPHORESCENCE. An
optical system is composed of any number of MIRRORS or LENSES,
or of both. If light falling on a system be not brought to a
focus, i.e. if all the emergent rays be not concurrent, we are
presented with a CAUSTIC and an ABERRATION. An optical
instrument is simply the setting up of an optical system, the
TELESCOPE, MICROSCOPE, OBJECTIVE, optical LANTERN,
CAMERA LUCTOA, CAMERA OBSCURA and the KALEIDOSCOPE
are examples; instruments serviceable for simultaneous vision
with both eyes are termed BINOCULAR INSTRUMENTS; the
STEREOSCOPE may be placed in this category; the optical
action of the Zoetrope, with its modern development the
CINEMATOGRAPH, depends upon the physiological persistence
of VISION. Meteorological optical phenomena comprise the
CORONA, HALO, MIRAGE, RAINBOW, colour of SKY and TWILIGHT,
and also astronomical refraction (see REFRACTION, ASTRO-
NOMICAL) ; the complete theory of the corona involves DIFFRAC-
TION, and atmospheric DUST also plays a part in this group
of phenomena.
I. HISTORY
§ i. There is reason to believe that the ancients were more
familiar with optics than with any other branch of physics;
and this may be due to the fact that for a knowledge of external
things man is indebted to the sense of vision in a far greater
degree than to other senses. That light travels in straight
lines — or, in other words, that an object is seen in the direction
in which it really lies — must have been realized in very remote
times. The antiquity of mirrors points to some acquaintance
with the phenomena of reflection, and Layard's discovery
of a convex lens of rock-crystal among the ruins of the palace
of Nimrud implies a knowledge of the burning and magnifying
powers of this instrument. The Greeks were acquainted with
the fundamental law of reflection, viz. the equality of the angles
of incidence and reflection; and it was Hero of Alexandria who
proved that the path of the ray is the least possible. The lens,
as an instrument for magnifying objects or for concentrating
rays to effect combustion, was also known. Aristophanes,
in the Clouds (c. 424 B.C.), mentions the use of the burning-glass
to destroy the writing on a waxed tablet; much later, Pliny
describes such glasses as solid balls of rock-crystal or glass,
or hollow glass balls filled with water, and Seneca mentions their
use by engravers. A treatise on optics (KaroirrptKa), assigned
to Euclid by Proclus and Marinus, shows that the Greeks were
acquainted with the productidri of images by plane, cylindrical
and concave and convex spherical mirrors, but it is doubtful
whether Euclid was the author, since neither this work nor
the 'Oirrt/cd, a work treating of vision and also assigned to him
by Proclus and Marinus, is mentioned by Pappus, and more
particularly since the demonstrations do not exhibit the pre-
cision of his other writings.
Reflection, or catoptrics, was the key-note of their explana-
tions of optical phenomena; it is to the reflection of solar
rays by the air that Aristotle ascribed twilight, and from his
observation of the colours formed by light falling on spray,
he attributes the rainbow to reflection from drops of rain.
Although certain elementary phenomena of refraction had
also been noted — such as the apparent bending of an oar at
the point where it met the water, and the apparent elevation
of a coin in a basin by filling the basin with water — the quantita-
tive law of refraction was unknown; in fact, it was not formu-
lated until the beginning of the i7th century. The analysis
of white light into the continuous spectrum of rainbow colours
by transmission through a prism was observed by Seneca, who
regarded the colours as fictitious, placing them in the same
category as the iridescent appearance of the feathers on a
pigeon's neck.
§ 2. The aversion of the Greek thinkers to detailed experi-
mental inquiry stultified the progress of the science; instead
of acquiring facts necessary for formulating scientific laws
and correcting hypotheses, the Greeks devoted their intellectual
energies to philosophizing on the nature of light itself. In their
search for a theory the Greeks were mainly concerned with
vision — in other words, they sought to determine how an object
was seen, and to what its colour was due. Emission theories,
involving the conception that light was a stream of concrete
particles, were formulated. The Pythagoreans assumed that
vision and colour were caused by the bombardment of the eye
by minute particles projected from the surface of the object
seen. The Platonists subsequently introduced three elements —
a stream of particles emitted by the eye (their " divine fire "),
which united with the solar rays, and, after the combination
had met a stream from the object, returned to the eye and
excited vision.
In some form or other the emission theory — that light was a
longitudinal propulsion of material particles — dominated optical
thought until the beginning of the ipth century. The authority
of the Platonists was strong enough to overcome Aristotle's
theory that light was an activity (tvfpjeia) of a medium which
he termed the pellucid (5ia<t>aves) ; about two thousand years
later Newton's exposition of his corpuscular theory overcame
the undulatory hypotheses of Descartes and Huygens; and it
was only after the acquisition of new experimental facts that the
labours of Thomas Young and Augustin Fresnel indubitably
established the wave-theory.
§ 3. The experimental study of refraction, which had been
almost entirely neglected by the early Greeks, received more
attention during the opening centuries of the Christian era.
Cleomedes, in his Cyclical Theory of Meteors, c. A.D. 50, alludes
to the apparent bending of a stick partially immersed in water,
and to the rendering visible of coins in basins by filling up with
water; and also remarks that the air may refract the sun's
rays so as to render that luminary visible, although actually
it may be below the horizon. The most celebrated of the early
HISTORY]
LIGHT
611
writers on optics is the Alexandrian Ptolemy (2nd century).
His writings on light are believed to be preserved in two imperfect
Latin manuscripts, themselves translations from the Arabic.
The subjects discussed include the nature of light and colour;
the formation of images by various types of mirrors, refractions
at the surface of glass and of water, with tables of the angle
of refraction corresponding to given angles of incidence for rays
passing from air to glass and from air to water; and also astro-
nomical refractions, i.e. the apparent displacement of a heavenly
body due to the refraction of light in its passage through the
atmosphere. The authenticity of these manuscripts has been
contested: the Almagest contains no mention of the Optics,
nor is the subject of astronomical refractions noticed, but the
strongest objection, according to A. de Morgan, is the fact that
their author was a poor geometer.
§ 4. One of the results of the decadence of the Roman empire
was the suppression of the academies, and few additions were
made to scientific knowledge on European soil until the i3th
century. Extinguished in the West, the spirit of research was
kindled in the East. The accession of the Arabs to power and
territ9ry in the 7th century was followed by the acquisition of
the literary stores of Greece, and during the following five
centuries the Arabs, both by their preservation of existing
works and by their original discoveries (which, however, were
but few), took a permanent place in the history of science.
Pre-eminent among Arabian scientists is Alhazen, who flourished
in the nth century. Primarily a mathematician and astronomer,
he also investigated a wide range of optical phenomena. He
examined the anatomy of the eye, and the functions of its several
parts in promoting vision; and explained how it is that we see
one object with two eyes, and then not by a single ray or beam
as had been previously held, but by two cones of rays proceeding
from the object, one to each eye. He attributed vision to
emanations from the body seen; and on his authority the
Platonic theory fell into disrepute. He also discussed the
magnifying powers of lenses; and it may be that his writings
on this subject inspired the subsequent invention of spectacles.
Astronomical observations led to the investigation of refraction
by the atmosphere, in particular, astronomical refraction; he
explained the phenomenon of twilight, and showed a connexion
between its duration and the height of the atmosphere. He also
treated optical deceptions, both in direct vision and in vision by
reflected and refracted light, including the phenomenon known
as the horizontal moon, i.e. the apparent increase in the diameter
of the sun or moon when near the horizon. This appearance
had been explained by Ptolemy on the supposition that the
diameter was actually increased by refraction, and his com-
mentator Theon endeavoured to explain why an object appears
larger when viewed under water. But actual experiment showed
that the diameter did not increase. Alhazen gave the correct
explanation, which, however, Friar Bacon attributes to Ptolemy.
We judge of distance by comparing the angle under which an
object is seen with its supposed distance, so that if two objects
be seen under nearly equal angles and one be supposed to be
more distant than the other, then the former will be supposed
to be the larger. When near the horizon the sun or moon,
conceived as very distant, are intuitively compared with terres-
trial objects, and therefore they appear larger than when viewed
at elevations.
§ 5. While the Arabs were acting as the custodians of scientific
knowledge, the institutions and civilizations of Europe were
gradually crystallizing. Attacked by the Mongols and by the
Crusaders, the Bagdad caliphate disappeared in the i3th century.
At that period the Arabic commentaries, which had already been
brought to Europe, were beginning to exert great influence on
dentine thought; and it is probable that their rarity and the
increasing demand for the originals and translations led to
those forgeries which are of frequent occurrence in the literature
of the middle' ages. The first treatise on optics written in Europe
was admitted by its author Vitello or Vitellio, a native of Poland,
to be based on the works of Ptolemy and Alhazen. It was written
; about 1270, and first published in 1572, with a Latin transla-
tion of Alhazen's treatise, by F. Risner, under the title Thesaurus
opticae. Its tables of refraction are more accurate than Ptolemy's;
the author follows Alhazen in his investigation of lenses, but his
determinations of the foci and magnifying powers of spheres
are inaccurate. He attributed the twinkling of sjtars to refraction
by moving air, and observed that the scintillation was increased
by viewing through water in gentle motion; he also recognized
that both reflection and refraction were instrumental in producing
the rainbow, but he gave no explanation of the colours.
The Perspecliiia Communis of John Peckham, archbishop of
Canterbury, being no more than a collection of elementary
propositions containing nothing new, we have next to consider
the voluminous works of Vitellio's illustrious contemporary,
Roger Bacon. His writings on light, Perspectiva and Specula
mathematica, are included in his Opus majus. It is conceivable
that he was acquainted with the nature of the images formed
by light traversing a small orifice — a phenomenon noticed by
Aristotle, and applied at a later date to the construction of the
camera obscura. The invention of the magic lantern has been
ascribed to Bacon, and his statements concerning spectacles,
the telescope, and the microscope, if not based on an experimental
realization of these instruments, must be regarded as masterly
conceptions of the applications of lenses. As to the nature of
light, Bacon adhered to the theory that objects are rendered
visible by emanations from the eye.
The history of science, and more particularly the history of
inventions, constantly confronts us with the problem presented
by such writings as Friar Bacon's. Rarely has it been given to
one man to promote an entirely new theory or to devise an
original instrument; it is more generally the case that, in the
evolution of a single idea, there comes some stage which arrests
our attention, and to which we assign the dignity of an " inven-
tion." Furthermore, the obscurity that surrounds the early
history of spectacles, the magic lantern, the telescope and the
microscope, may find a partial solution in the spirit of the middle
ages. The natural philosopher who was bold enough to present
to a prince a pair of spectacles or a telescope would be in imminent
danger of being regarded in the eyes of the church as a powerful
and dangerous magician; and it is conceivable that the maker
of such an instrument would jealously guard the secret of its
actual construction, however much he might advertise its
potentialities.1
§ 6. The awakening of Europe, which first manifested itself
in Italy, England and France, was followed in the i6th century
by a period of increasing intellectual activity. The need for
experimental inquiry was realized, and a tendency to dispute
the dogmatism of the church and to question the theories of
the established schools of philosophy became apparent. In the
science of optics, Italy led the van, the foremost pioneers being
Franciscus Maurolycus (1404-1575) of Messina, and Giambattista
della Porta (1538-1615) of Naples. A treatise by Maurolycus
entitled Pholismi de Lumine et Umbra prospectivum radiorum
incidentium facientes (1575), contains a discussion of the measure-
ment of the intensity of light — an early essay in photometry;
the formation of circular patches of light by small holes of any
shape, with a correct explanation of the phenomenon; and the
optical relations of the parts of the eye, maintaining that
the crystalline humour acts as a lens which focuses images on
the retina, explaining short- and long-sight (myopia and hyper-
metropia), with the suggestion that the former may be corrected
by concave, and the latter by convex, lenses. He observed the
spherical aberration due to elements beyond the axis of a lens,
and also the caustics of refraction (diacaustics) by a sphere
(seen as the bright boundaries of the luminous patches formed
by receiving the transmitted light on a screen), which he correctly
1 It seems probable that spectacles were in use towards the end
of the I3th century. The Italian dictionary of the A ccademici della
Crusca (1612) mentions a sermon of Jordan de Rivalto, published in
13°5> which refers to the invention as " not twenty years since ";
and Muschenbroek states that the tomb of Salvinus Armatus, a
Florentine nobleman who died in 1317, bears an inscription assigning
the invention to him. (See the articles TELESCOPE and CAMERA
OBSCURA for the history of these instruments.)
6l2
LIGHT
[HISTORY
regarded as determined by the intersections of the refracted rays.
His researches on refraction were less fruitful; he assumed the
angles of incidence and refraction to be in the constant ratio
of 8 to 5, and the rainbow, in which he recognized four colours,
orange, green, blue and purple, to be formed by rays reflected
in the drops along the sides of an octagon. Porta's fame rests
chiefly on his Magia naturalis sive de miraculis rerum naturaUum,
of which four books were published in 1558, the complete work
of twenty books appearing in 1 589. It attained great popularity,
perhaps by reason of its astonishing medley of subjects —
pyrotechnics and perfumery, animal reproduction and hunting,
alchemy and optics, — and it was several times reprinted, and
translated into English (with the title Natural Magick, 1658),
German, French, Spanish, Hebrew and Arabic. The work
contains an account of the camera obscura, with the invention of
which the author has sometimes been credited; but, whoever
the inventor, Porta was undoubtedly responsible for improving
and popularizing that instrument, and also the magic lantern.
In the same work practical applications of lenses are suggested,
combinations comparable with telescopes are vaguely treated
and spectacles are discussed. His De Refractione, optices parte
(!S93) contains an account of binocular vision, in which are
found indications of the principle of the stereoscope.
§ 7. The empirical study of lenses led, in the opening decade
of the 1 7th century, to the emergence of the telescope from its
former obscurity. The first form, known as the Dutch or Galileo
telescope, consisted of a convex and a concave lens, a combination
which gave erect images; the later form, now known as the
" Keplerian " or " astronomical " telescope (in contrast with
the earlier or " terrestrial " telescope) consisted of two convex
lenses, which gave inverted images. With the microscope, too,
advances were made, and it seems probable that the compound
type came into common use about this time. These single
instruments were followed by the invention of binoculars, i.e.
instruments which permitted simultaneous vision with both eyes.
There is little doubt that the experimental realization of the
telescope, opening up as it did such immense fields for astronomi-
cal research, stimulated the study of lenses and optical systems.
The investigations of Maurolycus were insufficient to explain
the theory of the telescope, and it was Kepler who first determined
the principle of the Galilean telescope in his Dioplrice (1611),
which also contains the first description of the astronomical or
Keplerian telescope, and the demonstration that rays parallel
to the axis of a plano-convex lens come to a focus at a point on
the axis distant twice the radius of the curved surface of the lens,
and, in the case of an equally convex lens, at an axial point
distant only once the radius. He failed, however, to determine
accurately the case for unequally convex lenses, a problem
which was solved by Bonave'ntura Cavalieri, a pupil of Galileo.
Early in the iyth century great efforts were made to determine
the law of refraction. Kepler, in his Prolegomena ad Vitellionem
(1604), assiduously, but unsuccessfully, searched for the law,
and can only be credited with twenty-seven empirical rules,
really of the nature of approximations, which he employed in his
theory of lenses. The true law — that the ratio of the sines of the
angles of incidence and refraction is constant — was discovered
in 1621 by Willebrord Snell (1591-1626); but was published
for the first time after his death, and with no mention of his name,
by Descartes. Whereas in Snell's manuscript the law was stated
in the form of the ratio of certain lines, trigonometrically inter-
pretable as a ratio of cosecants, Descartes expressed the law in
its modern trigonometrical form, viz. as the ratio of the sines.
It may be observed that the modern form was independently
obtained by James Gregory and published in his Optica promola
(1663). Armed with the law of refraction, Descartes determined
the geometrical theory of the primary and secondary rainbows,
but did not mention how far he was indebted to the explana-
tion of the primary bow by Antonio de Dominis in 1611; and,
similarly, in his additions to the knowledge of the telescope
the influence of Galileo is not recorded.
§ 8. In his metaphysical speculations on the system of nature,
Descartes formulated a theory of light at variance with the gener-
ally accepted emission theory and showing some resemblance to
the earlier views of Aristotle, and, in a smaller measure, to the
modern undulatory theory. He imagined light to be a pressure
transmitted by an infinitely elastic medium which pervades
space, and colour to be due to rotatory motions of the particles
of this medium. He attempted a mechanical explanation of the
law of refraction, and came to the conclusion that light passed
more readily through a more highly refractive medium. This
view was combated by Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665), who, from
the principle known as the " law of least time," deduced the
converse to be the case, i.e. that the velocity varied inversely
with the refractive index. In brief, Fermat's argument was as
follows: Since nature performs her operations by the most
direct routes or shortest paths, then the path of a ray of light
between any two points must be such that the time occupied in
the passage is a minimum. The rectilinear propagation and the
law of reflection obviously agree with this principle, and it
remained to be proved whether the law of refraction tallied.
Although Fermat's premiss is useless, his inference is invaluable,
and the most notable application of it was made in about 1824
by Sir William Rowan Hamilton, who merged it into his con-
ception of the " characteristic function," by the help of which all
optical problems, whether on the corpuscular or on the undulator
theory, are solved by one common process. Hamilton was in
possession of the germs of this grand theory some years before
1824, but it was first communicated to the Royal Irish Academy
in that year, and published in imperfect instalments some years
later. The following is his own description of it. It is of interest
as exhibiting the origin of Fermat's deduction, its relation to
contemporary and subsequent knowledge, and its connexion
with other analytical principles. Moreover, it is important as
showing Hamilton's views on a very singular part of the
more modern history of the science to which he contributed
so much.
" Those who have meditated on the beauty and utility, in theoreti-
cal mechanics, of the general method of Lagrange, who have felt
the power and dignity of that central dynamical theorem which he
deduced, in the Mecanique analytique . . ., must feel that mathe-
matical optics can only then attain a coordinate rank with mathe-
matical mechanics . . ., when it shall possess an appropriate
method, and become the unfolding of a central idea. ... It ap-
pears that if a general method in deductive optics can be attained
at all, it must flow from some law or principle, itself of the highest
generality, and among the highest results of induction. . . . [This]
must be the principle, or law, called usually the Law of Least
Action; suggested by questionable views, but established on the
widest induction, and embracing every known combination of media,
and every straight, or bent, or curved line, ordinary or extraordinary,
along which light (whatever light may be) extends its influence suc-
cessively in space and time: namely, that this linear path of light,
from one point to another, is always found to be such that, if it be
compared with the other infinitely various lines by which in thought
and in geometry the same two points might be connected, a certain
integral or sum, called often Action, and depending by fixed rules
on the length, and shape, and position of the path, and on the media
which are traversed by it, is less than all the similar integrals for
the other neighbouring lines, or, at least, possesses, with respect to
them, a certain stationary property. From this Law, then, which
may, perhaps, be named the LAW OF STATIONARY ACTION, it seems
that we may most fitly and with best hope set out, in the synthetic
or deductive process and in the search of a mathematical method.
" Accordingly, from this known law of least or stationary action
I deduced (long since) another connected and coextensive principle,
which may be called by analogy the LAW OF VARYING ACTION,
and which seems to offer naturally a method such as we are seeking;
the one law being as it were the last step in the ascending scale of
induction, respecting linear paths of light, while the other law may
usefully be made the first in the descending and deductive way.
" The former of these two laws was discovered in the following
manner. The elementary principle of straight rays showed that
light, under the most simple and usual circumstances, employs the
direct, and therefore the shortest, course to pass from one point
to another. Again, it was a very early discovery (attributed by
Laplace to Ptolemy), that, in the case of a plane mirror, the bent
line formed by the incident and reflected rays is shorter than any
other bent line having the same extremities, and having its point
of bending on the mirror. These facts were thought by some to be
instances and results of the simplicity and economy of nature; and
Fermat, whose researches on maxima and minima are claimed by
the Continental mathematicians as the germ of the differential
calculus, sought anxiously to trace some similar economy in the
HISTORY]
more complex case of refraction. He believed that by a metaphy-
sical or cosmological necessity, arising from the simplicity of the
universe, light always takes ^.he course which it can traverse in the
shortest time. To reconcile this metaphysical opinion with the law
of refraction, discovered experimentally by Snellius, Fermat was
led to suppose that the two lengths, or indices, which Snellius had
measured on the incident ray prolonged and on the refracted ray,
and had observed to have one common projection on a refracting
plane, are inversely proportional to the two successive velocities of
the light before and after refraction, and therefore that the velocity
of light is diminished on entering those denser media in which it is
observed to approach the perpendicular; for Fermat believed that
the time of propagation of light along a line bent by refraction was
represented by the sum of the two products, of the incident portion
multiplied by the index of the first medium and of the refracted
portion multiplied by the index of the second medium; because he
found, by his mathematical method, that this sum was less, in the
case of a plane refractor, than if light w'ent by any other than its
actual path from one given point to another, and because he per-
ceived that the supposition of a velocity inversely as the index
reconciled his mathematical discovery of the minimum of the fore-
going sum with his cosmological principle of least time. Descartes
attacked Format's opinions respecting light, but Leibnitz zealously
defended them; and Huygens was led, by reasonings of a very
different kind, to adopt Fermat's conclusions of a velocity inversely
as the index, and of a minimum time of propagation of light, in
passing from one given point to another through an ordinary re-
fracting plane. Newton, however, by his theory of emission and
attraction, was led to conclude that the velocity of light was directly,
not inversely, as the index, and that it was increased instead of
being diminished on entering a denser medium; a result incom-
patible with the theorem of the shortest time in refraction. This
theorem of shortest time was accordingly abandoned by many,
and among the rest by Maupertuis, who, however, proposed in its
stead, as a new cosmological principle, that celebrated law of least
action which has since acquired so high a rank in mathematical
physics, by the improvements of Euler and Lagrange."
§ 9. The second half of the I7th century witnessed develop-
ments in the practice and theory of optics which equal in import-
ance the mathematical, chemical and astronomical acquisitions
of the period. Original observations were made which led to
the discovery, in an embryonic form, of new properties of light,
and the development of mathematical analysis facilitated the
quantitative and theoretical investigation of these properties.
Indeed, mathematical and physical optics may justly be dated
from this time. The phenomenon of diffraction, so named by
Grimaldi, and by Newton inflection, which may be described
briefly as the spreading out, or deviation, from the strictly
rectilinear path of light passing through a small aperture or
beyond the edge of an opaque object, was discovered by the
Italian Jesuit, Francis Maria Grimaldi (1619-1663), and pub-
lished in his Physico-Mathesis de Lumine (1665); at about the
a.me time Newton made his classical investigation of the spectrum
or the band of colours formed when light is transmitted through
prism,1 and studied interference phenomena in the form of the
olours of thin and thick plates, and in the form now termed
Newton's rings; double refraction, in the form of the dual images
of a single object formed by a rhomb of Iceland spar, was dis-
overed by Bartholinus in 1670; Huygens's examination of the
insmitted beams led to the discovery of an absence of symmetry
ow called polarization; and the finite velocity of light was
deduced in 1676 by Ole Roemer from the comparison of the
bserved and computed times of the eclipses of the moons of
upiter.
These discoveries had a far-reaching influence upon the
beoretical views which had been previously held: for instance,
Newton's recombination of the spectrum by means of a second
^inverted) prism caused the rejection of the earlier view that the
•ism actually manufactured the colours, and led to the accept-
ace of the theory that the colours were physically present in
be white light, the function of the prism being merely to separate
he physical mixture; and Roemer's discovery of the finite
1 Newton's observation that a second refraction did not change
he colours had been anticipated in 1648 by Marci de Kronland
1595-1667), professor of medicine at the university of Prague, in
[is Thaumantias, who studied the spectrum under the name of
ris trigonia. There is no evidence that Newton knew of this,
.Ithough he mentions de Dominic's experiment with the glass globe
ontaining water.
LIGHT 613
velocity of light introduced the necessity of considering the
momentum of the particles which, on the accepted emission
theory, composed the light. Of greater moment was the con-
troversy concerning the emission orcorpuscular theory championed
by Newton and the undulatory theory presented by Huygens
(see section II. of this article). In order to explain the colours
of thin plates Newton was forced to abandon some of the original
simplicity of his theory; and we may observe that by postulat-
ing certain motionsfor theNewtonian corpuscles all the phenomena
of light can be explained, these motions aggregating to a trans-
verse displacement translated longitudinally, and the corpuscles,
at the same time, becoming otiose and being replaced by a
medium in which the vibration is transmitted. In this way
the Newtonian theory may be merged into the undulatory
theory. Newton's results are collected in his Opticks, the first
edition of which appeared in 1704. Huygens published his
theory in his Traits de lumiere (1690), where he explained
reflection, refraction and double refraction, but did not elucidate
the formation of shadows (which was readily explicable on the
Newtonian hypothesis) or polarization; and it was this inability
to explain polarization which led to Newton's rejection of the
wave theory. The authority of Newton and his masterly
exposition of the corpuscular theory sustained that theory
until the beginning of the igth century, when it succumbed to
the assiduous skill of Young and Fresnel.
§ 10. Simultaneously with this remarkable development of
theoretical and experimental optics, notable progress was made
in the construction of optical instruments. The increased
demand for telescopes, occasioned by the interest in observational
astronomy, led to improvements in the grinding of lenses (the
primary aim being to obtain forms in which spherical aberration
was a minimum), and also to the study of achromatism, the
principles of which followed from Newton's analysis and snythesis
of white light. Kepler's supposition that lenses having the form
of surfaces of revolution of the conic sections would bring rays
to a focus without spherical aberration was investigated by
Descartes, and the success of the latter's demonstration led to the
grinding of ellipsoidal and hyperboloidal lenses, but with dis-
appointing results.2 The grinding of spherical lenses was greatly
improved by Huygens, who also attempted to reduce chromatic
aberration in the refracting telescope by introducing a stop
(i.e. by restricting the aperture of the rays) ; to the same experi-
menter are due compound eye-pieces, the invention of which
had been previously suggested by Eustachio Divini. The so-
called Huygenian eye-piece is composed of two plano-convex
lenses with their plane faces towards the eye; the field-glass
has a focal length three times that of the eye-glass, and the
distance between them is twice the focal length of the eye-glass.
Huygens observed that spherical aberration was diminished
by making the deviations of the rays at the two lenses equal,
and Ruggiero Giuseppe Boscovich subsequently pointed out
that the combination was achromatic. The true development,
however, of the achromatic refracting telescope, which followed
from the introduction of compound object-glasses giving no
dispersion, dates from about the middle of the i8th century.
2 The geometrical determination of the form of the surface which
will reflect, or of the surface dividing two media which will refract,
rays from one point to another, is very easily effected by using the
"characteristic function" of Hamilton, which for the problems
under consideration may be stated in the form that " the optical
paths of all rays must be the same." In the case of reflection, if
A and B be the diverging and converging points, and P a point on
the reflecting surface, then the locus of P is such that AP+PB is
constant. Therefore the surface is an ellipsoid of revolution having
A and B as foci. If the rays be parallel, i.e. if A be at infinity, the
surface is a paraboloid of revolution having B as focus and the axis
parallel to the direction of the rays. In refraction if A be in the
medium of index it, and B in the medium of index /»', the char-
acteristic function shows that juAP+/u'PB, where P is a point on
the surface, must be constant. Plane sections through A and B
of such surfaces were originally investigated by Descartes, and- are
named Cartesian ovals. If the rays be parallel, i.e. A be at infinity,
the surface becomes an ellipsoid of revolution having B for one
focus, it'/p for eccentricity, and the axis parallel to the direction of
the rays.
614
LIGHT
[HISTORY
The difficulty of obtaining lens systems in which aberrations
were minimized, and the theory of Newton that colour production
invariably attended refraction, led to the manufacture of im-
proved specula which permitted the introduction of reflecting
telescopes. The idea of this type of instrument had apparently
occurred to Marin Mersenne in about 1640, but the first reflector
of note was described in 1663 by James Gregory in his Optica
promote; a second type was invented by Newton, and a
third in 1672 by Cassegrain. Slight improvements were made
in the microscope, although the achromatic type did
not appear until about 1820, some sixty years after John
Dollond had determined the principle of the achromatic
telescope (see ABERRATION, TELESCOPE, MICROSCOPE, BINO-
CULAR INSTRUMENT).
§ ii. Passing over the discovery by Ehrenfried Walther
Tschirnhausen (1651-1708) of the caustics produced by reflection
(" catacaustics ") and his experiments with large reflectors and
refractors (for the manufacture of which he established glass-
works in Italy); James Bradley's discovery in 1728 of the
" aberration of light," with the subsequent derivation of the
velocity of light, the value agreeing fairly well with Roemer's
estimate; the foundation of scientific photometry by Pierre
Bouguer in an essay published in 1729 and expanded in 1760
into his Traite d'optique sur la graduation de la lumiere; the
publication of John Henry Lambert's treatise on the same subject,
entitled Photometria, sive de Mensura el Gradibus Luminis,
Colorum el Umbrae (1760); and the development of the telescope
and other optical instruments, we arrive at the closing decades
of the i8th century. During the forty years 1780 to 1820 the
history of optics is especially marked by the names of Thomas
Young and Augustin Fresnel, and in a lesser degree by Arago,
Malus, Sir William Herschel, Fraunhofer, Wollaston, Biot and
Brewster.
Although the corpuscular theory had been disputed by
Benjamin Franklin, Leonhard Euler and others, the authority
of Newton retained for it an almost general acceptance until
the beginning of the ipth century, when Young and Fresnel
instituted their destructive criticism. Basing his views on
the earlier undulatory theories and diffraction phenomena of
Grimaldi and Hooke, Young accepted the Huygenian theory,
assuming, from a false analogy with sound waves, that the wave-
disturbance was longitudinal, and ignoring the suggestion
made by Hooke in 1672 that the direction of the vibration might
be transverse, i.e. at right angles to the direction of the rays.
As with Huygens, Young was unable to explain diffraction
correctly, or polarization. But the assumption enabled him to
establish the principle of interference,1 one of the most fertile
in the science of physical optics. The undulatory theory was
also accepted by Fresnel who, perceiving the inadequacy of the
researches of Huygens and Young, showed in 1818 by an analysis
which, however, is not quite free from objection, that, by assuming
that every element of a wave-surface could act as a source of
secondary waves or wavelets, the diffraction bands were due
to the interference of the secondary waves formed by each element
of a primary wave falling upon the edge of an obstacle or aperture.
One consequence of Fresnel's theory was that the bands were
independent of the nature of the diffracting edge — a fact confirmed
by experiment and therefore invalidating Young's theory that
the bands were produced by the interference between the
primary wave and the wave reflected from the edge of the
obstacle. Another consequence, which was first mathematically
deduced by Poisson and subsequently confirmed by experi-
ment, is the paradoxical phenomenon that a small circular
disk illuminated by a point source casts a shadow having a
bright centre.
§ 12. The undulatory theory reached its zenith when Fresnel
explained the complex phenomena of polarization, by adopting
the conception of Hooke that the vibrations were transverse,
'Young's views of the nature of light, which he formulated as
Propositions and Hypotheses, are given in extenso in the article
INTERFERENCE. See also his article " Chromatics " in the supple-
mentary volumes to the 3rd edition of the Encyclopaedia Sritannica.
and not longitudinal.2 Polarization by double refraction had
been investigated by Huygens, and the researches of Wollaston
and, more especially, of Young, gave such an impetus to the study
that the Institute pf France made double refraction the subject
of a prize essay in 1812. E. L. Malus (1775-1812) discovered
the phenomenon of polarization by reflection about 1808 and
investigated metallic reflection; Arago discovered circular
polarization in quartz in 1811, and, with Fresnel, made many
experimental investigations, which aided the establishment of the
Fresnel-Arago laws of the interference of polarized beams;
Biot introduced a reflecting polariscope, investigated the colours
of crystalline plates and made many careful researches on the
rotation of the plane of polarization; Sir David Brewster made
investigations over a wide range, and formulated the law con-
necting the angle of polarization with the refractive index of
the reflecting medium. Fresnel's theory was developed in a
strikingly original manner by Sir William Rowan Hamilton,
who interpreted from Fresnel's analytical determination of the
geometrical form of the wave-surface in biaxal crystals the
existence of two hitherto unrecorded phenomena. At Hamilton's
instigation Humphrey Lloyd undertook the experimental search,
and brought to light the phenomena of external and internal
conical refraction.
The undulatory vibration postulated by Fresnel having been
generally accepted as explaining most optical phenomena, it
became necessary to determine the mechanical properties
of the aether which transmits this motion. Fresnel, Neumann,
Cauchy, MacCullagh, and, especially, Green and Stokes, developed
the " elastic-solid theory." By applying the theory of elasticity
they endeavoured to determine the constants of a medium which
could transmit waves of the nature of light. Many different
allocations were suggested (of which one of the most recent
is Lord Kelvin's " contractile aether," which, however, was
afterwards discarded by its author), and the theory as left by
Green and Stokes has merits other than purely historical. At
a later date theories involving an action between the aether
and material atoms were proposed, the first of any moment
being J. Boussinesq's (1867). C. Christiansen's investigation of
anomalous dispersion in 1870, and the failure of Cauchy's formula
(founded on the elastic-solid theory) to explain this phenomenon,
led to the theories of W. Sellmeier (1872), H. von Helmholtz
(1875), E. Ketteler (1878), E. Lommel (1878) and W. Voigt
(1883). A third class of theory, to which the present-day theory
belongs, followed from Clerk Maxwell's analytical investigations
in electromagnetics. Of the greatest exponents of this theory
we may mention H. A. Lorentz, P. Drude and J. Larmor, while
Lord Rayleigh has, with conspicuous brilliancy, explained
several phenomena (e.g. the colour of the sky) on this hypothesis.
For a critical examination of these theories see section II. of this
article; reference may also be made to the British Association
§ 13. Recent Developments. — The determination of the velocity
of light (see section III. of this article) may be regarded as
definitely settled, a result contributed to by A. H. L. Fizeau
(1849), J. B. L. Foucault (1850, 1862), A. Cornu (1874), A. A.
Michelson (1880), James Young and George Forbes (1882),
Simon Newcomb (1880-1882) and Cornu (1900). The velocity
in moving media was investigated theoretically by Fresnel;
and Fizeau (1859), and Michelson and Morley (1886) showed
experimentally that the velocity was increased in running water
by an amount agreeing with Fresnel's formula, which was based
on the hypothesis of a stationary aether. The optics of moving
media have also been investigated by Lord Rayleigh, and more
especially by H. A. Lorentz, who also assumed a stationary
aether. The relative motion of the earth and the aether has an
2 A crucial test of the emission and undulatory theories, which
was realized by Descartes, Newton, Fermat and others, consisted
in determining the velocity of light in two differently refracting
media. This experiment was conducted in 1850 by Foucault, who
showed that the velocity was less in water than in air, thereby
confirming the undulatory and invalidating the emission theory.
HISTORY]
LIGHT
615
important connexion with the phenomenon of the aberration
of light, and has been treated with masterly skill by Joseph
Larmor and others (see AETHER). The relation of the earth's
motion to the intensities of terrestrial sources of light was
investigated theoretically by Fizeau, but no experimental inquiry
was made until 1903, when Nordmeyer obtained negative results,
which were confirmed by the theoretical investigations of A. A.
Bucherer and H. A. Lorentz.
Experimental photometry has been greatly developed since
the pioneer work of Bouguer and Lambert and the subsequent
introduction of the photometers of Ritchie, Rumford, Bunsen
and Wheatstone, followed by Swan's in 1859, and O. R. Lummer
and E. Brodhun's instrument (essentially the same as Swan's)
in 1889. This expansion may largely be attributed to the
increase in the number of artificial illuminants — especially the
many types of filament- and arc-electric lights, and the incan-
descent gas light. Colour photometry has also been notably
developed, especially since the enunciation of the " Purkinje
phenomenon " in 1825. Sir William Abney has contributed
much to this subject, and A. M. Meyer has designed a photo-
meter in which advantage is taken of the phenomenon of contrast
colours. " Flicker photometry " may be dated from O. N.
Rood's investigations in 1893, and the same principle has been
applied by Haycraft and Whitman. These questions — colour and
flicker photometry — have important affinities to colour percep-
tion and the persistence of vision (see VISION) . The spectrophoto-
meter, devised by De Witt Bristol Brace in 1899, which permits
the comparison of similarly coloured portions of the spectra
from two different sources, has done much valuable work in the
determination of absorptive powers and extinction coefficients.
Much attention has also been given to the preparation of a
standard of intensity, and many different sources have been
introduced (see PHOTOMETRY). Stellar photometry, which was
first investigated instrumentally with success by Sir John
Herschel, was greatly improved by the introduction of Zollner's
photometer, E. C. Pickering's meridian photometer and C.
Pritchard's wedge photometer. Other methods of research in
this field are by photography — photographic photometry — and
radiometric method (see PHOTOMETRY, CELESTIAL).
The earlier methods for the experimental determination of
refractive indices by measuring the deviation through a solid
prism of the substance in question or, in the case of liquids,
through a hollow prism containing the liquid, have been re-
placed in most accurate work by other methods. The method of
total reflection, due originally to Wollaston, has been put into a
very convenient form, applicable to both solids and liquids, in
the Pulfrich refractometer (see REFRACTION). Still more accurate
methods, based on interference phenomena, have been devised.
Jamin's interference refractometer is one of the earlier forms
of such apparatus; and Michelson's interferometer is one of the
best of later types (see INTERFERENCE). The variation of re-
fractive index with density has been the subject of much experi-
mental and theoretical inquiry. The empirical rule of Gladstone
and Dale was often at variance with experiment, and the mathe-
matical investigations of H. A. Lorentz of Leiden and L. Lorenz
of Copenhagen on the electromagnetic theory led to a more
consistent formula. The experimental work has been chiefly
associated with the names of H. H. Landolt and J. W. Briihl,
whose results, in addition to verifying the Lorenz-Lorentz
formula, have established that this function of the refractive
index and density is a colligative property of the molecule, i.e.
it is calculable additively from the values of this function for
the component atoms, allowance being made for the mode in
which they are mutually combined (see CHEMISTRY, PHYSICAL) .
The preparation of lenses, in which the refractive index decreases
with the distance from the axis, by K. F. J. Exner, H. F. L.
Matthiessen and Schott, and the curious results of refraction
by non-homogeneous media, as realized by R. Wood may be
mentioned (see MIRAGE).
The spectrum of white light produced by prismatic refraction
has engaged many investigators. The infra-red or heat waves
were discovered by Sir William Herschel, and experiments on
the actinic effects of the different parts of the spectrum on
silver salts by Scheele, Senebier, Ritter, Seebeck and others,
proved the increased activity as one passed from the red to the
violet and the ultra-violet. Wollaston also made many investiga-
tions in this field, noticing the dark lines — the " Fraunhofer
lines " — which cross the solar spectrum, which were further
discussed by Brewster and Fraunhofer, who thereby laid the
foundations of modern spectroscopy. Mention may also be
made of the investigations of Lord Rayleigh and Arthur Schuster
on the resolving power of prisms (see DIFFRACTION), and also
of the modern view of the function of the prism in analysing
white light. The infra-red and ultra-violet rays are of especial
interest since, although not affecting vision after the manner
of ordinary light, they possess very remarkable properties.
Theoretical investigation on the undulatory theory of the law
of reflection shows that a surface, too rough to give any trace
of regular reflection with ordinary light, may regularly reflect
the long waves, a phenomenon experimentally realized by
Lord Rayleigh. Long waves — the so-called " residual rays "
or " Rest-slrahlen "—have also been isolated by repeated reflec-
tions from quartz surfaces of the light from zirconia raised to
incandescence by the oxyhydrogen flame (E. F. Nichols and
H. Rubens) ; far longer waves were isolated by similar reflections
from fluorite (56 fj.) and sylvite (61 /*) surfaces in 1899 by Rubens
and E. Aschkinass. The short waves — ultra-violet rays — have
also been studied, the researches of E. F. Nichols on the trans-
parency of quartz to these rays, which are especially present
in the radiations of the mercury arc, having led to the introduc-
tion of lamps made of fused quartz, thus permitting the convenient
study of these rays, which, it is to be noted, are absorbed by
ordinary clear glass. Recent researches at the works of Schott
and Genossen, Jena, however, have resulted in the production
of a glass transparent to the ultra-violet.
Dispersion, i.e. that property of a substance which consists in
having a different refractive index for rays of different wave-
lengths, was first studied in the form known as " ordinary
dispersion " in which the refrangibility of the ray increased
with the wave-length. Cases had been observed by Fox Talbot,
Le Roux, and especially by Christiansen (1870) and A. Kundt
(1871-1872) where this normal rule did not hold; to such
phenomena the name " anomalous dispersion " was given, but
really there is nothing anomalous about it at all, ordinary
dispersion being merely a particular case of the general pheno-
menon. The Cauchy formula, which was founded on the elastic-
solid theory, did not agree with the experimental facts, and the
germs of the modern theory, as was pointed out by Lord Rayleigh
in 1900, were embodied in a question proposed by Clerk Maxwell
for the Mathematical Tripos examination for 1869. The principle,
which occurred simultaneously to W. Sellmeier (who is regarded
as the founder of the modern theory) and had been employed
about 1850 by Sir G. G. Stokes to explain absorption lines,
involves an action between the aether and the molecules of the
dispersing substance. The mathematical investigation is associ-
ated with the names of Sellmeier, Hermann Helmholtz, Eduard
Ketteler, P. Drude, H. A. Lorentz and Lord Rayleigh, and
the experimental side with many observers — F. Paschen,
Rubens and others; absorbing media have been investigated
by A. W. Pfluger, a great many aniline dyes by K. Stockl, and
sodium vapour by R. W. Wood. Mention may also be made
of the beautiful experiments of Christiansen (1884) and Lord
Rayleigh on the colours transmitted by white powders suspended
in liquids of the same refractive index. If, for instance, benzol
be gradually added to finely powdered quartz, a succession of
beautiful colours — red, yellow, green and finally blue — is trans-
mitted, or, under certain conditions, the colours may appear
at once, causing the mixture to flash like a fiery opal. Absorption,
too, has received much attention; the theory has been especially
elaborated by M. Planck, and the experimental investigation
has been prosecuted from the purely physical standpoint, and
also from the standpoint 6f the physical chemist, with a view
to correlating absorption with constitution.
Interference phenomena have been assiduously studied. The
6i6
LIGHT
[HISTORY
experiments of Young, Fresnel, Lloyd, Fizeau and Foucault,
of Fresnel and Arago on the measurement of refractive indices
by the shift of the interference bands, of H. F. Talbot on the
" Talbot bands " (which he insufficiently explained on the
principle of interference, it being shown by Sir G. B. Airy that
diffraction phenomena supervene), of Baden-Powell on the
" Powell bands," of David Brewster on " Brewster's bands,"
have been developed, together with many other phenomena —
Newton's rings, the colours of thin, thick and mixed plates, &c. —
in a striking manner, one of the most important results being
the construction of interferometers applicable to the determina-
tion of refractive indices and wave-lengths, with which the
names of Jamin, Michelson, Fabry and Perot, and of Lummer
and E. Gehrcke are chiefly associated. The mathematical
investigations of Fresnel may be regarded as being completed
by the analysis chiefly due to Airy, Stokes and Lord Rayleigh.
Mention may be made of Sir G. G. Stokes' attribution of the
colours of iridescent crystals to periodic twinning; this view
has been confirmed by Lord Rayleigh (Phil. Mag., 1888) who,
from the purity of the reflected light, concluded that the laminae
were equidistant by the order of a Wave-length. Prior to 1891
only interference between waves proceeding in the same direction
had been studied. In that year Otto H. Wiener obtained, on a
film -sVth of a wave-length in thickness, photographic impressions
of the stationary waves formed by the interference of waves
proceeding in opposite directions, and in 1892 Drude and Nernst
employed a fluorescent film to record the same phenomenon.
This principle is applied in the Lippmann colour photography,
which was suggested by W. Zenker, realized by Gabriel Lippmann,
and further investigated by R. G. Neuhauss, O. H. Wiener,
H. Lehmann and others.
Great progress has been made in the study of diffraction,
and " this department of optics is precisely the one in which
the wave theory has secured its greatest triumphs " (Lord
Rayleigh). The mathematical investigations of Fresnel and
Poisson were placed on a dynamical basis by Sir G. G. Stokes;
and the results gained more ready interpretation by the introduc-
tion of " Babinet's principle " in 1837, and Cornu's graphic
methods in 1874. The theory also gained by the researches
of Fraunhofer, Airy, Schwerd, E. Lommel and others. The
theory of the concave grating, which resulted from H. A. Row-
land's classical methods of ruling lines of the necessary nature
and number on curved surfaces, was worked out by Rowland,
E. Mascart, C. Runge and others. The resolving power and the
intensity of the spectra have been treated by Lord Rayleigh
and Arthur Schuster, and more recently (1905), the distribution
of light has been treated by A. B. Porter. The theory of diffrac-
tion is of great importance in designing optical instruments,
the theory of which has been more especially treated by Ernst
Abbe (whose theory of microscopic vision dates from about
1870) by the scientific staff at the Zeiss works, Jena, by Rayleigh
and others. The theory of coronae (as diffraction phenomena)
was originally due to Young, who, from the principle involved,
devised the eriometer for measuring the diameters of very small
objects; and Sir G. G. Stokes subsequently explained the
appearances presented by minute opaque particles borne on a
transparent plate. The polarization of the light diffracted at a
slit was noted in 1861 by Fizeau, whose researches were extended
in 1892 by H. Du Bois, and, for the case of gratings, by Du Bois
and Rubens in 1904. The diffraction of light by small particles
was studied in the form of very fine chemical precipitates by
John Tyndall, who noticed the polarization of the beautiful
cerulean blue which was transmitted. This subject — one form
of which is presented in the blue colour of the sky — has been
most auspiciously treated by Lord Rayleigh on both the elastic-
solid and electromagnetic theories. Mention may be made of
R. W. Wood's experiments on thin metal films which, under
certain conditions, originate colour phenomena inexplicable by
interference and diffraction. These colours have been assigned
to the principle of optical resonance, and have been treated by
Kossonogov (Phys. Zeit., 1903). J. C. Maxwell Garnett (Phil.
Trans, vol. 203) has shown that the colours of coloured glasses
are due to ultra-microscopic particles, which have been directly
studied by H. Siedentopf and R. Zsigmondy under limiting
oblique illumination.
Polarization phenomena may, with great justification, be
regarded as the most engrossing subject of optical research
during the igth century; the assiduity with which it was
cultivated in the opening decades of that century received
a great stimulus when James Nicol devised in 1828 the famous
" Nicol prism," which greatly facilitated the determination of
the plane of vibration of polarized light, and the facts that
light is polarized by reflection, repeated refractions, double
refraction and by diffraction also contributed to the interest
which the subject excited. The rotation of the plane of polariza-
tion by quartz was discovered in 1811 by Arago; if white light
be used the colours change as the Nicol rotates — a phenomenon
termed by Biot " rotatory dispersion." Fresnel regarded
rotatory polarization as compounded from right- and left-handed
(dextro- and laevo-) circular polarizations; and Fresnel,
Cornu, Dove and Cotton effected their experimental separation.
Legrand des Cloizeaux discovered the enormously enhanced
rotatory polarization of cinnabar, a property also possessed —
but in a lesser degree — by the sulphates of strychnine and
ethylene diamine. The rotatory power of certain liquids was
discovered by Biot in 1815; and at a later date it was found
that many solutions behaved similarly. A. Schuster dis-
tinguishes substances with regard to their action on polarized
light as follows: substances which act in the isotropic state
are termed photogyric; if the rotation be associated with crystal
structure, crystallogyric; if the rotation be due to a magnetic
field, magnetogyric; for cases not hitherto included the term
allogyric is employed, while optically inactive substances are
called isogyric. The theory of photogyric and crystallogyric
rotation has been worked out on the elastic-solid (MacCullagh
and others) and on the electromagnetic hypotheses (P. Drude,
Cotton, &c.). Allogyrism is due to a symmetry of the molecule,
and is a subject of the greatest importance in modern (and,
more especially, organic) chemistry (see STEREOISOMERISM).
The optical properties of metals have been the subject of
much experimental and theoretical inquiry. The explanations
of MacCullagh and Cauchy were followed by those of Beer,
Eisenlohr, Lundquist, Ketteler and others; the refractive
indices were determined both directly (by Kundt) and indirectly
by means of Brewster's law; and the reflecting powers from
X=25i/iju to \=i$oonn were determined in 1900-1902 by
Rubens and Hagen. The correlation of the optical and electrical
constants of many metals has been especially studied by P. Drude
(1900) and by Rubens and Hagen (1903).
The transformations of luminous radiations have also been
studied. John Tyndall discovered calorescence. Fluorescence
was treated by John Herschel in 1845, and by David Brewster
in 1846, the theory being due to Sir G. G. Stokes (1852). More
recent studies have been made by Lommel, E. L. Nichols and
Merritt (Phys. Rev., 1904), and by Millikan who discovered
polarized fluorescence in 1895. Our knowledge of phosphor-
escence was greatly improved by Becquerel, and Sir James
Dewar obtained interesting results in the course of his low
temperature researches (see LIQUID GASES). In the theoretical
and experimental study of radiation enormous progress has been
recorded. The pressure of radiation, the necessity of which
was demonstrated by Clerk Maxwell on the electromagnetic
theory, and, in a simpler manner, by Joseph Larmor in his
article RADIATION in these volumes, has been experimentally
determined by E. F. Nichols and Hull, and the tangential
component by J. H. Poynting. With the theoretical and
practical investigation the names of Balfour Stewart, Kirchhoff,
Stefan, Bartoli, Boltzmann, W. Wien and Larmor are chiefly
associated. Magneto-optics, too, has been greatly developed
since Faraday's discovery of the rotation of the plane of polariza-
tion by the magnetic field. The rotation for many substances
was measured by Sir William H. Perkin, who attempted a
correlation between rotation and composition. Brace effected
the analysis of the beam into its two circularly polarized
NATURE]
LIGHT
617
components, and in 1904 Mills measured their velocities. The
Kerr effect, discovered in 1877, and the Zeeman effect (1896)
widened the field of research, which, from its intimate connexion
with the nature of light and electromagnetics, has resulted
in discoveries of the greatest importance.
§ 14. Optical Instruments. — Important developments have
been made in the construction and applications of optical
instruments. To these three factors have contributed. The
mathematician has quantitatively analysed the phenomena
observed by the physicist, and has inductively shown what
results are to be expected from certain optical systems. A
consequence of this was the detailed study, and also the prepara-
tion, of glasses of diverse properties; to this the chemist largely
contributed, and the manufacture of the so-called optical glass
(see GLASS) is possibly the most scientific department of glass
manufacture. The mathematical investigations of lenses owe
much to Gauss, Helmholtz and others, but far more to Abbe,
who introduced the method of studying the aberrations separ-
ately, and applied his results with conspicuous skill to the
construction of optical systems. The development of Abbe's
methods constitutes the main subject of research of the present-
day optician, and has brought about the production of tele-
scopes, microscopes, photographic lenses and other optical
apparatus to an unprecedented pitch of excellence. Great
improvements have been effected in the stereoscope. Binocular
instruments with enhanced stereoscopic vision, an effect achieved
by increasing the distance between the object glasses, have been
introduced. In the study of diffraction phenomena, which led
to the technical preparation of gratings, the early attempts
of Fraunhofer, Nobert and Lewis Morris Rutherfurd, were
followed by H. A. Rowland's ruling of plane and concave gratings
which revolutionized spectroscopic research, and, in 1898, by
Michelson's invention of the echelon grating. Of great import-
ance are interferometers, which permit extremely accurate
determinations of refractive indices and wave-lengths, and
Michelson, from his classical evaluation of the standard metre
in terms of the wave-lengths of certain of the cadmium rays,
has suggested the adoption of the wave-length of one such
ray as a standard with which national standards of length
should be compared. Polarization phenomena, and particularly
the rotation of the plane of polarization by such substances as
sugar solutions, have led to the invention and improvements
of polarimeters. The polarized light employed in such instru-
ments is invariably obtained by transmission through a fixed
Nicol prism — the polarizer — and the deviation is measured
by the rotation of a second Nicol — the analyser. The early
forms, which were termed " light and shade " polarimeters,
have been generally replaced by " half-shade " instruments.
Mention may also be made of the microscopic examination
of objects in polarized light, the importance of which as a
method of crystallographic and petrological research was
suggested by Nicol, developed by Sorby and greatly expanded
by Zirkel, Rosenbusch and others.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — There are numerous text-books which give
elementary expositions of light and optical phenomena. More
advanced works, which deal with the subject experimentally and
mathematically, are A. B. Bassett, Treatise on Physical Optics
(1892); Thomas Preston, Theory of Light, 2nd ed. by C. F. Joly
(1901); R. W. Wood, Physical Optics (1905), which contains ex-
positions on the electromagnetic theory, and treats " dispersion " in
great detail. Treatises more particularly theoretical are James
Walker, Analytical Theory of Light (1904); A. Schuster, Theory of
Optics (1904) ; P. prude, Theory of Optics, Eng. trans, by C. R.
Mann and R. A. Millikan (1902). General treatises of exceptional
merit are A. Winkelmann, Handbuch der Physik, vol. vi. " Optik "
(1904) ; and E. Mascart, Traitt d'optique (1889-1893) ; M. E. Verdet,
Legons d'optique physique (1869, 1872) is also a valuable work.
Geometrical optics is treated in R. S. Heath, Geometrical Optics
(2nd ed., 1898); H. A. Herman, Treatise on Geometrical Optics
(1900). Applied optics, particularly with regard to the theory of
optical instruments, is treated in H. D. Taylor, A System of Applied
Optics (1906); E. T. Whittaker, The Theory of Optical Instruments
(1907); in the publications of the scientific staff of the Zeiss works
at Jena: Die Theorie der optischen Instrumente, vol. i. " Die Bilder-
zeugung in optischen Instrumenten " (1904); in S. Czapski, Theorie
der optischen Instrumente, 2nd ed. by O. Eppenstein (1904) ; and in
A. Steinheil and E. Voit, Handbuch der angewandten Optik (1901).
The mathematical theory of general optics receives historical and
modern treatment in the Encyklopddie der mathematischen Wissen-
schaften (Leipzig). Meteorological optics is fujly treated in J. Pernter,
Meteorologische Optik; and physiological optics in H. v Helmholtz,
Handbuch der physiologischen Optik (1896) and in A. Koenig,
Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur physiologischen Optik (1903).
The history of the subject may be studied in J. C. Poggendorff,
Geschichte der Physik (1879); F. Rosenberger, Die Geschichte der
Physik (1882-1890); E. Gerland and F. Traumuller, Geschichte der
physikalischen Experimentierkunst (1899); reference may also be
made to Joseph Priestley, History and Present State of Discoveries
relating to Vision, Light and Colours (1772), German translation by
G. S. Klugel (Leipzig, 1775). Original memoirs are available in
many cases in their author's " collected works," e.g. Huygens,
Young, Fresnel, Hamilton, Cauchy, Rowland, Clerk Maxwell,
Stokes (and also his Burnett Lectures on Light), Kelvin (and also his
Baltimore Lectures, 1904) and Lord Rayleigh. Newton's Opticks
forms volumes 96 and 97 of Ostwald's Klassiker; Huygens' Vber d.
Licht (1678), vol. 20, and Kepler's Dioptrice (1611), vol. 144 of the
same series.
Contemporary progress is reported in current scientific journals,
e.g. the Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society, and of the
Physical Society (London), the Philosophical Magazine (London), the
Physical Review (New York, 1893 seq.) and in the British Association
Reports; in the Annales de chimie el de physique and Journal de
physique (Paris); and in the Physikalische Zeitschrift (Leipzig)
and the Annalen der Physik und Chemie (since 1900: Annalen der
Physik) (Leipzig). (C. E.*)
II. NATURE OF LIGHT
1. Newton's Corpuscular Theory. — Until the beginning of the
igth century physicists were divided between two different
views concerning the nature of optical phenomena. According
to the one, luminous bodies emit extremely small corpuscles
which can freely pass through transparent substances and
produce the sensation of light by their impact against the retina.
This emission or corpuscular theory of light was supported by
the authority of Isaac Newton,1 and, though it has been entirely
superseded by its rival, the wave-theory, it remains of considerable
historical interest.
2. Explanation of Reflection and Refraction. — Newton supposed
the light-corpuscles to be subjected to attractive and repulsive
forces exerted at very small distances by the particles of matter.
In the interior of a homogeneous body a corpuscle moves in a
straight line as it is equally acted on from all sides, but it changes
its course at the boundary of two bodies, because, in a thin layer
near the surface there is a resultant force in the direction of
the normal. In modern language we may say that a corpuscle
has at every point a definite potential energy, the value of which
is constant throughout the interior of a homogeneous body, and
is even equal in all bodies of the same kind, but changes from
one substance to another. If, originally, while moving in air,
the corpuscles had a definite velocity t>0, their velocity v in the
interior of any other substance is quite determinate. It is given
by the equation ^mv1— %mV(? = A, in which m denotes the mass
of a corpuscle, and A the excess of its potential energy in air
over that in the substance considered.
A ray of light falling on the surface of separation of two bodies
is reflected according to the well-known simple law, if the corpuscles
are acted on by a sufficiently large force directed towards the first
medium. On the contrary, whenever the field of force near the
surface is such that the corpuscles can penetrate into the interior
of the second body, the ray is refracted. In this case the law of
Snellius can be deduced from the consideration that the projection
w of the velocity on the surface of separation is not altered, either
in direction or in magnitude. This obviously requires that the
plane passing through the incident and the refracted rays be normal
'to the surface, and that, if ai and 02 are the angles of incidence and
of refraction, Vi and t>2 the velocities of light in the two media,
sin oi/sin a2 = a>M : w/i>2=»2/fi. (i)
The ratio is constant, because, as has already been observed, t>i and
fz have definite values.
As to the unequal refrangibility of differently coloured light,
Newton accounted for it by imagining different kinds of corpuscles.
He further carefully examined the phenomenon of total reflection,
and described an interesting experiment connected with it. If one
of the faces of a glass prism receives on the inside a beam of light of
such obliquity that it is totally reflected under ordinary circumstances,,
1 Newton, Opticks (London, 1704).
6i8
LIGHT
[NATURE
a marked change is observed when a second piece of glass is made
to approach the reflecting face, so as to be separated from it only
by a very thin layer of air. The reflection is then found no longer
to be total, part of the light finding its way into the second piece of
glass. Newton concluded from this that the corpuscles are attracted
by the glass even at a certain small measurable distance.
3. New Hypotheses in the Corpuscular Theory. — The preceding
explanation of reflection and refraction is open to a very serious
objection. If the particles in a beam of light all moved with
the same velocity and were acted on by the same forces, they
all ought to follow exactly the same path. In order to understand
that part of the incident light is reflected and part of it trans-
mitted, Newton imagined that each corpuscle undergoes certain
alternating changes; he assumed that in some of its different
" phases " it is more apt to be reflected, and in others more
apt to be transmitted. The same idea was applied by him to
the phenomena presented by very thin layers. He had observed
that a gradual increase of the thickness of a layer produces
periodic changes in the intensity of the reflected light, and he
very ingeniously explained these by. his theory. It is clear that
the intensity of the transmitted light will be a minimum if the
corpuscles that have traversed the front surface of the layer,
having reached that surface while in their phase of easy trans-
mission, have passed to the opposite phase the moment they
arrive at the back surface. As to the nature of the alternating
phases, Newton (Oplicks, 3rd ed., 1721, p. 347) expresses himself
as follows: — " Nothing more is requisite for putting the Rays
of Light into Fits of easy Reflexion and easy Transmission than
that they be small Bodies which by their attractive Powers, or
some other Force, stir up Vibrations in what they act upon,
which Vibrations being swifter than the Rays, overtake them
successively, and agitate them so as by turns to increase and
decrease their Velocities, and thereby put them into those Fits."
4. The Corpuscular Theory and the Wave-Theory compared. —
Though Newton introduced the notion of periodic changes,
which was to play so prominent a part in the later development
of the wave-theory, he rejected this theory in the form in which
it had been set forth shortly before by Christiaan Huygens in
his Traitedelalumiere (1690), his chief objections being: (i) that
the rectilinear propagation had not been satisfactorily accounted
for; (2) that the motions of heavenly bodies show no sign of a
resistance due to a medium filling all space; and (3) that Huygens
had not sufficiently explained the peculiar properties of the
rays produced by the double refraction in Iceland spar. In
Newton's days these objections were of much weight.
Yet his own theory had many weaknesses. It explained the
propagation in straight lines, but it could assign no cause for
the equality of the speed of propagation of all rays. It adapted
itself to a large variety of phenomena, even to that of double
refraction (Newton says [ibid.]: — " . . . the unusual Refraction
of Iceland Crystal looks very much as if it were perform'd by
some kind of attractive virtue lodged in certain Sides both of
the Rays, and of the Particles of the Crystal."), but it could
do so only at the price of losing much of its original simplicity.
In the earlier part of the ipth century, the corpuscular theory
broke down under the weight of experimental evidence, and it
received the final blow when J. B. L. Foucault proved by direct
experiment that the velocity of light in water is not greater than
that in air, as it should be according to the formula (i), but less
than it, as is required by the wave-theory.
5. General Theorems on Rays of Light. — With the aid of
suitable assumptions the Newtonian theory can accurately
trace the course of a ray of light in any system of isotropic
bodies, whether homogeneous or otherwise; the problem being
equivalent to that of determining the motion of a material
point in a space in which its potential energy is given as a function
of the coordinates. The application of the dynamical principles
of " least and of varying action " to this latter problem leads
to the following important theorems which William Rowan
Hamilton made the basis of his exhaustive treatment of systems
of rays.1 The total energy of a corpuscle is supposed to have
1 Trans. Irish Acad. 15, p. 69 (1824); 16, part I. " Science," p. 4
(1830), part ii., ibid. p. 93 (1830); 17, part i., p. i (1832).
a given value, so that, since the potential energy is considered
as known at every point, the velocity v is so likewise.
(a) The path along which light travels from a point A to a point B
is determined by the condition that for this line the integral fvds,
in which ds is an element of the line, be a minimum (provided A and
B be not top near each other). Therefore, since v = taia, if v0 is the
velocity of light in vacua and ft the index of refraction, we have for
every variation of the path the points A and B remaining fixed,
Sfnds = o. (2)
(b) Let the point A be kept fixed, but let B undergo an infinitely
small displacement BB' ( = q) in a direction making an angle 6 with
the last element of the ray AB. Then, comparing the new ray AB'
with the original one, it follows that
Sfnds = /jisqcose, (3)
where MB is the value of /* at the point B.
6. General Considerations on the Propagation of Waves. —
" Waves," i.e. local disturbances of equilibrium travelling
onward with a certain speed, can exist in a large variety of
systems. In a theory of these phenomena, the state of things
at a definite point may in general be defined by a certain directed
or vector quantity P,2 which is zero in the state of equilibrium,
and may be called the disturbance (for example, the velocity
of the air in the case of sound vibrations, or the displacement
of the particles of an elastic body 'from their positions of equi-
librium). The components fx, ?„, P, of the disturbance in the
directions of the axes of coordinates are to be considered as
functions of the coordinates x, y, z and the time t, determined
by a set of partial differential equations, whose form depends
on the nature of the problem considered. If the equations are
homogeneous and linear, as they always are for sufficiently
small disturbances, the following theorems hold.
(a) Values of P», P,,, P« (expressed in terms of *, y, z, i) which
satisfy the equations will do so still after multiplication by a common
arbitrary constant.
(b) Two or more solutions of the equations may be combined into
a new solution by addition of the values of Pi, those of P,, &c., i.e.
by compounding the vectors P, such as they are in each of the
particular solutions.
In the application to light, the first proposition means that the
phenomena of propagation, reflection, refraction, &c., can be pro-
duced in the same way with strong as with weak light. The second
proposition contains the principle of the " superposition " of different
states, on which the explanation of all phenomena of interference
is made to depend.
In the simplest cases (monochromatic or homogeneous light) the
disturbance is a simple harmonic function of the time (" simple
harmonic vibrations "), so that its components can be represented by
Px =ai cos (nl+fi), Pu =02 cos (n/+/2), P, = as cos (nt+fj.
The " phases " of these vibrations are determined by the angles
nt+fi, &c., or by the times /+/:/», &c. The " frequency " n is con-
stant throughout the system, while the quantities /i, /2, /3, and
perhaps the " amplitudes " a\, a?, a3 change from point to point.
It may be shown that the end of a straight line representing the
vector P, and drawn from the point considered, in general describes
a certain ellipse, which becomes a straight line, if /i=/2=/3< In this
latter case, to which the larger part of this article will be confined,
we can write in vector notation
P = Acos(n/+/), (4)
where A itself is to be regarded as a vector.
We have next to consider the way in which the disturbance
changes from point to point. The most important case is that of
plane waves with constant amplitude A. Here / is the same at all
points of a plane (" wave-front ") of a definite direction, but changes
as a linear function as we pass from one such wave-front to the next.
The axis of x being drawn at right angles to the wave-fronts, we may
write /=/o-fo:, where /o and k are constants, so that (4) becomes
P = A cos (nt-kx+fa). (5)
This expression has the period 2ir/» with respect to the time
and the perion 2ir/k with respect to x, so that the " time of
vibration " and the " wave-length " are given by T = 27r/n, \ = 2w/k.
Further, it is easily seen that the phase belonging to certain values
of x and / is equal to that which corresponds to x +A# and t -\-At
provided Ax = (n/k)At. Therefore the phase, or the disturbance
itself, may be said to be propagated in the direction normal to the
wave-fronts with a velocity (velocity of the waves) v = n/k, which
is connected with the time of vibration and the wave-length by the
relation \ = vT. (6)
2 This kind of type will always be used in this article to denote
vectors.
NATURE]
LIGHT
619
In isotropic bodies the propagation can go on in all directions with
the same velocity. In anisotropic bodies (crystals), with which the
theory of light is largely concerned, the problem is more complicated.
As a general rule we can say that, for a given direction of the wave-
fronts, the vibrations must have a determinate direction, if the
propagation is to take place according to the simple formula given
above. It is to be understood that for a given direction of the waves
there may be two or even more directions of vibration of the kind,
and that in such a case there are as many different velocities, each
belonging to one particular direction of vibration.
7. Wave-surface. — After having found the values of v for
a particular frequency and different directions of the wave-
normal, a very instructive graphical representation can be
employed.
Let ON be a line in any direction, drawn from a fixed point O, OA
a length along this line equal to the velocity t> of waves having ON
for their normal, or, more generally, OA, OA',&c., lengths equal to the
velocities v, v', &c., which such waves have according to their direction
of vibration, Q, Q', &c., planes perpendicular to ON through A, A1, &c.
Let this construction be repeated for all directions of ON, and let W
be the surface that is touched by all the planes Q, Q', &c. It is clear
that if this surface, which is called the " wave-surface," is known,
the velocity of propagation of plane waves of any chosen direction is
given by the length of the perpendicular from the centre O on a
tangent plane in the given direction. It must be kept in mind that,
in general, each tangent plane corresponds to one definite direction
of vibration. If this direction is assigned in each point of the wave-
surface, the diagram contains all the information which we can desire
concerning the propagation of plane waves of the frequency that has
been chosen.
The plane Q employed in the above construction is the position
after unit of time of a wave-front perpendicular to ON and originally
passing through the point O. The surface W itself is often considered
as the locus of all points that are reached in unit of time by a dis-
turbance starting from O and spreading towards all sides. Admitting
the validity of this view, we can determine in a similar way the locus
of the points reached in some infinitely short time dt, the wave-
surface, as we may say, or the " elementary wave," corresponding
to this time. It is similar to W, all dimensions of the latter surface
being multiplied by dt. It may be noticed that in a heterogeneous
medium a wave of this kind has the same form as if the properties
of matter existing at its centre extended over a finite space.
8. Theory of Huygens. — Huygens was the first to show that
the explanation of optical phenomena may be made to depend
on the wave-surface, not only in isotropic bodies, in which it
has a spherical form, but also in crystals, for one of which
(Iceland spar) he deduced the form of the surface from the
observed double refraction. In his argument Huygens availed
himself of the following principle that is justly named after
him: Any point that is reached by a wave of light becomes
a new centre of radiation from which the disturbance is propa-
gated towards all sides. On this basis he determined the progress
of light-waves by a construction which, under a restriction to be
mentioned in §13, applied to waves of any form and to all kinds
of transparent media. Let a be the surface (wave-front) to
which a definite phase of vibration has advanced at a certain
time t, dt an infinitely small increment of time, and let an
elementary wave corresponding to this interval be described
around each point P of IT. Then the envelope a' of all these
elementary waves is the surface reached by the phase in question
at the time t+dt, and by repeating the construction all successive
positions of the wave-front can be found.
Huygens also considered the propagation of waves that are
laterally limited, by having passed, for example, through an opening
in an opaque screen. If, in the first wave-front a, the disturbance
exists only in a certain part bounded by the contour s, we can confine
ourselves to the elementary waves around the points of that part,
and to a portion of the new wave-front a' whose boundary passes
through the points where a' touches the elementary waves having
their centres on s. Taking for granted Huygens's assumption that
a sensible disturbance is only found in those places where the ele-
mentary waves are touched by the new wave-front, it may be inferred
that the lateral limits of the beam of light are determined by lines,
each element of which joins the centre P of an elementary wave with
its point of contact P' with the next waye-front. To lines of this kind,
whose course can be made visible by using narrow pencils of light, the
name of " rays " is to be given in the wave-theory. The disturbance
may be conceived to travel along them with a velocity u = PP'/dt,
which is therefore called the " ray-velocity."
The construction shows that, corresponding to each direction of
the wave-front (with a determinate direction of vibration), there is
a definite direction and a definite velocity of the ray. Both are given
by a line drawn from the centre of the wave-surface to its point of
contact with a tangent plane of the given direction. It will be con-
venient to say that this line and the plane are conjugate with each
other. The rays of light, curved in non-homogeneous bodies, are
always straight lines in homogeneous substances. In an isotropic
medium, whether homogeneous or otherwise, they are normal to
the wave-fronts, and their velocity is equal to that of the waves.
By applying his construction to the reflection and refraction of
light, Huygens accounted for these phenomena in isotropic bodies
as well as in Iceland spar. It was afterwards shown by Augustin
Fresnel that the double refraction in biaxal crystals can be explained
in the same way, provided the proper form be assigned to the wave-
surface.
In any point of a bounding surface the normals to the reflected
and refracted waves, whatever be their number, always lie in the
plane passing through the normal to the incident waves and that to
the surface itself. Moreover, if ai is the angle between these two
latter normals, and a2 the angle between the normal to the boundary
and that to any one of the reflected and refracted waves, and »i, f2 the
corresponding wave-velocities, the relation
sin ai/sin a2=»i/»2 (7)
is found to hold in all cases. These important theorems may be
proved independently of Huygens's construction by simply observing
that, at each point of the surface of separation, there must be a
certain connexion between the disturbances existing in the incident,
the reflected, and the refracted waves, and that, therefore, the lines
of intersection of the surface with the positions of an incident wave-
front, succeeding each other at equal intervals of time dt, must
coincide with the lines in which the surface is intersected by a similar
series of reflected or refracted wave-fronts.
In the case of isotropic media, the ratio (7) is constant, so that
we are led to the law of Snellius, the index of refraction being given by
lt=Vi/Vt (8)
(cf. equation l).
9. General Theorems on Rays, deduced from Huygens's Construction.
— (a) Let A and B be two points arbitrarily chosen in a system of
transparent bodies, ds an element of a line drawn from A to B, u the
velocity of a ray of light coinciding with ds. Then the integral
fu~'ds, which represents the time required for a motion along the
line with the velocity «, is a minimum for the course actually taken
by a ray of light (unless A and B be too far apart). This is the
" principle of least time " first formulated by Pierre de Fermat for
the case of two isotropic substances. It shows that the course of a
ray of light can always be inverted.
(b) Rays of light starting in all directions from a point A and travel-
ling onward for a definite length of time, reach a surface a, whose
tangent plane at a point B is conjugate, in the medium surrounding
B, with the last element of the ray AB.
(c) If all rays issuing from A are concentrated at a point B, the
integral fu~lds has the same value for each of them.
(d) In case (b) the variation of the integral caused by an infinitely-
small displacement q of B, the point A remaining fixed, is given by
Sfu~*ds = q cos B/VB. Here 8 is the angle between the displacement
q and the normal to the surface a, in the direction of propagation,
f B the velocity of a plane wave tangent to this surface.
In the case of isotropic bodies, for which the relation (8) holds,
we recover the theorems concerning the integral ffids which we have
deduced from the emission theory (§ 5).
10. Further General Theorems. — (a) Let Vi and V2 be two planes
in a system of isotropic bodies, let rectangular axes of coordinates
be chosen in each of these planes, and let x\, y\ be the coordinates of a
point A in Vi, and *2, yi those of a point B in V2. The integral fi*ds,
taken for the ray between A and B, is a function of xi, yi, X2, y2 and,
if £1 denotes either Xi or y\, and £2 either *2 or y2, we shall have
On both sides of this equa'tion the first differentiation may be per-
formed by means of the formula (3). The second differentiation
admits of a geometrical interpretation, and the formula may finally
be employed for proving the following theorem :
Let wi be the solid angle of an infinitely thin pencil of rays issuing
from A and intersecting the plane V2 in an element <r2 at the point B.
Similarly, let u^ be the solid angle of a pencil starting from B and
falling; on the element CTI of the plane Vi at the point A. Then,
denoting by m and ^2 the indices of refraction of the matter at the
points A and B, by 8\ and 02 the sharp angles which the ray AB at its
extremities makes with the normals to Vi and V2, we have
(b) There is a second theorem that is expressed by exactly the same
formula, if we understand by <n and »2 elements of surface that are
related to each other as an object and its optical image — by ui, o>j
the infinitely small openings, at the beginning and the end of its
course, of a pencil of rays issuing from a point A of ai and coming
together at the corresponding point B of o-2, and by BI, 02 the sharp
angles which one of the rays makes with the normals to a\ and <r2.
The proof may be based upon the first theorem. It suffices to
620
LIGHT
[NATURE
consider the section a of the pencil by some intermediate plane, and
a bundle of rays starting from the points of <n and reaching those
of at after having all passed through a point of that section a.
(c) If in the last theorem the system of bodies is symmetrical
around the straight line AB, we can take for <n and <ra circular planes
having AB as axis. Let hi and fe be the radii of these circles, i.e.
the linear dimensions of an object and its image, et and « the in-
finitely small angles which a ray R going from A to B makes with
the axis at these points. Then the above formula gives /n&iei = wfe«,
a relation that was proved, for the particular case m =»? by Huygens
and Lagrange. It is still more valuable if one distinguishes by the
algebraic sign of fe whether the image is direct or inverted, and by
that of e whether the ray R on leaving A and on reaching B lies
on opposite sides of the axis or on the same side.
The above theorems are of much service in the theory of optical
instruments and in the general theory of radiation.
11. Phenomena of Interference and Di/raclion. — The impulses
or motions which a luminous body sends forth through the
universal medium or aether, were considered by Huygens as
being without any regular succession; he neither speaks of
vibrations, nor of the physical cause of the colours. The idea
that monochromatic light consists of a succession of simple
harmonic vibrations like those represented by the equation (5),
and that the sensation of colour depends on the frequency,
is due to Thomas Young1 and Fresnel,2 who explained the
phenomena of interference on this assumption combined with
the principle of super-position. In doing so they were also
enabled to determine the wave-length, ranging from 0-000076
cm. at the red end of the spectrum to 0-000039 cm. for the
extreme violet and, by means of the formula (6), the number
of vibrations per second. Later investigations have shown
that the infra-red rays as well as the ultra-violet ones are of
the same physical nature as the luminous rays, differing from
these only by the greater or smaller length of their waves. The
wave-length amounts to 0-006 cm. for the least refrangible
infra-red, and is as small as o-ooooi cm. for the extreme ultra-
violet.
Another important part of Fresnel's work is his treatment of
diffraction on the basis of Huygens's principle. If, for example,
light falls on a screen with a narrow slit, each point of the slit
is regarded as a new centre of vibration, and the intensity at
any point behind the screen is found by compounding with each
other the disturbances coming from all these points, due account
being taken of the phases with which they come together (see
DIFFRACTION; INTERFERENCE).
12. Results of Later Mathematical Theory.— Though the theory
of diffraction developed by Fresnel, and by other physicists
who worked on the same lines, shows a most beautiful agreement
with observed facts, yet its foundation; Huygens's principle,
cannot, in its original elementary form, be deemed quite satis-
factory. The general validity of the results has, however, been
confirmed by the researches of those mathematicians (Simeon
Denis Poisson, Augustin Louis Cauchy, Sir G. G. Stokes, Gustav
Robert Kirchhoff) who investigated the propagation of vibrations
in a more rigorous manner. Kirchhoff1 showed that the dis-
turbance at any point of the aether inside a closed surface which
contains no ponderable matter can be represented as made up
of a large number of parts, each of which depends upon the state
of things at one point of the surface. This result, the modern
form of Huygens's principle, can be extended to a system of
bodies of any kind, the only restriction being that the source
of light be not surrounded by the surface. Certain causes
capable of producing vibrations can be imagined to be distributed
all over this latter, in such a way that the disturbances to which
they give rise in the enclosed space are exactly those which are
brought about by the real source of light.4 Another interesting
result that has been verified by experiment is that, whenever
rays of light pass through a focus, the phase undergoes a change
of half a period. It must be added that the results alluded to in
1 Phil. Trans. (1802), part i. p. 12.
2 (Euvres completes de Fresnel (Paris, 1866). (The researches were
published between 1815 and 1827.)
3 Ann. Phys. Chem. (1883), 18, p. 663.
4 H. A. Lorentz, Zittingsversl. Akad. v. Wet. Amsterdam, 4 (1896)
p. 176.
the above, though generally presented in the terms of some
particular form of the wave theory, often apply to other forms
as well.
13. Rays of Light. — In working out the theory of diffraction
it is possible to state exactly in what sense light may be said to
travel in straight lines. Behind an opening whose width is very
'arge in comparison with the wave-length the limits between the
illuminated and the dark parts of space are approximately
determined by rays passing along the borders.
This conclusion can also be arrived at by a mode of reasoning that
is independent of the theory of diffraction.6 If linear differential
equations admit a solution of the form (5) with A constant, they can
also be satisfied by making A a function of the coordinates, such
that, in a wave-front, it changes very little over a distance equal
to the wave-length X, and that it is constant along each line conjugate
with the wave-fronts. In cases of this kind the disturbance may
truly be said to travel along lines of the said direction, and an
observer who is unable to discern lengths of the order of X, and who
uses an opening of much larger dimensions, may very well have
the impression of a cylindrical beam with a sharp boundary.
A similar result is found for curved waves. If the additional
restriction is made that their radii of curvature be very much
larger than the wave-length, Huygens's construction may con-
fidently be employed. The amplitudes all along a ray are determined
by, and proportional to, the amplitude at one of its points.
14. Polarized Light. — As the theorems used in the explanation
of interference and diffraction are true for all kinds of vibratory
motions, these phenomena can give us no clue to the special
kind of vibrations in light-waves. Further information, however,
may be drawn from experiments on plane polarized light. The
properties of a beam of this kind are completely known when
the position of a certain plane passing through the direction
of the rays, and in which the beam is said to be polarized, is
given. " This plane of polarization," as it is called, coincides
with the plane of incidence in those cases where the light has been
polarized by reflection on a glass surface under an angle of
incidence whose tangent is equal to the index of refraction
(Brewster's law).
The researches of Fresnel and Arago left no doubt as to the
direction of the vibrations in polarized light with respect to that
of the rays themselves. In isotropic bodies at least, the vibra-
tions are exactly transverse, i.e. perpendicular to the rays,
either in the plane of polarization or at right angles to it. The
first part of this statement also applies to unpolarized light, as
this can always be dissolved into polarized components.
Much experimental work has been done on the production
of polarized rays by double refraction and on the reflection of
polarized light, either by isotropic or by anisotropic transparent
bodies, the object of inquiry being in the latter case to determine
the position of the plane of polarization of the reflected rays and
their intensity.
In this way a large amount of evidence has been gathered by
which it has been possible to test different theories concerning
the nature of light and that of the medium through which it
is propagated. A common feature of nearly all these theories
is that the aether is supposed to exist not only in spaces void
of matter, but also in the interior of ponderable bodies.
15. Fresnel's Theory. — Fresnel and his immediate successors
assimilated the aether to an elastic solid, so that the velocity
of propagation of transverse vibrations could be determined
by the formula i>=V(K/p), where K denotes the modulus of
rigidity and p the density. According to this equation the
different properties of various isotropic transparent bodies
may arise from different values of K, of p, or of both. It has,
however, been found that if both K and p are supposed to change
from one substance to another, it is impossible to obtain the
right reflection formulae. Assuming the constancy of K Fresnel
was led to equations which agreed with the observed properties
of the reflected light, if he made the further assumption (to be
mentioned in what follows as " Fresnel's assumption ") that the
vibrations of plane polarized light are perpendicular to the plane
of polarization.
5H. A. Lorentz, Abhandlungen uber theorelische Physik, I (1907),
P- 4i5-
NATURE]
LIGHT
621
Let the indices p and n relate to the two principal cases in which
the incident (and, consequently, the reflected) light is polarized in
the plane of incidence, or normally to it, and let positiye directions
h and h' be chosen for the disturbance (at the surface itself) in the
incident and for that in the reflected beam, in such a manner that,
by a common rotation, h and the incident ray prolonged may be
made to coincide with h' and the reflected ray. Then, if 01 and at
are the angles of incidence and refraction, Fresnel shows that, in
order to get the reflected disturbance, the incident one must be
multiplied by
ap= -sin (ai-a2)/sin (ai+o2) (9)
in the first, and by
a» = tan (01 — as) / tan (<n + as) ( i o)
in the second principal case.
As to double refraction, Fresnel made it depend on the unequal
elasticity of the aether in different directions. He came to the
conclusion that, for a given direction of the waves, there are two
possible directions of vibration (§6), lying in the wave-front,
at right angles to each other, and he determined the form of
the wave-surface, both in uniaxal and in biaxal crystals.
Though objections may be urged against the dynamic part
of Fresnel's theory, he admirably succeeded in adapting it to
the facts.
1 6. Electromagnetic Theory. — We here leave the historical
order and pass on to Maxwell's theory of light.
James Clerk Maxwell, who had set himself the task of mathe-
matically working out Michael Faraday's views, and who, both by
doing so and by introducing many new ideas of his own, became the
founder of the modern science of electricity,1 recognized that, at every
point of an electromagnetic field, the state of things can be defined
by two vector quantities, the " electric force " E and the " magnetic
force " H, the former of which is the force acting on unit of electricity
and the latter that which acts on a magnetic pole of unit strength.
In a non-conductor (dielectric) the force E produces a state that
may be described as a displacement of electricity from its position
of equilibrium. This state is represented by a vector D (" dielectric
displacement ") whose magnitude is measured by the quantity of
electricity reckoned per unit area which has traversed an element
of surface perpendicular to D itself. Similarly, there is a vector
quantity B (the " magnetic induction ") intimately connected with
the magnetic force H. Changes of the dielectric displacement
constitute an electric current measured by the rate of change of D,
and represented in vector notation by
C = f> (n)
Periodic changes of D and B may be called " electric " and " magnetic
vibrations." Properly choosing the units, the axes of coordinates (in
the first proposition also the positiye direction of i and n), and
denoting components of vectors by suitable indices, we can express in
the following way the fundamental propositions of the theory.
(o) Let i be a closed line, a a surface bounded by it, n the normal
to a. Then, for all bodies,
where the constant c means the ratio between the electro-magnet
.and the electrostatic unit of electricity.
From these equations we can deduce:
(a) For the interior of a body, the equations
dy dz" cC" dz dx'~cC" dx°~W~cC' (I2)
_
dy dz
_
c dt ' dz
dx
c dt ' dx dy
c dt
(ft) For a surface of separation, the continuity of the tangential
components of E and H;
(7) The solenpidal distribution of C and B, and in a dielectric that
of D. A solenoidal distribution of a vector is one corresponding to
that of the velocity in an incompressible fluid. It involves the
continuity, at a surface, of the normal component of the vector.
(b) The relation between the electric force and the dielectric dis-
placement is expressed by
D, = «iE,, D» = €2E,, Dz = e3Ez, (14)
the constants ei, f2, e3 (dielectric constants) depending on the pro-
perties of the body considered. In an isotropic medium they have a
common value e, which is equal to unity for the free aether, so that
for this medium D = E.
(c) There is a relation similar to (14) between the magnetic force
and the magnetic induction. For the aether, however, and for all
ponderable bodies with which this article is concerned, we may write
B =H.
1 Clerk Maxwell, A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (Oxford,
ist ed., 1873).
It follows from these principles that, in an isotropic dialectric,
transverse electric vibrations can be propagated with a velocity
»=e/y«. (15)
Indeed, all conditions are satisfied if we put
D*=o, D|,=acos n(t— xv^+l), Dz = o, ) , ,,
Hx=o, H,, = o , nt = avc~l cos n(t-xv~l+l) ] (lb)
For the free aether the velocity has the value c. Now it had been
found that the ratio c between the two units of electricity agrees
within the limits of experimental errors with the numerical value of
the velocity of light in aether. (The mean result of the most exact
determinations2 of c is 3,001 -lo'tm. /sec., the largest deviations
being about o,oo8-io10: and Cornu3 gives 3,ooi-io*°±o,oo3-ioll)
as the most probable value of the velocity of light.) By this Maxwell
was led to suppose that light consists of transverse electromagnetic
disturbances. On this assumption, the equations (16) represent a
beam of plane polarized light. They show that, in such a beam,
there are at the same time electric and magnetic vibrations, both
transverse, and at right angles to each other.
It must be added that the electromagnetic field is the seat of two
kinds of energy distinguished by the names of electric and magnetic
energy, and that, according to a beautiful theorem due to J. H.
Poynting,4 the energy may be conceived to flow in a direction
perpendicular both to the electric and to the magnetic force. The
amounts per unit of volume of the electric and the magnetic energy
are given by the expressions
i(ExDI + E,,Dy+EzD2), (17)
and
KHIBI-(-H1,B1(+H2B2) = iH2, (18)
whose mean values for a full period are equal in every beam of light.
The formula (15) shows that the index of refraction of a body is
given by V «, a result that has been verified by Ludwig Boltzmann's
measurements6 of the dielectric constants of gases. Thus Maxwell's
theory can assign the true cause of the different optical properties
of various transparent bodies. It also leads to the reflection formulae
(9) and (10), provided the electric vibrations of polarized light be
supposed to be perpendicular to the plane of polarization, which
implies that the magnetic vibrations are parallel to that plane.
Following the same assumption Maxwell deduced the laws of double
refraction, which he ascribes to the unequality of «i, «2, <s. His
results agree with those of Fresnel and the theory has been confirmed
by Boltzmann,6 who measured the three coefficients in the case of
crystallized sulphur, and compared them with the principal indices
of refraction. Subsequently the problem of crystalline reflection has
been completely solved and it has been shown that, in a crystal,
Poynting's flow of energy has the direction of the rays as determined
by Huygens's construction.
Two further verifications must here be mentioned. In the first
place, though we shall speak almost exclusively of the propagation of
light in transparent dielectrics, a few words may be said about the
optical properties of conductors. The simplest assumption con-
cerning the electric current C in a metallic body is expressed by the
equation C = <rE, where a is the coefficient of conductivity. Com-
bining this with his other formulae (we may say with (12) and (13)),
Maxwell found that there must be an absorption of light, a result
that can be readily understood since the motion of electricity in a
conductor gives rise to a development of heat. But, though Maxwell
accounted in this way for the fundamental fact that metals are
opaque bodies, there remained a wide divergence between the values
of the coefficient of absorption as directly measured and as cal-
culated from the electrical conductivity; but in 1903 it was shown
by E. Hagen and H. Rubens7 that the agreement is very satis-
factory in the case of the extreme infra-red rays.
In the second place, the electromagnetic theory requires that a
surface struck by a beam of light shall experience a certain pressure.
If the beam falls normally on a plane disk, the pressure is normal
too; its total amount is given by c~1(fi+*2— *j)i if *i» 4 and i'3 are
the quantities of energy that are carried forward per unit of time
by the incident, the reflected, and the transmitted light. This
result has been quantitatively verified by E. F. Nicholls and G. F.
Hull."
Maxwell's predictions have been splendidly confirmed by the
experiments of Heinrich Hertz9 and others on electromagnetic
waves; by diminishing the length of these to the utmost, some
physicists have been able to reproduce with them all phenomena of
reflection, refraction (single and double), interference, and polariza-
tion.10 A table of the wave-lengths observed in the aether now has
2 H. Abraham, Rapports presentes au congres de physique de IQOO
(Paris), 2, p. 247. = Ibid., p. 225.
4 Phil. Trans., 175 (1884), p. 343.
6 Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem. 155 (1875), p. 403.
6 Ibid. 153 (1874), p. 525.
7 Ann. d. Phys. n (1903), p. 873.
8 Phys. Review, 13 (1901), p. 293.
9 Hertz, Untersuchungen tiber die Ausbreitung der elektrischen
Kraft (Leipzig, 1892).
10 A. Righi, L'Ottica delle oscillazioni elettriche (Bologna, 1897);
P. Lebedew, Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem., 56 (1895), p. I.
622
LIGHT
[NATURE
to contain, besides the numbers given in § II, the lengths of the
waves produced by electromagnetic apparatus and extending from
the long waves used in wireless telegraphy down to about 0-6 cm.
17. Mechanical Models of the Electromagnetic Medium. — From
the results already enumerated, a clear idea can be formed ol
the difficulties which were encountered in the older form ol
the wave-theory. Whereas, in Maxwell's theory, longitudina
vibrations are excluded ab initio by the solenoidal distribution
of the electric current, the elastic-solid theory had to take them
into account, unless, as was often done, one made them disappear
by supposing them to have a very great velocity of propagation,
so that the aether was considered to be practically incompressible.
Even on this assumption, however, much in Fresnel's theory
remained questionable. Thus George Green,1 who was the first
to apply the theory of elasticity in an unobjectionable manner,
arrived on Fresnel's assumption at a formula for the reflection
coefficient A, sensibly differing from (10).
In the theory of double refraction the difficulties are no less
serious. As a general rule there are in an anisotropic elastic
solid three possible directions of vibration (§ 6), at right angles
to each other,, for a given direction of the waves, but none of these
lies in the wave-front. In order to make two of them do so and
to find Fresnel's form for the wave-surface, new hypotheses are
required. On Fresnel's assumption it is even necessary, as was
observed by Green, to suppose that in the absence of all vibra-
tions there is already a certain state of pressure in the medium.
If we adhere to Fresnel's assumption, it is indeed scarcely possible
to construct an elastic model of the electromagnetic medium. It
may be done, however, if the velocities of the particles in the model
an taken to represent the magnetic force H, which, of course, implies
that the vibrations of the particles are parallel to the plane of
polarization, and that the magnetic energy is represented by the
kinetic energy in the model. Considering further that, in the case
of two bodies connected with each other, there is continuity of H
in the electromagnetic system, and continuity of the velocity of the
particles in the model, it becomes clear that the representation of
H by that velocity must be on the same scale in all substances, so
that, if {, ij, f are the displacements of a particle and g a universal
constant, we may write
U = ajj__a7f__aj-
By this the magnetic energy per unit of volume becomes
and since this must be the kinetic energy of the elastic medium, the
density of the latter must be taken equal to g2, so that it must be
the same in all substances.
It may further be asked what value we have to assign to the
potential energy in the model, which must correspond to the electric
energy in the electromagnetic field. Now, on account of (ll) and
(19), we can satisfy the equations (12) by .putting D, = gc
&c., so that the electric energy (17) per unit of volume becomes
I.M 5 L (a-£_«S\ ' . L (dJ_?£\ V- 1*1 K\ ' I
*rcUW to] +«.U a*/ +«, lair a^j $•
This, therefore, must be the potential energy in the model.
It may be shown, indeed, that, if the aether has a uniform constant
density, and is so constituted that in any system, whether homo-
geneous or not, its potential energy per unit of volume can be
represented by an expression of the form
where L, M, N are coefficients depending on the physical properties
of the substance considered, the equations of motion wul exactly
correspond to the equations of the electromagnetic field.
1 8. Theories of Neumann, Green, and MacCullagh. — A theory
of light in which the elastic aether has a uniform density, and in
which the vibrations are supposed to be parallel to the plane
of polarization, was developed by Franz Ernst Neumann,2 who
gave the first deduction of the formulas for crystalline reflection.
Like Fresnel, he was, however, obliged to introduce some
illegitimate assumptions and simplifications. Here again Green
indicated a more rigorous treatment.
" Reflection and Refraction," Trans. Cambr. Phil. Soc. 7, p. I
" Double Refraction," ibid. p. 121 (1839).
" Double Refraction," Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem. 25 (1832), p. 418;
* Crystalline Reflection," Abhandl. Akad. Berlin (1835), p. I.
By specializing the formula for the potential energy of an aniso-
tropic body he arrives at an expression which, if some of his co-
efficients are made to vanish and if the medium is supposed to be
incompressible, differs from (20) only by the additional terms
df9r,_dr, d£\ M /af 3f _df aj\ /a, 3f «| a,\ )
dyd2 dydz)+M\dzdX dzdx)+N\tedy tody)
If f, ij, f vanish at infinite distance the integral of this expression
over all space is zero, when L, M, N are constants, and the same
will be true when these coefficients change from point to point,
provided we add to (21) certain terms containing the differential
coefficients of L, M, N, the physical meaning of these terms being
that, besides the ordinary elastic forces, there is some extraneous
force (called into play by the displacement) acting on all those
elements of volume where L, M, N are not constant. We may
conclude from this that all phenomena can be explained if we admit
the existence of this latter force, which, in the case of two contingent
bodies, reduces to a surface-action on their common boundary.
James MacCullagh * avoided this complication by simply assuming
an expression of the form (20) for the potential energy. He thus
established a theory that is perfectly consistent in itself, and may be
said to have foreshadowed the electromagnetic theory as regards
the form of the equations for transparent bodies. Lord Kelvin
afterwards interpreted MacCullagh's assumption by supposing the
only action which is called forth by a displacement to consist in
certain couples acting on the elements of volume and proportional
to the components ^{(df/dy) — (a>j/dz)}, &c., of their rotation from
the natural position. He also showed * that this " rotational
elasticity " can be produced by certain hidden rotations going on
in the medium.
We cannot dwell here upon other models that have been pro-
posed, and most of which are of rather limited applicability.
A mechanism of a more general kind ought, of course, to be
adapted to what is known of the molecular constitution of bodies,
and to the highly probable assumption of the perfect perme-
ability for the aether of all ponderable matter, an assumption
by which it has been possible to escape from one of the objections
raised by Newton (§4) (see AETHER).
The possibility of a truly satisfactory model certainly cannot
be denied. But it would, in all probability, be extremely com-
plicated. For this reason many physicists rest content, as
regards the free aether, with some such general form of the
electromagnetic theory as has been sketched in § 16.
19. Optical Properties of Ponderable Bodies. Theory of Elec-
trons. — If we want to form an adequate representation of optical
phenomena in ponderable bodies, the conceptions of the molecular
and atomistic theories naturally suggest themselves. Already,
in the elastic theory, it had been imagined that certain material
particles are set vibrating by incident waves of light. These
particles had been supposed to be acted on by an elastic force by
which they are drawn back towards their positions of equilibrium,
so that they can perform free vibrations of their own, and by a
resistance that can be represented by terms proportional to the
velocity in the equations of motion, and may be physically
understood if the vibrations are supposed to be converted in
one way or another into a disorderly heat-motion. In this way
it had been found possible to explain the phenomena of dis-
persion and (selective) absorption, and the connexion between
them (anomalous dispersion).5 These ideas have been also
embodied into the electromagnetic theory. In its more recent
development the extremely small, electrically charged particles,
to which the name of " electrons " has been given, and which are
supposed to exist in the interior of all bodies, are considered
as forming the connecting links between aether and matter,
and as determining by their arrangement and their motion all
optical phenomena that are not confined to the free aether.4
It has thus become clear why the relations that had been estab-
lished between optical and electrical properties have been found
to hold only in some simple cases (§16). In fact it cannot be
doubted that, for rapidly alternating electric fields, the formulae
expressing the connexion between the motion of electricity and
the electric force take a form that is less simple than the one
previously admitted, and is to be determined in each case by
' Trans. Irish Acad. 21, " Science," p. 17 (1839).
4 Math, and Phys. Papers (London, 1890), 3, p. 466.
Helmholtz, Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem., 154 (1875), p. 582.
• H. A. Lorentz, Versuch einer Theorie der elektrischen u. optischen
Erscheinungen in bewegten Korpern (1895) (Leipzig, 1906); J.
-armor, Aether and Matter (Cambridge, 1900).
VELOCITY]
LIGHT
623
elaborate investigation. However, the general boundary con-
ditions given in § 16 seem to require no alteration. For this
reason it has been possible, for example, to establish a satisfactory
theory of metallic reflection, though the propagation of light in the
interior of a metal is only imperfectly understood.
One of the fundamental propositions of the theory of electrons
is that an electron becomes a centre of radiation whenever its
velocity changes either in direction or in magnitude. Thus
the production of Rontgen rays, regarded as consisting of very
short and irregular electromagnetic impulses, is traced to the
impacts of the electrons of the cathode-rays against the anti-
cathode, and the lines of an emission spectrum indicate the
existence in the radiating body of as many kinds of regular
vibrations, the knowledge of which is the ultimate object of
our investigations about the structure of the spectra. The
shifting of the lines caused, according to Doppler's law, by a
motion of the source of light, may easily be accounted for, as
only general principles are involved in the explanation. To a
certain extent we can also elucidate the changes in the emission
that are observed when the radiating source is exposed to
external magnetic forces (" Zeeman-effect "; see MAGNETO-
OPTICS).
20. Various Kinds of Light-motion. — (a) If the disturbance is
represented by
pI = o,Pv = acos (nt-kx+f), P, = a'cos (nt-kx+f),
so that the end of the vector P describes an ellipse in a plane per-
pendicular to the direction of propagation, the light is said to be
elliptically, or in special cases circularly, polarized. Light of this
kind can be dissolved in many different ways into plane polarized
components.
There are cases in which plane waves must be elliptically or
circularly polarized in order to show the simple propagation of phase
that is expressed by formulae like (5). Instances of this kind occur
in bodies having the property of rotating the plane of polarization,
either on account of their constitution, or under the influence of
a magnetic field. For a given direction of the wave-front there are
in general two kinds of elliptic vibrations, each having a definite
form, orientation, and direction of motion, and a determinate
velocity of propagation. All that has been said about Huygens's
construction applies to these cases.
(b) In a perfect spectroscope a sharp line would only be observed
if an endless regular succession of simple harmonic vibrations were
admitted into the instrument. In any other case the light will
occupy a certain extent in the spectrum, and in order to determine
its distribution we have to decompose into simple harmonic functions
of the time the components of the disturbance, at a point of the
slit for instance. This may be done by means of Fourier's theorem.
An extreme case is that of the unpolarized light emitted by
incandescent solid bodies, consisting of disturbances whose variations
are highly irregular, and giving a continuous spectrum. But even
with what is commonly called homogeneous light, no perfectly sharp
line will be seen. There is no source of light in which the vibrations
of the particles remain for ever undisturbed, and a particle will
never emit an endless succession of uninterrupted vibrations, but
at best a series of vibrations whose form, phase and intensity are
changed at irregular intervals. The result must be "a broadening
of the spectral line.
In cases of this kind one must distinguish between the velocity
of propagation of the phase of regular vibrations and the velocity
with which the eaid changes travel onward (see below, iii. Velocity
of Light).
(c) In a train of plane waves of definite frequency the disturbance
is represented by means of goniometric functions of the time and the
coordinates. Since the fundamental equations are linear, there
are also solutions in which one or more of the coordinates occur in
an exponential function. These solutions are of interest because
the motions corresponding to them are widely different from those
of which we have thus far spoken. If, for example, the formulae
contain the factor
e-"cos (nt-sy+l)
with the positive constant r, the disturbance is no longer periodic
with respect to x, but steadily diminishes as x increases. A state of
things of this kind, in which the vibrations rapidly die away as we
leave the surface, exists in the air adjacent to the face of a glass
prism by which a beam of light is totally reflected. It furnishes us
an explanation of Newton's experiment mentioned in § 2.
(H. A. L.)
III. VELOCITY OF LIGHT
The fact that light is propagated with a definite speed was
first brought out by Ole Roemer at Paris, in 1676, through
observations of the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, made in
different relative positions of the Earth and Jupiter in their
respective orbits. It is possible in this way to determine the time
required for light to pass across the orbit of the earth. The
dimensions of this orbit, or the distance of the sun, being taken
as known, the actual speed of light could be computed. Since
this computation requires a knowledge of the sun's distance,
which has not yet been acquired with certainty, the actual
speed is now determined by experiments made on the earth's
surface. Were it possible by any system of signals to compare
with absolute precision the times at two different stations, the
speed could be determined by finding how long was required
for light to pass from one station to another at the greatest
visible distance. But this is impracticable, because no natural
agent is under our control by which a signal could be com-
municated with a greater velocity than that of light. It is
therefore necessary to reflect a ray back to the point of observation
and to determine the time which the light requires to go and
come. Two systems have been devised for this purpose. One
is that of Fizeau, in which the vital appliance is a rapidly re-
volving toothed wheel; the other is that of Foucault, in which
the corresponding appliance is a mirror revolving on an axis in, or
parallel to, its own plane.
The principle underlying Fizeau's method is shown in the accom-
panying figs. I and 2. Fig. I shows the course of a ray of light
which, emanating from a luminous point L, strikes the p,
plane surface of a plate of glass M at an angle of about
45°. A fraction of the light is reflected from the two surfaces of
the glass to a distant reflector R, the plane of which is at right
angles to the course of the ray. The latter is thus
reflected back on its own course and, passing
through the glass M on its return, reaches a point
E behind the glass. An observer with his eye at E
looking through the glass sees the return ray as a
distant luminous point in the reflector R, after the
light has passed over the course in both directions.
In actual practice it is necessary to interpose the
object glass of a telescope at a point O, at a dis-
N =+
\
• W
FIG. i.
tance from M nearly equal to its focal length. The function of this
appliance is to render the diverging rays, shown by the dotted lines,
nearly parallel, in order that more light may reach R and be thrown
back again. But the principle may be conceived without respect to
the telescope, all the rays being ignored except the central one,
which passes over the course we have described.
Conceiving the apparatus arranged in such a way that the ob-
server sees the light reflected from the distant mirror R, a fine toothed
wheel WX is placed immediately in front of the glass M, with its
plane perpendicular to the course of the ray, in such a way that the
ray goes out and returns through an opening between two adjacent
teeth. This wheel is represented in section by WX in fig. I, and a
part of its circumference, with the teeth as viewed by the observer,
is shown in fig. 2. We conceive that the latter sees the luminous
point between two of the teeth at K. Now, conceive that the
wheel is set in revolution. The ray is then interrupted as every
tooth passes, so that what is sent out is a succession of flashes.
Conceive that the speed of the mirror is such that while the flash is
going to the distant mirror and returning again, each
tooth of the wheel takes the place of an opening
between the teeth. Then each flash sent out will, on
its return, be intercepted by the adjacent tooth, and
will therefore become invisible. If the speed be now
doubled, so that the teeth pass at intervals equal to
the time required for the light to go and come, each
flash sent through an opening will return through the
adjacent opening, and will therefore be seen with full
brightness. If the speed be continuously increased the
result will be successive disappearances and reappear-
ances of the light, according as a tooth is or is not interposed when
the ray reaches the apparatus on its return. The computation of the
time of passage and return is then very simple. The speed of the
wheel being known, the number of teeth passing in one second can
be computed. The order of the disappearance, or the number of
teeth which have passed while the light is going and coming, being
also determined in each case, the interval of time is computed by a
simple formula.
FIG. 2.
624
LIGHT
[VELOCITY
The most elaborate determination yet 'made by Fizeau's method
was that of Cornu. The station of observation was at the Paris
Observatory. The distant reflector, a telescope with a
Cornu. reflector at its focus, was at Montlhery, distant 22,910
metres from the toothed wheel. Of the wheels most used one had
150 teeth, and was 35 millimetres in diameter; the other had 200
teeth, with a diameter of 45 mm. The highest speed attained was
about 900 revolutions per second. At this speed, 135,000 (or
180,000) teeth would pass per second, and about 20 (or 28) would
pass while the light was going and coming. But the actual speed
attained was generally less than this. The definitive result derived
by Cornu from the entire series of experiments was 300,400 kilo-
metres per second. Further details of this work need not be set
forth because the method is in several ways deficient in precision.
The eclipses and subsequent reappearances of the light taking place
gradually, it is impossible to fix with entire precision upon the
moment of complete eclipse. The speed of the wheel is continually
varying, and it is impossible to determine with precision what it
was at the instant of an eclipse.
The defect would be lessened were the speed of the toothed
wheel placed under control of the observer who, by action in one
direction or the other, could continually check or accelerate it, so as
to keep the return point of light at the required phase of brightness.
If the phase of complete extinction is chosen for this purpose a
definite result cannot be reached; but by choosing the moment
when the light is of a certain definite brightness, before or after an
eclipse, the observer will know at each instant whether the speed
should be accelerated or retarded, and can act accordingly. The
nearly constant speed through as long a period as is deemed necessary
would then be found by dividing the entire number of revolutions
of the wheel by the time through which the light was kept constant.
But even with these improvements, which were not actually tried
by Cornu, the estimate of the brightness on which the whole result
depends would necessarily be uncertain. The outcome is that,
although Cornu's discussion of his experiments is a model in the
care taken to determine so far as practicable every source of error,
his definitive result is shown by other determinations to have been
too great by about TTJ^JJ part of its whole amount.
An important improvement on the Fizeau method was made in
1880 by James Young and George Forbes at Glasgow. This con-
Younz stated in using two distant reflectors which were placed
nearly in the same straight line, and at unequal distances.
„ . The ratio of the distances was nearly 12 : 13. The phase
observed was not that of complete extinction of either
light, but that when the two lights appeared equal in intensity.
But it does not appear that the very necessary device of placing the
speed of the toothed wheel under control of the observer was
adopted. The accordance between the different measures was far
from satisfactory, and it will suffice to mention the result which was
Velocity in vocuo = 301 ,382 km. per second.
These experimenters also found a difference of 2 % between the
speed of red and blue light, a result which can only be attributed to
some unexplained source of error.
The Foucault system is much more precise, because it rests
upon the measurement of an angle, which can be made with great
precision.
The vital appliance is a rapidly revolving mirror. Let AB (fig. 3)
be a section of this mirror, which we shall first suppose at rest.
A ray of light LM emanating from a source at L, is re-
Foucaull. flectefj in the direction MQR to a distant mirror R, from
which it is perpendicularly reflected back upon its original course.
This mirror R should be slightly concave, with the centre of curvature
near M, so that the ray shall
»* .-'& always be reflected back to
"L • * M on whatever point of R it
may fall. Conceiving the re-
volving mirror M as at rest, the
return ray will after three reflec-
B** tions, at M, R and M again,
PIG- .,_ be returned along its original
course to the point L from
which it emanated. An important point is that the return ray will
always follow the fixed line ML no matter what the position of the
movable mirror M, provided there is a distant reflector to send the
ray back. Now, suppose that, while the ray is going and coming,
the mirror M, being set in revolution, has turned from the position
in which the ray was reflected to that shown by the dotted line.
If a be the angle through which the surface has turned, the course
of the return ray, after reflection, will then deviate from ML by the
angle 20, and so be thrown to a point E, such that the angle LME =
20. If the mirror is in rapid rotation the ray reflected from it will
strike the distant mirror as a series of flashes, each formed by the
light reflected when the mirror was in the position AB. If the speed
of rotation is uniform, the reflected rays from the successive flashes
while the mirror is in the dotted position will thus all follow the
same direction ME after their second reflection from the mirror.
If the motion is sufficiently rapid an eye observing the reflected
ray will see the flashes as an invariable point of light so long as the
1
R|
I
'
speed of revolution remains constant. The time required for the
light to go and come is then equal to that required by the mirror
to turn through half the angle LME,which is therefore to be measured.
In practice it is necessary on this system, as well as on that of
Fizeau, to condense the light by means of a lens, Q, so placed that
L and R shall be at conjugate foci. The position of the lens may be
either between the luminous point L and the mirror M, or between
M and R, the latter being the only one shown in the figure. This
position has the advantage that more light can be concentrated,
but it has the disadvantage that, with a given magnifying power,
the effect of atmospheric undulation, when the concave reflector
is situated at a great distance, is increased in the ratio of the focal
length of the lens to the distance LM from the light to the mirror.
To state the fact in another form, the amplitude of the disturbances
produced by the air in linear measure are proportional to the focal
distance of the lens, while the magnification required increases in
the inverse ratio of the distance LM. Another difficulty associated
with the Foucault system in the form in which its originator used it
is that if the axis of the mirror is at right angles to the course of the
ray, the light from the source L will be flashed directly into the eye
of the observer, on every passage of the revolving mirror through
the position in which its normal bisects the two courses of the ray.
This may be avoided by inclining the axis of the mirror.
In Foucault's determination the measures were not made upon a
luminous point, but upon a reticule, the image of which could not
be seen unless the reflector was quite near the revolving mirror. In-
deed the whole apparatus was contained in his laboratory. The effec-
tive distance was increased by using several reflectors ; but the entire
course of the ray measured only 20 metres. The result reached by
Foucault for the velocity of light was 298,000 kilometres per second.
The first marked advance on Foucault's determination was
made by Albert A. Michelson, then a young officer on duty at the
U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis. The improvement
consisted in using the image of a slit through which the "*lc'1"SOD-
rays of the sun passed after reflection from a heliostat. In this way
it was found possible to see the image of the slit reflected from the
distant mirror when the latter was nearly 600 metres from the
station of observation. The essentials of the arrangement are those
we have used in fig. 3, L being the slit. It will be seen that the
revolving mirror is here interposed between the lens and its focus.
It was driven by an air turbine, the blast of which was under the
control of the observer, so that it could be kept at any required
speed. The speed was determined by the vibrations of two tuning
forks. One of these was an electric fork, making about 120 vibrations
per second, with which the mirror was kept in unison by a system
of rays reflected from it and the fork. The speed of this fork was
determined by comparison with a freely vibrating fork from time
to time. The speed of the revolving mirror was generally about
275 turns per second, and the deflection of the image of the slit
about 112-5 mm. The mean result of nearly 100 fairly accordant
determinations was: —
Velocity of light in air ... 299,828 km. per sec.
Reduction to a vacuum . . +82
Velocity of light in a vacuum . 299,910*50
While this work was in progress Simon Newcomb obtained the
official support necessary to make a determination on a yet larger
scale. The most important modifications made in the
Foucault-Michelson system were the following: —
1. Placing the reflector at the much greater distance of several
kilometres.
2. In order that the disturbances of the return image due to the
passage of the ray through more than 7 km. of air might be re-
duced to a minimum, an ordinary telescope of the " broken back "
form was used to send the ray to the revolving mirror.
3. The speed of the mirror was, as in Michelson's experiments,
completely under control of the observer, so that by drawing one or
the other of two cords held in the hand the return image could be kept
in any required position. In making each measure the receiving
telescope hereafter described was placed in a fixed position and
during the " run " the image was kept as nearly as practicable
upon a vertical thread passing through its focus. A run ' generally
lasted about two minutes, during which time the mirror commonly
made between 25,000 and 30,000 revolutions. The speed per second
was found by dividing the entire number of revolutions by the number
of seconds in the " run." The extreme deviations between the times
of transmission of the light, as derived from any two runs, never ap-
proached to the thousandth part of its entire amount. The aver-
age deviation from the mean was indeed less thanj^^part of the whole.
To avoid the injurious effect of the directly reflected flash, as well
as to render unnecessary a comparison between the directions of
the outgoing and the return ray, a second telescope, turning hori-
zontally on an axis coincident with that of the revolving mirror,
was used to receive the return ray after reflection. This required
the use of an elongated mirror of which the upper half of the surface
reflected the outgoing ray, and the lower other half received and
reflected the ray on its return. On this system it was not necessary
to incline the mirror in order to avoid the direct reflection of the
return ray. The greatest advantage of this system was that the
revolving mirror could be turned in either direction without break
VELOCITY]
LIGHT
625
of continuity, so that the angular measures were made between the
directions of the return ray after reflection when the mirror moved
in opposite directions. In this way the speed of the mirror was as
good as doubled, and the possible constant errors inherent in the
reference to a fixed direction for the sending telescope were
eliminated. The essentials of the apparatus are shown in fig. 4.
The revolving mirror was a rectangular prism M of steel, 3 in. high
and ij in. on a side
in cross section,
which was driven
f r , by a blast of air
_^*^\_S.''^-''.-— — - " acting on two fan-
\ „ V Jr ".•>'' bH "•*— ^vp \ - - JB wheels, not shown
\ OMW-— Vfl- '.-m_-,-i '-fA- ^ the fig., one at
\^" "?-"-"-".'J4r.O . the top "the other
; ujl JB at the bottom of
iNi1;
the mirror. NPO
is the object-end of
the fixed sending
telescope the rays
p,G
passing through it being reflected to the mirror by a prism P.
The receiving telescope ABO is straight, and has its objective under
O. It was attached to a frame which could turn around the same
axis as the mirror. The angle through which it moved was
measured by a divided arc immediately below its eye-piece, which
is not shown in the figure. The position AB is that for receiving the
ray during a rotation of the mirror in the anti-clockwise direction;
the position A'B' that for a clockwise rotation.
In these measures the observing station was at Fort Myer, on a
hill above the west bank of the Potomac river. The distant re-
flector was first placed in the grounds of the Naval Observatory,
at a distance of 2551 metres. But the definitive measures were
made with the reflector at the base of the Washington monument,
3721 metres distant. The revolving mirror was of nickel-plated
steel, polished on all four vertical sides. Thus four reflections of the
ray were received during each turn of the mirror, which would be
coincident were the form of the mirror invariable. During the
preliminary series of measures it was found that two images of the
return ray were sometimes formed, which would result in two
different conclusions as to the velocity of light, according as one or
the other was observed. The only explanation of this defect which
presented itself was a tortional vibration of the revolving mirror,
coinciding in period with that of revolution, but it was first thought
that the effect was only occasional.
In the summer of 1881 the distant reflector was removed from the
Observatory to the Monument station. Six measures made in
August and September showed a systematic deviation of +67 km.
per second from the result of the Observatory series. This difference
led to measures for eliminating the defect from which it was sup-
posed to arise. The pivots of the mirror were reground, and a
change made in the arrangement, which would permit of the effect
of the vibration being determined and eliminated. This consisted
in making the relative position of the sending and receiving tele-
scopes interchangeable. In this way, if the measured deflection
was too great in one position of the telescopes, it would be too
small by an equal amount in the reverse position. As a matter
of fact, when the definitive measures were made, it was found that
with the improved pivots the mean result was the same in the two
positions. But the new result differed systematically from both
the former ones. Thirteen measures were made from the Monument
in the summer of 1882, the results of which will first be stated in
the form of the time required by the ray to go and come. Ex-
pressed in millionths of a second this was : —
Least result of the 13 measures . . 24-819
Greatest result . .... 24-831
Double distance between mirrors . 7-44242 km.
Applying a correction of +12 km. for a slight convexity in the face
of the revolving mirror, this gives as the mean result for the speed
of light in air, 299,778 km. per second. The mean results for the
three series were: —
Observatory, 1880-1881 . V in air = 29*9,627
Monument, 1881 . . . V ,, =299,694
Monument, 1882 . . . V ,, =299,778
The last result being the only one from which the effect of distortion
was completely eliminated, has been adopted as definitive. For
reduction to a vacuum it requires a correction of +82 km. Thus
the final result was concluded to be
Velocity of light in nocMO = 299,86o~km. per second.
This result being less by 50 km. than that of Michelson, the latter
made another determination with improved apparatus and arrange-
ments at the Case School of Applied Science in Cleveland. The
result was
Velocity in vacua = 299,853 km. per second.
So far as could be determined from the discordance of the separate
measures, the mean error of Newcomb's result would be less than
±10 km. But making allowance for the various sources of syste-
matic error the actual probable error was estimated at ±30 km.
It seems remarkable that since these determinations were
made, a period during which great improvements have become
possible in every part of the apparatus, no complete redetermina-
tion of this fundamental physical constant has been carried out.
The experimental measures thus far cited have been primarily
those of the velocity of light in air, the reduction to a vacuum
being derived from theory alone. The fundamental constant
at the basis of the whole theory is the speed of light in a vacuum,
such as the celestial spaces. The question of the relation between
the velocity in vacuo, and in a transparent medium of any sort,
belongs to the domain of physical optics. Referring to the pre-
ceding section for the principles at play we shall in the present
part of the article confine ourselves to the experimental results.
With the theory of the effect of a transparent medium is associated
that of the possible differences in the speed of light of different
colours.
The question whether the speed of light in vacuo varies with
its wave-length seems to be settled with entire certainty by
observations of variable stars. These are situated at
different distances, some being so far that light must
be several centuries in reaching us from them. Were ieagth.
there any difference in the speed of light of various
colours it would be shown by a change in the colour of the star
as its light waxed and waned. The light of greatest speed
preceding that of lesser speed would, when emanated during
the rising phase, impress its own colour on that which it overtook.
The slower light would predominate during the falling phase.
If there were a difference of 10 minutes in the time at which light
from the two ends of the visible spectrum arrived, it would be
shown by this test. As not the slightest effect of the kind has ever
been seen, it seems certain that the difference, if any, cannot
approximate to T-orri.tnnr part of the entire speed. The
case is different when light passes through a refracting medium.
It is a theoretical result of the undulatory theory of light that its
velocity in such a medium is inversely proportional to the
refractive index of the medium. This being different for different
colours, we must expect_ a corresponding difference in the
velocity.
Foucault and Michelson have tested these results of the
undulatory theory by comparing the time required for a ray
of light to pass through a tube filled with a refracting medium,
and through air. Foucault thus found, in a general way, that
there actually was a retardation; but his observations took
account only of the mean retardation of light of all the wave-
lengths, which he found to correspond with the undulatory
theory. Michelson went further by determining the retarda-
tion of light of various wave-lengths in carbon bisulphide. He
made two series of experiments, one with light near the brightest
part of the spectrum; the other with red and blue light. Putting
V for the speed in a vacuum and Vi for that in the medium,
his result was
Yellow light V : Vi = 1-758
Refractive index for yellow . . 1-64
Difference from theory . . +O-I2
The estimated uncertainty was only 0-02, or £ of the difference
between observation and theory.
The comparison of red and blue light was made differentially.
The colours selected were of wave-length about 0-62 for red
and 0-49 for blue. Putting Vr and Vi for the speeds of red and
blue light respectively in bisulphide of carbon, the mean result
compares with theory as follows : —
Observed value of the ratio Vr, V» . I -0245
Theoretical value (Verdet) . . 1-025
This agreement may be regarded as perfect. It shows that
the divergence of the speed of yellow light in the medium from
theory, as found above, holds through the entire'spectrum.
The excess of the retardation above that resulting from
theory is probably due to a difference between " wave-speed "
and " group-speed " pointed out by Rayleigh. Let fig. 5 repre-
sent a short series of progressive undulations of constant period
and wave-length. The wave-speed is that required to carry
a wave crest A to the position of the crest B in the wave time.
626
LIGHTFOOT, J.— LIGHTFOOT, J. B.
But when a flash of light like that measured passes through
a refracting medium, the front waves of the flash are continually
dying away, as shown at the end of the figure, and the place of
each is taken by the wave following. A familiar case of this sort
is seen when a stone is thrown into a pond. The front waves
die out one at a time, to be followed by others, each of which
goes further than its predecessor, while new waves are formed
in the rear. Hence the group, as represented in the figure by the
FIG. 5.
larger waves in the middle, moves as a whole more slowly than
do the individual waves. When the speed of light is measured
the result is not the wave-speed as above defined, but something
less, because the result depends on the time of the group passing
through the medium. This lower speed is called the group-
velocity of light. In a vacuum there is no dying out of the
waves, so that the group-speed and the wave-speed are identical.
From Michelson's experiments it would follow that the retarda-
tion was about 1/14 of the whole speed. This would indicate
that in carbon bisulphide each individual light wave forming
the front of a moving ray dies out in a space of about 1 5 wave-
lengths.
AUTHORITIES. — For Foucault's descriptions of his experiments
see Comptes Rendus (September 22 and November 24, 1862), and
Recueil de Travaux Scientifiques de Leon Foucault (2 vols., 410,
Paris, 1878). Cornu's determination is found in Annales de I'Ob-
servatoire de Paris, Memoires, vol. xiii. The works of Michelson and
Newcpmb are published in extenso in the Astronomical Papers of the
American Ephemeris, vols. i. and ii. (S. N.)
LIGHTFOOT, JOHN (1602-1675), English divine and rab-
binical scholar, was the son of Thomas Lightfoot, vicar of
Uttoxeter, Staffordshire, and was born at Stoke-upon-Trent
on the 29th of March 1602. His education was received at
Morton Green near Congleton, Cheshire, and at Christ's College,
Cambridge, where he was reckoned the best orator among
the undergraduates. After taking his degree he became assistant
master at Repton in Derbyshire; after taking orders he was
appointed curate of Norton-under-Hales in Shropshire. There
he attracted the notice of Sir Rowland Cotton, an amateur
Hebraist of some distinction, who made him his domestic
chaplain at Bellaport. Shortly after the removal of Sir Rowland
to London, Lightfoot, abandoning an intention to go abroad,
accepted a charge at Stone in Staffordshire, where he continued
for about two years. From Stone he removed to Hornsey, near
London, for the sake of reading in the library of Sion College.
His first published work, entitled Erubhin, or Miscellanies,
Christian and Judaical, penned for recreation at vacant hours,
and dedicated to Sir R. Cotton, appeared at London in 1629.
In September 1630 he was presented by Sir R. Cotton to the
rectory of Ashley in Staffordshire, where he remained until
June, 1642, when he went to London, probably to superintend
the publication of his next work, A Few and New Observations
upon the Book of Genesis: the most of them certain; the rest,
probable; all, harmless, strange and rarely heard of before,
which appeared at London in that year. Soon aftqr his arrival
in London he became minister of St Bartholomew's church,
near the Exchange; and in 1643 he was appointed to preach
the sermon before the House of Commons on occasion of the
public fast of the 2gth of March. It was published under the
title of Elias Redivivus, the text being Luke i. 17; in it a parallel
is drawn between the Baptist's ministry and the work of reforma-
tion which in the preacher's judgment was incumbent on the
parliament of his own day.
Lightfoot was also one of the original members of the West-
minster Assembly; his " Journal of the Proceedings of the
Assembly of Divines from January i, 1643 to December 31,
1644," now printed in the thirteenth volume of the 8vo edition
of his Works, is a valuable historical source for the brief period
to which it relates. He was assiduous in his attendance, and,
though frequently standing almost or quite alone, especially
in the Erastian controversy, he exercised a material influence
on the result of the discussions of the Assembly. In 1643 Light-
foot published A Handful of Gleanings out of the Book of Exodus,
and in the same year he was made master of Catharine Hall
by the parliamentary visitors of Cambridge, and also, on the
recommendation of the Assembly, was promoted to the rectory
of Much Munden in Hertfordshire; both appointments he re-
tained until his death. In 1644 was published in London the
first instalment of the laborious but never completed work
of which the full title runs The Harmony of the Four Evangelists
among themselves, and with the Old Testament, with an explanation
of the chiefcst difficulties both in Language and Sense: Part I.
From the beginning of the Gospels to the Baptism of our Saviour.
The second part From the Baptism of our Saviour to the first
Passover after followed in 1647, and the third From the first
Passover after our Saviour's Baptism to the second in 1650. On
the 26th of August 1645 he again preached before the House
of Commons on the day of their monthly fast. His text was
Rev. xx. i, 2. After controverting the doctrine of the Millen-
aries, he urged various practical suggestions for the repression
with a strong hand of current blasphemies, for a thorough
revision of the authorized version of the Scriptures, for the
encouragement of a learned ministry, and for a speedy settle-
ment of the church. In the same year appeared A Commentary
upon the Acts of the Apostles, chronical and critical; the Diffi-
culties of the text explained, and the limes of the Story cast into
annals. From the beginning of the Book to the end of the Twelfth
Chapter. With a brief survey of the contemporary Story of the
Jews and Romans (down to the third year of Claudius). In
1647 he published The Harmony, Chronicle, and Order of the
Old Testament, which was followed in 1655 by The Harmony,
Chronicle, and Order of the New Testament, inscribed to Crom-
well. In 1654 Lightfoot had been chosen vice-chancellor of the
university of Cambridge, but continued to reside by preference
at Munden, in the rectory of which, as well as in the mastership
of Catharine Hall, he was confirmed at the Restoration. The
remainder of his life was devoted to helping Brian Walton with
the Polyglot Bible (1657) and to his own best-known work,
the Horae Hebraicae et Talmudicae, in which the volume relating
to Matthew appeared in 1658, that relating to Mark in 1663,
and those relating to i Corinthians, John and Luke, in 1664,
1671 and 1674 respectively. While travelling from Cambridge
to Ely where he had been collated in 1668 by Sir Orlando
Bridgman to a prebendal stall), he caught a severe cold, and
died at Ely on the 6th of December 1675. The Horae Hebraicae
et Talmudicae impensae in Ada Apostolorum et in Ep. S. Pauli
ad Romanes were published posthumously.
The Works of Lightfoot were first edited, in 2 vols. fol., by G.
Bright and Strype in 1684; the Opera Omnia, cura Joh. Texelii,
appeared at Rotterdam in 1686 (2 vols. fol.), and again, edited by
J. Leusden, at Franekcr in 1699 (3 vols. fol.). A volume of Remains
was published at London in 1700. The Hor. Hebr. et Taint, were
also edited in Latin by Carpzov (Leipzig, 1675-1679), and again, in
English, by Gandell (Oxford, 1859). The most complete edition is
that of the Whole Works, in 13 vols. 8vo, edited, with a life, by
R. Pitman (London, 1822-1825). It includes, besides the works
already noticed, numerous sermons, letters and miscellaneous
writings; and also The Temple, especially as it stood in the Days of
our Saviour (London, 1650).
See D. M. Welton, John Lightfoot, the Hebraist (Leipzig, 1878).
LIGHTFOOT, JOSEPH BARBER (1828-1889), English
theologian and bishop of Durham, was born at Liverpool on the
I3th of April 1828. His father was a Liverpool accountant.
He was educated at King Edward's school, Birmingham, under
James Prince Lee, afterwards bishop of Manchester, and had
as contemporaries B. F. Westcott and E. W. Benson. In 1847
Lightfoot went up to Trinity College, Cambridge, and there
read for his degree with Westcott. He graduated senior classic
and 3Oth wrangler, and was elected a fellow of his college.
From 1854 to 1859 he edited the Journal of Classical and Sacred
Philology. In 1857 he became tutor and his fame as a scholar
grew rapidly. He was made Hulsean professor in 1861, and
shortly afterwards chaplain to the Prince Consort and honorary
chaplain in ordinary to the queen. In 1866 he was Whitehall
LIGHTHOUSE
627
preacher, and in 1871 he became canon of St Paul's. His
sermons were not remarkable for eloquence, but a certain
solidity and balance of judgment, an absence of partisanship
a sobriety of expression combined with clearness and force o:
diction, attracted hearers and inspired them with confidence
As was written of him in The Times after his death, " his persona!
character carried immense weight, but his great position dependec
still more on the universally recognized fact that his belief in
Christian truth and his defence of it were supported by learning
as solid and comprehensive as could be found anywhere in
Europe, and by a temper not only of the utmost candour, but
of the highest scientific capacity. The days in which his univer-
sity influence was asserted were a time of much shaking of old
beliefs. The disintegrating speculations of an influential school
of criticism in Germany were making their way among English
men of culture just about the time, as is usually the case, when
the tide was turning against them in their own country. The
peculiar service which was rendered at this juncture by the
' Cambridge School ' was that, instead of opposing a mere
dogmatic opposition to the Tubingen critics, they met them
frankly on their own ground; and instead of arguing that their
conclusions ought not to be and could not be true, they simply
proved that their facts and their premisses were wrong. It
was a characteristic of equal importance that Dr Lightfoot,
like Dr Westcott, never discussed these subjects in the mere
spirit of controversy. It was always patent that what he was
chiefly concerned with was the substance and the life of Christian
truth, and that his whole energies were employed in this inquiry
because his whole heart was engaged in the truths and facts
which were at stake. He was not diverted by controversy to
side-issues; and his labour was devoted to the positive elucida-
tion of the sacred documents in which the Christian truth is
enshrined."
In 1872 the anonymous publication of Supernatural Religion
created considerable sensation. In a series of masterly papers
in the Contemporary Review, between December 1874 and May
1877, Lightfoot successfully undertook the defence of the New
Testament canon. The articles were published in collected
form in 1889. About the same time he was engaged in contribu-
tions to W. Smith's Dictionary of Christian Biography and
Dictionary of the Bible, and he also joined the committee for
revising the translation of the New Testament. In 1875 he
became Lady Margaret professor of divinity in succession to
William Selwyn. He had previously written his commentaries
on the epistles to the Galatians (1865), Philippians (1868) and
Colossians (1875), the notes to which were distinguished by
sound judgment and enriched from his large store of patristic
and classical learning. These commentaries may be described as
to a certain extent a new departure in New Testament exegesis.
Before Lightfoot's time commentaries, especially on the epistles,
had not infrequently consisted either of short homilies on
particular portions of the text, or of endeavours to enforce
foregone conclusions, or of attempts to decide with infinite
industry and ingenuity between the interpretations of former
commentators. Lightfoot, on the contrary, endeavoured to
make his author interpret himself, and by considering the general
drift of his argument to discover his meaning where it appeared
doubtful. Thus he was able often to recover the meaning of a
passage which had long been buried under a heap of contradictory
glosses, and he founded a school in which sobriety and common
sense were added to the industry and ingenuity of former com-
mentators. In 1879 Lightfoot was consecrated bishop of
Durham in succession to C. Baring. His moderation, good
sense, wisdom, temper, firmness and erudition made him as
successful in this position as he had been when professor of
theology, and he speedily surrounded himself with a band of
scholarly young men. He endeavoured to combine his habits
of theological study with the practical work of administration.
He exercised a large liberality and did much to further the work
of temperance and purity organizations. He continued to
work at his editions of the Apostolic Fathers, and in 1885 pub-
lished an edition of the Epistles of Ignatius and Polycarp,
collecting also a large store of valuable materials for a second
edition of Clement of Rome, which was published after his
death (ist ed., 1869). His defence of the authenticity of the
Epistles of Ignatius is one of the most important contributions
to that very difficult controversy. His unremitting labours
impaired his health and shortened his splendid career at Durham.
He was never married. He died at Bournemouth on the 2ist
of December 1889, and was succeeded in the episcopate by
Westcott, his schoolfellow and lifelong friend.
Four volumes of his Sermons were published in 1890.
LIGHTHOUSE, a form of building erected to carry a light for
the purpose of warning or guidance, especially at sea.
i. EARLY HISTORY. — The earliest lighthouses, of which records
exist, were the towers built by the Libyans and Cushites in Lower
Egypt, beacon fires being maintained in some of them by the
priests. Lesches, a Greek poet (c.66o B.C.) mentions a lighthouse
at Sigeum (now Cape Incihisari) in the Troad. This appears
to have been the first light regularly maintained for the guidance
of mariners. The famous Pharos 1 of Alexandria, built by
Sostratus of Cnidus in the reign of Ptolemy II. (283-247 B.C.)
was regarded as one of the wonders of the world. The tower,
which took its name from that of the small island on which it
was built, is said to have been 600 ft. in height, but the evidence
in support of this statement is doubtful. It was destroyed by
an earthquake in the i3th century, but remains are said to have
been visible as late as 1350. The name Pharos became the
general term for all lighthouses, and the term " pharology "
has been used for the science of lighthouse construction.
The tower at Ostia was built by the emperor Claudius
(A.D. 50). Other famous Roman lighthouses were those at
Ravenna, Pozzuoli and Messina. The ancient Pharos at Dover
and that at Boulogne, later known as la Tour d'Ordre, were
built by the Romans and were probably the earliest lighthouses
erected in western Europe. Both are now demolished.
The light of Cordouan, on a rock in the sea at the mouth of
the Gironde, is the earliest example now existing of a wave-
swept tower. Earlier towers on the same rock are attributed the
first to Louis le Debonnaire (c. A.D. 805) and the second to Edward
the Black Prince. The existing structure was begun in 1584
during the reign of Henri II. of France and completed in 1611.
The upper part of the beautiful Renaissance building was removed
towards the end of the i8th century and replaced by a loftier
cylindrical structure rising to a height of 207 ft. above the rock
and with the focal plane of the light 196 ft. above high water
(fig. i). Until the i8th century the light exhibited from the
tower was from an oak log fire, and subsequently a coal fire was
in use for many years. The ancient tower at Corunna, known
as the Pillar of Hercules, is supposed to have been a Roman
Pharos. The Torre del Capo at Genoa originally stood on the
promontory of San Berrique. It was built in 1139 and first
used as a lighthouse in 1326. It was rebuilt on its present
site in 1643. This beautiful tower rises 236 ft. above the cliff,
:he light being elevated 384 ft. above sea-level. A lens light was
5rst installed in 1841. The Pharos of Meloria was constructed
)y the Pisans in 1154 and was several times rebuilt until
inally destroyed in 1290. On the abandonment of Meloria
Dy the Pisans, they erected the still existing tower at Leghorn
n 1304.
In the 1 7th' and i8th centuries numerous towers, on which
were erected braziers or grates containing wood or coal fires,
were established in various positions on the coasts of Europe.
Among such stations in the United Kingdom were Tynemouth
'c. 1608), the Isle of May (1636), St Agnes (1680), St Bees (1718)
and the Lizard (1751). The oldest lighthouse in the United
States is believed to be the Boston light situated on Little
Brewster Island on the south side of the main entrance to Boston
rlarbour, Mass. It was established in 1716, the present structure
dating from 1859. During the American War of Independence
he lighthouse suffered many vicissitudes and was successively
destroyed and rebuilt three times by the American or British
1 A full account is given in Hermann Thiersch, Pharos Antikc,.
Islam und Occident (1909). See also MINARET.
628
LIGHTHOUSE
[STRUCTURES
forces. .At the third rebuilding in 1783 a stone tower 68 ft. in
height was erected, the illuminant consisting of four oil lamps.
Other early lighthouse structures on the New England coast
were those at Beaver Tail, near the entrance to Newport Harbour
(1740), and the Brant at the entrance to Nantucket Harbour
(1754). A watch-house and beacon appear to have been erected
on Beacon or Lighthouse Island as well as on Point Allerton
Hill near Boston, prior to 1673, but these structures would seem
to have been in the nature of look-out stations in time of war
rather than lighthouses for the guidance of mariners.
2. LIGHTHOUSE STRUCTURES. — The structures of lighthouses
may be divided into two classes, (a) those on rocks, shoals or
in other situations exposed to the force of the sea, and (b) the
more numerous class of land structures.
Wave-swept Towers. — In determining the design of a lighthouse
tower to be erected in a wave-swept position consideration must
FIG. I. — Cordouan Lighthouse.
be given to the physical features of the site and its surroundings.
Towers of this description are classified as follows: (i) Masonry
and concrete structures; (2) Openwork steel and iron-framed
erections on pile or other foundations; (3) Cast iron plated towers;
(4) Structures erected on cylinder foundations.
(i) Masonry Towers. — Masonry or concrete towers are generally
preferred for erection on wave-swept rocks affording good
foundation, and have also been constructed in other situations
where adequate foundations have been made by sinking caissons
into a soft sea bed. Smeaton's tower on the Eddystone Rock is
the model upon which most later designs of masonry towers have
been based, although many improvements in detail have since
been made. In situations of great exposure the following
requirements in design should be observed: (a) The centre
of gravity of the tower structure should be as low as possible.
(b) The mass of the structure superimposed at any horizontal
section must be sufficient to prevent its displacement by the
combined forces of wind and waves without dependence on the
adhesion at horizontal joint faces or on the dovetailing of stones
introduced as an additional safeguard, (c) The structure should
be circular in plan throughout, this form affording the least
resistance to wave stroke and wind pressure in any direction.
(d) The lower portion of the tower exposed to the direct horizontal
stroke of the waves should, for preference, be constructed with
vertical face. The upper portion to be either straight with
uniform batter or continuously curved in the vertical plane.
External projections from the face of the tower, except in the
case of a gallery under the lantern, should be avoided, the surface
throughout being smooth, (e) The height from sea-level to the
top of the tower should be sufficient to avoid the obscuration
of the light by broken water or dense spray driving over the
lantern. (/) The foundation of the tower should be carried
well into the solid rock, (g) The materials of which the tower
is built should be of high density and of resistant nature, (h)
The stones used in the construction of the tower, at any rate
those on the outer face, should be dovetailed or joggled one to
the other in order to prevent their being dislodged by the sea
during the process of construction and as an additional safe-
guard of stability. Of late years, cement concrete has been used
to a considerable extent for maritime structures, including
lighthouses, either alone or faced with masonry.
(2) Openwork Structures. — Many examples of openwork steel
and iron lighthouses exist. Some typical examples are described
hereafter. This form of design is suitable for situations where
the tower has to be carried on a foundation of Iron or steel
piles driven or screwed into an insecure or sandy bottom, such
as on shoals, coral reefs and sand banks or in places where other
materials of construction are exceptionally costly and where
facility of erection is a desideratum.
(3) Cast iron Towers. — Cast iron plated towers have been
erected in many situations where the cost of stone or scarcity
of labour would have made the erection of a masonry tower
excessively expensive.
(4) Caisson Foundations. — Cylinder or caisson foundations
have been used for lighthouse towers in numerous cases where
such structures have been erected on sand banks or shoals.
A remarkable instance is the Rothersand Tower. Two attempts
have been made to sink a caisson in the outer Diamond Shoal
off Cape Hatteras on the Atlantic coast of the United States,
but these have proved futile.
The following are brief descriptions of the more important wave-
swept towers in various parts of the world.
Eddystone (Winstanley' s Tower). — The Eddystone rocks, which lie
about 14 m. off Plymouth, are fully exposed to south-west seas.
The reef is submerged at high water of spring tides. Four towers
have been constructed on the reef. The first lighthouse (fig. 2 was
polygonal in plan and highly ornamented with galleries and pro-
jections which offered considerable resistance to the sea stroke.
The work was begun by Henry Winstanley, a gentleman of Essex,
in 1695. In 1698 it was finished to a height of 80 ft. to the wind
vane and the light exhibited, but in the following year, in con-
sequence of damage by storms, the tower was increased in diameter
from 16 ft. to 24 ft. by the addition of an outer ring of masonry and
made solid to a height of 20 ft. above the rock, the tower being
raised to nearly 120 ft. The work was completed in the year 1700.
The lower part of the structure appears to have been of stone, the
upper part and lantern of timber. During the great storm of the
2oth of November 1703 the tower was swept away, those in it at the
time, including the builder, being drowned.
Eddystone (Rudyerd's Tower, fig. 3). — This structure was begun in
1706 and completed in 1709. It was a frustum of a cone 22 ft. 8 in.
in diameter at the base and 14 ft. 3 in. at the top. The tower was
92 ft. in height to the top of the lantern. The work consisted
principally of oak timbers securely bolted and cramped together, the
lower part being filled in solid with stone to add weight to the
structure. The simplicity of the design and the absence of pro-
jections from the outer face rendered the tower very suitable to
withstand the onslaught of the waves. The lighthouse was de-
stroyed by fire in 1755.
Eddystone (Smeaton's Tower, fig. 4). — This famous work, which
consisted entirely of stone, was begun in 1756, the light being first
exhibited in 1759. John Smeaton was the first engineer to use
dovetailed joints for the stones in a lighthouse structure. The stones,
which averaged I ton in weight, were fastened to each other by
means of dovetailed vertical joint faces, oak key wedges, and by
oak tree-nails wedged top and bottom, extending vertically from
every course into the stones beneath it. During the igth century
the tower was strengthened on two occasions by the addition of
heavy wrought iron ties, and the overhanging cornice was reduced
in diameter to prevent the waves from lifting the stones from their
beds. In 1877, owing partly to the undermining of the rock on
which the tower was built and the insufficient height of the structure,
STRUCTURES]
LIGHTHOUSE
629
the Corporation of Trinity House determined on the erection of a
new lighthouse in place of Smea ton's tower.
Eddy stone, New Lighthouse (J. N. Douglass). — The site selected
for the new tower is 120 ft. S.S.E. from Smeaton's lighthouse, where
a suitable foundation was found, although a considerable section
of the lower courses had to be laid below the level of low water.
The vertical base is 44 ft. in diameter and 22 ft. in height. The
tower (figs. 5 and 6) is a concave elliptic frustum, and is solid, with
the exception of a fresh-water tank, to a height of 25 ft. 6 in. above
high-water level. The walls above this level vary in thickness
from 8 ft. 6 in. to~2 ft. 3 in. under the gallery. All the stones are
Winsunley 1699
FIG. 2. FIG. 3. FIG. 4.
Lighthouses on the Eddystone.
dovetailed, both horizontally and vertically, on all joint faces, the
stones of the foundation course being secured to the rock by Muntz
metal bolts. The tower contains 62,133 cub. ft. of granite, weighing
4668 tons. The height of the structure from low water ordinary
spring tides to the mean focal plane is 149 ft. and it stands 133 ft.
above high water. The lantern is a cylindrical helically framed
structure with domed roof. The astragals are of gunmetal and the
pedestal of cast iron. The optical apparatus consists of two super-
posed tiers of refracting lens panels, 12 in each tier of 920 mm. focal
distance. The lenses subtend an angle of 92° vertically. The 12
lens panels are arranged in groups of two, thus producing a group
FIG. 6. — Plan of Entrance Floor, Eddystone Lighthouse.
flashing light showing 2 flashes of ij seconds' duration every half
minute, the apparatus revolving once in 3 minutes. The burners
originally fitted in the apparatus were of 6-wick pattern, but these
were replaced in 1904 by incandescent oil vapour burners. The
intensity of the combined beam of light from the two apparatus is
292,000 candles. At the time of the completion of the lighthouse
two bells, weighing 2 tons each and struck by mechanical power,
were installed for fog-signalling purposes. Since that date an
explosive gun-cotton fog signal has been erected, the bells being
removed. At a lower level in the tower are installed 2 21 -in. para-
bolic silvered reflectors with 2-wick burners, throwing a fixed light
of 8000 candle-power over a danger known
as the Hand Deeps. The work of pre-
paring the foundation was begun on the
I7th of July 1878, the foundation stone
cai Plan* being laid by the late duke of Edinburgh
"~on the igth of August 1879. The last
stone was laid on the 1st of June 1881,
and the light was exhibited for the first
time on the i8th of May 1882. The upper
portion of Smeaton's tower, which was
removed on completion of the new light-
house, was re-erected on Plymouth Hoe,
where it replaced the old Trinity House
sea mark. One of the principal features
in the design of the new Eddystone
lighthouse tower is the solid vertical
base. This construction was much criti-
cized at the time, but experience has
proved that heavy seas striking the
massive cylindrical structure are immedi-
ately broken up and rush round to the
opposite side, spray alone ascending to
the height of the lantern gallery. On the
other hand, the waves striking the old
tower at its foundation ran up the surface,
which presented a curved face to the
waves, and, unimpeded by any projection
until arriving at the lantern gallery, were
partially broken up by the cornice and
then spent themselves in heavy spray
over the lantern. The shock to which
the cornice of the gallery was exposed
was so great that stones were sometimes
lifted from their beds. The new Eddy-
stone tower presents another point of
dissimilarity from Smeaton's structure,
in that the stones forming the floors consist of single corbels built
into the wall and constituting solid portions thereof. In Smeaton's
tower the floors consisted of stone arches, the thrust being taken
by the walls of the tower itself, which were strengthened for the
FIG. 5.
Chain
FIG. 7. — Floor, Smeaton's Eddystone Lighthouse.".
purpose by building in chains in the form of hoops (fig. 7). The
system of constructing corbelled stone floors was first adopted by
R. Stevenson in the Bell Rock lighthouse (fig. 8).
Bell Rock Lighthouse (fig. 9). — The Bell Rock, which lies 12 m.
off the coast of Forfarshire, is exposed to a considerable extent at
low water. The tower is submerged to a depth of about 16 ft. at
high water of spring tides. The rock is of hard sandstone. The
lighthouse was constructed by Robert Stevenson and is 100 ft. in
height, the solid portion being carried to a height of 21 ft. above
high water. The work of construction was begun in 1807, and
finished in 1810, the light being first exhibited in 1811. The total
weight of the tower is 2076 tons. A new lantern and dioptric
apparatus were erected on the tower in 1902. The focal plane of
the light is elevated 93 ft. above high water.
Skerryvore Lighthouse (fig. 10). — The Skerryvore Rocks, 12 m.
off the island of Tyree in Argyllshire, are wholly open to the Atlantic.
The work, designed
by Alan Stevenson,
was begun in 1838
and finished in 1844.
The tower, the pro-
file of which is a
hyperbolic curve, is
138 ft. high to the
lantern base, 42 ft.
FIG. 8. — Floor, Stevenson's Bell Rock
Lighthouse.
diameter at the base, and 1 6 ft. at the top. Its weight is 4308 tons.
The structure contains 9 rooms in addition to the lantern chamber.
It is solid to a height of 26 ft. above the base.
Heaux de Brehat Lighthouse. — The reef on which this tower is
constructed lies off the coast of Brittany, and is submerged at high
tide. The work was carried out in 1836-1839. The tower is circular
in plan with a gallery at a height of about 70 ft. above the base.
The tower is 156 ft. in height from base to lantern floor.
Haul Bane du Nord Lighthouse. — This tower is placed on a reef
at the north-west extremity of the lie de Re, and was constructed
in 1849-1853. It is 86 ft. in height to the lantern floor.
Bishop Rock Lighthouse. — The lighthouse on the Bishop Rock,
which is the westernmost landfall rock of the Scilly Islands, occupies
perhaps a more exposed situation than any other in the world.
630
LIGHTHOUSE
[STRUCTURES
The first lighthouse erected there was begun in 1847 under the
direction of N. Douglass. The tower consisted of a cast and wrought
iron openwork structure having the columns deeply sunk into the
rock. On the 5th of February 1850, when the tower was ready for
the erection of the lantern and illuminating apparatus, a heavy
storm swept away the whole of the structure. This tower was de-
signed for an elevation of 94 ft. to the focal plane. In 1851 the
R-Strnnson 1*6
Alan Stevenson tSJB
FIG. 9. — Bell Rock. FIG. 10. — Skerryvore. FIG. n. — Bishop Rock. FIG. 12. — Bishop Rock.
erection of a granite tower, from the designs of James Walker, was
begun; the light was first exhibited in 1858. The tower (fig. n)
had an elevation to the focal plane of no ft., the lower 14 courses
being arranged in steps, or offsets, to break up the force of the waves.
This structure also proved insufficient to withstand the very heavy
seas to which it was exposed. Soon after its completion the 5-cwt.
fog bell, fixed to the lantern gallery 100 ft. above high-water mark,
was washed away, together with the flagstaff and ladder. The
tower vibrated considerably during storms, and it was found that
some of the external blocks of granite had been split by the excessive
stress to which they had been exposed. In 1874 the tower was
strengthened by bolting continuous iron ties to the internal surfaces
of the walls. In 1881, when further signs of damage appeared, it
was determined to remove the upper storey or service room of the
lighthouse, and to case the structure from its base upwards with
granite blocks securely dovetailed to each other and to the existing
work. At the same time it was considered advisable to increase the
elevation of the light, and place the mean focal plane of the new
apparatus at an elevation of 146 ft. above high-water mark. The
work was begun in 1883, and the new apparatus was first illuminated
on the 25th of October 1887. During the operation of heightening
the tower it was necessary to install a temporary light, consisting
of a cylindrical lightship lantern with catoptric apparatus; this was
raised from time to time in advance of the structure as the work
proceeded. The additional masonry built into the tower amounts
approximately to 3220 tons. Profiting by the experience gained
after the construction of the new Eddystone tower, Sir J. N. Douglass
decided to build the lower portion of the improved Bishop Rock
tower in the form of a cylinder, but with considerably increased
elevation (figs. 12 and 13). The cylindrical base is 40 ft. in diameter,
and rises to 25 ft. above high-water mark. The lantern is cylindrical
and helically framed, 14 ft. in diameter, the glazing being 15 ft. in
height. The optical apparatus consists of two superposed tiers of
lenses of 1330 mm. focal distance, the lenses subtending a horizontal
angle of 36* and a vertical angle of 80°. The apparatus consists of
5 groups of lenses each group producing a double flashing light of one
minute period, the whole apparatus revolving once in five minutes.
The maximum aggregate candle-power of the flash is 622,000 candles.
A gun-cotton explosive fog signal is attached to the lantern. The cost
of the various lighthouses on the Bishop Rock has been as follows :
1. Cast iron lighthouse . . « . . £12,500 o o
2. Granite lighthouse 34,559 18 9
3. Improved granite lighthouse . . . 64,889 o o
The Smalls Lighthouse.— A lighthouse has existed on the Smalls
rock, i8J m. off Milford Haven, since 1776, when an oak pile structure
was erected by Henry Whiteside. The existing structure, after the
model of the second lighthouse on the Bishop Rock, was erected in
1856-1861 by the Trinity House and is 114 ft. in height from the
foundation to the lantern floor. A new optical apparatus was in-
stalled in 1907.
Minofs Ledge Lighthouse. — The tower, which is 89 ft. in height,
is built of granite upon a reef off Boston Harbor, Mass., and occupied
five years in construction, being completed in 1 860 at a cost of £62,500.
The rock just bares at low water. The stones are dovetailed verti-
cally but not on their horizontal beds in
the case of the lower 40 ft. or solid
portion of the tower, bonding bolts being
substituted for the horizontal dovetailed
joints used in the case of the \YoIf and
other English towers. The shape of the
tower is a conical frustum.
Wolf Rock Lighthouse. — This much
exposed rock lies midway between the
Scilly Isles and the Lizard Point, and is
submerged to the depth of about 6 ft. at
high water. The tower was erected in
1862-1869 (fig. 14). It is 1 16 ft. 6 in. high.
41 ft. 8 in. diameter at the base, decreas-
ing to 17 ft. at the top. The walls are
7 ft. gj in. thick, decreasing to 2 ft. 3 in.
The shaft is a concave elliptic frustum,
and contains 3296 tons. The lower part
of the tower has projecting scarcements
in order to break up the sea.
Dhu Heartach Rock Lighthouse. — The
Dhu Heartach Rock, 35 ft. above high
water, is 14 m. from the island of Mull,
which is the nearest shore. The maxi-
mum diameter of the tower (fig. 15), which
is of parabolic outline, is 36 ft., decreas-
ing to 16 ft.; the shaft is solid for 32 ft.
above the rock; the masonry weighs
3115 tons, of which 1810 are contained
in the solid part. This tower occupied
six years in erection, and was completed
in 1872.
Great Basses Lighthouse, Ceylon. — The
Great Basses lighthouse lies 6 m. from
the nearest land. The cylindrical base is
32 ft. in diameter, above which is a tower 67 ft. 5 in. high and 23 ft.
in diameter. The walls vary in thickness from 5 ft. to 2 ft. The
tower, including the base, contains about 2768 tons. The work was
finished in three years, 1870-1873.
Spectacle Reef Lighthouse, Lake Huron. — This is a structure similar
to that on Minot's ledge, standing on a limestone reef at the northern
end of the lake. The tower (fig. 16) was constructed with a view to
withstanding the effects of ice massing in solid fields thousands of
acres in extent and travelling at considerable velocity. The tower is
in shape the frustum of a cone, 32 ft. in diameter at the base and 93
ft. in height to the coping of the gallery. The focal plane is at a level
of 97 ft. above the base. The lower 34 ft. of the tower is solid.
The work was completed in 1874, having occupied four years. The
cost amounted to approximately £78,000.
Chicken Rock Lighthouse. — The Chicken Rock lies I m. off the Calf
of Man. The curve of the tower, which is 123 ft. 4 in. high, is hyper-
bolic, the diameter varying from 42 ft. to 16 ft. Tht tower is sub-
merged 5 ft. at high-water springs. The solid part is 32 ft. 6 in. in
height, weighing 2050 tons, the whole weight of the tower being
3557 tons. The walls decrease from 9 ft. 3 in. to 2 ft. 3 in. in thickness.
The work was begun in 1869 and completed in 1874.
AT' men Lighthouse. — The masonry tower, erected by the French
Lighthouse Service, on the Ar'men Rock off the western extremity
of the Tie de Sein, Finistere, occupied fifteen years in construction
(1867-1881). The rock is of small area, barely uncovered at low
water, and it was therefore found impossible to construct a tower
having a base diameter greater than 24 ft. The focal plane of the
light is 94 ft. above high water (fig. 17).
St George's Reef Lighthouse, California. — This structure consists of
a square pyramidal stone tower rising from the easterly end of an
oval masonry pier, built on a rock to a height of 60 ft. above the
water. The focal plane is at an elevation of 146 ft. above high water.
The site is an exceedingly dangerous one, and the work, which was
completed in 1891, cost approximately £144,000.
Rattray Head Lighthouse. — This lighthouse was constructed
between the years 1892 and 1895 by the Northern Lighthouse Com-
missioners upon the Ron Rock, lying about one-fifth of a mile off
Rattray Head, Aberdeenshire. The focal plane is 91 ft. above high
water, the building being approximately 113 ft. in height. In tie
tower there is a fog-horn worked by compressed air.
Fastnet Lighthouse. — In the year 1895 it was reported to the Irish
Lights Commissioners that the then existing lighthouse on the Fast-
net Rock off the south-west coast of Ireland, which was completed
in 1854 and consisted of a circular cast iron tower 86 ft. in height
on the summit of the rock, was considerably undermined. It was
subsequently determined to proceed with the erection of a granite
structure of increased height and founded upon a sound ledge of
rock on one side of the higher, but now considerably undermined.
STRUCTURES]
LIGHTHOUSE
lt*VICt HOOM
FIG. 13.— Bishop Rock Lighthouse.
portion of the reef. This lighthouse tower has its foundation laid
near high-water level. The focal plane is at a level of 158 ft. above
high-water mark. The cost of the structure, which was commenced
in 1899 and completed in 1904, was £79,000.
Becchy Head Lighthouse.— A lighthouse has been erected upon the
foreshore at the foot of Beachy Head, near Eastbourne, to replace
the old structure on the cliff having an elevation of 284 ft. above high-
water mark. Experience proved that the light of the latter was
frequently obscured by banks of mist or fog, while at the lower level
the transparency of the atmosphere was considerably less impaired.
The Trinity House therefore decided in the year 1899 to proceed
with the construction of a granite tower upon the foreshore at a
distance of some 570 ft. from the base of the cliff (fig. 18). The
foreshore at this point consists of chalk, and the selected site just
bares at low water ordinary spring tides. The foundation course was
laid at a depth of 10 ft. below the surface, the area being excavated
within a coffer-dam. The tower, which is 47 ft. in diameter at the
base, has an elevation to the focal plane above high water of 103 ft.,
or_a total height from foundation course to gallery coping of 123 ft.
6 in. The lower or solid portion of the tower has its face stones
constructed in vertical offsets or steps in a similar manner to that
adopted at the Wolf Rock and elsewhere. The tower is constructed
with a facing of granite, all the stones being dovetailed in the usual
manner. The hearting of the base is largely composed of concrete.
The work was completed in 1902 and cost £56,000.
Mapiin Lighthouse. — The screw pile lighthouse erected on the
Maplin Sand in the estuary of the river Thames in 1838 is the earliest
of its kind and served as a model for numerous similar structures
in various parts of the world. The piles are nine in number, 5 in.
diameter of solid wrought iron with screws 4 ft. diameter (fig. 19).
Fowey Rocks Lighthouse, Florida. — This iron structure, which was
begun in 1875 ar>d completed in 1878, stands on the extreme northern
point of the Florida reefs. The height of the tower, which is founded
on wrought iron piles driven 10 ft. into the coral rock, is 1 10 ft. from
high water to focal plane. The iron openwork pyramidal structure
encloses a plated iron dwelling for the accommodation of the keepers.
The cost of construction amounted to £32,600
Alligator Reef Lighthouse, Florida. — This tower is one of the finest
iron sea-swept lighthouse structures in the world. It consists of a
pyramidal iron framework 135 ft. 6 in. in height, standing on the
Florida Reef in 5 ft. of water. The cost of the structure, which is
similar to the Fowey Rocks tower, was £37,000.
American Shoal Lighthouse, Florida. — This tower (fig. 20) is typical
of the openwork pile structures on the Florida reefs, and was com-
pleted in 1880. The focal plane of the light is at an elevation of
109 ft. above high water.
Wolf Trap Lighthouse. — This building was erected during the years
1893 and 1894 °n Wolf Trap Spit in Chesapeake Bay, near the site
of the old openwork structure which was swept away by ice early in
I?93- The new tower is formed upon a cast iron caisson 30 ft. in
diameter sunk 18 ft. into the sandy bottom. The depth of water on
the shoal is 16 ft. at low water. The caisson was filled with concrete,
and is surmounted by a brick superstructure 52 ft. in height from
low water to the focal plane of the light. A somewhat similar
structure was erected in 1885-1887 on the Fourteen Foot Bank in
Delaware Bay, at a cost of £24,700. The foundation in this case
was, however, shifting sand, and the caisson was carried to a greater
depth.
Rothersand Lighthouse. — This lighthouse, off the entrance to the
river Weser (Germany), is a structure of great interest on account
pf the difficulties met with in its construction. The tower had to be
:ounded on a bottom of shifting sand 20 ft. below low water and in
a very exposed situation. Work was begun in May 1881, when
Utempts were made to sink an iron caisson under pneumatic pressure.
Owing to the enormous scour removing the sand from one side of the
-aisson it tilted to an alarming angle, but eventually it was sunk to a
evel of 70 ft. below low-water mark. In October of the same year
:he whole structure collapsed. Another attempt, made in May 1883,
to sink a caisson of bi-convex shape in plan 47 ft. long. 37 ft. wide
and 62 ft. in height, met with success, and after many difficulties the
structure was sunk to a depth of 73 ft. below low water, the sides
>eing raised by the addition of iron plating as the caisson sank.
The sand was removed from the interior by suction. Around the
caisson foundation were placed 74,000 cub. yds. of mattress work
and stones, the interior being filled with concrete. Towards the end
>f 1885 the lighthouse was completed, at a total cost, including the
irst attempt, of over £65,000. The tower is an iron structure in the
shape of a concave elliptic frustum, its base being founded upon the
caisson foundation at about half-tide level (fig. 21). The light is
jlectric, the current being supplied by cable 'from the shore. The
ocal plane is 78 ft. above high water or 109 ft. from the sand level.
The total height from the foundation of the caisson to the top of the
vane is 185 ft.
Other famous wave-swept towers are those at Haulbowline Rock
Carlingford Lough, Ireland, 1823); Horsburgh (Singapore, 1851);
Saves d'Olonne (Bay of Biscay, 1861); Hanois (Alderney, 1862);
XVedalus Reef, iron tower (Red Sea, 1863); Alguada Reef (Bay of
Jengal, 1865) : Longships (Land's End, 1872) ; the Prongs (Bombay,
874); Little, Basses (Ceylon, 1878); the Graves (Boston, U.S.A.,
632
LIGHTHOUSE
[STRUCTURES
Junes Walker Ma
J.N.Douglass
FIG. 14. —
Wolf Rock.
O.M.Poei8?4 L.Reynaud 1881
to o lo TO y 40 50- 60 70 So oo loo Feel
Dhu Heartach. FIG. 16. — Spectacle Reef. FIG. 17. — Ar'men.
FIG. 15 —
1905); Jument d'Ouessant (France, 1907); and Roche Bonne
(France, building 1910).
Jointing of Stones in Rock Towers. — Various methods of jointing
the stones in rock towers are shown in figs. 6 and 22. The great
distinction between the towers built by successive engineers
to the Trinity House and other rock lighthouses is that, in the
former the stones of each course are dovetailed together both
laterally and vertically and are not connected by metal or wooden
pins and wedges and dowled as in most other cases. This dove-
tail method was first adopted at the Hanois Rock at the sugges-
tion of Nicholas Douglass. On the upper face, one side and at
one end of each block is a dovetailed projection. On the under
face and the other side and end, corresponding dovetailed
effect of waves on the Bishop Rock and Eddystone towers has
been noted above.
Land Structures for Lighthouses. — The erection of lighthouse
towers and other buildings on land presents no difficulties of
construction, and such buildings are of ordinary architectural
character. It will therefore be unnecessary to refer to them
in detail. Attention is directed to the Phare d'Eckmuhl at
Penmarc'h (Finistere), completed in 1897. The cost of this
magnificent structure, 207 ft. in height from the ground, was
largely defrayed by a bequest of £12,000 left by the marquis
de Blocqueville. It is constructed entirely of granite, and is
octagonal in plan. The total cost of the tower and other light-
house buildings amounted to £16,000.
TABLE I. — Comparative Cost of Exposed Rock Towers.
Name of Structure.
Total Cost.
Cub. ft.
Cost per
cub. ft. of
Masonry.
Eddystone, Smeaton (1759) ....
£40,000 o o
13,343
£2 19 llj
Bell Rock, Firth of Forth (1811) ...
55,619 12 i
28,530
1190
Skerry vore, west coast of Scotland (1844) .
72,200 II 6
58,580
i 4 7J
Bishop Rock, first granite tower (1858)
34,559 1 8 9
35,209
o 19 7i
Smalls, Bristol Channel (1861) ...
50,124 ii 8
46,386
i i 7i
Hanois, Alderney (1862)
25,296 o o
24-542
i o 7i
Wolf Rock, Land's End (1869) ...
62,726 o o
59,070
i i 3
Dhu Heartach, west coast of Scotland (1872)
72,584 9 7
42,050
I 14 6
Longships, Land's End (1872) ...
43,869 8 ii
47,610
o 18 5
Eddystone, Douglass (1882) ....
59,255 o o
65,198
0 18 2
Bishop Rock, strengthening and part reconstruction (1887)
64,889 o o
45,080
i 8 9
Great Basses, Ceylon (1873) ....
63,560 o o
47,8i9
i 6 7
Minot's Ledge, Boston, Mass. (1860) ..
62,500 o o
36,322
I 17 2
Spectacle Reef, Lake Huron (1874)
78,125 o o
42,742
I 16 2
Ar'men, France (1881)
37,692 o o
32,400
i 3 3
Fastnet, Ireland (1904)
79,000 o o
62,600
i 5 5i
recesses are formed with just sufficient clearance for the raised
bands to enter in setting (fig. 23). The cement mortar in the
joint formed between the faces so locks the dovetails that the
stones cannot be separated without breaking (fig. 24).
Effect of Waves. — The wave stroke to which rock lighthouse
towers are exposed is often considerable. At the Dhu Heartach,
during the erection of the tower, 14 joggled stones, each of 2
tons weight, were washed away after having been set in cement
at a height of 37 ft. above high water, and similar damage
was done during the construction of the Bell Rock tower. The
FIG. 19. — Maplin Pile Lighthouse.
The tower at lie Vierge (Finistere), completed in 1902, has
an elevation of 247 ft. from the ground level to the focal plane,
and is probably the highest structure of its kind in the world.
The brick tower, constructed at Spurn Point, at the entrance
to the Humber and completed in 1895, replaced an earlier
structure erected by Smeaton at the end of the i8th
century. The existing tower is constructed on a foundation
consisting of concrete cylinders sunk in the shingle beach.
The focal plane of the light is elevated 120 ft. above high water.
Besides being built of stone or brick, land towers are frequently
OPTICAL APPARATUS]
LIGHTHOUSE
633
constructed of cast iron plates or open steel-work with a view
to economy. Fine examples of the former are to be found in
many British colonies and elsewhere, that on Dassen Island
(Cape of Good Hope), 105 ft. in height to the focal plane, being
typical (fig. 25). Many openwork structures up to 200 ft. in
height have been built. Recent examples are the towers erected
at Cape San Thome (Brazil) in 1882, 148 ft. in height (fig. 26),
Mocha (Red Sea) in 1903, 180 ft. and Sanganeb Reef (Red Sea)
1906, 165 ft. in height to the focal plane.
3. OPTICAL APPARATUS. — Optical apparatus in lighthouses
is required for one or other of three distinct purposes: (i) the
concentration of the rays derived from the light source into a
belt of light distributed evenly around the horizon, condensation
in the vertical plane only being employed; (2) the concentration
of the rays both vertically and horizontally into a pencil or cone
of small angle directed
towards the horizon and
caused to revolve about
the light source as a
centre, thus producing
a flashing light; and (3)
the condensation of the
light in the vertical
plane and also in the
horizontal plane in such
a manner as to concen-
trate the rays over a
limited azimuth only.
Apparatus falling
under the first category
produce a fixed light,
and further distinction
can be provided in this
class by mechanical
means of occultation,
resulting in the pro-
duction of an occulting
or intermittent light.
Apparatus included in
the second class are
usually employed to
produce flashing lights,
but sometimes the dual
condensation is taken
advantage of to produce
a fixed pencil of rays
thrown towards the
horizon for the purpose
of marking an isolated danger or the limits of a narrow
channel. Such lights are best described by the French term
feux de direction. Catoptric apparatus, by which dual con-
densation is produced, are moreover sometimes used for fixed
lights, the light pencils overlapping each other in azimuth.
Apparatus of the third class are employed for sector lights or
those throwing a beam of light over a wider azimuth than can
be conveniently covered by an apparatus of the second class,
and for reinforcing the beam of light emergent from a fixed
apparatus in any required direction.
The above classification of apparatus depends on the resultant
effect of the optical elements. Another classification divides
the instruments themselves into three classes: (a) catoptric,
(b) dioptric and (c) catadioptric.
Catoptric apparatus are those by which the light rays are
reflected only from the faces of incidence, such as silvered mirrors
of plane, spherical, parabolic or other profile. Dioptric elements
are those in which the light rays pass through the optical glass,
suffering refraction at the incident and emergent faces (fig. 27).
Catadioptric elements are combined of the two foregoing and
consist of optical prisms in which the light rays suffer refraction
at the incident face, total internal reflexion at a second face
and again refraction on emergence at the third face (fig. 28).
The object of these several forms of optical apparatus is not
FIG. 20. — American Shoal Lighthouse,
Florida.
only to produce characteristics or distinctions in lights to enable
them to be readily recognized by mariners, but to utilize the
light rays in directions above and below the horizontal plane,
and also, in the case of revolving or flashing lights, in azimuths
not requiring to be illuminated for strengthening the beam in
the direction of the mariner. It will be seen that the effective
condensation in flashing lights is very much greater than in
fixed belts, thus
enabling higher in-
tensities to be ob-
tained by the use
of flashing lights
than with fixed ap-
paratus.
Catoptric System. —
Parabolic reflectors,
consisting of small
facets of silvered
glass set in plaster of
Paris, were first used
about the year 1763
i n some of the Mersey
lights by Mr Hut-
chinson, then dock
master at Liverpool
(fig. 29). Spherical
metallic reflectors
were introduced in
France in 1781,
followed by parabolic
reflectors on silvered
copper in 1790 in
England and France,
and in Scotland in
1803. The earlier
lights were of fixed
type, a number of re-
flectors being ar-
ranged on a frame or
stand in such a
manner that the
pencils of emergent
rays overlapped and
thus illuminated the
whole horizon con-
tinuously. In 1783
the first revolving
light was erected at
Marstrand inSweden.
Similar apparatus
were installed at Cor-
douan (1790), Flam-
borough Head (1806)
and at the Bell Rock
(1811). To produce
arevolving or flashing
light the reflectors
were fixed on a re-
volving carriage hav-
ing several faces.
Three or more re-
flectors in a face were
set with their axes
parallel.
FIG. 21. — Rothersand Lighthouse.
A type of parabolic reflector now in use is shown in fig. 30. The
sizes in general use vary from 21 in. to 24 in. diameter. These
instruments are still largely used for light-vessel illumination, and
a few important land lights are at the present time of catoptric type,
including those at St Agnes (Scilly Islands), Cromer and St Anthony
(Falmouth).
Dioptric System. — The first adaptation of dioptric lenses to light-
houses is probably due to T. Rogers, who used lenses at one of the
Portland lighthouses between 1786 and 1790. Subsequently lenses
by the same maker were used at Howth, Waterford and the North
Foreland. Count Buffon had in 1748 proposed to grind out of a solid
piece of glass a lens in steps or concentric zones in order to reduce
the thickness to a minimum (fig. 31). Condorcet in 1773 and Sir
D. Brewster in 1811 designed built-up lenses consisting of stepped
annular rings. Neither of these proposals, however, was intended to
apply to lighthouse purposes. In 1822 Augustin Fresnel constructed
a built-up annular lens in which the centres of curvature of the
different rings receded from the axis according to their distances
from the centre, so as practically to eliminate spherical aberration;
the only spherical surface being the small central part or " bull's
eye " (fig. 32). These lenses were intended for revolving lights only.
Fresnel next produced his cylindric refractor or lens belt, consisting
634
LIGHTHOUSE
[OPTICAL APPARATUS
of a zone of glass generated by the revolution round a vertical axis
of a medial section of the annular lens (fig. 33). The lens belt con-
densed and parallelized the light rays in the vertical plane only,
while the annular lens does so in every plane. The first revolving
light constructed from Fresnel's designs was erected at the Cordouan
lighthouse in 1823. It consisted of 8 panels of annular lenses placed
round the lamp at a focal distance of 920 mm. To utilize the light,
Wolf, 12th Course.
Eddystone, I2th Course,
Smeaton's Tower.
Eddystone, 48th Course,
Douglass Tower.
't. . . .4
Chickens, 6th Coarse.
SCULI of r«c
FIG. 22. — Courses of various Lighthouse Towers.
which would otherwise escape above the lenses, Fresnel introduced a
series of 8 plain silvered mirrors, on which the light was thrown by a
system of lenses. At a subsequent period mirrors were also placed
in the lower part of the optic. The apparatus was revolved by clock-
work. This optic embodied the first combination of dioptric and
catoptric elements in one design (fig. 34). In the following year
Fresnel designed a dioptric lens with catoptric mirrors for fixed light,
which was the first of its kind installed in a lighthouse. It was erected
at the Chassiron lighthouse in 1827 (fig. 35). This combination
is geometrically perfect, but not so practically on account of the great
FIG. 23. — Perspective drawing of Dovetailed
Stone (Wolf Rock).
FIG. 24. — Section
of Dovetail.
loss of light entailed by metallic reflection which is at least 25%
greater than the system described under. Before his death in 1827
Fresnel devised his totally reflecting or catadioptric prisms to take
the place of the silvered reflectors previously used above and below the
lens elements (fig. 28). The ray Fi falling on the prismoidal ring ABC
is refracted in the direction i r and meeting the face AB at an angle
of incidence greater than the
critical, is totally reflected in
the direction r e emerging
after second refraction in a -"•
horizontal direction. , Fresnel
devised these prisms for use
in fixed light apparatus, but
the principle was, at a later
FIG. 25. — Dassen Island
Lighthouse (cast iron).
FIG. 26.— Cape San Thome"
Lighthouse.
date, also applied to flashing lights, in the first instance by
T. Stevenson. Both the dioptric lens and catadioptric prism
invented by Fresnel are still in general use, the mathematical
calculations of the great French designer still forming the basis
upon which lighthouse opticians work.
Fresnel also designed a form of fixed and flashing light in which
the distinction of a fixed light, varied by flashes, was produced by
placing panels of straight refracting prisms in a vertical position on
a revolving carriage
outside the fixed light
apparatus. The revolu-
tion of the upright
prisms periodically in-
creased the power of
the beam, by condensa- *',*' „-'"'
tion of the rays y'''^'"'
emergent from the •£•''
fixed apparatus, in the M.**''
horizontal plane. /
The lens segments in
Fresnel's early appara- FlG. 27. — Dioptric Prism,
tus were of polygonal form instead of cylindrical, but subsequently
manufacturers succeeded in grinding glass in cylindrical rings of
the form now used. The first apparatus of this description was
made by Messrs Cookson of Newcastle in 1836 at the suggestion
of Alan Stevenson and erected at Inchkeith.
In 1825 the French Commission des Phares decided upon the
exclusive use of lenticular
apparatus in its service.
The Scottish Lighthouse "•*'
Board followed with the
Inchkeith revolving ap-
paratus in 1835 ar>d the
Isle of May fixed optic in
1836. In the latter instru-
ment Alan Stevenson in-
troduced helical frames for
holding the glass prisms in
place, thus avoiding com-
plete obstruction of the
light rays in any azimuth.
The first dioptric ligjit
erected by the Trinity
House was that formerly
at Start Point in Devon-
shire, constructed in 1836.
Catadioptric or reflecting
prisms for revolving lights
were not used until 1850,
when Alan Stevenson designed them for the North Ronaldshay
lighthouse.
\
Focal_ ^_Plane
9
FIG. 28. — Catadioptric or Reflecting
Prism.
OPTICAL APPARATUS]
LIGHTHOUSE
635
Dioptric Mirror. — The next important improvement in lighthouse I intervals. The cam-wheel is actuated by means of a weight or
optical work was the invention of the dioptric spherical mirror by
Mr (afterwards Sir) J. T. Chance in 1862. The zones or prisms are
generated round a vertical axis and divided into segments. This
Form of mirror is still in general use (figs. 36 and 37).
Azimuthal Condensing Prisms. — Previous to 1850 all apparatus
were designed to emit light of equal power in every azimuth either
constantly or periodic-
ally. The only excep-
tion was where a light
was situated on a
stretch of coast where
a mirror could be
placed behind the
flame to utilize the
rays, which would
otherwise pass land-
ward, and reflect them
FIG. 29-EarJy Reflectorand Lamp (.763). %*> &**£»&
in a seaward direction. In order to increase the intensity of
lights in certain azimuths T. Stevenson devised his azimuthal
condensing prisms which, in various forms and methods of applica-
tion, have been largely used for the purpose of strengthening the
light rays in required directions as, for instance, where coloured
sectors are provided. Applications of this system will be referred
to subsequently.
Optical Glass for Lighthouses. — In the early days of lens lights
the only glass used for the prisms was made in France at the St
Gobain and Premontre works, which have
long been celebrated for the high quality
of optical glass produced. The early diop-
tric lights erected in the United Kingdom,
some 13 in all, were made by Messrs Cook-
son of South Shields, who were instructed
by Leonor Fresnel, the brother of Augustin.
At first they tried to mould the lens and
then to grind it out of one thick sheet of
glass. The successors of the Cookson firm
abandoned the manufacture of lenses in
1845, and the firm of Letourneau &
Lepaute of Paris again became the mono-
polists. In 1850 Messrs Chance Bros. & Co.
of Birmingham began the manufacture of
optical glass, assisted by M. Tabouret, a
French expert who had been a colleague
of Augustin Fresnel himself. The first light
made by the firm was shown at the Great
Exhibition of 1851, since when numerous
dioptric apparatus have been constructed
by Messrs Chance, who are, at this time,
the only manufacturers of lighthouse glass
in the United Kingdom. Most of the glass
used for apparatus constructed in France
is manufactured at St Gobain. Some of
the glass used by German constructors is
made at Rathenow in Prussia and Goslar
in the Harz.
The glass generally employed for lighthouse optics has for its
refractive index a mean value of ^1 = 1-51, the corresponding critical
angle being 41° 30'. Messrs Chance have used dense flint glass for
the upper and lower refracting rings of high angle lenses and for
dioptric mirrors in certain cases. This glass has a value of /*= 1-62
with critical angle 38° 5'.
Occulting Lights. — During the last 25 years of the igth century
the disadvantages of fixed lights became more and more apparent.
At the present day the practice of installing such, except occasionally
in the case of the smaller and less important of harbour or river
lights, has practically ceased. The necessity for providing a dis-
tinctive characteristic for every light when possible has led to the
FIG. 30. — Modern
Parabolic Reflector.
spring clock. Varying characteristics may be procured by means
of such a contrivance — single, double, triple or other systems of
The eclipses or
darkness bear
occultation.
periods of
much the same relation to
the times of illumination as
do the flashes to the eclipses
in a revolving or flashing
light. In the case of a first-
order fixed light the cost of
conversion to an occulting
characteristic does not exceed
£250 to £300. With ap-
paratus illuminated by gas
the occultations may be pro-
duced by successively raising
and lowering the gas at stated
intervals. Another form of
occulting mechanism em-
ployed consists of a series of
vertical screens mounted on
a carriage and revolving
round the burner. The car-
riage is rotated on rollers or
ball bearings or carried upon
a small mercury float. The
usual driving mechanism
employed is a spring clock.
" Otter " screens are used in
cases when it is desired to
produce different periods of
occultations in two or more
positions in azimuth in order
to differentiate sectors mark-
ing shoals, &c. The screens
are of sheet metal blacked
and arranged vertically, some
what in the manner of the
laths of a Venetian blind, and
operated by mechanical
means.
Leading Lights. — In the
case of lights designed to act
as a lead through a narrow
channel or as direction lights,
it is undesirable to employ a
flashing apparatus. Fixed-
light optics are employed to
meet such cases, and are
generally fitted with occulting
mechanism A typical ap-
paratus of this description
is that at Gage Roads,
Fremantle, West Australia
(fig. 38). The occulting
bright light covers the fair-
way, and is flanked by sectors
of occulting red and green
light marking dangers and
intensified by vertical con-
densing prisms. A good
example of a holophotal
direction light was exhibited
Section
Plan
FIG. 31.
Button's Lens.
FIG. 32.
Fresnel's Annular Lens.
conversion of many of the fixed-light apparatus of earlier years into
occulting lights, and often to their supersession by more modern
and powerful flashing apparatus. An occulting apparatus in
general use consists of a cylindrical screen, fitting over the burner,
rapidly lowered and raised by means of a cam-wheel at stated
FIG. 34. — Fresnel's Revolving
Apparatus at Cordouan Lighthouse.
at the 1900 Paris Exhibition, and
afterwards erected at Suzac lighthouse (France). The light con-
sists of an annular lens 500 mm. focal distance, of 180° horizontal
angle and 157° vertical, with a mirror of 180° at the back. The
lens throws a red beam of about 45° amplitude in azimuth, and
50,000 candle-power over a narrow channel. The illuminant is an
incandescent petroleum vapour burner. Holophotal direction lenses
of this type can only be applied where the
sector to be marked is of comparatively small
angle. Silvered metallic mirrors of parabolic
form are also used for the purpose. The use of
single direction lights frequently renders the
construction of separate towers for leading
lights unnecessary.
If two distinct lights are employed to in-
dicate the line of navigation through a channel
or between dangers they must be sufficiently
far apart to afford a good lead, the front or
seaward light being situated at a lower eleva-
tion than the rear or landward one.
Coloured Lights. — Colour is used as seldom
as possible as a distinction, entailing as jt
does a considerable reduction in the power of the light. It is
necessary in some instances for differentiating sectors over
dangers and for harbour lighting purposes. The use of coloured
lights as alternating flashes for lighthouse lights is not to be com-
mended, on account of the unequal absorption of the coloured
FIG. 33.
Fresnel's Lens Belt.
636
LIGHTHOUSE
[OPTICAL APPARATUS
and bright rays by the atmosphere. When such distinction
has been employed, as in the Wolf Rock apparatus, the red and
white beams can be approximately equalized in initial intensity by
constructing the lens and prism panels for the red light of larger
angle than those for the white beams. Owing to the absorption by
Plan.
Section.
FIG. 35. — Fixed Apparatus at Chassiron Lighthouse (1827).
the red colouring, the power of a red beam is only 40% of the
intensjty of the corresponding white light. The corresponding
intensity of green light is 25 %. When red or green sectors are
employed they should invariably be reinforced by mirrors, azimuthal
condensing prisms, or other means to raise the coloured beam to
approximately the same intensity as the white light. With the
introduction of group-flashing characteristics the necessity for using
colour as a means of distinction disappeared.
High-Angle Vertical Lenses. — Messrs Chance of Birmingham have
manufactured lenses having 97° of vertical amplitude, but this
result was only
attained by using
dense flint glass of
high refractive
'-*'/ index for the
upper and lower
elements. It is
doubtful, how-
ever, whether the
use of refracting
elements for a
greater angle "than 80° vertically is attended by any material
corresponding advantage.
Group Flashing Lights. — One of the most useful distinctions
consists in the grouping of two or more flashes separated by short
intervals of darkness, the group being succeeded by a longer eclipse.
Thus two, three or more flashes of, say, half second duration or less
follow each other at intervals of about 2 seconds and are succeeded
by an eclipse of, say, 10 seconds, the sequence being completed in a
period of, say, 15 seconds. In 1874 Dr John Hopkinson introduced
the very valuable improvement of dividing the lenses of a dioptric
FIG. 36. — Vertical Section. Prism of Dioptric
Spherical Mirror.
b
FIG. 37. — Chance's Dioptric Spherical Mirror.
revolving light with the panels of reflecting prisms above and below
them, setting them at an angle to produce the group-flashing
characteristic. The first apparatus of this type constructed were
those now in use at Tampico, Mexico and the Little Basses light-
house, Ceylon (double flashing). The Casquets apparatus (triple
flashing) was installed in 1877. A group-flashing catoptric light had,
however, been exhibited from the |T Royal Sovereign " light-vessel in
1875. A sectional plan of the quadruple-flashing first order apparatus
at Pendeen in Cornwall is shown in fig. 39; and fig. 55 (Plate I.)
illustrates a double flashing first order light at Pachena Point in
British Columbia. Hopkinson's system has been very extensively
used, most of the group-flashing lights shown in the accompanying
tables, being designed upon the general lines he introduced. A
modification of the system consists in grouping two or more lenses
V
1
I
\1Pw^
^/\\V
->»*:.— .^-
FIG. 38. — Gage Roads Direction Light.
together separated by equal angles, and filling the remaining angle
in azimuth by a reinforcing mirror or screen. A group-flashing
distinction was proposed for gas lights by J. R. Wigham of Dublin,
who obtained it in the case of a revolving apparatus by alternately
raising and lowering the flame. The first apparatus in which this
method was employed was erected at Galley Head, Co. Cork (1878).
At this lighthouse 4_ of Wigham's large gas burners with four tiers
of first-order revolving lenses, eight in each tier, were adopted. By
successive lowering and raising of the gas flame at the focus of each
tier of lenses he produced the group-flashing distinction. The light
showed, instead of one prolonged flash at intervals of one minute,
as would be produced by the apparatus in the absence of a gas
occulter, a group of short flashes varying in number between six
and seven. The uncertainty, however, in the number of flashes
contained in each group is found to be an objection to the arrange-
ment. This device was adopted at other gas-illuminated stations in
Ireland at subsequent dates. The quadriform apparatus and gas
installation at Galley Head were superseded in 1907 by a first order
biform apparatus with incandescent oil vapour burner showing five
flashes every 20 seconds.
Flashing Lights indicating Numbers. — Captain F. A. Mahan, late
engineer secretary to the United States Lighthouse Board, devised
for that service a
system of flashing
lights to indicate
certain numbers.
The apparatus in-
stalled at Minot's
Ledge lighthouse
near Boston Har-
bour, Massa-
chusetts, has a
flash indicating
the number 143,
thus: --,
the dashes in-
dicating short
flashes. Each
group is separ-
ated by a longer
period of dark-
ness than that
between succes-
sive members of
a group. The
flashes in a group indicating a figure are about ij seconds apart,
the groups being 3 seconds apart, an interval of 16 seconds' dark-
ness occurring between each repetition. Thus the number is
repeated every half minute. Two examples of this system were
exhibited by the United States Lighthouse Board at the Chicago
Exhibition in 1893, viz. the second-order apparatus just men-
tioned and a similar light of the first order for Cape Charles
on the Virginian coast. The lenses are arranged in a somewhat
FIG. 39. — Pendeen Apparatus.
Plan at Focal Plane.
LIGHTHOUSE
PLATE I.
FIG. 55.— PACHENA POINT LIGHTHOUSE, B.C.— FIRST
ORDER DOUBLE-FLASHING APPARATUS.
FIG. 54.— FASTNET LIGHTHOUSE— FIRST ORDER
SINGLE-FLASHING BIFORM APPARATUS.
XVI. 6.16.
PLATE II.
LIGHTHOUSE
FIG. 56.— OLD EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE.
FIG. 57.— EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE.
FIG. 58.— ILE VIERGE LIGHTHOUSE.
FIG. 59-— MINOT'S LEDGE LIGHTHOUSE.
OPTICAL APPARATUS]
LIGHTHOUSE
637
similar manner to an ordinary group-flashing light, the groups of
lenses being placed on one side of the optic, while the other is pro-
vided with a catadioptric mirror. This system of numerical flashing
for lighthouses has been frequently proposed in various forms,
notably by Lord Kelvin. The installation of the lights described is,
however, the first practical application of the system to large and
important coast lights. The great cost involved in the alteration of
the lights of any country to comply with the requirements of a
numerical system is one of the objections to its general adoption.
Hyper-radial Apparatus. — In 1885 Messrs Barbier of Paris con-
structed the first hyper-radial apparatus (1330 mm. focal distance)
to the design of Messrs D. and C. Stevenson. This had a height of
1812 mm. It was tested during the South Foreland experiments in
comparison with other lenses, and found to give excellent results
with burners of large focal diameter. Apparatus of similar focal
distance (1330 mm.) were subsequently established at Round
Island, Bishop Rock, and Spurn Point in England, Fair Isle and
Sule Skerry (fig. 40) in Scotland, Bull Rock and Tory Island in
Ireland, Cape d'Antifer
in France, Pei Yu-shan
in China and a light-
house in Brazil.
The light erected in
1907 at Cape Race,
Newfoundland, is a fine
example of a four-sided
hyper-radial apparatus
mounted on a mercury
float. The total weight
of the revolving part of
the light amounts to 7
tons, while the motive
clock weight required to
rotate this large mass at
a speed of two complete
revolutions a minute is
only 8 cwt. and the
weight of mercury re-
quired for flotation
950 tb. A similar ap-
paratus was placed at
Manora Point, Karachi,
India, in 1908 (fig. 41).
The introduction of
incandescent and other
burners of focal compact-
ness and high intensity
has rendered the use of
optics of such large di-
FIG. 40-Sule Skerry Apparatus. F^Sd for bu^rHf
great focal diameter, unnecessary. It is now possible to obtain with a
second-order optic (or one of 700 mm. focal distance), having a
powerful incandescent petroleum burner in focus, a beam of equal
intensity to that which would be obtained from the apparatus
having a lo-wick oil burner or io8-jet gas burner at its focus.
Stephenson's Spherical Lenses and Equiangular Prisms. — Mr C. A.
Stephenspn in 1888 designed a form of lens spherical in the horizontal
and vertical sections. This admitted of the construction of lenses
of long focal distance without the otherwise corresponding necessity
of increased diameter of lantern. A lens of this type and of 1330 mm.
focal distance was constructed in 1890 for Fair Isle lighthouse.
The spherical form loses in efficiency if carried beyond an angle
subtending 20° at the focus, and to obviate this loss Mr Stephenson
designed his equiangular prisms, which have an inclination out-
wards. It is claimed by the designer that the use of equiangular
prisms results in less loss of light and less divergence than is the
case when either the spherical or Fresnel form is adopted. An
example of this design ii seen (fig. 40) in the Sule Skerry apparatus
(1895)-
Fixed and Flashing Lights. — The use of these lights, which show
a fixed beam varied at intervals by more powerful flashes, is not to
be recommended, though a large number were constructed in the
earlier years of dioptric illumination and many are still in existence
The distinction can be produced in one or other of three ways:
(a) by the revolution of detached panels of straight condensing lens
prisms placed vertically around a fixed light optic, (6) by utilizing
revolving lens panels in the middle portion of the optic to produce
the flashing light, the upifer and lower sections of the apparatus
being fixed zones of catadioptric or reflecting elements emitting a
fixed belt of light, and (c) by interposing panels of fixed light section
between the flashing light panels of a revolving apparatus. In
certain conditions of the atmosphere it is possible for the fixed light
of low power to be entirely obscured while the flashes are visible,
thus vitiating the true characteristic of the light. Cases have
frequently occurred of such lights being mistaken for, and even
described in lists of light as, revolving or flashing lights.
" Cute " and Screens. — Screens of coloured glass, intended to dis-
tinguish the light in particular azimuths, and of sheet iron, when it
is desired to " cut off " the light sharply on any angle, should be
fixed as far from the centre of the light as possible in order to reduce
the escape of light rays due to divergence. These screens are
usually attached to the lantern framing.
Divergence. — A dioptric apparatus designed to bend all incident
rays of light from the light source in a horizontal direction would,
if the flame could be a point, have the effect of projecting a horizontal
band or zone of light, in the case of a fixed apparatus, and a cylinder
of light rays, in the case of a flashing light, towards the horizon.
Thus the mariner in the near distance would receive no light, the
rays, visible only at or near the horizon, passing above the level of
his eye. In practice this does not occur, sufficient natural divergence
being produced ordinarily owing to the magnitude of the flame.
Where the electric arc is employed it is often necessary to design
the prisms so as to produce artificial divergence. The measure of
the natural divergence for any point of the lens is the angle whose
sine is the ratio of the diameter of the flame to the distance of the
point from centre of flame.
In the case of vertical divergence the mean height of the flame
must be substituted for the diameter. The angle thus obtained is
the total divergence, that is, the sum of the angles above and below
the horizontal plane or to right and left of the medial section. In
fixed dioptric lights there is, of course, no divergence in the horizontal
plane. In flashing lights the horizontal divergence is a matter of
considerable importance, determining as it does the duration or
length of time the flash is visible to the mariner.
Feux-Eclairs or Quick Flashing Lights. — One of the most im-
portant developments in the character of lighthouse illuminating
apparatus that has occurred in recent years has been in the direction
of reducing the length of flash. The initiative in this matter was
taken by the French lighthouse authorities, and in France alone
forty lights of this type were established between 1892 and 1901.
The use of short flash lights rapidly spread to other parts of the world.
In England the lighthouse at Pendeen (1900) exhibits a quadruple
flash every 15 seconds, the flashes being about J second duration
(fig. 39), while the bivalve apparatus erected on Lundy Island
(l8g7)shows2 flashes of J second duration in quick succession every
20 seconds. Since 1900 many quick flashing lights have been
erected on the coasts of the United Kingdom and in other countries.
The early feux-eclairs, designed by the French engineers and others,
had usually a flash of t'oth to f rd of a second duration. As a result of
experiments carried out in France in 1903-1904, ^second has been
adopted by the French authorities as the minimum duration for
white flashing lights. If shorter flashes are used it is found that the
reduction in duration is attended by a corresponding, but not pro-
portionate, diminution in effective intensity. In the case of many
electric flashing lights the duration is of necessity reduced, but
the greater initial intensity of the flash permits this loss without
serious detriment to efficiency. Red or green requires a considerably
greater duration than do white flashes. The intervals between the
flashes in lights of this character are also small, 25 seconds to 7
seconds. In group-flashing lights the intervals between the flashes
are about 2 seconds or even less, with periods of 7 to I o or 15 seconds
between the groups. The flashes are arranged in single, double,
triple or even quadruple groups, as in the older forms of apparatus.
The feu-eclair type of apparatus enables a far higher intensity
of flash to be obtained than was previously possible without any
corresponding increase in the luminous power of the burner or
other source of light. This result depends entirely upon the greater
ratio of condensation of light employed, panels of greater angular
breadth than was customary in the older forms of apparatus being
used with a higher rotatory velocity. It has been urged that short
flashes are insufficient for taking bearings, but the utility of a light
in this respect does not seem to depend so much upon the actual
length of the flash as upon its frequent recurrence at short intervals.
At the Paris Exhibition of 1900 was exhibited a fifth-order flashing
light giving short flashes at I second intervals; this represents the
extreme to which the movement towards the reduction of the
period of flashing lights has yet been carried.
Mercury Floats. — It has naturally been found impracticable to
revolve the optical apparatus of a light with its mountings, some-
times weighing over 7 tons, at the high rate of speed required for
feux-eclairs by means of the old system of roller carriages, though
for some small quick-revolving lights ball bearings have been
successfully adopted. It has therefore become almost the universal
practice to carry the rotating portions of the apparatus upon a
mercury float. This beautiful application of mercury rotation was
the invention of Bourdelles, and is now utilized not only for the
high-speed apparatus, but also generally for the few examples of
the older type still being constructed. The arrangement consists
of an annular cast iron bath or trough of such dimensions that a
similar but slightly smaller annular float immersed in the bath and
surrounded by mercury displaces a volume of the liquid metal
whose weight is equal to that of the apparatus supported. Thus a
comparatively insignificant quantity of mercury, say 2 cwt., serves
to ensure the flotation of a mass of over 3 tons. Certain differences
exist between the type of float usually constructed in France and
those generally designed by English engineers. In_ all cases pro-
vision is made for lowering the mercury bath or raising the float
and apparatus for examination. Examples of mercury floats are
shown in figs. 41, 42, 43 and Plate 1., figs. 54 an 55.
638
LIGHTHOUSE
[OPTICAL APPARATUS
Multiform Apparatus. —
In order to double the
power to be obtained from
a single apparatus at
stations where lights of
exceptionally high inten-
sity are desired, the ex-
pedient of placing one
complete lens apparatus
above another has some-
times been adopted, as at
the Bishop Rock (fig. 13),
and at the Fastnet light-
house in Ireland (Plate I.,
fig- 54)- Triform and quad-
riform apparatus have also
been erected in Ireland;
particulars of the Tory
Island triform apparatus
will be found in table VII.
The adoption of the multi-
form system involves the
use of lanterns of in-
creased height.
Twin Apparatus. —
Another method of doub-
ling the power of a light is
by mounting two complete
and distinct optics side by
side on the same revolving
table, as I shown in fig. 43
of the lie Vierge appar-
atus. Several such lights
have been installed by
the French Lighthouse
Service.
Port Lights.— Small self-
contained lanterns and
lights are in common use
for marking the entrances
to harbours and in other
similar positions where
neither high power nor
long range is requisite.
Many such lights are un-
attended in the sense that
they do not require the
attention of a keeper for
days and even weeks
together. These are de-
scribed in more detail in
section 6 of this article.
A typical port light con-
sists of a copper or brass
lantern containing a lens
of the fourth order (250
mm. focal distance) or
smaller, and a single wick
or 2-wick Argand capillary
burner. Duplex burners
are also used. The appar-
atus may exhibit a fixed
light or, more usually, an
occulting characteristic is
produced by the revolu-
tion of screens actuated by
spring clockwork around
the burner. The lantern
may be placed at the top
of a column, or suspended
from the head of a mast.
Coal gas and electricity are
also used as illuminants
for port lights when local
supplies are available. The
optical apparatus used in
connexion with electric
light is described below.
"Orders" of Apparatus.
— Augustin Fresnel divided
the dioptric lenses, de-
signed by him, into "orders"
or sizes depending on their
local distance. This divi-
sion is still used, although
two additional " orders,"
known as " small third
order "and "hyper-radial"
respectively are in or-
dinary use. The following
FIG. 41. — Manora Point Apparatus and Lantern.
OPTICAL APPARATUS]
LIGHTHOUSE
639
table gives the principal dimensions of the several sizes in use : —
TABLE II.
Order.
Focal
Distance,
mm.
Vertical Angles of Optics.
(Ordinary Dimensions.)
Dioptric
Belt only.
Holophotal Optics.
Lower
Prisms.
Lens.
Upper
Prisms.
Hyper- Radial
1st order .
2nd „ . .
3rd „ . .
Small 3rd
order
4th order .
5th „ . .
6th „ . .
1330
920
700
500
375
250
187-5
150
80°
92°,8o°,s8°
80°
80°
80°
80°
80° .
80°
21°
21°
21°
21°
21°
21°
21°
21°
57°
57°
57o
57°
57°
57°
57o
57°
oooooooo oo oo oo oo
Lenses of small focal distance are also made for buoy and beacon
lights.
focal
FIG. 42. — Cape Naturaliste Apparatus.
Light Intensities. — The powers of lighthouse lights in the British
Empire are expressed in terms of standard candles or in " light-
house units" (one lighthouse unit = lOOO standard candles). In
France the unit is the "'Carcel " = -952 standard candle. The
powers of burners and optical apparatus, then in use in the United
Kingdom, were carefully determined by actual photometric measure-
ment in 1892 by a committee consisting of the engineers of the three
general lighthouse boards, and the values so obtained are used as
the basis for calculating the intensities of all British lights. It was
Half Sichon VlOl K Half ElevaHon
\\_J?rH 11 r I \
FIG. 43. — lie Vierge Apparatus.
found that the intensities determined by photometric measurement
were considerably less than the values given by the theoretical
calculations formerly employed. A deduction of 20% was made
from the mean experimental results obtained to compensate for
loss by absorption in the lantern glass, variations in effects obtained
by different men in working the burners and in the illuminating
quality of oils, &c. The resulting reduced values are termed " ser-
vice " intensities.
As has been explained above, the effect of a dioptric apparatus
is to condense the light rays, and the measure of this condensation
is the ratio between the vertical divergence and the vertical angle
of the optic in the case of fixed lights. In flashing lights the ratio
of vertical condensation must be multiplied by the ratio between
the horizontal divergence and the horizontal angle of the panel.
The loss of light by absorption in passing through the glass and by
refraction varies from 10% to 15%. For apparatus containing
catadioptric elements a larger deduction must be made.
The intensity of the flash emitted from a dioptric apparatus,
showing a white light, may be found approximately by the empirical
formula I = PCVH/rA, where I=intensity of resultant beam, P =
service intensity of flame, V = vertical angle of optic, v = angle of
mean vertical divergence, H= horizontal angle of panel, h = angle
640
LIGHTHOUSE
[ILLUMINANTS
of mean horizontal divergence, and C= constant varying between
•9 and -75 according to the description of apparatus. The factor
H/A must be eliminated in the case of fixed lights. Deduction must
also be made in the case of coloured .lights. It should, however,
be pointed out that photometric measurements alone can be relied
upon to give accurate values for lighthouse intensities. The values
FIG. 43A. — lie Vierge Apparatus and Lantern. Plan at focal plane.
obtained by the use of Allard's formulae, which were largely used
before the necessity for actual photometric measurements came to
be appreciated, are considerably in excess of the true intensities.
Optical Calculations. — The mathematical theory of optical appara-
tus for lighthouses and formulae for the calculations of profiles will
be found in the works of the Stevensons, Chance, Allard, Reynaud,
Ribiere and others. Particulars of typical lighthouse apparatus
will be found in tables VI. and VII.
4. ILLUMINANTS. — The earliest form of illuminant used for
lighthouses was a fire of coal or wood set in a brazier or grate
erected on top of the lighthouse tower. Until the end of the i8th
and even into the igth century this primitive illuminant continued
to be almost the only one in use. The coal fire at the Isle of
May light continued until 1810 and that at St Bees lighthouse
in Cumberland till 1823. Fires are stated to have been used
on the two towers of Nidingen, in the Kattegat, until 1846.
Smeaton was the first to use any form of illuminant other than
coal fires; he placed within the lantern of his Eddystone light-
house a chandelier holding 24 tallow candles each of which
weighed $ of a Ib and emitted a light of 2-8 candle power.
The aggregate illuminating power was 67-2 candles and the
consumption at the rate of 3-4 Ib per hour.
OH. — Oil lamps with flat wicks were used in the Liverpool light-
houses as early as 1763. Argand, between 1780 and 1783, perfected
his cylindrical wick lamp which provides a central current of air
through the burner, thus allowing the more perfect combustion of
the gas issuing from the wick. The contraction in the diameter of
the glass chimney used with wick lamps is due to Lange, and the
principle of the multiple wick burner was devised by Count Rumford.
.Fresnel produced burners having two, three and four concentric
wicks. Sperm oil, costing 55. to 8s. per gallon, was used in English
lighthouses until 1846, but about that year colza oil was employed
generally at a cost of 2s. gd. per gallon. Olive oil, lard oil and
coconut oil have also been used for lighthouse purposes in various
parts of the world.
Mineral Oil Burners. — The introduction of mineral oil, costing a
mere fraction of the expensive animal and vegetable oils, revolu-
tionized the illumination of lighthouses. It was not until 1868 that
a burner was devised which successfully consumed hydro-carbon
oils. This was a multiple wick burner invented by Captain Doty.
The invention was quickly taken advantage of by lighthouse
authorities, and the " Doty " burner, and other patterns involving
the same principle, remained practically the only oil burners in
lighthouse use until the last few years of the igth century.
The lamps used for supplying oil to the burner are of two general
types, viz. those in which the oil is maintained under pressure by
mechanical action and constant level lamps. In the case of single
wick, and some 2-wick burners, oil is supplied to the burner by the
capillary action of the wick alone. f
The mineral oils ordinarily in use are petroleum, which for
lighthouse purposes should have a specific gravity of from -820 to
•830 at 60° F. and flashing point of not less than 230° F. (Abel close
test), and Scottish shale oil or paraffin with a specific gravity of
about -810 at 60° F. and flash point of 140° to 165° F. Both these
varieties may be obtained in England at a cost of about 6jd. per
gallon in bulk.
Coal Gas had been introduced in 1837 at the inner pier light of
Troon (Ayrshire) and in 1847 it was in use at the Heugh lighthouse
(West Hartleppol). In 1878 cannel coal gas was adopted for the
Galley Head lighthouse, with io8-jet Wigham burners. Sir James
Douglass introduced gas burners consisting of concentric rings,
two to ten in number, perforated on the upper edges. These give
excellent results and high intensity, 2600 candles in the case of the
lo-ring burner with a flame diameter at the focal plane of 5! in.
They are still in use at certain stations. The use of multiple ring
and jet gas burners is not being further extended. Gas for light-
house purposes generally requires to be specially made ; the erection
of gas works at the station is thus necessitated and a considerable
outlay entailed which is avoided by the use of oil as an illuminant.
Incandescent Coal Gas Burners. — The invention of the Welsbach
mantle placed at the disposal of the lighthouse authorities the
means of producing a light of high intensity combined with great
focal compactness. For lighthouse purposes other gaseous illumi-
nants than coal gas are as a rule more convenient and economical,
and give better results with incandescent mantles. Mantles have,
however, been used with ordinary coal gas in many instances where
a local supply is available.
Incandescent Mineral Oil Burners. — Incandescent lighting with
high-flash mineral oil was first introduced by the French Lighthouse
Service in 1898 at L'lle Penfret lighthouse. The burners employed
are all made on the same principle, but differ slightly in details
according to the type of lighting apparatus for which they are
intended. The principle consists in injecting the liquid petroleum
in the form of spray mixed with air into a vaporizer heated by the
mantle flame or by a subsidiary heating burner. A small reservoir
of compressed air is used —
charged by means of a hand
pump — for providing the
necessary pressure for injec-
tion. On first ignition the
vaporizer is heated by a spirit
flame to the required tempera-
ture. A reservoir air pressure
of 125 Ib per sq. in. is employed,
a reducing valve supplying air
to the oil at from 60 to 65 Ib
per sq. in. Small reservoirs
containing liquefied carbon
dioxide have also been em-
ployed for supplying the requi-
site pressure to theoil vessel.
The candle-power of appar-
atus in which ordinary multiple
wick burners were formerly
employed is increased by over
300% by the substitution of
suitable incandescent oil
burners. In 1902 incandescent
oil burners were adopted by the
general lighthouse authorities
in the United Kingdom. The
burners used in the Trinity _ ,, _
House Service and some of FlG-44-— Chance Incandescent
those made in France have O)1 Burner, with 85 mm. diameter
the vaporizers placed over the mantle,
flame. In other forms, of
which the " Chance " burner (fig. 44) is a type, the vaporization
is effected by means of a subsidiary burner placed under the main
flame.
Particulars of the sizes of burner in ordinary use are given in
the following table.
Mantle
Nlcple
Diameter of Mantle.
Service Intensity.
Consumption of oil.
Pints per hour.
35 mm.
55 mm.
85 mm.
Triple mantle 50 mm.
600 candles.
1200 ,,
2150
3300 „
•50
I -CO
2-25
3-00
ILLUMINANTS]
LIGHTHOUSE
641
The intrinsic brightness of incandescent burners generally may be
taken as being equivalent to from 30 candles to 40 candles per sq.
cm. of the vertical section of the incandescent mantle.
In the case of wick burners, the intrinsic brightness varies, ac-
cording to the number of wicks and the type of burner from about
3-5 candles to about 12 candles per sq. cm., the value being at its
maximum with the larger type of burner. The luminous intensity
of a beam from a dioptric apparatus is, ceteris paribus, proportional
to the intrinsic brightness of the luminous source of flame, and not
of the total luminous intensity. The intrinsic brightness of the
flame of oil burners increases only slightly with their focal diameter,
consequently while the consumption of oil increases the efficiency
of the burner for a given apparatus decreases. The illuminating
power of the condensed beam can only be improved to a slight
extent, and, in fact, is occasionally decreased, by increasing the
number of wicks in the burner. The same argument applies to the
case of multiple ring and multiple jet gas burners which, notwith-
standing their large total intensity, have comparatively small
intrinsic brightness. The economy of the new system is instanced
by the case of the Eddystone bi-form apparatus, which with the
concentric 6-wick burner consuming 2500 gals, of oil per annum,
gave a total intensity of 79,250 candles. Under the new regime the
intensity is 292,000 candles, the oil consumption being practically
halved.
Incandescent Oil Gas Burners. — It has been mentioned that
incandescence with low-pressure coal gas produces flames of com-
paratively small intrinsic brightness. Coal gas cannot be com-
pressed beyond a small extent without considerable injurious con-
densation and other accompanying evils. Recourse has therefore
been had to compressed oil gas, which is capable of undergoing
compression to 10 or 12 atmospheres with little detriment, and
can conveniently be stored in portable reservoirs. The burner
employed resembles the ordinary Bunsen burner with incandescent
mantle, and the rate of consumption of gas is 27-5 cub. in. per hour
per candle. A reducing valve is used for supplying the gas to the
burner at constant pressure. The burners can be left unattended
for considerable periods. The system was first adopted in France,
where it is installed at eight lighthouses, among others the Ar'men
Rock light, and has been extended to other parts of the world
including several stations in Scotland and England. The mantles
used in France are of 35 mm. diameter. The 35 mm. mantle gives a
candle-power of 400, with an intrinsic brightness of 20 candles
per sq. cm.
The use of oil gas necessitates the erection of gas works at the
lighthouse or its periodical supply in portable reservoirs from a
neighbouring station. A complete gas works plant costs about £800.
The annual expenditure for gas lighting in France does not exceed
£72 per light where works are installed, or £32 where gas is supplied
from elsewhere. In the case of petroleum vapour lighting the annual
cost of oil amounts to about £26 per station.
Acetylene. — The high illuminating power and intrinsic brightness
of the flame of acetylene makes it a very suitable illuminant for
lighthouses and beacons, providing certain difficulties attending
its use can be overcome. At Grangemouth an unattended 21 -day
beacon has been illuminated by an acetylene flame for some years
with considerable success, and a beacon light designed to run un-
attended for six months was established on Bedout Island in Western
Australia in 1910. Acetylene has also been used in the United
States, Germany, the Argentine, China, Canada, &c., for lighthouse
and beaeon illumination. Many buoys and beacons on the German
and Dutch coasts have been supplied with oil gas mixed with 20%
of acetylene, thereby obtaining an increase of over 100% in
illuminating intensity. In France an incandescent burner consuming
acetylene gas mixed with air has been installed at the Chassiron
lighthouse (1902). The French Lighthouse Service has perfected
an incandescent acetylene burner with a 55 mm. mantle having an
intensity of over 2000 candle-power, with intrinsic brightness of
60 candles per sq. cm.
Electricity. — The first installation of electric light for lighthouse
purposes in England took place in 1858 at the South Foreland,
where the Trinity House established a temporary plant for experi-
mental purposes. This installation was followed in 1862 by the
adoption of the illuminant at the Dungeness lighthouse, where it
remained in service until the year 1874 when oil was substituted for
electricity. The earliest of the permanent installations now existing
in England is that at Souter Point which was illuminated in 1871.
There are in England four important coast lights illuminated by
electricity, and one, viz. Isle of May, in Scotland. Of the former
St Catherine's, in the Isle of Wight, and the Lizard are the most
powerful. Elctricity was substituted as an illuminant for the then
existing oil light at St Catherine's in 1888. The optical apparatus
consisted of a second-order 1 6-sided revolving lens, which was
transferred to the South Foreland station in 1904^, and a new second
order (700 mm.) four-sided optic with a vertical angle of 139°,
exhibiting a flash of -21 second duration every 5 seconds substituted
for it. A fixed holophote is placed inside the optic in the dark or
landward arc, and at the focal plane of the lamp. This holophote
condenses the rays from the arc falling upon it into a pencil of
small angle, which is directed horizontally upon a series of reflecting
prisms which again bend the light and throw it downwards through
XVI. 21
an aperture in the lantern floor on to another series of prisms, which
latter direct the rays seaward in the form of a sector of fixed red
light at a lower level in the tower. A somewhat similar arrangement
exists at Souter Point lighthouse.
The apparatus installed at the Lizard in 1903 is similar to that
at St Catherine's, but has no arrangement for producing a subsidiary
sector light. The flash is of -13 seconds duration every 3 seconds.
The apparatus replaced the two fixed electric lights erected in 1878.
The Isle of May lighthouse, at the mouth of the Firth of Forth,
was first illuminated by electricity in 1886. The optical apparatus
consists of a second-order fixed-light lens with reflecting prisms, and
is surrounded by a revolving system of vertical condensing prisms
which split up the vertically condensed beam of light into 8 separate
beams of 3° in azimuth. The prisms are so arranged that the
apparatus, making one complete revolution in the minute, produces
a group characteristic of 4 flashes in quick succession every 30
seconds (fig. 45). The fixed light is not of the ordinary Fresnel
FIG. 45. — Isle of May Apparatus.
section, the refracting portion being confined to an angle of 10°,
and the remainder of the vertical section consisting of reflecting
prisms.
In France the old south lighthouse at La Heve was lit by electricity
in 1863. This installation was followed in 1865 by a similar one at
the north lighthouse. In 1910 there were thirteen important coast
lights in France illuminated by electricity. In other parts of the
world, Macquarie lighthouse, Sydney, was lit by electricity in 1883 ;
Tino, in the gulf of Spezia, in 1885; and Navesink lighthouse, near
the entrance to New York Bay, in 1898. Electric apparatus were
also installed at the lighthouse at Port Said in 1869, on the opening
of the canal; Odessa in 1871; and at the Rothersand, North Sea,
in 1885. There are several other lights in various parts of the world
illuminated by this agency.
Incandescent electric lighting has been adopted for the illumina-
tion of certain light-vessels in the United States, and a few small
harbour and port lights, beacons and buoys.
Table VI. gives particulars of some of the more important electric
lighthouses of the world.
Electric Lighthouse Installations in France. — A list of the thirteen
lighthouses on the French coast equipped with electric light installa-
tions will be found in table VI. It has been already mentioned that
the two lighthouses at La Heve were lit by electric light in 1863 and
1865. These installations were followed within a few years by the
establishment of electricity as illuminant at Gris-Nez. In 1882
M. Allard, the then director-general of the French Lighthouse
Service, prepared a scheme for the electric lighting of the French
littoral by means of 46 lights distributed more or less uniformly
along the coast-line. All the apparatus were to be of the same
general type, the optics consisting of a fixed belt of 300 mm. focal
distance, around the outside of which revolved a system of 24 faces
of vertical lenses. These vertical panels condensed the belt of fixed
light into beams of 3° amplitude in azimuth, producing flashes of
about I sec. duration. To_ illuminate the near sea the vertical
divergence of the lower prisms of the fixed belt was artificially
increased. These optics are very similar to that in use at the Souter
Point lighthouse, Sunderland. The intensities obtained were 120,000
candles in the case of fixed lights and 900,000 candles with flashing
lights. As a result of a nautical inquiry held in 1886, at which date
the lights of Dunkerque, Calais, Gns-Nez, La Canche, Baleines and
642
LIGHTHOUSE
[LIGHTS AND BEACONS
Planter had been lighted, in'addition to the old apparatus at La Heve,
it was decided to limit the installation of electrical apparatus to
important landfall lights — a decision which the Trinity House had
already arrived at in the case of the English coast — and to establish
new apparatus at six stations only. These were Creac'h d'Ouessant
(Ushant), Belle-lie, La Coubre at the mouth of the river Gironde,
Barfleur, lie d'Yeu and Penmarc'h. At the same time it was deter-
mined to increase the powers of the existing electric lights. The
scheme as amended in 1886 was completed in I9O2.1
All the electrically lit apparatus, in common with other optics
established in France since 1893, have been provided with mercury
rotation. The most recent electric lights have been constructed in
the form of twin apparatus, two complete and distinct optics being
mounted side by side upon the same revolving table and with
corresponding faces parallel. It is found that a far larger aggregate
candle-power is obtained from two lamps with 16 mm. to 23 mm.
diameter carbons and currents of 60 to 120 amperes than with carbons
and currents of larger dimensions in conjunction with single optics
of greater focal distance. A somewhat similar circumstance led to
the choice of the twin form for the two very powerful non-electric
apparatus at lie Vierge (figs. 43 and 43A) and Ailly, particulars of
which will be seen in table VII.
Several of the de Meritens magneto-electric machines of 5-5 K.W.,
laid down many years ago at French electric lighthouse stations, are
still in use. All these machines have five induction coils, which,
upon the installation of the twin optics, were separated into two
distinct circuits, each consisting of 2\ coils. This modification has
enabled the old plants to be used with success under the altered
conditions of lighting entailed by the use of two lamps. The gener-
ators adopted in the French service for use at the later stations differ
materially from the old type of de Meritens machine. The Phare
d'Eckmuhl (Penmarc'h) installation serves as a type of the more
modern machinery. The dynamos are alternating current two-
phase machines, and are installed in duplicate. The two lamps
are supplied with current from the same machine, the second
dynamo being held in reserve. The speed is 810 to 820 revolutions
per minute.
The lamp generally adopted is a combination of the Serrin and
Berjot principles, with certain modifications. Clockwork mechanism
with a regulating electro-magnet moves the rods simultaneously
and controls the movements of the carbons so that they are dis-
placed at the same rate as they are consumed. It is usual to
employ currents of varying power with carbons of corresponding
dimensions according to the atmospheric conditions. In the French
service two variations are used in the case of twin apparatus
produced by currents of 6p and 120 amperes at 45 volts with carbons
14 mm. and 18 mm. diameter, while in single optic apparatus
currents of 25, 50 and 100 amperes are utilized with carbon of
II mm., 16 mm. and 23 mm. diameter. In England fluted carbons
of larger diameter are employed with correspondingly increased
current. Alternating currents have given the most successful results
in all respects. Attempts to utilize continuous current for lighthouse
arc lights have, up to the present, met with little success.
The cost of a first-class electric lighthouse installation of the most
recent type in France, including optical apparatus, lantern, dynamos,
engines, air compressor, siren, &c., but not buildings, amounts
approximately to £5900.
Efficiency of the Electric Light. — In 1883 the lighthouse authorities
of Great Britain determined that an exhaustive series of experiments
should be carried out at the South Foreland with a view to ascertain-
ing the relative suitability of electricity, gas and oil as lighthouse
illuminants. The experiments extended over a period of more than
twelve months, and were attended by representatives of the chief
lighthouse authorities of the world. The results of the trials tended
to show that the rays of oil and gas lights suffered to about equal
extent by atmospheric absorption, but that oil had the advantage
ovei gas by reason of its greater economy in cost of maintenance
and in initial outlay on installation. The electric light was found to
suffer to a much larger extent than either oil or gas light per unit of
power by atmospheric absorption, but the infinitely greater total
intensity of the beam obtainable by its use, both by reason of the
high luminous intensity of the electric arc and its focal compactness,
more than outweighed the higher percentage of loss in fog. The
final conclusion of the committee on the relative merits of electricity,
gas or oil as lighthouse illuminants is given in the following words :
".That for ordinary necessities of lighthouse illumination, mineral
oil is the most suitable and economical illuminant, and that for salient
headlands, important landfalls, and places where a very powerful
light is required electricity offers the greater advantages."
5. MISCELLANEOUS LIGHTHOUSE EQUIPMENT. Lanterns. — Modern
lighthouse lanterns usually consist of a cast iron or steel pedestal,
cylindrical in plan, on which is erected the lantern glazing, sur-
1 In 1901 one of the lights decided upon in 1886 and installed in
1888 — Creac'h d'Ouessant — was replaced by a still more powerful
twin apparatus exhibited at the 1900 Paris Exhibition. Subse-
quently similar apparatus to that at Creac'h were installed at Gris-
Nez, La Canche, Planier, Barfleur, Belle-lie and La Coubre, and
the old Dunkerque optic has been replaced by that removed from
Belle-He.
mounted by a domed roof and ventilator (fig. 41). Adequate
ventilation is of great importance, and is provided by means of
ventilators in the pedestal and a large ventilating dome or cowl in
the roof. The astragals carrying the glazing are of wrought steel
or gun-metal. The astragals are frequently arranged helically or
diagonally, thus causing a minimum of obstruction to the light rays
in any vertical section and affording greater rigidity to the structure.
The glazing is usually j-in. thick plate-glass curved to the radius
of the lantern. In situations of great exposure the thickness is
increased. Lantern roofs are of sheet steel or copper secured to steel
or cast-iron rafter frames. In certain instances it is found necessary
to erect a grille or network outside the lantern to prevent the numer-
ous sea birds, attracted by the light, from breaking the glazing by
impact. Lanterns vary in diameter from 5 ft. to 16 ft. or more,
according to the size of the optical apparatus. For first order
apparatus a diameter of 12 ft. or 14 ft. is usual.
Lightning Conductors. — The lantern and principal metallic
structures in a lighthouse are usually connected to a lightning con-
ductor carried either to a point below low water or terminating in an
earth plate embedded in wet ground. Conductors may be of copper
tape or copper-wire rope.
Rotating Machinery. — Flashing-light apparatus are rotated by
clockwork mechanism actuated by weights. The clocks are fitted
with speed governors and electric warning apparatus to indicate
variation in speed and when rewinding is required. For occulting
apparatus either weight clocks or spring clocks are employed.
Accommodation for Keepers, fife. — At rock and other isolated
stations, accommodation for the keepers is usually provided in the
towers. In the case of land lighthouses, dwellings are provided in
close proximity to the tower. The service or watch room should be
situated immediately under the lantern floor. Oil is usually stored
in galvanized steel tanks. A force pump is sometimes used for
pumping oil from the storage tanks to a service tank in the watch-
room or lantern.
6. UNATTENDED LIGHTS AND BEACONS. — Until recent years no
unattended lights were in existence. The introduction of Pintsch's
gas system in the early 'seventies provided a means of illumination
for beacons and buoys of which large use has been made. Other
illuminants are also in use to a considerable extent.
Unattended Electric Lights. — In 1884 an iron beacon lighted by an
incandescent lamp supplied with current from a secondary battery
was erected on a tidal rock near Cadiz. A 28-day clock was arranged
for eclipsing the light between sunrise and sunset and automatically
cutting off the current at intervals to produce an occulting character-
istic. Several small dioptric apparatus illuminated with incandescent
electric lamps have been made by the firm of Barbier B6nard et
Turenne of Paris, and supplied with current from batteries of
Daniell cells, with electric clockwork mechanism for occulting the
light. These apparatus have been fitted to beacons and buoys, and
are generally arranged to automatically switch off the current
during the day-time. They run -unattended for periods up to two
months. Two separate lenses and lamps are usually provided, with
lamp changer, only one lamp being in circuit at a time. In the event
of failure in the upper lamp of the two the current automatically
passes to the lower lamp.
Oil-gas Beacons. — In 1881 a beacon automatically lighted by
Pintsch's compressed oil gas was erected on the river Clyde, and
large numbers of these structures have
since been installed in all parts of the
world. The gas is contained in an iron
or steel reservoir placed within the beacon
structure, refilled by means of a flexible
hose on the occasions of the periodical
visits of the tender. The beacons,
which remain illuminated for periods up
to three months are charged to 7 atmo-
spheres. Many lights are provided with
occulting apparatus actuated by the gas
passing from the reservoir to the burner
automatically cutting off and turning on
the supply. The Garvel beacon (1899)
on the Clyde is shown in fig. 46. The
burner has 7 jets, and the light is
occulting. Since 1907 incandescent
mantle burners for oil gas have been
largely used for beacon illumination, both
for fixed and occulting lights.
Acetylene has also been used for the
illumination of beacons and other un-
attended lights.
Lindberg Lights. — In 1881-1882 several
beacons lighted automatically by volatile
petroleum spirit on the Lindberg-Lyth
and Lindberg-Trotter systems were estab-
lished in Sweden. Many lights of this
type have subsequently been placed in
different parts of the world. The volatile FlG. 46. — Garvel Beacon,
spirit lamp burns day and night. Occulta-
tions are produced by a screen or series of screens rotated round the
light by the ascending current of heated air and gases from the lamp
LIGHT-VESSELS]
LIGHTHOUSE
acting upon a horizontal fan. The speed of rotation of the fan
cannot be accurately adjusted, and the times of occultation therefore
are liable to slight variation. The lights run unattended for periods
up to twenty-one days.
Benson-Lee Lamps. — An improvement upon the foregoing is the
Benson-Lee lamp, in which a similar occulting arrangement is often
used, but the illuminant is paraffin consumed in a special burner
having carbon-tipped wicks which require no trimming. The flame
intensity of the light is greater than that of the burner consuming
light spirit. The introduction of paraffin also avoids the danger
attending the use of the more volatile spirit. Many of these lights
are in use on the Scottish coast. They are also used in other parts of
the United Kingdom, and in the United States, Canada and other
countries.
Permanent Wick Lights.— About 1891 the French Lighthouse
Service introduced petroleum lamps consuming ordinary high-flash
lighthouse oil, and burning without attention for periods of several
months. The burners are of special construction, provided with a
very thick wick which is in the first instance treated in such a
manner as to cause the formation of a deposit of carbonized tar on its
exposed upper surface. This crust prevents further charring of the
wick after ignition, the oil becoming vaporized from the under side
of the crust. Many fixed, occulting and flashing lights fitted with
these burners are established in France and other countries. In the
case of the occulting types a revolving screen is placed around the
burner and carried upon a miniature mercury float. The rotation is
effected by means of a small Gramme motor on a vertical axis, fitted
with a speed governor, and supplied with current from a battery
of primary cells. The oil reservoir is placed in the upper part of the
lantern and connected with the burner by a tube, to which is fitted
a constant level regulator for maintaining the burning level of the
oil at a fixed height. In the flashing or revolving light types the
arrangement is generally similar, the lenses being revolved upon a
mercury float which is rotated by the electric motor. The flashing
apparatus established at St Marcouf in 1901 has a beam intensity
of 1000 candle-power, and is capable of running unattended for
three months. The electric current employed for rotating the
apparatus is supplied by four Lalande and Chaperon primary cells,
coupled in series, each giving about 0-15 ampere at a voltage of
0-65. The power required to work the apparatus is at the maximum
about 0-165 ampere at 0-75 volt, the large surplus of power which
is provided for the sake of safety being absorbed by a brake or
governor connected with the motor.
Wigham Beacon Lights.— Wigham introduced an oil lamp for
beacon and buoy purposes consisting of a vertical container filled
with ordinary mineral oil or paraffin, and carrying a roller immedi-
ately under the burner case over which a long flat wick passes. One
end of the wick is attached to a float which falls in the container as
the oil is consumed, automatically drawing a fresh portion of the
wick over the roller. The other end of the wick is attached to a free
counterweight which serves to keep it stretched. The oil burns
from the convex surface of the wick as 'it passes over the roller, a
fresh portion being constantly passed under the action of the flame
1 he light is capable of burning without attention' for thirty days
1 hese lights are also fitted with occulting screens on the Lindberg
system. The candle-power of the flame is small.
7. LIGHT-VESSELS.— The earliest light-vessel placed in English
waters was that at the Nore in 1732. The early fight-ships were of
small size and carried lanterns of primitive construction and small
size suspended from the yard-arms. Modern light-vessels are of
steel, wood or composite construction. Steel Is now generally
employed m new ships. The wood and composite ships are sheathed
with Muntz metal. The dimensions of English light- vessels vary.
1 he following may be taken as the usual limits:
Length 80 ft. to 114 ft.
Beam 20 ft. to 24 ft.
Depth moulded . . 13 ft. to 15 ft. 6 in.
„, . Tonnage . . . . 155 to 280.
1 he larger vessels are employed at outside and exposed stations, the
smaller ships being stationed in sheltered positions and in estuaries
Ine moorings usually consist of 3-ton mushroom anchors and
IB open link cables. The lanterns in common use are 8 ft. in dia-
meter, circular in form, with glazing 4 ft. in height. They are
innular in plan, surrounding the mast of the vessel upon which they
are hoisted for illumination, and are lowered to the deck level during
the day. Fixed lanterns mounted on hollow steel masts are now
being used in many services, and are gradually displacing the older
type. 1 he first English light-vessel so equipped was constructed
in 1904 Of the 87 light-vessels in British waters, including un-
attended light- vessels, eleven are in Ireland and six in Scotland.
At the present time there are over 750 light-vessels in service through-
out the world.
Until about 1895 the illuminating apparatus used in light-vessels
was exclusively of catoptric form, usually consisting of 21 in. or 24 in
silvered parabolic reflectors, having I, 2 or 3-wick mineral oil burners
in locus. The reflectors and lamps are hung in gimbals to preserve
the horizontal direction of the beams.
The following table gives the intensity of beam obtained by means
of a type of reflector in general use :
643
2i-in. Trinity House Parabolic Reflector
Service Intensity
of Beam.
Burners I wick Douglass " . _ . . 2715 candles
" 2 n (Catoptric) . 4004 ,,
" 2 ,, (Dioptric). . 6722
" 3 „ .... 7528 „
In revolving flashing lights two or more reflectors are arranged in
parallel in each face. Three, four or more faces or groups of reflectors
are arranged around the lantern in which they revolve and are
carried upon a turn-table rotated by clockwork. The intensity of
the Hasmng beam is therefore equivalent to the combined intensities
of the beams emitted by the several reflectors in each face. The first
light-vessel with revolving light was placed at the Swin Middle at
the entrance to the Thames in 1837. Group-flashing characteristics
can be produced by special arrangements of the reflectors. Dioptric
apparatus is now being introduced in many new vessels, the first to
be so fitted m England being that stationed at the Swin Middle in
1905, the apparatus of which is gas illuminated and gives a flash of
25,000, candle-power.
• Fug ,si&nals> when Provided on board light-vessels are generally
m the form of reed-horns or sirens, worked by compressed air. The
compressors are driven from steam or oil engines. The cost of a
modern type of English light-vessel, with power-driven compressed
air siren, is approximately £16,000.
In the United States service, the more recently constructed vessels
have a displacement of 600 tons, each costing £18,000. They are
provided with self-propelling power and steam whistle fog signals
The illuminating apparatus is usually in the form of small dioptric
lens lanterns suspended at the mast-head — 3 or more to each mast
but a few of the ships, built since 1907, are provided with fourth-
order revolving dioptric lights in fixed lanterns. There are 53 light-
vessels in service on the coasts of the United States with I T. reserve
ships.
Electrical Illumination. —An experimental installation of the
electric light placed on board a Mersey light-vessel in 1886 by the
Mersey Docks and Harbour Board proved unsuccessful The
United States Lighthouse Board in 1892 constructed a light- vessel
provided^ with a powerful electric light, and moored her on the
Cornfield Point station in Long Island Sound. This vessel was
subsequently placed off Sandy Hook (1894) and transferred to the
Ambrose Channel Station in 1907. Five other light- vessels in the
United States have since been provided with incandescent electric
lights— either with fixed or occulting characteristics— including
Nantucket Shoals (1896), Fire Island (1897), Diamond Shoals (1898)
Overfalls Shoal (1901) and San Francisco (1902).
Gas Illumination.— In 1896 the French Lighthouse Service com-
pleted the construction of a steel light-vessel (Talais) which was
ultimately placed at the mouth of the Gironde. The construction
ot this vessel was the outcome of experiments carried out with a
view to produce an efficient light-vessel at moderate cost lit by a
dioptric flashing light with incandescent oil-gas burner. The con-
struction of the Talais was followed by that of a second and larger
vessel, the Snouw, on similar lines, having a length of 65 ft 6 in
beam 20 ft. and a draught of 12 ft., with a displacement of 130 tons
1 he cost of this vessel complete with optical apparatus and gas-
holders, with accommodation for three men, was approximately
£5000. The vessel was built in 1898 -1899.* A third vessel was
constructed in 1901-1902 for the Sandettie Bank on the general lines
adopted for the preceding examples of her class, but of the following
increased dimensions: length 115 ft. ; width at water-line 20 ft. 6 in. ;
and draught 15 ft., with a displacement of 342 tons (fig. 47). Accom-
modation is provided for a crew of eight men. The optical apparatus
(ng. 48) is dioptric, consisting of 4 panels of 250 mm. focal distance,
carried upon a " Cardan " joint below the lens table, and counter-
ba anced by a heavy pendulum weight. The apparatus is re-
volved by clockwork and illuminated by compressed oil gas with
incandescent mantle. The candle-power of the beam is 35,000.
The gas is contained in three reservoirs placed in the hold. 'The
apparatus is contained in a 6-ft. lantern constructed at the head of
a tubular mast 2 ft. 6 in. diameter. A powerful siren is provided
with steam engine and boiler for working the air compressors. The
total cost of the vessel, including fog signal and optical apparatus,
was £13,600. A vessel of similar construction to the Talais was
placed by the Trinity House in 1905 on the Swin Middle station.
The illuminant is oil gas. Gas illuminated light-vessels have also
been constructed for the German and Chinese Lighthouse Service.
Unattended Light-vessels.— In 1881 an unattended light-vessel,
illuminated with Pintsch's oil gas, was constructed for the Clyde
and is still in use at the Garvel Point. The light is occulting, and is
shown from a dioptric lens fitted at the head of a braced iron lattice
tower 30 ft. above water-level. The vessel is of iron, 40 ft. long, 12 ft.
beam and 8 ft. deep, and has a storeholder on board containing oil
gas under a pressure of six atmospheres capable of maintaining a
light for three months. A similar vessel is placed off Calshot Spit
m Southampton Water, and several have been constructed for the
_ * Both the Talais and Snouw light-vessels have since been converted
into unattended light-vessels.
644
LIGHTHOUSE
[DISTRIBUTION OF LIGHTS
French and other Lighthouse Services. The French boats are pro-
vided with deep main and bilge keels similar to those adopted in the
larger gas illuminated vessels. In 1901 a light-vessel 60 ft. in
length was placed off the Otter Rock on the west coast of Scotland ;
side of the rock. The conductor terminated in a large copper plate,
and to the cable end was attached a copper mushroom. Weak
currents were induced in the lighthouse conductor by the main
current in the cable, and messages received in the tower by the help
Lanjiludlnal Section
FIG. 47. — Sandettie Lightship.
it is constructed of steel, 24 ft. beam, 12 ft. deep and draws 9 ft. of
water (fig. 49). The focal plane is elevated 25 ft. above the water-
line, and the lantern is 6 ft. in diameter. The optical apparatus is
of 500 mm. focal distance and hung in gimbals with a pendulum
balance and " Cardan " joint as in the Sandettie light- vessel. The
illuminant is oil gas, with an occulting characteristic. The store-
holder contains 10,500 cub. ft. of gas at eight atmospheres, sufficient
to supply the fight for ninety days and
nights. A bell is provided, struck by
clappers moved by the roll of the vessel.
The cost of the vessel complete was
£2979. The Northern Lighthouse Com-
missioners have four similar vessels in
service, and others have been stationed
in the Hugli estuary, at Bombay, off the
Chinese coasts and elsewhere. In 1909
^ __. an unattended gas illuminated light-vessel
*" Jl Iky /? provided with a dioptric flashing appar-
. Sr '& . / atus was placed at the Lune Deep in
Morecambe Bay. It is also fitted with
a fog bell struck automatically by a gas
operated mechanism.
Electrical Communication of Light-vessels
with the Shore. — Experiments were in-
stituted in 1886 at the Sunk light-vessel
off *the Essex coast with the view to
maintaining telephonic communication
with the shore by means of a submarine
cable 9 m. in length. Great difficulties
were experienced in maintaining com-
munication during stormy weather,
breakages in the cable being frequent.
These difficulties were subsequently par-
tially overcome by the employment of
larger vessels and special moorings.
Wireless telegraphic installations have
now (1910) superseded the cable com-
munications with light-vessels in English
waters except in four cases. Seven light-
vessels, including the four off the Goodwin
Sands, are now fitted for wireless electrical
communication with the shore.
In addition many pile lighthouses and
isolated rock and isjand stations have
been placed in electrical communication
with the shore by means of cables or
wireless telegraphy. The Fastnet light-
house was, in 1894, electrically connected
with the shore by means of a non-
FlG. 48. — Lantern of
Sandetti^ Lightship.
continuous cable, it being found impossible to maintain a continuous
cable in shallow water near the rock owing to the heavy wash of the
sea. A copper conductor, carried down from the tower to below
low-water mark, was separated from the cable proper, laid on the
bed of the sea in a depth of 13 fathoms, by a distance of about 100 ft.
The lighthouse was similarly connected to earth on the opposite
of electrical relays. On the completion of the new tower on the
Fastnet Rock in 1906 this installation was superseded by a wireless
telegraphic installation.
8. DISTRIBUTION AND DISTINCTION or LIGHTS, &c. — Methods
of Distinction. — The following are the various light character-
istics which may be exhibited to the mariner: —
Fixed. — Showing a continuous or steady light. Seldom used
in modern lighthouses and generally restricted to small port or
harbour lights. A fixed light is liable to be confused with lights
of shipping or other shore lights.
Flashing.1 — Showing a single flash, the duration of darkness
always being greater than that of light. This characteristic
or that immediately following is generally adopted for important
lights. The French authorities have given the name Peux-
Eclair to flashing lights of short duration.
Group-Flashing. — Showing groups of two or more flashes in
quick succession (not necessarily of the same colour) separated
by eclipses with a larger interval of darkness between the
groups.
Fixed and Flashing. — Fixed light varied by a single white or
coloured flash, which may be preceded and followed by a short
eclipse. This type of light, in consequence of the unequal
intensities of the beams, is unreliable, and examples are now
seldom installed although many are still in service.
Fixed and Group-Flashing. — Similar to the preceding and open
to the same objections.
Revolving. — This term is still retained in the " Lists of Lights "
issued by the Admiralty and some other authorities to denote
a light gradually increasing to full effect, then decreasing to
eclipse. At short distances and in clear weather a faint continuous
light may be observed. There is no essential difference between
revolving and flashing lights, the distinction being merely due
to the speed of rotation, and the term might well be abandoned
as in the United States lighthouse list.
Occulting. — A continuous light with, at regular intervals, one
sudden and total eclipse, the duration of light always being equal
to or greater than that of darkness. This characteristic is
usually exhibited by fixed dioptric apparatus fitted with some
form of occulting mechanism. Many lights formerly of fixed
characteristic have been converted to occulting.
1 For the purposes of the mariner a light is classed as flashing or
occulting solely according to the duration of light and darkness
and without any reference to the apparatus employed. Thus, an
occulting apparatus, in which the period of darkness is greater than
that of light, is classed in the Admiralty " List of Lights " as a
" flashing ' light.
DISTRIBUTION OF LIGHTS]
LIGHTHOUSE
645
Group Occulting. — A continuous light with, at regular intervals,
groups of two or more sudden and total eclipses.
Alternating. — Lights of different colours (generally red and
white) alternately without any intervening eclipse. This char-
acteristic is not to be recommended for reasons which have already
been referred to. Many of the permanent and unwatched lights
on the coasts of Norway and Sweden are of this description.
Colour. — The colours usually adopted for lights are white,
red and green. White is to be preferred whenever possible,
owing to the great absorption of light by the use of red or green
glass screens.
Sectors. — Coloured lights are often requisite to distinguish
cuts or sectors, and should be shown from fixed or occulting light
characteristic of a light should be such that it may be readily deter-
mined by a manner without the necessity of accurately timing the
period or duration of flashes. For landfall and other important
coast stations flashing dioptric apparatus of the first order (920 mm.
focal distance) with powerful burners are required. In countries
where the atmosphere is generally clear and fogs are less prevalent
than on the coasts of the United Kingdom, second or third order lights
suffice for landfalls having regard to the high intensities available
by the use of improved illuminants. Secondary coast lights may be
of second, third or fourth order of flashing character, and important
harbour lights of third or fourth order. Less important harbours
and places where considerable range is not required, as in estuaries
and narrow seas, may be lighted by flashing lights of fourth order or
smaller size. Where sectors are requisite, occulting apparatus should
be adopted for the main light : or subsidiary lights, fixed or occulting,
may be exhibited from the same tower as the main light but at a
lower level. In such cases the vertical distance between
the high and the low light must be sufficient to avoid
commingling of the two beams at any range at which both
lights are visible. Such commingling or blending is due to
atmospheric aberration.
Range of Lights. — The range of a light depends first on its
elevation above sea-level and secondly on its intensity. Most
important lights are of sufficient power to render them
visible at the full geographical range in clear weather. On
the other hand there are many harbour and other lights
which do not meet this condition.
The distances given in lists of lights from which lights are
visible — except in the cases of lights of low power for the
reason given above — are usually calculated in nautical miles
as seen from a height of 15 ft. above sea-level, the elevation
of the lights being taken as above high water. Under certain
atmospheric conditions, and especially with the more power-
ful lights, the glare of the light may be visible considerably
beyond the calculated range.
TABLE III. — Distances at which Objects can be seen at Sea,
according to their Respective Elevations and the Elevation
of the Eye of the Observer. (A. Stevenson.)
. ^r_ ___r_^^
FIG. 49. — Otter Rock Light-vessel.
apparatus and not from flashing apparatus. In marking the
passage through a channel, or between sandbanks or other
dangers, coloured light sectors are arranged to cover the dangers,
white light being shown over the fairway with sufficient margin
of safety between the edges of the coloured sectors next the
fairway and the dangers.
Choice of Characteristic and Description of Apparatus. — In deter-
mining the choice of characteristic for a light due regard must be
paid to existing lights in the vicinity. No light should be placed on
a coast line having a characteristic the same as, or similar to, another
in its neighbourhood unless one or more lights of dissimilar char-
acteristic, and at least as high power and range, intervene. In the
case of " landfall lights " the characteristic should differ from any
other within a range of 100 m. In narrow seas the distance between
lights of similar characteristic may be less. Landfall lights are, in
a sense, the most important of all and the most powerful apparatus
available should be installed at such stations. The distinctive
Heights
in Feet.
Distances in
Geographical
or Nautical
Miles.
Heights
in Feet.
Distances in
Geographical
or Nautical
Miles.
5
2-565
no
12-03
10
3-628
1 20
12-56
15
4-443
130
13-08
20
5-I30
140
13-57
25
5736
150
14-02
3«
6-283
200
16-22
35
6-787
250
18-14
40
7-255
300
19-87
45
7-696
350
21-46
5°
8-II2
400
22-94
55
8-509
450
24-33
60
8-886
500
25-65
65
9-249
550
26-90
70
/ 9-598
600
28-10
75
9-935
650
29-25
80
10-26
700
30-28
85
10-57
800
32-45
90
10-88
900
34-54
95
11-18
IOOO
36-28
too
11-47
EXAMPLE: A tower 200 ft. high will be visible 20-66
nautical miles to an observer, whose eye is elevated 15 ft.
above the water; thus, from the table:
15 ft. elevation, distance visible 4-44 nautical miles
200 „ „ 16-22
• 20-66 „
Elevation of Lights. — The elevation of the light above sea-level
need not, in the case of landfall lights, exceed 200 ft., which is
sufficient to give a range of over 20 nautical miles. One hundred and
fifty feet is usually sufficient for coast lights. Lights placed on high
headlands are liable to be enveloped in banks of fog at times when at
a lower level the atmosphere is comparatively clear (e.g. Beachy
Head). No definite rule can, however, be laid down, and local
circumstances, such as configuration of the coast line, must be taken
into consideration in every case.
Choice of Site. — " Landfall " stations should receive first considera-
tion and the choice of location for such a light ought never to be made
subservient to the lighting of the approaches to a port. Subsidiary
lights are available for the latter purpose. Lights installed to guard
shoals, reefs or other dangers should, when practicable, be placed
seaward of the danger itself, as it is desirable that seamen should be
able to " make " the light with confidence. Sectors marking dangers
LIGHTHOUSE
[BUOYS AND FOG SIGNALS
seaward of the light should not be employed except when the danger
is in the near vicinity of the light. Outlying dangers require marking
by a light placed on the danger or by a floating light in its vicinity.
9. ILLUMINATED BUOYS.— -Gas Buoys. Pintsch's oil gas has been
in use for the illumination of buoys since 1878. In 1 883 an automatic
occulter was perfected, worked by the gas passing from the reservoir
to the burner. The lights placed on these buoys burn continuously
for three or more months. The buoys and lanterns are made in
various forms and sizes. The spar buoy (fig. 50) may be adopted for
situations where strong tides or currents pre-
vail. Oil gas lights are frequently fitted to
Courtenay whistling (fig. 51) and bell buoys.
In the ordinary type of gas buoy lantern
the burner employed is of the multiple-jet,
Argand ring, or incandescent type. Incan-
descent mantles have been applied to buoy
lights in France with successful results. Since
1906, and more recently the same system of
illumination has been adopted in England
and other countries. The lenses employed
are of cylindrical dioptric fixed-light form,
usually 100 mm. to 300 mm. diameter. Some
of the largest types of gas-buoy in use on the
French coast have an elevation from water
level to the focal plane of over 26 ft. with a
beam intensity of more than 1000 candles.
A large gas-buoy with an elevation of 34 ft.
to the focal plane was placed at the entrance
to the Gironde in 1907. It has an incan-
descent burner and exhibits a light of over
1500 candles. Oil gas forms the most trust-
worthy and efficient illuminant for buoy pur-
poses yet introduced, and the system has
been largely adopted by lighthouse and
harbour authorities.
There are now over 2000 buoys fitted with
oil gas apparatus, in addition to 600 beacons,
light-vessels and boats.
Electric Lit Buoys. — Buoys have been
fitted with electric light, both fixed and
occulting. Six electrically lit spar-buoys were
laid down in the Gedney channel, New York
lower bay, in 1888. These were illuminated
by 100 candle-power Swan lamps with con-
tinuous current supplied by cable from a
power station on shore. The wear and tear
of the cables caused considerable trouble and
expense. In 1895 alternating current was
introduced. The installation was superseded
by gas lit buoys in 1904.
Acetylene and Oil Lighted Buoys. — Acety-
lene has been extensively employed
for the lighting of buoys in Canada
and in the United States; to a less
extent it has also been adopted in
other countries. Both the low
pressure system, by which the
acetylene gas is produced by an
automatic generator, and the so-
called high pressure system in which
purified acetylene is held in solution
in a high pressure gasholder filled
with asbestos composition saturated
with acetone, have been employed
for illuminating buoys and beacons.
Wigham oil lamps are also used to
a limited extent for buoy lighting.
Bell Buoys. — One form of clapper
actuated by the roll of the buoy
(shown in fig. 52) consists of a
hardened steel ball placed in a hori-
zontal phosphor-bronze cylinder
provided with rubber , buffers.
Three of these cylinders are arranged
around the mouth of the fixed bell,
FIG. 50. — Spar Gas which is struck by the balls rolling
Buoy. backwards and forwards as the
buoy moves. Another form of bell
mechanism consists of a fixed bell with three or more
suspended clappers placed externally which strike the
bell when the buoy rolls.
10. FOG SIGNALS. — The introduction of coast fog
signals is of comparatively recent date. They were, until
the middle of the igth century, practically unknown
except so far as a few isolated bells and guns were con-
cerned. The increasing demands of navigation, and the application
of steam power to the propulsion of ships resulting in an increase
of their speed, drew attention to the necessity of providing suitable
signals as aids to navigation during fog and mist. In times
of fog the mariner can expect no certain assistance from even
Welded
Sreel
Gasholder
the most efficient system of coast lighting, since the beams
of light from the most powerful electric lighthouse are frequently
entirely dispersed and absorbed by the particles of moisture, forming
a sea fog of even
moderate density, at
a distance of less
than a J m. from the
shore. The careful
experiments and
scientific research
which have been de-
voted to the subject
of coast fog-signal-
ling have produced
much that is useful
and valuable to the
mariner, but unfor-
tunately the practical
results so far have
not been so satis-
factory as might be
desired, owing to (l)
the very short range
of the most powerful
signals yet produced
under certain un-
favourable acoustic
conditions of the
atmosphere, (2) the
difficulty experi-
enced by the mariner
in judging at any
time how far the
atmospheric condi-
tions are against him
in listening for the
expected signal, and
(3) the difficulty in
FIG. 51. — Courtenay's Automatic Whistling
Buoy.
locating the position A
of a sound signal by
phonic observations.
Bells and Gongs are
theoldestand, gener-
ally speaking, the
least efficient forms
ft. H
I,
Cylinder, 27
6 in. long.
Mooring shackle.
Rudder.
Buoy.
Diaphragm.
Ball valves.
of fog signals. Under G, Air inlet tubes,
very favourable
acoustic conditions the sounds are audible at considerable ranges. On
the other hand, 2-ton bells have been inaudible at distances of a few
hundred yards. The 1893 United States trials showed that a bell
weighing 4000 Ib struck by a 450 ft hammer was heard at a distance
B,
C,
1),
E,
F,
Air (compressed
outlet tube to
whistle.
Compressed air in-
let to buoy.
K, Manhole.
L, Steps.
N, Whistle.
FIG. 52.— Buoy Bell.
of 14 m. across a gentle breeze and at over 9 m. against a lo-knot
breeze. Bells are frequently used for beacon and buoy signals, and
in some cases at isolated rock and other stations where there is
insufficient accommodation for sirens and horns, but their use is
being gradually discontinued in this country for situations where a
FOG SIGNALS]
LIGHTHOUSE
647
powerful signal is required. Gongs, usually of Chinese manufacture,
were formerly in use on board English lightships and are still used to
some extent abroad. These are being superseded by more powerful
sound instruments.
Explosive Signals. — Guns were long used at many lighthouse and
light- vessel stations in England, and are still in use in Ireland and
at some foreign stations. These are being gradually displaced by
other explosive or compressed air signals. No explosive signals are
in use on the coasts of the United States. In 1878 sound rockets
charged with gun-cotton were first used at Flamborough Head and
were afterwards supplied to many other stations.1 The nitrated
gun-cotton or tonite signals now in general use are made up in 4 oz.
charges. These are hung at the end of an iron jib or pole attached
to the lighthouse lantern or other structure, and fired by means of
a detonator and electric battery. The discharge may take place
within 12 ft. of a structure without danger. The cartridges are
stored for a considerable period without deterioration and with
safety. This form of signal is now very generally adopted for rock
and other stations in Great Britain, Canada, Newfoundland, northern
Europe and other parts of the world. An example will be noticed
in the illustration of the Bishop Rock lighthouse, attached to the
lantern (fig. 13). Automatic hoisting and firing appliances are also
in use.
Whistles. — Whistles, whether sounded by air or steam, are not
used in Great Britain, except in two instances of harbour signals
under local control. It has been objected that their sound has too
great a resemblance to steamers' whistles, and they are wasteful of
power. In the United States and Canada they are largely used.
The whistle usually employed consists of a metallic dome or bell
against which the high-pressure steam impinges. Rapid vibrations
are set up both in the metal of the bell and in the internal air,
producing a shrill note. The Courtenay buoy whistle, already
referred to, is an American invention and finds favour in the United
States, France, Germany and elsewhere.
Reed-Horns. — These instruments in their original form were the
invention of C. L. Daboll, an experimental horn of his manufacture
being tried in 1851 by the United States Lighthouse Board. In 1862
the Trinity House adopted the instrument for seven land and
light-vessel stations. For compressing air for the reed-horns as well as
sirens, caloric, steam, gas and oil engines have been variously used,
according to local circumstances. The reed-horn was improved by
Professor Holmes, and many examples from his designs are now in
use in England and America. At the Trinity House experiments
with fog signals at St Catherine's (1901) several types of reed-horn
were experimented with. The Trinity House service horn uses air
at 15 Ib pressure with a consumption of -67 cub. ft. per second and
397 vibrations. A small manual horn of the Trinity House type
consumes -67 cub. ft. of air at 5 Ib pressure. The trumpets of the
latter are of brass.
Sirens. — The most powerful and efficient of all compressed air fog
signals is the siren. The principle of this instrument may be briefly
explained as follows: — It
is well known that if the
tympanic membrane is
struck periodically and
with sufficient rapidity by
air impulses or waves a
musical sound is produced.
Robinson was the first to
construct an instrument
by which successive puffs
of air under pressure were
ejected from the mouth of
a pipe. He obtained this
effect by using a stop-
cock revolving at high
speed in such a manner
that 720 pulsations per
second were produced by
the intermittent escape of
air through the valves or
ports, a smooth musical
note being given. Cagniard
de la Tour first gave such
an instrument the name of siren, and constructed it in the form of an
air chamber with perforated lid or cover, the perforations being suc-
cessively closed and opened by means of a similarly perforated disk
fitted to the cover and revolving at high speed. The perforations
being cut at an angle, the disk was self-rotated by the oblique pressure
of the air in escaping through the slots. H. W. Dove and Helmholtz
introduced many improvements, and Brown of New York patented,
about 1870, a steam siren with two disks having radial perforations
or slots. The cylindrical form of the siren now generally adopted
is due to Slight, who used two concentric cylinders, one revolving
within the other, the sides being perforated with vertical slots. To
him is also due the centrifugal governor largely used to regulate the
speed of rotation of the siren. Over the siren mouth is placed a
1 The Flamborough Head rocket was superseded by a siren fog
signal in 1908.
conical trumpet to collect and direct the sound in the desired direc-
tion. In the English service these trumpets are generally of con-
siderable length and placed vertically, with bent top and bell mouth.
Those at St Catherine's are of cast-iron with copper bell mouth, and
have a total axial length of 22 ft. They
are 5 in. in diameter at the siren mouth,
the bell mouth being 6 ft. in diameter.
At St Catherine's the sirens are two in
number, 5 in. in diameter, being sounded
simultaneously and in unison (fig. 53).
Each siren is provided with ports for
producing a high note as well as a low
note, the two notes being sounded in
quick succession once every minute.
The trumpet mouths are separated by
an angle of 120° between their axes.
This double form has been adopted in
certain instances where the angle desired
to be covered by the sound is com-
paratively wide. In Scotland the cylin-
drical form is used generally, either
automatically or motor driven. By the
latter means the admission of air to the
siren can be delayed until the cylinder
is rotating at full speed, and a much
sharper sound is produced than in the
case of the automatic type. The Scot-
tish trumpets are frequently constructed
so that the greater portion of the length
is horizontal. The Girdleness trumpet
has an axial length of 16 ft., n ft. 6 in.
being horizontal. The trumpet is capable
of being rotated through an angle as
well as dipped below the horizon. It is
of cast-iron, no bell mouth is used, and
the conical mouth is 4 ft. in diameter.
In France the sirens are cylindrical and FIG. 53. — St Catherine's
very similar to the English self-driven Double-noted Siren,
type. The trumpets have a short axial
length, 4 ft. 6 in., and are of brass, with bent bell mouth. The
Trinity House has in recent years reintroduced the use of disk
sirens, with which experiments are still being carried out both
in the United Kingdom and abroad. For light-vessels and rock
stations where it is desired to distribute the sound equally in all
directions the mushroom-head trumpet is occasionally used. The
Casquets trumpet of this type is 22 ft. in length, of cast-iron, with
a mushroom top 6 ft. in diameter. In cases where neither the mush-
room trumpet nor the twin siren is used the single bent trumpet is
arranged to rotate through a considerable angle. Table IV. gives
particulars of a few typical sirens of the most recent form.
Since the first trial of the siren at the South Foreland in 1873 a
TABLE IV.
Plan
Cub. ft. of air
Station.
Description.
Vibrations
Sounding
Pressure
used per sec. of
blast reduced
Remarks.
per sec.
in ft per
to atmospheric
sq. in.
pressure.
High.
Low.
High.
Low.
St Catherine's (Trinity
House)
Two 5-in. cylindrical,
automatically driven
295
182
25
32
16
The air consump-
tion is for 2 sirens.
sirens
Girdleness (N.L.C.) .
7-in. cylindrical siren,
234
100
30
130
26
motor driven
Casquets (Trinity
7-in. disk siren, motor
98
25
36
House)
driven
French pattern siren .
6-in. cylindrical siren,
326
28
14
A uniform note of
automatically driven
326 vibrations per
sec. has now been
adopted generally
in France.
very large number of these instruments have been established both at
lighthouse stations and on board light-vessels. In all cases in Great
Britain and France they are now supplied with air compressed by
steam or other mechanical power. In the United States and some
other countries steam, as well as compressed air, sirens are in use.
Diaphones. — The diaphone is a modification of the siren, which
has been largely used in Canada since 1903 in place of the siren.
It is claimed that the instrument emits a note of more constant pitch
than does the siren. The distinction between the two instruments
is that in the siren a revolving drum or disk alternately opens and
closes elongated air apertures, while in the diaphone a piston pulsating
at high velocity serves to alternately cover and uncover air slots in
a cylinder.
The St Catherine's Experiments. — Extensive trials were carried out
during 1901 by the Trinity House at St Catherine's lighthouse, Isle
of Wight, with several types of sirens and reed-horns. Experiments
LIGHTHOUSE
[ADMINISTRATION
were also made with different pattern of trumpets, including forms
having elliptical sections, the long axis being placed vertically.
The conclusions of the committee may be briefly summarized as
follows: (i) When a large arc requires to be guarded two fixed
trumpets suitably placed are more effective than one large trumpet
capable of being rotated. (2) When the arc to be guarded is larger
than that effectively covered by two trumpets, the mushroom-head
trumpet is a satisfactory instrument for the purpose. (3) A siren
rotated by a separate irtotor yields better results than when self-
driven. (4) No advantage commensurate with the additional power
required is obtained by the use of air at a higher pressure than 25 Ib
per sq. in. (5) The number of vibrations per second produced by
the siren or reed should be in unison with the proper note of the
associated trumpet. (6) When two notes of different pitch are
employed the difference between these should, if possible, be an
octave. (7) For calm weather a low note is more suitable than a
hi(*h note, but when sounding against the wind and with a rough and
noisy sea a high note has the greater range. (8) From causes which
cannot be determined at the time or predicted beforehand, areas
sometimes exist in which the sounds of fog signals may be greatly
enfeebled or even lost altogether. This effect was more frequently
observed during comparatively calm weather and at no great distance
from the signal station. (It has often been observed that the sound
of a signal may be entirely lost within a short distance of the source,
while heard distinctly at a greater distance and at the same time.)
(9) The siren was the most effective signal experimented with; the
reed-horn, although inferior in power, is suitable for situations of
secondary importance. (No explosive signals were under trial
during the experiments.) (10) A fog signal, owing to the uncertainty
attending its audibility, must be regarded only as an auxiliary aid
to navigation which cannot at all times be relied upon.
Submarine Bell Signals. — As'early as 1841 J. D. Colladon con-
ducted experiments on the lake of Geneva to test the suitability of
water as a medium for transmission of sound signals and was able
to convey distinctly audible sounds through water for a distance of
over 21 m., but jt was not until 1904 that any successful practical
application of this means of signalling was made in connexion with
light-vessels. There are at present (1910) over 120 submarine bells
in service, principally in connexion with light-vessels, off the coasts
of the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Germany, France
and other countries. These bells are struck by clappers actuated by
pneumatic or electrical mechanism. Other submerged bells have been
fitted to buoys and beacon structures, or placed on the sea bed ; in
the former case the bell is actuated by the motion of the buoy and
in others by electric current, transmitted by cable from the shore.
In some cases, when submarine bells are associated with gas buoys or
beacons, the compressed gas is employed to actuate the bell striking
mechanism. To take full advantage of the signals thus provided
it is necessary for ships approaching them to be fitted with special
receiving mechanism of telephonic character installed below the
water line and in contact with the hull plating. The signals are
audible by the aid of ear pieces similar to ordinary telephone receivers.
Not only can the bell signals be heard at considerable distances —
frequently over 10 m. — and in all conditions of weather, but the
direction of the bell in reference to the moving ship can be determined
within narrow limits. The system is likely to be widely extended and
many merchant vessels and war ships have been fitted with signal
receiving mechanism.
The following table (V.) gives the total numbers of fog signals of
each class in use on the 1st of January 1910 in certain countries.
TABLE V.
or according to its original charter, " The Master Wardens, and
Assistants of the Guild Fraternity or Brotherhood of the most
glorious and undivided Trinity and of St Clement, in the Parish of
Deptford Strond, in the county of Kent," existed in the reign of
Henry VII. as a religious house with certain duties connected with
pilotage, and was incorporated during the reign of Henry VIII. In
1565 it was given certain rights to maintain beacons, &c., but not
until 1680 did it own any lighthouses. Since that date it has gradu-
ally purchased most of the ancient privately owned lighthouses and
has erected many new ones. The act of 1836 gave the corporation
control of English coast lights with certain supervisory powers over
the numerous local lighting authorities, including the Irish and
Scottish Boards. The corporation now consists of a Master, Deputy-
master, and 22 Elder Brethren (10 of whom are honorary), together
with an unlimited number of Younger Brethren, who, however,
perform no executive duties. In Scotland and the Isle of Man the
lights are under the control of the Commissioners of Northern
Lighthouses constituted in 1786 and incorporated in 1798. The
lighting of the Irish coast is in the hands of the Commissioners of
Irish Lights formed in 1867 in succession to the old Dublin Ballast
Board. The principal local light boards in the United Kingdom are
the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, and the Clyde Lighthouse
Trustees. The three general lighthouse boards of the United
Kingdom, by the provision of the Mercantile Marine Act of 1854,
are subordinate to the Board of Trade, which controls all finances.
On the 1st of January 1910 the lights, fog signals and submarine
bells in service under the control of the several authorities in the
United Kingdom were as follows :
Light-
houses.
Light-
vessels.
Fog
Signals.
marine
Bells.
Trinity House .
116
51
97
12
Northern Lighthouse Com-
missioners ....
138
5
44
Irish Lights Commissioners
Mersey Docksand Harbour
93
ii
35
3
Board
16
6
13
2
Admiralty
31
2
6
Clyde Lighthouse Trustees
Other local lighting authori-
H
I
5
ties
800
1 1
go
2
Totals ....
1217
87
289
19
i
o.
Q
Horns,
Trumpets, &c.
Whistles.
£ 3
•g-i.§
'S&o
B""®
O
4
T>
m
1
1|
j?«
H
Power.
Manual.
England and Channel Islands
Scotland and Isle of Man
Ireland
France
44
35
12
12
43
6
66
27
6
2
7
35
5
31
2
6
i
15
79
2
59
16
15
5
ii
i
8
3
48
16
ii
25
218
24
10
3
i
16
3
2
36
II
193
07
48
48
407
215
United States (excluding in-
land lakes and rivers) .
British North America (ex-
cluding inland lakes and
rivers)
When two kinds of signal are employed at any one station, one being
subsidiary, the latter is omitted from the enumeration. Buoy and
unattended beacon bells and whistles are also omitted, but local
port and harbour signals not under the immediate jurisdiction of the
various lighthouse boards are included, more especially in Great
Britain.
ii. LIGHTHOUSE ADMINISTRATION. The principal countries
of the world possess organized and central authorities responsible
for the installation and maintenance of coast lights and fog
signals, buoys and beacons.
United Kingdom. — In England the corporation'of Trinity House,
Some small harbour and river lights of subsidiary character are
not included in the above total.
United States. — The United States Lighthouse Board was con-
stituted by act of Congress in 1852. The Secretary of Commerce and
Labor is the ex-officio president. The board consists of two officers
of the navy, two engineer officers of the army, and two civilian
scientific members, with two secretaries, one a naval officer, the other
an officer of engineers in the army. The members are appointed by
the president of the United States. The coast-line of the states,
with the lakes and rivers and Porto Rico, is divided into 16 executive
districts for purposes of administration.
The following table shows the distribution of lighthouses, lisht-
yessels, &c., maintained by the lighthouse board in the United States
in June 1909. In addition there are a few small lights and buoys
privately maintained.
Lighthouses and beacon lights . . 1333
Light-vessels in position ... 53
Light-vessels for relief ... 13
Gas lighted buoys in position . . 94
Fog signals operated by steam or oil
engines 228
Fog signals operated by clockwork,
&c 205
Submarine signals .... 43
Post lights 2333
Day or unlighted beacons . . . 1157
Bell buoys in position . . . 169
Whistling buoys in position . . 94
Other buoys 5760
Steam tenders 51
Constructional Staff .... 318
Light keepers; and light attendants 3137
Officers and crews of light-vessels
and tenders 1693
France. — The lighthouse board of France is known as the Com-
mission des Phares, dating from 1792 and remodelled in 1811, and is
under the direction of the minister of public works. It consists of
four engineers, two naval officers and one member of the Institute,
one inspector-general of marine engineers, and one hydrographic
engineer. The chief executive officers are an Inspecteur General
des Fonts et Chaussees, who is director of the board, and another
engineer of the same corps, who is engineer-in-chief and secretary.
The board has control of about 750 lights, including those of
LIGHTHOUSE
649
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of the electric light at this stat
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established in 1884.)
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established in 1888.)
Twin optic, mercury rotation.
Twin optic, mercury rotation.
(This lignt superseded an el
lished in 1881, showing a gro'
flashes separated by one red fl
Eight panels of three lenses eac
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OSTEALIA —
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650
LIGHTHOUSE
Remarks.
Dioptric holophote, 1265° vertical angle; 3 sides of 3
panels in each.
Biform apparatus, lens elements only, 92° vertical angle;
6 sides of 2 panels each.
Biform apparatus, lens elements only, 80° vertical angle;
S sides of 2 panels each.
Lens elements only, 80° vertical angle.
Mercury rotation, 4-pancl bivalve.
[St. Mary's Isle, Northumberland (1898), is similar.]
80 vertical angle lens, 2 sides of 4 panels each, mercury
rotation.
Mercury rotation; univalve 164° in azimuth, with 164°
dioptric mirror in rear.
Combined hyper-radial and first-order light with back
prisms in white and mirrors in red. Revolves in 60
sees.
[Holy Island, 1905 (Lamlash), similar, flash every 15 sees.]
Composite apparatus; panels of 1330 mm. and 920 mm.
focal distance; 2 faces.
6 panels (lens) of 30° with 180° mirror.
[Douglas Head (Isle of Man) similar.)
Equiangular lenses.
3 equiangular lens panels with mirror in rear; side panels
eccentric.
[Hyskin Rocks (1904) similar.]
Triform apparatus, vertical angle of lenses 65°; 6 sides,
one revomtion in 6 minutes. The single flash from
lens is divided by eclipsing burner into 3 flashes.
Biform apparatus; 4 panels of 90° vertical angle and 90°
in azimuth; mercury rotation.
Biform apparatus, 3 sides each of 2 panels; vertical
angle 96°; mercury rotation.
[St. John's Point, Co. Down (1008) similar, period 7.5 sees.]
Bivalve apparatus; panels of 147° in azimuth and 122°
vertical angle; mercury rotation.
=3
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Mercury rotation; hyper-radial apparatus with reflecting
prisms. This is the only apparatus of this focal
distance on the French coast.
Group-flashing apparatus; 4 panels of 45°, with 180°
mirror in rear; mercury rotation.
Mercury rotation; 3 panels, mirror in rear.
Mercury rotation.
Twin optic; mercury rotation.
Mercury rotation; bivalve apparatus; 2 double-flashing
170° panels.
4 panels, vertical angle 121!° ; mercury rotation.
[Manora Point, Karachi, 1909, similar.]
Mercury rotation. 4 sides of 2 panels each.
3 panels, vertical angle 150°; mercury rotation.
Mercury rotation; 4 panels of 45° in azimuth and 80°
vertical angle, with catadioptric mirror in rear.
Mercury rotation; 2 lenses of i26.j° in azimuth, with
mirror of 107°.
Mercury rotation; 3 panels, each 120° in azimuth and
133 a° vertical angle.
Rotated on ball bearings. 2 lenses of 90° each aud
mirror.
Rotated on roller bearings.
Mercury rotation; one (red) lens of 170° in azimuth, re-
inforced by two 60° mirrors; one (white) lens of 60° in
a/.imuth.
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Gray's Harbor
I
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53
i
1
a
LIGHTING
651
Corsica, Algeria, &c. A similar system has been established in
Spain.
English Colonies. — In Canada the coast lighting is in the hands of
the minister of marine, and in most other colonies the public works
departments have control of lighthouse matters.
Other Countries. — In Denmark, Austria, Holland, Russia, Sweden,
Norway and many other countries the minister of marine has charge
of the lighting and buoying of coasts; in Belgium the public works
department controls the service.
In the Trinity House Service at shore lighthouse stations there are
usually two keepers, at rock stations three or four, one being ashore
on leave. When there is a fog signal at a station there is usually an
additional keeper, and at electric light stations a mechanical engineer
is also employed as principal keeper. The crews of light-vessels as
a rule consist of II men, three of them and the master or mate going
on shore in rotation.
The average annual cost of maintenance of an English shore
lighthouse, with two keepers, is £275. For shore lighthouses with
three keepers and a siren fog signal the average cost is £444. The
maintenance of a rock lighthouse with four keepers and an explosive
fog signal is about £760, and an electric light station costs about
£1100 annually to maintain.
A light-vessel of the ordinary type in use in the United Kingdom
entails an annual expenditure on maintenance of approximately
£1320, excluding the cost of periodical overhaul.
AUTHORITIES. — Smeaton, Eddystone Lighthouse (London, 1793) ;
A. Fresnel, Memoirs sur un nouveau system d'eclairage des phares
(Paris, 1822); R. Stevenson, Bell Rock Lighthouse (Edinburgh,
1824); Alan Stevenson, Skerryvore Lighthouse (1847); Renaud,
Memoire sur I'eclairage et le balisage des cotes de France (Paris, 1864) ;
Allard, Memoire sur I'intensite et la portee des phares (Paris, 1876);
T. Stevenson, Lighthouse Construction and Illumination (London,
1881); Allard, Memoire sur les phares electriques (Paris, 1881);
Renaud, Les Phares (Paris, 1881) ; Edwards, Our Sea Marks (London,
1884); D. P. Heap, Ancient and Modern Lighthouses (Boston,
1889); Allard, Les Phares (Paris, 1889); Rev, Les Progres
d'edairage des cotes (Paris, 1898); Williams, Life of Sir J. N.
Douglass (London, 1900); J. F. Chance, The Lighthouse Work of Sir
Jas. Chance (London, 1902) ; de Rochemont and Deprez, Cours des
travaux maritimes, vol. ii. (Paris, 1902) ; Ribiere, Phares et Signaux
maritimes (Paris, 1908); Stevenson, "Isle of May Lighthouse,"
Proc. Inst. Mech. Engineers (1887); J. N. Douglass, " Beacon
Lights and Fog Signals," Proc. Roy. Inst. (1889); Ribiere, " Pro-
prietes optiques des appareils des phares," Annales des ponts et
chaussees (1894); Preller, " Coast Lighthouse Illumination in
France," Engineering (1896); "Lighthouse Engineering at the
Paris Exhibition," Engineer (1901-1902); N. G. Gedye, " Coast Fog
Signals," Engineer (1902); Trans. Int. Nav. Congress (Paris, 1900,
Milan, 1905); Proc. Int. Eng. Congress (Glasgow, 1901, St Louis,
1904); Proc. Int. Maritime Congress (London, 1893); J. T. Chance,
" On Optical Apparatus used in Lighthouses," Proc. Inst. C.E.
vol. xxvi.; J. N. Douglass, "The Wolf Rock Lighthouse," ibid.
vol. xxx.; W. Douglass, " Great Basses Lighthouse,'1 ibid. vol.
xxxviii.; J. T. Chance, " Dioptric Apparatus in Lighthouses," ibid.
vol. lii. ; J. N. Douglass, " Electric Light applied to Lighthouse
Illumination," ibid. vol. Ivii. ; W. T. Douglass, " The New Eddystone
Lighthouse," ibid. vol. Ixxv. ; Hopkinson, " Electric Lighthouses at
Macquarie and Tino," ibid. vol. Ixxxvii. ; Stevenson, " Ailsa Craig
Lighthouse and Fog Signals," ibid. vol. Ixxxix. ; W. T. Douglass,
" The Bishop Rock Lighthouses," ibid. vol. cviii. ; Brebner, " Light-
house Lenses," ibid. vol. cxi. ; Stevenson, " Lighthouse Refractors,"
ibid. vol. cxvii.; Case, " Beachy Head Lighthouse," ibid. vol. clix. ;
Notice sur les appareils d'eclairage (French Lighthouse Service
exhibits at Chicago and Paris) (Paris, 1893 and 1900); Report on
U.S. Lighthouse Board Exhibit at Chicago (Washington, 1894);
Reports of the Lighthouse Board of the United States (Washington,
1852, et seq.) ; British parliamentary reports, Lighthouse Illuminants
(1883, et seq.), Light Dues (1896), Trinity House Fog Signal Committee
(1901), Royal Commission on Lighthouse Administration (1908);
Memoires de la Societe des Ingenieurs Civils de France, Annales des
ponts et chaussees (Paris) ; Proc. Inst.C.E. ; The Engineer; Engineering
(passim). (W. T. D.; N. G. G.)
LIGHTING. Artificial light is generally produced by raising
some body to a high temperature. If the temperature of a
solid body be greater than that of surrounding bodies it parts
with some of its energy in the form of radiation. Whilst the
temperature is low these radiations are not of a kind to which
the eye is sensitive; they are exclusively radiations less refrang-
ible and of greater wave-length than red light, and may be called
infra-red. As the temperature is increased the infra-red radia-
tions increase, but presently there are added radiations which
the eye perceives as red light. As the temperature is further
increased, the red light increases, and yellow, green and blue
rays are successively thrown off. On raising the temperature
to a still higher point, radiations of a wave-length shorter even
than violet light are produced, to which the eye is insensitive,
but which act strongly on certain chemical substances; these
may be called ultra-violet rays. Thus a very hot body in general
throws out rays of various wave-length; the hotter the body
the more of every kind of radiation will it throw out, but the
proportion of short waves to long waves becomes vastly greater
as the temperature is increased. Our eyes are only sensitive to
certain of these waves, viz. those not very long and not very
short. The problem of the artificial production of light with
economy of energy is the same as that of raising some body to
such a temperature that it shall give as large a proportion as
possible of those rays which the eye is capable of feeling. For
practical purposes this temperature is the highest temperature
we can produce. As an illustration of the luminous effect of the
high temperature produced by converting other forms of energy
into heat within a small space, consider the following statements.
If burned in ordinary gas burners, 120 cub. ft. of 15 candle gas
will give a light of 360 standard candles for one hour. The heat
produced by the combustion is equivalent to about 60 million
foot-pounds. If this gas be burned in a modern gas-engine,
about 8 million foot-pounds of useful work will be done outside
the engine, or about 4 horse-power for one hour. If this be used
to drive a dynamo for one hour, even if the machine has an
efficiency of only 80%, the energy of the current will be about
6,400,000 foot-pounds per hour, about half of which, or only
3,200,000 foot-pounds, is converted into radiant energy in the
electric arc. But this electric arc will radiate a light of 2000
candles when viewed horizontally, and two or three times as
much when viewed from below. Hence 3 million foot-pounds
changed to heat in the electric arc may be said roughly to
affect our eyes six times as much as 60 million foot-pounds
changed to heat in an ordinary gas burner.
Owing to the high temperature at which it remains solid,
and to its great emissive power, the radiant body used for
artificial illumination is usually some form of carbon. In an
oil or ordinary coal-gas flame this carbon is present in minute
particles derived from the organic substances with which the
flame is supplied and heated to incandescence by the heat
liberated in their decomposition, while in the electric light the
incandescence is the effect of the heat developed by the electric
current passed through a resisting rod or filament of carbon.
In some cases, however, other substances replace carbon as the
radiating body; in the incandescent gas light certain earthy
oxides are utilized, and in metallic filament electric lamps such
metals as tungsten or tantalum.
i. OIL LIGHTING
From the earliest times the burning of oil has been a source
of light, but until the middle of the igth century only oils of
vegetable and animal origin were employed in indoor
lamps for this purpose. Although many kinds were ^fj
used locally, only colza and sperm oils had any very „/&.
extended use, and they have been practically supplanted
by mineral oil, which was introduced as an illuminant in 1853.
Up to the latter half of the i8th century the lamps were shallow
vessels into which a short length of wick dipped; the flame
was smoky and discharged acrid vapours, giving the minimum
of light with the maximum of smell. The first notable improve-
ment was made by Ami Argand in 1784. His burner consisted
of two concentric tubes between which the tubular wick was
placed; the open inner tube led a current of air to play upon
the inner surface of the circular flame, whilst the combustion
was materially improved by placing around the flame a chimney
which rested on a perforated gallery a short distance below
the burner. Argand's original burner is the parent form of
innumerable modifications, all more or Jess comolex, such as
the Carcel and the moderator.
A typical example of the Argand burner and chimney is repre-
sented in fig. i, in which the burner is composed of three tubes,
^. /» g- The tube g is soldered to the bottom of the tube'd, just
above o, and the interval between the outer surface of the tube g
and the inner surface of the tube d is an annular cylindrical cavity
closed at the bottom, containing the cylindrical cotton wick im-
mersed in oil. The wick is fixed to the wick tube ki. which is capable
652
LIGHTING
[OIL
of being moved spirally; within the annular cavity is also the tube
/, which can be moved round, and serves to elevate and depress the
wick. P is a cup that screws on the bottom of the tube d, and re-
ceives the superfluous oil that drops down from the wick along the
inner surface of the tube g. The air
enters through the holes o, o, and
passes up through the tube g to main-
tain the combustion in the interior of
the circular flame. The air which
maintains the combustion on the ex-
terior part of the wick enters through
the holes m, with which rn is perfor-
ated. When the air in the chimney is
rarefied by the heat of the flame, the
surrounding heavier air, entering the
lower part of the chimney, passes up-
ward with a rapid current, to restore
the equilibrium. RG is the cylindrical
glass chimney with a shoulder or
constriction at R, G. The oil flows
from a side reservoir, and occupies the
cavity between the tubes g and d. The
part ki is a short tube, which receives
the circular wick, and slides spirally on
the tube g, by means of a pin working
in the hollow spiral groove on the ex-
terior surface of g. The wick-tube has
also a catch, which works in a perpen-
dicular slit in the tube _f; and, by
turning the tube /, the wick-tube will
be raised or lowered, for which purpose
a ring, or gallery, rn, fits on the tube d,
and receives the glass chimney RG; a
wire S is attached to the tube /, and,
bending over, descends along the out-
side of d. The part rn, that supports
the glass chimney, is connected by
four other wires with the ring g, which
surrounds the tube d, and can be
moved round. When rn is turned
round, it carries with it the ring q, the
FIG. i.
wire S, and the tube /, thus raising or depressing the wick.
A device in the form of a small metallic disk or button, known as
the Liverpool button from having been first adopted in the so-called
Liverpool lamp, effects for the current of air passing up the interior
of the Argand burner the same object as the constriction of the
chimney RG secures in the case of the external tube. The button
fixed on the end of a wire is placed right above the burner tube g,
and throws out equally all round against the flame the current of
air which passes up through g. The result of these expedients,
when properly applied, Is the production of an exceedingly solid
brilliant white light, absolutely smokeless, this showing that the
combustion of the oil is perfectly accomplished.
The means by which a uniformly regulated supply of oil is brought
to the burner varies with the position of the oil reservoir. In some
lamps, not now in use, by ring-formed reservoirs and other ex-
pedients, the whole of the oil was
kept as nearly as possible at the
level of the burner. In what are
termed fountain reading, or study
lamps, the principal reservoir is
above the burner level, and various
means are adopted for maintaining
a supply from them at the level of
the burner. But the most con-
venient position for the oil reservoir
in lamps for general use is directly
under the burner, and in this case
the stand of the lamp itself is
utilized as the oil vessel. In the
case of fixed oils, as the _ oils of
animal and vegetable origin used
to be called, it is necessary with
such lamps to introduce some appli-
ance for forcing a supply of oil to
the burner, and many methods cf
effecting this were devised, most of
which were ultimately superseded
by the moderator lamp. The Carcel
Reading or pump lamp, invented by B.
G. Carcel in 1800, is still to some
extent used in France. It consists
FIG.
2. — Section of
Lamp.
of a double piston or pump, forcing the oil through a tube to the
burner, worked by_ clockwork.
A form of reading lamp still in use is seen in section in fig. 2.
The lamp is mounted on a standard on which it can be raised or
lowered at will, and fixed by a thumb screw. The oil reservoir is
in two parts, the upper ac being an inverted flask which fits into bb,
from which the burner is directly fed through the tube d-, h is an
overflow cup for any oil that escapes at the burner, and it is pierced
with air-holes for admitting the current of air to the centre tube of
the Argand burner. The lamp is filled with oil by withdrawing the
flask ac, filling it, and inverting it into its place. The under reservoir
bb fills from it to the burner level ee, on a line with the mouth of at.
So soon as that level falls below the mouth of ac, a bubble of air
gets access to the upper reservoir, and oil again fills up 66 to the
level ee.
The moderator lamp (fig. 3), invented by Franchot about 1836,
from the simplicity and efficiency of its arrangements rapidly
superseded almost all other forms of mechanical lamp for use with
animal and vegetable oils. The two essential features of the modera-
tor lamp are (i) the strong spiral spring which, acting on a piston
within the cylindrical reservoir of the lamp, serves to propel the oil
to the burner, and (2) the ascending tube C through which the oil
passes upwards to the burner. The latter consist of two sections,
the lower fixed to and passing through the piston A into the oil
reservoir, and the upper attached to the burner. The lower or piston
section moves within the upper, which forms a sheath enclosing
nearly its whole length when the spring is fully wound up. Down
the centre of the upper tube
passes a wire, " the moder-
ator," G, and it is by this wire
that the supply of oil to the
burner is regulated. The
spring exerts its greatest force
on the oil in the reservoir when
it is fully wound up, and in
proportion as it expands and
descends its power decreases.
But when the apparatus is
wound up the wire passing
down the upper tube extends
throughout the whole length
of the lower and narrower
piston tube, obstructing to a
certain extent the free flow of
the oil. In proportion as the
spring uncoils, the length of
the wire within the lower tube
is decreased ; the upward flow
of oil is facilitated in the
same ratio as the force urging
it upwards is weakened. In
all mechanical lamps the flow
is in excess of the consuming
capacity of the burner, and
in the moderator the surplus
oil, flowing over the wick,
falls back into the reservoir
above the piston, whence FIG. 3. — Section of Moderator Lamp,
along with new supply oil it
descends into the lower side by means of leather valves a, a.
B represents the rack which, with the pinion D, winds up the spiral
spring hard against E when the lamp is prepared for use. The
moderator wire is seen separately in GG; and FGC illustrates
the arrangement of the sheathing tubes, in the upper section of
which the moderator is fixed.
As early as 1781 the idea was mooted of burning naphtha,
obtained by the distillation of coal at low temperatures, for
illuminating purposes, and in 1820, when coal gas
was struggling into prominence, light oils obtained oils"'
by the distillation of coal tar were employed in the
Holliday lamp, which is still the chief factor in illuminating the
street barrow of the costermonger. In this lamp the coal naphtha
is in a conical reservoir, from the apex of which it flows slowly
down through a long metal capillary to a rose burner, which,
heated up by the flame, vaporizes the naphtha, and thus feeds
the ring of small jets of flame escaping from its circumference.
It was in 1847 that James Young had his attention drawn
to an exudation of petroleum in the Riddings Colliery at Alfreton,
in Derbyshire, and found that he could by distillation obtain
from it a lubricant of considerable value. The commercial
success of this material was accompanied by a failure of the
supply, and, rightly imagining that as the oil had apparently
come from the Coal Measures, it might be obtained by distillation
from material of the same character, Young began investigations
in this direction, and in 1850 started distilling oils from a shale
known as the " Bathgate mineral," in this way founding the
Scotch oil industry. At first h'ttle attention was paid to the
fitness of the oil for burning purposes, although in the early
days at Alfreton Young attempted to burn some of the lighter
distillates in an Argand lamp, and later in a lamp made many
years before for the consumption of turpentine. About 1853,
OIL]
LIGHTING
however, it was noticed that the lighter distillates were being
shipped to Germany, where lamps fitted for the consumption
of the grades of oil now known as lamp oil were being made by
Stohwasser of Berlin; some of these lamps were imported,
and similar lamps were afterwards manufactured by Laidlaw
in Edinburgh.
In Pennsylvania in 1859 Colonel E. L. Drake's successful bor-
ing for petroleum resulted in the flooding of the market with oil
at prices never before deemed possible, and led to the introduction
of lamps from Germany for its consumption. Although the first
American patent for a petroleum lamp is dated 1850, that year
saw forty other applications, and for the next twenty years
they averaged about eighty a year.
English lamp-makers were not behind in their attempts to
improve on the methods in use for producing the highest results
from the various grades of oil, an'd in 1865 Hinks introduced
the duplex burner, while later improvements made in various
directions, by Hinks, Silber, and Defries led to the high degree
of perfection to be found in the lamps of to-day. Mineral oil
for lamps as used in England at the present time may be defined
as consisting of those portions of the distillate from shale oil
or crude petroleum
which have their flash-
point above 73° F., and
which are mobile
enough to be fed by
capillarity in sufficient
quantity to the flame.
The oil placed in the
lamp reservoir is drawn
up by the capillarity of
the wick to the flame,
and being there vola-
tilized, is converted by
the heat of the burning
flame into a gaseous
mixture of hydrogen
and hydrocarbons,
which isultimately
consumed by the oxygen
in the flame to a far higher incandescence so as to secure a greater
illuminating power. This in practice has been done in two ways,
first by drawing in the air by the up-suck of the heated and expanded
products of combustion in a chimney fitted over the flame, and
secondly by creating a draught from a small clockwork fan in the
base of the lamp. It is necessary to break the initial rush of the
draught: this is mostly effected by disks of perforated metal in
the base of the burner, called diffusers, while the metal dome which
surrounds and rises slightly above the wick-holder serves to deflect
the air on to the flame, as in the Wanzer lamp. These arrangements
also act to a certain extent as regenerators, the air passing over the
heated metal surfaces being warmed before reaching the flame,
whilst disks, cones, buttons, perforated tubes, inner air-tubes, &c.,
have been introduced to increase the illuminating power and com-
plete the combustion.
According to Sir Boverton Redwood, duplex burners which give
a flame of 28 candle-power have an average oil consumption of
50 grains per candle per hour, while Argand flames of 38 candle-
power consume about 45 grains of oil per candle per hour. These
figures were obtained from lamps of the best types, and to obtain
information as to the efficiency of the lamps used in daily practice,
a number of the most popular types were examined, using both
American and Russian oil. The results obtained are embodied in
Table I. The first noteworthy point in this table is the apparent
superiority of the American over Russian oil in the majority of
the lamps employed, and there is no doubt that the bulk of the
TABLE I.
Type-
Name.
Grains of Oil per
candle-power per hour.
Total Candle-power.
American.
Russian.
American.
Russian.
Circular wick .
Flat wick, single . •
,, duplex
Veritas, 6o-line ....
„ 30 „
64-5
42-5
4375
52-8
97-9
63-9
56-9
42-6
84-4
60-9
56-2
51-2
II2-5
50-
58-5
70-9
85-4
97-2
Si-3
48-3
84-4
89-3
55-7
46-6
122-5
60
40
18
12
i!
17
8
7
20
20
78
60
35
18
12
9
19
17
8
7
22
22
,, 20
Ariel, 12-line centre draught .
Reading, 14-line . . . .
Kosmos, lo-line .
Wizard, 15-line .
Wanzer, no glass ....
Solid slip, gauze and cone
Old slip, fixed gauze
Feeder wick
Ordinary
American oil — Sp. gr. 0-7904; flash-point, no°F. Russian oil — Sp. gr. 0-823; flash-point, 83° F.
of the air and converted into
carbon dioxide and water vapour, the products of complete
combustion.
To secure high illuminating power, together with a smokeless
flame and only products of complete combustion, strict attention
must be paid to several important factors. In the first place, the
wick must be so arranged as to supply the right quantity of oil for
gasification at the burner-head — the flame must be neither starved
nor overfed : if the former is the case great loss of light is occasioned,
while an excess of oil, by providing more hydrocarbons than the
air-supply to the flame can completely burn, gives rise to smoke
and products of incomplete combustion. The action of the wick
depending on the capillary action of the microscopic tubes forming
the cotton fibre, nothing but long-staple cotton of good quality
should be employed ; this should be spun into a coarse loose thread
with as little twist in it as possible, and from this the wick is built
up. Having obtained a wick of soft texture and loose plait, it should
be well dried before the fire, and when put in position in the lamp
must fill the wick-holder without being compressed. It should be
of sufficient length to reach to the bottom of the oil reservoir and
leave an inch or two on the bottom. Such a wick will suck up the
oil in a regular and uniform way, provided that the level of the oil
is not allowed to fall too low in the lamp, but it must be remembered
that the wick acts as a filter for the oil, and that if any sediment
be present it will be retained by and choke the capillaries upon
which the action of the wick depends, so that a wick should not be
used for too long a time. A good rule is that the wick should,
when new, trail for 2 in. on the bottom of the oil vessel, and should
be discarded when these 2 in. have been burnt off.
When the lamp is lighted the oil burns with a heavy, smoky
flame, because it is not able to obtain sufficient oxygen to complete
the combustion, and not only are soot flakes produced, but products
of incomplete combustion, such as carbon monoxide and even
petroleum vapour, escape — the first named highly injurious to
health, and the second of an offensive odour. To supply the necessary
amount of air to the flame, an artificial draught has to be created
which shall impinge upon the bottom of the flame and sweep up-
wards over its surface, giving it rigidity, and by completing the
combustion in a shorter period of time than could be done otherwise,
increasing the calorific intensity and thus raising the carbon particles
lamps on the market are constructed to burn American or shale oil.
A second interesting point is that with the flat-flame lamps the
Russian oil is as good as the American. We have Redwood's
authority, moreover, for the fact that after prolonged burning the
Russian oil, even in lamps least suited to it, gives highly improved
results. Although the average consumption with these lamps is
close upon 60 grains per candle with American oil, yet some of the
burners are so manifestly wasteful that 50 grains per candle-power
per hour is the fairest basis to take for any calculation as to cost.
The dangers of the mineral oil lamp, which were a grave draw-
back in the past, have been very much reduced by improvements
in construction and quality, and if it were possible to abolish the
cheap and dangerous rubbish sold in poor neighbourhoods, and to
prevent the use of side-fillers and glass reservoirs in lamps of better
quality, a still larger reduction in the number of accidents would
take place. In the use of the lamp for domestic purposes only soft
well-fitting wicks should be employed, and the lamp should be
filled with oil each day so as never to allow it to burn too low and
so leave a large space above the surface of the oil in the reservoir.
The lamp should never be moved whilst alight, and it should only be
put out by means of a proper extinguisher or by blowing across
the top instead of down the chimney. By these means the risk of
accident would be so reduced as to compare favourably with other
illuminants.
Candles, oil and coal gas all emit the same products of complete
combustion, viz. carbon dioxide and water vapour. The quantities
of these compounds emitted from different illuminants for every
candle of light per hour will be seen from the following table:
Illuminant.
Sperm candle
Oil lamp
Gas — Flat flame
Argand .
Regenerative
•Incandescent
Cubic Feet per Candle.
Carbon Dioxide. Water Vapour.
0-41 0-41
0-24 0-18
0-26 0-67
0-17 0-45
0-07 0-19
0-03 0-08
From these data it appears that if the sanitary condition of the air
of a dwelling-room be measured by the amount of carbon dioxide
present, as is usually done, candles are the most prejudicial to
health and comfort, oil lamps less so, and gas least, an assumption
LIGHTING
[OIL
which practical experience does not bear out. The explanation of
tnis is to be found in these facts: First, where we illuminate a
room with candles or oil we are contented with a less intense and
more local light than when we are using gas, and in a room of ordinary
size would be more likely to use a lamp or two candles than the
far higher illumination we should demand if gas were employed.
Secondly, the amount of water vapour given off during the com-
bustion of gas is greater than in the case of the other illuminants,
and water vapour absorbing radiant heat from the burning gas
becomes heated, and, diffusing itself about the room, causes great
oppression. Also the air, being highly charged with moisture, is
unable to take up so rapidly the water vapour which is always
evaporating from the surface of our skin, and in this way the functions
of the body receive a slight check, resulting in a feeling of depression.
A very successful type of oil lamp for use in engineering is
represented by the Lucigen, Doty, and Wells lights, in which the
oil is forced from a reservoir by air-pressure through
a spiral heated by the flame of the lamp, and the heated
oil, being then ejected partly as vapour and partly
as spray, burns with a large and highly luminous flame. The
great drawback to these devices is that a certain proportion
of the oil spray escapes combustion and is deposited in the
vicinity of the light. This form of lamp is often used for heating
as well as lighting; the rivets needed for the Forth Bridge
were heated in trays by lamps of this type at the spot where
they were required. The great advantage of these lamps was
that oils of little value could be employed, and the light obtained
approximated to 750 candles per gallon of oil consumed. They
may to a certain extent be looked upon as the forerunners of
perhaps the most successful form of incandescent oil-burner.
As early as 1885 Arthur Kitson attempted to make a burner
for heating purposes on the foregoing principle, i.e. by injecting
Oil applied °^ under pressure from a fine tube into a chamber
to incan- where it would be heated by the waste heat escaping
descent from the flame below, the vapour so produced being
lighting. macje to issue from a Small jet under the pressure
caused by the initial air-pressure and the expansion in the
gasifying tube. This jet of gas was then led into what was
practically an atmospheric burner, and drew in with it sufficient
air to cause its combustion with a non-luminous blue flame
of great heating power. At the time when this was first done
the Welsbach mantle had not yet reached the period of com-
mercial utility, and attempts were made to use this flame for
the generation of light by consuming it in a mantle of fine
platinum gauze, which, although giving a very fine illuminating
effect during the first few hours, very soon shared the fate of
all platinum mantles — that is, carbonization of the platinum
surface took place, and destroyed its power of light emissivity.
It was not until 1893 that the perfecting of the Welsbach mantle
enabled this method of consuming the oil to be employed.
The Kitson lamp, and also the Empire lamp on a similar principle,
have given results which ought to ensure their future success,
the only drawback being that they need a certain amount of
intelligent care to keep them in good working order.
Oil gas and oil vapours differ from coal gas merely in the
larger proportion and greater complexity of the hydrocarbon
incaa- molecules present, and to render the oil flame avail-
descent able for incandescent lighting it is only necessary to
table- cause the oil gas or vapour to become mixed with a
lamps. sufficient proportion of air before it arrives at the
point of combustion. But with gases so rich in hydrocarbons
as those developed from oil it is excessively difficult to get
the necessary air intimately and evenly mixed with the gas
in sufficient proportion to bring about the desired result. If
even coal gas be taken and mixed with 2-27 volumes of air,
its luminosity is destroyed, but such a flame would be useless
with the incandescent mantle, as if the non-luminous flame
be superheated a certain proportion of its luminosity will re-
appear. When such a flame is used with a mantle the super-
heating effect of the mantle itself very quickly leads to the
decomposition of the hydrocarbons and blackening of the
mantle, which not only robs it of its light-giving powers, but
also rapidly ends its life. If, however, the proportion of air
be increased, the appearance of the flame becomes considerably
altered, and the hydrocarbon molecules being burnt up before
impact with the heated surface of the mantle, all chance of
blackening is avoided.
On the first attempts to construct a satisfactory oil lamp which
could be used with the incandescent mantle, this trouble showed
itself to be a most serious one, as although it was comparatively easy
so to regulate a circular-wicked flame fed by an excess of air as to
make it non-luminous, the moment the mantle was put upon this,
blackening quickly appeared, while when methods for obtaining
a further air supply were devised, the difficulty of producing a flame
which would burn for a considerable time without constant necessity
for regulation proved a serious drawback. This trouble has militated
against most of the incandescent oil lamps placed upon the market.
It soon became evident that if a wick were employed the difficulty
of getting it perfectly symmetrical was a serious matter, and that it
could only be utilized in drawing the oil up to a heating chamber
where it could be volatilized to produce the oil gas, which on then
being mixed with air would give the non-luminous flame. In the
earlier forms of incandescent oil lamps the general idea was to suck
the oil up by the capillarity of a circular wick to a point a short
distance below the opening of the burner at which the flame was
formed, and here the oil was vaporized or gasified by the heat of
the head of the burner. An air supply was then drawn up through
a tube passing through the centre of the wick-tube, while a second
air current was so arranged as to discharge itself almost horizontally
upon the burning gas below the cap, in this way giving a non-
luminous and very not flame, which if kept very carefully adjusted
afforded excellent results with an incandescent mantle. It was
an arrangement somewhat of this character that was introduced by
the Welsbach Company. The lamps, however, required such careful
attention, and were moreover so irregular in their performance, that
they never proved very successful. Many other forms have reached
a certain degree of perfection, but have not so far attained sufficient
regularity of action to make them commercial successes. One of
the most successful was devised by F. Altmann, in which an in-
genious arrangement caused the vaporization of oil and water by
the heat of a little oil lamp in a lower and separate chamber, and
the mixture of oil gas and steam was then burnt in a burner-head
with a special arrangement of air supply, heating a mantle sus-
pended above the burner-head.
The perfect petroleum incandescent lamp has not yet been made,
but the results thus obtained show that when the right system
has been found a very great increase in the amount of light developed
from the petroleum may be expected. In one lamp experimented
with for some time it was easy to obtain 3500 candle hours per
gallon of oil, or three times the amount of light obtainable from the
oil when burnt under ordinary conditions.
Before the manufacture of coal-gas had become so universal
as it is at present, a favourite illuminant for country mansions
and even villages where no coal-gas was available
was a mixture of air with the vapour of very volatile
hydrocarbons, which is generally known as " air-gas." This
was produced by passing a current of dry air through or over
petroleum spirit or the light hydrocarbons distilled from tar,
when sufficient of the hydrocarbon was taken up to give a
luminous flame in flat flame and Argand burners in the same
way as coal-gas, the trouble being that it was difficult to regulate
the amount of hydrocarbon held in suspension by the air, as
this varied very widely with the temperature. As coal-gas
spread to the smaller villages and electric lighting became
utilized in large houses, the use of air-gas died out, but with
the general introduction of the incandescent mantle it again
came to the front. In the earlier days of this revival, air-gas
rich in hydrocarbon vapour was made and was further aerated
to give a non-luminous flame by burning it in an atmospheric
burner.
One of the best illustrations of this system was the Aerogene gas
introduced by A. I. van Vriesland, which was utilized for lighting a
number of villages and railway stations on the continent of Europe.
In this arrangement a revolving coil of pipes continually dips into
petroleum spirit contained in a cylinder, and the air passed into the
cylinder through the coil of pipes becomes highly carburetted by
the time it reaches the outlet at the far end of the cylinder. The
resulting gas when burnt in an ordinary burner gives a luminous
flame; it can be used in atmospheric burners differing little from
those of the ordinary type. With an ordinary Welsbach " C "
burner it gives a duty of about 30 candles per foot of gas consumed,
the high illuminating power being due to the fact that the gas is
under a pressure of from 6 to 8 in. With such a gas, containing a
considerable percentage of hydrocarbon vapour, any leakage into
the air of a room would give rise to an explosive mixture, in the
same way that coal-gas would do, but inasmuch as mixtures of the
vapour of petroleum spirit and air are only explosive for a very
short range, that is, from 1-25 to 5-3%, some systems have been
GAS]
LIGHTING
655
introduced in which by keeping the amount of petroleum vapour
at 2 % and burning the gas under pressure in a specially constructed
non-aerating mantle burner, not only has it been found possible
to produce a very large volume of gas per gallon of spirit employed,
but the gas is itself non-explosive, increase in the amount of air
taking it farther away from the explosive limit. The Hooker, De
Laitte and several other systems have been based upon this principle.
2. GAS LIGHTING
In all measurements of illuminating value the standard of
comparison used in England is the light yielded by a sperm
candle of the size known as " sixes," i.e. six to the pound,
consuming 1 20 grains of sperm per hour, and although in photo-
metric work slight inequalities in burning have led to the candle
being discarded in practice, the standard lamps burning pentane
vapour which have replaced them are arranged to yield a light
of ten candles, and the photometric results are expressed as
before in terms of candles.
When William Murdoch first used coal-gas at his Redruth
home in 1779, he burnt the gas as it escaped from the open
end of a small iron tube, but soon realizing that this plan en-
tailed very large consumption of gas and gave a very small amount
of light, he welded up the end of his tube and bored three small
holes in it, so arranged that they formed three divergent jets
of flame. From the shape of the flame so produced this burner
received the name of the " cockspur " burner, and it was the
one used by Murdoch when in 1807 he fitted up an installation
of gas lighting at Phillips & Lee's works in Manchester. This —
the earliest form of gas burner — gave an illuminating value of
a little under one candle per cubic foot of gas consumed, and
this duty was slightly increased when the burner was improved
by flattening up the welded end of the tube and making a
series of small holes in line and close together, the jets of flame
from which gave the burner the name of the " cockscomb."
It did not need much inventive faculty to replace the line of
holes by a saw-cut, the gas issuing from which burnt in a sheet,
the shape of which led to the burner being called the " batswing."
This was followed in 1820 by the discovery of J. B. Neilson,
of Glasgow, whose name is remembered in connexion with the
use of the hot-air blast in iron-smelting, that, by allowing two
flames to impinge upon one another so as to form a flat flame,
a slight increase in luminosity was obtained, and after several
preliminary stages the union jet or " fishtail " burner was
produced. In this form of burner two holes, bored at the
necessary angle in the same nipple, caused two streams of
gas to impinge upon each other so that they flattened themselves
out into a sheet of flame. The flames given by the batswing
and fishtail burners differed in shape, the former being wide
and of but little height, whilst the latter was much higher and
more narrow. This factor ensured for the fishtail a greater
amount of popularity than the batswing burner had obtained,
as the flame was less affected by draughts and could be used
with a globe, although the illuminating efficiency of the two
burners differed little.
In a lecture at the Royal Institution on the 2oth of May
1853, Sir Edward Frankland showed a burner he had devised
for utilizing the heat of the flame to raise the tempera-
v ture °f the a^r supply necessary for the combustion
burner. of the gas. The burner was an Argand of the type
then in use, consisting of a metal ring pierced with
holes so as to give a circle of small jets, the ring of flame being
surrounded by a chimney. But in addition to this chimney,
Frankland added a second external one, extending some distance
below the first and closed at the bottom by a glass plate fitted
air-tight to the pillar carrying the burner. In this way the
air needed for the combustion of the gas had to pass down the
space between the two chimneys, and in so doing became highly
heated, partly by contact with the hot glass, and partly by
radiation. Sir Edward Frankland estimated that the tempera-
ture of the air reaching the flame was about 500° F. In 1854
a very similar arrangement was brought forward by the
Rev. W. R. Bowditch, and, as a large amount of publicity was
given to it, the inception of the regenerative burner was
generally ascribed to Bowditch, although undoubtedly due to
Frankland.
The principle of regeneration was adopted in a number of
lamps, the best of which was brought out by Friedrich Siemens
in 1879. Although originally made for heating purposes, the
light given by the burner was so effective and superior to any-
thing obtained up to that time that it was with some slight
alterations adapted for illuminating purposes.
Improvements followed in the construction and design of the
regenerative lamp, and when used as an overhead burner it was
found that not only was an excellent duty obtained per cubic
foot of gas consumed, but that the lamp could be made a most
efficient engine of ventilation, as an enormous amount of vitiated
air could be withdrawn from the upper part of a room through
a flue in the ceiling space. So marked was the increase in light
due to the regeneration that a considerable number of burners
working on this principle were introduced, some of them like
the Wenham and Cromartie coming into extensive use. They
were, however, costly to instal, so that the flat flame burner
retained its popularity in spite of the fact that its duty was
comparatively low, owing to the flame being drawn out into a
thin sheet and so exposed to the cooling influence of the atmo-
sphere. Almost at the same time that Murdoch was introducing
the cockscomb and cockspur burners, he also made rough forms
of Argand burner, consisting of two concentric pipes between
which the gas was led and burnt with a circular flame. This
form was soon improved by filling in the space between the tubes
with a ring of metal, bored with fine holes so close together that
the jets coalesced in burning and gave a more satisfactory flame,
the air necessary to keep the flame steady and ensure complete
combustion being obtained by the draught created by a chimney
placed around it. When it began to be recognized that the
temperature of the flame had a great effect upon the amount
of light emitted, the iron tips, which had been universally em-
ployed, both in flat flame and Argand burners, were replaced
by steatite or other non-conducting material of similar character,
to prevent as far,as possible heat from being withdrawn from
the flame by conduction.
In 1880 the burners in use for coal-gas therefore consisted
of flat flame, Argand, and regenerative burners, and the duty
given by them with a i6-candle gas was as follows: —
Candle units
Burner.
Union jet flat flame, No. o
i
2
3
4
5
6
Ordinary Argand
Standard Argand
Regenerative
per cub. ft.
of gas.
o-59
0-85
1-22
I-63
1-74
1-87
2-15
2-44
2-90
3-20
7 to 10
The luminosity of a coal-gas flame depends upon the number
of carbon particles liberated within it, and the temperature to
which they can be heated. Hence the light given by a flame
of coal-gas can be augmented by (i) increasing the number of
the carbon particles, and (2) raising the temperature to which
they are exposed. The first process is carried out by enrichment
(see GAS: Manufacture), the second is best obtained by regenera-
tion, the action of which is limited by the power possessed by
the material of which burners are composed to withstand the
superheating. Although with a perfectly made regenerative
burner it might be possible for a short time to get a duty as high
as 1 6 candles per cubic foot from ordinary coal-gas, such a burner
constructed of the ordinary materials would last only a few
hours, so that for practical use and a reasonable life for the
burneriocandlespercubicfootwasaboutthe highest commercial
duty that could be reckoned on. This limitation naturally
caused inventors to search for methods by which the emission
of light could be obtained from coal-gas otherwise than by the
incandescence of the carbon particles contained within the
656
LIGHTING
[GAS
flame itself. A coal-gas flame consumed in an atmospheric
burner under the conditions necessary to develop its maximum
heating power could be utilized to raise to incandescence particles
having a higher emissivity for light than carbon. This led to the
gradual evolution of incandescent gas lighting.
Long before the birth of the Welsbach mantle it had been
known that when certain unburnable refractory substances
were heated to a high temperature they emitted light,
'descent an(* Goldsworthy Gurney in 1826 showed that a
gas light, cylinder of lime could be brought to a state of dazzling
brilliancy by the flame of the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe,
a fact which was utilized by Thomas Drummond shortly after-
wards in connexion with the Ordnance Survey of Ireland. The
mass of a lime cylinder is, however, relatively very considerable,
and consequently an excessive amount of heat has to be brought
to bear upon it, owing to radiation and conduction tending to
dissipate the heat. This is seen by holding in the flame of an
atmospheric burner a coil of thick platinum wire, the result
being that the wire is heated to a dull red only. With wire of
medium thickness a bright red heat is soon attained, and a thin
wire glows with a vivid incandescence, and will even melt in
certain parts of the flame. Attempts were accordingly made
to reduce the mass of the material heated, and this form of
lighting was tried in the streets of Paris, buttons of zirconia and
magnesia being heated by an oxy-coal-gas flame, but the attempt
was soon abandoned owing to the high cost and constant renewals
needed. In 1835 W. H. Fox Talbot discovered that even the
feeble flame of a spirit lamp is sufficient to heat lime to incan-
descence, provided the lime be in a sufficiently fine state of
division. This condition he fulfilled by soaking blotting-paper
in a solution of a calcium salt and then incinerating it. Up to
1848, when J. P. Gillard introduced the intermittent process
of making water-gas, the spirit flame and oxy-hydrogen flame
were alone free from carbon particles. Desiring to use the water-
gas for lighting as well as heating puuposes Gillard made a mantle
of fine platinum gauze to fit over the flame, and for a time
obtained excellent results, but after a few days the lighting
value of the mantle fell away gradually until it became useless,
owing to the wire becoming eroded on the surface by the flame
gases. This idea has been revived at intervals, but the trouble
of erosion has always led to failure.
The next important stage in the history of gas lighting was
the discovery by R. W. von Bunsen about 1855 of the atmospheric
burner, in which a non-luminous coal-gas flame is obtained by
causing the coal-gas before its combustion to mix with a certain
amount of air. This simple appliance has opened up for coal-gas
a sphere of usefulness for heating purposes as important as its
use for lighting. After the introduction of the atmospheric
burner the idea of the incandescent mantle was revived early
in the eighties by the Clamond basket and a resuscitation of the
platinum mantle. The Clamond basket or mantle, as shown at
the Crystal Palace exhibition of 1882-1883, consisted of a cone
of threads of calcined magnesia. A mixture of magnesium
hydrate and acetate, converted into a paste or cream by means
of water, was pressed through holes in a plate so as to form
threads, and these, after being moulded to the required shape,
were ignited. The heat decomposed the acetate to form a
luting material which glued the particles of magnesium oxide
produced into a solid mass, whilst the hydrate gave off water and
became oxide. The basket was supported with its apex down-
wards in a little platinum wire cage, and a mixture of coal-gas
and air was driven into it under pressure from an inverted
blowpipe burner above it.
The Welsbach mantle was suggested by the fact that Auer
von Welsbach had been carrying out researches on the rare
earths, with constant use of the spectroscope. Desiring to
obtain a better effect than that produced by heating his material
on a platinum wire, he immersed cotton in a solution of the
metallic salt, and after burning off the organic matter found
that a replica of the original thread, composed of the oxide of the
metal, was left, and that it glowed brightly in the flame. From
this he evolved the idea of utilizing a fabric of cotton soaked
in a solution of a metallic salt for lighting purposes, and in 1885
he patented his first commercial mantle. The oxides uSed in
these mantles were zirconia, lanthania, and yttria, but these
were so fragile as to be practically useless, whilst the light they
emitted was very poor. Later he found that the oxide of thorium
— thoria — in conjunction with other rare earth oxides, not only
increased the light-giving powers of the mantle, but added
considerably to its strength, and the use of this oxide was pro-
tected by his 1886 patent. Even these mantles were very
unsatisfactory until it was found that the purity of the oxides
had a wonderful effect upon the amount of light, and finally
came the great discovery that it was a trace of ceria in admixture
with the thoria that gave the mantle the marvellous power of
emitting light.
Certain factors limit the number of oxides that can be used in
the manufacture of an incandescent mantle. Atmospheric influences
must not have any action upon them, and they must be sufficiently
refractory not to melt or even soften to any extent at the temperature
of the flame; they must also be non-volatile, whilst the shrinkage
during the process of " burning off " must not be excessive. The
following table gives the light-emissivity from pure and commercial
samples of the oxides which most nearly conform to the above
requirements; the effect of impurity upon the lighting power will
be seen to be most marked.
Pure. Commercial.
Metals —
Zirconia
Thoria .
Earth metals —
Cerite earths-
1-5
o-5
0-4
6-0
0-9
6-0
3-2
1-7
0-4
0-6
3'3
5-5
5-0
-Ceria .
Lanthania
Yttrite earths — Yttria
Erbia . . . 0-6
Common earths — Chromium oxide . 0-4
Alumina . . . 0-6
Alkaline earth metals —
Baryta ........ 3'3
Strontia ....... 5-2
Magnesia ....... 5-0
Of these oxides thoria, when tested for shrinkage, duration and
strength, stands pre-eminent. It is also possible to employ zirconia
and alumina. Zirconia has the drawback that in the hottest part
of the flame it is liable not only to shrinkage and semi-fusion, but
also to slow volatilization, and the same objections hold good
with respect to alumina. With thoria the shrinkage is smaller than
with any other known substance, and it possesses very high refractory
powers.
The factor which gives thoria its pre-eminence as the basis of the
mantle is that in the conversion of thorium nitrate into thorium oxide
by heat, an enormous expansion takes place, the oxide occupying
more than ten times the volume of the nitrate. This means that the
mass is highly spongy, and contains an enormous number of little
air-cells which must render it an excellent non-conductor. A
mantle made with thoria alone gives practically no light. But the
power of light-emissivity is awakened by the addition of a small
trace of ceria ; and careful experiment shows that as ceria is added
to it little by little, the light which the mantle emits grows greater
and greater, until the ratio of 99 % of thoria and I % of ceria is
reached, when the maximum illuminating effect is obtained. The
further addition of ceria causes gradual diminution of light, until,
when with some 10% of ceria has been added, the light given by
the mantle is again almost inappreciable. When cerium nitrate is
converted by heat into cerium oxide, the expansion which takes
place is practically nil, the ceria obtained from a gramme of the
nitrate occupying about the same space as the original nitrate.
Thus, although by weight the ratio of ceria to thoria is as 1 : 99, by
volume it is only as 1 : 999.
The most successful form of mantle is made by taking a
cylinder of cotton net about 8 in. long, and soaking it in a
solution of nitrates of the requisite metals until the
microscopic fibres of the cotton are entirely filled
with liquid. A longer soaking is not advantageous, mantles.
as the acid nature of the liquid employed tends to
weaken the fabric and render it more delicate to handle. The
cotton is then wrung out to free it from the excess of liquid, and
one end is sewn together with an asbestos thread, a loop of the
same material or of thin platinum wire being fixed across the
constricted portion to provide a support by which the mantle
may be held by the carrying rod, which is either external
to the mantle, or (as is most often the case) fixed centrally in
the burner head. It is then ready for " burning off," a process
in which the organic matter is removed and the nitrates are
GAS]
LIGHTING
657
converted into oxides. The flame of an atmospheric burner is
first applied to the constricted portion at the top of the mantle
whereupon the cotton gradually burns downwards, the shape
of the mantle to a great extent depending on the regularity with
which the combustion takes place. A certain amount of carbon
is left behind after the flame has died out, and this is burnt ofl
by the judicious application of. a flame from an atmospheric
blast burner to the interior. The action which takes place
during the burning off is as follows: The cellulose tubes of
the fibre are filled with the crystallized nitrates of the metals
used, and as the cellulose burns the nitrates decompose, giving
up oxygen and forming fusible nitrites, which in their semi-
liquid condition are rendered coherent by the rapid expansion
as the oxide forms. As the action continues the nitrites become
oxides, losing their fusibility, so that by the time the organic
matter has disappeared a coherent thread of oxide is left in place
of the nitrate-laden thread of cotton. In the early days of
incandescent lighting the mantles had to be sent out unburnt,
as no process was known by which the burnt mantle could be
rendered sufficiently strong to bear carriage. As the success
of a mantle depends upon its fitting the flame, and as the burn-
ing off requires considerable skill, this was a great difficulty.
Moreover the acid nature of the nitrates in the fibres rapidly
rotted them, unless they had been subjected to the action of
ammonia gas, which neutralized any excess of acid. It was dis-
covered, however, that the burnt-off mantle could be temporarily
strengthened by dipping it in collodion, a solution of soluble
guncotton in ether and alcohol together with a little castor-oil
or similar material to prevent excessive shrinkage when drying.
When the mantle was removed from the solution a thin film
of solid collodion was left on it, and this could be burned away
when required.
After the Welsbach mantle had proved itself a commercial success
many attempts were made to evade the monopoly created under
the patents, and, although it was found impossible to get the same
illuminating power with anything but the mixture of 99% thoria
and I % ceria, many ingenious processes were devised which re-
sulted in at least one improvement in mantle manufacture. One of
the earliest attempts in this direction was the " Sunlight " mantle,
in which cotton was saturated with the oxides of aluminium,
chrbmium and zirconium, the composition of the burnt-off mantle
being : —
Alumina .... 86-88
Chromium oxide . . 8-68
Zirconia .... 4'44
100-00
The light given by these mantles was entirely dependent upon
the proportion of chromium oxides present, the alumina playing
the part of base in the same way that the thoria does in the Welsbach
mantle, the zirconia being added merely to strengthen the structure.
These mantles enjoyed considerable popularity owing to the yellowish
pink light they emitted, but, although they could give an initial
illumination of 12 to 15 candles per foot of gas consumed, they
rapidly lost their light-giving power owing to the slow volatilization
of the oxides of chromium and aluminium.
Another method of making the mantle was first to produce a
basis of thoria, and, having got the fabric in thorium oxide, to coat
it with a mixture of 99 % thoria and I % ceria. This modification
seems to give an improvement in the initial amount of light given
by the mantle. In the Voelker mantle a basis of thoria waspro-
duced, and was then coated by dipping in a substance termed by
the patentee " Vpelkerite," a body made by fusing together a
number of oxides in the electric furnace. The fused mass was then
dissolved in the strongest nitric acid, and diluted with absolute
alcohol to the necessary degree. A very good mantle having great
lasting power was thus produced. It was claimed that the process
of fusing the materials together in the electric furnace altered the
composition in some unexplained way, but the true explanation is
probably that all water of hydration was eliminated.
The "Daylight " mantle consisted of a basis of thoria or thoria
mixed with zirconia, dipped in collodion containing a salt of cerium
in solution; on burning off the collodion the ceria was left in a
finely divided condition on the surface of the thoria. In this way
a very high initial illuminating power was obtained, which, however,
rapidly fell as the ceria slowly volatilized.
Perhaps the most interesting development of the Welsbach pro-
cess was dependent upon the manufacture of filaments of soluble
guncotton or collodion as in the production of artificial silk. In
general the process consisted in forcing a thick solution of the
nitrated cellulose through capillary glass tubes, the bore of which
was less than the one-hundredth of a millimetre. Ten or twelve of
the expressed fibres were then twisted together and wound on a
bobbin, the air of the room being kept sufficiently heated to cause
the drying of the filaments a few inches from the orifice of the tube.
The compound thread was next denitrated to remove its extreme
inflammability, and for this purpose the skeins were dipped in a
solution of (for instance) ammonium sulphide, which converted
them into ordinary cellulose. After washing and drying the skeins
were ready for the weaving machines. In 1894 F- de Mare utilized
collodion for the manufacture of a mantle, adding the necessary
salts to the collodion before squeezing it into threads. O. Knofler
in 1895, and later on A. Plaissetty, took out patents for the manu-
facture of mantles by a similar process to De Mare's, the difference
between the two being that Knofler used ammonium sulphide for
the denitration of his fabric, whilst Plaissetty employed calpium
sulphide, the objection to which is the trace of lime left in the
material. Another method for making artificial silk which has a
considerable reputation is that known as the Lehner process, which
in its broad outlines somewhat resembles the Chardonnet, but
differs from it in that the excessively high pressures used in the earlier
method are done away with by using a solution of a more liquid
character, the thread being hardened by passing through certain
organic solutions. This form of silk lends itself perhaps better to
the carrying of the salts forming the incandescent oxides than the
previous solutions, and mantles made by this process, known as
Lehner mantles, showed promise of being a most important develop-
ment of De Mare's original idea. Mantles made by these processes
show that it is possible to obtain a very considerable increase in life
and light-emissivity, but mantles made on this principle could not
now be sold at a price which would enable them to compete with
mantles of the Welsbach type.
The cause of the superiority of these mantles having been realized,
developments in the required direction were made. The structure
of the cotton mantle differed widely from that obtained by the
various collodion processes, and this alteration in structure was
mainly responsible for the increase in life. Whereas the average of
a large number of Welsbach mantles tested only showed a useful
life of 700 to 1000 hours, the collodion type would average about
1500 hours, some mantles being burnt for an even longer period and
still giving an effective illumination. This being so, it was clear
that one line of advance would be found in obtaining some material
which, whilst giving a structure more nearly approaching that of
the collodion mantle, would be sufficiently cheap to compete with
the Welsbach mantle, and this was successfully done.
By the aid of the microscope the structure of the mantle can be
clearly defined, and in examining the Welsbach mantle before and
after burning, it will be noticed that the cotton thread is a closely
twisted and plaited rope of myriads of minute fibres, whilst the
collodion mantle is a bundle of separate filaments without plait or
heavy twisting, the number of such filaments varying with the pro-
cess by which it was made. This latter factor experiment showed
to have a certain influence on the useful light-giving life of the
mantle, as whereas the Knofler and Plaissetty mantles had an
average life of about 1500 hours, the Lehner fabric, which contained
a larger number of finer threads, could often be burnt continuously
for over 3000 hours, and at the end of that period gave a better light
than most of the Welsbach after as many hundred.
It is well known that plaiting gave the cotton candle-wick that
power of bending over, when freed from the binding effect of the
candle material and influenced by heat, which brought the tip out
from the side of the flame. This, by enabling the air to get at it
and burn it away, removed the nuisance of having to snuff the
candle, which for many centuries has rendered it a tiresome method
of lighting. ' In the cotton mantle, the tight twisting of the fibre
brings this torsion into play. When the cotton fibres saturated
with the nitrates of the rare metals are burnt off, and the conversion
into oxides takes place, as the cotton begins to burn, not only does
the shrinkage of the mass throw a strain on the oxide skeleton,
but the last struggle of torsion in the burning of the fibre tends
towards disintegration of the fragile mass, and this all plays a part
in making the cotton mantle inferior to the collodion type.
If ramie fibre be prepared in such a way as to remove from it all
traces of the glutinous coating, a silk-like fabric can be obtained
:rom it, and if still further prepared so as to improve its absorbent
powers, it can be formed into mantles having a life considerably
greater than is possessed by those of the cotton fabric. Ramie
:hus seemed likely to yield a cheap competitor in length of en-
durance to the collodion mantle, and results have justified this
expectation. By treating the fibre so as to remove the objections
against its use for mantle-making, and then making it into threads
with the least possible amount of twist, a mantle fabric can be made
"n every way superior to that given by cotton.
The Plaissetty mantles, which as now manufactured also show a
considerable advance in life and light over the original Welsbach
mantles, are made by impregnating stockings of either cotton or
ramie with the nitrates of thorium and cerium in the usual way,
and, before burning off, mercerizing the mantle by steeping in
ammonia solution, which converts the nitrates into hydrates, and
jives greater density and strength to the finished mantle. The manu-
facturers of the Plaissetty mantle have also made a modification
658
LIGHTING
[GAS
in the process by which the saturated fabric can be so prepared
as to be easily burnt off by the consumer on the burner on which
it is to be used, in this way doing away with the initial cost of
burning off, shaping, hardening and collodionizing.
Since 1897 inventions have been patented for methods of
intensifying the light produced by burning gas under a mantle
and increasing the light generated per unit volume
intensify- Q£ gas -pne Sysjems nave either been self-intensifying
'systems. or nave depended on supplying the gas (or gas and air)
under an increased pressure. Of the self-intensifying
systems those of Lucas and Scott-Snell have been the most
successful. A careful study has been made by the inventor of
the Lucas light of the influence of various sizes and shapes of
chimneys in the production of draught. The specially formed
chimney used exerts a suction on the gas flame and air, and the
burner and mantle are so constructed as to take full advantage
of the increased air supply, with the result that the candle power
given by the mantle is considerably augmented. With the Scott-
Snell system the results obtained are about the same as those
given by the Lucas light, but in this case the waste heat from
the burner is caused to operate a plunger working in the crown
of the lamp which sucks and delivers gas to the burner. Both
these systems are widely used for public lighting in many
large towns of the United Kingdom and the continent of
Europe.
The other method of obtaining high light-power from incan-
descent gas burners necessitates the use of some form of motive
power in order to place the gas, or both gas and air, under an
increased pressure. The gas compressor is worked by a water
motor, hot air or gas engine; a low pressure water motor may
be efficiently driven by water from the main, but with large
installations it is more economical to drive the compressor by
a gas engine. To overcome the intermittent flow of gas caused
by the stroke of the engine, a regulator on the floating bell
principle is placed after the compressor; the pressure of gas
in the apparatus governs automatically the flow of gas to the
engine. With the Sugg apparatus for high power lighting the
gas is brought from the district pressure, which is equal to about
2§ in. of water, to an average of 12 in. water pressure. The
light obtained by this system when the gas pressure is 95 in.
is 300 candle power with an hourly consumption of 10 cub. ft.
of gas, equivalent to 30 candles per cubic foot, and with a gas
pressure equal to 14 in. of water 400 candles are obtained with
an hourly consumption of 1 25 cub. ft., which represents a duty
of 32 candles per cubic foot of gas consumed. High pressure
incandescent lighting makes it possible to burn a far larger
volume of gas in a given time under a mantle than is the case
with low pressure lighting, so as to create centres of high total
illuminating value to compete with arc lighting in the illumina-
tion of large spaces, and the Lucas, Keith, Scott-Snell, Millennium ,
Selas, and many other pressure systems answer most admirably
for this purpose.
The light given by the ordinary incandescent mantle burning
in an upright position tends rather to the upward direction,
because owing to the slightly conical shape of the
'burners mantle the maximum light is emitted at an angle a
little above the horizontal. Inasmuch as for working
purposes the surface that a mantle illuminates is at angles
below 45° from the horizontal, it is evident that a considerable
loss of efficient lighting is brought about, whilst directly under
the light the burner and fittings throw a strong shadow. To
avoid this trouble attempts have from time to time been made
to produce inverted burners which should heat a mantle sus-
pended below the mouth of the burner. As early as 1882
Clamond made what was practically an inverted gas and air
blowpipe to use with his incandescent basket, but it was not until
1900-1901 that the inverted mantle became a possibility. Al-
though there was a strong prejudice against it at first, as soon
as a really satisfactory burner was introduced, its success was
quickly placed beyond doubt. The inverted mantle has now
proved itself one of the chief factors in the enormous success
achieved by incandescent mantle lighting, as the illumination
given by it is far more efficient than with the upright mantle,
and it also lends itself well to ornamental treatment.
When the incandescent mantle was first introduced in 1886
an ordinary laboratory Bunsen burner was experimentally
employed, but unless a very narrow mantle just Burners
fitting the top of the tube was used the flame could
not be got to fit the mantle, and it was only the extreme outer
edge of the flame which endowed the mantle fabric with the high
incandescent. A wide burner top was then placed on the
Bunsen tube so as to spread the flame, and a larger mantle
became possible, but it was then found that the slowing down
of the rate of flow at the mouth of the burner owing to its enlarge-
ment caused flashing or firing back, and to prevent this a wire
gauze covering was fitted to the burner head; and in this way
the 1886-1887 commercial Welsbach burner was produced.
The length of the Bunsen tube, however, made an unsightly fitting,
so it was shortened, and the burner head made to slip over it,
whilst an external lighting back plate was added. The form of
the " C " burner thus arrived at has undergone no important
further change. When later on it was desired to make incan-
descent mantle burners that should not need the aid of a chimney
to increase the air supply, the long Bunsen tube was reverted
to, and the Kern, Bandsept, and other burners of this class
all have a greater total length than the ordinary burners. To
secure proper mixing of the air and gas, and to prevent flashing
back, they all have heads fitted with baffles, perforations,
gauze, and other devices which oppose considerable resistance
to the flow of the stream of air and gas.
In 1900, therefore, two classes of burner were in commercial
existence for incandescent lighting — (i) the short burner with
chimney, and (2) the long burner without chimney. Both
classes had the burner mouth closed with gauze or similar device,
and both needed as an essential that the mantle should fit closely
to the burner head.
Prior to 1900 attempts had been made to construct a burner in
which an incandescent mantle should be suspended head downwards.
Inventors all turned to the overhead regenerative gas lamps of the
Wenham type, or the inverted blowpipe used by Clamond, and in
attempting to make an inyerted Bunsen employed either artificial
pressure to the gas or the air, or to both, or else enclosed the burner
and mantle in a globe, and by means of a long chimney created a
strong draught. These burners also were all regenerative and aimed
at heating the air or gas or mixture of the two, and they had the
further drawback of being complicated and costly. Regeneration
is a valuable adjunct in ordinary gas lighting as it increases the
actions that liberate the carbon particles upon which the luminosity
of a flame is dependent, and also increases the temperature; but
with the mixture of air and gas in a Bunsen regeneration is not a
great gain when low and is a drawback when intense, because in-
cipient combination is induced between the oxygen of the air and
the coal-gas before the burner head is reached, the proportions of
air and gas are disturbed, and the flame instead of being non-
luminous shows slight luminosity and tends to blacken the mantle.
The only early attempt to burn a mantle in an inverted position
without regeneration or artificial pressure or draught was made by
H. A. Kent in 1897, and he used, not an inverted Blinsen, but one
with the top elongated and turned over to form a siphon, so that
the point of admixture of air and gas was below the level of the
burner head, and was therefore kept cool and away from the products
of combustion.
In 1900 J. Bernt and E. Cervenka set themselves to solve
the problem of making a Bunsen burner which should consume
gas under ordinary gas pressure in an inverted mantle. They
took the short Bunsen burner, as found in the most commonly
used upright incandescent burners, and fitted to it a long tube,
preferably of non-conducting material, which they called an
isolator, and which is designed to keep the flame at a distance
from the Bunsen. They found that it burnt fairly well, and that
the tendency of the flame to burn or lap back was lessened,
but that the hot up-current of heated air and products of com-
bustion streamed up to the air holes of the Bunsen, and by
contaminating the air supply caused the flame to pulsate.
They then fixed an inverted cone on the isolator to throw the
products of combustion outwards and away from the air holes,
and found that the addition of this " deflecting cone " steadied
the flame. Having obtained a satisfactory flame, they attacked
ELECTRIC]
LIGHTING
659
the problem of the burner head. Experiments showed that
the burner head must be not only open but also of the same
size or smaller than the burner tube, and that by projecting
it downwards into the mantle and leaving a space between the
mantle and the burner head the maximum mantle surface
heated to incandescence was obtained. It was also found that
the distance which the burner head projects into the mantle
is equivalent to the same amount of extra water pressure on
the gas, and with a long mantle it was found useful under certain
conditions to add a cylinder or sleeve with perforated sides
to carry the gas still lower into the mantle. The principles
thus set forth by Kent, Bernt and Cervenka form the basis of
construction of all the types of inverted mantle burners which
so greatly increased the popularity of incandescent gas lighting
at the beginning of the 2oth century, whilst improvements
in the shape of the mantle for inverted lighting and the methods
of attachment to the burner have added to the success achieved.
The wonderful increase in the amount of light that can be
obtained from gas by the aid of the incandescent gas mantle
is realized when one compares the i to 3-2 candles per cubic foot
given by the burners used in the middle of the ipth century with
the duty of incandescent burners, as shown in the following
table:—
Light yielded per cubic foot of Gas.
Burner. Candle power.
Low pressure upright incandescent burners . 15 to 20 candles
Inverted burners 14 to 21 „
Kern burners 20 to 24 „
High pressure burners 22 to 36 „
(V. B. L.)
3. ELECTRIC LIGHTING.
Electric lamps are of two varieties: (i) Arc Lamps and
(2) Incandescent or Glow Lamps. Under these headings we
may briefly consider the history, physical principles, and present
practice of the art of electric lighting.
i. Arc Lamps. — If a voltaic battery of a large number of
cells has its terminal wires provided with rods of electrically-
conducting carbon, and these are brought in contact and then
slightly separated, a form of electric discharge takes place
between them called the electric arc. It is not quite certain
who first observed this effect of the electric current. The state-
ment that Sir Humphry Davy, in 1801, first produced and
studied the phenomenon is probably correct. In 1808 Davy
had provided for him at the Royal Institution a battery of
2000 cells, with which he exhibited the electric arc on a large
scale.
The electric arc may be produced between any conducting
materials maintained at different potentials, provided that the
source of electric supply is able to furnish a sufficiently large
current; but for illuminating purposes pieces of hard graphitic
carbon are most convenient. If some source of continuous
electric current is connected to rods of such carbon, first brought
into contact and then slightly separated, the following facts
may be noticed: With a low electromotive force of about
50 or 60 volts no discharge takes place until the carbons are
in actual contact, unless the insulation of the air is broken down
by the passage of a small electric spark. When this occurs,
the space between the carbons is filled at once with a flame
or luminous vapour, and the carbons themselves become highly
incandescent at their extremities. If they are horizontal the
flame takes the form of an arch springing between their tips;
hence the name arc. This varies somewhat in appearance
according to the nature of the current, whether continuous
or alternating, and according as it is formed in the open air
or in an enclosed space to which free access of oxygen is pre-
vented. Electric arcs between metal surfaces differ greatly
in colour according to the nature of the metal. When formed
by an alternating current of high electromotive force they
resemble a lambent flame, flickering and producing a some-
what shrill humming sound.
Electric arcs may be classified into continuous or alternating
current arcs, and open or enclosed arcs, carbon arcs with pure
or chemically impregnated carbons, or so-called flame arcs,
and arcs formed with metallic or oxide electrodes, such as
magnetite. A continuous current arc is formed with an electric
current flowing always in the same direction; an alternating
current arc is formed with a periodically reversed current. An
open arc is one in which the carbons or other material forming
the arc are freely exposed to the air; an enclosed arc is one
in which they are included in a glass vessel. If carbons im-
pregnated with various salts are used to colour or increase
the light, the arc is called a chemical or flame arc. The carbons
or electrodes may be arranged in line one above the other, or
they may be inclined so as to project the light downwards
or more in one direction. In a carbon arc if the current is
continuous the positive carbon becomes much hotter at the
end than the negative, and in the open air it is worn away,
partly by combustion, becoming hollowed out at the extremity
into a crater. At the same time the negative carbon gradually
becomes pointed, and also wears away, though much less quickly
than the positive. In the continuous-current • open arc the
greater part of the light proceeds from the highly incandescent
positive crater. When the arc is examined through dark glasses,
or by the optical projection of its image upon a screen, a violet
band or stream of vapour is seen to extend between the two
carbons, surrounded by a nebulous golden flame or aureole.
If the carbons are maintained at the right distance apart the
arc remains steady and silent, but if the carbons are impure,
or the distance between them too great, the true electric arc
rapidly changes its place, flickering about and frequently becom-
ing extinguished; when this happens it can only be restored
by bringing the carbons once more into contact. If the current
is alternating, then the arc is symmetrical, and both carbons
possess nearly the same appearance. If it is enclosed in a
vessel nearly air-tight, the rate at which the carbons are burnt
away is greatly reduced, and if the current is continuous the
positive carbon is no longer cratered out and the negative
no longer so much pointed as in the case of the open arc.
Davy used for his first experiments rods of wood charcoal
which had been heated and plunged into mercury to make
them better conductors. Not until 1843 was it carbons
proposed by J. B. L. Foucault to employ pencils
cut from the hard graphitic carbon deposited in the interior
of gas retorts. In 1846 W. Greener and W. E. Staite patented
a process for manufacturing carbons for this purpose, but
only after the invention of the Gramme dynamo in 1870 any
great demand arose for them. F. P. E. Carre in France in
1876 began to manufacture arc lamp carbons of high quality
from coke, lampblack and syrup. Now they are made by taking
some specially refined form of finely divided carbon, such as the
soot or lampblack formed by cooling the smoke of burning
paraffin or tar, or by the carbonization of organic matter, and
making it into a paste with gum or syrup. This carbon paste
is forced through dies by means of a hydraulic press, the rods
thus formed being subsequently baked with such precautions
as to preserve them perfectly straight. In some cases they
are cored, that is to say, have a longitudinal hole down them,
filled in with a softer carbon. Sometimes they are covered with
a thin layer of copper by electro-deposition. They are supplied
for the market in sizes varying from 4 or 5 to 30 or 40 millimetres
in diameter, and from 8 to 16 in. in length. The value of carbons
for arc lighting greatly depends on their purity and freedom
from ash in burning, and on perfect uniformity of structure.
For ordinary purposes they are generally round in section,
but for certain special uses, such as lighthouse work, they are
made fluted or with a star-shaped section. The positive carbon
is usually of larger section than the negative. For continuous-
current arcs a cored carbon is generally used as a positive,
and a smaller solid carbon as a negative. For flame arc lamps
the carbons are specially prepared by impregnating them with
salts of calcium, magnesium and sodium. The calcium gives
the best results. The rod is usually of a composite type. The
outer zone is pure carbon to give strength, the next zone con-
tains carbon mixed with the metallic salts, and the inner core
66o
LIGHTING
[ELECTRIC
is the same but less compressed^ In addition to the metallic
salts a flux has to be introduced to prevent the formation of
a non-conducting ash, and this renders it desirable to place
the carbons in a downward pointing direction to get rid of the
slag so formed. Bremer first suggested in 1898 for this pur-
pose the fluorides of calcium, strontium or barium. When such
carbons are used to form an electric arc the metallic salts de-
flagrate and produce a flame round the arc which is strongly
coloured, the object being to produce a warm yellow glow,
instead of the somewhat violet and cold light of the pure carbon
arc, as well as a greater emission of light. As noxious vapours
are however given off, flame arcs can only be used out of doors.
Countless researches have been made on the subject of carbon
manufacture, and the art has been brought to great perfection.
Special manuals must be consulted for further information (see
especially a treatise on Carbon making for all electrical purposes,
by F. Jehl, London, 1906).
The physical phenomena of the electric arc are best examined
by forming a carbon arc between two carbon rods of the above
description, held in line in a special apparatus, and
arranged so as to be capable of being moved to or from
each other with a slow and easily regulated motion.
An arrangement of this kind is called a hand-regulated
arc lamp (fig. 4). If such an arc lamp is connected to a source
of electric supply having an electromotive force preferably of
zoo volts, and if some resistance is included in the circuit, say
about 5 ohms, a steady and continuous arc is formed when the
carbons are brought together and then slightly separated. Its
appearance may be most conveniently examined by projecting
its image upon a screen of white paper by means of an achromatic
SO-
FIG. 4.
lens. A very little examination of the distribution of light from
the arc shows that the illuminating or candle-power is not the
same in different directions. If the carbons are vertical and the
positive carbon is the upper of the two, the illuminating power
is greatest in a direction at an angle inclined about 40 or 50
degrees below the horizon, and at other directions has different
values, which may be represented by the lengths of radial lines
drawn from a centre, the extremities of which define a curve
called the illuminating curve of the arc lamp (fig. 5) . Considerable
differences exist between the forms of the illuminating-power
curves of the continuous and alternating current and the open
or enclosed arcs. The chief portion of the emitted light proceeds
from the incandescent crater; hence the form of the illuminating-
power curve, as shown by A. P. Trotter in 1892, is due to the
apparent area of the crater surface which is visible to an eye
regarding the arc in that direction. The form of the illuminating-
power curve varies with the length of the arc and relative size
of the carbons. Leaving out of account for the moment the
properties of the arc as an illuminating agent, the variable
factors with which we are concerned are (i.) the current through
the arc; (ii.) the potential difference of the carbons; (iii.) the
length of the arc; and (iv.) the size of the carbons. Taking in
the first place the typical direct-current arc between solid
carbons, and forming arcs of different lengths and with carbons
of different sizes, it will be found that, beginning at the lowest
current capable of forming a true arc, the potential difference of
the carbons (the arc P.D.) decreases as the current increases.
Up to a certain current strength the arc is silent, but at a particular
critical value P.D. suddenly drops about 10 volts, the current
at the same time rising 2 or 3 amperes. At that moment the
arc begins to hiss, and in this hissing condition, if the current
is still further increased, P.D. remains constant over wide limits.
This drop in voltage on hissing was first noticed by A. Niaudet
(La Lumiere ilectrique, 1881, 3, p. 287). It has been shown
by Mrs Ayrton (Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng. 28, 1899, p. 400) that
the hissing is mainly due to the oxygen which gains access from
the air to the crater, when the latter becomes so large by reason
of the increase of the current as to overspread the end of the
positive carbon. According to A. E. Blondel and Hans Luggin,
hissing takes place whenever the current density becomes greater
than about 0-3 or 0-5 ampere per square millimetre of crater
area.
The relation between the current, the carbon P.D., and the
length of arc in the case of the direct-current arc has been investi-
gated by many observers with the object of giving it mathematical
expression.
Let V stand for the potential difference of the carbons in volts,
A for the current through the arc in amperes, L for the length of
the arc in millimetres, R for the resistance of the arc; and let
a, 6, c. d, &c., be constants. Erik Edlund in 1867, and other workers
after him, considered that their experiments showed that the re-
lation between V and L could be expressed by a simple linear
equation,
V=a+6L.
Later researches by Mrs Ayrton (Electrician, 1898, 41, p. 720),
however, showed that for a direct-current arc of given size with
solid carbons, the observed values of V can be better represented
as a function both of A and of L 01 the form
17 _LI,T I C+dL
V = o+6LH -- £— .
In the case of direct-current arcs formed with solid carbons,
Edlund and other observers agree that the arc resistance R may be
expressed by a simple straight line law, R = «+/L. If the arc is
formed with cored carbons, Mrs Ayrton demonstrated that the lines
expressing resistance as a function of arc length are no longer
straight, but that there is a rather sudden dip down when the
length of the arc is less than 3 mm.
The constants in the above equation for the potential difference
of the carbons were determined by Mrs Ayrton in the case of solid
carbons to be —
There has been much debate as to the meaning to be given to
the constant a in the above equation, which has a value apparently
not far from forty volts for a direct-current arc with solid carbons.
The suggestion made in 1867 by Edlund (Phil. Mag., 1868, 36,
P- 358), that it implied the existence of a counter-electromotive
force in the arc, was opposed by Luggin In 1889 (Wien. Ber. 98,
§. 1198), Ernst Lecher in 1888 (Wied. Ann., 1888, 33, p. 609), and
y Franz Stenger in 1892 (Id. 45, p. 33); whereas Victor von Lang
and L. M. Arons in 1896 (Id. 30, p. 95), concluded that experiment
indicated the presence of a counter-electromotive force of 20 volts.
A. E. Blondel concludes, from experiments made by him in 1897
(The Electrician, 1897, 39, p. 615), that there is no counter-electro-
motive force in the arc greater than a fraction of a volt. Subse-
quently W. Duddell (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1901, 68, p. 512) described
experiments tending to prove the real existence of a counter-electro-
motive force in the arc, probably having a thermo-electric origin,
residing near the positive electrode, and of an associated lesser
adjuvant e.m.f. near the negative carbon.
This fall in voltage between the carbons and the arc is not uni-
formly distributed. In 1898 Mrs Ayrton described the results of
experiments showing that if Vi is the potential difference between
the positive carbon and the arc, then
and if Vs is the potential difference between the arc and the negative
carbon, then
where A is the current through the arc in amperes and L is the length
of the arc in millimetres.
The total potential difference between the carbons, minus the
fall in potential down the arc, is therefore equal to the sum of
V,+V, = V,.
Hence V.=38.88+22-6+3-lL-
The difference between this value and the value of y, the total
potential difference between the carbons, gives the loss in potential
ELECTRIC]
LIGHTING
661
due to the true arc. These laws are simple consequences of straight-
line laws connecting the work spent in the arc at the two electrodes
with the other quantities. If W be the work spent in the arc on
either carbon, measured by the product of the current and the
potential drop in passing from the carbon to the arc, or vice versa,
then for the positive carbon W = a + bA., if the length of arc is constant,
W = c+dL, if the current through the arc is constant, and for the
negative carbon W = e+/A.
In the above experiments the potential difference between the
carbons and the arc was measured by using a third exploring carbon
as an electrode immersed in the arc. This method, adopted by
Lecher, F. Uppenborn, S. P. Thompson, and J. A. Fleming, is
open to the objection that the introduction of the third carbon
may to a considerable extent disturb the distribution of potential.
The total work spent in the continuous-current arc with solid
carbons may, according to Mrs Ayrton, be expressed by the
equation
It will thus be seen that the arc, considered as a conductor, has
the property that if the current through it is increased, the difference
of potential between the carbons is decreased, and in one sense,
therefore, the arc may be said to act as if it were a negative resistance.
Frith and Rodgers (Electrician, 1896, 38, p. 75) have suggested that
the resistance of the arc should be measured by the ratio between
a small increment of carbon potential difference and the resulting
small increment of current ; in other words, by the equation dV/dA,
and not by the ratio simply of V:A. Considerable discussion has
taken place whether an electrical resistance can have a negative
value, belonging as it does to the class of scalar mathematical
quantities. Simply considered as an electrical conductor, the arc
resembles an intensely heated rod of magnesia or other refractory
oxide, the true resistance of which is decreased by rise of temperature.
Hence an increase of current through such a rod of refractory oxide
is accompanied by a decrease in the potential difference of the ends.
This, however, does not imply a negative resistance, but merely the
presence of a resistance with a negative temperature coefficient.
If we plot a curve such that the ordinates are the difference of
potential of the carbons and the abscissae the current through the
arc for constant length of arc, this curve is now called a characteristic
curve of the arc and its slope at any point the instantaneous resistance
of the arc.
Other physical investigations have been concerned with
the intrinsic brightness of the crater. It has been asserted
by many observers, such as Blondel, Sir W. de W. Abney, S. P.
Thompson, Trotter, L. J. G. Violle and others, that this is
practically independent of the current passing, but great differ-
ences of opinion exist as to its value. Abney's values lie between
39 and 116, Trotter's between 80 and 170 candles per square
millimetre. Blondel in 1893 made careful determinations of the
brightness of the arc crater, and came to the conclusion that it
was 160 candles per square millimetre. Subsequently J. E.
Petavel found a value of 147 candles per square millimetre for
current densities varying from -c6 to -26 amperes per square
millimetre (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1899, 65, p. 469). Violle also, in 1893,
supported the opinion that the brightness of the crater per
square millimetre was independent of the current density, and
from certain experiments and assumptions as to the specific
heat of carbon, he asserted the temperature of the crater was
about 3 500° C. It has been concluded that this constancy of
temperature, and therefore of brightness, is due to the fact that
the crater is at the temperature of the boiling-point of carbon,
and in that case its temperature should be raised by increasing
the pressure under which the arc works. W. E. Wilson in 1895
attempted to measure the brightness of the crater under various
pressures, and found that under five atmospheres the resistance
of the arc appeared to increase and the temperature of the
crater to fall, until at a pressure of 20 atmospheres the brightness
of the crater had fallen to a dull red. In a later paper Wilson
and G. F. Fitzgerald stated that these preliminary experiments
were not confirmed, and their later researches throw considerable
doubt on the suggestion that it is the boiling-point of carbon
which determines the temperature of the crater. (See Electrician,
1893, 35, P- 260, and 1897, 38, p. 343.)
The study of the alternating-current arc has suggested a
number of new experimental problems for investigators. In
Aiternat- tn*s case a^ l^e factors, namely, current, carbon P.D.,
ing resistance, and illuminating power, are periodically
current varying; and as the electromotive force reverses
itself periodically, at certain instants the current
through the arc is zero. As the current can be interrupted for a
moment without extinguishing the arc, it is possible to work
the electric arc from an alternating current generator without
apparent intermission in the light, provided that the frequency
is not much below 50. During the moment that the current
is zero the carbon continues to glow. Each carbon in turn be-
comes, so to speak, the crater carbon, and the illuminating
power is therefore symmetrically distributed. The curve of
illumination is as shown in fig. 3. The nature of the variation
of the current and arc P.D. can be ex-
amined by one of two methods, or their
modifications, originally due to Jules
Joubert and A. E. Blondel. Joubert's
method, which has been perfected by many
observers, consists in attaching to the shaft
of the alternator a contact which closes a
circuit at an assigned instant during the
phase. This contact is made to complete
connexion either with a voltmeter or with
a galvanometer placed as a shunt across
the carbons or in series with the arc. By
this arrangement these instruments do not
read, as usual, the root-mean-square value
of the arc P.D. or current, but give a constant indication
determined by, and indicating, the instantaneous values of these
quantities at some assigned instant. By progressive variation
of the phase-instant at which the contact is made, the successive
instantaneous values of the electric quantities can be measured
and plotted out in the form of curves. This method has been
much employed by Blondel, Fleming, C. P. Steinmetz, Tobey
and Walbridge, Frith, H. Gorges and many others. The
second method, due to Blondel, depends on the use of the
Oscillograph, which is a galvanometer having a needle or coil
of very small periodic time of vibration, say -jniVirth part of a
second or less, so that its deflections can follow the variations
of current passing through the galvanometer. An improved
form of oscillograph, devised by Duddell, consists of two fine
wires, which are strained transversely to the lines of flux of a
strong magnetic field (see OSCILLOGRAPH). The current to be
examined is made to pass up one wire and down the other, and
these wires are then slightly displaced in opposite directions.
A small mirror attached to the wires is thus deflected rapidly
to and fro in synchronism with the variations of the current.
From the mirror a ray of light is reflected which falls upon a
photographic plate made to move across the field with a uniform
motion. In this manner a photographic trace can be obtained
of the wave form. By this method the variations of electric
quantities in an alternating-current arc can be watched. The
variation of illuminating power can be followed by examining
and measuring the light of the arc through slits in a revolving
stroboscopic disk, which is driven by a motor synchronously
with the variation of current through the arc.
The general phenomena of the alternating-current arc are
as follow: —
If the arc is supplied by an alternator of low inductance, and soft
or cored carbons are employed to produce a steady and silent arc,
the potential difference of the carbons periodically varies in a
manner not very different from that of the alternator on open
circuit. If, however, hard carbons are used, the alternating-current
arc deforms the shape of the alternator electromotive force curve;
the carbon P.D. curve may then have a very different form, and
becomes, in general, more rectangular in shape, usually haying a
high peak at the front. The arc also impresses the deformation on
the current curve. Blondel in 1893 (Electrician, 32, p. 161) gave a
number of potential and current curves for alternating-current arcs,
obtained by the Joubert contact method, using two movable coil
galvanometers of high resistance to measure respectively potential
difference and current. Blondel's deductions were that the shape
of the current and volt curves is greatly affected by the nature of
the carbons, and also by the amount of inductance and resistance
in the circuit of the alternator. Blondel, W. E. Ayrton, W. E.
Sumpner and Steinmetz have all observed that the alternating-
current arc, when hissing or when formed with uncored carbons,
acts like an inductive resistance, and that there is a lag between
the current curves and the potential difference curves. Hence the
power-factor, or ratio between the true power and the product of
the root-mean-square values of arc current and carbon potential
662
LIGHTING
[ELECTRIC
difference, in this case is less than unity. For silent arcs Blpndel found
power-factors lying between 0-88 and 0-95, and for hissing ones,
values such as O'7O. Ayrton and Sumpner stated that the power-
factor may be as low as 0-5. Joubert, as far back as 1881, noticed
the deformation which the alternating-current arc impresses upon
the electromotive force curve of an alternator, giving an open
circuit a simple harmonic variation of electromotive force. Tobey
and Walbridge in 1890 gave the results of a number of observations
taken with commercial forms of alternating-current arc lamps, in
which the same deformation was apparent. Blondel in 1896 came
to the conclusion that with the same alternator we can produce
carbon P.D. curves of very varied character, according to the
material of the core, the length of the arc, and the inductance of the
circuit. Hard carbons gave a P.D. curve with a flat top even when
worked on a low inductance alternator.
The periodic variation of light in the alternating-current arc
has also been the subject of inquiry. H. Gorges in 1895 at Berlin
applied a stroboscopic method to steady the variations of illuminat-
ing power. Fleming and Petavel employed a similar arrangement,
driving the stroboscopic disk by a synchronous motor (Phtt. Mag.,
1896, 41). The light passing through slits of the disk was selected
in one particular period of the phase, and by means of a lens could
be taken from any desired portion of the arc or the incandescent
carbons. The light so selected was measured relatively to the mean
value of the horizontal light emitted by the arc, and accidental
variations were thus eliminated. They found that the light from
any part is periodic, but owing to the slow cooling of the carbons
never quite zero, the minimum value happening a little later
than 'the zero value of the current. The light emitted by a
particular carbon when it is the negative, does not reach such a large
maximum value as when it is the positive. The same observers
made experiments which seemed to show that for a given ex-
penditure of power in the arc the alternating current arc in
general gives less mean spherical candle-power than the continuous
current one.
The effect of the wave form on the efficiency of the alternating-
current arc has engaged the attention of many workers. Rossler and
Wedding in 1894 gave an account of experiments with alternating-
current arcs produced by alternators having electromotive force
curves of very different wave forms, and they stated that the effici-
ency or mean spherical candle-power per watt expended in the arc
was greatest for the flattest of the three wave forms by nearly 50 %.
Burnie in 1897 gave the results of experiments of the same kind.
His conclusion was, that since the light of the arc is a function of
the temperature, that wave form of current is most efficient which
maintains the temperature most uniformly throughout the half
period. Hence, generally, if the current rises to a high value soon
after its commencement, and is preserved at that value, or nearly
at that value, during the phase, the efficiency of the arc will be
greater when the current curve is more pointed or peaked. An
important contribution to our knowledge concerning alternating-
current arc phenomena was made in 1899 by W. Duddell and E. W.
Marchant, in a paper containing valuable results obtained with
their improved oscillograph.1 They studied the behaviour of the
alternating-current arc when formed both with solid carbons, with
cored carbons, and with carbon and metal rods. They found that
with solid carbons the arc P.D. curve is always square-shouldered
and begins with a peak, as shown in fig. 7 (a), but with cored carbons
it is more sinusoidal. Its
shape depends on the
total resistance in the
circuit, but is almost
independent of the type
of alternator, whereas
the current wave form is
largely dependent on the
machine used, and on
the nature and amount
of the impedance in the
circuit ; hence the im-
FIG. 7.
portance of selecting a suitable alternator for operating alternating-
current arcs. The same observers drew attention to the remark-
able fact that if the arc is formed between a carbon and metal
rod, say a zinc rod, there is a complete interruption of the current
over half a period corresponding to that time during which the
carbon is positive; this suggests that the rapid cooling of the
metal facilitates the flow of the current from it, and resists the
flow of current to it. The dotted curve in fig. 7 (6) shows the current
curve form in the case of a copper rod. By the use of the oscillograph
Duddell and Marchant showed that the hissing continuous-current
arc is intermittent, and that the current is oscillatory and may
have a frequency of 1000 per second. They also snowed that
enclosing the arc increases the arc reaction, the front peak of the
potential curve becoming more marked and the power-factor of
the arc reduced.
1 Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng. 28, p. i. The authors of this paper give
numerous instructive curves taken with the oscillograph, showing
the form of the arc P.D. and current curves for a great variety of
alternating-current arcs.
If a continuous-current electric arc is formed in the open air
with a positive carbon having a diameter of about 1 5 millimetres,
and a negative carbon having a diameter of about 9
millimetres, and if a current of 10 amperes is employed, a
the potential difference between the carbons is gener-
ally from 40 to 50 volts. Such a lamp is therefore called
a 5oo-watt arc. Under these conditions the carbons each burn
away at the rate of about i in. per hour, actual combustion
taking plate in the air which gains access to the highly-heated
crater and negative tip; hence the most obvious means of prevent-
ing this disappearance is to enclose the arc in an air-tight glass
vessel. Such a device was tried very early in the history of arc
lighting. The result of using a completely air-tight globe, how-
ever, is that the contained oxygen is removed by combustion with
the carbon, and carbon vapour or hydrocarbon compounds diffuse
through the enclosed space and deposit themselves on the cool
sides of the glass, which is thereby obscured. It was, however,
shown by L. B. Marks (Electrician 31, p. 502, and 38, p. 646)
in 1893, that if the arc is an arc
formed with a small current and
relatively high voltage, namely, 80
to 85 volts, it is possible to admit air
in such small amount that though
the rate of combustion of the carbons
is reduced, yet the air destroys by
oxidation the carbon vapour escaping
from the arc. An arc lamp operated
in this way is called an enclosed arc
lamp (fig. 8). The top of the enclos-
ing bulb is closed by a gas check plug
which admits through a small hole a
limited supply of air. The peculiarity
of an enclosed arc lamp operated
with a continuous current is that the
carbons do not burn to a crater on the
positive, and a sharp tip or mushroom
on the negative, but preserve nearly
flat surfaces. This feature affects
the distribution of the light. The
illuminating curve of the enclosed
arc, therefore, has not such a strongly
marked maximum value as that of
the open arc, but on the other hand
the true arc or column of incandes-
cent carbon vapour is less steady in
position, wandering round from place
to place on the surface of the carbons.
As a compensation for this defect, the
combustion of the carbons per hour
in commercial forms of enclosed arc
lamps is about one-twentieth part of that of an open arc lamp
taking the same current.
It was shown by Fleming in 1890 that the column of incandes-
cent carbon vapour constituting the true arc possesses a unilateral
conductivity (Proc. Roy. Inst. 13, p. 47). If a third carbon is
dipped into the arc so as to constitute a third pole, and if a small
voltaic battery of a few cells, with a galvanometer in circuit,
is connected in between the middle pole and the negative carbon,
it is found that when the negative pole of the battery is in con-
nexion with the negative carbon the galvanometer indicates
a current, but does not when the positive pole of the battery
is in connexion with the negative carbon of the arc.
Turning next to the consideration of the electric arc as a
source of light, we have already noticed that the illuminating
power in different directions is not the same. If we The arc
imagine an electric arc, formed between a pair of as an
vertical carbons, to be placed in the centre of a hollow
sphere painted white on the interior, then it would be
found that the various zones of this sphere are unequally illumin-
ated. If the points in which the carbons when prolonged would
intercept the sphere are called the poles, and the line where the
horizontal plane through the arc would intercept the sphere
FIG. 8.— Enclosed Arc
Lamp.
illumln-
sat.
ELECTRIC]
LIGHTING
663
is called the equator, we might consider the sphere divided
up by lines of latitude into zones, each of which would be
differently illuminated. The total quantity of light or the total
illumination of each zone is the product of the area of the zone
and the intensity of the light falling on the zone measured
in candle-power. We might regard the sphere as uniformly
illuminated with an intensity of light such that the product of
this intensity and the total surface of the sphere was numerically
equal to the surface integral obtained by summing up the products
of the areas of all the elementary zones and the intensity of the
light falling on each. This mean intensity is called the mean
spherical candle-power of the arc. If the distribution of the
illuminating power is known and given by an illumination
curve, the mean spherical candle-power can be at once deduced
(La Lumiere electrique, 1890, 37, p. 415).
Let BMC (fig. 9) be a semicircle -which by revolution round the
diameter BC sweeps out a sphere. Let an arc be situated at A, and
let the element of the circumference PQ = ds sweep out a zone of
F the sphere. Let the intensity of light
falling on this zone be I. Then if
0 = the angle MAP and d0 the incre-
mental angle PAQ, and if R is the
radius of the sphere, we have
also, if we project the element PQ on
the line DE we have
ab = ds cos 0 ,
« .'. ab = R cos 0(20
and lab = IR cos 0(20.
Let r denote the radius PT of the zone of
the sphere, then
r = R cos0.
Hence the area of the zone swept out by PQ is equal to
2irR cos 0 (2s = 2jrR2 cos 6d6
in the limit, and the total quantity of light falling on the zone is
equal to the product of the mean intensity or candle-power I in the
direction AP and the area of the zone, and therefore to
2irIR2 cos 0(20.
Let Io stand for the mean spherical candle-power, that is, let Io be
defined by the equation
where 2 (lab) is the sum of all the light actually falling on the sphere
surface, then
where Imaz stands for the maximum candle-power of the arc. If,
then, we set off at b a line 6H perpendicular to DE and in length
proportional to the candle-power of the arc in the direction AP, and
carry out the same construction for a number of different observed
candle-power readings at known angles above and below the horizon,
the summits of all ordinates such as bH will define a curve DHE.
The mean spherical candle-power of the arc is equal to the product
of the maximum candle-power (Im(>1), and a fraction equal to the
ratio of the area included by the curve DHE to its circumscribing
rectangle DFGE. The area of the curve DHE multiplied by 2ir/R
gives us the total flux of light from the arc.
Owing to the inequality in the distribution of light from an
electric arc, it is impossible to define the illuminating power by a
single number in any other way than by stating the mean spherical
candle-power. All such commonly used expressions as " an arc
lamp of 2000 candle-power " are, therefore, perfectly meaningless.
The photometry of arc lamps presents particular difficulties,
owing to the great difference in quality between the light radiated
by the arc and that given by any of the ordinarily
used light standards. (For standards of light and
arc. photometers, see PHOTOMETER.) All photometry
depends on the principle that if we illuminate two
white surfaces respectively and exclusively by two separate
sources of light, we can by moving the lights bring the two
surfaces into such a condition that their illumination or brightness
is the same without regard to any small colour difference. The
quantitative measurement depends on the fact that the illumina-
tion produced upon a surface by a source of light is inversely
as the square of the distance of the source. The trained eye
is capable of making a comparison between two surf aces illumin-
ated by different sources of light, and pronouncing upon their
equality or otherwise in respect of brightness, apart from a
h J.-V-
certain colour difference; but for this to be done with accuracy
the two illuminated surfaces, the brightness of which is to be
compared, must be absolutely contiguous and not separated
by any harsh line. The process of comparing the light from the
arc directly with that of a candle or other similar flame standard
is exceedingly difficult, owing to the much greater proportion
and intensity of the violet rays in the arc. The most convenient
practical working standard is an incandescent lamp run at a
high temperature, that is, at an efficiency of about i\ watts per
candle. If it has a sufficiently large bulb, and has been aged
by being worked for some time previously, it will at a constant
voltage preserve a constancy in illuminating power sufficiently
long to make the necessary photometric comparisons, and it
can itself be compared at intervals with another standard
incandescent lamp, or with a flame standard such as a Harcourt
pentane lamp.
In measuring the candle-power of arc lamps it is necessary to
have some arrangement by which the brightness of the rays pro-
ceeding from the arc in different directions can be measured. For
this purpose the lamp may be suspended from a support, and a
radial arm arranged to carry three mirrors, so that in whatever
position the arm may be placed, it gathers light proceeding at one
particular angle above or below the horizon from the arc, and this
light is reflected out finally in a constant horizontal direction. An
easily-arranged experiment enables us to determine the constant
loss of light by reflection at all the mirrors, since that reflection
always takes place at 45°. The ray thrown out horizontally can
then be compared with that from any standard source of light by
means of a fixed photometer, and by sweeping round the radial arm
the photometric or illuminating curve of the arc lamp can be obtained.
From this we can at once
determine the nature of
the illumination which
would be produced on a
horizontal surface if the
arc lamp were suspended
at a given distance above
it. Let A (fig. 10) be an
arc lamp placed at a
height A( = AB) above a
horizontal plane. Let ACD
be the illuminating power FIG. IO.
curve of the arc, and hence
AC the candle-power in a direction AP. The illumination (I) or
brightness on the horizontal plane at P is equal to
AC cos APM/(AP)2 = FC/(A2+x«), where x = BP. ,
Hence if the candle-power curve of the arc and its height above the
surface are known, we can describe a curve BMN, whose ordinate
PM will denote the brightness on the horizontal surface at any
point P. It is easily seen that this ordinate must have a maximum
value at some point. This brightness is best expressed in candle-feet,
taking the unit of illumination to be that given by a standard
candle on a white surface at a distance of I ft. If any number
of arc lamps are placed above a horizontal plane, the brightness at
any point can be calculated by adding together the illuminations
due to each respectively.
The process of delineating the photometric or polar curve of
intensity for an arc lamp is somewhat tedious, but the curve has the
advantage of showing exactly the distribution of light in different
directions. When only the mean spherical or mean hemispherical
candle-power is required the process can be shortened by employing
an integrating photometer such as that of C. P. Matthews (Trans.
Amer. Inst. Elec. Eng., 1903, 19, p. 1465), or the lumen-meter of
A. E. Blondel which enables us to determine at one observation the
total flux of light from the arc and therefore the mean spherical
candle-power per watt.
In the use of arc lamps for street and public lighting, the
question of the distribution of light on the horizontal surface
is all-important. In order that street surfaces may
be well lighted, the minimum illumination should
not fall below o-i candle-foot, and in general, in well-
lighted streets, the maximum illumination will be i candle-foot
and upwards. By means of an illumination photometer, such
as that of W. H. Preece and A. P. Trotter, it is easy to measure
the illumination in candle-feet at any point in a street surface,
and to plot out a number of contour lines of equal illumination.
Experience has shown that to obtain satisfactory results the
lamps must be placed on a high mast 20 or 25 ft. above the
roadway surface. These posts are now generally made of cast
iron in various ornamental forms (fig. n), the necessary con-
ductors for conveying the current up to the lamp being taken
664
LIGHTING
[ELECTRIC
inside the iron mast. (The pair of incandescent lamps half-
way down the standard are for use in the middle of the night,
when the arc lamp would give more light than is
required; they are lighted by an automatic
switch whenever the arc is extinguished.) The
lamp itself is generally enclosed in an opalescent
spherical globe, which is woven over with wire-
netting so that in case of fracture the pieces
may not cause damage. The necessary trimming,
that is, the replacement of carbons, is effected
either by lowering the lamp or, preferably, by
carrying round a portable ladder enabling the
trimmer to reach it. For the purpose of public
illumination it is very usual to employ a lamp
taking 10 amperes, and therefore absorbing
about 500 watts. Such a lamp is called a 500-
watt arc lamp, and it is found that a satisfactory
illumination is given for most street purposes
by placing soo-watt arc lamps at distances
varying from 40 to 100 yds., and at a height
of 20 to 25 ft. above the roadway. The maxi-
mum candle-power of a soo-watt arc enclosed
in a roughened or ground-glass globe will not
exceed 1500 candles, and that of a 6-8-ampere
arc (continuous) about 900 candles. If, how-
ever, the arc is an enclosed arc with double
globes, the absorption of light would reduce the
effective maximum to about 200 c.p. and 120
c.p. respectively. When arc lamps are placed
in public thoroughfares not less than 40 yds.
apart, the illumination anywhere on the street
surface is practically determined by the two
nearest ones. Hence the total illumination at
any point may be obtained by adding together
the illuminations due to each arc separately.
Given the photometric polar curves or illuminat-
ing-power curves of each arc taken outside the
shaHfi or globe, we can therefore draw a curve
representing the resultant illumination on the
horizontal surface. It is obvious that the higher
the lamps are
placed, the more
uniform is the
street surface il-
lumination, but
the less its aver-
age value; thus
two lo-ampere
arcs placed on
masts 20 ft. above
the road surface
and 100 ft. apart
,00 rar — >
CJ
O-i
FIG. ii.
FIG. 12.
will give a maximum illumination of about i • i and a minimum of
about 0-15 candle-feet in the interspace (fig 12). If the lamps are
raised on 4O-ft. posts the maximum illumination will fall to 0-3 , and
the minimum will rise to o- 2. For this reason masts have been em-
ployed as high as 90 ft. In docks and railway yards high masts (50
ft.) are an advantage, because the strong contrasts due to shadows
of trucks, carts, &c., then become less marked, but for street
illumination they should not exceed 30 to 3 5 ft. in height. Taking
the case of lo-ampere and 6-8-ampere arc lamps in ordinary
opal shades, the following figures have been given by Trotter as
indicating the nature of the resultant horizontal illumination: —
Arc Current
in
Amperes.
Height above
Road
in Feet.
Distance
apart
in Feet.
Horizontal Illumination
in Candle-Feet.
Maximum.
Minimum.
10
10
10
6-8
6-8
20
25
40
20
40
120
1 20
1 20
90
1 20
1-85
1-17
o-5
i-i
o-3
O-I2
0-15
0-28
0-21
0-17
As regards distance apart, a very usual practice is to place
the lamps at spaces equal to six to ten times their height above
the road surface. Blondel (Electrician, 35, p. 846) gives the
following rule for the height (h) of the arc to afford the maximum
illumination at a distance (d) from the foot of the lamp-post,
the continuous current arc being employed: —
For naked arc ... . h = o-<)5 d.
„ arc in rough glass globe . h — o-8^d.
„ „ opaline globe . h= „
„ „ opal globe . . . h = o-$ d.
„ „ holophane globe . h = o-^d.
These figures show that the distribution of light on the hori-
zontal surface is greatly affected by the nature of the, enclosing
globe. For street illumination naked arcs, although some-
times employed hi works and factory yards, are entirely un-
suitable, since the result produced on the eye by the bright
point of light is to paralyse a part of the retina and contract
the pupil, hence rendering the eye less sensitive when directed
on feebly illuminated surfaces. Accordingly, diffusing globes
have to be employed. It is usual to place the arc in the interior
of a globe of from 12 to 1 8 in. in diameter. This may be made
of ground glass, opal glass, or be a dioptric globe such as the
holophane. The former two are strongly absorptive, as may
be seen from the results of experiments by Guthrie and Redhead.
The following table shows the astonishing loss of light due to
the use of opal globes: —
Naked
Arc.
Arc
in Clear
Globe.
Arc in
Rough
Glass
Globe.
Arc
in Opal
Globe.
Mean spherical c.p.
319
235
160
144
Mean hemispherical c.p.
Percentage value of trans-
45«
326
215
138
mitted light ....
100
53
23
19
Percentage absorption
o
47
77
81
By using Trotter's, Fredureau's or the holophane globe,
the light may be so diffused that the whole globe appears uni-
formly luminous, and yet not more than 20% of the light is
absorbed. Taking the absorption of an ordinary opal globe
into account, a soo-watt arc does not usually give more than
500 c.p. as a maximum candle-power. Even with a naked
Soo-watt arc the mean spherical candle-power is not generally
more than 500 c.p., or at the rate of i c.p. per watt. The maxi-
mum candle-power for a given electrical power is, however,
greatly dependent on the current density in the carbon, and
to obtain the highest current density the carbons must be as
thin as possible. (See T. Hesketh, " Notes on the Electric
Arc," Electrician, 39, p. 707.)
For the efficiency of arcs of various kinds, expressed by the
mean hemispherical candle power per ampere and per watt
expended in the arc, the following figures were given by L.
Andrews (" Long-flame Arc Lamps," Journal Inst. Elec. Eng.,
1906, 37, p. 4).
Ordinary open caibon arc.
Enclosed carbon arc .
Chemical carbon or flame arc .
High voltage inclined carbon arc
Candle-power Candle-power
per ampere. per watt.
82 1-54
55 0-77
259 5-80
200 2-24
It will be seen that the flame arc lamp has an enormous advantage
over other types in the light yielded for a given electric power
consumption.
The practical employment of the electric arc as a means
of illumination is dependent upon mechanism for automatically
keeping two suitable carbon rods in the proper position,
and moving them so as to enable a steady arc to be An lamp
maintained. M«»ns must be provided for holding JJJ^J*™"
the carbons in line, and when the lamp is not in opera-
tion they must fall together, or come together when the current
is switched on, so as to start the arc. As soon as the current
passes, they must be moved slightly apart, and gripped in
position immediately the current reaches its right value, being
ELECTRIC]
LIGHTING
665
moved farther apart if the current increases in strength, and
brought together if it decreases. Moreover, it must be possible
for a considerable length of carbon to be fed through the lamp
as required.
One early devised form of arc-lamp mechanism was a system of
clock-work driven by a spring or weight, which was started and
stopped by the action of an electromagnet;
in modern lighthouse lamps a similar
mechanism is still employed. W. E. Staite
(1847), J. B. L. Foucault (1849), V. L. M.
Serrin (1857), J. Duboscq (1858), and a host
of later inventors, devised numerous forms of
mechanical and clock-work lamps. The
modern self-regulating type may be said to
have been initiated in 1878 by the differential
lamp of F. von Hefner-Alteneck, and the
clutch lamp of C. F. Brush. The general
principle of the former may be explained as
follows: There are two solenoids, placed
one above the other. The lower one, of
thick wire, is in series with the two carbon
rods forming the arc, and is hence called the
series coil. Above this there is placed another
solenoid of fine wire, which is called the shunt
coil. Suppose an iron rod to be placed so as
to be partly in one coil and partly in another;
then when the coils are traversed by currents,
the iron core will be acted upon by forces
tending to pull it into these solenoids. If
the iron core be attached to one end of a
lever, the other end of which carries the upper
carbon, it will be seen that if the carbons are
in contact and the current is switched on,
the series coil alone will be traversed by the
current, and its magnetic action will draw
down the iron core, and therefore pull the carbons apart and strike
the arc. The moment the carbons separate, there will be a difference
of potential between them, and the shunt coil will then come into
action, and will act on the core so as to draw the carbons together.
Hence the two solenoids act in opposition to each other, one in-
creasing and the other diminishing the length of the arc, and main-
taining the carbons in the proper position. In the lamp of this
type the upper carbon is in reality attached to a rod having a side-
rack gearing, with a train of wheels governed by a
pendulum. The action of the series coil on the
mechanism is to first lock or stop the train, and
then lift it as a whole slightly. This strikes the
arc. When the arc is too long, the series coil
lowers the gear and finally releases the upper
carbon, so that it can run down by its own weight.
The principle of a shunt and series coil operating
on an iron core in opposition is the basis of the
mechanism of a number of arc lamps. Thus the
lamp invented by F. Krizik and L. Piette, called
from its place of origin the Pilsen lamp, comprises
an iron core made in the shape of a double cone
or spindle (fig. 13), which is so arranged in a brass
tube that it can move into or out of a shunt and
series coil, wound the one with fine and the other
with thick insulated wire, and hence regulate the
position of the carbon attached to it. The move-
ment of this core is made to feed the carbons
directly without the intervention of any clock-
work, as in the case of the Hefner-Alteneck lamp.
, In the clutch-lamp mechanism the lower carbon is
fixed, and the upper carbon rests upon it by its
own weight and that of its holder. The latter
consists of a long rod passing through guides, and
is embraced somewhere by a ring capable of being
tilted or lifted by a finger attached to the armature
of an electromagnet the coils of which are in
series with the arc. When the current passes
through the magnet it attracts the armature, and
by tilting the ring lifts the upper carbon-holder and
hence strikes the arc. If the current diminishes in
value, the upper carbon drops a little by its own
weight, and the feed of the lamp is thus effected
by a series -of small lifts and drops of the upper
carbon (fig. 14). Another element sometimes em-
ployed in arc-lamp mechanism is the brake-wheel
regulator. This is a feature of one form of the
Brockie and of the Crompton-Pochin lamps. In
these the movement of the carbons is effected by
a cord or chain which passes over a wheel, or by a
f.V.l | !_____ t___1 TT M . T «
FIG. 14.
rack geared with the brake wheel. When no current is passing
through the lamp, the wheel is free to move, and the carbons fall
together; but when the current is switched on, the chain or cord
passing over the brake wheel, or the brake wheel itself is gripped
in some way, and at the same time the brake wheel is lifted so that
the arc is struck.
Although countless forms of self-regulating device have been
invented for arc lamps, nothing has survived the test of time
so well as the typical mechanisms which work with carbon rods
in one line, one or both rods being moved by a controlling
apparatus as required. The early forms of semi-incandescent
arc lamp, such as those of R. Werdermann and others, have
dropped out of existence. These were not really true arc lamps,
the light being produced by the incandescence of the extremity
of a thin carbon rod pressed against a larger rod or block. The
once famous Jablochkoff candle, invented in 1876, consisted of
two carbon rods about 4 mm. in diameter, placed parallel to
each other and separated by a partition of kaolin, steatite or
other refractory non-conductor. Alternating currents were
employed, and the candle was set in operation by a match or
starter of high-resistance carbon paste which connected the tips
of the rods. When this burned off, a true arc was formed
between the parallel carbons, the separator volatilizing as the
carbons burned away. Although much ingenuity was expended
on this system of lighting between 1877 and 1881, it no longer
exists. One cause of its disappearance was its relative inefficiency
in light-giving power compared with other forms of carbon arc
taking the same amount of power, and a second equally im-
portant reason was the waste in carbons. If the arc of the
electric candle was accidentally blown out, no means of relighting
existed; hence the great waste in half -burnt candles. H. Wilde,
J. C. Jamin, J. Rapieff and others endeavoured to provide a
remedy, but without success.
It is impossible to give here detailed descriptions of a fraction of
the arc-lamp mechanisms devised, and it must suffice to indicate
the broad distinctions between various types. (l) Arc lamps may
be either continuous-current or alternating-current lamps. For
outdoor public illumination the former are greatly preferable, as
owing to the form of tha illuminating power-curve they send the
light down on the road surface, provided the upper carbon is the
positive one. For indoor, public room or factory lighting, inverted
arc lamps are sometimes employed. In this case the positive
carbon is the lower one, and the lamp is carried in an inverted
metallic reflector shield, so that the light is chiefly thrown up on
the ceiling, whence it is diffused all round. The alternating-current
arc is not only less efficient in mean spherical candle-power per watt
of electric power absorbed, but its distribution of light is disad-
vantageous for street purposes. Hence when arc lamps have to be
worked off an alternating-current circuit for public lighting it is
now usual to make use of a rectifier, which rectifies the alternating
current into a unidirectional though pulsating current. (2.) Arc
lamps may be also classified, as above described, into open or en-
closed arcs. The enclosed arc can be made to burn for 200 hours •
with one pair of carbons, whereas open-arc lamps are usually only
able to work, 8, 16 or 32 hours without recarboning, even when
fitted with double carbons. (3) Arc lamps are further divided into
focussing and non-focussing lamps. In the former the lower carbon
is made to move up as the upper carbon moves down, and the arc
is therefore maintained at the same level. This is advisable for arcs
included in a globe, and absolutely necessary in the case of lighthouse
lamps and lamps for optical purposes. (4) Another subdivision is
into hand-regulated and self-regulating lamps. In the hand-regulated
arcs the carbons are moved by a screw attachment as required, as
in some forms of search-light lamp and lamps for optical lanterns.
The carbons in large search-light lamps are usually placed horizon-
tally. The self-regulating lamps may be classified into groups
depending upon the nature of the regulating appliances. In some
cases the regulation is controlled only by a series coil, and in others
only by a shunt coil. Examples of the former are the original
Gulcher and Brush clutch lamp, and some modern enclosed arc
lamps; and of the latter, the Siemens " band " lamp, and the
Jackson-Mensing lamp. In series coil lamps the variation of the
current in the coil throws into or out of action _the carbon-moving
mechanism; in shunt coil lamps the variation in voltage between
the carbons is caused to effect the same changes. Other types of
lamp involve the use both of shunt and series coils acting against
each other. A further classification of the self-regulating Tamps
may be found in the nature of the carbon-moving mechanism.
This may be some modification of the Brush ring clutch, hence
called clutch lamps; or some variety of brake wheel, as employed in
Brockie and Crompton lamps; or else some form of electric motor
is thrown into or out of action and effects the necessary changes.
In many cases the arc-lamp mechanism is provided with a dash-pot,
or contrivance in which a piston moving nearly air-tight in a cylinder
prevents sudden jerks in the motion of the mechanism, and thus
does away with the " hunting " or rapid up-and-down movements
to which some varieties of clutch mechanism are liable. One very
666
LIGHTING
[ELECTRIC
efficient form is illustrated in the Thomson lamp and Brush-Vienna
lamp. In this mechanism a shunt and series coil are placed side by
side, and have iron cores suspended to the ends of a rocking arm
held partly within them. Hence, according as the magnetic action
of the shunt or series coil prevails, the rocking arm is tilted back-
Wards or forwards. When the series coil is not in action the motion
is free, and the upper carbon-holder slides down, or the lower one
slides up, and starts the arc. The series coil comes into action to
withdraw the carbons, and at the same time locks the mechanism.
The shunt coil then operates against the series coil, and between them
the carbon is fed forwards as required. The control to be obtained
is such that the arc shall never become so long as to flicker and
become extinguished, when the carbons would come together again
with a rush, but the feed should be smooth and steady, the position
of the carbons responding quickly to each change in the current.
The introduction of enclosed arc lamps was a great improvement,
in consequence of the economy effected in the consumption of
carbon and in the cost of labour for trimming. A well-known and
widely used form of enclosed arc lamp is the Jandus lamp, which in
large current form can be made to burn for two hundred hours
without re-carboning, and in small or midget form to burn for forty
hours, taking a current of two amperes at 100 volts. Such lamps
in many cases conveniently replace large sizes of incandescent
lamps, especially for shop lighting, as they give a whiter light.
Great improvements have also been made in inclined carbon arc
lamps. One reason for the relatively low efficiency of the usual
vertical rod arrangement is that the crater can only radiate laterally,
since owing to the position of the negative carbon no crater light is
thrown directly downwards. If, however, the carbons are placed
in a downwards slanting position at a small angle like the letter V
and the arc formed at the bottom tips, then the crater can emit
downwards all the light it produces. It is found, however, that
the arc is unsteady unless a suitable magnetic field is employed to
keep the arc in position at the carbon tips. This method has been
adopted in the Carbone arc, which, by the employment of inclined
carbons, and a suitable electromagnet to keep the true arc steady
at the ends of the carbons, has achieved considerable success. One
feature of the Carbone arc is the use of a relatively high voltage
between the carbons, their potential difference being as much as
85 volts.
Arc lamps may be arranged either (i.) in series, (ii.) in parallel
or (iii.) in series parallel. In the first case a number, say 20,
may be traversed by the same current, in that case
supplied at a pressure of 1000 volts. Each must have
a magnetic cut-out, so that if the carbons stick together
or remain apart the current to the other lamps is not interrupted,
the function of such a cut-out being to close the main circuit
immediately any one lamp ceases to pass current. Arc lamps
worked in series are generally supplied with a current from
a constant current dynamo, which maintains an invariable
current of, say 10 amperes, independently of the number of
• lamps on the external circuit. If the lamps, however, are
worked in series off a constant potential circuit, such as one
supplying at the same time incandescent lamps, provision must
be made by which a resistance coil can be substituted for
any one lamp removed or short-circuited. When lamps are
worked in parallel, each lamp is independent, but it is then
necessary to add a resistance in series with the lamp. By
special devices three lamps can be worked in series of 100 volt
circuits. Alternating-current arc lamps can be worked off a
high-tension circuit in parallel by providing each lamp with a
small transformer. In some cases the alternating high-tension
current is rectified and supplied as a unidirectional current to
lamps in series. If single alternating-current lamps have to be
worked off a 100 volt alternating-circuit, each lamp must have
in series with it a choking coil or economy coil, to reduce the
circuit pressure to that required for one lamp. Alternating-
current lamps take a larger effective current, and work with a
less effective or virtual carbon P.D., than continuous current
arcs of the same wattage.
The cost of working public arc lamps is made up of several
items. There is first the cost of supplying the necessary electric
^ energy, then the cost of carbons and the labour of
recarboning, and, lastly, an item due to depreciation
and repairs of the lamps. An ordinary type of open 10 ampere
arc lamp, burning carbons 15 and 9 mm. in diameter for the
positive and negative, and working every night of the year
from dusk to dawn, uses about 600 ft. of carbons per annum.
If the positive carbon is 18 mm. and the negative 12 mm., the
consumption of each size of carbon is about 70 ft. per 1000 hours
of burning. It may be roughly stated that at the present
prices of plain open arc-lamp carbons the cost is about 155. per
1000 hours of burning; hence if such a" lamp is burnt every
night from dusk to midnight the annual cost in that respect is
about £i, IQS. The annual cost of labour per lamp for trimming
is in Great Britain from £2 to £3; hence, approximately speaking,
the cost per annum of maintenance of a public arc lamp burning
every night from dusk to midnight is about £4 to £5, or perhaps
£6, per annum, depreciation and repairs included. Since such
a 10 ampere lamp uses half a Board of Trade unit of electric
energy every hour, it will take 1000 Board of Trade units per
annum, burning every night from dusk to midnight; and if this
energy is supplied, say at i^d. per unit, the annual cost of energy
will be about £6, and the upkeep of the lamp, including carbons,
labour for trimming and repairs, will be about £10 to £11 per
annum. The cost for labour and carbons is considerably reduced
by the employment of the enclosed arc lamp, but owing to the
absorption of light produced by the inner enclosing globe, and
the necessity for generally employing a second outer globe,
there is a lower resultant candle-power per watt expended in
the arc. Enclosed arc lamps are made to burn without attention
for 200 hours, singly on 100 volt circuits, or two in series on 200
volt circuits, and in addition to the cost of carbons per hour
being only about one-twentieth of that of the open arc, they
have another advantage in the fact that there is a more uniform
distribution of light on the road surface, because a greater
proportion of light is thrown out horizontally.
It has been found by experience that the ordinary type of
open arc lamp with vertical carbons included in an opalescent
globe cannot compete in point of cost with modern improvements
in gas lighting as a means of street illumination. The violet
colour of the light and the sharp shadows, and particularly
the non-illuminated area just beneath the lamp, are grave
disadvantages. The high-pressure flame arc lamp with inclined
chemically treated carbons has, however, put a different com-
plexion on matters. Although the treated carbons cost more
than the plain carbons, yet there is a great increase of emitted
light, and a g-ampere flame arc lamp supplied with electric energy
at i|d. per unit can be used for 1000 hours at an inclusive
cost of about £5 to £6, the mean emitted illumination being at
the rate of 4 c.p. per watt absorbed. In the Carbone arc lamp,
the carbons are worked at an angle of 15° or 20° to each other
and the arc is formed at the lower ends. If the potential differ-
ence of the carbons is low, say only 50-60 volts, the crater forms
between the tips of the carbons and is therefore more or less
hidden. If, however, the voltage is increased to 90-100 then
the true flame of the arc is longer and is curved, and the crater
forms at the exteme tip of the carbons and throws all its light
downwards. Hence results a far greater mean hemispherical
candle power (M.H.S. C.P. ), so that whereas a to-ampere 60 volt
open arc gives at most 1200 M.H.S.C.P., a Carbone lo-ampere
85 volt arc will give 2700 M.H.S. C.P. Better results still can be
obtained with impregnated carbons. But the flame arcs with
impregnated carbons cannot be enclosed, so the consumption
of carbon is greater, and the carbons themselves are more
costly, and leave a greater ash on burning; hence more trimming
is required. The^ give a more pleasing effect for street lighting,
and their golden 'yellow globe of light is more useful than an
equally costly plain arc of the open type. This improvement
in efficiency is, however, accompanied by some disadvantages.
The flame arc is very sensitive to currents of air and therefore
has to be shielded from draughts by putting it under an " econo-
mizer " or chamber of highly refractory material which surrounds
the upper carbon, or both carbon tips, if the arc is formed with
inclined carbons. (For additional information on flame arc
lamps see a pa|^r by L. B. Marks and H. E. Clifford, Electrician,
iQ°6, 57, P- 97S-)
2. Incandescent Lamps. — Incandescent electric lighting,
although not the first, is yet in one sense the most obvious
method of utilizing electric energy for illumination. It was
evolved from the early observed fact that a conductor is heated
ELECTRIC]
LIGHTING
667
when traversed by an electric current, and that if it has a high
resistance and a high melting-point it may be rendered in-
candescent, and therefore become a source of light. Naturally
every inventor turned his attention to the employment of
wires of refractory metals, such as platinum or alloys of platinum-
iridium, &c., for the purpose of making an incandescent lamp.
F. de Moleyns experimented in 1841, E. A. King and J. W.
Starr in 1845, J. J. W. Watson in 1853, and W. E. Staite in
1848, but these inventors achieved no satisfactory result. Part
of their want of success is attributable to the fact that the
problem of the economical production of electric current by
the dynamo machine had not then been solved. In 1878 T. A.
Edison devised lamps in which a platinum wire was employed
as the light-giving agent, carbon being made to adhere round
it by pressure. Abandoning this, he next directed his attention
to the construction of an " electric candle," consisting of a
thin cylinder or rod formed of finely-divided metals, platinum,
iridium, &c., mixed with refractory oxides, such as magnesia,
or zirconia, lime, &c. This refractory body was placed in a
closed vessel and heated by being traversed by an electric
current. In a further improvement he proposed to use a block
of refractory oxide, round which a bobbin of fine platinum
or platinum-iridium wire was coiled. Every other inventor
who worked at the problem of incandescent lighting seems
to have followed nearly the same path of invention. Long
before this date, however, the notion of employing carbon
as a substance to be heated by the current had entered the
minds of inventors; even in 1845 King had employed a small
rod of plumbago as the substance to be heated. It was obvious,
however, that carbon could only be so heated when in a space
destitute of oxygen, and accordingly King placed his plumbago
rod in a barometric vacuum. S. W. Konn in 1872, and S. A.
Kosloff in 1875, followed in the same direction.
No real success attended the efforts of inventors until it was
finally recognized, as the outcome of the work by J. W. Swan,
T. A. Edison, and, in a lesser degree, St. G. Lane
Carbon pox an(j \\r. E. Sawyer and A. Man, that the conditions
of success were as follow: First, the substance to
be heated must be carbon in the form of a thin wire
rod or thread, technically termed a filament; second, this must
be supported and enclosed in a vessel formed entirely of glass;
third, the vessel must be exhausted as perfectly as possible;
and fourth, the current must be conveyed into and out of
the carbon filament by means of platinum wires hermetically
sealed through the glass.
One great difficulty was the production of the carbon filament.
King, Sawyer, Man and others had attempted to cut out a suitably
shaped piece of carbon from a solid block; but Edison and Swan
were the first to show that the proper solution of the difficulty was
to carbonize an organic substance to which the necessary form had
been previously given. For this purpose cardboard, paper and
ordinary thread were originally employed, and even, according to
Edison, a mixture of lampblack and tar rolled out into a fine wire
and bent into a spiral. At one time Edison employed a filament
of bamboo, carbonized after being bent into a horse-shoe shape.
Swan used a material formed by treating ordinary crochet cotton-
thread with dilute sulphuric acid, the " parchmentized thread"
thus produced being afterwards carbonized. In the modern in-
candescent lamp the filament is generally constructed by preparing
first of all a form of soluble cellulose. Carefully purified cotton-wool
is dissolved in some solvent, such as a solution of zinc chloride, and
the viscous material so formed is forced by hydraulic pressure
through a die. The long thread thus obtained, when hardened, is
a semi-transparent substance resembling cat-gut, and when carefully
carbonized at a high temperature gives a very dense and elastic
form of carbon filament. It is cut into appropriate lengths, which
after being bent into horse-shoes, double-loops, or any other shape
desired, are tied or folded round carbon formers and immersed in
plumbago crucibles, packed in with finely divided plumbago. The
crucibles are then heated to a high temperature in an ordinary
combustion or electric furnace, whereby the organic matter is
destroyed, and a skeleton of carbon remains. The higher the
temperature at which this carbonization is conducted, the denser
is the resulting product. The filaments so prepared are sorted and
measured, and short leading-in wires of platinum are attached to
their ends by a carbon cement or by a carbon depositing process,
carried out by heating electrically the junction of the carbon and
platinum under the surface of a hydrocarbon liquid. They are then
mounted in bulbs of lead glass having the same coefficient of ex-
pansion as platinum, through the walls of which, therefore, the
platinum wires can be hermetically sealed. The bulbs pass into
the exhausting-room, where they are exhausted by some form of
mechanical or mercury pump. During this process an electric
current is sent through the filament to heat it, in order to disengage
the gases occluded in the carbon, and exhaustion must be so perfect
that no luminous glow appears within the bulb when held in the
hand and touched against one terminal of an induction coil in
operation.
In the course of manufacture a process is generally applied to
the carbon which is technically termed " treating." The carbon
filament is placed in a vessel surrounded by an atmosphere of hydro-
carbon, such as coal gas or vapour of benzol. If current is then
passed through the filament the hydrocarbon vapour is decomposed,
and carbon is thrown down upon the filament in thejiorm of a
lustrous and dense deposit having an appearance like steel when
seen under the miscroscope. This deposited carbon is not only
much more dense than ordinary carbonized organic material, but
it has a much lower specific electric resistance. An untreated carbon
filament is generally termed the primary carbon, and a deposited
carbon the secondary carbon. In the process of treating, the
greatest amount of deposit is at any places of high resistance in
the primary carbon, and hence it tends to cover up or remedy the
defects which may exist. The bright steely surface of a well-
treated filament is a worse radiator than the rougher black surface
of an untreated one; hence it does not require the expenditure of
so much electric power to bring it to the same temperature, and
probably on account of its greater density it ages much less rapidly.
Finally, the lamp is provided with a collar having two sole plates
on it, to which the terminal wires are attached, or else the terminal
FIG. 15.
wires are simply bent into two loops; in a third form, the Edison
screw terminal, it is provided with a central metal plate, to which
one end of the filament is connected, the other end being joined to
a screw collar. The collars and screws are formed of thin brass
embedded in plaster of Paris, or in some material like vitrite or black
glass (fig. 15). To put the lamp into connexion with the circuit
supplying the current, it has to be fitted into a socket or holder.
Three of the principal types of holder in use are the bottom contact
(B.C.) or Dornfeld socket, the Edison screw-collar socket and the
Swan or loop socket. In the socket of C. Dornfeld (fig. 16, a and a')
two spring pistons, in contact with the two sides of the circuit, are
fitted into the bottom of a short metallic tube having bayonet joint
slots cut in the top. The brass collar on the lamp has two pins, by
means of which a bayonet connexion is made between it and the
socket; and when this is done, the spring pins are pressed against
the sole plates on the lamp. In the Edison socket (fig. 16, V) a short
metal tube with an insulating lining has
on its interior a screw sleeve, which is in
connexion with one wire of the circuit ;
at the bottom of the tube, and insulated
from the screw sleeve, is a central metal
button, which is in connexion with the
other side of the circuit. On screwing the
lamp into the socket, the screw collar of
the lamp and £he boss or plate at the base
of the lamp make contact with the corre-
sponding parts of the socket, and complete
the connexion. In some cases a form of
switch is included in the socket, which is
then termed the key-holder. For loop
lamps the socket consists of an insulated
block, having on it two little hooks, which
engage -with the eyes of the lamp. This
insulating block also carries some form of
spiral spring or pair of spring loops, by
means of which the lamp is pressed away from the socket, and the eyes
kept tight by the hooks. This spring or Swan socket(fig.l6, c) is found
useful in places where the lamps are subject to vibration, for in such
cases the Edison screw collar cannot well be used, because the
vibration loosens the contact of the lamp in the socket. The sockets
may be fitted with appliances for holding ornamental shades or
conical reflectors.
FIG. 16. — Incandescent
Lamp Sockets.
668
LIGHTING
[ELECTRIC
The incandescent filament being a very brilliant line of light,
various devices are adopted for moderating its brilliancy and dis-
tributing the light. A simple method is to sand-blast the exterior
of the bulb, whereby it acquires an appearance similar to that of
ground glass, or the bare lamp may be enclosed in a suitable glass
shade. Such shades, however, if made of opalescent or semi-
opaque glass, absorb 40 to 60% of the light; hence various forms
of dioptric shade have been invented, consisting of clear glass ruled
with prismatic grooves in such a manner as to diffuse the light
without any very great absorption. Invention has been fertile in
devising etched, coloured, opalescent, frosted and ornamental
shades for decorative purposes, and in constructing special forms
for use in situations, such as mines and factories for explosives,
where the globe containing the lamp must be air-tight. High
candle-power lamps, 500, 1000 and upwards, are made by placing
in one large glass bulb a number of carbon filaments arranged in
parallel between two rings, which are connected with the main
feading-in wires. When incandescent lamps are used for optical
purposes it is necessary to compress the filament into a small
space, so as to bring it into the focus of a lens or mirror. The fila-
ment is then coiled or crumpled up into a spiral or zigzag form.
Such lamps are called focus lamps.
Incandescent lamps are technically divided into high and
low voltage lamps, high and low efficiency lamps, standard
and fancy lamps. The difference between high and
ciassi- j efficiency lamps is based upon the relation of the
ficatliin i j t ,
of lamps, power absorbed by the lamp to the candle-power
emitted. Every lamp when manufactured is marked
with a certain figure, called the marked volts. This is understood
to be the electromotive force in volts which must be applied
to the lamp terminals to produce through the filament a current
of such magnitude that the lamp will have a practically satis-
factory life, and give in a horizontal direction a certain candle-
power, which is also marked upon the glass. The numerical
product of the current in amperes passing through the lamp,
and the difference in potential of the terminals measured in
volts, gives the total power taken up by >the lamp in watts;
and this number divided by the candle-power of the lamp
(taking generally a horizontal direction) gives the waits per
candle-power. This is an important figure, because it is deter-
mined by the temperature; it therefore determines the quality
of the light emitted by the lamp, and also fixes the average
duration of the filament when rendered incandescent by a
current. Even in a good vacuum the filament is not permanent.
Apart altogether from accidental defects, the carbon is slowly
volatilized, and carbon molecules are also projected in straight
lines from different portions of the filament. This process not
only causes a change in the nature of the surface of the filament,
but also a deposit of carbon on the interior of the bulb, whereby
the glass is blackened and the candle-power of the lamp reduced.
The volatilization increases very rapidly as the temperature
rises. Hence at points of high resistance in the filament, more
heat being generated, a higher temperature is attained, and the
scattering of the carbon becomes very rapid; in such cases the
filament is sooner or later cut through at the point of high
resistance. In order that incandescent lighting may be practi-
cally possible, it is essential that the lamps shall have a certain
average life, that is, duration; and this useful duration is fixed
not merely by the possibility of passing a current through the
lamp at all, but by the rate at which the candle-power diminishes.
The decay of candle-power is called the ageing of the lamp,
and the useful life of the lamp may be said to be that period
of its existence before it has deteriorated to a point when it gives
only 75% of its original candle-power. It is found that in
practice carbon filament lamps, as at present made, if worked
at a higher efficiency than zj watts per candle-power, exhibit
a rapid deterioration in candle-power and an abbreviated life.
Hence lamp manufacturers classify lamps into various classes,
marked for use say at 2^, 3, 33 and 4 watts per candle. A i\
watt per candle lamp would be called a high-efficiency lamp,
and a 4 watt per candle lamp would be called a low-efficiency
lamp. In ordinary circumstances the low-efficiency lamp
would probably have a longer life, but its light would be less
suitable for many purposes of illumination in which colour
discrimination is required.
The possibility of employing high-efficiency lamps depends
greatly on the uniformity of the electric pressure of the supply.
If the voltage is exceedingly uniform, then high-efficiency lamps
can be satisfactorily employed; but they are not adapted
for standing the variations in pressure which are liable to occur
with public supply-stations, since, other things being equal,
their filaments are less substantial. The classification into
high and low voltage lamps is based upon the watts per candle-
power corresponding to the marked volts. When incandescent
lamps were first introduced, the ordinary working voltage was
50 or 100, but now a large number of public supply-stations
furnish current to consumers at a pressure of 200 or 250 volts.
This increase was necessitated by the enlarging area of supply
in towns, and therefore the necessity for conveying through
the same subterranean copper cables a large supply of electric
energy without increasing the maximum current value and
the size of the cables. This can only be done by employing
a higher working electromotive force; hence arose a demand
for incandescent lamps having marked volts of 200 and upwards,
technically termed high-voltage lamps. The employment of
higher pressures in public supply-stations has necessitated
greater care in the selection of the lamp fittings, and in the
manner of carrying out the wiring work. The advantages,
however, of higher supply pressures, from the point of view
of supply-stations, are undoubted. At the same time the
consumer desired a lamp of a higher efficiency than the ordinary
carbon filament lamp. The demand for this stimulated efforts
to produce improved carbon lamps, and it was found that if
the filament were exposed to a very high temperature, 3000° C.
in an electric furnace, it became more refractory and was capable
of burning in a lamp at an efficiency of 2| watts per c.p. In-
ventors also turned their attention to substances other than
carbon which can be rendered incandescent by the electric
current.
The luminous efficiency of any source of light, that is to say,
the percentage of rays emitted which affect the eye as light
compared with the total radiation, is dependent upon
its temperature. In an ordinary oil lamp the luminous
rays do not form much more than 3% of 'the total
radiation. In the carbon-filament incandescent lamp, when
worked at about 3 watts per candle, the luminous efficiency is
about 5%; and in the arc lamp the radiation from the crater
contains about 10 to 15% of eye-affecting radiation. The
temperature of a carbon filament working at about 3 watts per
candle is not far from the melting-point of platinum, that is to
say, is nearly 1775° C. If it is worked at a higher efficiency,
say 2 -5 watts per candle-power, the temperature rises rapidly,
and at the same time the volatilization and molecular scattering
of the carbon is rapidly increased, so that the average duration
of the lamp is very much shortened. An improvement, therefore,
in the efficiency of the incandescent lamp can only be obtained
by finding some substance which will endure heating to a higher
temperature than the carbon filament. Inventors turned their
attention many years ago, with this aim, to the refractory
oxides and similar substances. Paul Jablochkoff in 1 87 7 described
and made a lamp consisting of a piece of kaolin, which was
brought to a state of incandescence first by passing over it an
electric spark, and afterwards maintained in a state of incan-
descence by a current of lower electromotive force. Lane Fox
and Edison, in 1878, proposed to employ platinum wires covered
with films of lime, magnesia, steatite, or with the rarer oxides,
zirconia, thoria, &c.; and Lane Fox, in 1879, suggested as an
incandescent substance a mixture of particles of carbon with
the earthy oxides. These earthy oxides — magnesia, lime and
the oxides of the rare earths, such as thoria, zirconia, erbia,
yttria, &c. — possess the peculiarity that at ordinary temperatures
they are practically non-conductors, but at very high tempera-
tures their •Bistance at a certain point rapidly falls, and they
become fairly good conductors. Hence if they can once be brought
into a state of incandescence a current can pass through them
and maintain them in that state. But at this temperature
they give up oxygen to carbon; hence no mixtures of earthy
oxides with carbon are permanent when heated, and failure
'
ELECTRIC]
LIGHTING
669
has attended all attempts to use a carbon filament covered
with such substances as thoria, zirconia or other of the rare
oxides.
H. W. Nernst in 1897, however, patented an incandescent
lamp in which the incandescent body consists entirely of a
slender rod or filament of magnesia. If such a rod
tamp*' *s neated by the oxyhydrogen blowpipe to a high
temperature it becomes conductive, and can then be
maintained in an intensely luminous condition by passing a
current through it after the flame is withdrawn. Nernst found
that by mixing together, in suitable proportions, oxides of the
rare earths, he was able to prepare a material which can be
formed into slender rods and threads, and which is rendered
sufficiently conductive to pass a current with an electromotive
force as low as 100 volts, merely by being heated for a few
moments with a spirit lamp, or even by the radiation from a
neighbouring platinum spiral brought to a state of incandescence.
The Nernst lamp, therefore (fig. 17), consists of a slender rod of
the mixed oxides attached to platinum wires by an oxide paste.
Oxide filaments of this description are
not enclosed in an exhausted glass vessel,
and they can be brought, without risk
of destruction, to a temperature consider-
ably higher than a carbon filament ; hence
the lamp has a higher luminous efficiency.
The material now used for the oxide rod
or " glower " of Nernst lamps is a mixture
of zirconia and yttria, made into a paste
and squirted or pressed into slender rods.
This'material is non-conductive when cold,
but when slightly heated it becomes con-
ductive and then falls considerably in
resistance. The glower, which is straight
in some types of the lamp but curved in
others, is generally about 3 or 4 cm. long
and i or 2 mm. in diameter. It is held
in suitable terminals, and close' to it, or
round it, but not touching it, is a loose
' coil of platinum wire, also covered with
oxide and called the " heater " (fig. 18).
In series with it is a spiral of iron wire,
enclosed in a bulb full of hydrogen,
pIG i^ Nernst Lamp which is called the " ballast resistance."
'A Type. The socket also contains a switch con-
trolled by an electromagnet. When the
current is first switched on it passes through the heater coil which,
becoming incandescent, by radiation heats the glower until it
becomes conductive. The glower then takes current, becoming
itself brilliantly incandescent, and the electromagnet becoming
energized switches the heater coil out of circuit. The iron ballast
wire increases in resistance with increase of current, and so operates
to keep the total current through the glower constant in spite of
small variations of circuit voltage. The disadvantages of the lamp
are (i) that it does not light immediately after the current is switched
on and is therefore not convenient for domestic use; (2) that it
cannot be made in small light units such as 5 c.p. ; (3) that the
socket and fixture
are large and more
complicated than
for the carbon fila-
ment lamp. But
owing to the higher
temperature, the
light is whiter than
that of the carbon
glow lamp, and the
efficiency or candle
power per watt is
greater. Since,
however, the lamp
must be included
in an opal globe,
some considerable
part of this last
advantage is lost. On the whole the lamp has found its field of
operation rather in external than in domestic lighting.
Great efforts were made in the latter part of the igth century
and the first decade of the 2oth to find a material for the filament
of an incandescent lamp which could replace carbon
«/«men< an(* ^et not recluire a preliminary heating like the
lamps. oxide glowers. This resulted in the production of
refractory metallic filament lamps made of osmium,
tantalum, tungsten and other rare metals. Auer von Welsbach
FIG. 18. — Nernst Lamp, Burners for B Type,
o, low voltage ; b, high voltage.
suggested the use of osmium. This metal cannot be drawn
into wire on account of its brittleness, but it can be made into
a filament by mixing the finely divided metal with an organic
binding material which is carbonized in the usual way at a high
temperature, the osmium particles then cohering. The
difficulty has hitherto been to construct in this way metallic
filament lamps of low candle power (16 c.p.) for 220 volt
circuits, but this is being overcome. When used on modern
supply circuits of 220 volts a number of lamps may be run
in series, or a step-down transformer employed.
The next great improvement came when W. von Bolton
produced the tantalum lamp in 1904. There are certain metals
known to have a melting point about 2000° C. or upwards, and
of these tantalum is one. It can be produced from the potassium
tantalo-fluoride in a pulverulent form. By carefully melting
it in vocuo it can then be converted into the reguline form and
drawn into wire. In this condition it has a density of 16-6
(water =i), is harder than platinum and has greater tensile
strength than steel, viz. 95 kilograms per sq. .mm., the value
for good steel being 70 to 80 kilograms per sq. mm. The
electrical resistance at 15° C. is o- 146 ohms per metre with section
of i sq. mm. after annealing at 1900° C. in vocuo and
therefore about 6 times that of mercury; the temperature
coefficient is 0-3 per degree C. At the temperature assumed
in an incandescent lamp when working at 1-5 watts per c.p.
the resistance is 0-830 ohms per metre with a section of i sq.
mm. The specific heat is 0-0365. Bolton invented methods of
producing tantalum in the form of a long fine wire 0-05 mm.
in diameter. To make a 25 c.p. lamp 650 mm., or about 2 ft.,
of this wire are wound backwards and forwards zigzag on
metallic supports carried on a glass
frame, which is sealed into an ex-
hausted glass bulb. The tantalum
lamp so made (fig. 19), working
on a no volt circuit takes 0-36
amperes or 39 watts, and hence has an
efficiency of about 1-6 watts per c.p.
The useful life, that is the time in which
it loses 20% of its initial candle power,
is about 400-500 hours, but in general
a life of 800-1000 hours can be obtained.
The bulb blackens little in use, but the
life is said to be shorter with alternat-
ing than with direct current. When
worked on alternating current circuits
the filament after a time breaks up into
sections which become curiously sheared
with respect to each other but still
maintain electrical contact. The re-
sistance of tantalum increases with the
temperature; hence the temperature
coefficient is positive, and sudden rises in working voltage do not
cause such variations in candle-power as in the case of the carbon
lamp.
Patents have also been taken out for lamps made with filaments
of such infusible metals as tungsten and molybdenum, and
Siemens and Halske, Sanders and others, have protected methods
for employing zirconium and other rare metals. According to
the patents of Sanders (German patents Nos. 133701, 137568,
137569) zirconium filaments are manufactured from the hydrogen
or nitrogen compounds of the rare earths by the aid of some
organic binding material. H. Kuzel of Vienna (British Patent
No. 28154 of 1904) described methods of making metallic
filaments from any metal. He employs the metals in a colloidal
condition, either as hydrosol, organosol, gel, or colloidal suspen-
sion. The metals are thus obtained in a gelatinous form, and
can be squirted into filaments which are dried and reduced to
the metallic form by passing an electric current through them
(Electrician, 57, 894). This process has a wide field of applica-
tion, and enables the most refractory and infusible metals to
be obtained in a metallic wire form. The zirconium and tungsten
wire lamps are equal to or surpass the tantalum lamp in efficiency
FIG. 19. — Tantalum
Lamp.
6yo
LIGHTING
[ELECTRIC
and are capable of giving light, with a useful commercial life,
at an efficiency of about one watt per candle. Lamps called
osram lamps, with filaments composed of an alloy of osmium
and tungsten (wolfram), can be used with a life of 1000 hours
when run at an efficiency of about i • 5 watts per candle.
Tungsten lamps are made by the processes of Just and Hana-
man (German patent No. 154262 of 1903) and of Kuzel, and
at a useful life of 1000 hours, with a falling off in light-giving
power of only 10-15%, they have been found to work at an
efficiency of one to i • 2 5 watts per c.p. Further collected informa-
tion on modern metallic wire lamps and the patent literature
thereof will be found in an article in the Engineer for December
7, 1906.
Mention should also be made of the Helion filament glow
lamp in which the glower is composed largely of silicon, a carbon
filament being used as a base. This filament is said to have a
number of interesting qualities and an efficiency of about i watt
per candle (see the Electrician, 1907, 58, p. 567).
The mercury vapour lamps of P. Cooper-Hewitt, C. O. Bastian
and others have a certain field of usefulness. If a glass tube,
Mercury highly exhausted, contains mercury vapour and a
vapour mercury cathode and iron anode, a current can be
lamps. passed through it under high electromotive force and
will then be maintained when the voltage is reduced.
The mercury vapour is rendered incandescent and glows with a
brilliant greenish light which is highly actinic, but practically
monochromatic, and is therefore not suitable for general illumina-
tion because it does not reveal objects in their daylight colours.
It is, however, an exceedingly economical source of light. A
3-ampere Cooper-Hewitt mercury lamp has an efficiency of
0-15 to 0-33 watts per candle, or practically the same as an arc
lamp, and will burn for several thousand hours. A similar
lamp with mercury vapour included in a tube of uviol glass
specially transparent to ultra-violet light (prepared by Schott &
Co. of Jena; seems likely to replace the Finsen arc lamp in the
treatment of lupus. Many attempts have been made to render
the mercury vapour lamp polychromatic by the use of amalgams
of zinc, sodium and bismuth in place of pure mercury for the
negative electrode.
An important matter in connexion with glow lamps is their
photometry. The arrangement most suitable for the photo-
Photo- metry and testing of incandescent lamps is a gallery
metry of or room large enough to be occupied by several workers,
the walls being painted dead black. The photometer,
preferably one of the Lummer-Brodhun form, is set
up on a gallery or bench. On one side of it must be fixed a
working standard, which as first suggested by Fleming is prefer-
ably a large bulb incandescent lamp with a specially " aged "
filament. Its candle-power can be compared, at regular intervals
and known voltages, with that of some accepted flame standard,
such as the 10 candle pentane lamp of Vernon Harcourt. In
a lamp factory or electrical laboratory it is convenient to have
a number of such large bulb standard lamps. This working
standard should be maintained at a fixed distance on one side
of the photometer, such that when worked at a standard voltage
it creates an illumination of one candle-foot on one side of the
photometer disk. The incandescent lamp to be examined is
then placed on the other side of the photometer disk on a travel-
ling carriage, so that it can be moved to and fro. Arrangements
must be made to measure the current and the voltage of this
lamp under test, and this is most accurately accomplished by
employing a potentiometer (q.v.). The holder which carries
the lamp should allow the lamp to be held with its axis in any
required position; in making normal measurements the lamp
should have its axis vertical, the filament being so situated that
none of the turns or loops overlies another as seen from the
photometer disk. Observations can then be made of the candle-
power corresponding to different currents and voltages.
glow
lamps.
the maximum candle-power, and a, b, c, &c., constants, it has been
found that A and c.p. are connected by an exponential law such that
c.p. =aA*
For carbon filament lamps x is a number lying between 5 and 6
generally equal to 5-5 or 5-6. Also it has been found that c.p = b\V>3
very nearly, and that
c.p.=cV" nearly
where c is some other constant, and for carbon filaments y is a
number nearly equal to 6. It is obvious that if the candle-power
of the lamp varies very nearly as the 6th power of the current and
of the voltage, the candle-power must vary as the cube of the
wattage.
Sir W. de W. Abney and E. R. Festing have also given a formula
connecting candle-power and watts equivalent to c.p. = (W— d)'
where d is a constant.
In the case of the tantalum lamp the exponent x has a value near
to 6, but the exponent y is a number near to 4, and the same for the
osmium filament. Hence for these metallic glowers a certain per-
centage variation of voltage does not create so great a variation in
candle-power as in the case of the carbon lamp.
Curves delineating the relation of these variables for any incan-
descent lamp are called its characteristic-curves. The life or average
duration is a function of \V/c.p., or of the watts per candle-power,
and therefore of the voltage at which the lamp is worked. It
follows from the above relation that the watts per candle-power
vary inversely as the fourth power of the voltage.
From limited observations it seems that the average life of a
carbon-filament lamp varies as the fifth or sixth power of the watts
per candle-power. If V is the voltage at which the lamp is worked
and L is its average life, then L varies roughly as the twenty-fifth
power of the reciprocal of the voltage, or
L=aV-«.
A closer approximation to experience is given by the formula
logioL = i3'5-— -
(See J. A. Fleming, " Characteristic
Lamps, Phil. Mag. May 1885).
Curves of Incandescent
The candle-power of the lamp varies with the other variables in
accordance with exponential laws of the following kind :—
If A is the current in amperes through the lamp, V the voltage
or terminal potential difference, W the power absorbed in watts, c.p.
All forms of incandescent or glow lamps are found to deteriorate
in light-giving power with use. In the case of carbon filaments
this is due to two causes. As already explained,
carbon is scattered from the filament and deposited ?/£'"/ °f
upon the glass, and changes also take place in the
filament which cause it to become reduced in temperature, even
when subjected to the same terminal voltage. In many lamps
it is found that the first effect of running the lamp is slightly to
increase its candle-power, even although the voltage be kept
constant; this is the result of a small decrease in the resistance
of the filament. The heating to which it is subjected slightly
increases the density of the carbon at the outset; this has
the effect of making the filament lower in resistance, and therefore
it takes more current at a constant voltage. The greater part,
however, of the subsequent decay in candle-power is due to the
deposit of carbon upon the bulb; as shown by the fact that if
the filament is taken out of the bulb and put into a new clean
bulb the candle-power in the majority of cases returns to its
original value. For every lamp there is a certain point in its
career which may be called the " smashing-point," when the
candle-power falls below a certain percentage of the original
value, and when it is advantageous to replace it by a new one.
Variations of pressure in the electric supply exercise a prejudicial
effect upon the light-giving qualities of incandescent lamps.
If glow lamps, nominally of 100 volts, are supplied from a public
lighting-station, in the mains of which the pressure varies
between 90 and no volts, their life will be greatly abbreviated,
and they will become blackened much sooner than would be the
case if the pressure were perfectly constant. Since the candle-
power of the lamp varies very nearly as the fifth or sixth power
of the voltage, it follows that a variation of 10% in the electro-
motive force creates a variation of nearly 50% in the candle-
power. Thus a 1 6 candle-power glow lamp, marked for use at
100 volts, was found on test to give the following candle-powers
at voltages Drying between 90 and 105: At 105 volts it gave
22-8 c.p.; at loo volts, 16-7 c.p.; at 95 volts, 12^2 c.p.; and at
90 volts, 8-7 c.p. Thus a variation of 25% in the candle-power
was caused by a variation in voltage of only 5%. The same
kind of variation in working voltage exercises also a marked
effect upon the average duration of the lamp. The following
ELECTRIC]
LIGHTING
671
figures show the results of some tests on typical 3-1 watt lamps
run at voltages above the normal, taking the average life when
worked at the marked volts (namely, 100) as 1000 hours:
At 101 volts the life was 818 hours.
102 681
103
104
105
1 06
662
452
374
310
tors.
Self-acting regulators have been devised by which the voltage
at the points of consumption is kept constant, even although
it varies at the point of generation. If, however,
sucn a device 's to be effective, it must operate very
quickly, as even the momentary effect of increased
pressure is felt by the lamp. It is only therefore where
the working pressure can be kept exceedingly constant that
high-efficiency lamps can be advantageously employed, otherwise
the cost of lamp renewals more than counterbalances the economy
in the cost of power. The slow changes that occur in the resist-
ance of the filament make themselves evident by an increase
in the watts per candle-power. The following table shows some
typical figures indicating the results of ageing in a 16 candle-
power carbon-filament glow lamp: —
Hours run.
Candle-Power.
Watts per
Candle-Power.
0
16-0
3-16
IOO
15-8
3-26
200
15-86
3-13
300
15-68
3-37
400
I5-4I
3-53
500
I5-I7
3-51
600
14-96
3-54
700
14-74
3-74
The gradual increase in watts per candle-power shown by this
table does not imply necessarily an increase in the total power
taken by the lamp, but is the consequence of the decay in candle-
power produced by the blackening of the lamp. Therefore,
to estimate the value of an incandescent lamp the user must
take into account not merely the price of the lamp and the initial
watts per candle-power, but the rate of decay of the lamp.
The scattering of carbon from the filament to the glass bulb
produces interesting physical effects, which have been studied
by T. A. Edison, W. H. Preece and T. A. Fleming.
Edlsoa T/ . ,. ' J . .
effect. •" mt° an ordinary carbon-filament glow lamp a
platinum plate is sealed, not connected to the filament
but attached to a third terminal, then it is found that when
the lamp is worked with continuous current a galvanometer
connected in between the middle plate and the positive terminal
of the lamp indicates a current, but not when connected in
between the negative terminal of the lamp and the middle plate.
If the middle plate is placed between the legs of a horse-shoe-
shaped filament, it becomes blackened most quickly on the
side facing the negative leg. This effect, commonly called the
Edison effect, is connected with an electric discharge and con-
vection of carbon which takes place between the two extreme
ends of the filament, and, as experiment seems to show, consists
in the conveyance of an electric charge, either by carbon molecules
or by bodies smaller than molecules. There is, however, an
electric discharge between the ends of the filament, which
rapidly increases with the temperature of the filament and
the terminal voltage; hence one of the difficulties of manu-
facturing high-voltage glow lamps, that is to say, glow lamps
for use on circuits having an electromotive force of 200 volts
and upwards, is the discharge from one leg of the filament
to the other.
A brief allusion may be made to the mode of use of incandescent
lamps for interior and private lighting. At the present time
hardly any other method of distribution is adopted
us™* tnan tnat °f an arrangement in parallel; that is
to say, each lamp on the circuit has one terminal
connected to a wire which finally terminates at one pole of the
generator, and its other terminal connected to a wire leading
to the other pole. The lamp filaments are thus arranged between
the conductors like the rungs of a ladder. In series with each
lamp is placed a switch and a fuse or cut-out. The lamps them-
selves are attached to some variety of ornamental fitting, or
in many cases suspended by a simple pendant, consisting of
an insulated double flexible wire attached at its upper end
to a ceiling rose, and carrying at the lower end a shade and
socket in which the lamp is placed. Lamps thus hung head
downwards are disadvantageously used because their end-on
candle-power is not generally more than 60% of their maximum
candle-power. In interior lighting one of the great objects
to be attained is uniformity of illumination with avoidance
of harsh shadows. This can only be achieved by a proper
distribution of the lamps. It is impossible to give any hard
and fast rules as to what number must be employed in the
illumination of any room, as a great deal depends upon the
nature of the reflecting surfaces, such as the walls, ceilings,
&c. As a rough guide, it may be stated that for every 100 sq.
ft. of floor surface one 16 candle-power lamp placed about
8 ft. above the floor will give a dull illumination, two will give
a good illumination and four will give a brilliant illumination.
We generally judge of the nature of the illumination in a room
by our ability to read comfortably in any position. That this
may be done, the horizontal illumination on the book should
not be less than one candle-foot. The following table shows
approximately the illuminations in candle-feet, in various
situations, derived from actual experiments: —
In a well-lighted room on the floor or tables i-o to 3-0 c.f.
On a theatre stage 3-0 to 4-0 c.f.
On a railway platform -05 to -5 c.f.
In a picture gallery . . . . . -65 to 3-5 c.f.
The mean daylight in May in the interior
of a room 30-0 to 40-0 c.f.
In full sunlight 7000 to 10,000 c.f.
In full moonlight i/6oth to l/iooth c.f.
From an artistic point of view, one of the worst methods
of lighting a room is by pendant lamps, collected in single
centres in large numbers. The lights ought to be distributed
in different portions of the room, and so shaded that the light
is received only by reflection from surrounding objects. Orna-
mental effects are frequently produced by means of candle
lamps in which a small incandescent lamp, imitating the flame
of a candle, is placed upon a white porcelain tube as a holder,
and these small units are distributed and arranged in electroliers
and brackets. For details as to the various modes of placing
conducting wires in houses, and the various precautions for
safe usage, the reader is referred to the article ELECTRICITY
SUPPLY. In the case of low voltage metallic filament lamps
when the supply is by alternating current there is no difficulty
in reducing the service voltage to any lower value by means
of a transformer. In the case of direct current the only method
available for working such low voltage lamps off higher supply
voltages is to arrange the lamps in series.
Additional information on the subjects treated above may be
found in the following books and original papers : —
Mrs Ayrton, The Electric Arc (London, 1900); Houston and
Kennelly, Electric Arc Lighting and Electric Incandescent Lighting;
S. P. Thompson, The Arc Light, Cantor Lectures, Society of Arts
(1895); H. Nakano, "The Efficiency of the Arc Lamp," Proc.
American Inst. Elec. Eng. (1889); A. Blondel, " Public and Street
Lighting by Arc Lamps," Electrician, vols. xxxv. and xxxvi. (1895);
T. Heskett, " Notes on the Electric Arc," Electrician, vol. xxxix.
(1897); G. S. Ram, The Incandescent Lamp and its Manufacture
(London, 1895) ; J. A. Fleming, Electric Lamps and Electric Lighting
(London, 1899); J. A. Fleming, "The Photometry of Electric
Lamps," Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng. (1903), 32, p. i (in this paper a
copious bibliography of the subject of photometry is given) ; J.
Dredge, Electric Illumination (2 vols., London, 1882, 1885); A. P.
Trotter, " The Distribution and Measurement of Illumination," Proc.
Inst. C.E. vol. ex. (1892) ; E. L. Nichols, "The Efficiency of Methods
of Artificial Illumination," Trans. American Inst. Elec. Eng. vol. vi.
(1889); Sir W. de W. Armey, Photometry, Cantor Lectures, Society
of Arts (1894); A. Blondel, " Photometric Magnitudes and Units,
Electrician (1894); !• .E- Petavel, "An Experimental Research on
some Standards of Light," Proc. Roy^ Soc. Ixv. 469 (1899); F.
Jehl, Carbon- Making for all Electrical Purposes (London, 1906);
G. B. Dyke, " On the Practical Determination of the Mean Spherical
672
LIGHTING
[COMMERCIAL ASPECTS
Candle Power of Incandescent and Arc Lamps," Phil. Mag. (1905) ;
the Preliminary Report of the Sub-Committee of 'he American Institute
of Electrical Engineers on "Standards ot Light"; Clifford C.
Paterson, " Investigations on Light Standards and the Present
Condition of the High Voltage Glow Lamp," Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng.
(January 24, 1907) ; J. Swinburne, " New Incandescent Lamps,"
Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng. (1907); L. Andrews, "Long Flame Arc
Lamps," Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng. (1906) ; W. von Bolton and O.
Feuerlein, " The Tantalum Lamp," The Electrician (Jan. 27, 1905).
Also the current issues of The Illuminating Engineer. (J. A. F.)
Commercial Aspects. — The cost of supplying electricity depends
more upon the rate of supply than upon the quantity supplied;
or, as John Hopkinson put it, " the cost of supplying
methods electricity for 1000 lamps for ten hours is very much
charging, less than ten times the cost of supplying the same
number of lamps for one hour." Efforts have therefore
been made to devise a system of charge which shall in each case
bear some relation to the cost of the service. Consumers vary
largely both in respect to the quantity and to the period of their
demands, but the cost of supplying any one of them with a given
amount of electricity is chiefly governed by the amount of his
maximum demand at any one time. The reason for this is that
it is not generally found expedient to store electricity in large
quantities. Electricity supply works generate the electricity
for the most part at the moment it is used by the consumer.
Electric lamps are normally in use on an average for only about
four hours per day, and therefore the plant and organization,
if employed for a lighting load only, are idle and unremunerative
for about 20 hours out of the 24. It is necessary to have in
readiness machinery capable of supplying the maximum possible
requirements of all the consumers at any hour, and this accounts
for a very large proportion of the total cost. The cost of raw
material, viz. coal, water and stores consumed in the generation
of electricity sold, forms relatively only a small part of the total
cost, the major part of which is made up of the fixed charges
attributable to the time during which the works are unproductive.
This makes it very desirable to secure demands possessing high
" load " and " diversity " factors. The correct way to charge
for electricity is to give liberal rebates to those consumers who
make prolonged and regular use of the plant, that is to say,
the lower the " peak " demand and the more continuous the
consumption, the better should be the discount. The consumer
must be discouraged from making sudden large demands on the
plant, and must be encouraged, while not reducing his total
consumption, to spread his use of the plant over a large number
of hours during the year. Mr Arthur Wright has devised a
tariff which gives effect to this principle. The system necessitates
the use of a special indicator — not to measure the quantity of
electricity consumed, which is done by the ordinary meter —
but to show the maximum amount of current taken by the
consumer at any one time during the period for which he is to
be charged. In effect it shows the proportion of plant which
has had to be kept on hand for his use. If the indicator shows
that say twenty lamps is the greatest number which the consumer
has turned on simultaneously, then he gets a large discount on
all the current which his ordinary meter shows that he has
taken beyond the equivalent of one hour's daily use of those
twenty lamps. Generally the rate charged under this system
is 7d. per unit for the equivalent of one hour's daily use of the
maximum demand and id. p r unit for all surplus. It is on this
principle that it pays to supply current for tramway and other
purposes at a price which primi facie is below the cost of produc-
tion; it is only apparently so in comparison with the cost of
producing electricity for lighting purposes. In the case of
tramways the electricity is required for 15 or 16 hours per day.
Electricity for a single lamp would cost on the basis of this
"maximum-demand-indicator" system for 15 hours per day
only i-86d. per unit. In some cases a system of further discounts
to very large consumers is combined with the Wright system.
Some undertakers have abandoned the Wright system in favour
of average flat rates, but this does not imply any failure of the
Wright system; on the contrary, the system, having served to
establish the most economical consumption of electricity, has
demonstrated the average rate at which the undertakers are
able to give the supply at a fair profit, and the proportion of
possible new customers being small the undertakers find it a
simplification to dispense with the maximum demand indicator.
But in some cases a mistake has been made by offering the
unprofitable early-closing consumers the option of obtaining
electricity at a flat rate much lower than their load-factor would
warrant and below cost price. The effect of this is to nullify
the Wright system of charging, for a consumer will not elect to
pay for his electricity on the Wright system if he can obtain a
lower rate by means of a flat rate system. Thus the long-hour
profitable consumer is made to pay a much higher price than
he need be charged, in order that the unprofitable short-hour
consumer may be retained and be made actually still more
unprofitable. It is not improbable that ultimately the supply
will be charged for on the basis of a rate determined by the size
and character of the consumer's premises, or the number and
dimensions of the electrical points, much in the same way as
water is charged for by a water rate determined by the rent
of the consumer's house and the number of water taps.
Most new houses within an electricity supply area are wired
for electricity during construction, but in several towns means
have to be taken to encourage small shopkeepers and
tenants of small houses to use electricity by removing
the obstacle of the first outlay on wiring. The cost
of wiring may be taken at 1 55. to £2 per lamp installed including
all necessary wire, switches, fuses, lamps, holders, casing, but
not electroliers or shades. Many undertakers carry out wiring
on the easy payment or hire-purchase system. Parliament
has sanctioned the adoption of these systems by some local
authorities and even authorized them to do the work by direct
employment of labour. The usual arrangement is to make an
additional charge of ^d. per unit on all current used, with a
minimum payment of is. per 8 c.p. lamp, consumers having the
option of purchasing the installation at any time on specified
conditions. The consumer has to enter into an agreement,
and if he is only a tenant the landlord has to sign a memorandum
to the effect that the wiring and fittings belong to the supply
undertakers. Several undertakers have adopted a system of
maintenance and renewal of lamps, and at least one local authority
undertakes to supply consumers with lamps free of charge.
There is still considerable scope for increasing the business
of electricity supply by judicious advertising and other methods.
Comparisons of the kilowatt hour consumption per
capita in various towns show that where an energetic tu^ptioa.
policy has been pursued the profits have improved by
reason of additional output combined with increased load factor.
The average number of equivalent 8 c.p. lamps connected per
capita in the average of English towns is about 1-2. The
average number of units consumed per capita per annum is
about 23, and the average income per capita per annum is about
53. In a number of American cities 203. per capita per annum is
obtained. In the United States a co-operative electrical develop-
ment association canvasses both the general public and the
electricity supply undertakers. Funds are provided by the manu-
facturing companies acting in concert with the supply authorities
and contractors, and the spirit underlying the work is to advertise
the merits of electricity — not any particular company or interest.
Their efforts are directed to securing new consumers and stimu-
lating the increased and more varied use of electricity among
actual consumers.
All supply undertakers are anxious to develop the con-
sumption of electricity for power purposes even more than
for lighting, but the first cost of installing electric motors is
a deterrent to the adoption of electricity in small factories
and shops, and most undertakers are therefore prepared to let
out motors, &c., on hire or purchase on varying terms accord-
ing to circumstances.
A board of trade unit will supply one 8 c.p. carbon lamp of
30 hours or 30 such lamps for one hour. In average use an
incandescent lamp will last about 800 hours, which is equal
to about 12 months normal use; a good lamp will frequently
last more than double this time before it breaks down.
LIGHTNING— LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR
673
A large number of towns have adopted electricity for street
lighting. Frank Bailey has furnished particulars of photometric
tests which he has made on new and old street lamps in the city
of London. From these tests the following comparative figures
are deduced: —
Gas —
Average total Cost
per c.p. per annum.
Double burner ordinary low pressure incandescent
(mean of six tests) . . . ll-ld.
Single burner high-pressure gas . 9-0
Double burner high-pressure gas . 11-7
Arc lamp —
Old type of lantern .... 8
Flame arc 5
From these tests of candle-power the illumination at a distance of
100 ft. from the source is estimated as follows : —
Candle Ft. Ratio.
0-013 = !'°
0-016 = 1-24
Double ordinary incandescent gas lamp
illumination
Single high pressure ordinary incan-
descent gas lamp illumination .
Double high pressure ordinary incan-
descent gas lamp illumination . . 0-027 = 2-10
Ordinary arc lamp 0-060 = 4-5°
Flame arc lamp 0-120 = 9-00
The cost of electricity, light for light, is very much less than
that of gas. The following comparative figures relating to street
lighting at Croydon have been issued by the lighting committee
of that corporation: —
rules.
Type of Lamp.
Number
of Lamps.
Distance
apart (yds.)
Total
Cost.
Average c.p.
per Mile.
Cost per c.p.
per annum.
Incandescent gas .
Incandescent electric .
Electric arcs
2-137
90
428
80
66
65
£7-062
288
7,212
839
1.373
io,537
i5-86d.'
I3-7I
H-32
Apart from cheaper methods of generation there are two
main sources of economy in electric lighting. One is the improved
arrangement and use of electrical installations, and the other
is the employment of lamps of higher efficiency. As regards
the first, increased attention has been given to the position,
candle-power and shading of electric lamps so as to give the
most effective illumination in varying circumstances and to
avoid excess of light. The ease with which electric lamps may
be switched on and off from a distance has lent itself to arrange-
ments whereby current may be saved by switching off lights
not in use and by controlling the number of lamps required to
be alight at one time on an electrolier. Appreciable economies
are brought about by the scientific disposition of lights and the
avoidance of waste in use. As regards the other source of
economy, the Nernst, the tantalum, the osram, and the metallized
carbon filament lamp, although costing more in the first instance
than carbon lamps, have become popular owing to their economy
in current consumption. Where adopted largely they have had
a distinct effect in reducing the rate of increase of output from
supply undertakings, but their use has been generally encouraged
as tending towards the greater popularity of electric light and
an ultimately wider demand. Mercury vapour lamps for indoor
and outdoor lighting have also proved their high efficiency, and
the use of flame arc lamps has greatly increased the cheapness
of outdoor electric lighting.
The existence of a " daylight load " tends to reduce the all-
round cost of generating and distributing electricity. This
daylight load is partly supplied by power for industrial purposes
and partly by the demand for electricity in many domestic
operations. The use of electric heating and cooking apparatus
(including radiators, ovens, grills, chafing dishes, hot plates,
kettles, flat-irons, curling irons, &c.) has greatly developed,
and provides a load which extends intermittently throughout
the greater part of the twenty-four hours. Electric fans for
home ventilation are also used, and in the domestic operations
where a small amount of power is required (as in driving sewing
machines, boot cleaners, washing machines, mangles, knife
cleaners, " vacuum " cleaners, &c.) the electric motor is being
XVI. 22
largely adopted. The trend of affairs points to a time when the
total demand from such domestic sources will greatly exceed
the demand for lighting only. The usual charges for current
to be used in domestic heating or power operations vary from
id. to 2d. per unit. As the demand increases the charges will
undergo reduction, and there will also be a reflex action in bring-
ing down the cost of electricity for lighting owing to the improved
load factor resulting from an increase in the day demand. In
the cooking and heating and motor departments also there has
been improvement in the efficiency of the apparatus, and its
economy is enhanced by the fact that current may be switched
on and off as required.
The Board of Trade are now prepared to receive electric
measuring instruments for examination or testing at their
electrical standardizing laboratory, where they have
a battery power admitting of a maximum current of meter/.
7000 amperes to be dealt with. The London county
council and some other corporations are prepared upon requisi-
tion to appoint inspectors to test meters on consumers' premises.
All supply undertakers now issue rules and regulations for the
efficient wiring of electric installations. The rules and regulations
issued by the institution of electrical engineers have been win
accepted by many local authorities and companies, and
also by many of the fire insurance companies. The
Phoenix fire office rules were the first to be drawn up, and are
adopted by many of the fire offices, but some other leading insurance
offices have their own rules under which risks are accepted without
extra premium. In the opinion of the insurance companies " the
electric light is the safest of all illuminants
and is preferable to any others when the
installation has been thoroughly well put up."
Regulations have also been issued by the
London county council in regard to theatres,
&c., by the national board of fire underwriters
of America (known as the " National Electrical
Code "), by the fire underwriters association
of Victoria (Commonwealth of Australia),
by the Calcutta fire insurance agents association and under the
Canadian Electric Light Inspection Act. In Germany rules have
been issued by the Verband Deutscher Elektrotechniker and by the
union of private fire insurance companies of Germany, in Switzerland
by the Association Suisse des electriciens, in Austria by the Elektro-
technischer Verein of Vienna, in France by ministerial decree and
by the syndicat professionel des industries electriques. (For reprints
of these regulations see Electrical Trades Directory.) (E. GA.)
LIGHTNING, the visible flash that accompanies an electric
discharge in the sky. In certain electrical conditions of the
atmosphere a cloud becomes highly charged by the coalescence
of drops of vapour. A large drop formed by the fusion of many
smaller ones contains the same amount of electricity upon a
smaller superficial area, and the electric potential of each drop,
and of the whole cloud, rises. When the cloud passes near
another cloud stratum or near a hilltop, tower or tree, a discharge
takes place from the cloud in the form of lightning. The discharge
sometimes takes place from the earth to the cloud, or from a lower
to a higher stratum, and sometimes from conductors silently.
Rain discharges the electricity quietly to earth, and lightning
frequently ceases with rain (see ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY).
LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR, or LIGHTNING ROD (Franklin),
the name usually given to apparatus designed to protect buildings
or ships from the destructive effects of lightning (Fr. paratonnerre,
Ger. Blitzableiter). The upper regions of the atmosphere being
at a different electrical potential from the earth, the thick dense
clouds which are the usual prelude to a thunder storm serve
to conduct the electricity of the upper air down towards the
earth, and an electrical discharge takes place across the air
space when the pressure is sufficient. Lightning discharges
were distinguished by Sir Oliver Lodge into two distinct types —
the A and the B flashes. The A flash is of the simple type which
arises when an electrically charged cloud approaches the earth
without an intermediate cloud intervening. In the second type
B, where another cloud intervenes between the cloud carrying
the primary charge and the earth, the two clouds practically
form a condenser; and when a discharge from the first takes
place into the second the free charge on the earth side of the
lower cloud is suddenly relieved, and the disruptiye discharge
"5
674
LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR
from the latter to earth takes such an erratic course that according
to the Lightning Research Committee " no series of lightning
conductors of the hitherto recognized type suffice to protect
the building." In Germany two kinds of lightning stroke
have been recognized, one as " ziindenden " (causing fire),
analogous to the B flash, the other as " kalten " (not causing
fire), the ordinary A discharge. The destructive effect of the
former was noticed in 1884 by A. Parnell, who quoted instances
of damage due to mechanical force, which he stated in many
cases took place in a more or less upward direction.
The object of erecting a number of pointed rods to form
a lightning conductor is to produce a glow or brush discharge
and thus neutralize or relieve the tension of the thunder-cloud.
This, if the latter is of the A type, can be successfully accom-
plished, but sometimes the lightning flash takes place so suddenly
that it cannot be prevented, however great the number of points
provided, there being such a store of energy in the descending
cloud that they are unable to ward off the shock. A B flash
may ignore the points and strike some metal Work in the vicinity ;
to avoid damage to the structure this must also be connected
to the conductors. A single air terminal is of no more use than
an inscribed sign-board; besides multiplying the number of
points, numerous paths, as well as interconnexions between
the conductors, must be arranged to lead the discharge to
the earth. The system of pipes and gutters on a roof must
be imitated; although a single rain-water pipe would be suffi-
cient to deal with a summer shower, in practice pipes are used
in sufficient number to carry off the greatest storm.
Protected Area. — According to Lodge " there is no space
near a rod which can be definitely styled an area of protection,
for it is possible to receive violent sparks and shocks from
the conductor itself, not to speak of the innumerable secondary
discharges that are liable to occur in the wake of the main
flash." The report of the Lightning Research Committee
contains many examples of buildings struck in the so-called
" protected area."
Material for Conductors. — Franklin's original rods (1752)
were made of iron, and this metal is still employed throughout
the continent of Europe and in the United States. British
architects, who objected to the unsightliness of the rods, eventu-
ally specified copper tape, which is generally run round the
sharp angles of a building in such a manner as to increase the
chances of the lightning being diverted from the conductor.
The popular idea is that to secure the greatest protection a
rod of the largest area should be erected, whereas a single large
conductor is far inferior to a number of smaller ones and copper
as a material is not so suitable for the purpose as iron. A copper
rod allows the discharge to pass too quickly and produces a
violent shock, whereas iron offers more impedance and allows
the flash to leak away by damping down the oscillations. Thus
there is less chance of a side flash from an iron than from a
copper conductor.
Causes of Failure. — A number of failures of conductors
were noticed in the 1905 report of the Lightning Research
Committee. One cause was the insufficient number of conductors
and earth connexions; another was the absence of any system
for connecting the metallic portion of the buildings to the
conductors. In some cases the main stroke was received, but
damage occurred by side-flash to isolated parts of the roof.
There were several examples of large metallic surfaces being
charged with electricity, the greater part of which was safely
discharged, but enough followed unauthorized paths, such as
a speaking-tube or electric bell wires, to cause damage. In
one instance a flash struck the building at two points simul-
taneously; one portion followed the conductor, but the other
went to earth jumping from a small finial to a greenhouse
30 ft. below.
Construction of Conductors. — The general conclusions of
the Lightning Research Committee agree with the independent
reports of similar investigators in Germany, Hungary and
Holland. The following is a summary of the suggestions made : —
The conductors may be of copper, or of soft iron protected by
galvanizing or coated with lead. A number of paths to earth
must be provided; well- jointed rain-water pipes may be utilized.
FIG. i.— Holdfast.
FIG. 2.
FIG. 3. — Aigrette.
Every chimney stack or other prominence should have an air
terminal. Conductors should run in the most direct manner
from air to earth, and be kept away from the walls by holdfasts
(fig. i), in the manner shown by A (fig< 2); the usual method
is seen in B (fig. 2), where the tape follows the contour of the
building and causes side flash. A building
with a long roof should also be fitted with
a horizontal conductor along the ridge, and
to this aigrettes (fig. 3) should be attached; a
simpler method is to support the cable by
holdfasts armed with a spike (fig. 4). Joints
must be held together mechanically as well
as electrically, and should be protected from
the action of the air. At Westminster Abbey
the cables are spliced and inserted in a box
which is filled with lead run in when molten.
Earth Connexion. — A copper plate not less pIG Holdfast
than 3 sq. ft. in area may be used as an on Roof,
earth connexion if buried in permanently
damp ground. Instead of a plate there are advantages in
using the tubular earth shown in fig. 5. The cable packed
in carbon descends to the bottom of the perforated tube which
is driven into the ground, a connexion
being made to the nearest rain-water
pipe to secure the necessary moisture.
No further attention is required. Plate
earths should be tested every year. The
number of earths depends on the area of
the building, but at least two should be
provided. Insulators on the conductor
are of no advantage, and it is useless to
gild or otherwise protect the points of
the air-terminals. As heated air offers
a good path for lightning (which is the
reason why the kitchen-chimney is often
selected by the discharge), a number of
points should be fixed to high chimneys
and there should be at least two con-
ductors to earth. All roof metals, such
as finials, flashings, rain-water gutters,
ventilating pipes, cowls and stove pipes,
should be connected to the system of
conductors. The efficiency of the in-
stallation depends on the interconnexion
of all metallic parts, also on the quality
of the earth connexions. In the case
of magazines used for explosives, it is
questionable whether the usual plan of FIG. 5— Tubular Earth,
erecting rods at the sides of the buildings is efficient. The only
way to ensure safety is to enclose the magazine in iron; the
LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF
675
next best is to arrange the conductors so that they surround it
like a bird cage.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The literature, although extensive, contains so
many descriptions of ludicrous devices, that the student, after
reading Benjamin Franklin's Experiments and Observations on
Electricity made at Philadelphia (1769), may turn to the Report of
the Lightning Rod Conference of December 1881. In the latter
work there are abstracts of many valuable papers, especially the
reports made to the French Academy, among others by Coulomb,
Laplace, Gay-Lussac, Fresnel, Regnault, &c. In 1876 J. Clerk
Maxwell read a paper before the British Association in which he
brought forward the idea (based on Faraday's experiments) of
protecting a building from the effects of lightning by surrounding it
with a sort of cage of rods or stout wire. It was not, however, until
the Bath meeting of the British Association in 1888 that the subject
was fully discussed by the physical and engineering sections. Sir
Oliver Lodge showed the futility of single conductors, and advised
the interconnexion of all the metal work on a building to a number of
conductors buried in the earth. The action of lightning flashes was
also demonstrated by him in lectures delivered before the Society of
Arts (1888). The Clerk Maxwell system was adopted to a large extent
in Germany, and in July 1901 a sub-committee of the Berlin Electro-
technical Association was formed, which published rules. In 1900
a paper entitled " The Protection of Public Buildings from Light-
ning," by Killingworth Hedges, led to the formation, by the Royal
Institute of British Architects and the Surveyors' Institution, of the
Lightning Research Committee, on which the Royal Society and the
Meteorological Society were represented. The Report, edited by
Sir Oliver Lodge, Sir John Gavey and Killingworth Hedges (Hon.
Sec.), was published in April 1905. An illustrated supplement,
compiled by K. Hedges and entitled Modern Lightning Conductors
(1905), contains particulars of the independent reports of the German
committee, the Dutch Academy of Science, and the Royal Joseph
university, Budapest. A description is also given of the author's
modified Clerk Maxwell system, in which the metal work of the
roofs of a building form the upper part, the rain-water pipes taking
the place of the usual lightning-rods. See also Sir Oliver Lodge,
Lightning Conductors (London, 1902). (K. H.)
LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF. The ceremonial use of
lights in the Christian Church, with which this article is mainly
concerned, probably has a double origin: in a very
Noa" natural symbolism, and in the adaptation of certain
Pa8an and Jewish rites and customs of which the
symbolic meaning was Christianized. Light is every-
where the symbol of joy and of life-giving power, as darkness
is of death and destruction. Fire, the most mysterious and
impressive of the elements, the giver of light and of all the good
things of life, is a thing sacred and adorable in primitive religions,
and fire-worship still has its place in two at least of the great
religions of the world. The Parsis adore fire as the visible
expression of Ahura-Mazda, the eternal principle of light and
righteousness; the Brahmans worship it as divine and omni-
scient.1 The Hindu festival of Dewali (Diyawali, from diya,
light), when temples and houses are illuminated with countless
lamps, is held every November to celebrate Lakhshmi, the goddess
of prosperity. In the ritual of the Jewish temple fire and light
played a conspicuous part. In the Holy of Holies was a " cloud
of light " (shekinah), symbolical of the presence of Yahweh, and
before it stood the candlestick with six branches, on each of
which and on the central stem was a lamp eternally burning;
while in the forecourt was an altar on which the sacred fire was
never allowed to go out. Similarly the Jewish synagogues have
each their eternal lamp; while in the religion of Islam lighted
lamps mark things and places specially holy; thus the Ka'ba
at Mecca is illuminated by thousands of lamps hanging from
the gold and silver rods that connect the columns of the surround-
ing colonnade.
The Greeks and Romans, too, had their sacred fire and their
ceremonial lights. In Greece the Lampadedromia or Lampade-
phoria (torch-race) had its origin in ceremonies con-
e. nected with the relighting of the sacred fire. Pausanias
(i. 26, § 6) mentions the golden lamp made by Calli-
machus which burned night and day in the sanctuary of Athena
Polias on the Acropolis, and (vii. 22, §§ 2 and 3) tells of a statue
of Hermes Agoraios, in the market-place of Pharae in Achaea,
1 " 0 Fire, thou knowest all things ! " See A. Bourquin, " Brahma-
karma, ou rites sacres des Brahmans," in the Annales du Musee
Guimet (Paris, 1884, t. vii.).
before which lamps were lighted. Among the Romans lighted
candles and lamps formed part of the cult of the domestic
tutelary deities; on all festivals doors were garlanded and lamps
lighted {Juvenal, Sat. xii. 92; Tertullian, Apol. xxxv.). In
the cult of Isis lamps were lighted by day. In the ordinary
temples were candelabra, e.g. that in the temple of Apollo
Palatinus at Rome, originally taken by Alexander from Thebes,
which was in the form of a tree from the branches of which
lights hung like fruit. In comparing pagan with Christian
usage it is important to remember that the lamps in the pagan
temples were not symbolical, but votive offerings to the gods.
Torches and lamps were also carried in religious processions.
The pagan custom of burying lamps with the dead conveyed
no such symbolical meaning as was implied in the late Christian
custom of placing lights on and about the tombs of
martyrs and saints. Its object was to provide the
dead with the means of obtaining light in the next
world, a wholly material conception; and the lamps were for
the most part unlighted. It was of Asiatic origin, traces of it
having been observed in Phoenicia and in the Punic colonies,
but not in Egypt or Greece. In Europe it was confined to the
countries under the domination of Rome.2
In Christianity, from the very first, fire and light are conceived
as symbols, if not as visible manifestations, of the divine nature
and the divine presence. Christ is " the true Light "
(John i. 9), and at his transfiguration " the fashion Christian
y. , .... symbolism
of his countenance was altered, and his raiment was 0/i;^t
white and glistering " (Luke ix. 29) ; when the
Holy Ghost descended upon the apostles, " there appeared unto
them cloven tongues of fire, and it sat upon each of them"
(Acts ii. 3); at the conversion of St Paul " there shined round
him a great light from heaven " (Acts ix. 3); while the glorified
Christ is represented as standing " in the midst of seven candle-
sticks . . . his head and hairs white like wool, as white as snow;
and his eyes as a flame of fire " (Rev. i. 14, 15). Christians are
" children of Light " at perpetual war with " the powers of
darkness."
All this might very early, without the incentive of Jewish
and pagan example, have affected the symbolic ritual of the
primitive Church. There is, however, no evidence of n^
any ceremonial use of lights in Christian worship during charfh. *
the first two centuries. It is recorded, indeed (Acts
xx. 7, 8), that on the occasion of St Paul's preaching at Alexandria
in Troas "there were many lights in the upper chamber";
but this was at night, and the most that can be hazarded is that
a specially large number were lighted as a festive illumination,
as in modern Church festivals (Martigny, Diet, des antiqu.
ChreL). As to a purely ceremonial use, such early evidence as
exists is all the other way. A single sentence of Tertullian
(Apol. xxxv.) sufficiently illuminates Christian practice during
the 2nd century. " On days of rejoicing," he says,
"we do not shade our door-posts with laurels nor J*^'"*°
encroach upon the day-light with lamps " (die laelo taatiUSl
non laurels pastes obumbramus nee lucernis diem
infringimus) . Lactantius, writing early in the 4th century, is
even more sarcastic in his references to the heathen practice.
" They kindle lights," he says, " as though to one who is in
darkness. Can he be thought sane who offers the light of lamps
and candles to the Author and Giver of all light?" (Div. Inst.
vi. de vero cultu, cap. 2, in Migne, Pair. lot. vi. 637).' This is
primarily an attack on votive lights, and does not necessarily
exclude their ceremonial use in other ways. There is, indeed,
evidence that they were so used before Lactantius wrote. The
34th canon of the synod of Elvira (305), which was contemporary
with him, forbade candles to be lighted in cemeteries during the
daytime, which points to an established custom as well as to
an objection to it; and in the Roman catacombs lamps have
been found of the 2nd and 3rd centuries which seem to have
2 J. Toutain, in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire, s.v.
" Lucerna."
3 This is quoted with approval by Bishop Jewel in the homily
Against Peril of Idolatry (see below).
676
LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF
centuries.
been ceremonial or symbolical.1 Again, according to the Ada
of St Cyprian (d. 258), his body was borne to the grave prae-
lucentibus cereis, and Prudentius, in his hymn on the
2nd tad martyrdom of St Lawrence (Peristeph. ii. 71, in Migne,
Patr- ^al- 1*. 300), says that in the time of St
Laurentius, i.e. the middle of the 3rd century, candles
stood in the churches of Rome on golden candelabra. The gift,
mentioned by Anastasius (in Sylv.), made by Constantine to
the Vatican basilica, of a pharum of gold, garnished with 500
dolphins each holding a lamp, to burn before St Peter's tomb,
points also to a custom well established before Christianity
became the state religion.
Whatever previous custom may have been — and for the earliest
ages it is difficult to determine absolutely owing to the fact
that the Christians held their services at night — by
Jemme tne ciose of jjje 4th century the ceremonial use of
"aatius." lights nad become firmly and universally established
in the Church. This is clear, to pass by much
other evidence, from the controversy of St Jerome with
Vigilantius.
Vigilantius, a presbyter of Barcelona, still occupied the position
of Tertullian and Lactantius in this matter. " We see," he wrote,
" a rite peculiar to the pagans introduced into the churches on
pretext of religion, and, while the sun is still shining, a mass of
wax tapers lighted. ... A great honour to the blessed martyrs,
whom they think to illustrate with contemptible little candles (de
vilissimis cereolis) \ " Jerome, the most influential theologian of
the day, took up the cudgels against Vigilantius (he " ought to be
called Dormitantius "), who, in spite of his fatherly admonition,
had dared again " to open his foul mouth and send forth a filthy
stink against the relics of the holy martyrs " (Hier. Ep. cix. al. 53 —
ad Ripuarium Presbyt., in Migne, Patr. lat. p. 906). If candles are
lit before their tombs, are these the ensigns of idolatry ? In his
treatise contra Vigilantium (Patr. lat. t. xxiii.) he answers the question
with much common sense. There can be no harm if ignorant and
simple people, or religious women, light candles in honour of the
martyrs. We are not born, but reborn, Christians," and that
which when done for idols was detestable is acceptable when done
for the martyrs. As in the case of the woman with the precious
box of ointment, it is not the gift that merits reward, but the faith
that inspires it. As for lights in the churches, he adds that " in all
the churches of the East, whenever the gospel is to be read, lights
are lit, though the sun be rising (jam sole rutilante), not in order to
disperse the darkness, but as a visible sign of gladness (ad signum
laetitiae demonstrandum)." Taken in connexion with a statement
which almost immediately precedes this — " Cereos autem non clara
luce accendimus, sicut frustra calumniaris: sed ut noctis tenebras
hoc solatio temperemus " (§ 7) — this seems to point to the fact that the
ritual use of lights in the church services, so far as already estab-
lished, arose from the same conservative habit as determined the
development of liturgical vestments, i.e. the lights which had been
necessary at the nocturnal meetings were retained, after the hours
of service had been altered, and invested with a symbolical
meaning.
Already they were used at most of the conspicuous functions
of the Church. Paulinus, bishop of Nola (d. 431), describes
the altar at the eucharist as " crowned with crowded
Practice lights,"2 and even mentions the "eternal lamp."3
century. For their use at baptisms we have, among much other
evidence, that of Zeno of Verona for the West,4 and
that of Gregory of Nazianzus for the East.5 Their use at funerals
is illustrated by Eusebius's description of the burial of Con-
stantine,6 and Jerome's account of that of St Paula.7 At
ordinations they were used, as is shown by the 6th canon of the
council of Carthage (398), which decrees that the acolyte is to
hand to the newly ordained deacon ceroferarium cum cereo.
1 This symbolism — whatever it was — was not pagan, i.e. the
lamps were not placed in the graves as part of the furniture of the
dead — in the Catacombs they are found only in the niches of the
galleries and the arcosolia — nor can they have been votive in the
sense popularized later.
" Clara coronantur densis altaria lychnis " (Poem. De S. Felice
natalitium, xiv. 99, in Migne, Patr. lat. Ixi. 467).
" Continuum scyphus est arg^enteus aptus ad usum."
" Sal, ignis et oleum " (Lib. i. Tract, xiv. 4, in Migne, xi. 358).
6 In sanct. Pasch. c. 2; Migne, Patr. graeca, xxxvi. 624).
* <t>wra T' f^d^ocTts KVKXy M antvGiv xpvauiv, Bavnaarbv Oianarols bpuni
•*a.pti\ov (Vita Constantini, iv. 66).
7 " Cum alii Pontifices lampadas cereosque proferrent, alii choras
psallentium ducerent " (Ep. cviii. ad Eustochium virginem, in Migne).
As to the blessing of candles, according to the Liber pontificalis
Pope Zosimus in 417 ordered these to be blessed,8 and the
Gallican and Mozarabic rituals also provided for this ceremony.*
The Feast of the Purification of the Virgin, known as Candlemas
(q.i>.), because on this day the candles for the whole year are
blessed, was established — according to some authorities — by
Pope Gelasius I. about 492. As to the question of "altar lights,"
however, it must be borne in mind that these were not placed
upon the altar, or on a retable behind it, until the i2th century.
These were originally the candles carried by the deacons, accord-
ing to the Ordo Romanus (i. 8; ii. 5; iii. 7) seven in number,
which were set down either on the steps of the altar, or, later,
behind it. In the Eastern Church, to this day, there
are no lights on the high altar; the lighted candles clwrch
stand on a small altar beside it, and at various parts
of the service are carried by the lectors or acolytes before the
officiating priest or deacon. The " crowd of lights " described
by Paulinus as crowning the altar were either grouped round it
or suspended in front of it ; they are represented by the sanctuary
lamps of the Latin Church and by the crown of lights suspended
in front of the altar in the Greek.
To trace the gradual elaboration of the symbolism and use
of ceremonial lights in the Church, until its full development
and systematization in the middle ages, would be
impossible here. It must suffice to note a few stages in Develop'
the process. The burning of lights before the tombs ^el/se.
of martyrs led naturally to their being burned also
before relics and lastly before images and pictures. This latter
practice, hotly denounced as idolatry during the iconoclastic
controversy (see ICONOCLASM), was finally established as orthodox
by the second general council of Nicaea (787), which restored
the worship of images. A later development, however, by which
certain lights themselves came to be regarded as objects of
worship and to have other lights burned before them, was con-
demned as idolatrous by the synod of Noyon in 1344.'° The
passion for symbolism extracted ever new meanings out of the
candles and their use. Early in the 6th century Ennodius,
bishop of Pavia, pointed out the three-fold elements of a wax-
candle (Opusc. ix. and x.), each of which would make it an offering
acceptable to God; the rush-wick is the product of pure water,
the wax is the offspring of virgin bees,11 the flame is sent from
heaven.12 Clearly, wax was a symbol of the Blessed Virgin and
the holy humanity of Christ. The later middle ages developed
the idea. Durandus, in his Rationale, interprets the wax as the
body of Christ, the wick as his soul, the flame as his divine
nature; and the consuming candle as symbolizing his passion
and death.
8 This may be the paschal candle only. In some codices the text
runs: " Per parochias concessit licentiam benedicendi Cereum Pas-
chalem " (Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v. " Cereum Paschale "). In the
three variants of the notice of Zosimus given in Duchesne's edition
of the Lib. pontif. (1886-1892) the word cera is, however, alone
used. Nor does the text imply that he gave to the suburbican
churches a privilege hitherto exercised by the metropolitan church.
The passage runs: " Hie constituit ut diaconi leva tecta haberent de
pallets linostimis per parrochias et ut cera benedicatur," &c. Per
parrochias here obviously refers to the head-gear of the deacons, not
to the candles.
9 See also the Peregrinatio Sylviae (386), 86, &c., for the use of
lights at Jerusalem, and Isidore of Seville (Etym. vii. 12; xx. 10)
for the usage in the West. That even in the 7th century the blessing
of candles was by no means universal is proved by the gth canon of
the council oflToledo (671),]" De benedicendo cereo et lucerna in privi-
legiis Paschae." This canon states that candles and lamps are not
blessed in some churches, and that inquiries have been made why
we do it. In reply, the council decides that it should be done to
celebrate the mystery of Christ's resurrection. See Isidore of
Seville, Cone., in Migne, Pat. lat. Ixxxiv. 369.
10 Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v. " Candela."
11 Bees were believed, like fish, to be sexless.
12 " Venerandis compactam elementis facem tibi, Domine, manci-
pamus: in qua trium copula munerum primum de impari numero
^omplacebit: quae quod gratis Deo veniat auctoribus, non habetut
incertum : unum quod de fetibus fluminum accedunt nutrimenta
flammarum: aliud quod apum tribuit intemerata fecunditas, in
quarum partibus nulla partitur damna virginitas: ignis etiam
coelo infusus adhibetur " (Opusc. x. in Migne, Patr. lat. t. Ixiii.).
LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF
677
In the completed ritual system of the medieval Church, as still
preserved in the Roman Catholic communion, the use of ceremonial
lights falls under three heads. (l) They may be sym-
bolical of the light of God's presence, of Christ as " Light
of Light," or of " the children of Light " in conflict with
^ the powers of darkness; they may even be no more
Church. than expressions of joy on the occasion of great festivals.
(2) They may be votive, i.e. offered as an act of worship (latria) to
God. (3) They are, in virtue of their benediction by the Church,
sacramentalia, i.e. efficacious for the good of men's souls and bodies,
and for the confusion of the powers of darkness.1 With one or
more of these implications, they are employed in all the public
functions of the Church. At the consecration of a church twelve
lights are placed round the walls at the twelve spots
Dedication where these are anointed by the bishop with holy oil,
and on every anniversary these are relighted; at the
church. dedication of an altar tapers are lighted and censed at
each place where the table is anointed (Pontificate Rom. p. ii.
De eccl. dedicat. seu consecrat.). At every liturgical service, and
especially at Mass and at choir services, there must be at least
two lighted tapers on the altar,2 as symbols of the presence
At Mass Qf QQJ ancj tri5utes of adoration. For the Mass the
and choir ruje ;s that there are s;x lights at High Mass, four at a
services. missa cantata, and two at private masses. At a Pontifical
High Mass (i.e. when the bishop celebrates) the lights are seven,
because seven golden candlesticks surround the risen Saviour, the
chief bishop of the Church (see Rev. i. 12). At most pontifical
functions, moreover, the bishop — as the representative of Christ —
is preceded by an acolyte with a burning candle (bugia) on a candle-
stick. The Ceremoniale Episcoporum (i. 12) further orders that a
burning lamp is to hang at all times before each altar, three in front
of the high altar, and five before the reserved Sacrament,
ictuary as svmDois of the eternal Presence. In practice, how-
temps, ever, it is usual to have only one lamp lighted before
the tabernacle in which the Host is reserved. The special symbol
of the real presence of Christ is the Sanctus candle, which is lighted
at the moment of consecration and kept burning until
the communion. The same symbolism is intended by
the lighted tapers which must accompany the Host
*ea' whenever it is carried in procession, or to the sick and
Presence. dying_
As symbols of light and joy a candle is held on each side of the
deacon when reading the Gospel at Mass; and the same symbolism
underlies the multiplication of lights on festivals, their number
varying with the importance of the occasion. As to the number of
these latter no rule is laid down. They differ from liturgical lights
in that, whereas these must be tapers of pure beeswax or lamps
fed with pure olive oil (except by special dispensation under certain
circumstances), those used merely to add splendour to the cele-
bration may be of any materiaj; the only exception being, that in
the decoration of the altar gas-lights are forbidden.
In general the ceremonial use of lights in the Roman Catholic
Church is conceived as a dramatic representation in fire of the life
Tenebrae °^ Christ and of the whole scheme of salvation. On
Easter Eve the new fire, symbol of the light of the newly
risen Christ, is produced, and from this are kindled all the lights used
throughout the Christian year until, in the gathering darkness (tene-
broe) of the Passion, they are gradually extinguished. This quenching
of the light of the world is symbolized at the service of Tenebrae
in Holy Week by the placing on a stand before the altar of thirteen
lighted tapers arranged pyramidally, the rest of the church being
in darkness. The penitential psalms are sung, and at the end of
each a candle is extinguished. When only the central one is left
it is taken down and carried behind the altar, thus symbolizing the
1 All three conceptions are brought out in the prayers for the
blessing of candles on the Feast of the Purification of the B.V.M.
(Candlemas, q.v.). (i) " O holy Lord, . . . who ... by the com-
mand didst cause this liquid to come by the labour of bees to the
perfection of wax, . . . we beseech thee ... to bless and sanctify
these candles for the use of men, and the health of bodies and
souls. ..." (2) "... these candles, which we thy servants desire to
carry lighted to magnify thy name; that by offering them to thee,
being worthily inflamed with the holy fire of thy most sweet charity,
we may deserve," &c. (3) " O Lord Jesus Christ, the true light, . . .
mercifully grant, that as these lights enkindled with visible fire
dispel nocturnal darkness, so our hearts illumined by invisible fire,"
&c. (Missale Rom.). In the form for the blessing of candles extra
diem Purifications B. Mariae Virg. the virtue of the consecrated
candles in discomfiting demons is specially brought out: " that in
whatever places they may be lighted, or placed, the princes of dark-
ness may depart, and tremble, and may fly terror-stricken with all
their ministers from those habitations, nor presume further to
disquiet and molest those who serve thee, Almighty God " (Rituale
Rom.).
2 Altar candlesticks consist of five parts: the foot, stem, knob
in the centre, bowl to catch the drippings, and pricket (a sharp
point on which the candle is fixed). It is permissible to use a long
tube, pointed to imitate a candle, in which is a small taper forced
to the top by a spring (Cong. Rit., I ith May 1878).
betrayal and the death and burial of Christ. This ceremony can be
traced to the 8th century at Rome.
On Easter Eve new fire is made 3 with a flint and steel, and
blessed; from this three candles are lighted, the lumen Christi,
and from these again the Paschal Candle.4 This is the _.
symbol of the risen and victorious Christ, and burns at '
every solemn service until Ascension Day, when it is
extinguished and removed after the reading of the Gospel c*nale.
at High Mass. This, of course, symbolizes the Ascension; but
meanwhile the other lamps in the church have received their light
from the Paschal Candle, and so symbolize throughout the year
the continued presence of the light of Christ.
At the consecration of the baptismal water the burning Paschal
Candle is dipped into the font " so that the power of the Holy
Ghost may descend into it and make it an effective
instrument of regeneration." This is the symbol of BaP"sla-
baptism as rebirth as children of Light. Lighted tapers are also
placed in the hands of the newly-baptized, or of their god-parents,
with the admonition " to preserve their baptism inviolate, so that
they may go to meet the Lord when he comes to the wedding."
Thus, too, as " children of Light," candidates for ordina-
tion and novices about to take the vows carry lights
when they come before the bishop ; and the same idea '
underlies the custom of carrying lights at weddings, at the first
communion, and by priests going to their first mass, though none
of these are liturgically prescribed. Finally, lights are placed round
the bodies of the dead and carried beside them to the p
grave, partly as symbols that they still live in the light yj""'
of Christ, partly to frighten away the powers of darkness.
Conversely, the extinction of lights is part of the ceremony of
excommunication (Pontificate Rom. pars iii.). Regino, abbot of Prum.
describes the ceremony as it was carried out in his day,
when its terrors were yet unabated (De eccles. disciplina,
ii. 409). " Twelve priests should stand about the bishop,
holding in their hands lighted torches, which at the con- •
elusion of the anathema or excommunication they should cast down
and trample under foot." When the excommunication is removed,
the symbol of reconciliation is the handing to the penitent of a
burning taper.
As a result of the Reformation the use of ceremonial lights
was either greatly modified, or totally abolished in the Protestant
Churches. In the Reformed (Calvinistic) Churches
altar lights were, with the rest, done away with entirely
as popish and superstitious. In the Lutheran
Churches they were retained, and in Evangelical Germany
have even survived most of the other medieval rites and
ceremonies (e.g. the use of vestments) which were not abolished
at the Reformation itself.
In the Church of England the practice has been less consistent
The first Prayer-book of Edward VI. directed two lights to be
placed on the altar. This direction was omitted in the
second Prayer-book; but the " Ornaments Rubric "
of Queen Elizabeth's Prayer-book seemed again
to make them obligatory. The question of how far this did
so is a much-disputed one and is connected with the whole
problem of the meaning and scope of the rubric (see VESTMENTS).
An equal uncertainty reigns with regard to the actual usage of
the Church of England from the Reformation onwards. Lighted
candles certainly continued to decorate the holy table in Queen
Elizabeth's chapel, to the scandal of Protestant zealots. They
also seem to have been retained, at least for a while, in certain
cathedral and collegiate churches. There is, however, no mention
of ceremonial candles in the detailed account of the services of
the Church of England given by William Harrison (Description
of England, 1570); and the attitude of the Church towards their
use, until the ritualistic movement of the I7th century, would
seem to be authoritatively expressed in the Third Part of the
Sermon against Peril of Idolatry, which quotes with approval
the views of Lactantius and compares " our Candle Religion "
3 This is common to the Eastern Church also. Pilgrims from all
parts of the East flock to Jerusalem to obtain the " new fire " on
Easter Eve at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Here the fire is
supposed to be miraculously sent from heaven. The rush of the
pilgrims to kindle their lights at it is so great, that order is main-
tained with difficulty by Mahommedan soldiers.
4 The origin of the Paschal Candle is lost in the mists of antiquity.
According to the abb£ Chatelain (quoted in Diderot's Encyclopedic,
s.v. " Cierge ") the Paschal Candle was not originally a candle at
all, but a wax column on which the dates of the movable feasts
were inscribed. These were later written on pa^er and fixed to the
Paschal Candle, a custom which in his day survived in the Cluniac
churches.
6y8
LIGNE
with the " Gentiles Idolaters." This pronouncement, indeed,
though it certainly condemns the use of ceremonial lights in
most of its later developments, and especially the conception
of them as votive offerings whether to God or to the saints,
does not necessarily exclude, though it undoubtedly discourages,
their purely symbolical use.1 In this connexion it is worth
pointing out that the homily against idolatry was reprinted,
without alteration and by the king's authority, long after altar
lights had been restored under the influence of the high church
party supreme at court. Illegal under the Act of Uniformity
they seem never to have been. The use of " wax lights and
tapers " formed one of the indictments brought by P. Smart,
a Puritan prebendary of Durham, against Dr Burgoyne, Cosin
and others for setting up " superstitious ceremonies " in the
cathedral " contrary to the Act of Uniformity." The indict-
ments were dismissed in 1628 by Sir James Whitelocke, chief
justice of Chester and a judge of the King's Bench, and in 1629
by Sir Henry Yelverton, a judge of Common Pleas and himself
a strong Puritan (see Hierurgia Angllcana, ii. pp. 230 seq.). The
use of ceremonial lights was among the indictments in the
impeachment of Laud and other bishops by the House of
Commons, but these were not based on the Act of Uniformity.
From the Restoration onwards the use of ceremonial lights,
though far from universal, was not unusual in cathedrals and
collegiate churches.2 It was not, however, till the ritual revival
of the igth century that their use was at all widely extended
in parish churches- The growing custom met with fierce opposi-
tion; the law was appealed to, and in 1872 the Privy Council
declared altar lights to be illegal (Martin v. Mackonochie).
This judgment, founded as was afterwards admitted on insufficient
knowledge, produced no effect; and, in the absence of any
authoritative pronouncement, advantage was taken of the
ambiguous language of the Ornaments Rubric to introduce
into many churches practically the whole ceremonial use of
lights as practised in the pre-Reformation Church. The matter
was again raised in the case of Read and others v. the Bishop
of Lincoln (see LINCOLN JUDGMENT), one of the counts of the
indictment being that the bishop had, during the celebration
of Holy Communion, allowed two candles to be alight on a shelf
or retable behind the communion table when they were not
The necessary for giving light. The archbishop of Canter-
"Liacala bury, in whose court the case was heard (1889) , decided
"meat" tnat the mere Presence of two candles on the table,
burning during the service but lit before it began,
was lawful under the first Prayer-Book of Edward VI. and had
never been made unlawful. On the case being appealed to the
Privy Council, this particular indictment was dismissed on the
ground that the vicar, not the bishop, was responsible for the
presence of the lights, the general question of the legality of
altar lights being discreetly left open.
The custom of placing lighted candles round the bodies
of the dead, especially when " lying in state," has never wholly
died out in Protestant countries, though their significance
has long been lost sight of.3 In the i8th century, moreover,
it was still customary in England to accompany a funeral with
lighted tapers. Picart (op. cit. 1737) gives a plate representing
a funeral cortege preceded and accompanied by boys, each carry-
ing four lighted candles in a branched candlestick. There
seems to be no record of candles having been carried in other
processions in England since the Reformation. The usage
in this respect in some '' ritualistic " churches is a revival of
pre-Reformation ceremonial.
Seethe article " Lucerna," by J. Toutain in Daremberg and
Saglio's Diet, des antiquites grecques el romaines (Paris, 1904);
J. Marquardt, " Romische Privatalterthumer " (vol. v. of Becker's
1 This homily, written by Bishop Jewel, is largely founded on
Bullinger's De origine errons in Dimnorum et sacrorum cultu (1528,
1539).
2 A copper-plate in Bernard Picart's Ceremonies and Religious
Customs of the Various Nations (Eng. trans., London, 1737), vi. pt. I,
p. 78, illustrating an Anglican Communion service at St Paul's,
shows two lighted candles on the holy table.
'In some parts of Scotland it is still customary to place two
lighted candles on a table beside a corpse on the day of burial.
Rom. Alterthiimer), ii. 238-301; article " Cierges et lampes," in the
Abbe J. A. Martigny's Diet, des Antiquites Chretiennes (Paris, 1865) ;
the articles " Lichter " and " Koimetarien " (pp. 834 seq.) in Herzog-
Hauck's Realencyklopadie (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1901); the article
" Licht " in Wetzer and Welte's Kirchenlexikon (Freiburg-i.-B.,
1882-1901), an excellent exposition of the symbolism from the
Catholic point of view, also "Kerze" and "Lichter"; W. Smith
and S. Cheetham, Diet, of Chr. Antiquities (London, 1875-1880), i.
939 seq.; in all these numerous further references will be found.
See also Muhlbauer, Gesch. u. Bedeutung der Waehslichter bei den
kirchlichen Funktionen (Augsburg, 1874); V. Thalhofer, Handbuch
der Katholischen Liturgik (Freiburg-i.-B., 1887), i. 666 seq.; and,
for the post-Reformation use in the Church of England, Hierurgia
Anglicana, new ed. by Vernon Staley (London, 1903). (W. A. P.)
LIGNE, CHARLES JOSEPH, PRINCE DE (1735-1814), soldier
and writer, came of a princely family of Hainaut, and was born
at Brussels in 1735. As an Austrian subject he entered the
imperial army at an early age. He distinguished himself by
his valour in the Seven Years' War, notably at Breslau, Leuthen,
Hochkirch and Maxen, and after the war rose rapidly to the
rank of lieutenant field marshal. He became the intimate
friend and counsellor of the emperor Joseph II., and, inheriting
his father's vast estates, lived in the greatest splendour and
luxury till the War of the Bavarian Succession brought him
again into active service. This war was short and uneventful,
and the prince then travelled in England, Germany, Italy,
Switzerland and France, devoting himself impartially to the
courts, the camps, the salons and the learned assemblies of
philosophers and scientists in each country. In 1784 he was
again employed in military work, and was promoted to Feldzeug-
meister. In 1787 he was with Catherine II. in Russia, ac-
companied her in her journey to the Crimea, and was made
a Russian field marshal by the empress. In 1788 he was present
at the siege of Belgrade. Shortly after this he was invited
to place himself at the head of the Belgian revolutionary move-
ment, in which one of his sons and many of his relatives were
prominent, but declined with great courtesy, saying that " he
never revolted in the winter." Though suspected t by Joseph
of collusion with the rebels, the two friends were not long es-
tranged, and after the death of the emperor the prince remained
in Vienna. His Brabant estates were overrun by the French
in 1792-1793, and his eldest son killed in action at La Croix-du-
Bois in the Argonne (September 14, 1792). He was given the
rank of field marshal (1809) and an honorary command at court,
living in spite of the loss of his estates in comparative luxury
and devoting himself to literary work. He lived long enough
to characterize the proceedings of the congress of Vienna with
the famous mot: " Le Congres danse mais ne marche pas."
He died at Vienna on the i3th of December 1814. His grandson,
Eugene Lamoral de Ligne (1804-1880), was a distinguished
Belgian statesman.
His collected works appeared in thirty-four volumes at Vienna
during the last years of his life (Melanges militaires, litteraires,
sentimentaires), and he bequeathed his manuscripts to the emperor's
Trabant Guard, of which he was captain (CEuvres posthumes, Dresden
and Vienna, 1817). Selections were published in French and
German (CEuvres ehoisies de M. le prince de Ligne (Paris, 1809) ;
Lettres et pensees du Marechal Prince de Ligne, ed. by Madame de
Stael (1809); CEuvres historiques, litteraires . . . correspondance et
poesies diverses (Brussels, 1859) ; Des Prinzen Karl von Ligne
militdrische Werke, ed. Count Pappenheim (Sulzbach, 1814). The
most important of his numerous works on all military subjects is
the Fantaisies et prejuges militaires, which originally appeared in
1780. A modern edition is that published by J. Dumaine (Paris,
1879). A German version (MUitarische Vorurtheile und Phantasien,
&c.) appeared as early as 1783. This work, though it deals lightly
and cavalierly with the most important subjects (the prince even
proposes to found an international academy of the art of war,
wherein the reputation of generals could be impartially weighed),
is a military classic, and indispensable to the students of the post-
Frederician period. On the whole, it may be said that the prince
adhered to the school of Guibert (q.v.), and a full discussion will be
found in Max Jahns' Gesch. d. Kriegsuiissenschaften, iii. 2091 et seq.
Another very celebrated work by the prince is the mock autobio-
graphy of Prince Eugene (1809).
See Revue de Bruxelles (October 1839) ; Reiffenberg, " Le Feld-
mar6chal Prince Charles Joseph de Ligne," Memoires de I'academie
de Bruxelles, vol. xix. ; Peetermans, Le Prince de Ligne, ou un
ecrivain grand seigneur (Liege, 1857), £tudes et notices historiques
concernant I'histoire das Pays Bas, vol. iii. (Brussels, 1890); Memoires
LIGNITE— LIGUORI
679
et publications de la Societe des Sciences, &fc . du Hainault, vol. in.,
5th series; Dublet Le Prince de Ligne et ses contemporains (Paris,
1889) , Wurzbach, Biogr. Lexikon d. Kaiserth. Osterr (Vienna,
1858); Hirtenfeld, Der Militar-Maria-Theresien-Orden, vol. i.
(Vienna, 1857) , Ritter von Rettersberg, Biogr. d ausgezeichnetsten
Feldherren (Prague, 1829); Schweigerd, Osterr. Helden, vol. iii.
(Vienna, 1854) ; Thiirheim, F. M. Karl Joseph Furst de Ligne
(Vienna, 1877).
LIGNITE (Lat. lignum, wood), an imperfectly formed coal,
usually brownish in colour, and always showing the structure
of the wood from which it was derived (see COAL) .
LIGONIER, JOHN (JEAN Louis) LIGONIER, EARL (1680-
1770), British Field Marshal, came of a Huguenot family of
Castres in the south of France, members of which emigrated
to England at the close of the 1 7th century. He entered the army
as a volunteer under Marlborough. From 1702 to 1710 he was
engaged, with distinction, in nearly every important battle
and siege of the war. He was one of the first to mount the
breach at the siege of Liege, commanded a company at the
Schellenberg and at Blenheim, and was present at Menin (where
he led the storming of the covered way), Ramillies, Oudenarde
and Malplaquet (where he received twenty-three bullets through
his clothing and remained unhurt) . In 1 7 1 2 he became governor
of Fort St Philip, Minorca, and in 1718 was adjutant-general
of the troops employed in the Vigo expedition, where he led the
stormers of Fort Marin. Two years later he became colonel
of the " Black Horse " (now yth Dragoon Guards), a command
which he retained for 29 years. His regiment soon attained
an extraordinary degree of efficiency. He was made brigadier-
general in 1735, major-general in 1739, and accompanied Lord
Stair in the Rhine Campaign of 1742-1743. George II. made
him a Knight of the Bath on the field of Dettingen. At Fonte-
noy Ligonier commanded the British foot, and acted throughout
the battle as adviser to the duke of Cumberland. During the
" Forty-Five " he was called home to command the British army
in the Midlands, but in January 1746 was placed at the head
of the British and British-paid contingents of the Allied army
in the Low Countries. He was present at Roucoux (nth Oct.
1746), and, as general of horse, at Val (ist July 1747), where
he led the last charge of the British cavalry. In this encounter
his horse was killed, and he was taken prisoner, but was ex-
changed in a few days. With the close of the campaign ended
Ligonier's active career, but (with a brief interval in 1756-1757)
he occupied various high civil and military posts to the close
of his life. In 1757 he was made, in rapid succession, commander-
in-chief, colonel of the ist Foot Guards (now Grenadier Guards),
and a peer of Ireland under the title of Viscount Ligonier of
Enniskillen, a title changed in 1762 for that of Clonmell. From
1759 to 1762 he was master-general of the Ordnance, and in
1763 he became Baron, and in 1766 Earl, in the English peerage.
In the latter year he became field marshal. He died in 1770.
His younger brother, Francis, was also a distinguished
soldier; and his son succeeded to the Irish peerage of Lord
Ligonier.
See Combes, J. L. Ligonier, une etude (Castres, 1866), and the
histories of the 7th Dragoon Guards and Grenadier Guards.
LIGUORI, ALFONSO MARIA DEI (1696-1787), saint and
doctor of the Church of Rome, was born at Marianella, near
Naples, on the 27th of September 1696, being the son of Giuseppe
dei Liguori, a Neapolitan noble. He began life at the bar,
where he obtained considerable practice; but the loss of an
important suit, in which he was counsel for a Neapolitan noble
against the grand duke of Tuscany, and in which he had entirely
mistaken the force of a leading document, so mortified him
that he withdrew from the legal world. In 1726 he entered
the Congregation of Missions as a novice, and became a priest
in 1726. In 1732 he founded the " Congregation of the Most
Holy Redeemer " at Scala, near Salerno; the headquarters
of the Order were afterwards transferred to Nocera dei Pagani.
Its members, popularly called Liguorians or Redemptorists,
devote themselves to the religious instruction of the poor, more
especially in country districts; Liguori specially forbade them
to undertake secular educational work. In 1750 appeared his
celebrated devotional book on the Glories of Mary; three
years later came his still more celebrated treatise on moral
theology. In 1755 this was much enlarged and translated into
Latin under the title of Homo Apostolicus. In 1762, at the
express desire of the pope, he accepted the bishopric of Sant'
Agata dei Goti, a small town in the province of Benevent;
though he had previously refused the archbishopric of Palermo.
Here he worked diligently at practical reforms, being specially
anxious to raise the standard of clerical life and work. In 1775
he resigned his bishopric on the plea of enfeebled health; he
retired to his Redemptorists at Nocera, and died there in 1787.
In 1796 Pius VI. declared him " venerable "; he was beatified
by Pius VII. in 1816, canonized by Gregory XVI. in 1839, and
finally declared one of the nineteen " Doctors of the Church "
by Pius IX. in 1871.
Liguori is the chief representative of a school of casuistry and
devotional theology still abundantly represented within the
Roman Church. Not that he was in any sense its founder.
He was simply a fair representative of the Italian piety of his
day — amiable, ascetic in his personal habits, indefatigable in
many forms of activity, and of more than respectable abilities;
though the emotional side of his character had the predominance
over his intellect. He was learned, as learning was understood
among the Italian clergy of the i8th century; but he was
destitute of critical faculty, and the inaccuracy of his quotations
is proverbial. In his casuistical works he was a dih'gent compiler,
whose avowed design was to take a middle course between the
two current extremes of severity and laxity. In practice, he
leant constantly towards laxity. Eighteenth-century Italy
looked on religion with apathetic indifference, and Liguori
convinced himself that only the gentlest and most lenient
treatment could win back the alienated laity; hence he was
always willing to excuse errors on the side of laxity as due to an
excess of zeal in winning over penitents. Severity, on the other
hand, seemed to him not only inexpedient, but positively wrong.
By making religion hard it made it odious, and thus prepared
the way for unbelief. Like all casuists, he took for granted that
morality was a recondite science, beyond the reach of all but the
learned. When a layman found himself in doubt, his duty was
not to consult his conscience, but to take the advice of his
confessor; while the confessor himself was bound to follow the
rules laid down by the casuistical experts, who delivered them-
selves of a kind of " counsel's opinion " on all knotty points of
practical morality. But experts proverbially differ: what was
to be done when they disagreed? Suppose, for instance, that
some casuists held it wrong to dance on Sunday, while others
held it perfectly lawful. In Liguori's time there were four ways
of answering the question. Strict moralists — called rigorists,
or " tutiorists " — maintained that the austerer opinion ought
always to be followed; dancing on Sundays was certainly wrong,
if any good authorities had declared it to be so. Probabiliorists
maintained that the more general opinion ought to prevail,
irrespectively of whether it was the stricter or the laxer; dancing
on Sunday was perfectly lawful, if the majority of casuists
approved it. Probabilists argued that any opinion might be
followed, if it could show good authority on its side, even if
there was still better authority against it; dancing on Sunday
must be innocent, if it could show a fair sprinkling of eminent
names in its favour. The fourth and last school — the " laxists "
— carried this principle a step farther, and held that a practice
must be unobjectionable, if it could prove that any one " grave
Doctor " had defended it; even if dancing on Sunday had
hitherto lain under the ban of the church, a single casuist could
legitimate it by one stroke of his pen. Liguori's great achieve-
ment lay in steering a middle course between these various
extremes. The gist of his system, which is known as " equi-
probabilism," is that the more indulgent opinion may always
be followed, whenever the authorities in its favour are as good,
or nearly as good, as those on the other side. In this way he
claimed that he had secured liberty in its rights without
allowing it to degenerate into licence. However much they might
personally disapprove, ^ zealous priests could not forbid their
68o
LIGURES BAEBIANI— LIGURIA
parishioners to dance on Sunday, if the practice had won wide-
spread toleration; on the other hand, they could not relax
the usual discipline of the church on the strength of a few
unguarded opinions of too indulgent casuists. Thus the Liguorian
system surpassed all its predecessors in securing uniformity
in the confessjonal on a basis of established usage, two advantages
amply sufficient to ensure its speedy general adoption within
the Church of Rome.
Lives by A. M. Tannoja, a pupil of Liguori's (3 vols., Naples, 1798-
1802); new ed., Turin, 1857; French trans., Paris, 1842); P. v. A.
Giattini (Rome, 1815: Ger trans., Vienna, 1835); F. W. Faber
(4 vols., London, 1848-1849); M. A. Hugues (Munster, 1857);
O. Gisler (Einsiedeln, 1887); K. Dilgskron (2 vols., Regensburg,
1887), perhaps the best; A. Capecelatro (2 vols., Rome, 1893);
A.des Retours (Paris, 1903); A. C. Berthe (St Louis, 1906).
Works (a) Collected editions. Italian: (Monza, 1819, 1828;
Venice, 1830; Naples, 1840 ff.; Turin, 1887, ff.). French: (Tournai,
1855 ff., new ed., 1895 ff.) German: (Regensburg, 1842-1847).
English : (22 vols., New York, 1887-1895). Editions of the Theologia
Moralis and other separate works are very numerous, (b) Letters:
(2 vols., Monza, 1831 ; 3 vols., Rome, 1887 ff.). See also Meyrick,
Moral and Devotional Theology of the Church of Rome, according to
the Teaching of S. Alfonso de Liguori (London, 1857), and art.
CASUISTRY. (Si. C.)
LIGURES BAEBIANI, in ancient geography, a settlement of
Ligurians in Samnium, Italy. The towns of Taurasia and
Cisauna in Samnium had been captured in 298 B.C. by the consul
L. Cornelius Scipio Barbatus, and the territory of the former
remained Roman state domain. In 180 B.C. 47,000 Ligurians
from the neighbourhood of Luna (Ligures Apuani), with women
and children, were transferred to this district, and two settlements
were formed taking their names from the consuls of 181 B.C.,
the Ligures Baebiani and the Ligures Corneliani. The site of the
former town lies 1 5 m. N. of Beneventum, on the road to Saepinum
and Aesernia. In its ruins several inscriptions have been found,
notably a large bronze tablet discovered in a public building
in the Forum bearing the date A.D. 101, and relating to the
alimentary institution founded by Trajan here (see VELEIA).
A sum of money was lent to landed proprietors of the district
(whose names and estates are specified in the inscription), and
the interest which it produced formed the income of the institu-
tion, which, on the model of that of Veleia, would have served
to support a little over one hundred children. The capital was
401,800 sesterces, and the annual interest probably at 5%,
i.e. 20,090 sesterces (£4018 and £201 respectively). The site
of the other settlement — that of the Ligures Corneliani — is
unknown.
See T. Mommsen in Corp. Inscr. Lat. ix. (Berlin, 1883), 125 sqq.
(T. As}
LIGURIA, a modern territorial division of Italy, lying between
the Ligurian Alps and the Apennines on the N., and the Mediter-
ranean on the S. and extending from the frontier of France on
the W. to the Gulf of Spezia on the E. Its northern limits touch
Piedmont and Lombardy, while Emilia and Tuscany fringe
its eastern borders, the dividing line following as a rule the
summits of the mountains. Its area is 2037 sq. m. The railway
from Pisa skirts the entire coast of the territory, throwing off
lines to Parma from Sarzana and Spezia, to Milan and Turin
from Genoa, and to Turin from Savona, and there is a line from
Ventimiglia to Cuneo and Turin by the Col di Tenda. Liguria
embraces the two provinces of Genoa and Porto Maurizio
(Imperia), which once formed the republic of Genoa. Its
sparsely-peopled mountains slope gently northward towards
the Po, descending, however, abruptly into the sea at several
points; the narrow coast district, famous under the name of
the Riviera (<?.».), is divided at Genoa into the Riviera di Ponente
towards France, and the Riviera di Levante towards the east.
Its principal products are wheat, maize, wine, oranges, lemons,
fruits, olives and potatoes, though the olive groves are being
rapidly supplanted by flower-gardens, which grow flowers for
export. Copper and iron pyrites are mined. The principal
industries are iron-works, foundries, iron shipbuilding, engineer-
ing, and boiler works (Genoa, Spezia, Sampierdarena, Sestri
Ponente, &c.), the production of cocoons, and the manufacture
of cottons and woollens. Owing to the sheltered situation and
the mildness of their climate, many of the coast towns are
chosen by thousands of foreigners for winter residence, while
the Italians frequent them in summer for sea-bathing. The
inhabitants have always been adventurous seamen — Columbus
and Amerigo Vespucci were Genoese, — and the coast has several
good harbours, Genoa, Spezia and Savona being the best. In
educational and general development, Liguria stands high
among the regions of Italy. The populations of the respective
provinces and their chief towns are, according to the census
of 1901 (popolazione residents or legate) — province of Genoa,
pop. 931,156; number of communes 197; chief towns — Genoa
(219,507), Spezia (66,263), Savona (38,648), Sampierdarena
(34,084), Sestri Ponente (17,225). Province of Porto Maurizio,
pop. 144,604, number of communes 106; chief towns — Porto
Maurizio (7207), S. Remo (20,027), Ventimiglia (11,468), Oneglia
(8252). Total for Liguria, 1,075,760.
The Ligurian coast became gradually subject to the Romans,
and the road along it must have been correspondingly prolonged:
up to the end of the Hannibalic war the regular starting-point
for Spain by sea was Pisae, in 195 B.C. it was the harbour of Luna
(Gulf of Spezia),1 though Genua must have become Roman a
little before this time, while, in 137 B.C., C. Hostilius Mancinus
marched as far as Portus Herculis (Villafranca), and in 121 B.C.
the province of Gallia Narbonensis was formed and the coast-road
prolonged to the Pyrenees. In 14 B.C. Augustus restored the
whole road from Placentia to Dertona (Via Postumia), and
thence to Vada Sabatia (Via Aemilia [2]) and the River Varus
(Var), so that it thenceforth took the name of Via Julia Augusta
(see AEMILIA, VIA [2]). The other chief roads of Liguria were
the portion of the Via Postumia from Dertona to Genua, a road
from above Vada through Augusta Bagiennorum and Pollentia
to Augusta Taurinorum, and another from Augusta Taurinorum
to Hasta and Valentia. The names of the villages — Quarto,
Quinto, &c. — on the south-east side and Pontedecimo on the
north of Genoa allude to their distance along the Roman roads.
The Roman Liguria, forming the ninth region of Augustus, was
thus far more extensive than the modern, including the country
on the north slopes of the Apennines and Maritime Alps between
the Trebia and the Po, and extending a little beyond Albinti-
milium. On the west Augustus formed the provinces of the
Alpes Maritimae and the Alpes Cottiae. Towns of importance
were few, owing to the nature of the country. Dertona was
the only colony, and Alba Pompeia, Augusta Bagiennorum,
Pollentia, Hasta, Aquae Statiellae, and Genua may also be
mentioned; but the Ligurians dwelt entirely in villages, and
were organized as tribes. The mountainous character of Liguria
made the spread of culture difficult; it remained a forest district,
producing timber, cattle, ponies, mules, sheep, &c. Oil and
wine had to be imported, and when the cultivation of the olive
began is not known.
The arrangement made by Augustus lasted until the time
of Diocletian, when the two Alpine provinces were abolished,
and the watershed became the boundary between Italy and
Gaul. At this time we find the name Liguria extended as far
as Milan, while in the 6th century the old Liguria was separated
from it, and under the Lombards formed the fifth Italian province
under the name of Alpes Cottiae. In the middle ages the ancient
Liguria north of the Apennines fell to Piedmont and Lombardy,
while that to the south, with the coast strip, belonged to the
republic of Genoa. (T. As.)
Archaeology and Philology. — It is clear that in earlier times
the Ligurians occupied a much more extensive area than the
Augustan region; for instance Strabo (i. 2, 92; iv. i, 7) gives
earlier authorities for their possession of the land on which the
Greek colony of Massalia (Marseilles) was founded; and Thucy-
dides (vi. 2) speaks of a settlement of Ligurians in Spain who
expelled the Sicani thence. Southward their domain extended
as far as Pisa on the coast of Etruria and Arretium inland in the
1 The dividing line between Liguria and Etruria was the lower
course of the river Macra (Magra), so that, while the harbour of
Luna was in the former, Luna itself was in the latter.
LI HUNG CHANG
681
time of Polybius (ii. 6), and a somewhat vague reference in
Lycophron (line 1351) to the Ligurians as enemies of the founders
of Agylla (i.e. Caere) suggests that they once occupied even a
larger tract to the south. Seneca (Cons ad Helv. vii. 9), states
that the population of Corsica was partly Ligurian. By combin-
ing traditions recorded by Dionysius (i. 22; xiv. 37) and others
(e.g. Serv. ad. Aen. xi. 317) as having been held by Cato the
Censor and by Philistus of Syracuse (385 B.C.) respectively,
Professor Ridgeway (Who were the Romans? London, 1908, p. 3)
decides in favour of identifying the Ligurians with a tribe called
the Aborigines who occupy a large place in the early traditions
of Italy (see Dionysius i. cc. 10 ff.) ; and who may at all events be
regarded with reasonable certainty as constituting an early
pre-Roman and pre-Tuscan stratum in the population of Central
Italy (see LATIUM). For a discussion of this question see VOLSCI.
Ridgeway holds that the language of the Ligurians, as well as
their antiquities, was identical with that of the early Latins, and
with that of the Plebeians of Rome (as contrasted with that
of the Patrician or Sabine element), see ROME: History (ad.
init.). The archaeological side of this important question is
difficult. Although great progress has been made with the study
of the different strata of remains in prehistoric Italy and of
those of Liguria itself (see for instance the excellent Introduction
A rhistoire romaine by Basile Modestov (Paris, 1907, p. 122 ff.)
and W. Ridgeway's Early Age of Greece, p. 240 ff.) no general
agreement has been reached among archaeologists as to the
particular races who are to be identified as the authors of the
early strata, earlier, that is, than that stratum which represents
the Etruscans.
On. the linguistic side some fairly certain conclusions have
been reached. D'Arbois de Jubainville (Les Premiers habitants
de I'Europe, ed. 2, Paris, 1889-1894) pointed out the great
frequency of the suffix -asco- (and -usco-} both in ancient and in
modern Ligurian districts, and as far north as Caranusca near
Metz, and also in the eastern Alps and in Spain. He pointed
out also, what can scarcely be doubted, that the great mass of
the Ligurian proper names (e.g. the streams Vinelasca, Porcobera,
Comber -anea; mons Tuledo; Venascum), have a definite Indo-
European character. Farther Karl Mullenhof in vol. iii. of his
Deutsche Alterthumskunde (Berlin, 1898) made a careful collection
of the proper names reserved in Latin inscriptions of the Ligurian
districts, such as the Tabula Genuatium (C.I.L. i. 99) of 117 B.C.
A complete collection of all Ligurian place and personal names
known has been made by S. Elizabeth Jackson, B.A., and the
collection is to be combined with the inscriptional remains of
the district in The Pre-Italic Dialects, edited by R. S. Conway
(see The Proceedings of the British Academy). Following
Kretschmer Kuhn's Zeitschrift (xxxviii. 97), who discussed
several inscriptions found near Ornavasso (Lago Maggiore) and
concluded that they showed an Indo-European language, Conway,
though holding that the inscriptions are more Celtic than
Ligurian, pointed out strong evidence in the ancient place names
of Liguria that the language spoken there in the period which
preceded the Roman conquest was Indo-European, and belonged
to a definite group, namely, languages which preserved the
original q as Latin did, and did not convert it into p as did the
Umbro-Safine tribes. The same is probably true of Venetia
(see VENETI), and of an Indo-European language preserved
on inscriptions found at Coligny and commonly referred to the
Sequani (see Comptes Rendus de I' Ac. d'Insc., Paris, 1897, 703;
E. B. Nicholson, Sequanian, London, 1898; Thurneysen,
Zeitschr. f. Kelt. Phil., 1899, 523). Typically Ligurian names
are Quiamelius, which contains the characteristic Ligurian
word melo- " stone " as in mons Blusliemelus (C.I.L. v. 7749),
Intimelium and the modern Vintimiglia. The tribal names
Soliceli, Stoniceli, clearly contain the same element as Lat.
aequi-coli (dwellers on the plain), sati-cola, &c., namely quel-, cf.
Lat. in-qvil-inus, colo, Gr. Tro\flv, TeAXe<r0cu. And it should
be added that the Ligurian ethnica show the prevailing use
of the two suffixes -co - and - all-, which there is reason to
refer to the pre-Roman stratum of population in Italy (see
VOLSCI).
Besides the authorities already cited the student may be referred
to C. Pauli, Altitalische Studien, vol. i., especially for the alphabet
of the insc. ; W. Ridgeway, Who were the Romans? (followed by the
abstract of a paper by the present writer) in The Proceedings of the
British Academy, vol. iii. p. 42; and to W. H. Hall's, The Romans
on the Riviera and the Rhone (London, 1898); Issel's La Liguria
geplogica e preistorica (Genoa, 1892). A further batch of Celto-
Ligurian inscriptions from Giubiasco near Bellinzona (Canton
Ticino) is published by G. Herbig, in the Anzeiger f. Schweizer.
Altertumskunde, vii. (1905-1906), p. 187; and one of the same class
by Elia Lattes, Di un' Iscriz. ante-Romana trovata a Carcegna sul
Lago d' Orta (Atti d. r. Accad. d. Scienze di Torino, xxxix., Feb.
1904)- , (R. S. C.)
LI HUNG CHANG (1823-1901), Chinese statesman, was born
on the i6th of February 1823 at Hofei, in Ngan-hui. From his
earliest youth he showed marked ability, and when quite young
he took his bachelor degree. In 1847 he became a Tsin-shi, or
graduate of the highest order, and two years later was admitted
into the imperial Hanlin college. Shortly after this the central
provinces of the empire were invaded by the Taiping rebels, and
in defence of his native district he raised a regiment of militia,
with which he did such good service to the imperial cause that he
attracted the attention of Tseng Kuo-fan, the generalissimo in
command. In 1859 he was transferred to the province of Fu-kien,
where he was given the rank of taotai, or intendant of circuit.
But Tseng had not forgotten him, and at his request Li was
recalled to take part against the rebels. He found his cause
supported by the " Ever Victorious Army," which, after having
been raised by an American named Ward, was finally placed
under the command of Charles George Gordon. With this
support Li gained numerous victories leading to the surrender of
Suchow and the capture of Nanking. For these exploits he was
made governor of Kiangsu, was decorated with a yellow jacket,
and was created an earl. An incident connected with the sur-
render of Suchow, however, left a lasting stain upon his character.
By an arrangement with Gordon the rebel wangs, or princes,
yielded Nanking on condition that their lives should be spared.
In spite of the assurance given them by Gordon, Li ordered their
instant execution. This breach of faith so aroused Gordon's
indignation that he seized a rifle, intending to shoot the falsifier
of his word, and would have done so had not Li saved himself by
flight. On the suppression of the rebellion (1864) Li took up his
duties as governor, but was not long allowed to remain in civil
life. On the outbreak of the rebellion of the Nienfei, a remnant
of the Taipings, in Ho-nan and Shan-tung (1866) he was ordered
again to take the field, and after some misadventures he succeeded
in suppressing the movement. A year later he was appointed
viceroy of Hukwang, where he remained until 1870, when the
Tientsin massacre necessitated his transfer to the scene of the
outrage. He was, as a natural consequence, appointed to the
viceroyalty of the metropolitan province of Chihli, and justified
his appointment by the energy with which he suppressed all
attempts to keep alive the anti-foreign sentiment among the
people. For his services he was made imperial tutor and member
of the grand council of the empire, and was decorated with
many-eyed peacocks' feathers.
To his duties as viceroy were added those of the superintendent
of trade, and from that time until his death, with a few intervals of
retirement, he practically conducted the foreign policy of China.
He concluded the Chifu convention with Sir Thomas Wade (1876),
and thus ended the difficulty caused by the murder of Mr Margary
in Yunnan; he arranged treaties with Peru and Japan, and he
actively directed the Chinese policy in Korea. On the death of the
emperor T'ungchi in 1875 he, by suddenly introducing a large
armed force into the capital, effected a coup d'etat by which the
emperor Kwang Sii was put on the throne under the tutelage of
the two dowager empresses; and in 1886, on the conclusion of
the Franco-Chinese war, he arranged a treaty with France. Li
was always strongly impressed with the necessity of strengthening
the empire, and when viceroy of Chihli he raised a large well-drilled
and well-armed force, and spent vast sums both in fortifying Port
Arthur and the Taku forts and in increasing the navy. For years
he had watched the successful reforms effected in Japan and had a
well-founded dread of coming into conflict with that empire. But
682
LILAC— LILBURNE
in 1894 events forced his hand, and in consequence of a dispute
as to the relative influence of China and Japan in Korea, war
broke out. The result proved the wisdom of Li's fears. Both on
land and at sea. the Chinese forces were ignominiously routed,
and in 1895, on the fall of Wei-hai-wei, the emperor sued for
peace. With characteristic subterfuge his advisers suggested as
peace envoys persons whom the mikado very properly and
promptly refused to accept, and finally Li was sent to represent
his imperial master at the council assembled at Shimonoseki.
With great diplomatic skill Li pleaded the cause of his country,
but finally had to agree to the cession of Formosa, the Pescadores,
and the Liaotung peninsula to the conquerors, and to the pay-
ment of an indemnity of 200,000,000 taels. By a subsequent
arrangement the Liaotung peninsula was restored to China, in
exchange for an increased indemnity. During the peace discus-
sions at Shimonoseki, as Li was being borne through the narrow
streets of the town, a would-be assassin fired a pistol point-blank
in his face. The wound inflicted was not serious, and after a few
days' rest Li was able to take up again the suspended negotiations.
In 1896 he represented the emperor at the coronation of the tsar,
and visited Germany, Belgium, France, England, and the United
States of America. For some time after his return to China his
services were demanded at Peking, where he was virtually con-
stituted minister for foreign affairs; but in 1900 he was trans-
ferred to Canton as viceroy of the two Kwangs. The Boxer
movement, however, induced the emperor to recall him to the
capital, and it was mainly owing to his exertions that, at the
conclusion of the outbreak, a protocol of peace was signed in
September 1901. For many months his health had been failing,
and he died on the 7th of November 1901. He left three sons
and one daughter. (R. K. D.)
LILAC,1 or PIPE TREE (Syringa mlgaris) , a tree of the olive
family, Oleaceae. The genus contains about ten species of
ornamental hardy deciduous shrubs native in eastern Europe and
temperate Asia. They have opposite, generally entire leaves and
large panicles of small regular flowers, with a bell-shaped calyx
and a 4-lobed cylindrical corolla, with the two stamens character-
istic of the order attached at the mouth of the tube. The com-
mon lilac is said to have come from Persia in the i6th century,
but is doubtfully indigenous in Hungary, the borders of Moldavia,
&c. Two kinds of Syringa, viz. alba and caerulea, are figured and
described by Gerard (Herball, 1597), which he calls the white and
the blue pipe privets. The former is the common privet, Ligus-
trum vulgar e, which, and the ash tree, Fraxinus excelsior, are the
only members of the family native in Great Britain. The latter is
the lilac, as both figure and description agree accurately with it.
It was carried by the European colonists to north-east America,
and is still grown in gardens of the northern and middle states.
There are many fine varieties of lilac, both with single and double
flowers: they are among the commonest and most beautiful of
spring-flowering shrubs. The so-called Persian lilac of gardens
(S. dubia, S. chinensis var. Rothomagensis), also known as the
Chinese or Rouen lilac, a small shrub 4 to 6 ft. high with intense
violet flowers appearing in May and June, is considered to be a
hybrid between S. vulgaris and 5. persica — the true Persian lilac,
a native of Persia and Afghanistan, a shrub 4 to 7 ft. high with
bluish-purpje or white flowers. Of other species, S. Josikaea, from
Transylvania, has scentless bluish-purple flowers; S. Emodi, a
native of the Himalayas, is a handsome shrub with large ovate leaves
and dense panicles of purple or white strongly scented flowers.
Lilacs grow freely and flower profusely in almost any soil and
situation, but when neglected are apt to become choked with suckers
which shoot up in great numbers from the base. They are readily
propagated by means of these suckers.
Syringa is also a common name for the mock-orange Philadelphus
coronarius (nat. ord. Saxifragaceae), a handsome shrub 2 to 10 ft.
high, with smooth ovate leaves and clusters of white flowers which
have a strong orange-like scent. It is a native of western Asia, and
perhaps some parts of southern Europe.
LILBURNE, JOHN (c. 1614-1657), English political agitator,
was the younger son of a gentleman of good family in the county
of Durham. At the age of twelve he was apprenticed to a
clothier in London, but he appears to have early addicted himself
to the " contention, novelties, opposition of government, and
1 The Span, lilac, Fr. lilac, mod. lilas, are adapted Irom Arab, lilak,
Pers. tUak, variant of nilak, of a blue colour, nil, blue, the indigo-plant.
violent and bitter expressions " for which he afterwards became so
conspicuous as to provoke the saying of Harry Marten (the
regicide) that, " if the world was emptied of all but John Lilburn,
Lilburn would quarrel with John, and John with Lilburn."
He appears at one time to have been law-clerk to William Prynne.
In February 1638, for the part he had taken in importing and
circulating The Litany and other publications of John Bastwick
and Prynne, offensive to the bishops, he was sentenced by the
Star Chamber to be publicly whipped from the Fleet prison to
Palace Yard, Westminster, there to stand for two hours in the
pillory, and afterwards to be kept in gaol until a fine of £500 had
been paid. He devoted his enforced leisure to his favourite form
of literary activity, and did not regain his liberty until November
1640, one of the earliest recorded speeches of Oliver Cromwell
being made in support of his petition to the House of Commons
(Nov. 9, 1640). In 1641 he received an indemnity of £3000.
He now entered the army, and in 1642 was taken prisoner at
Brentford and tried for his life; sentence would no doubt have
been executed had not the parliament by threatening reprisals
forced his exchange. He soon rose to the rank of lieutenant-
colonel, but in April 1645, having become dissatisfied with the
predominance of Presbyterianism, and refusing to take the
covenant, he resigned his commission, presenting at the same
time to the Commons a petition for considerable arrears of pay.
His violent language in Westminster Hall about the speaker
and other public men led in the following July to his arrest and
committal to Newgate, whence he was discharged, however,
without trial, by order of the House, in October. In January
1647 he was committed to the Tower for accusations against
Cromwell, but was again set at liberty in time to become a
disappointed spectator of the failure of the " Levellers " or
ultrademocratic party in the army at the Ware rendezvous in
the following November. The scene produced a deep impression
on his mind, and in February 1649 he along with other petitioners
presented to the House of Commons a paper entitled The Serious
Apprehensions of a part of the People on behalf of the Common-
wealth, which he followed up with a pamphlet, England's New
Chains Discovered, criticizing Ireton, and another exposing the
conduct of Cromwell, Ireton and other leaders of the army since
June 1647 (The Hunting of the Foxes from Newmarket and Triploe
Heath to Whitehall by Five Small Beagles, the " beagles " being
Lilburne. Richard Overton, William Walwyn, Prince and
another). Finally, the Second Part of England's New Chains
Discovered, a violent outburst against " the dominion of a council
of state, and a constitution of a new and unexperienced nature,"
became the subject of discussion in the House, and led anew to
the imprisonment of its author in the Tower on the nth of April.
His trial in the following October, on a charge of seditious and
scandalous practices against the state, resulted in his unanimous
acquittal, followed by his release in November. In 1650 he
was advocating the release of trade from the restrictions of
chartered companies and monopolists.
In January 1652, for printing and publishing a petition against
Sir Arthur Hesilrige and the Haberdashers' Hall for what he
conceived to have been an injury done to his uncle George
Lilburne in 1649, he was sentenced to pay fines amounting to
£7000, and to be banished the Commonwealth, with prohibition
of return under the pain of death. In June 1653 he nevertheless
came back from the Low Countries, where he had busied himself
in pamphleteering and such other agitation as was possible, and
was immediately arrested; the trial, which was protracted from
the I3th of July to the 2oth of August, issued in his acquittal,
to the great joy of London, but it was nevertheless thought proper
to keep him in captivity for " the peace of the nation." He was
detained successively in the Tower, in Jersey, in Guernsey and
in Dover Castle. At Dover he came under Quaker influence,
and signified his readiness at last to be done with " carnal sword
fightings and fleshly bustlings and contests "; and in 1655, on
giving security for his good behaviour, he was set free. He now
settled at Eltham in Kent, frequently preaching at Quaker
meetings in the neighbourhood during the brief remainder of
his troubled life. He died on the 29th of August 1657.
LILIACEAE
683
His brother, Colonel Robert Lilburne, was among those who
signed the death-warrant of Charles I. In 1656 he was M.P.
for the East Riding of Yorkshire, and at the restoration was
sentenced to lifelong imprisonment.
See D. Masson, Life of Milton (iv. 120) ; Clement Walker (History of
Independency, ii. 247) ; W. Godwin (Commonwealth, iii. 163-177), and
Robert Bisset (Omitted Chapters of the History of England, 191-251).
LILIACEAE, in botany, a natural order of Monocotyledons
belonging to the series Liliiflorae, and generally regarded as
representing the typical order of Monocotyledons. .The plants
are generally perennial herbs growing from a bulb or rhizome,
sometimes shrubby as in butcher's broom (Ruscus) or tree-like
as in species of Dracaena, Yucca or Aloe. The flowers are with
few exceptions hermaphrodite, and regular with parts in threes
(fig. 5), the perianth
which is generally peta-
loid occupying the two
outer whorls, followed
by two whorls of
stamens, with a superior
ovary of three carpels
in the centre of the
flower; the ovary is
generally three-cham-
FIG. 2. — Same bered and contains an
cut across showing indefinite number of
FIG. i. — Fruit or the three chambers , nvnlp« on
Capsule of Meadow with the seeds at- anatr°Pous ovules 01
Saffron (Colchicum tached along the axlle placentas (see
autumnale] dehisc- middle line — axile fig. 2). The fruit is a
ing along the septa, placentation. capsule splitting along
the septa (septicidal) (fig. i), or between them (loculicidal), or a
berry (fig. 6, 3); the seeds contain a small embryo in a copious
fleshy or cartilaginous endosperm. Liliaceae is one of the larger
orders of flowering plants containing about 2500 species in 200
genera; it is of world-wide distribution. The plants show great
diversity in vegetative structure, which together with the
character and mode of dehiscence of the fruit afford a basis for
the subdivision of the order into tribes, eleven of which are
recognized. The following are the most important tribes.
Melanthoideae. — The plants have a rhizome or corm, and the
fruit is a capsule. It contains 36 genera, many of which are north
temperate and three are represented in Britain, viz. Tofieldia, an
arctic and alpine genus of small herbs with
a slender scape springing from a tuft of
narrow ensiform leaves and bearing a
raceme of small green flowers; Nar-
thecium (bog-asphodel), herbs with a habit
similar to Tofieldia, but with larger
golden-yellow flowers; and Colchicum, a
genus with about 30 species including
the meadow saffron or autumn crocus (C.
autumnale). Colchicum illustrates the
corm-development which is rare in
Liliaceae though common in the allied
order Iridaceae; a corm is formed by
swelling at the base of the axis (figs. 3, 4)
and persists after the flowers and leaves,
bearing next season's plant as a lateral
shoot in the axil of a scale-leaf at its
base. Gloriosa, well known in cultivation,
climbs by means of its tendril-like leaf-
tips; it has handsome flowers with
decurved orange-red or yellow petals; it
is a native of tropical Asia and Africa.
Veratrum is an alpine genus of the north
temperate zone.
Asphodeloideae. — The plants generally
have a rhizome bearing radical leaves, as
in asphodel, rarely a stem with a tuft of
leaves as in Aloe, very rarely a tuber
of (Eriospermum) or bulb (Bowiea). The
flowers are borne in a terminal raceme,
chicum autumnale}. a, the anthers open introrsely and the fruit
Old corm shrivelling; 6, is a capsule, very rarely, as in Dianella, a
berry. It contains 64 genera. Asphodelus
(asphodel) is a Mediterranean genus;
Simethis, a slender herb with grassy
radical leaves, is a native of west and
southern Europe extending into south Ireland. Anthericum
and Chlorophytum, herbs with radical often grass-like leaves and
scapes bearing a more or less branched inflorescence of small
FIG. 3. — Corm
Meadow Saffron (Co/-
young corm produced
laterally from the old
one.
generally white flowers, are widely spread in the tropics. Other
genera are Funkia, native of China and Japan, cultivated in
the open air in Britain; Hemerocallis, a small genus of central
Europe and temperate Asia — H. flava is known in gardens as the
day lily; Phormium, a New Zealand genus to which belongs New
Zealand flax, P. tenax, a useful fibre-plant; Kniphofia, South and
East Africa, several species of which are cultivated; and Aloe. A
small group of Australian genera closely approach the order Jun-
caceae in having small crowded flowers with a scarious or mem-
branous perianth ; they include Xanthorrhoea (grass-tree or black-
boy) and Kingia, arborescent plants with an erect woody stem
crowned with a tuft of long stiff narrow leaves, from the centre of
which rises a tall dense flower-
spike or a number of stalked
flower-heads; this group has
been included in Juncaceae, from
which it is doubtfully distin-
guished only by the absence of
the long twisted stigmas which
characterize the true rushes.
Allioideae. — The plants grow
from a bulb or short rhizome;
the inflorescence is an apparent
umbel formed of several
shortened monochasial cymes
and subtended by a pair of large
bracts. It contains 22 genera,
the largest of which Allium has
about 250 species — 7 are British ;
Agapanthus or African lily is a
well-known garden plant; in
Gagea, a genus of small bulbous
herbs found in most parts of
Europe, the inflorescence is re-
duced to a few flowers or a
single flower; G. lutea is a local
and rare British plant.
Lilioideae. — Bulbous plants
with a terminal racemose in-
florescence; the anthers open
introrsely and the capsule is
loculicidal. It contains 28
genera, several being repre-
sented in Britain. The typical
genus Lilium and Fritillaria are
widely distributed in the tem-
perate regions of the northern
hemisphere ; F. meleagris, snake's
head, is found in moist meadows ,, ,-, t /* i L •
in some of the southern and cen- fIG- 4— Corm of Colchtcum
tral English counties; Tulipa autumnale in autumn when the
contains more than 50 species plant is in flower,
in Europe and temperate Asia, k, Present corm.
and is specially abundant in the h, h, Brown scales covering it.
dry districts of central Asia; v>, Its roots.
Lloydia, a small slender alpine *'•
plant, widely distributed in the k',
northern hemisphere, occurs on
Snowdon in Wales ; Scilla (squill) v>h,
is a large genus, chiefly in Europe
k', in autumn, which in
succeeding autumn will pro-
duce flowers.
Its withered flowering stem.
Younger corm produced from
k.
Roots from k', which grows at
expense of k.
and Asia— 5. nutans is the blue- s, s', s", Sheathing leaves,
bell or wild hyacinth; Ornitho- I', I", Foliage leaves.
galum (Europe, Africa and west b, b', Flowers.
Asia) is closely allied to Scilla — k", Young corm produced from
O. umbellatum, star of Bethle-
hem, is naturalized in Britain;
Hyacinthus and Muscari are
chiefly Mediterranean; M. race-
mosum, grape hyacinth, occurs in sandy pastures in the eastern
counties of England. To this group belong a number of tropical
and especially South African genera such as Albuca, Urginea, Drimia,
Lachenalia and others.
Dracaenoideae. — The plants generally have an erect stem with a
crown of leaves which are often leathery; the anthers open in-
trorsely and the fruit is a berry or capsule. It contains 9 genera,
several of which, such as Yucca (fig. 5), Dracaena and Cordyline
include arborescent species in which the stem increases in thickness
continually by a centrifugal formation of new tissue; an extreme
case is afforded by Dracaena Draco, the dragon-tree of Teneriffe.
Yucca and several allied genera are natives of the dry country of
the southern and western United States and of Central America.
Dracaena and the allied genus Cordyline occur in the warmer regions
of the Old World. There is a close relation between the pollination
of many yuccas and the life of a moth (Pronuba yuccaselld) ; the
flowers are open and scented at night when the female moth becomes
active, first collecting a load of pollen and then depositing her eggs,
generally in a different flower from that which has supplied the
pollen. The eggs are deposited in the ovary-wall, usually just
below an ovule; after each deposition the moth runs to the top
of the pistil and thrusts some pollen into the opening of the stigma.
LILIENCRON
Development of larva and seed go on together, a few of the seeds
serving as food for the insect, which when mature eats through the
pericarp and drops to the ground, remaining dormant in its cocoon
until the next season of flowering when it emerges as a moth.
Asparagoideae. — Plants growing from a rhizome; fruit a berry.
Asparagus contains about loo species in the dryer warmer parts
FIG. 5. — Yucca gioriosa. Plant much reduced. I, Floral diagram.
2, Flower, J natural size.
of the Old World; it has a short creeping rhizome, from which
springs a slender, herbaceous or woody, often very much branched,
erect or climbing stem, the ultimate branches of which are flattened
or needle-like leaf -like structures (cladodes), the true leaves being
reduced to scales or, in the climbers, forming short, hard more or
less recurved spines. Ruscus aculeatus (fig. 6) is butcher's broom, an
FIG. 6.— Twig of Butcher's Broom, Ruscus aculeatus, slightly
enlarged. I, Male flower, 2, female flower, both enlarged; 3, berry,
slightly reduced.
evergreen shrub with flattened leaf-like cladodes, native in the
southerly portion of England and Wales; the small flowers are
unisexual and borne on the face of the cladode; the male contains
three stamens, the filaments of which are united to form a short
From Strasburger's Lehrbitch der Botanik, by permission of
Gustav Fischer.
Herb Paris
quadrifolia), has
solitary tetra- to
stout column on which are seated the diverging cells of the anthers;
in the female the ovary is enveloped by a fleshy staminal tube on
which are borne three barren anthers. Polygonatum and Maian-
themum are allied genera with a herbaceous leafy stem and, in the
former axillary flowers, in the latter flowers in a terminal raceme;
both occur rarely in woods in Britain; P. multiflorum is the well-
known Solomon's seal of gardens (fig. 7), so called from the seal-like
scars on the rhizome of stems of previous seasons, the hanging
flowers of which ,-*
contain no honey, a e
but are visited by *• -* «
bees for the pollen.
Convallaria is lily
of the valley ; Aspi-
distra, native of the
Himalayas, China
and Japan, is a
w e 1 1-k n o w n pot
plant ; its flowers
depart from the
normal arrange-
ment of the order
in having the parts
in fours (tetra- _
merous). Paris, in- "ft 7. — Rhizome of Polygonatummulliflorum,
eluding the British i nat- slze-
(P. a< °u° °' next vear s aerial shoot.
Scar of this year's, and c, d, e, scars of
three preceding years' aerial shoots.
poly-merous flowers w> Roots.
terminating the short annual shoot which bears a whorl of four or
more leaves below the flower; in this and in some species of the
nearly allied genus Trillium (chiefly temperate North America)
the flowers have a fetid smell, which together with the dark purple
of the ovary and stigmas and frequently also of the stamens and
petals, attracts carrion-loving flies, which alight on the stigma and
then climb the anthers and become dusted with pollen ; the pollen
is then carried to the stigmas of another flower.
Luzuriagoideae are shrubs or undershrubs with erect or climbing
branches and fruit a berry. Lapageria, a native of Chile, is a favourite
greenhouse climber with fine bell-shaped flowers.
Smilacoideae are climbing shrubs with broad net-veined leaves
and small dioecious flowers in umbels springing from the leaf -axils;
the fruit is a berry. They climb by means of tendrils, which are
stipular structures arising from the leaf-sheath. Smilax is a char-
acteristic tropical genus containing about 200 species; the dried
roots of some species are the drug sarsaparilla.
The two tribes Ophiopogonoideae and Aletroideae are often included
in a distinct order, Haemodoraceae. The plants have a short
rhizome and narrow or lanceolate basal leaves; and they are
characterized by the ovary being often half-inferior. They contain
a few genera chiefly old world tropical and subtropical. The leaves
of species of Sansevieria yield a valuable fibre.
Liliaceae may be regarded as the typical order of the series
Liliiflorae. It resembles Juncaceae in the general plan of the
flower, which, however, has become much more elaborate and
varied in the form and colour of its perianth in association with
transmission of pollen by insect agency; a link between the
two orders is found in the group of Australian genera referred
to above under Asphodeloideae. The tribe Ophiopogonoideae,
with its tendency to an inferior ovary, suggests an affinity with
the Amaryllidaceae which resemble Liliaceae in habit and in the
horizontal plan of the flower, but have an inferior ovary. The
tribe Smilacoideae, shrubby climbers with net-veined leaves and
small unisexual flowers, bears much the same relationship to
the order as a whole as does the order Dioscoreaceae, which
have a similar habit, but flowers with an inferior ovary, to the
Amaryllidaceae.
LILIENCRON, DETLEV VON (1844-1909), German poet and
novelist, was born at Kiel on the 3rd of June 1844. He entered
the army and took part in the campaigns of 1866 and 1870-71,
in both of which he was wounded. He retired with the rank
of captain and spent some time in America, afterwards settling
at Kellinghusen in Holstein, where he remained till 1887. After
some time at Munich, he settled in Altona and then at Altrahl-
stedt, near Hamburg. He died in July 1909. He first attracted
attention by the volume of poems, Adjutantenritte und andere
Gedichte (1883), which was followed by several unsuccessful
dramas, a volume of short stories, Eine Sommerschlacht (1886),
and a novel Breide Hummelsbultel (1887). Other collections of
short stories appeared under the titles Unler flatternden Fahnen
(1888), Der Mdcen (1889), Krieg und Frieden (1891); of lyric
LILITH— LILLE
685
poetry in 1889, 1890 (Der Heidegiinger und andere Gedichte), 1893,
and 1903 (Bunte Beute). Interesting, too, is the humorous epic
Poggfred (1896; 2nd ed. 1904). Liliencron is one of the most
eminent of recent German lyric poets; his Adjutantenritte,
with its fresh original note, broke with the well-worn literary
conventions which had been handed down from the middle of
the century. Liliencron's work is, however, somewhat unequal,
and he lacks the sustained power which makes the successful
prose writer.
Liliencron's Samuiche Werke have been published in 14. vols.
(1904—1905); his Gedichte having been previously collected in four
volumes under the titles Kampf und Spiele, Kdmpfe und Ziele,
Nebel und Sonne and Bunte Beute (1897-1903). See O. J. Bierbaum,
D. von Liliencron (1892); H. Greinz, Liliencron, eine literarhistorische
Wiirdigung (1896); F. Oppenheimer, D. von Liliencron (1898).
LILITH (Heb. lildtu, "night"; hence "night-monster"),
a female demon of Jewish folk-lo're, equivalent to the English
vampire. The personality and name are derived from a Baby-
lonian-Assyrian demon Lilit or Lilu. Lilith was believed to
have a special power for evil over children. The superstition
was extended to a cult surviving among some Jews even as late
as the 7th century A.D. In the Rabbinical literature Lilith
becomes the first wife of Adam, but flies away from him and
becomes a demon.
LILLE, a city of northern France, capital of the department
of Nord, 154 m. N. by E. of Paris on the Northern railway.
Pop. (1906) 196,624. Lille is situated in a low fertile plain on
the right bank of the Deule in a rich agricultural and industrial
region of which it is the centre. It is a first-class fortress and
headquarters of the I. army corps, and has an enceinte and a
pentagonal citadel, one of Vauban's finest works, situated to
the west of the town, from which it is divided by the Deule.
The modern fortifications comprise over twenty detached forts
and batteries, the perimeter of the defences being about 20 m.
Before 1858 the town, fortified by Vauban about 1668, occupied
an elliptical area of about 2500 yds. by 1300, with the church
of Notre-Dame de la Treille in the centre, but the ramparts on
the south side have been demolished and the ditches filled up,
their place being now occupied by the great Boulevard de la
Liberte, which extends in a straight line from the goods station
of the railway to the citadel. At the S.E. end of this boulevard
are grouped the majority of the numerous educational establish-
ments of the city. The new enceinte encloses the old communes
of Esquermes, Wazemmes and Moulins-Lille, the area of the town
being thus more than doubled. In the new quarters fine boule-
vards and handsome squares, such as the Place de la Republique,
have been laid out in pleasant contrast with the sombre aspect
of the old town. The district of St Andre to the north, the only
elegant part of the old town, is the residence of the aristocracy.
Outside the enceinte populous suburbs surround the city on
every side. The demolition of the fortifications on the north and
east of the city, which is continued in those directions by the
great suburbs of La Madeleine, St Maurice and Fives, must
accelerate its expansion towards Roubaix and Tourcoing. At
the demolition of the southern fortifications, the Paris gate, a
triumphal arch erected in 1682 in honour of Louis XIV., after
the conquest of Flanders, was preserved. On the east the
Ghent and Roubaix gates, built in the Renaissance style, with
bricks of different colours, date from 1617 and 1622, the time
of the Spanish domination. On the same side the Noble-Tour
is a relic of the medieval ramparts. The present enceinte is
pierced by numerous gates, including water gates for the canal
of the Deule and for the Arbonnoise, which extends into a marsh
in the south-west corner of the town. The citadel, which contains
the barracks and arsenal, is surrounded by public gardens.
The more interesting buildings are in the old town, where, in
the Grande Place and Rue Faidherbe, its animation is con-
centrated. St Maurice, a church in the late Gothic style, dates
in its oldest portions from the I5th century, and was restored
in 1872; Ste Catherine belongs to the isth, i6th and i8th
centuries, St Andre to the first years of the i8th century, and
Ste Madeleine to the last half of the i7th century; all possess
valuable pictures, but St Maurice alone, with nave and double
aisles, and elegant modern spire, is architecturally notable.
Notre-Dame de la Treille, begun in 1855, in the style of the isth
century, possesses an ancient statue of the Virgin which is the
object of a well-known pilgrimage. Of the civil buildings the
Bourse (i7th century) built round a courtyard in which stands
a bronze statue of Napoleon I., the H6tel d'Aigremont, the
Hotel Gentil and other houses are in the Flemish style; the
Hotel de Ville, dating in the main from the middle of the igth
century, preserves a portion of a palace built by Philip the Good,
duke of Burgundy, in the isth century. The prefecture, the
Palais des Beaux-Arts, the law-courts, the school of arts and
crafts, and the Lycee Faidherbe are imposing modern buildings.
In the middle of the Grande Place stands a column, erected in
1848, commemorating the defence of the town in 1792 (see below),
and there are also statues to Generals L. L. C. Faidherbe and
F. O. de Negrier, and busts of Louis Pasteur and the popular
poet and singer A. Desrousseaux. The Palais des Beaux-Arts
contains a museum and picture galleries, among the richest in
France, as well as a unique collection of original designs of the
great masters bequeathed to Lille by J. B. Wicar, and including a
celebrated wax model of a girl's head usually attributed to some
Italian artist of the i6th century. The city also possesses a
commercial and colonial museum, an industrial museum, a fine
collection of departmental and municipal archives, the museum
of the Institute of Natural Sciences and a library containing
many valuable manuscripts, housed at the Hotel de Ville. The
large military hospital, once a Jesuit college, is one of several
similar institutions.
Lille is the seat of a prefect and has tribunals of first instance
and of commerce, a board of trade arbitrators, a chamber of
commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. It is the centre
of an academic (educational division) and has a university with
faculties of laws, letters, science and medicine and pharmacy,
together with a Catholic institute comprising faculties of theology,
law, medicine and pharmacy, letters, science, a technical school,
and a department of social and political science. Secondary
education is given at the Lycee Faidherbe, and the Lycee
Fenelon (for girls), a higher school of commerce, a national
technical school and other establishments; to these must be
added schools of music and fine arts, and the Industrial and
Pasteur Institutes.
The industries, which are carried on in the new quarters of
the town and in the suburbs, are of great variety and importance.
In the first rank comes the spinning of flax and the weaving of
cloth, table-linen, damask, ticking and flax velvet. The spinning
of flax thread for sewing and lace-making is specially connected
with Lille. The manufacture of woollen fabrics and cotton-
spinning and the making of cotton-twist of fine quality are also
carried on. There are important printing establishments, state
factories for the manufacture of tobacco and the refining of
saltpetre and very numerous breweries, while chemical, oil,
white lead and sugar-works, distilleries, bleaching-grounds,
dye-works, machinery and boiler works and cabinet-making
occupy many thousands of workmen. Plant for sugar-works
and distilleries, military stores, steam-engines, locomotives,
and bridges of all kinds are produced by the company of Fives-
Lille. Lille is one of the most important junctions of the Northern
railway, and the Deule canal affords communication with neigh-
bouring ports and with Belgium. Trade is chiefly in the raw
material and machinery for its industries, in the products thereof,
and in the wheat and other agricultural products of the surround-
ing district.
Lille (1'lle) is said to date its origin from the time of Count
Baldwin IV. of Flanders, who in 1030 surrounded with walls a
little town which had arisen around the castle of Buc. In the
first half of the i3th century, the town, which had developed
rapidly, obtained communal privileges. Destroyed by Philip
Augustus in 1213, it was rebuilt by Joanna of Constantinople,
countess of Flanders, but besieged and retaken by Philip the
Fair in 1297. After having taken part with the Flemings against
the king of France, it was ceded to the latter in 1312. In 1369
Charles V., king of France, gave it to Louis de Male, who
686
LILLEBONNE— LILLY
transmitted his rights to his daughter Margaret, wife of Philip
the Bold, duke of Burgundy. Under the Burgundian rule Lille
enjoyed great prosperity; its merchants were at the head of the
London Hansa. Philip the Good made it his residence, and
within its walls held the first chapters of the order of the Golden
Fleece. With the rest of Flanders it passed from the dukes of
Burgundy to Austria and then to Spain. After the death of
Philip IV. of Spain, Louis XTV". reclaimed the territory
and besieged Lille in 1667. He forced it to capitulate, but
preserved all its laws, customs, privileges and liberties. In 1708,
after an heroic resistance, it surrendered to Prince Eugene and
the duke of Marlborough. The treaty of Utrecht restored it
to France. In 1792 the Austrians bombarded it for nine days
and nights without intermission, but had ultimately to raise
the siege.
See £. Vanhende, LOU et ses institutions comrnunaies dedzoa 1804
(Lille, 1888).
LILLEBONNE, a town of France in the department of Seine-
Inferieure, 3^ m. N. of the Seine and 24 m. E. of Havre by the
Western railway. Pop. (1906) 5370. It lies in the valley of
the Bolbec at the foot of wooded hill* The church of Notre-
Dame. partly modern, preserves a Gothic portal of the i6th
century and a graceful tower of the same period. The park
contains a fine cylindrical donjon and other remains of a castle
founded by William the Conqueror and rebuilt in the i$th century.
The principal industries are cotton-spinning and the manufacture
of calico and candles.
LQlebonne under the Romans, Juliobona, was the capital of
the Caletes, or inhabitants of the Pays de Caux, in the time of
Caesar, by whom it was destroyed. It was afterwards rebuilt
by Augustus, and before it was again ruined by the barbarian
invasions it had become an important centre whence Roman
roads branched out in all directions. The remains of ancient
baths and of a theatre capable of holding 3000 persons have
been brought to light. Many Roman and Gallic relics, notably a
bronze statue of a woman and two fine mosaics, have been found
and transported to the museum at Rouen. In the middle ages
the fortifications of the town were constructed out of materials
supplied by the theatre. The town -recovered some of its old
importance under William the Conqueror.
LILLI BULLERO, or LTLLIBUKLERO, the name of a song popular
at the end of the i;th century, especially among the army and
supporters of William III. in the war in Ireland during the
revolution of 1688. The tune appears to have been much older,
and was sung to an Irish nursery song at the beginning of the
i;th century, and the attribution of Henry Purcell is based on
the very slight ground that it was published in Music's Handmaid,
1689, as " A new Irish Tune " by Henry PurcelL It was also a
marching tune familiar to soldiers. The doggerel verses have
generally been assigned to Thomas Wharton, and deal with the
administration of Talbot, earl of Tyrconnel, appointed by James
as his lieutenant in Ireland in 1687. The refrain of the song
liUiburllero bulltn a la gave the title of the song. Macaulay says
of the song " The verses and the tune caught the fancy of the
nation. From one end of England to the other all classes were
singing this idle rhyme." Though Wharton claimed he had
" sung a king out of three kingdoms " and Burnet says " perhaps
never had so slight a thing so great an effect " the success of
the song was " the effect, and not the cause of that excited state
of public feeling which produced the revolution " (Macaulay,
Hist, of Eng. chap. ix.).
ULLO, GEORGE (1693-1739), English dramatist, son of a
Dutch jeweller, was born in London on the 4th of February
1693. He was brought up to his father's trade and was for
many years a partner in the business. His first piece, Silvia,
or the Country Burial, was a ballad opera produced at Lincoln's
Inn Fields in November 1730. On the 22nd of June 1731
his domestic tragedy, The Merchant, renamed later The London
Merchant, or the History of George BonneeH, was produced by
Theophilus Gibber and his company at Drury Lane. The piece
is written in prose, which is not free from passages which are
really blank verse, and is founded on " An excellent ballad of
George Barnwell, an apprentice of London who . . . thrice
robbed his master, and murdered his uncle in Ludlow." In
breaking through the tradition that the characters of every
tragedy must necessarily be drawn from people of high rank and
fortune he went back to the Elizabethan domestic drama of
passion of which the Yorkshire Tragedy is a type. The obtrusively
moral purpose of this play places it in the same literary category
as the novels of Richardson. Scoffing critics called it, with
reason, a " Newgate tragedy," but it proved extremely popular
on the stage. It was regularly acted for many years at holiday
seasons for the moral benefit of the apprentices. The last act
contained a scene, generally omitted on the London stage, in
which the gallows actually figured. In 1734 Lillo celebrated
the marriage of the Princess Anne with William IV. of Orange
in Britannia and Batavia, a masque. A second tragedy, The
Christian Hero, was produced at Drury Lane on the I3th of
January 1735. It is based on the story of Scanderbeg, the
Albanian chieftain, a life of whom is printed with the play.
Thomas Whincop (d. 1730) wrote a piece on the same subject,
printed posthumously in 1747. Both Lillo and William Havard,
who also wrote a dramatic version of the story, were accused
of plagiarizing Whincop 's Scanderbeg. Another murder-drama.
Fatal Curiosity, in which an old couple murder an unknown
guest, who proves to be their own son, was based on a tragedy
at Bohelland Farm near Penryn in 1618. It was produced by
Henry Fielding at the Little Theatre in the Haymarket in 1736,
but with small success. In the next year Fielding tacked it on
to his own Historical Register for 1736, and it was received more
kindly. It was revised by George Colman the elder in 1782, by
Henry Mackenzie in 1784, &c. Lillo also wrote an adaptation
of the Shakespearean play of Pericles, Prince of Tyre, with the
title Marina (Covent Garden, August ist, 1738); and a tragedy,
Elmerick, or Justice Triumphant (produced posthumously,
Drury Lane, February 23rd, 1740). The statement made in the
prologue to this play that Lillo died in poverty seems unfounded.
His death took place on the 3rd of September 1739. He left
an unfinished version of Arden of Petersham, which was com-
pleted by Dr John Hoadly and produced in 1759. Lillo 's
reputation proved short-lived. He has nevertheless a certain
cosmopolitan importance, for the influence of George Banned!
can be traced in the sentimental drama of both France and
Germany.
See LiUo's Dramatic Works with Memoirs of the Author by Thomas
Danes (reprint by Lowndes, 1810); Gibber's Laxs of the Poets,
v.; Genest, Some Account of the English Stage; Alois Brandl,
" Zu Lillo's Kaufmann in London," in Virrteljahrschrifl fur Literatur-
geschichte (Weimar, 1890, vol. UL); Leopold Hoffmann, George Lillo
(Marburg, 1888) ; Paul von Hof mann-Wellenhof , ShaJtspere's Pericles
und George Lillo's Marina (Vienna, 1885). There is a novel founded
on Lillo's play, Bantwett (1807), by T. S. SUIT, and in " George de
Barnwell (Novels by Eminent Hands) Thackeray parodies
Bulwer-Lytton's Eugene Aram.
LILLY, WILLIAM (1602-1681), English astrologer, was born
in 1602 at Diseworth in Leicestershire, his family having been
settled as yeomen in the place for " many ages." He received
a tolerably good classical education at the school of Ashby-de-
la-Zouche, but he naively tells us what may perhaps have some
significance in reference to bis after career, that his master
" never taught logic." In his eighteenth year, his father having
fallen into great poverty, he went to London and was employed
in attendance on an old citizen and his wife. His master, at bis
death in 1627, left him an annuity of £20; and, Lilly having soon
afterwards married the widow, she, dying in 1 653 . left him property
to the value of about £1000. He now began to dabble in astrology,
reading all the books on the subject he could fall in with, and
occasionally trying his hand at unravelling mysteries by means
of his art. The years 1642 and 1643 were devoted to a careful
revision of all his previous reading, and in particular having
lighted on Valentine Narbod's Commentary on Alchabilius, he
" seriously studied him and found him to be the profoundest
author he ever met with." About the same time he tells us
that he " did carefully take notice of every grand action betwixt
king and parliament, and did first then incline to believe that as
all sublunary affairs depend on superior causes, so there was a
LILOAN— LILY
687
possibility of discovering them by the configurations of the
superior bodies." And, having thereupon " made some essays,"
he " found encouragement to proceed further, and ultimately
framed to himself that method whichhe everafterwardsfollowed."
He then began to issue his prophetical almanacs and other works,
which met with serious attention from some of the most prominent
members of the Long Parliament. If we may believe himself,
Lilly lived on friendly and almost intimate terms with Bulstrode
Whitlock, Lenthall the speaker, Sir Philip Stapleton, Elias
Ashmole and others. Even Selden seems to have given him
some countenance, and probably the chief difference between
him and the mass of the community at the time was that, while
others believed in the general truth of astrology, he ventured
to specify the future events to which its calculations pointed.
Even from his own account of himself, however, it is evident
that he did not trust implicitly to the indications given by the
aspects of the heavens, but like more vulgar fortune-tellers
kept his eyes and ears open for any information which might
make his predictions safe. It appears that he had correspondents
both at home and in foreign parts to keep him conversant with
the probable current of affairs. Not a few of his exploits indicate
rather the quality of a clever police detective than of a profound
astrologer. After the Restoration he very quickly fell into dis-
repute. His sympathy with the parliament, which his predictions
had generally shown, was not calculated to bring him into royal
favour. He came under the lash of Butler, who, making allow-
ance for some satiric exaggeration, has given in the character
of Sidrophel a probably not very incorrect picture of the man;
and, having by this time amassed a tolerable fortune, he bought
a small estate at Hersham in Surrey, to which he retired, and
where he diverted the exercise of his peculiar talents to the
practice of medicine. He died in 1681.
Lilly's life of himself, published after his death, is still worth
looking into as a remarkable record of credulity. So lately as 1852
a prominent London publisher put forth a new edition of Lilly's
Introduction to Astrology, " with numerous emendations adapted to
the improved state of the science."
LILOAN, a town of the province of Cebu, Philippine Islands,
on the E. coast, 10 m. N.E. of Cebu, the capital of the province.
Pop. (1903), after the annexation of Compostela, 15,626. There
are seventeen villages or barrios in the town, and eight of them
had in 1903 a population exceeding 1000. The language is
Visayan. Fishing is the principal industry. Liloan has one of
the principal coal beds on the island; and rice, Indian corn,
sugar-cane and coffee are cultivated. Coconuts and other
tropical fruits are important products.
LILY, Lilium, the typical genus of the botanical order
Liliaceae, embracing nearly eighty species, all confined to the
northern hemisphere, and widely distributed throughout the
north temperate zone. The earliest in cultivation were described
in 1597 by Gerard (Herball, p. 146), who figures eight kinds of
true lilies, which include L. album (L. candidum) and a variety,
bizantinum, two umbellate forms of the type L. bulbiferum,
named L. aureum and L. cruentum latifolium, and three with
pendulous flowers, apparently forms of the martagon lily.
Parkinson, in his Paradisus (1629), described five varieties of
martagon, six of umbellate kinds — two white ones, and L.
pomponium, L. chalcedonicum, L. carniolicum and L. pyrenaicum
— together with one American, L. canadense, which had been
introduced in 1629. For the ancient and medieval history of
the lily, see M. de Cannart d'Hamale's Monographic historique
etlitterairedeslis (Malines, 1870). Since that period many new
species have been added. The latest authorities for description
and classification of the genus are J. G. Baker (" Revision of the
Genera and Species of Tulipeae," Journ. of Linn. Soc. xiv. p.
211, 1874), and J. H. Elwes (Monograph of the Genus Lilium,
1880), who first tested all the species under cultivation, and has
published every one beautifully figured by W. H. Fitch, and
some hybrids. With respect to the production of hybrids, the
genus is remarkable for its power of resisting the influence of
foreign pollen, for the seedlings of any species, when crossed,
generally resemble that which bears them. A good account
•of the new species and principal varieties discovered since 1880,
with much information on the cultivation of lilies and the
diseases to which they are subject, will be found in the report
of the Conference on Lilies, in the Journal of the Royal Horti-
cultural Society, 1901. The new species include a number dis-
covered in central and western China by Dr Augustine Henry
and other collectors; also several from Japan and California.
The structure of the flower represents the simple type of mono-
cotyledons, consisting of two whorls of petals, of three free
parts each, six free stamens, and a consolidated pistil of three
carpels, ripening into a three-valved capsule containing many
winged seeds. In form, the flower assumes three types:
trumpet-shaped, with a more or less elongated tube, e.g. L.
longiflorum and L. candidum; an open form with spreading
perianth leaves, e.g. L. auratum; or assuming a pendulous
habit, with the tips strongly reflexed, e.g. the martagon type.
All have scaly bulbs, which in three west American species,
as L. Humboldti, are remarkable for being somewhat intermediate
between a bulb and a creeping rhizome. L. bulbiferum and its
allies produce aerial reproductive bulbils in the axils of the leaves.
The bulbs of several species are eaten, such as of L. avenaceum
in Kamchatka, of L. Martagon by the Cossacks, and of L.
tigrinum, the " tiger lily," in China and Japan. Medicinal uses
were ascribed to the species, but none appear to have any marked
properties in this respect.
The~white lily, L. candidum, the \elpiov of the Greeks, was one
of the commonest garden flowers of antiquity, appearing in the poets
from Homer downwards side by side with the rose and the violet.
According to Hehn, roses and lilies entered Greece from the east by
way of Phrygia, Thrace and
Macedonia (Kulturpflanzen
und Hausthiere, 3rd ed.,
p. 217). The word \tlpwv
itself, from which lilium is
derived by assimilation of
consonants, appears to be
Eranian (Ibid. p. 527), and
according to ancient ety-
mologists (Lagarde, Ges.
Abh. p. 227) the town of
Susa was connected with the
Persian name of the lily
susan (Gr. aovaov, Heb.
shdshan). Mythologically the
white lily, Rosa Junonis, was
fabled to have sprung from
the milk of Hera. As the
plant of purity it was con-
trasted with the rose of
Aphrodite. The word uplvov,
on the other hand, included
red and purple lilies, Plin.
H.N. xxi. 5 (n, 12), the
red lily being best known in
Syria and Judaea (Phaselis).
This perhaps is the " red
lily of Constantinople " of
Gerard, L. chalcedonicum.
The lily of the Old Testa-
ment (sh6shan) may be con-
jectured to be a red lily from
the simile in Cant. v. 13, unless the allusion is to the fragrance rather
than the colour of the lips, in which case the white lily must be
thought of. The " lilies of the field," Matt. vi. 28, are xptva, and the
comparison of their beauty with royal robes suggests their identifica-
tion with the red Syrian lily of Pliny. Lilies, however, are not a
conspicuous feature in the flora cf Palestine, and the red anemone
(Anemone coronaria), with which all the hill-sides of Galilee are
dotted in the spring, is perhaps more likely to have suggested the
figure. For the lily in the pharmacopoeia of the ancients see Adams's
Paul. Aegineta, iii. 196. It was used in unguents and against the
bites of snakes, &c. In the middle ages the flower continued to be
common and was taken as the symbol of heavenly purity. The
three golden lilies of France are said to have been originally three
lance-heads.
Lily of the valley, Convallaria majalis, belongs to a different tribe
(Asparagoideae) of the same order. It grows wild in woods in some
parts of England, and in Europe, northern Asia and the Alleghany
Mountains of North America. The leaves and flower-scapes spring
from an underground creeping stem. The small pendulous bell-
shaped flowers contain no honey but are visited by bees for the
pollen.
The word " lily " is loosely used in connexion with many plants
which are not really liliums at all, but belong to genera which are
Madonna or White Lily (Lilium
candidum). About i nat. size.
688
LILYE— LIMA
quite distinct botanically. Thus, the Lent lily is Narcissus Pseudo-
narcissus; the African lily is Agapanthus umbettatus ; the Belladonna
lily is AmaryKis Belladonna (q.y.) ; the Jacobaea lily is Sprekelia
formosissima; the Mariposa lily is Galochortus ; the lily of the Incas
is Alstroemeria pelegrina; St Bernard's lily is Anthericum Liliago;
St Bruno's lily is Anthericum (or Paradisia) Liliastrum; the water
lily is Nymphaea alba; the Arum lily is Richardia africana; and
there are many others.
The true lilies are so numerous and varied that no general cultural
instructions will be alike suitable to all. Some species, as L.
Martagon, candidum, chalcedonicum, Szovitzianum (or colchicum),
bulbiferum, croceum, Henryi, pomponium — the " Turk's cap lily,"
and others, will grow in almost any good garden soil, and succeed
admirably in loam of a rather heavy character, and dislike too
much peat. But a compost of peat, loam and leaf-soil suits L.
auratum, Brownii, concolor, elegans, giganteum, japonicum, longi-
florum, monadelphum, pardalinum, speciosum, and the tiger lily
(L. tigrinum) well, and a larger proportion of peat is indispensable
for the beautiful American L. superbum and canadense. The margin
of rhododendron beds, where there are sheltered recesses amongst
the plants, suits many of the more delicate species well, partial shade
Lily of the Valley (Comiallaria majalis). About i nat. size.
and shelter of some kind being essential. The bulbs should be
planted from 6 to 10 in. (according to size) below the surface, which
should at once be mulched over with half-decayed leaves or coconut
fibre to keep out frost.
The noble L. auratum, with its large white flowers, having a
yellow band and numerous red or purple spots, is a magnificent
plant when grown to perfection; and so are the varieties called
rubro-vittatum and cruentum, which have the central band crimson
instead of yellow; and the broad-petalled platyphyllum, and its
almost pure white sub-variety called virginale. Of L. speciosum
(well known to most gardeners as lancifolium), the true typical form
and the red-spotted and white varieties are grand plants for late
summer blooming in the conservatory. The tiger lily, L. tigrinum,
and its varieties Fortunei, splendidum and flore-pleno, are amongst
the best species for the flower garden; L. Thunbergianum and its
many varieties being also good border flowers. The pretty L.
Leichtlinii and L. colchicum (or Szovitzianum) with drooping yellow
flowers and the scarlet drooping-flowered L. tenuifolium make up,
with those already mentioned, a series of the finest hardy flowers of
the summer garden. The Indian L. giganteum is perfectly distinct
in character, having broad heart-shaped leaves, and a noble stem
10 to 14 ft. high, bearing a dozen or more large deflexed,_ funnel-
shaped, white, purple-stained flowers; L. cordifolium (China and
Japan) is similar in character, but dwarfer in habit.
For pot culture, the soil should consist of three parts turfy loam
to one of leaf-mould and thoroughly rotted manure, adding enough
pure grit to keep the compost porous. If leaf -mould is not at hand,
turfy peat may be substituted for it. The plants should be potted in
October. The pots should be plunged in a cold frame and protected
from frost, and about May may be removed to a sheltered and
moderately shady place out-doors to remain till they flower, when
they may be removed to the greenhouse. This treatment suits the
gorgeous L. auratum, the splendid varieties of L. speciosum (lanci-
folium) and also the chaste-flowering trumpet-tubed L. longiflorum
and its varieties. Thousands of bulbs of such lilies as longiflorum
and speciosum are now retarded in refrigerators and taken out in
batches for greenhouse work as required.
Diseases. — Lilies are, under certain conditions favourable to the
development of the disease, liable to the attacks of three parasitic
fungi. The most destructive is Botrytis cinerea which forms orange-
brown or buff specks on the stems, pedicels, leaves and flower-buds,
which increase in size and become covered with a delicate grey
mould, completely destroying or disfiguring the parts attacked.
The spores formed on the delicate grey mould are carried during
the summer from one plant to another, thus spreading the disease,
and also germinate in the soil where the fungus may remain passive
during the winter producing a new crop of spores next spring, or
sometimes attacking the scales of the bulbs forming small black
hard bodies embedded in the flesh. For prevention, the surface
soil covering bulbs should be removed every autumn and replaced by
soil mixed with kainit; manure for mulching should also be mixed
with kainit, which acts as a steriliser. If the fungus appears on the
foliage spray with potassium sulphide solution (2 oz. in 3 gallons
of water). Uromyces Erythronii, a rust, sometimes causes consider-
able injury to the foliage of species of Lilium and other bulbous
plants, forming large discoloured blotches on the leaves. The
diseased stems should be removed and burned before the leaves
fall; as the bulb is not attacked the plant will start growth next
season free from disease. Rhizopus necans is sometimes the cause of
extensive destruction of bulbs. The fungus attacks injured roots
and afterwards passes into the bulb which becomes brown and
finally rots. The fungus hibernates in the soil and enters through
broken or injured roots, hence care should be taken when removing
the bulbs that the roots are injured as little as possible. An ex-
cellent packing material for dormant buds is coarsely crushed wood-
charcoal to which has been added a sprinkling of flowers of sulphur.
This prevents infection from outside and also destroys any spores
or fungus mycelium that may have been packed away along with
the bulbs.
When cultivated in greenhouses liliums are subject to attack
from aphides (green fly) in the early stages of growth. These pests
can be kept in check by syringing with nicotine, soft-soap and
quassia solutions, or by " vaporising " two or three evenings in
succession, afterwards syringing the plants with clear tepid water.
LILYE, or LILY, WILLIAM (c. 1468-1522), English scholar,
was born at Odiham in Hampshire. He entered the university
of Oxford in 1486, and after graduating in arts went on a pilgrim-
age to Jerusalem. On his return he put in at Rhodes, which
was still occupied by the knights of St John, under whose pro-
tection many Greeks had taken refuge after the capture of Con-
stantinople by the Turks. He then went on to Italy, where he
attended the lectures of Sulpitius Verulanus and Pomponius
Laetus at Rome, and of Egnatius at Venice. After his return
he settled in London (where he became intimate with Thomas
More) as a private teacher of grammar, and is believed to have
been the first who taught Greek in that city. In 1510 Colet,
dean of St Paul's, who was then founding the school which
afterwards became famous, appointed Lilye the first high master.
He died of the plague on the 25th of February 1522.
Lilye is famous not only as one of the pioneers of Greek learning,
but as one of the joint-authors of a book, familiar to many generations
of students during the igth century, the old Eton Latin grammar.
The Brevissima Institutio, a sketch by Colet, corrected by Erasmus
and worked upon by Lilye, contains two portions, the author of
which is indisputably Lilye. These are the lines on the genders of
nouns, beginning Propria quae maribus, and those on the conjugation
of verbs beginning As in praesenti. The Carmen de Moribus bears
Lilye's name in the early editions; but Hearne asserts that it was
written by Leland, who was one of his scholars, and that Lilye only
adapted it. Besides the Brevissima Institutio, Lilye wrote a variety
of Latin pieces both in prose and verse. Some of the latter are
printed along with the Latin verses of Sir Thomas More in Progym-
nasmata Thomae Mori et Gulielmi Lylii Sodalium (1518). Another
volume of Latin verse (Antibossicon ad Gulielmum Hormannum,
1521) is directed against a rival schoolmaster and grammarian,
Robert Whittingtpn, who had " under the feigned name of Bossus,
much provoked Lilye with scoffs and biting verses."
See the sketch of Lilye's life by his son George, canon of St Paul's,
written for Paulus Jovius, who was collecting for his history the
lives of the learned »men of Great Britain; and the article by J. H.
Lupton, formerly sur-master of St Paul's School, in the Dictionary
of National Biography.
LIMA, a city and the county-seat of Allen county, Ohio,
U.S.A., on the Ottawa river, about 70 m. S.S.W. of Toledo,
Pop. (1890) 15,981; (1900) 21,723, of whom 1457 were
LIMA
689
foreign-born and 731 were negroes; (1910 census) 30,508. It is
served by the Pennsylvania (Pittsburgh, Ft. Wayne & Chicago
division), the Erie, the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, the Lake
Erie & Western, the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton railways, and by
six interurban electric lines. Immediately N. of the city is a
state asylum for the insane. Lima has a Carnegie library, a
city hospital and a public park of 100 acres. Among the principal
buildings are the county court house, a masonic temple, an
Elks' home and a soldiers' and sailors' memorial building.
Lima College was conducted here from 1893 to 1908. Lima is
situated in the centre of the great north-western oil-field (Trenton
limestone of the Ordovician system) of Ohio, which was first
developed in 1885; the product of the Lima district was
2°iS75>I38 barrels in 1896, 15,877,730 barrels in 1902 and
6,748,676 barrels in 1908. The city is a headquarters of the
Standard Oil Company, and the refining of petroleum is one of
the principal industries. The total value of the factory product in
1905 was $8,155,586, an increase of 31-1% over that in 1900.
Lima contains railway shops of the Cincinnati, Hamilton &
Dayton and the Lake Erie & Western railways. The city has
a large wholesale and jobbing trade. The municipality owns and
operates the water- works. Lima was laid out in 1831, and
was first organized as a city under a general state law in 1842.
LIMA, a coast department of central Peru, bounded N. by
Ancachs, E. by Junin and Huancavelica, S. by lea and W.
by the Pacific Ocean. Pop. (1906 estimate) 250,000; area
13,314 sq. m. The eastern boundary follows the crests of the
Western Cordillera, which gives to the department the western
slopes of this chain with the drainage basins of the rivers Huaura,
Chancay, Chillon, Rimac, Lurin, Mala and Canete. Although
the department forms part of the rainless region, these rivers,
fed from the snows of the high Andes, provide water for the
irrigation of large areas devoted to the raising of cotton, sugar,
sorghum, Indian corn, alfalfa, potatoes, grapes and olives. The
sugar estates of the Canete are among the best in Peru and are
served by a narrow gauge railway terminating at the small
port of Cerro Azul. Indian corn is grown in Chancay and other
northern valleys, and is chiefly used, together with alfalfa and
barley, in fattening swine for lard. The mineral resources are
not important, though gold washings in the Canete valley have
been worked since early colonial times. One of the most im-
portant industrial establishments in the republic is the smelting
works at Casapalca, on the Oroya railway, in the Rimac valley,
which receives ores from neighbouring mines of the district of
Huarochiri. The department is crossed from S.W. to N.E. by
the Oroya railway, and several short lines run from the city of
Lima to neighbouring towns. Besides Lima (q.v.) the principal
towns are Huacho, Canete (port), Canta, Yauyos, Chorrillos,
Miraflores and Barranco — the last three being summer resorts
for the people of the capital, with variable populations of 15,000,
6000 and 5000 respectively. About 15 m. S. of Lima, near the
mouth of the Lurin, are the celebrated ruins of Pachacamac,
which are believed to antedate the occupation of this region
by the Incas.
LIMA, the principal city and the capital of Peru and of the
department and province of Lima, on the left bank of the river
Rimac, 7! m. above its mouth and the same distance E. by N.
of its seaport Callao, in 12° 2' 34" S., 77° 7' 36" W. Pop. (1906
estimate) 140,000, of whom a large proportion is of negro
descent, and a considerable number of foreign birth. The city
is about 480 ft. above sea-level, and stands on an arid plain,
which rises gently toward the S., and occupies an angle between
the Cerros de San Jeronimo (2493 ft.) and San Cristobal (1411 ft.)
on the N. and a short range of low hills, called the Cerros de San
Bartolome, on the E. The surrounding region is arid, like all
this part of the Pacific coast, but through irrigation large areas
have been brought under cultivation, especially along the water-
courses. The Rimac has its source about 105 m. N.E. of Lima
and is fed by the melting snows of the higher Andes. It is an
insignificant stream in winter and a raging torrent in summer.
Its tributaries are all of the same character, except the Rio Surco,
which rises near Chorrillos and flowing northward joins the
Rimac a few miles above the city. These, with the Rio Lurin,
which enters the Pacific a short distance S. of Chorrillos, provide
water for irrigating the districts near Lima. The climate varies
somewhat from that of the arid coast in general, in having a
winter of four months characterized by cloudy skies, dense fogs
and sometimes a drizzling rain. The air in this season is raw
and chilly. For the rest of the year the sky is clear and the air
dry. The mean temperature for the year is 66° F., the winter
minimum being 59° and the summer maximum 78°.
The older part of Lima was laid out and built with mathe-
matical regularity, the streets crossing each other at right
angles and enclosing square areas, called manzanas, of nearly
uniform size. Later extensions, however, did not follow this
plan strictly, and there is some variation from the straight line
in the streets and also in the size and shape of the manzanas.
The streets are roughly paved with cobble stones and lighted
with gas or electricity. A broad boulevard of modern con-
struction partly encircles the city, occupying the site of the old
brick walls (18 to 20 ft. high, 10 to 12 ft. thick at the base and
9 ft. at the top) which were constructed in 1585 by a Fleming
named Pedro Ramon, and were razed by Henry Meiggs during
the administration of President Balta. The water-supply is
derived from the Rimac and filtered, and the drainage, once
carried on the surface, now passes into a system of subterranean
sewers. The streets and suburbs of Lima are served by tramways,
mostly worked by electric traction. The suburban lines include
two to Callao, one to Magdalena, and one to Miraflores and
Chorrillos. On the north side of the river is the suburb or
district of San Lazaro, shut in by the encircling hills and occupied
in great part by the poorer classes. The principal squares are
the Plaza Mayor, Plaza Bolivar (formerly P. de la Inquisicion
and P. de la Independencia), Plaza de la Exposicion, and Plaza
del Acho, on the north side of the river, the site of the bull-ring.
The public gardens, connected with the Exposition palace on the
S. side of the city, and the Paseo Colon are popular among
the Limenos as pleasure resorts. The long Paseo Colon, with
its parallel drives and paths, is ornamented with trees, shrubbery
and statues, notably the Columbus statue, a group in marble
designed by the sculptor Salvatore Revelli. It is the favourite
fashionable resort. A part of the old wagon road from Lima to
Callao, which was paved and improved with walks and trees
by viceroy O'Higgins, is also much frequented. The avenue
(3 m. long) leading from the city to Magdalena was beautified
by the planting of four rows of palms during the Pierola admini-
stration. Among other public resorts are the Botanical garden,
the Grau and Bolognesi avenues (parts of the Boulevard), the
Acho avenue on the right bank of the Rimac, and the celebrated
avenue of the Descalzos, on the N. side of the river, bordered
with statuary. The noteworthy monuments of the city are
the bronze equestrian statue of Bolivar in the plaza of that name,
the Columbus statue already mentioned, the Bolognesi statue
in the small square of that name, and the San Martin statue in
the Plaza de la Exposicion. The 22nd of May monument, a
marble shaft crowned by a golden bronze figure of Victory,
stands where the Callao road crosses the Boulevard. Most
conspicuous among the public buildings of Lima is the cathedral,
whose twin towers and broad facade look down upon the Plaza
Mayor. Its foundation stone was laid in 1535 but the cathedral
was not consecrated until 1625. The great earthquake of 1746
reduced it to a mass of ruins, but it was reconstructed by 1758,
practically, as it now stands. It has double aisles and ten
richly-decorated chapels, in one of which rest the remains of
Francisco Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru. Also facing the same
square are the archiepiscopal and government palaces; the
latter formerly the palace of the viceroys. The interesting casa
of the Inquisition, whose tribunals rivalled those of Madrid in
cruelty, faces upon Plaza Bolivar, as also the old University of
San Marcos, which dates from 1551 and has faculties of theology,
law, medicine, philosophy and literature, mathematics, and
administrative and political economy. The churches and
convents of Lima are richly endowed as a rule, and some of the
churches represent a very large expenditure of money. The
6go
LIMAgON
convent of San Francisco, near the Plaza Mayor, is the largest
monastic establishment in Lima and contains some very fine
carvings. Its church is the finest in the city after the cathedral.
Other noteworthy churches are those of the convents of Santo
Domingo, La Merced and San Augustine. There are a number
of conventual establishments (for both sexes), which, with their
chapels, and with the smaller churches, retreats, sanctuaries, &c.,
make up a total of 66 institutions devoted to religious observ-
ances. An attractive, and perhaps the most popular public
building in Lima is the Exposition palace on the plaza and in
the public gardens of the same name, on the south side of the
city. It dates from 1872; its halls are used for important public
assemblies, and its upper floor is occupied by the National
Historical Institute, its museum and the gallery of historical
paintings. Other noteworthy edifices and institutions are the
National Library, the Lima Geographical Society, founded in
1888; the Mint, which dates from 1565 and is considered to be
one of the best in South America ; the great bull-ring of the Plaza
del Acho, which dates from 1768 and can seat 8000 spectators;
the Concepcion market; a modern penitentiary; and various
charitable institutions. In addition to the old university on the
Plaza Bolivar, which has been modernized and greatly improved,
Lima has a school of engineers and mines (founded 1876), the
old college of San Carlos, a normal school (founded 1905), a
school of agriculture (situated outside the city limits and founded
in 1902), two schools for girls under the direction of religious
sisters, an episcopal seminary called the Seminario Conciliar
de Santo Toribio, and a school of arts and trades in which
elementary technical instruction is given. Under the old regime,
primary instruction was almost wholly neglected, but the 2oth
century brought about important changes in this respect.
In addition to the primary schools, the government maintains
free night schools for workmen.
The residences of the city are for the most part of one storey
and have mud walls supported by a wooden framework which
enclose open spaces, called patios, around which the living rooms
are ranged. The better class of dwellings have two floors and
are sometimes built of brick. A projecting, lattice-enclosed
window for the use of women is a prominent feature of the larger
houses and gives a picturesque effect to the streets.
Manufacturing has had some considerable development since
the closing years of the igth century; the most important
manufactories are established outside the city limits; they produce
cotton and woollen textiles, the products of the sugar estates,
chocolate, cocaine, cigars and cigarettes, beer, artificial liquors,
cotton-seed oil, hats, macaroni, matches, paper, soap and candles.
The commercial interests of the city are important, a large part
of the interior being supplied from this point. With its port
Callao the city is connected by two steam railways, one of which
was built as early as 1848; one railway runs northward to Ancon,
and another, the famous Oroya line, runs inland 130 m., crossing
the Western Cordillera at an elevation of 15,645 ft. above sea-
level, with branches to Cerro de Pasco and Huari. The export
trade properly belongs to Callao, though often credited to Lima.
The Limenos are an intelligent, hospitable, pleasure-loving
people, and the many attractive features of their city make it a
favourite place of residence for foreigners.
Lima was founded on the i8th of January 1535 by Francisco
Pizarro, who named it Ciudad de los Reyes (City of the Kings) in
honour of the emperor Charles V. and Dona Juana his mother,
or, according to some authorities, in commemoration of the
Feast of the Epiphany (6th January) when its site is said to have
been selected. The name soon after gave place to that of Lima,
a Spanish corruption of the Quichua word Rimac. In 1541
Lima was made an episcopal see, which in 1545 was raised to a
metropolitan see. Under Spanish rule, Lima was the principal
city of South America, and for a time was the entrep6t for all the
Pacific coast colonies south of Panama. It became very prosperous
during this period, though often visited by destructive earth-
quakes, the most disastrous of which was that of the 28th of
October 1746, when the cathedral and the greater part of the
city were reduced to ruins, many lives were lost, and the port of
Callao was destroyed. Lima was not materially affected by the
military operations of the war of independence until 1821, when
a small army of Argentines and Chileans under General San
Martin invested the city, and took possession of it on the i2th
of July upon the withdrawal of the Spanish forces. San Martin
was proclaimed the protector of Peru as a free state on the
28th of July, but resigned that office on the 2oth of September
1822 to avoid a fratricidal struggle with Bolivar. In March
1828 Lima was again visited by a destructive earthquake, and
in 1854-1855 an epidemic of yellow fever carried off a great
number of its inhabitants. In November 1864, when a hostile
Spanish fleet was on the coast, a congress of South American
plenipotentiaries was held here to concert measures of mutual
defence. Lima has been the principal sufferer in the many
revolutions and disorders which have convulsed Peru under the
republic, and many of them originated in the city itself. During
the earlier part of this period the capital twice fell into the hands
of foreigners, once in 1836 when the Bolivian general Santa
Cruz made himself the chief of a Bolivian-Peruvian confederation,
and again in 1837 when an invading force of Chileans and
Peruvian refugees landed at Ancon and defeated the Peruvian
forces under President Orbegoso. The city prospered greatly
under the two administrations of President Ramon Castilla,
who gave Peru its first taste of peace and good government,
and under those of Presidents Balta and Pardo, during which
many important public improvements were made. The greatest
calamity in the history of Lima was its occupation by a Chilean
army under the command of General Baquedano after the bloody
defeat of the Peruvians at Miraflores on the isth of January
1 88 1. Chorrillos and Miraflores with their handsome country
residences had already been sacked and burned and their helpless
residents murdered. Lima escaped this fate, thanks to the
intervention of foreign powers, but during the two years and
nine months of this occupation the Chileans systematically
pillaged the public edifices, turned the old university of San
Marcos into barracks, destroyed the public library, and carried
away the valuable contents of the Exposition palace, the models
and apparatus of the medical school and other educational
institutions, and many of the monuments and art treasures with
which the city had been enriched. A forced contribution of
$1,000,000 a month was imposed upon the population in
addition to the revenues of the custom house. When the Chilean
garrison under Captain Lynch was withdrawn on the 22nd of
October 1883, it took 3000 wagons to carry away the plunder
which had not already been shipped. Of the government palace
and other public buildings nothing remained but the bare walls.
The buoyant character of the people, and the sympathy and
assistance generously offered by many civilized nations, con-
tributed to a remarkably speedy recovery from so great a
misfortune. Under the direction of its keeper, Don Ricardo
Palma, 8315 volumes of the public library were recovered, to
which were added valuable contributions from other countries.
The portraits of the Spanish viceroys were also recovered, except
five, and are now in the portrait gallery of the Exposition palace.
The poverty of the country after the war made recovery difficult,
but years of peace have assisted it.
See Mariano F. Paz Soldan, Diccionario geogr&fico-esladistico del
Peru (Lima, 1877); Mateo Paz Soldan and M. F. Paz Soldan,
Geografia del Peru (Paris, 1862); Manuel A. Fuentes, Lima, or
Sketches of the Capital of Peru (London, 1866) ; C. R. Markham,
Cuzo and Lima (London, 1856), and History of Peru (Chicago, 1892) ;
Alexandra Garland, Peru in 1906 (Lima, 1907) ; and C. R. Enocic,
Peru (London, 1908). For earlier descriptions see works referred to
under PERU. (A. J. L.),
LI MA QON (from the Lat. Umax, a slug), a curve invented by
Blaise Pascal and further investigated and named by Gilles
Personne de Roberval. It is generated by the extremities of a
rod which is constrained to move so that its middle point traces
out a circle, the rod always passing through a fixed point on the
circumference. The polar equation is r = o+6 cos 0, where
2a = length of the rod, and b = diameter of the circle. The curve
may be regarded as an epitrochoid (see EPICYCLOID) in which the
rolling and fixed circles have equal radii. It is the inverse of a
LIMASOL— LIMBURG
691
central conic for the focus, and the first positive pedal of a circle
for any point. The form of the limafon depends on the ratio of
the two constants; if a be greater
than b, the curve lies entirely outside
the circle; if a equals b, it is known
as a cardioid (q.v.) ; if a is less than
b, the curve has a node within the
circle; the particular case when
b=2a is known as the trisectrix
(q.v.). In the figure (i) is a limacon,
(2) the cardioid, (3) the trisectrix.
Properties of the limacon may be
deduced from its mechanical con-
struction; thus the length of a focal
chord is constant and the normals at
the extremities of a focal chord ' intersect on a fixed circle.
The area is (W+a1/2)ir, and the length is expressible as an
elliptic integral.
LIMASOL, a seaport of Cyprus, on Akrotiri Bay of the south
coast. Pop. (1901) 8298. Excepting a fort attributed to the
close of the i2th century the town is without antiquities of
interest, but in the neighbourhood are the ancient sites of
Amathus and Curium. Limasol has a considerable trade in
wine and carobs. The town was the scene of the marriage of
Richard I., king of England, with Berengaria, in 1191.
LIMB, (i) (In O. Eng. Urn, cognate with the O. Nor. and Icel.
limr, Swed. and Dan. lent; probably the word is to be referred
to a root li- seen in an obsolete English word " lith," a limb, and
in the Ger. died), originally any portion or member of the body,
but now restricted in meaning to the external members of the
body of an animal apart from the head and trunk, the legs and
arms, or, in a bird, the wings. It is sometimes used of the lower
limbs only, and is synonymous with " leg." The word is also
used of the main branches of a tree, of the projecting spurs of a
range of mountains, of the arms of a cross, &c. As a translation
of the Lat. membrum, and with special reference to the church
as the "body of Christ," "limb" was frequently used by
ecclesiastical writers of the i6th and i7th centuries of a person
as being a component part of the church; cf. such expressions
as "limb of Satan," "limb of the law," &c. From the use of
membrum in medieval Latin for an estate dependent on another,
the name " limb " is given to an outlying portion of another,
or to the surbordinate members of the Cinque Ports, attached to
one of the principal towns; Pevensey was thus a "limb" of
Hastings. (2) An edge or border, frequently used in scientific
language for the boundary of a surface. It is thus used of the
edge of the disk of the sun or moon, of the expanded part of a
petal or sepal in botany, &c. This word is a shortened form of
" limbo " or " limbus," Lat. for an edge, for the theological use
of which see LIMBUS.
LIMBACH, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, in the manu-
facturing district of Chemnitz, 6 m. N.W. of that city. Pop.
(1905) 13,723. It has a public park and a monument to the
composer Pache. Its industries include the making of worsteds,
cloth, silk and sewing-machines, and dyeing and bleaching.
LIMBER, an homonymous word, having three meanings,
(i) A two- wheeled carriage forming a detachable part of the
equipment of all guns on travelling carriages and having on it a
framework to contain ammunition boxes, and, in most cases,
seats for two or three gunners. The French equivalent is avant-
Irain, the Ger. Protz (see ARTILLERY and ORDNANCE). (2) An
adjective meaning pliant or flexible and so used with reference
to a person's mental or bodily qualities, quick, nimble, adroit.
(3) A nautical term for the holes cut in the flooring in a ship
above the keelson, to allow water to drain to the pumps.
The etymology of these words is obscure. According to the
New English Dictionary the origin of (i) is to be found in the Fr.
limoniere, a derivative of limon, the shaft of a vehicle, a meaning
which appears in English from the isth century but is now obsolete,
except apparently among the miners of the north of England. The
earlier English forms of the word are lymor or limmer. Skeat sug-
gests that (2) is connected with " limp," which he refers to a Teutonic
base lap-, meaning to hang down. The New English Dictionary
points out that while " limp " does not occur till the beginning of
the l8th century, " limber " in this sense is found as early as the
i6th. In Thomas Cooper's (1517 ?-i594) Thesaurus Linguae Romanae
et Britannicae (1565), it appears as the English equivalent of the
Latin lentus. A possible derivation connects it with " limb."
LIMBORCH, PHILIPP VAN (1633-1712), Dutch Remonstrant
theologian, was born on the igth of June 1633, at Amsterdam,
where his father was a lawyer. He received his education at
Utrecht, at Leiden, in his native city, and finally at Utrecht
University, which he entered in 1652. In 1657 he became a
Remonstrant pastor at Gouda, and in 1667 he was transferred to
Amsterdam, where, in the following year, the office of professor
of theology in the Remonstrant seminary was added to his
pastoral charge. He was a friend of John Locke. He died at
Amsterdam on the 3oth of April 1712.
His most important work, Institutiones theologiae christianae, ad
praxin pietatis et promotionem pacis ,-christianae unice directae
(Amsterdam, 1686, 5th ed., 1735), is a full and clear exposition of
the system of Simon Episcopius and Stephan Curcellaeus. The
fourth edition (1715) included a posthumous " Relatio historica de
origine et progressu controversiarum in foederato Belgio de prae-
destinatione." Limborch also wrote De veritate religionis Christianae
arnica collatio cum erudito Judaeo (Gouda, 1687) ; Historia Inquisi-
tionis (1692), in four books prefixed to the " Liber Sententiarum
Inquisitionis Tolosanae " (1307-1323); and Commentarius in Acta
Apostolorum et in Epistolas ad Romanes et ad Hebraeos (Rotterdam,
1711). His editorial labours included the publication of various
works of his predecessors, and of Epistolae ecclesiasticae praestantium
ac eruditorum virorum (Amsterdam, 1684), chiefly by Jakobus
Arminius, Joannes Uytenbogardus, Konrad Vorstius (1569-1622),
Gerhard Vossius (1577-1649), Hugo Grotius, Simon Episcopius
(his grand-uncle) and Caspar Barlaeus; they are of great value
for the history of Arminianism. An English translation of the
Theologia was published in 1702 by William Jones (A Complete
System or Body of Divinity, both Speculative and Practical, founded
on Scripture and Reason, London, 1702); and a translation of the
Historia Inquisitionis, by Samuel Chandler, with " a large intro-
duction concerning the rise and progress of persecution and the real
and pretended causes of it " prefixed, appeared in 1731. See
Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie.
LIMBURG, one of the many small feudal states into which the
duchy of Lower Lorraine was split up in the second half of the
nth century. The first count, Walram of Arlon, married Judith
the daughter of Frederick of Luxemburg, duke of Lower Lorraine
(d. 1065), who bestowed upon him a portion of his possessions
lying upon both sides of the river Meuse. It received its name
from the strong castle built by Count Walram on the river Vesdre ,
where the town of Limburg now stands. Henry, Walram's son
(d. 1119), was turbulent and ambitious. On the death of Godfrey
of Bouillon (1089) he forced the emperor Henry IV. to recognize
him as duke of Lower Lorraine. He was afterwards deposed
and imprisoned by Count Godfrey of Louvain on whom the ducal
title had been bestowed by the emperor Henry V. (1106). For
three generations the possession of the ducal title was disputed
between the rival houses of Limburg and Louvain. At length
a reconciliation took place (1155); the name of duke of Lower
Lorraine henceforth disappears, the riders of the territory on the
Meuse become dukes of Limburg, those of the larger territory to
the west dukes of Brabant. With the death of Duke Walram IV.
(1280) the succession passed to his daughter, Irmingardis,
who was married to Reinald I., count of Guelders. Irmingardis
died without issue (1282), and her cousin, Count Adolph of Berg,
laid claim to the duchy. His rights were disputed by Reinald,
who was in possession and was recognized by the emperor. Too
weak to assert his claim by force of arms Adolph sold his rights
(1283) to John, duke of Brabant (q.v.). This led to a long and
desolating war for five years, at the end of which (1288), finding
the power of Brabant superior to his own Reinald in his turn sold
his rights to count Henry III. of Luxemburg. Henry and Reinald,
supported by the archbishop of Cologne and other allies, now
raised a great army. The rival forces met at Woeringen (sth of
June 1288) and John of Brabant (q.v.) gained a complete victory.
It proved decisive, the duchies of Limburg and Brabant passing
under the rule of a common sovereign. The duchy comprised
during this period the bailiwicks of Herv6, Montzen, Baelen,
Sprimont and Wallhorn, and the counties of Rolduc, Daelhem
and Falkenberg, to which was added in 1530 the town of
692
LIMBURG— LIMBUS
Maastricht. The provisions and privileges of the famous Charter
of Brabant, the Joyeuse Entree (q.v,), were from the isth century
extended to Limburg and remained in force until the French
Revolution. By the treaty of Westphalia (1648) the duchy was
divided into two portions, the counties of Daelhem and Falken-
berg with the town of Maastricht being ceded by Spain to the
United Provinces, where they formed what was known as a
" Generality-Land." At thepeaceof Rastatt (1714) thesouthern
portion passed under the dominion of the Austrian Habsburgs
and formed part of the Austrian Netherlands until the French
conquest in 1794. During the period of French rule (1794-
1814) Limburg was included in the two French departments of
Ourthe and Meuse Inferieure. In 1814 the old name of Limburg
was restored to one of the provinces of the newly created kingdom
of the Netherlands, but the new Limburg comprised besides
the ancient duchy, a piece of Gelderland and the county of Looz.
At the revolution of 1830 Limburg, with the exception of Maas-
tricht, threw in its lot with the Belgians, and during the nine
years that King William refused to recognize the existence of the
kingdom of Belgium the Limburgers sent representatives to the
legislature at Brussels and were treated as Belgians. When in
1839 the Dutch king suddenly announced his intention of
accepting the terms of the settlement proposed by the treaty of
London, as drawn up by representatives of the great powers
in 1831, Belgium found herself compelled to relinquish portions
of Limburg and Luxemburg. The part of Limburg that lay on
the right bank of the Meuse, together with the town of Maastricht
and a number of communes — Weert, Haelen, Kepel, Horst, &c. —
on the left bank of the river, became a sovereign duchy under
the rule of the king of Holland. In exchange for the cession of
the rights of the Germanic confederation over the portion of
Luxemburg, which was annexed by the treaty to Belgium, the
duchy of Limburg (excepting the communes of Maastricht and
Venloo) was declared to belong to the Germanic confederation.
This somewhat unsatisfactory condition of affairs continued
until 1866, when at a conference of the great powers, held in
London to consider the Luxemburg question (see LUXEMBURG),
it was agreed that Limburg should be freed from every political
tie with Germany. Limburg became henceforth an integral part
of Dutch territory.
See P. S. Ernst, Hisloire du Limbourg (7 vols., Li6ge, 1837-1852) ;
C. J. Luzac, De Landen van Overmuze in Zonderheid 1662 (Leiden,
1888); M. J. de Poully, Histoire de Maastricht el de ses environs
(1850); Diplomaticke bescheiden betreffends de Limburg-Luxem-
burgsche aangelegenheden 1866-1867 (The Hague, 1868); and R.
Frum, Geschied. der Staats-Instellingen in Nederland (The Hague,
1901). (G. E.)
LIMBURG, or LIMBOURG, the smallest of the nine provinces
of Belgium, occupying the north-east corner of the kingdom.
It represents only a portion of the ancient duchy of Limburg
(see above). The part east of the Meuse was transferred to
Holland by the London conference, and a further portion was
attached to the province of Liege including the old capital now
called Dolhain. Much of the province is represented by the wild
heath district called the Campine, recently discovered to form
an extensive coal-field. The operations for working it were only
begun in 1906. North-west of Hasselt is Beverloo, where all the
Belgian troops go through a course of instruction annually.
Among the towns are Hasselt, the capital, St Trend and Looz.
From the last named is derived the title of the family known as
the dukes of Looz, whose antiquity equals that of the extinct
reigning family of Limburg itself. The title of due de Looz is one
of the four existing ducal titles in the Netherlands, the other
three being d'Arenberg, Croy and d'Ursel. Limburg contains
603,085 acres or 942 sq. m. In 1904 the population was 255,359,
giving an average of 271 per sq. m.
LIMBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Hesse-Nassau, on the Lahn, here crossed by a bridge dating
from 1315, and on the main line of railway from Coblenz to
Lollar and Cassel, with a branch to Frankfort-on-Main. Pop.
(1905) 9917. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop. The
small seven-towered cathedral, dedicated to St George the
martyr, is picturesquely situated on a rocky site overhanging the
river. This was founded by Conrad Kurzbold, count of Nieder-
lahngau, early in the loth century, and was consecrated in
1235. It was restored in 1872-1878. Limburg has a castle, a
new town hall and a seminary for the education of priests; its
industries include the manufacture of cloth, tobacco, soap,
machinery, pottery and leather. Limburg, which was a flourish-
ing place during the middle ages, had its own line of counts until'
1414, when it was purchased by the elector of Trier. It passed
to Nassau in 1803. In September 1796 it was the scene of a
victory gained by the Austrians under the archduke Charles
over the French.
See Hillebrand, Limburg an der Lahn unter Pfandherrschaft 1344-
1624 (Wiesbaden, 1899).
LIMBURG, the south-easternmost and smallest province of
Holland, bounded N. by Gelderland, N.W. by North Brabant,
S.W. by the Belgian province of Limburg, and S. by that of
Liege, and E. by Germany. Its area is 850 sq. m., and its popula-
tion in 1900 was 281,934. It is watered by the Meuse .(Maas)
which forms part of its south-western boundary (with Belgium)
and then flows through its northern portion, and by such tribu-
taries as the Geul and Roer (Ruhr). Its capital is Maastricht,
which gives name to one of the two administrative districts into
which it is divided, the other being Roermond.
LIMBURG CHRONICLE, or FESTI LIMPURGENSES, the name
of a German chronicle written most probably by Tileman Elhen
von Wolfhagen after 1402. It is a source for the history of the
Rhineland between 1336 and 1398, but is perhaps more valuable
for the information about German manners and customs, and
the old German folk-songs and stories which it contains. It
has also a certain philological interest.
The chronicle was first published by J. F. Faust in 1617, and has
been edited by A. Wyss for the Monumenta Germaniae historica.
Deutsche Chroniken, Band iv. (Hanover, 1883). See A. Wyss, Die
Limburger Chronik unter sucht (Marburg, 1875).
LIMBURGITE, in petrology, a dark-coloured volcanic rock
resembling basalt in appearance, but containing normally no
felspar. The name is taken from Limburg (Germany) , where they
occur in the well-known rock of the Kaiserstuhl. They consist
essentially of olivine and augite with a brownish glassy ground
mass. The augite may be green, but more commonly is brown
or violet; the olivine is usually pale green or colourless, but is
sometimes yellow (hyalosiderite). In the ground mass a second
generation of small eumorphic augites frequently occurs; more
rarely olivine is present also as an ingredient of the matrix.
The principal accessory minerals are titaniferous iron oxides and
apatite. Felspar though sometimes present is never abundant,
and nepheline also is unusual. In some limburgites large
phenocysts of dark brown hornblende and biotite are found,
mostly with irregular borders blackened by resorption; in others
there are large crystals of soda orthoclase or anorthoclase.
Hauyne is an ingredient of some of the limburgites of the Cape
Verde Islands. Rocks of this group occur in considerable
numbers in Germany (Rhine district) and in Bohemia, also in
Scotland, Auvergne, Spain, Africa (Kilimanjaro), Brazil, &c.
They are associated principally with basalts, nepheline and
leucite basalts and monchiquites. From the last-named rocks
the limburgites are not easily separated as the two classes bear
a very close resemblance in structure and in mineral composition,
though many authorities believe that the ground mass of the
monchiquites is not a glass but crystalline analcite. Limburgites
may occur as flows, as sills or dykes, and are sometimes highly
vesicular. Closely allied to them are the augitites, which are
distinguished only by the absence of olivine; examples are
known from Bohemia, Auvergne, the Canary Islands, Ireland, &c.
LIMBUS (Lat. for " edge," " fringe," e.g. of a garment), a
theological term denoting the border of hell, where dwell those
who, while not condemned to torture, yet are deprived of the
joy of heaven. The more common form in English is " limbo,"
which is used both in the technical theological sense and deriva-
tively in the sense of " prison," or for the condition of being
lost, deserted, obsolete. In theology there are (i) the Limbus
Infantum, and (2) the Limbus Patrum.
i. The Limbus Infantum or Puerorum is the abode to which
LIME
693
human beings dying without actual sin, but with their original
sin unwashed away by baptism, were held to be consigned; the
category included, not unbaptized infants merely, but also
idiots, cretins and the like. The word " limbus," in the theo-
logical application, occurs first in the Summa of Thomas Aquinas;
for its extensive currency it is perhaps most indebted to the
Commedia of Dante (Inf. c. 4). The question as to the destiny
of infants dying unbaptized presented itself to theologians at
a comparatively early period. Generally speaking it may be
said that the Greek fathers inclined to a cheerful and the Latin
fathers to a gloomy view. Thus Gregory of Nazianzus (Oral. 40)
says " that such children as die unbaptized without their own
fault shall neither be glorified nor punished by the righteous
Judge, as having done no wickedness, though they die un-
baptized, and as rather suffering loss than being the authors of
it." Similar opinions were expressed by Gregory of Nyssa,
Severus of Antioch and others — opinions which it is almost
impossible to distinguish from the Pelagian view that children
dying unbaptized might be admitted to eternal life, though not
to the kingdom of God. In his recoil from Pelagian heresy,
Augustine was compelled to sharpen the antithesis between the
state of the saved and that of the lost, and taught that there
are only two alternatives — to be with Christ or with the devil,
to be with Him or against Him. Following up, as he thought,
his master's teaching, Fulgentius declared that it is to be believed
as an indubitable truth that, " not only men who have come to
the use of reason, but infants dying, whether in their mother's
womb or after birth, without baptism in the name of the Father,
Son and Holy Ghost, are punished with everlasting punishment
in eternal fire." Later theologians and schoolmen followed
Augustine in rejecting the notion of any final position inter-
mediate between heaven and hell, but otherwise inclined to take
the mildest possible view of the destiny of the irresponsible and
unbaptized. Thus the proposition of Innocent III. that " the
punishment of original sin is deprivation of the vision of God "
is practically repeated by Aquinas, Scotus, and all the other
great theologians of the scholastic period, the only outstanding
exception being that of Gregory of Rimini, who on this account
was afterwards called "tortorinfantum." The first authoritative
declaration of the Latin Church upon this subject was that made
by the second council of Lyons (1274), and confirmed by the
council of Florence (1439), with the concurrence of the repre-
sentatives of the Greek Church, to the effect that " the souls of
those who die in mortal sin or in original sin only forthwith
descend into hell, but to be punished with unequal punishments."
Perrone remarks (Prael. Theol. pt. iii. chap. 6, art. 4) that the
damnation of infants and also the comparative lightness of the
punishment involved in this are thus de fide; but nothing is
determined as to the place which they occupy in hell, as to what
constitutes the disparity of their punishment, or as to their
condition after the day of judgment. In the council of Trent
there was considerable difference of opinion as to what was
implied in deprivation of the vision of God, and no definition
was attempted, the Dominicans maintaining the severer view
that the " limbus infantum " was a dark subterranean fireless
chamber, while the Franciscans placed it in a region of light
above the earth. Some theologians continue to maintain with
Bellarmine that the infants " in limbo " are affected with some
degree of sadness on account of a felt privation; others, following
the Nodus praedestinalionis of Celestine Sfrondati (1640-1696),
hold that they enjoy every kind of natural felicity, as regards
their souls now, and as regards their bodies after the resurrection,
just as if Adam had not sinned. In the condemnation (1794)
of the'synod of Pistoia (1786), the twenty-sixth article declares
it to be false, rash and injurious to treat as Pelagian the doctrine
that those dying in original sin are not punished with fire, as if
that meant that there is an intermediate place, free from fault
and punishment, between the kingdom of God and everlasting
damnation.
2. The Limbus Patrum, Limbus Inferni or Sinus Abrahae
(" Abraham's Bosom "), is defined in Roman Catholic theology
as the place in the underworld where the saints of the Old
Testament were confined until liberated by Christ on his " descent
into hell." Regarding the locality and its pleasantness or
painfulness nothing has been taught as de fide. It is sometimes
regarded as having been closed and empty since Christ's descent,
but other authors do not think of it as separate in place from the
limbus infantum. The whole idea, in the Latin Church, has been
justly described as the mere caput mortuum of the old catholic
doctrine of Hades, which was gradually superseded in the West
by that of purgatory.
LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limus, mud, from linere, to smear), the
name given to a viscous exudation of the holly-tree, used for
snaring birds and known as " bird-lime." In chemistry, it is
the popular name of calcium oxide, CaO, a substance employed
in very early times as a component of mortars and cementing
materials. It is prepared by the burning of limestone (a process
described by Dioscorides and Pliny) in kilns similar to those
described under CEMENT. The value and subsequent treatment
of the product depend on the purity of the limestone; a pure
stone yields a " fat " lime which readily slakes; an impure stone,
especially if magnesia be present, yields an almost unslakable
" poor " lime. See CEMENT, CONCRETE and MORTAR, for details.
Pure calcium oxide " quick-lime," obtained by heating the
pure carbonate, is a white amorphous substance, which can be
readily melted and boiled in the electric furnace, cubic and
acicular crystals being deposited on cooling the vapour. It
combines with water, evolving much heat and crumbling to
pieces; this operation is termed " slaking " and the resulting
product " slaked lime "; it is chemically equivalent to the
conversion of the oxide into hydrate. A solution of the hydrate
in water, known as lime-water, has a weakly alkaline reaction;
it is employed in the detection of carbonic acid. " Milk of lime "
consists of a cream of the hydrate and water. Dry lime has no
action upon chlorine, carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide,
although in the presence of water combination ensues.
In medicine lime-water, applied externally, is an astringent
and desiccative, and it enters into the preparation of lina-
mentum calcis and carron oil which are employed to heal burns,
eczema, &c. Applied internally, lime-water is an antacid; it
prevents the curdling of milk in large lumps (hence its pre-
scription for infants) ; it also acts as a gastric sedative. Calcium
phosphate is much employed in treating rickets, and calcium
chloride in haemoptysis and haemophylia. It is an antidote for
mineral and oxalic acid poisoning.
LIME,1 or LINDEN. The lime trees, species of Tilia, are
familiar timber trees with sweet-scented, honeyed flowers, which
are borne on a common peduncle proceeding from the middle of
a long bract. The genus, which gives the name to the natural
order Tiliaceae, contains about ten species of trees, natives of
the north temperate zone. The general name Tilia europaea,
the name given by Linnaeus to the European lime, includes
several well-marked sub-species, often regarded as distinct
species. These are: (i) the small-leaved lime, T. parmfolia
(or T. cordata) , probably wild in woods in England and also wild
throughout Europe, except in the extreme south-east, and
Russian Asia. (2) T. intermedia, the common lime, which is
widely planted in Britain but not wild there, has a less northerly
distribution than T. cordata, from which it differs in its somewhat
larger leaves and downy fruit. (3) The large-leaved lime,
T. platyphyllos (or T. grandifolia) , occurs only as an introduction
in Britain, and is wild in Europe south of Denmark. It differs
from the other two limes in its larger leaves, often 4 in. across,
which are downy beneath, its downy twigs and its prominently
ribbed fruit. The lime sometimes acquires a great size; one is
recorded in Norfolk as being 16 yds. in circumference, and Ray
mentions one of the same girth. The famous linden tree which
gave the town of Neuenstadt in Wiirttemberg the name of
" Neuenstadt an der grossen Linden " was 9 ft. in diameter.
The lime is a very favourite tree. It is an object of beauty in
1 This is an altered form of O. Eng. and M.Eng. lind;cl. Ger.Linde,
cognate with Gr. fAdri;, the silver fir. " Linden " in English means
properly " made of lime — or lind — wood," and the transference to
the tree is due to the Ger. Lindenbaum.
694
LIMERICK
the spring when the delicately transparent green leaves are
bursting from the protection of the pink and white stipules,
which have formed the bud-scales, and retains its fresh green
during early summer. Later, the fragrance of its flowers, rich
in honey, attracts innumerable bees; in the autumn the foliage
becomes a clear yellow but soon falls. Among the many famous
avenues of limes may be mentioned that which gave the name
to one of the best-known ways in Berlin, " Unter den Linden,"
and the avenue at Trinity College, Cambridge.
The economic value of the tree chiefly lies in the inner bark or
liber (Lat. for bark), called bast, and the wood. The former was
used for paper and mats and for tying garlands by the ancients
(Od. i. 38; Pliny xvi. 14. 25, xxiv. 8. 33). Bast mats are now made
chiefly in Russia, the bark being cut in long strips, when the liber
is easily separable from the corky superficial layer. It is then plaited
into mats about 2 yds. sOjUare; 14,000,000 'come to Britain annually,
chiefly from Archangel. _ The wood is used by carvers, being soft and
light, and by architects in framing the models of buildings. Turners
use it for light bowls, &c. T. americana (bass-wood) is one of the
most common trees in the forests of Canada and extends into the
eastern and southern United States. It is sawn into lumber and
under the name of white-wood used in the manufacture of wooden
ware, cheap furniture, &c., and also for paper pulp (C. S. Sargent
Silva of North America). It was cultivated by Philip Miller at
Chelsea in 1752.
The common lime was well known to the ancients. Theophrastus
says the leaves are sweet and used for fodder for most kinds of
cattle. Pliny alludes to the use of the liber and wood, and describes
the tree as growing in the mountain- valleys of Italy (xvi. 30). See
also Virg. Geo. i. 173, &c. ; Ov. Met. viii. 621, x. 92. Allusion to
the lightness of the wood is made in Aristoph. Birds, 1378.
For the sweet lime (Citrus Limetta or Citrus acida) and lime-juice,
see LEMON.
LIMERICK, a western county of Ireland, in the province of
Munster, bounded N. by the estuary of the Shannon and the
counties of Clare and Tipperary, E. by Tipperary, S. by Cork
and W. by Kerry. The area is 680,842 acres, or about 1064 sq. m.
The greater part of the county is comparatively level, but in the
south-east the picturesque Galtees, which extend in to Tipperary,
attain in Galtymore a height of 3015 ft., and on the west, stretch-
ing into Kerry, there is a circular amphitheatre of less elevated
mountains. The Shannon is navigable for large vessels to
Limerick, above which are the rapids of Doonas and Castleroy,
and a canal. The Shannon is widely famous as a sporting river,
and Castleconnell is a well-known centre. The Maigne, which
rises in the Galtees and flows into the Shannon, is navigable
as far as the town of Adare.
This is mainly a Carboniferous Limestone county, with fairly
level land, broken by ridges of Old Red Sandstone. On the north-
east, the latter rock rises on Slievefelim, round a Silurian core, to
1523 ft. In the south, Old Red Sandstone rises above an enclosed
area of Silurian shales at Ballylanders, the opposite scarp of Old Red
Sandstone forming the Ballyhoura Hills on the Cork border. Vol-
canic ashes, andesites, basalts and intrusive sheets of basic rock,
mark an eruptive episode in the Carboniferous Limestone. These
are well seen under Carrigogunnell Castle, and in a ring of hills round
Ballybrood. At Ballybrood, Upper Carboniferous beds occur, as
an outlier of a large area that links the west of the county with the
north of Kerry. The coals in the west are not of commercial value.
Lead-ore has been worked in places in the limestone.
Limerick includes the greater part of the Golden Vale, the most
fertile district of Ireland, which stretches from Cashel in Tipperary
nearly to the town of Limerick. Along the banks of the Shannon
there are large tracts of flat meadow land formed of deposits of
calcareous and peaty matter, exceedingly fertile. The soil in the
mountainous districts is for the most part thin and poor, and in-
capable of improvement. The large farms occupy the low grounds,
and are almost wholly devoted to grazing. The acreage under
tillage decreases, the proportion to pasturage being as one to nearly
three. All the crops (of which oats and potatoes are the principal)
show a decrease, but there is a growing acreage of meadow land.
The numbers of live stock, on the other hand, are on the whole well
maintained, and cattle, sheep, pigs, goats and poultry are all ex-
tensively reared. The inhabitants are employed chiefly in agri-
culture, but coarse woollens are manufactured, and also paper,
and there are many meal and flour mills. Formerly there were
flax-spinning and weaving mills, but the industry is now practically
extinct. Limerick is the headquarters of an important salmon-
fishery on the Shannon. The railway communications are entirely
included in the Great Southern and Western system, whose main
line crosses the south-eastern corner of the county, with two branches
to the city of Limerick from Limerick Junction and from Charleville,
and lines from Limerick south-westward to Tralee in county Kerry,
and to Foynes on the Shannon estuary. Limerick is also served by a
line from the north through county Tipperary. The port of Limerick,
at the head of the estuary, is the most important on the west coast.
The county includes 14 baronies. The number of members
returned to the Irish parliament was eight, two being returned for
each of the boroughs of Askeaton and Kilmallock, in addition to
two returned for the county, and two for the county of the city of
Limerick. The present county parliamentary divisions are the
east and west, each returning one member. The population (158,912
in 1891, 146,098 in 1901) shows a decrease somewhat under the
average of the Irish counties generally, emigration being, however,
extensive; of the total about 94% are Roman Catholics, and
about 73% are rural. The chief towns are Limerick (pop. 38,151),
Rathkeale (1749) and Newcastle or Newcastle West (2599). The
city of Limerick constitutes a county in itself. Assizes are held at
Limerick, and quarter-sessions at Bruff, Limerick, Newcastle and
Rathkeale. The county is divided between the Protestant dioceses
of Cashel, Killaloe and Limerick; and between the Roman Catholic
dioceses of the same names.
Limerick was included in the kingdom of Thomond. After-
wards it had a separate existence under the name of Aine-Cliach.
From the 8th to the nth century it was partly occupied by the
Danes (see LIMERICK, City). As a county, Limerick is one of the
twelve generally considered to owe their formation to King John.
By Henry II. it was granted to Henry Fitzherbert, but his claim
was afterwards resigned, and subsequently various Anglo-
Norman settlements were made. About 100,000 acres of the
estates of the earl of Desmond, which were forfeited in 1586,
were situated in the county, and other extensive confiscations
took place after the Cromwellian wars. In 1709 a German
colony from the Palatinate was settled by Lord Southwell near
Bruff, Rathkeale and Adare.
There are only slight remains of the round tower at Ardpatrick,
but that at Dysert is much better preserved; another at
Kilmallock is in great part a reconstruction. There are
important remains of stone circles, pillar stones and altars at
Loch Gur. In several places there are remains of old moats and
tumuli. Besides the monasteries in the city of Limerick, the
most important monastic ruins are those of Adare abbey,
Askeaton abbey, Galbally friary, Kilflin monastery, Kilmallock
and Monaster-Nenagh abbey.
LIMERICK, a city, county of a city, parliamentary borough,
port and the chief town of Co. Limerick, Ireland, occupying
both banks and an island (King's Island) of the river Shannon,
at the head of its estuary, 129 m. W.S.W. of Dublin by the
Great Southern and Western railway. Pop. (1901) 38,151. The
situation is striking, for the Shannon is here a broad and noble
stream, and the immediately surrounding country consists of the
rich lowlands of its valley, while beyond rise the hills of the
counties Clare and Tipperary. The city is divided into English
Town (on King's Island) , Irish Town and Newtown Pery, the first
including the ancient nucleus of the city, and the last the principal
modern streets. The main stream of the Shannon is crossed by
Thomond Bridge and Sarsfield or Wellesley Bridge. The first
is commanded by King John's Castle, on King's Island, a fine
Norman fortress fronting the river, and used as barracks. At
the west end of the bridge is preserved the Treaty Stone, on
which the Treaty of Limerick was signed in 1691. The cathedral
of St Mary, also on King's Island, was originally built in 1142-
1180, and exhibits some Early English work, though largely
altered at dates subsequent to that period. The Roman Catholic
cathedral of St John is a modern building (1860) in early pointed
style. The churches of St Munchin (to whom is attributed the
foundation of the see in the 6th century) and St John, Whita-
more's Castle and a Dominican priory, are other remains of
antiquarian interest; while the principal city and county
buildings are a chamber of commerce, a custom house command-
ing the river, and court house, town hall and barracks. A
picturesque public park adjoins the railway station in Newtown
Pery.
The port is the most important on the west coast, and accom-
modates vessels of 3000 tons in a floating dock; there is also a
graving dock. Communication with the Atlantic is open and
secure, while a vast network of inland navigation is opened up
i>y a canal avoiding the rapids above the city. Quays extend for
about 1600 yds. on each side of the river, and vessels of 600 tons
LIMERICK— LIMES GERMANICUS
695
can moor alongside at spring tides. The principal imports are
grain, sugar, timber and coal. The exports consist mainly of
agricultural produce. The principal industrial establishments
include flour-mills (Limerick supplying most of the west of
Ireland with flour), factories for bacon-curing and for condensed
milk and creameries. Some brewing, distilling and tanning are
carried on, and the manufacture of very beautiful lace is main-
tained at the Convent of the Good Shepherd; but a formerly
important textile industry has lapsed. The salmon fisheries of
the Shannon, for which Limerick is the headquarters of a district,
are the most valuable in Ireland. The city is governed by
a corporation, and the parliamentary borough returns one
member.
Limerick is said to have been the Rcgia of Ptolemy and the
Rosse-de-Nattleagh of the Annals of Multifernan. There is a
tradition that it was visited by St Patrick in the 5th century,
but it is first authentically known as a settlement of the Danes,
who sacked it in 81 2 and afterwards made it the principal town
of their kingdom of Limerick, but were expelled from it towards
the close of the icth century by Brian Boroimhe. From 1106
till its conquest by the English in 1174 it was the seat of the kings
of Thomond or North Munster, and, although in 1179 the
kingdom of Limerick was given by Henry II. to Herbert Fitz-
herbert, the city was frequently in the possession of the Irish
chieftains till 1195. Richard I. granted it a charter in 1197.
By King John it was committed to the care of William de Burgo,
who founded English Town, and for its defence erected a strong
castle. The city was frequently besieged in the i3th and i4th
centuries. In the i5th century its fortifications were extended
to include Irish Town, and until their demolition in 1760 it was
one of the strongest fortresses of the kingdom. In 1651 it was
taken by General Ireton, and after an unsuccessful siege by
William III. in 1690 its resistance was terminated on the 3rd of
October of the following year by the treaty of Limerick. The
dismantling of its fortifications began in 1760, but fragments of
the old walls remain. The original municipal rights of the city
had been confirmed and extended by a succession of sovereigns,
and in 1609 it received a charter constituting it a county of a
city, and also incorporating a society of merchants of the staple,
with the same privileges as the merchants of the staple of Dublin
and Waterford. The powers of the corporation were remodelled
by the Limerick Regulation Act of 1823. The prosperity of the
city dates chiefly from the foundation of Newtown Pery in 1769
by Edmund Sexton Pery (d. 1806), speaker of the Irish House
of Commons, whose family subsequently received the title of the
earldom of Limerick. Under the Local Government Act of 1898
Limerick became one of the six county boroughs having a
separate county council.
LIMERICK, a name which has been adopted to distinguish
a certain form of verse which began to be cultivated in the middle
of the igth century. A limerick is a kind of burlesque epigram,
written in five lines. In its earlier form it had two rhymes,
the word which closed the first or second line being usually
employed at the end of the fifth, but in later varieties different
rhyming words are employed. There is much uncertainty as
to the meaning of the name, and as to the time when it became
attached to a particular species of nonsense verses. According
to the New Eng. Diet. " a song has existed in Ireland for a very
considerable time, the construction of the verse of which is
identical with that of Lear's " (see below), and in which the
invitation is repeated, " Will you come up to Limerick ? "
Unfortunately, the specimen quoted in the New Eng. Diet, is not
only not identical with, but does not resemble Lear's. Whatever
be the derivation of the name, however, it is now universally
used to describe a set of verses formed on this model, with the
variations in rhyme noted above: —
" There was an old man who said ' Hush!
I perceive a young bird in that bush! '
When they said, 'Is it small? '
He replied, ' Not at all!
It is five times the size of the bush.' "
The invention, or at least the earliest general use of this form,
is attributed to Edward Lear, who, when a tutor in the family of
the earl of Derby at Knowsley, composed, about 1834, a large
number of nonsense-limericks to amuse the little grandchildren
of the house. Many of these he published, with illustrations,
in 1846, and they enjoyed and still enjoy an extreme popularity.
Lear preferred to give a geographical colour to his absurdities,
as in: —
" There was an old person of Tartary
Who cut through his jugular artery,
When up came his wife,
And exclaimed, ' O my Life,
How your loss will be felt through all Tartary!' "
but this is by no means essential. The neatness of the form has
led to a very extensive use of the limerick for all sorts of mock-
serious purposes, political, social and sarcastic, and a good many
specimens have achieved a popularity which has been all the
wider because they have, perforce, been confined to verbal
transmission. In recent years competitions of the " missing
word " type have had considerable vogue, the competitor, for
instance, having to supply the last line of the limerick.
LIMES GERMANICUS. The Latin noun limes denoted gener-
ally a path, sometimes a boundary path (possibly its original
sense) or boundary, and hence it was utilized by Latin writers
occasionally to denote frontiers definitely delimited and marked
in some distinct fashion. This latter sense has been adapted
and extended by modern historians concerned with the frontiers
of the Roman Empire. Thus the Wall of Hadrian in north
England (see BRITAIN: Roman) is now sometimes styled the
Limes Britannicus, the frontier of the Roman province of
Arabia facing the desert the Limes Arabicus and so forth. In
particular the remarkable frontier lines which bounded the
Roman provinces of Upper (southern) Germany and Raetia,
and which at their greatest development stretched from near
Bonn on the Rhine to near Regensburg on the Danube, are often
called the Limes Germanicus. The history of these lines is the
subject of the following paragraphs. They have in the last
fifteen years become much better known through systematic
excavations financed by the German empire and through other
researches connected therewith, and though many important
details are still doubtful, their general development can be
traced.
From the death of Augustus (A.D. 14) till after A.D. 70 Rome
accepted as her German frontier the water-boundary of the
Rhine and upper Danube. Beyond these rivers she held only
the fertile plain of Frankfort, opposite the Roman border fortress
of Moguntiacum (Mainz), the southernmost slopes of the Black
Forest and a few scattered tetes-du-pont. The northern section
of this frontier, where the Rhine is deep and broad, remained the
Roman boundary till the empire fell. The southern part was
different. The upper Rhine and upper Danube are easily
crossed. The frontier which they form is inconveniently long,
enclosing an acute-angled wedge of foreign territory — the modern
Baden and Wiirttemberg. The German populations of these
lands seem in Roman times to have been scanty, and Roman
subjects from the modern Alsace and Lorraine had drifted across
the river eastwards. The motives alike of geographical con-
venience and of the advantages to be gained by recognizing these
movements of Roman subjects combined to urge a forward
policy at Rome, and when the vigorous Vespasian had succeeded
the fool-criminal Nero, a series of advances began which gradually
closed up the acute angle, or at least rendered it obtuse.
The first advance came about 74, when what is now Baden
was invaded and in part annexed and a road carried from the
Roman base on the upper Rhine, Strassburg, to the Danube
just above Ulm. The point of the angle was broken off. The
second advance was made by Domitian about A.D. 83. He
pushed out from Moguntiacum, extended the Roman territory
east of it and enclosed the whole within a systematically de-
limited and defended frontier with numerous blockhouses along
it and larger forts in the rear. Among the blockhouses was one
which by various enlargements and refoundations grew into the
well-known Saalburg fort on the Taunus near Homburg. This
696
LIMESTONE
advance necessitated a third movement, the construction of a
frontier connecting the annexations of A.D. 74 and 83. We
know the line of this frontier which ran from the Main across
the upland Odenwald to the upper waters of the Neckar and was
defended by a chain of forts. We do not, however, know its
date, save that, if not Domitian's work, it was carried out soon
after his death, and the whole frontier thus constituted was
reorganized, probably by Hadrian, with a continuous wooden
palisade reaching from Rhine to Danube. The angle between
the rivers was now almost full. But there remained further
advance and further fortification. Either Hadrian or, more
probably, his successor Pius pushed out from the Odenwald and
the Danube, and marked out a new frontier roughly parallel to
but in advance of these two lines, though sometimes, as on the
Taunus, coinciding with the older line. This is the frontier
which is now visible and visited by the curious. It consists,
as we see it to-day, of two distinct frontier works, one, known
as the Pfahlgraben, is an earthen mound and ditch, best seen
in the neighbourhood of the Saalburg but once extending from
the Rhine southwards into southern Germany. The other,
which begins where the earthwork stops, is a wall, though not
a very formidable wall, of stone, the Teufelsmauer; it runs
roughly east and west parallel to the Danube, which it finally
joins at Heinheim near Regensburg. The Pfahlgraben is remark-
able for the extraordinary directness of its southern part, which
for over 50 m. runs mathematically straight and points almost
absolutely true for the Polar star. It is a clear case of an ancient
frontier laid out in American fashion. This frontier remained
for about 100 years, and no doubt in that long period much was
done to it to which we cannot affix precise dates. We cannot
even be absolutely certain when the frontier laid out by Pius
was equipped with the Pfahlgraben and Teufelsmauer. But
we know that the pressure of the barbarians began to be felt
seriously in the later part of the 2nd century, and after long
struggles the whole or almost the whole district east of Rhine
and north of Danube was lost — seemingly all within one short
period — about A.D. 250.
The best English account will be found in H. F. Pelham's essay in
Trans, of the Royal Hist. Soc. vol. 20, reprinted in his Collected
Papers, pp. 178-211 (Oxford, 1910), where the German authorities
are fully cited. (F. J. H.)
LIMESTONE, in petrography, a rock consisting essentially of
carbonate of lime. The group includes many varieties, some of
which are very distinct; but the whole group has certain
properties in common, arising from the chemical composition
and mineral character of its members. All limestones dissolve
readily in cold dilute acids, giving off bubbles of carbonic acid.
Citric or acetic acid will effect this change, though the mineral
acids are more commonly employed. Limestones, when pure,
are soft rocks readily scratched with a knife-blade or the edge
of a coin, their hardness being 3; but unless they are earthy or
incoherent, like chalk or sinter, they do not disintegrate by
pressure with the fingers and cannot be scratched with the finger
nail. When free from impurities limestones are white, but they
generally contain small quantities of other minerals than calcite
which affect their colour. Many limestones are yellowish or
creamy, especially those which contain a little iron oxide, iron
carbonate or clay. Others are bluish from the presence of iron
sulphide, or pyrites or marcasite; or grey and black from
admixture with carbonaceous or bituminous substances. Red
limestones usually contain haematite; in green limestones
there may be glauconite or chlorite. In crystalline limestones
or marbles many silicates may occur producing varied colours,
e.g. epidote, chlorite, augite (green); vesuvianite and garnet
(brown and red); graphite, spinels (black and grey); epidote,
chondrodite (yellow). The specific gravity of limestones ranges
from 2-6 to 2-8 in typical examples.
When seen in the field, limestones are often recognizable
by their method of weathering. If very pure, they may have
smooth rounded surfaces, or may be covered with narrow runnels
cut out by the rain. In such cases there is very little soil, and
plants are found growing only in fissures or crevices where the
insoluble impurities of the limestone have been deposited by the
rain. The less pure rocks have often eroded or pitted surfaces,
showing bands or patches rendered more resistant to the action
of the weather by the presence of insoluble materials such as
sand, clay or chert. These surfaces are often known from the
crust of hydrous oxides of iron produced by the action of the
atmosphere on any ferriferous ingredients of the rock; they are
sometimes black when the limestone is carbonaceous; a thin
layer of gritty sand grains may be left on the surface of limestones
which are slightly arenaceous. Most limestones which contain
fossils show these most clearly on weathered surfaces, and the
appearance of fragments of corals, crinoids and shells on the
exposed parts of a rock indicate a strong probability that
that rock is a limestone. The interior usually shows the organic
structures very imperfectly or not at all.
Another characteristic of pure limestones, where they occur
in large masses occupying considerable areas, is the frequency
with which they produce bare rocky ground, especially at high
elevations, or yield only a thin scanty soil covered with short
grass. In mountainous districts limestones are often recognizable
by these peculiarities. The chalk downs are celebrated for the
close green sward which they furnish. More impure limestones,
like those of the Lias and Oolites, contain enough insoluble
mineral matter to yield soils of great thickness and value, e.g.
the Cornbrash. In limestone regions all waters tend to be hard,
on account of the abundant carbonate of lime dissolved by
percolating waters, and caves, swallow holes, sinks, pot-holes
and underground rivers may occur in abundance. Some elevated
tracts of limestone are very barren (e.g. the Gausses), because
the rain which falls in them sinks at once into the earth and
passes underground. To a large extent this is true of the chalk
downs, where surface waters are notably scarce, though at con-
siderable depths the rocks hold large supplies of water.
The great majority of limestones are of organic formation, con-
sisting of the debris of the skeletons of animals. Some are fora-
miniferal, others are crinoidal, shelly or coral limestones according
to the nature of the creatures whose remains they contain. Of
foraminiferal limestones chalk is probably the best known; it is
fine, white and rather soft, and is very largely made up of the
shells of globigerina and other foraminifera (see CHALK). Almost
equally important are the nummulitic limestones so well developed
in Mediterranean countries (Spain, France, the Alps, Greece, Algeria,
Egypt, Asia Minor, &c.). The pyramids of Egypt are built mainly
of nummulitic limestone. Nummulites are large cone-shaped fora-
minifera with many chambers arranged in spiral order. In Britain
the small globular shells of Saccamina are important constituents of
some Carboniferous limestones; but the upper portion of that
formation in Russia, eastern Asia and North America is characterized
by the occurrence of limestones filled with the spindle-shaped shells
of Fusulina, a genus of foraminifera now extinct. ,
Coral limestones are being formed at the present day over a
large extent of the tropical seas; many existing coral reefs must
be of great thickness. The same process has been going on actively
since a very early period of the earth's history, for similar rocks are
found in great abundance in many geological formations. Some
Silurian limestones are rich in corals; in the Devonian there are
deposits which have been described as coral reefs (Devonshire,
Germany). The Carboniferous limestone, or mountain limestones
of England and North America, is sometimes nearly entirely coralline,
and the great dolomite masses of the Trias in the eastern Alps are
believed by many to be merely altered coral reefs. A special feature
of coral limestones is that, although they may be to a considerable
extent dolomitized, they are generally very free from silt and
mechanical impurities.
Crinoidal limestones, though abundant among the older rocks,
are not in course of formation on any great scale at the present
time, as crinoids, formerly abundant, are now rare. Many Carboni-
ferous and Silurian limestones consist mainly of the little cylindrical
joints of these animals. They are easily recognized by their shape,
and by the fact that many of them show a tube along their axes,
which is often filled up by carbonate of lime ; under the microscope
they have a punctate or fenestrate structure and each joint behaves
as a simple crystalline plate with uniform optical properties in
polarized light. Remains of other echinoderms (starfishes and sea
urchins) are often found in plenty in Secondary and Tertiary lime-
stones, but very seldom make up the greater part of the rock.
Shelly limestones may consist of mollusca or of brachiopoda, the
former being common in limestones of all ages while the latter attained
their principal development in the Palaeozoic epoch. The shells
are often broken and may have been reduced to shell sand before
the rock consolidated. Many rocks of this class are impure and pass
LIMESTONE
697
into marls and shelly sandstones which were deposited in shallow
waters, where land-derived sediment mingled with remains of the
creatures which inhabited the water. Fresh-water limestones are
mostly of this class and contain shells of those varieties of mollusca
which inhabit lakes. Brackish water limestones also are usually
shelly. Corallines (bryozoa, polyzoa, &c.), cephalopods (e.g. am-
monites, belemnites), crustaceans and sponges occur frequently in
limestones. It should be understood that it is not usual for a
rock to be built up entirely of one kind of organism though it is
classified according to its most abundant or most conspicuous
ingredients.
In the organic limestones there usually occurs much finely granular
calcareous matter which has been described as limestone mud or
limestone paste. It is the finely ground substance which results
from the breaking down of shells, &c., by the waves and currents,
and by the decay which takes place in the sea bottom before the
fragments are compacted into hard rock. The skeletal parts of
marine animals are not always converted into limestone in the
place where they were formed. In shallow waters, such as are the
favourite haunts of mollusca, corals, -&c., the tides and storms are
frequently sufficiently powerful to shift the loose material on the sea
bottom. A large part of a coral reef consists of broken coral rock
dislodged from the growing mass and carried upwards to the beach
or into the lagoon. Large fragments also fall over the steep outward
slopes of the reef and build up a talus at their base. Coral muds and
coral sands produced by the waves acting in these detached blocks,
are believed to cover two and a half millions of square miles of the
ocean floor. Owing to the fragile nature of the shells of foraminifera
they readily become disintegrated, especially at considerable depths,
largely by the solvent action of carbonic acid in sea water as they
sink to the bottom. The chalk in very great part consists not of
entire shells but of debris of foraminifera, and mollusca (such as
Inoceramus, &c.). The Globigerina ooze is the most widespread of
modern calcareous formations. It occupies nearly fifty millions
of square miles of the sea bottom, at an average depth of two thou-
sand fathoms. Pteropod ooze, consisting mainly of the shells of
pteropods (mollusca) also has a wide distribution, especially in
northern latitudes.
Consolidation may to a considerable extent be produced by
pressure, but more commonly cementation and crystallization play
a large part in the process. Recent shell sands on beaches and in
dunes are not unfrequently converted into a soft, semi-coherent
rock by rain water filtering downwards, dissolving and redepositing
carbonate of lime between the sand grains. In coral reefs also the
mass soon has its cavities more or less obliterated by a deposit of
calcite from solution. The fine interstitial mud or paste presents
a large surface to the solvents, and is more readily attacked than the
larger and more compact shell fragments. In fresh- water marls
considerable masses of crystalline calcite may be produced in this
way, enclosing well-preserved molluscan shells. Many calcareous
fragments consist of aragonite, wholly or principally, and this mineral
tends to be replaced by calcite. The aragonite, as seen in sections
under the microscope, is usually fibrous or prismatic, the calcite is
more commonly granular with a well-marked network of rhombohe-
dral cleavage cracks. The replacement of aragonite by calcite goes on
even in shells lying on modern sea shores, and is often very complete
in rocks belonging to the older geological periods. By the recry-
stallization of the finer paste and the introduction of calcite in
solution .the interior of shells, corals, foraminifera, &c., becomes
occupied by crystalline calcite, sometimes in comparatively large
grains, while the original organic structures may be very well-
preserved.
Some limestones are exceedingly pure, e.g. the chalk and some
varieties of mountain limestone, and these are especially suited for
making lime. The majority, however, contain admixture of other
substances, of which the commonest are clay and sand. Clayey or
argillaceous limestones frequently occur in thin or thick beds alter-
nating with shales, as in the Lias of England (the marlstone series).
Friable argillaceous fresh-water limestones are called " marls,"
and are used in many districts for top dressing soils, but the name
" marl " is loosely applied and is often given to beds which are
not of this nature (e.g. the red marls of the Trias). The " cement
stones " of the Lothians in Scotland are argillaceous limestones of
Lower Carboniferous age, which when burnt yield cement. The gault
(Upper Cretaceous) is a calcareous clay, often containing well-
preserved fossils, which lies below the chalk and attains considerable
importance in the south-east of England. Arenaceous limestones
pass by gradual transitions into shelly sandstones; in the latter the
shells are often dissolved leaving cavities, which may be occupied
by casts. Some of the Old Red Sandstone is calcareous. In other
cases the calcareous matter has recrystallized in large plates which
have shining cleavage surfaces dotted over with grains of sand
(Lincolnshire limestone). The Fontainebleau sandstone has large
calcite rhombohedra filled with sand grains. Limestones sometimes
contain much plant matter which has been converted into a dark
coaly substance, in which the original woody structures may be
preserved or may not. The calcareous petrified plants of Fifeshire
occur in such a limestone, and much has been learned from a micro-
scopic study of them regarding the anatomy of the plants of the
Carboniferous period. Volcanic ashes occur in some limestones, a
good example being the calcareous schalsteins or tuffs of Devon-
shire, which are usually much crushed by earth movements. In the
Globigerina ooze of the present day there is always a slight admixture
of volcanic materials derived either from wind-blown dust, from
submarine eruptions or from floating pieces of pumice. Other
limestones contain organic matter in the shape of asphalt, bitumen
or petroleum, presumably derived from plant remains. The well-
known Vat de Travers is a bituminous limestone of lower Neocomian
age found in the valley of that name near Neuchatel. Some of the
oil beds of North America are porous limestones, in the cavities of
which the oil is stored up. Siliceous limestones, where their silica
is original and of organic origin, have contained skeletons of sponges
or radiolaria. In the chalk the silica has usually been dissolved and
redeposited as flint nodules, and in the Carboniferous limestone as
chert bands. It may also be deposited in the corals and other
organic remains, silicifying them, with preservation of the original
structures (e.g. some Jurassic and Carboniferous limestones).
The oolitic limestones form a special group distinguished by their
consisting of small rounded or elliptical grains resembling fish roe;
when coarse they are called pisolites. Many of them are very pure
and highly fossiliferous. The oolitic grains in section may have a
nucleus, e.g. a fragment of a shell, quartz grain, &c., around which
concentric layers have been deposited. In many cases there is also
a radiating structure. They consist of calcite or aragonite, and
between the grains there is usually a cementing material of lime-
stone mud or granular calcite crystals. Deposits of silica, carbonate
of iron or small rhombohedra of dolomite are often found in the
interior of the spheroids, and oolites may be entirely silicified
(Pennsylvania, Cambrian rocks of Scotland). Oolitic ironstones are
very abundant in the Cleveland district of Yorkshire and form an
important iron ore. They are often impure, and their iron may be
present as haematite or as chalybite. Oolitic limestones are known
from many geological formations, e.g. the Cambrian and Silurian of
Scotland and Wales, Carboniferous limestone (Bristol), Jurassic,
Tertiary and Recent limestones. They are forming at the present
day in some coral reefs and in certain petrifying springs like those
of Carlsbad. Their chief development in England is in the Jurassic
rocks where they occur in large masses excellently adapted for
building purposes, and yield the well-known freestones of Portland
and Bath. Some hold that they are chemical precipitates and that
the concentric oolitic structure is produced by successive layers of
calcareous deposit laid down on fragments of shells, &c., in highly
calcareous waters. An alternative hypothesis is that minute
cellular plants (Girvanella, &c.), have extracted the carbonate of
lime from the water, and have been the principal agents in producing
the successive calcareous crusts. Such plants can live even in hot
waters, and there seems much reason for regarding them as of
importance in this connexion.
Another group of limestones is of inorganic or chemical origin,
having been deposited from solution in water without the inter-
vention of living organisms. A good example of these is the
" stalactite " which forms pendent masses on the roofs of caves in
limestone districts, the calcareous waters exposed to evaporation
in the air of the cave laying down successive layers of stalactite in
the places from which they drip. At the same time and in the
same way " stalagmite " gathers on the floor below, and often
accumulates in thick masses which contain bones of animals and the
weapons of primitive cave-dwelling man. Calc sinters are porous
limestones deposited by the evaporation of calcareous springs;
travertine is a well-known Italian rock of this kind. At Carlsbad
oolitic limestones are forming, but it seems probable that minute
algae assist in this process. Chemical deposits of carbonate of lime
may be produced by the evaporation of sea water in some upraised
coral lagoons and similar situations, but it is unlikely that this
takes place to any extent in the open sea, as sea water contains
very little carbonate of lime, apparently because marine organisms
so readily abstract it; still some writers believe that a considerable
part of the chalk is really a chemical precipitate. Onyx marbles
are banded limestones of chemical origin with variegated colours
such as white, yellow, green and red. They are used for orna-
mental work and are obtained in Persia, France, the United States,
Mexico, &c.
Limestones are exceedingly susceptible to chemical changes of a
metasomatic kind. They are readily dissolved by carbonated waters
and acid solutions, and their place may then be occupied by deposits
of a different kind. The silification of oolites and coral rocks and
their replacement by iron ores above mentioned are examples of
this process. Many extensive hematite deposits are in this way
formed in limestone districts. Phosphatization sometimes takes
place, amorphous phosphate of lime being substituted for carbonate
of lime, and these replacement products often have great value as
sources of natural fertilizers. On ocean rocks in dry climates the
droppings of birds (guano) which contain much phosphate, percolat-
ing into the underlying limestones change them into a hard white
or yellow phosphate rock (e.g. Sombrero, Christmas Island, &c.),
sometimes known as rock-guano or mineral guano. In the north
of France beds of phosphate are found in the chalk; they occur
also in England on a smaller scale. All limestones, especially those
laid down in deep waters contain some lime phosphate, derived from
shells of certain brachiopods, fish bones, teeth, whale bones, &c.
698 LIMINA APOSTOLORUM— LIMITATION, STATUTES OF
and this may pass into solution and be redeposited in certain horizons,
a process resembling the formation of flints. On the sea bottom at
the present day phosphatic nodules are found which have gathered
round the dead bodies of fishes and other animals. As in flint the
organic structures of the original limestone may be well preserved
though the whole mass is phosphatized.
Where uprising heated waters carrying mineral solutions are
proceeding from deep seated masses of igneous rocks they often
deposit a portion of their contents in limestone beds. At Leadville,
in Colorado, for example, great quantities of rich silver lead ore,
which have yielded not a little gold, have been obtained from the
limestones, while other rocks, though apparently equally favourably
situated, are barren. The lead and fluorspar deposits of the north
of England (Alston Moor, Derbyshire) occur in limestone. In the
Malay States the limestones have been impregnated with tin oxide.
Zinc ores are very frequently associated with beds of limestone, as
at Vieille Montagne in Belgium, and copper ores are found in great
quantity in Arizona in rocks of this kind. Apart from ore deposits
of economic value a great number of different minerals, often well
crystallized, have been observed in limestones.
When limestones occur among metamorphic schists or in the
vicinity of intrusive plutonic masses (such as granite), they are usually
recrystallized and have lost their organic structures. They are then
known as crystalline limestones or marbles (q.v.). (J. S. F.)
LIMINA APOSTOLORUM, an ecclesiastical term used to denote
Rome, and especially the church of St Peter and St Paul. A
Visitatio Liminum might be undertaken ex iioto or ex lege. The
former, visits paid in accordance with a vow, were very frequent
in the middle ages, and were under the special protection of the
pope, who put the ban upon any who should molest pilgrims
" who go to Rome for God's sake." The question of granting
dispensations from such a vow gave rise to much canonical
legislation, in which the papacy had finally to give in to the
bishops. The visits demanded by law were of more importance.
In 743 a Roman synod decreed that all bishops subject to the
metropolitan see of Rome should meet personally every year in
that city to give an account of the state of their dioceses.
Gregory VII. included in the order all metropolitans of the
Western Church, and Sixtus V. (by the bull Romanus Pontifex,
Dec. 20, 1584) ordered the bishops of Italy, Dalmatia and
Greece to visit Rome every three years; those of France, Ger-
many, Spain and Portugal, Belgium, Hungary, Bohemia and the
British Isles every four years; those from the rest of Europe
every five years; and bishops from other continents every ten
years. Benedict XIV. in 1740 extended the summons to all
abbots, provosts and others who held territorial jurisdiction.
LIMITATION, STATUTES OF, the name given to acts of
parliament by which rights of action are limited in the United
Kingdom to a fixed period after the occurrence of the events
giving rise to the cause of action. This is one of the devices by
which lapse of time is employed to settle disputed claims. There
are mainly two modes by which this may be effected. We may
say that the active enjoyment of a right — or possession — for a
determined period shall be a good title against all the world.
That is the method known generally as PRESCRIPTION (q.v.).
It looks to the length of time during which the defendant in a
disputed claim has been in possession or enjoyment of the matter
in dispute. But the principle of the statutes of limitation is to
look to the length of time during which the plaintiff has been out
of possession. The point of time at which he might first have
brought his action having been, ascertained, the lapse of the
limited period after that time bars him for ever from bringing his
action. In both cases the policy of the law is expressed by the
maxim Interest reipublicae ut sit finis litium.
The principle of limitation was first adopted in English law in
connexion with real actions, i.e. actions for the recovery of real
property. At first a fixed date was taken, and no action could
be brought of which the cause had arisen before that date. By
the Statute of Westminster the First (3 Edward I. c. 39), the
beginning of the reign of Richard I. was fixed as the date of
limitation for such actions. This is the well-known " period of
legal memory " recognized by the judges in a different class of
cases to which a rule of prescription was applied. Possession
of rights in alieno solo from time immemorial was held to be an
indefeasible title, and 'the courts held time immemorial to begin
with the first year of Richard I.
A period absolutely fixed became in time useless for the
purposes of limitation, and the method of counting back a
certain number of years from the date of the writs was adopted
in the Statute 32 Henry VIII. c. 2, which fixed periods of thirty,
fifty and sixty years for various classes of actions named therein.
A large number of statutes since that time have established
periods of limitation for different kinds of actions. Of those
now in force the most important are the Limitation Act 1623
for personal actions in general, and the Real Property Limitation
Act 1833 relating to actions for the recovery of land. The
latter statute has been repealed and virtually re-enacted by the
Real Property Limitation Act 1874, which reduced the period of
limitation from twenty years to twelve, for all actions brought
after the ist January 1879. The principal section of the act of
1833 will show the modus operandi: " After the 3131 December
1833, no person shall make an entry or distress, or bring an
action to recover any land or rent but within twenty years next
after the time at which the right to make such entry or distress
or to bring such action shall have first accrued to some person
through whom he claims, or shall have first accrued to the person
making or bringing the same." -Another section defines the times
at which the right of action or entry shall be deemed to have
accrued in particular cases; e.g. when the estate claimed shall
have been an estate or interest in reversion, such right shall be
deemed to have first accrued at the time at which such estate or
interest became an estate or interest in possession. Thus suppose
lands to be let by A to B from 1830 for a period of fifty years,
and that a portion of such lands is occupied by C from 1831
without any colour of title from B or A — C's long possession
would be of no avail against an action brought by A for the
recovery of the land after the determination of B's lease. A
would have twelve years after the determination of the lease
within which to bring his action, and might thus, by an action
brought in 1891, disestablish a person who had been in quiet
possession since 1831. What the law looks to is not the length
of time during which C has enjoyed the property, but the length
of time which A has suffered to elapse since he might first have
brought his action. It is to be observed, however, that the
Real Property Limitation Act does more than bar the remedy.
It extinguishes the right, differing in this respect from the other
Limitation Acts, which, while barring the remedy, preserve the
right, so that it may possibly become available in some other way
than by action.
By section 14 of the act of 1833, when any acknowledgment
of the title of the person entitled shall have been given to him
or his agent in writing signed by the person in possession, or
in receipt of the profits or rent, then the right of the person (to
whom such acknowledgment shall have been given) to make an
entry or distress or bring an action shall be deemed to have first
accrued at the time at which such acknowledgment, or the last
of such acknowledgments, was given. By section 15, persons
under the disability of infancy, lunacy or coverture, or beyond
seas, and their representatives, are to be allowed ten years from
the termination of this disability, or death (which shall have first
happened), notwithstanding that the ordinary period of limitation
shall have expired.
By the act of 1623 actions of trespass, detinue, trover, replevin
or account, actions on the case (except for slander), actions of debt
arising out of a simple contract and actions for arrears of rent
not due upon specialty shall be limited to six years from the
date of the cause of action. Actions for assault, menace, battery,
wounds and imprisonment are limited to four years, and actions
for slander to two years. Persons labouring under the dis-
abilities of infancy, lunacy or unsoundness of mind are allowed
the same time after the removal of the disability. When the
defendant was " beyond seas " (i.e. outside the United Kingdom
and the adjacent islands) an extension of time was allowed, but
by the Real Property Limitation Act of 1874 such an allowance
is excluded as to real property, and as to other matters by the
Mercantile Law Amendment Act 1856.
An acknowledgment, whether by payment on account or by
mere spoken words, was formerly sufficient to take the case out
LIMOGES
699
of the statute. The Act 9 Geo. IV. c. 14 (Lord Tenterden's act)
requires any promise or admission of liability to be in writing
and signed by the party to be charged, otherwise it will not bar
»the statute.
Contracts under seal are governed as to limitation by the act
of 1883, which provides that actions for rent upon any indenture
of demise, or of covenant, or debt or any bond or other specialty,
and on recognizances, must be brought within twenty years
after cause of action. Actions of debt on an award (the sub-
mission being not under seal), or for a copyhold fine, or for
money levied on a writ of fieri facias, must be brought within six
years. With regard to the rights of the crown, the principle
obtains that nullum tempus occurrit regi, so that no statute of
limitation affects the crown without express mention. But by
the Crown Suits Act 1769, as amended by the Crown Suits Act
1861, in suits relating to land, the claims of the crown to recover
are barred after the lapse of sixty years. For the prosecution
of criminal offences generally there is no period of limitation,
except where they are punishable on summary conviction. In
such case the period is six months by the Summary Jurisdiction
Act 1848. But there are various miscellaneous limitations fixed
by various acts, of which the following may be noticed. Suits
and indictments under penal statutes are limited to two years
if the forfeiture is to the crown, to one year if the forfeiture is
to the common informer. Penal actions by persons aggrieved
are limited to two years by the act of 1833. Prosecutions under
the Riot Act can only be sued upon within twelve months after
the offence has been committed, and offences against the Customs
Acts within three years. By the Public Authorities Protection
Act 1893, a prosecution against any person acting in execution
of statutory or other public duty must be commenced within
six months. Prosecutions under the Criminal Law Amendment
Act, as amended by the Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act
1904, must be commenced within six months after the com-
mission of the offence.
Trustees are expressly empowered to plead statutes of limita-
tion by the Trustees Act 1888; indeed, a defence under the
statutes of limitations must in general be specially pleaded.
Limitation is regarded strictly as a law of procedure. The
English courts will therefore apply their own rules to all actions,
although the cause of action may have arisen in a country in
which different rules of limitation exist. This is also a recognized
principle of private international law (see J. A. Foote, Private
International Law, 3rd ed., 1904, p. 516 seq.).
United States. — The principle of the statute of limitations has
passed with some modification into the statute-books of every
state in the Union except Louisiana, whose laws of limitation
are essentially the prescriptions of the civil law drawn from the
Partidas, or " Spanish Code." As to personal actions, it is
generally provided that they shall be brought within a certain
specified time — usually six years or less — from the time when the
cause of action accrues, and not after, while for land the " general
if not universal limitation of the right to bring action or to make
entry is to twenty years after the right to enter or to bring the
action accrues " (Bouvier's Law Dictionary, art. " Limitations ").
The constitutional provision prohibiting states from passing laws
impairing the obligation of contracts is not infringed by a law
of limitations, unless it bars a right of action already accrued
without giving a reasonable term within which to bring the action.
See Darby and Bosanquet, Statutes of Limitations (1899); Hewitt,
Statutes of Limitations (1893).
LIMOGES, a town of west-central France, capital of the
department of Haute- Vienne, formerly capital of the old province
of Limousin, 176 m. S. byW. of Orleans on the railway to
Toulouse. Pop. (1906) town, 75,906; commune, 88,597.
The station is a junction for Poitiers, Angouleme, Perigueux
and Clermont-Ferrand. The town occupies a hill on the right
bank of the Vienne, and comprises two parts originally distinct,
the Cite with narrow streets and old houses occupying the lower
slope, and the town proper the summit. In the latter a street
known as the Rue de la Boucherie is occupied by a powerful and
ancient corporation of butchers. The .site of the fortifications
which formerly surrounded both quarters is occupied by boule-
vards, outside which are suburbs with wide streets and spacious
squares. The cathedral, the most remarkable building in the
Limousin, was begun in 1273. In 1327 the choir was completed,
and before the middle of the i6th century the transept, with its
fine north portal and the first two bays of the nave; from 1875
to 1890 the construction of the nave was continued, and it was
united with the west tower (203 ft. high), the base of which
belongs to a previous Romanesque church. In the interior
there are a magnificent rood loft of the Renaissance, and the
tombs of Jean de Langeac (d. 1541) and other bishops. Of the
other churches of Limoges, St Michel des Lions (i4th and isth
centuries) and St Pierre du Queyroix (i2th and i3th centuries)
both contain interesting stained glass. The principal modern
buildings are the town hall and the law-courts. The Vienne is
crossed by a railway viaduct and four bridges, two of which,
the Pont St Etienne and the Pont St Martial, date from the
1 3th century. Among the chief squares are the Place d'Orsay
on the site of a Roman amphitheatre, the Place Jourdan with
the statue of Marshal J. B. Jourdan, born at Limoges, and the
Place d'Aine with the statue of J. L. Gay-Lussac. President
Carnot and Denis Dussoubs, both of whom have statues, were
also natives of the town. The museum has a rich ceramic
collection and art, numismatic and natural history collections.
Limoges is the headquarters of the XII. army corps and the
seat of a bishop, a prefect, a court of appeal and a court of
assizes, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a
board of trade arbitration, a chamber of commerce and a branch
of the Bank of France. The educational institutions include
a lycee for boys, a preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy,
a higher theological seminary, a training college, a national
school of decorative art and a commercial and industrial school.
The manufacture and decoration of porcelain give employment
to about 13,000 persons in the town and its vicinity. Shoe-
making and the manufacture of clogs occupy over 2000. Other
industries are liqueur-distilling, the spinning of wool and cloth-
weaving, printing and the manufacture of paper from straw.
Enamelling, which flourished at Limoges in the middle ages and
during the Renaissance (see ENAMEL), but subsequently died out,
was revived at the end of the igth century. There is an extensive
trade in wine and spirits, cattle, cereals and wood. The Vienne is
navigable for rafts above Limoges, and the logs brought down by
the current are stopped at the entrance of the town by the
inhabitants of the Naveix quarter, who form a special gild for
this purpose.
Limoges was a place of importance at the time of the Roman
conquest, and sent a large force to the defence of Alesia. In
ii B.C. it took the name of Augustus (Augustoritum); but in
the 4th century it was anew called by the name of the Lemovices,
whose capital it was. It then contained palaces and baths, had
its own senate and the right of coinage. Christianity was intro-
duced by St Martial. In the sth century Limoges was devastated
by the Vandals and the Visigoths, and afterwards suffered in the
wars between the Franks and Aquitanians and in the invasions
of the Normans. Under the Merovingian kings Limoges was
celebrated for its mints and its goldsmiths' work. In the middle
ages the town was divided into two distinct parts, each surrounded
by walls, forming separate fiefs with a separate system of
administration, an arrangement which survived till 1792. Of
these the more important, known as the Chateau, which grew up
round the tomb of St Martial in the gth century, and was sur-
rounded with walls in the loth and again in the i2th, was under
the jurisdiction of the viscounts of Limoges, and contained their
castle and the monastery of St Martial; the other, the Cite,
which was under the jurisdiction of the bishop, had but a sparse
population, the habitable ground being practically covered by
the cathedral, the episcopal palace and other churches and
religious buildings. In the Hundred Years' War the bishops sided
with the French, while the viscounts were unwilling vassals of
the English. In 1370 the Cite, which had opened its gates to the
French, was taken by the Black Prince and given over to fire
and sword.
yoo
LIMON— LIMOUSIN, L.
The religious wars, pestilence and famine desolated Limoges
in turn, and the plague of 1630-1631 carried off more than
20,000 persons. The wise administrations of Henri d'Aguesseau,
father of the chancellor, and of Turgot enabled Limoges to
recover its former prosperity. There have been several great
fires, destroying whole quarters of the city, built, as it then was,
of wood. That of 1790 lasted for two months, and destroyed
192 houses; and that of 1864 laid under ashes a large area.
Limoges celebrates every seven years a curious religious festival
(Fete d'Ostension), during which the relics of St Martial are
exposed for seven weeks, attracting large numbers of visitors.
It dates from the loth century, and commemorates a pestilence
(mal des ardents) which, after destroying 40,000 persons, is
believed to have been stayed by the intercession of the saint.
Limoges was the scene of two ecclesiastical councils, in 1029
and 1031. The first proclaimed the title of St Martial as " apostle
of Aquitaine "; the second insisted on the observance of the
" truce of God." In 1095 Pope Urban II. held a synod of
bishops here in connexion with his efforts to organize a crusade,
and on this occasion consecrated the basilica of St Martial
(pulled down after 1794).
See Celestin Por6, Limoges, in Joanne's guides, De Paris A Ager
(1867); Ducourtieux, Limoges d'apres ses anciens plans (1884)
and Limoges et ses environs (3rd ed., 1894). A very full list of works
on Limoges, the town, viscounty, bishopric, &c., is given by U.
Chevalier in Repertoire des sources hist, du moyen Age. Topo-bibliogr.
(Mont Celiard, 1903), t. ii. s.v.
LIMON, or PORT LIMON, the chief Atlantic port of Costa Rica,
Central America, and the capital of a district also named Limon,
on a bay of the Caribbean Sea, 103 m. E. by N. of San Jose.
Pop. (1904) 3171. Limon was founded in 1871, and is the
terminus of the transcontinental railway to Puntarenas which
was begun in the same year. The swamps behind the town,
and the shallow coral lagoon in front of it, have been filled in.
The harbour is protected by a sea-wall built along the low-water
line, and an iron pier affords accommodation for large vessels.
A breakwater from the harbour to the island of Uvita, about
1 200 yds. E. would render Limon a first-class port. Th,ere is
an excellent water-supply from the hills above the harbour.
Almost the entire coffee and banana crops of Costa Rica are sent
by rail for shipment at Limon to Europe and the United States.
The district (comarca) of Limon comprises the whole Atlantic
littoral, thus including the Talamanca country inhabited by
uncivilized Indians; the richest banana-growing territories in
the country; and the valuable forests of the San Juan valley.
It is annually visited by Indians from the Mosquito coast of
Nicaragua, who come in canoes to fish for turtle. Its chief towns,
after Limon, are Reventazon and Matina, both with fever than
3000 inhabitants.
LIMONITE, or BROWN IRON ORE, a natural ferric hydrate
named from the Gr. \einuv (meadow), in allusion to its occurrence
as " bog-ore " in meadows and marshes. It is never crystallized,
but may have a fibrous or microcrystalline structure, and
commonly occurs in concretionary forms or in compact and
earthy masses; sometimes mammillated, botryoidal, reniform
or stalactitic. The colour presents various shades of brown and
yellow, and the streak is always brownish, a character which
distinguishes it from haematite with a red, or from magnetite
with a black streak. It is sometimes called brown haematite.
Limonite is a ferric hydrate, conforming typically with the
formula Fe4O3(OH)6, or 2Fe2O3-3H2O. Its hardness is rather
above 5, and its specific gravity varies from 3-5 to 4. In many
cases it has been formed from other iron oxides, like haematite
and magnetite, or by the alteration of pyrites or chalybite.
By the operation of meteoric agencies, iron pyrites readily pass
into limonite often with retention of external form; and the masses
of " gozzan " or " gossan " on the outcrop of certain mineral-veins
consist of rusty iron ore formed in this way, and associated with
cellular quartz. Many deposits of limonite have been found, on
being worked, to pass downwards into ferrous carbonate; and
crystals of chalybite converted superficially into limonite are well
known. Minerals, like glauconite, which contain ferrous silicate,
may in like manner yield limonite, on weathering. The ferric
hydrate is also readily deposited from ferruginous waters, often
by means of organic agencies. Deposits of brown iron ore of great
economic value occur in many sedimentary rocks, such as the
Lias, Oolites and Lower Greensand of various parts of England.
They appear in some cases to be altered limestones and in others
altered glauconitic sandstones. An oolitic structure is sometimes
present, and the ores are generally phosphatic, and may contain
perhaps 30% of iron. The oolitic brown ores of Lorraine and
Luxemburg are known as " minette," a diminutive of the French
mine (ore), in allusion to their low content of metal. Granular and
concretionary limonite accumulates by organic action on the floor
of certain lakes in Sweden, forming the curious " lake ore." Larger
concretions formed under other conditions are known as " bean ore."
Limonite often forms a cementing medium in ferruginous sands and
gravels, forming " pan "; and in like manner it is the agglutinating
agent in many conglomerates, like the South African " banket,"
where it is auriferous. In iron-shot sands the limonite may form
hollow concretions, known in some cases as " boxes." The " eagle
stones " of older writers were generally concretions of this kind,
containing some substance, like sand, which rattled when the hollow
nodule was shaken. Bog iron ore is an impure limonite, usually
formed by the influence of micro-organisms, and containing silica,
phosphoric acid and organic matter, sometimes with manganese. The
various kinds of brown and yellow ochre are mixtures of limonite
with clay and other impurities; whilst in umber much manganese
oxide is present. Argillaceous brown iron ore is often known in
Germany as Thoneisenstein; but the corresponding term in English
(clay iron stone) is applied to nodular forms of impure chalybite.
J. C. Ullmann's name of stilpnosiderite, from the Greek trTiXirwfe
(shining) is sometimes applied to such kinds of limonite as have a
pitchy lustre. Deposits of limonite in cavities may have a rounded
surface or even a stalactitic form, and may present a brilliant
lustre, of blackish colour, forming what is called in Germany Glaskopf
(glass head). It often happens that analyses of brown iron ores
reveal a larger proportion of water than required by the typical
formula of limonite, and hence new species have been recognized.
Thus the yellowish brown ore called by E. Schmidt xanthosiderite,
from ?av66s (yellow) and ffiSTjpos (iron), contains Fe2O(OH)4, or
Fe2Os-2H2O; whilst the bog ore known as limnite, from Xl/nn; (marsh)
has the formula Fe(OH)8, or Fe2Os-3H2O. On the other hand there
are certain forms of ferric hydrate containing less water than limonite
and approaching to haematite in their red colour and streak: such
is the mineral which was called hydrohaematite by A. Breithaupt,
and is now generally known under R. Hermann's name of turgite,
from the mines of Turginsk, near Bogoslovsk in the Ural Mountains.
This has the formula Fe4O6(OH)2, or 2Fe2O3-H2O. It probably
represents the partial dehydration of limonite, and by further loss
of water may pass into haematite or red iron ore. When limonite
is dehydrated and deoxidized in the presence of carbonic acid, it
may give rise to chalybite.
LIMOUSIN (or LIMOSIN), LEONARD (c. 1505-0. 1577), French
painter, the most famous of a family of seven Limoges enamel
painters, was the son of a Limoges innkeeper. He is supposed
to have studied under Nardon Penicaud. He was certainly
at the beginning of his career influenced by the German school —
indeed, his earliest authenticated work, signed L. L. and dated
1532, is a series of eighteen plaques of the " Passion of the Lord,"
after Albrecht Diirer, but this influence was counterbalanced
by that of the Italian masters of the school of Fontainebleau,
Primaticcio, Rosso, Giulio Romano and Solario, from whom he
acquired his taste for arabesque ornament and for mythological
subjects. Nevertheless the French tradition was sufficiently
ingrained in him to save him from becoming an imitator and from
losing his personal style. In 1530 he entered the service of
Francis I. as painter and varlet de chambre, a position which he
retained under Henry II. For both these monarchs he executed
many portraits in enamel — among them quite a number of
plaques depicting Diane de Poitiers in various characters, —
plates, vases, ewers, and cups, besides decorative works for the
royal palaces, for, though he is best known as an enameller
distinguished for rich colour, and for graceful designs in grisaille
on black or bright blue backgrounds, he also enjoyed a great
reputation as an oil-painter. His last signed works bear the date
1574, but the date of his death is uncertain, though it could
not have been later than the beginning of 1577. It is on record
that he executed close upon two thousand enamels. He is best
represented at the Louvre, which owns his two famous votive
tablets for the Sainte Chapelle, each consisting of twenty-three
plaques, signed L. L. and dated 1553; "La Chasse," depicting
Henry II. on a white horse, Diane de Poitiers behind him on
horseback; and many portraits, including the kings by whom
he was employed, Marguerite de Valois, the due de Guise, and
the cardinal de Lorraine. Other representative examples are
LIMOUSIN— LINACRE
701
at the Cluny and Limoges museums. In England some magnifi-
cent examples of his work are to be found at the Victoria anc
Albert Museum, the British Museum, and the Wallace Collection
In the collection of Signor Rocchi, in Rome, is an exceptionally
interesting plaque representing Frances I. consulting a fortune-
teller.
See Leonard Limousin: peintre de portraits (L'CEuvre des peintres
emailleurs), by L. Boudery and E. Lachenaud (Paris, 1897) —
a careful study, with an elaborate catalogue of the known existing
examples of the artist's work. The book deals almost exclusively
with the portraits illustrated. See also Alleaume and Dupfessis, Les
Douze Apdtres — emaux de Leonard Limousin, &c. (Paris, 1865);
L. Boudery, Exposition retrospective de Limoges en 1886 (Limoges,
1886); L. Boudery, Leonard Limousin et son auvre (Limoges,
1895); Limoges et le Limousin (Limoges, 1865); A. Meyer, L'Art
de I' email de Limoges, ancien et moderne (Paris, 1896); Emile
Molinier, L'£maillerie (Paris, 1891).
LIMOUSIN (Lat. Pagus Lemomcinus, ager Lemovicensis, regio
Lemomcum, Lemozinum, Limosinium, &c.), a former province of
France. In the time of Julius Caesar the pagus Lemomcinus
covered the county now comprised in the departments of Haute-
Vienne, Correze and Creuse, with the arrondissements of Confolens
in Charente and Nontron in Dordogne. These limits it retained
until the loth century, and they survived in those of the diocese
of Limoges (except a small part cut off in 1317 to form that of
Tulle) until 1790. The break-up into great fiefs in the loth
century, however, tended rapidly to disintegrate the province,
until at the close of the i2th century Limousin embraced only
the viscounties of Limoges, Turenne and Comborn, with a few
ecclesiastical lordships, corresponding roughly to the present
arrondissements of Limoges and Saint Yrien in Haute- Vienne and
part of the arrondissements of Brive, Tulle and Ussel in Correze.
In the 1 7th century Limousin, thus constituted, had become no
more than a small gouiiernement.
Limousin takes its name from the Lemovices, a Gallic tribe
whose county was included by Augustus in the province of
Aquitanic Magna. Politically its history has little of separate
interest; it shared in general the vicissitudes of Aquitaine,
whose dukes from 918 onwards were its over-lords at least till
1264, after which it was sometimes under them, sometimes under
the counts of Poitiers, until the French kings succeeded in
asserting their direct over-lordship. It was, however, until the
I4th century, the centre of a civilization of which the enamelling
industry (see ENAMEL) was only one expression. The Limousin
dialect, now a mere patois, was regarded by the troubadours as
the purest form of Provencal.
See A. Leroeux, Geographie et histoire du Limousin (Limoges,
1892). Detailed bibliography in Chevalier, Repertoire des sources.
Topo-bibliogr. (Montbe'liard, 1902), t. ii. s.v.
LIMPOPO, or CROCODILE, a river of S.E. Africa over 1000 m.
in length, next to the Zambezi the largest river of Africa entering
the Indian Ocean. Its head streams rise on the northern slopes
of the Witwatersrand less than 300 m. due W. of the sea, but
the river makes a great semicircular sweep across the high
plateau first N.W., then N.E. and finally S.E. It is joined early
in its course by the Marico and Notwani, streams which rise
along the westward continuation of the Witwatersrand, the
ridge forming the water-parting between the Vaal and the
Limpopo basins. For a great part of its course the Limpopo
forms the north-west and north frontiers of the Transvaal. Its
banks are well wooded and present many picturesque views.
In descending the escarpment of the plateau the river passes
through rocky ravines, piercing the Zoutpansberg near the north-
east corner of the Transvaal at the Toli Azime Falls. In the
low country it receives its chief affluent, the Olifants river
(450 m. long), which, rising in the high veld of the Transvaal
east of the sources of the Limpopo, takes a more direct N.E.
course than the main stream. The Limpopo enters the ocean
in 25° 15' S. The mouth, about 1000 ft. wide, is obstructed by
sand-banks. In the rainy season the Limpopo loses a good deal
of its water in the swampy region along its lower course. High-
water level is 24 ft. above low-water level, when the depth in
the shallowest part does not exceed 3 ft. The river is navigable
all the year round by shallow-draught vessels from its mouth for
about ioo m., to a spot known as Gungunyana's Ford. In flood
time there is water communication south with the river Komati
(q.v.). At this season stretches of the Limpopo above Gungun-
yana's Ford are navigable. The river valley is generally
unhealthy.
The basin of the Limpopo includes the northern part of the
Transvaal, the eastern portion of Bechuanaland, southern Matabele-
land and a large area of Portuguese territory north of Delagoa Bay.
Its chief tributary, the Olifants, has been mentioned. Of its many
other affluents, the Macloutsie, the Shashi and the Tuli are the most
distant north-west feeders. In this direction the Matoppos and
other hills of Matabeleland separate the Limpopo basin from the
valley of the Zambezi. A little above the Tuli confluence is Rhodes's
Drift, the usual crossing-place from the northern Transvaal into
Matabeleland. Among the streams which, flowing north through
the Transvaal, join the Limpopo is the Nylstroom, so named by
Boers trekking from the south in the belief that they had reached
the river Nile. In the coast region the river has one considerable
affluent from the north, the Chengane, which is navigable for some
distance.
The Limpopo is a river of many names. In its upper course
called the Crocodile that name is also applied to the whole river,
which figures on old Portuguese maps as the Oori(or Oira) and Bembe.
Though claiming the territory through which it ran the Portuguese
made no attempt to trace the river. This was first done by Captain
J. F. Elton, who in 1870 travelling from the Tati goldfields sought
to open a road to the sea via the Limpopo. He voyaged down the
river from the Shashi confluence to the Toli Azim6 Falls, which he
discovered, following the stream thence on foot to the low country.
The lower course of the river had been explored 1868-1869 by another
British traveller — St Vincent Whitshed Erskine. It was first
navigated by a sea-going craft in 1884, when G. A. Chaddock of the
British mercantile service succeeded in crossing the bar, while its
lower course was accurately surveyed by Portuguese officers in 1895-
1896. At the junction of the Lotsani, one of the Bechuanaland
affluents, [with the Limpopo, are ruins of the period of the
Zimbabwes.
LINACRE (or LYNAKER), THOMAS (c. 1460-1524), English
humanist and physician, was probably born at Canterbury.
Of his parentage or descent nothing certain is known. He
received his early education at the cathedral school of Canterbury,
then under the direction of William Celling (William Tilly of
Selling), who became prior of Canterbury in 1472. Celling was
an ardent scholar, and one of the earliest in England who
cultivated Greek learning. From him Linacre must have received
his first incentive to this study. Linacre entered Oxford about
the year 1480, and in 1484 was elected a fellow of All Souls'
College. Shortly afterwards he visited Italy in the train of
Celling, who was sent by Henry VIII. as an envoy to the papal
court, and he accompanied his patron as far as Bologna. There
he became the pupil of Angelo Poliziano, and afterwards shared
the instruction which that great scholar imparted at Florence
to the sons of Lorenzo de' Medici. The younger of these princes
became Pope Leo X., and was in after years mindful of his old
companionship with Linacre. Among his other teachers and
friends in Italy were Demetrius Chalcondylas, Hermolaus
Barbarus, Aldus Romanus the printer of Venice, and Nicolaus
Leonicenus of Vicenza. Linacre took the degree of doctor of
medicine with great distinction at Padua. On his return to
Oxford, full of the learning and imbued with the spirit of the
Italian Renaissance, he formed one of the brilliant circle of
Oxford scholars, including John Colet, William Grocyn and
William Latimer, who are mentioned with so much warm
eulogy in the letters of Erasmus.
Linacre does not appear to have practised or taught medicine
n Oxford. About the year 1501 he was called to court as tutor
of the young prince Arthur. On the accession of Henry VIII.
was appointed the king's physician, an office at that time of
considerable influence and importance, and practised medicine
n London, having among his patients most of the great statesmen
and prelates of the time, as Cardinal Wolsey, Archbishop Warham
and Bishop Fox.
After some years of professional activity, and when in advanced
ife, Linacre received priest's orders in 1520, though he had for
some years previously held several clerical benefices. There is
no doubt that his ordination was connected with his retirement
'rom active life. Literary labours, and the cares of the founda-
tion which owed its existence chiefly to him, the Royal College
702
LINARES— LINCOLN, EARLS OF
of Physicians, occupied Linacre's remaining years till his death
on the zoth of October 1524.
Linacre was more of a scholar than a man of letters, and
rather a man of learning than a scientific investigator. It is
difficult now to judge of his practical skill in his profession, but
it was evidently highly esteemed in his own day. He took no
part in political or theological questions, and died too soon to
have to declare himself on either side in the formidable contro-
versies which were even in his lifetime beginning to arise. But
his career as a scholar was one eminently characteristic of the
critical period in the history of learning through which he lived.
He was one of the first Englishmen who studied Greek in Italy,
whence he brought back to his native country and his own uni-
versity the lessons of the " New Learning." His teachers were
some of the greatest scholars of the day. Among his pupils was
one — Erasmus — whose name alone would suffice to preserve
the memory of his instructor in Greek, and others of note in
letters and politics, such as Sir Thomas More, Prince Arthur and
Queen Mary. Colet, Grocyn, William Lilye and other eminent
scholars were his intimate friends, and he was esteemed by a still
wider circle of literary correspondents in all parts of Europe.
Linacre's literary activity was displayed in two directions, in pure
scholarship and in translation from the Greek. In the domain of
scholarship he was known by the rudiments of (Latin) grammar
(Progymnasmata Grammatices Bulgaria), composed in English, a
revised version of which was made for the use of the Princess Mary,
and afterwards translated into Latin by Robert Buchanan. He
also wrote a work on Latin composition, De emendata structura
Latini sermonis, which was published in London in 1524 and many
times reprinted on the continent of Europe.
Linacre's only medical works were his translations. He desired
to make the works of Galen (and indeed those of Aristotle also)
accessible to all readers of Latin. What he effected in the case of
the first, though not trifling in itself, is inconsiderable as compared
with the whole mass of Galen's writings; and of his translations
from Aristotle, some of which are known to have been completed,
nothing has survived. The following are the works of Galen trans-
lated by Linacre: (l) De sanitate tuenda, printed at Paris in
1517; (2) Methodus medendi (Paris, 1519); (3) De temperamentis
et de Inaequali Intemperie (Cambridge, 1521); (4) De naturalibus
facultatibus (London, 1523) ; (5) De symptomatum differentiis el
causis (London, 1524); (6) De pulsuum Usu (London, without
date). He also translated for the use of Prince Arthur an astronomi-
cal treatise of Proclus, De sphaera, which was printed at Venice by
Aldus in 1499. The accuracy of these translations and their elegance
of style were universally admitted. They have been generally
accepted as the standard versions of those parts of Galen's writings,
and frequently reprinted, either as a part of the collected works or
separately.
But the most important service which Linacre conferred upon his
own profession and science was not by his writings. To him was
chiefly owing the foundation by royal charter of the College of
Physicians in London, and he was the first president of the new
college, which he further aided by conveying to it his own house,
and by the gift of his library. Shortly before his death Linacre
obtained from the king letters patent for the establishment of
readerships in medicine at Oxford and Cambridge, and placed
valuable estates in the hands of trustees for their endowment.
Two readerships were founded in Merton College, Oxford, and one
in St John's College, Cambridge, but owing to neglect and bad
management of the funds, they fell into uselessness and obscurity.
The Oxford foundation was revived by the university commis-
sioners in 1856 in the form of the Linacre professorship of anatomy.
Posterity has done justice to the generosity and public spirit which
prompted these foundations; and it is impossible not to recognize
a strong constructive genius in the scheme of the College of Physicians,
by which Linacre not only first organized the medical profession in
England, but impressed upon it for some centuries the stamp of his
own individuality.
The intellectual fastidiousness of Linacre, and his habits of minute
accuracy were, as Erasmus suggests, the chief cause why he left
no more permanent literary memorials. It will be found, perhaps,
difficult to justify by any extant work the extremely high reputation
which he enjoyed among the scholars of his time. His Latin style
was so much admired that, according to the flattering eulogium of
Erasmus, Galen spoke better Latin in the version of Linacre than
he had before spoken Greek; and even Aristotle displayed a grace
which he hardly attained to in his native tongue. Erasmus praises
also Linacre's critical judgment (" vir non exacti tantum sed sever!
judicii "). According to others it was hard to say whether he were
more distinguished as a grammarian or a rhetorician. Of Greek
he was regarded as a consummate master; and he was equallj'
eminent as a " philosopher," that is, as learned in the works of the
ancient philosophers and naturalists. In this there may have been
some exaggeration; but all have acknowledged the elevation of
Linacre's character, and the fine moral qualities summed up in the
epitaph written by John Caius: " Fraudes dolosque mire perosus;
fidus amicis; omnibus prdinibus juxta carus."
The materials for Linacre's biography are to a large extent con-
tained in the older biographical collections of George Lilly (in
Paulus Jovius, Descriptio Britanniae), Bale, Leland and Pits, in
Wood's Athenae Oxonienses and in the Biographia Britannica;
but all are completely collected in the Life of Thomas Linacre, by
Dr Noble Johnson (London, 1835). Reference may also be made
to Dr Munk's Roll of the Royal College of Physicians (2nd ed., London,
1878); and the Introduction, by Dr J. F. Payne, to a facsimile
reproduction of Linacre's version of Galen de temperamentis (Cam-
bridge, 1881). With the exception of this treatise, none of Linacre's
works or translations has been reprinted in modern times.
LINARES, an inland province of central Chile, between Talca
on the N. and Nuble on the S., bounded E. by Argentina and
W. by the province of Maule. Pop. (1895) 101,858; area,
3942 sq. m. The river Maule forms its northern boundary and
drains its northern and north-eastern regions. The province
belongs partly to the great central valley of Chile and partly
to the western slopes of the Andes, the S. Pedro volcano rising
to a height of 11,800 ft. not far from the sources of the Maule.
The northern part is fertile, as are the valleys of the Andean
foothills, but arid conditions prevail throughout the central
districts, and irrigation is necessary for the production of crops.
The vine is cultivated to some extent, and good pasturage is
found on the Andean slopes. The province is traversed from
N. to S. by the Chilean Central railway, and the river Maule
gives access to the small port of Constitucion, at its mouth.
From Parral, near the southern boundary, a branch railway
extends westward to Cauquenes, the capital of Maule. The
capital, Linares, is centrally situated, on an open plain, about
20 m. S. of the river Maule. It had a population of 7331 in 1895
(which an official estimate of 1902 reduced to 7256). Parral
(pop. 8586 in 1895; est. 10,219 in 1902) is a railway junction
and manufacturing town.
LINARES, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Jaen,
among the southern foothills of the Sierra Morena, 1375 ft. above
sea-level and 3 m. N.W. of the river Guadalimar. Pop. (1900)
38,245. It is connected by four branch railways with the im-
portant argentiferous lead mines on the north-west, and with
the main railways from Madrid to Seville, Granada and the
principal ports on the south coast. The town was greatly
improved in the second half of the igth century, when the town
hall, bull-ring, theatre and many other handsome buildings were
erected; it contains little of antiquarian interest save a fine
fountain of Roman origin. Its population is chiefly engaged in
the lead-mines, and in such allied industries as the manufacture
of gunpowder, dynamite, match for blasting purposes, rope and
the like. The mining plant is entirely imported, principally from
England; and smelting, desilverizing and the manufacture of
lead sheets, pipes, &c., are carried on by British firms, which also
purchase most of the ore raised. Linares lead is unsurpassed in
quality, but the output tends to decrease. There is a thriving
local trade in grain, wine and oil. About 2 m. S. is the village of
Cazlona, which shows some remains of the ancient Castulo.
The ancient mines some 5 m. N., which are now known as Los
Pozos de Anibal, may possibly date from the 3rd century B.C.,
when this part of Spain was ruled by the Carthaginians.
LINCOLN, EARLS OF. The first earl of Lincoln was probably
William de Roumare (c. io95-c. 1155), who was created earl
about 1140, although it is possible that William de Albini, earl of
Arundel, had previously held the earldom. Roumare's grandson,
another William de Roumare (c. 1150-6. 1198), is sometimes
called earl of Lincoln, but he was never recognized as such, and
about 1148 King Stephen granted the earldom to one of his
supporters, Gilbert de Gand (d. 1156), who was related to the
former earl. After Gilbert's death the earldom was dormant
for about sixty years; then in 1216 it was given to another
Gilbert de Gand, and later it was claimed by the great earl of
Chester, Ranulf, or Randulph, de Blundevill (d. 1232). From
Ranulf the title to the earldom passed through his sister Hawise
to the family of Lacy, John de Lacy (d. 1240) being made earl of
Lincoln in 1232. He was son of Roger de Lacy (d. 1212), justiciar
LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
703
of England and constable of Chester. It was held by the Lacys
until the death of Henry, the 3rd earl. Henry served Edward I.
in Wales, France and Scotland, both as a soldier and a diplom-
atist. He went to France with Edmund, earl of Lancaster, in
1296, and when Edmund died in June of this year, succeeded him
as commander of the English forces in Gasconyjbut he did not
experience any great success in this capacity and returned to
England early in 1298. The earl fought at the battle of Falkirk
in July 1 298, and took some part in the subsequent conquest
of Scotland. He was then employed by Edward to negotiate
successively with popes Boniface VIII. and Clement V., and also
with Philip IV. of France; and was present at the death of the
English king in July 1307. For a short time Lincoln was friendly
with the new king, Edward II., and his favourite, Piers Gaveston;
but quickly changing his attitude, he joined earl Thomas of
Lancaster and the baronial party,- was one of the " ordainers "
appointed in 1310 and was regent of the kingdom during the
king's absence in Scotland in the same year. He died in London
on the sth of February 1311, and was buried in St Paul's
Cathedral. He married Margaret (d. 1309), granddaughter and
heiress of William Longsword, 2nd earl of Salisbury, and his only
surviving child, Alice (1283-1348), became the wife of Thomas,
earl of Lancaster, who thus inherited his father-in-law's earldoms
of Lincoln and Salisbury. Lincoln's Inn in London gets its name
from the earl, whose London residence occupied this site. He
founded Whalley Abbey in Lancashire, and built Denbigh Castle.
In 1349 Henry Plantagenet, earl (afterwards duke) of Lancaster,
a nephew of Earl Thomas, was created earl of Lincoln ; and when
his grandson Henry became king of England as Henry IV. in
1399 the title merged in the crown. In 1467 John de la Pole
(c. 1464-1487), a nephew of Edward IV., was made earl of
Lincoln, and the same dignity was conferred in 1525 upon Henry
Brandon (1516-1545), son of Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk.
Both died without sons, and the next family to hold the earldom
was that of Clinton.
EDWARD FIENNES CLINTON, gth Lord Clinton (1512-1585),
lord high admiral and the husband of Henry VIII. 's mistress,
Elizabeth Blount, was created earl of Lincoln in 1572. Before
his elevation he had rendered very valuable services both on sea
and land to Edward VI., to Mary and to Elizabeth, and he was
in the confidence of the leading men of these reigns, including
William Cecil, Lord Burghley. From 1572 until the present day
the title has been held by Clinton's descendants. In 1 768 Henry
Clinton, the gth earl (1720-1794), succeeded his uncle Thomas
Pelham as 2nd duke of Newcastle-under-Lyne, and since this date
the title of earl of Lincoln has been the courtesy title of the eldest
son of the duke of Newcastle.
See G. E. C.(okayne), Complete Peerage, vol. v. (1893).
LINCOLN, ABRAHAM (1809-1865), sixteenth president of
the United States of America, was born on " Rock Spring "
farm, 3 m. from Hodgenville, in Hardin (now Lame) county,
Kentucky, on the I2th of February iSog.1 His grandfather,2
Abraham Lincoln, settled in Kentucky about 1780 and was killed
by Indians in 1784. His father, Thomas (1778-1851), was born
in Rockingham (then Augusta) county, Virginia; he was hospit-
able, shiftless, restless and unsuccessful, working now as a
carpenter and now as a farmer, and could not read or write
before his marriage, in Washington county, Kentucky, on the
i2th of June 1806, to Nancy Hanks (1783-1818), who was a
native of Virginia, who is said to have been the illegitimate
daughter of one Lucy Hanks, and who seems to have been, in
1 Lincoln's birthday is a legal holiday in California, Colorado,
Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas,
Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, New York,
North Dakota, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Utah, Washington,
West Virginia and Wyoming.
2 Samuel Lincoln (c. 1619-1690), the president's first American
ancestor, son of Edward Lincoln, gent., of Hingham, Norfolk,
emigrated to Massachusetts in 1637 as apprentice to a weaver and
settled with two older brothers in Hingham, Mass. His son and
grandson were iron founders; the grandson Mordecai (1686-1736)'
moved to Chester county, Pennsylvania. Mordecai's son John
(171 l-c. 1773), a weaver, settled in what is now Rockingham
county, Va., arid was the president's great-grandfather.
intellect and character, distinctly above the social class in which
she was born. The Lincolns had removed from Elizabethtown,
Hardin county, their first home, to the Rock Spring farm, only
a short time before Abraham's birth; about 1813 they removed
to a farm of 238 acres on Knob Creek, about 6 m. from Hodgen-
ville; and in 1816 they crossed the Ohio river and settled on a
quarter-section, 15 m. E. of the present village of Gentry ville, in
Spencer county, Indiana. There Abraham's mother died on the
5th of October 1818. In December 1819 his father married, at
his old home, Elizabethtown, Mrs Sarah (Bush) Johnston (d.
1869), whom he had courted years before, whose thrift greatly
improved conditions in the home, and who exerted a great in-
fluence over her stepson. Spencer county was still a wilderness,
and the boy grew up in pioneer surroundings, living in a rude
log-cabin, enduring many hardships and knowing only the
primitive manners, conversation and ambitions of sparsely
settled backwoods communities. Schools were rare, and teachers
qualified only to impart the merest rudiments. " Of course
when I came of age I did not know much," wrote he years
afterward, " still somehow I could read, write and cipher to
the rule of three, but that was all. I have not been to school
since. The little advance I now have upon this store of education
I have picked up from time to time under the pressure of
necessity." His entire schooling, in five different schools,
amounted to less than a twelvemonth; but he became a good
speller and an excellent penman. His own mother taught him
to read, and his stepmother urged him to study. He read and
re-read in early boyhood the Bible, Aesop, Robinson Crusoe,
Pilgrim's Progress, Weems's Life of Washington and a history of
the United States; and later read every book he could borrow
from the neighbours, Burns and Shakespeare becoming
favourites. He wrote rude, coarse satires, crude verse, and
compositions on the American government, temperance, &c.
At the age of seventeen he had attained his full height, and began
to be known as a wrestler, runner and lifter of great weights.
When nineteen he made a journey as a hired hand on a flatboat
to New Orleans.
In March 1830 his father emigrated to Macon county, Illinois
(near the present Decatur), and soon afterward removed to
Coles county. Being now twenty-one years of age, Abraham
hired himself to Denton Offutt, a migratory trader and store-
keeper then of Sangamon county, and he helped Offutt to build
a fiatboat and float it down the Sangamon, Illinois and Mississippi
rivers to New Orleans. In 1831 Offutt made him clerk of his
country store at New Salem, a small and unsuccessful settlement
in Menard county; this gave him moments of leisure to devote
to self-education. He borrowed a grammar and other books,
sought explanations from the village schoolmaster and began
to read law. In this frontier community law and politics claimed
a large proportion of the stronger and the more ambitious men ;
the law early appealed to Lincoln and his general popularity
encouraged him as early as 1832 to enter politics. In this year
Offutt failed and Lincoln was thus left without employment.
He became a candidate for the Illinois House of Representatives;
and on the gth of March 1832 issued an address " To the people
of Sangamon county " which betokens talent and education
far beyond mere ability to " read, write and cipher," though in
its preparation he seems to have had the help of a friend. Before
the election the Black Hawk Indian War broke out; Lincoln
volunteered in one of the Sangamon county companies on the
zist of April and was elected captain by the members of the
company. It is said that the oath of allegiance was administered
to Lincoln at this time by Lieut. Jefferson Davis. The
company, a part of the 4th Illinois, was mustered out after
the five weeks' service for which it volunteered, and Lincoln re-
enlisted as a private on the 29th of May, and was finally mustered
out on the i6th of June by Lieut. Robert Anderson, who in 1861
commanded the Union troops at Fort Sumter. As captain
Lincoln was twice in disgrace, once for firing a pistol near camp
ftnd again because nearly his entire company was intoxicated.
He was in no battle, and always spoke lightly of his military
record. He was defeated in his campaign for the legislature in
704
1832, partly because of his unpopular adherence to Clay and the
American system, but in his own election precinct, he received
nearly all the votes cast. With a friend, William Berry, he then
bought a small country store, which soon failed chiefly because
of the drunken habits of Berry and because Lincoln preferred
to read and to tell stories — he early gained local celebrity as
a story-teller — rather than sell; about this time he got hold of
a set of Blackstone. In the spring of 1833 the store's stock was
sold to satisfy its creditors, and Lincoln assumed the firm's
debts, which he did not fully pay off for fifteen years. In May
1833, local friendship, disregarding politics, procured his appoint-
ment as postmaster of New Salem, but this paid him very little,
and in the same year the county surveyor of Sangamon county
opportunely offered to make him one of his deputies. He hastily
qualified himself by study, and entered upon the practical
duties of surveying farm lines, roads and town sites. " This,"
to use his own words, " procured bread, and kept body and
soul together."
In 1834 Lincoln was elected (second of four successful candi-
dates, with only 14 fewer votes than the first) a member of the
Illinois House of Representatives, to which he was re-elected
in 1836, 1838 and 1840, serving until 1842. In his announcement
of his candidacy in 1836 he promised to vote for Hugh L. White
of Tennessee (a vigorous opponent of Andrew Jackson in
Tennessee politics) for president, and said: " I go for all sharing
the privileges of the government who assist in bearing its burdens.
Consequently, I go for admitting all whites to the right of suffrage,
who pay taxes or bear arms (by no means excluding females)" —
a sentiment frequently quoted to prove Lincoln a believer in
woman's suffrage. In this election he led the poll in Sangamon
county. In the legislature, like the other representatives of
that county, who were called the " Long Nine," because of their
stature, he worked for internal improvements, for which lavish
appropriations were made, and for the division of Sangamon
county and the choice of Springfield as the state capital, instead
of Vandalia. He and his party colleagues followed Stephen A.
Douglas in adopting the convention system, to which Lincoln
had been strongly opposed. In 1837 with one other repre-
sentative from[Sangamon county, named Dan Stone, he protested
against a series of resolutions, adopted by the Illinois General
Assembly, expressing disapproval of the formation of abolition
societies and asserting, among other things, that " the right of
property in slaves is sacred to the slave holding states under the
Federal Constitution "; and Lincoln and Stone put out a paper
in which they expressed their belief " that the institution of
slavery is founded on both injustice and bad policy, but that
the promulgation of abolition doctrines tends rather to increase
than abate its evils," "that the Congress of the United States
has no power under the Constitution to interfere with the institu-
tion of slavery in the different states," " that the Congress of
the United States has the power, under the Constitution, to
abolish slavery in the District of Columbia, but that the power
ought not to be exercised unless at the request of the people
of the District." Lincoln was very popular among his fellow
legislators, and in 1838 and in 1840 he received the complimentary
vote of his minority colleagues for the speakership of the state
House of Representatives. In 1842 he declined a renomination
to the state legislature and attempted unsuccessfully to secure
a nomination to Congress. In the same year he became interested
in the Washingtonian temperance movement.
In 1846 he was elected a member of the National House of
Representatives by a majority of 1511 over his Democratic
opponent, Peter Cartwright, the Methodist preacher. Lincoln
was the only Whig member of Congress elected in Illinois
in 1846. In the House of Representatives on the 22nd of
December 1847 he introduced the " Spot Resolutions," which
quoted statements in the president's messages of the nth of
May 1846 and the 7th and 8th of December that Mexican troops
had invaded the territory of the United States, and asked the
president to tell the precise " spot " of invasion; he made a
speech on these resolutions in the House on the 1 2th of January
1848. His attitude toward the war and especially his vote for
LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
George Ashmun's amendment to the supply bill at this session,
declaring that the Mexican War was " unnecessarily and uncon-
stitutionally commenced by the President," greatly displeased
his constituents. He later introduced a bill regarding slavery in
the District of Columbia, which (in accordance with his state-
ment of 1837) was to be submitted to the vote of the District
for approval, and which provided for compensated emancipation,
forbade the bringing of slaves into the District of Columbia,
except by government officials from slave states, and the selling
of slaves away from the District, and arranged for the emancipa-
tion after a period of apprenticeship of all slave children born
after the ist of January 1850. While he was in Congress he
voted repeatedly for the principle of the Wilmot Proviso. At
the close of his term in 1848 he declined an appointment as
governor of the newly organized Territory of Oregon and for a
time worked, without success, for an appointment as Com-
missioner of the General Land Office. During the presidential
campaign he made speeches in Illinois, and in Massachusetts
he spoke before the Whig State Convention at Worcester on
the 1 2th of September, and in the next ten days at Lowell,
Dedham, Roxbury, Chelsea, Cambridge and Boston. He had
become an eloquent and influential public speaker, and in 1840
and 1844 was a candidate on the Whig ticket for presidential
elector.
In 1834 his political friend and colleague John Todd Stuart
(1807-1885), a lawyer in full practice, had urged him to fit
himself for the bar, and had lent him text-books; and Lincoln,
working diligently, was admitted to the bar in September 1836.
In April 1837 he quitted New Salem, and removed to Springfield,
which was the county-seat and was soon to become the capital
of the state, to begin practice in a partnership with Stuart,
which was terminated in April 1841; from that time until
September 1843 he was junior partner to Stephen Trigg Logan
(1800-1880), and from 1843 until his death he was senior partner
of William Henry Hefndon (1818-1891). Between 1849 and
1854 he took little part in politics, devoted himself to the law
and became one of the leaders of the Illinois bar. His small
fees — he once charged $3-50 for collecting an account of nearly
$600-00 — his frequent refusals to take cases which he did not
think right and his attempts to prevent unnecessary litigation
have become proverbial. Judge David Davis, who knew
Lincoln on the Illinois circuit and whom Lincoln made in October
1862 an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United
States, said that he was " great both at nisi prius and before
an appellate tribunal." He was an excellent cross-examiner,
whose candid friendliness of manner often succeeded in eliciting
important testimony from unwilling witnesses. Among Lincoln's
most famous cases were: one (Bailey v. Cromwell, 4 111. 71;
frequently cited) before the Illinois Supreme Court in July 1841
in which he argued against the validity of a note in payment
for a negro girl, adducing the Ordinance of 1787 and other
authorities; a case (tried in Chicago in September 1857) for
the Rock Island railway, sued for damages by the owners of a
steamboat sunk after collision with a railway bridge, a trial in
which Lincoln brought to the service of his client a surveyor's
knowledge of mathematics and a riverman's acquaintance with
currents and channels, and argued that crossing a stream by
bridge was as truly a common right as navigating it by boat,
thus contributing to the success of Chicago and railway commerce
in the contest against St Louis and river transportation; the
defence (at Beardstown in May 1858) on the charge of murder of
William (" Duff ") Armstrong, son of one of Lincoln's New
Salem friends, whom Lincoln freed by controverting with the
help of an almanac the testimony of a crucial witness that between
10 and 1 1 o'clock at night he had seen by moonlight the defendant
strike the murderous blow — this dramatic incident is described
in Edward Eggleston's novel, The Gray sons; and the defence
on the charge of murder (committed in August 1859) of
" Peachy " Harrison, a grandson of Peter Cartwright, whose
testimony was used with great effect.
From law, however, Lincoln was soon drawn irresistibly
back into politics. The slavery question, in one form or another.
LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
had become the great overshadowing issue in national, and even
in state politics; the abolition movement, begun in earnes
by W. L. Garrison in 1831, had stirred the conscience of thi
North, and had had its influence even upon many who strongh
deprecated its extreme radicalism; the Compromise of 185'
had failed to silence sectional controversy, and the Fugitiv^,
Slave Law, which was one of the compromise measures, hac
throughout the North been bitterly assailed and to a considerabl
extent had been nullified by state legislation; and finally in 185^
the slavery agitation was fomented by the passage of the Kansas-
Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise and
gave legislative sanction to the principle of " popular sovereignty '
— the principle that the inhabitants of each Territory as well as oi
each state were to be left free to decide for themselves whether
or not slavery was to be permitted therein. In enacting this
measure Congress had been dominated largely by one man —
Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois-— then probably the most powerful
figure in national politics. Lincoln had early put himself on
record as opposed to slavery, but he was never technically an
abolitionist; he allied himself rather with those who believed
that slavery should be fought within the Constitution, that,
though it could not be constitutionally interfered with in in-
dividual states, it should be excluded from territory over which
the national government had jurisdiction. In this, as in other
things, he was eminently clear-sighted and practical. Already
he had shown his capacity as a forcible and able debater;
aroused to new activity upon the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska
Bill, which he regarded as a gross breach of political faith, he
now entered upon public discussion with an earnestness and force
that by common consent gave him leadership in Illinois of the
opposition, which in 1854 elected a majority of the legislature;
and it gradually became clear that he was the only man who
could be opposed in debate to the powerful and adroit Douglas.
He was elected to the state House of Representatives, from
which he immediately resigned to become a candidate for
United States senator from Illinois, to succeed James Shields,
a Democrat; but five opposition members, of Democratic
antecedents, refused to vote for Lincoln (on the second ballot
he received 47 votes— 50 being necessary to elect) and he turned
the votes which he controlled over to Lyman Trumbull, who was
opposed to the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and thus secured the
defeat of Joel Aldrich Matteson (1808-1883), who favoured this
act and who on the eighth ballot had received 47 votes to 35
for Trumbull and 15 for Lincoln. The various anti-Nebraska
elements came together, in Illinois as elsewhere, to form a new
party at a time when the old parties were disintegrating; and
in 1856 the Republican party was formally organized in the state.
Lincoln before the state convention at Bloomington of " all
opponents of anti-Nebraska legislation " (the first Republican
state convention in Illinois) made on the 29th of May a notable
address known as the " Lost Speech." The National Convention
of the Republican Party in 1856 cast no votes for Lincoln as
its vice-presidential candidate on the ticket with Fremont, and
he was on the Republican electoral ticket of this year, and made
effective campaign speeches in the interest of the new party.
The campaign in the state resulted substantially in a drawn
battle, the Democrats gaining a majority in the state for president,
while the Republicans elected the governor and state officers.
In 1858 the term of Douglas in the United States Senate was
expiring, and he sought re-election. On the i6th of June 1858
by unanimous resolution of the Republican state convention
Lincoln was declared " the first and only choice of the Re-
publicans of Illinois for the United States Senate as the successor
of Stephen A. Douglas," who was the choice of his own party
to succeed himself. Lincoln, addressing the convention which
nominated him, gave expression to the following bold prophecy: —
" A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this
Government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free.
I do not expect the Union to be dissolved— I do not expect the
house to fall— but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will
become all one thing or all the other. Either the opponents of
slavery will arrest the further spread of it, and place it where the
public mind shall rest in the belief that it is .in course of ultimate
xvi. 23
705
extinction; or its advocates will push it forward, till it shall become
alike lawful in all the states, old as well as new— North as well as
South.
In this speech, delivered in the state House of Representatives,
Lincoln charged Pierce, Buchanan, Taney and Douglas with
conspiracy to secure the Dred Scott decision. Yielding to the
wish of his party friends, on the 24th of July, Lincoln challenged
Douglas to a joint public discussion.1 The antagonists met in
debate at seven designated places in the state. The first meeting
was at Ottawa, in the south-western part of the state, on the 2ist
of August. At Freeport, on the Wisconsin boundary, on the
27th of August, Lincoln answered questions put to him by
Douglas, and by his questions forced Douglas to " betray the
South " by his enunciation of the " Freeport heresy," that, no
matter what the character of Congressional legislation or the
Supreme Court's decision " slavery cannot exist a day or an *
hour anywhere unless it is supported by local police regulations."
This adroit attempt to reconcile the principle of popular sover-
eignty with the Dred Scott decision, though it undoubtedly
helped Douglas in the immediate fight for the senatorship,
necessarily alienated his Southern supporters and assured his
defeat, as Lincoln foresaw it must, in the presidential campaign
of 1860. The other debates were: at Jonesboro, in the southern
part of the state, on the isth of September; at Charleston,
150 m. N.E. of Jonesboro, on the i8th of September; and, in
the western part of the state, at Galesburg (Oct. 7), Quincy
(Oct. 13) and Alton (Oct. 15). In these debates Douglas, the
champion of his party, was over-matched in clearness and force
of reasoning, and lacked the great moral earnestness of his
opponent; but he dexterously extricated himself time and again
from difficult argumentative positions, and retained sufficient
support to win the immediate prize. At the November election
the Republican vote was 126,084, the Douglas Democratic vote
was 121,940 and the Lecompton (or Buchanan) Democratic
vote was 5091; but the Democrats, through a favourable
apportionment of representative districts, secured a majority
of the legislature (Senate: 14 Democrats, n Republicans;
House : 40 Democrats, 35 Republicans), which re-elected
Douglas. Lincoln's speeches in this campaign won him a national
:ame. In 1859 he made two speeches in Ohio — one at Columbus
on the 1 6th of September criticising Douglas's paper in the
September Harper's Magazine, and one at Cincinnati on the
:7th of September, which was addressed to Kentuckians, — and
le spent a few days in Kansas, speaking in Elwood, Troy,
3oniphan, Atchison and Leavenworth, in the. first week of
December. On the 27th of February 1860 in Cooper Union,
STew York City, he made a speech (much the same as that
delivered in Elwood, Kansas, on the ist of December) which
made him known favourably to the leaders of the Republican
Party in the East and which was a careful historical study
criticising the statement of Douglas in one of his speeches in
)hio that " our fathers when they framed the government under
which we live understood this question [slavery] just as well
and even better than we do now," and Douglas's contention that
' the fathers " made the country (and intended that it should
emain) part slave. Lincoln pointed out that the majority of
he members of the Constitutional Convention of 1787 opposed
lavery and that they did not think that Congress had no power
o control slavery in the Territories. He spoke at Concord,
1 Douglas and Lincoln first met in public debate (four on a side)
n Springfield in December 1839. They met repeatedly in the
.ampaign of 1840. In 1852 Lincoln attempted with little success
o reply to a speech made by Douglas in Richmond. On the 4th
f October 1854 in Springfield, in reply to a speech on the Nebraska
juestion by Douglas delivered the day before, Lincoln made a
emarkable speech four hours long, to which Douglas replied on
he next day; and in the fortnight immediately following Lincoln
ttacked Douglas's record again at Bloomington and at Peoria.
)n the 26th of June 1857 Lincoln in a speech at Springfield answered
Douglas's speech of the 1 2th in which he made over his doctrine of
oopular sovereignty to suit the Dred Scott decision. Before the
ctual debate in 1858 Douglas made a speech in Chicago on thegth
f July, to which Lincoln replied the next day; Douglas spoke at
sloomjngton on the i6th of July and Lincoln answered him in
Springfield on the 1 7th.
yo6
LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
Manchester, Exeter and Dover in New Hampshire, at Hartford
(5th March), New Haven (6th March), Woonsocket (8th March)
and Norwich (pth March). The Illinois State Convention of the
Republican party, held at Decatur on the gth and loth of May
1860, amid great enthusiasm declared Abraham Lincoln its
first choice for the presidential nomination, and instructed the
delegation to the National Convention to cast the vote of the
state as a unit for him.
The Republican national convention, which made " No
Extension of Slavery " the essential part of the party platform,
met at Chicago on the i6th of May 1860. At this time William
H. Seward was the most conspicuous Republican in national
politics, and Salmon P. Chase had long been in the fore-front of
the political contest against slavery. Both had won greater
national fame than had Lincoln, and, before the convention
met, each hoped to be nominated for president. Chase, however,
had little chance, and the contest was virtually between Seward
and Lincoln, who by many was considered more " available,"
because it was thought that he could (and Seward could not)
secure the vote of certain doubtful states. Lincoln's name was
presented by Illinois and seconded by Indiana. At first Seward
had the strongest support. On the first ballot Lincoln received
only 102 votes to 173$ for Seward. On the second ballot Lincoln
received 181 votes to Seward's 1845. On the third ballot the
505 votes formerly given to Simon Cameron1 were given to
Lincoln, who received 231^ votes to 180 for Seward, and without
taking another ballot enough votes were changed to make
Lincoln's total 354 (233 being necessary for a choice) and the
nomination was then made unanimous. Hannibal Hamlin,
of Maine, was nominated for the vice-presidency. The conven-
tion was singularly tumultuous and noisy; large claques were
hired by both Lincoln's and Seward's managers. During the
campaign Lincoln remained in Springfield, making few speeches
and writing practically no letters for publication. The campaign
was unusually animated — only the Whig campaign for William
Henry Harrison in 1840 is comparable to it: there were great
torchlight processions of " wide-awake " clubs, which did " rail-
fence," or zigzag, marches, and carried rails in honour of their
candidate, the " rail-splitter." Lincoln was elected by a popular
vote of 1,866,452 to 1,375,157 for Douglas, 847,953 for Breckin-
ridge and 590,631 for Bell — as the combined vote of his opponents
was so much greater than his own he was often called " the
minority president "; the electoral vote was: Lincoln, 180;
John C. Breckinridge, 72; John Bell, 39; Stephen A. Douglas,
12. On the 4th of March 1861 Lincoln was inaugurated as
president. (For an account of his administration see UNITED
STATES: History.)
During the campaign radical leaders in the South frequently
asserted that the success of the Republicans at the polls would
mean that the rights of the slave-holding states under the
Federal constitution, as interpreted by them, would no longer
be respected by the North, and that, if Lincoln were elected,
it would be the duty of these slave-holding states to secede from
the Union. There was much opposition in these states to such
a course, but the secessionists triumphed, and by the time
President Lincoln was inaugurated, South Carolina, Georgia,
Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas had formally
withdrawn from the Union. A provisional government under
the designation " The Confederate States of America," with
Jefferson Davis as president, was organized by the seceding
states, which seized by force nearly all the forts, arsenals and
public buildings within their limits. Great division of sentiment
existed in the North, whether in this emergency acquiescence
or coercion was the preferable policy. Lincoln's inaugural
address declared the Union perpetual and acts of secession void,
and announced the determination of the government to defend
its authority, and to hold forts and places yet in its possession.
He disclaimed any intention to invade, subjugate or oppress
1 Without Lincoln's knowledge or consent, the managers of his
candidacy before the convention bargained for Cameron s votes by
promising to Cameron a place in Lincoln's cabinet, should Lincoln
be elected. Cameron became Lincoln's first secretary of war.
the seceding states. " You can have no conflict," he said,
" without being yourselves the aggressors." Fort Sumter, in
Charleston harbour, had been besieged by the secessionists since
January; and, it being now on the point of surrender through
starvation, Lincoln sent the besiegers official notice on the
8th of April that a fleet was on its way to carry provisions to
the fort, but that he would not attempt to reinforce it unless
this effort were resisted. The Confederates, however, imme-
diately ordered its reduction, and after a thirty-four hours' bom-
bardment the garrison capitulated on the i3th of April 1861.
(For the military history of the war, see AMERICAN CIVIL WAR.)
With civil war thus provoked, Lincoln, on the isth of April,
by proclamation called 75,000 three months' militia under
arms, and on the 4th of May ordered the further enlistment
of 64,748 soldiers and 18,000 seamen for three years' service.
He instituted by proclamation of the igth of April a blockade
of the Southern ports, took effective steps to extemporize a
navy, convened Congress in special session (on the 4th of July),
and asked for legislation and authority to make the war " short,
sharp and decisive." The country responded with enthusiasm
to his summons and suggestions; and the South on its side
was not less active.
The slavery question presented vexatious difficulties in
conducting the war. Congress in August 1861 passed an act
(approved August 6th) confiscating rights of slave-owners to
slaves employed in hostile service against the Union. On
the 30th of August General Fremont by military order declared
martial law and confiscation against active enemies, with
freedom to their slaves, in the State of Missouri. Believing that
under existing conditions such a step was both detrimental in
present policy and unauthorized in law, President Lincoln
directed him (2nd September) to modify the order to make it
conform to the Confiscation Act of Congress, and on the nth of
September annulled the parts of the order which conflicted with
this act. Strong political factions were instantly formed for
and against military emancipation, and the government was
hotly beset by antagonistic counsel. The Unionists of the
border slave states were greatly alarmed, but Lincoln by his
moderate conservatism held them to the military support of
the government.2 Meanwhile he sagaciously prepared the
way for the supreme act of statesmanship which the gathering
national crisis already dimly foreshadowed. On the 6th of March
1862, he sent a special message to Congress recommending the
passage of a resolution offering pecuniary aid from the general
government to induce states to adopt gradual abolishment of
slavery. Promptly passed by Congress, the resolution produced
no immediate result except in its influence on public opinion.
A practical step, however, soon followed. In April Congress
passed and the president approved (6th April) an act emancipat-
ing the slaves in the District of Columbia, with compensation to
owners— a measure which Lincoln had proposed when in Congress.
Meanwhile slaves of loyal masters were constantly escaping to
military camps. Some commanders excluded them altogether;
others surrendered them on demand ; while still others sheltered
and protected them against their owners. Lincoln tolerated
this latitude as falling properly within the military discretion
pertaining to local army operations. A new case, however,
soon demanded his official interference. On the gth of May 1862
General David Hunter, commanding in the limited areas gained
along the southern coast, issued a short order declaring his depart-
ment under martial law, and adding — " Slavery and martial law in
a free country are altogether incompatible. The persons in these
three States — Georgia, Florida and South Carolina — heretofore
1 In November 1861 the president drafted a bill providing (i)
that all slaves more than thirty-five years old in the state of Dela-
ware should immediately become free; (2) that all children of slave
parentage born after the passage of the act should be free ; (3) that
all others should be free on attaining the age of thirty-five or after
the 1st of January 1893, except for terms of apprenticeship; and
(4) that the national government should pay to the state of Delaware
$23,200 a year for twenty-one years. But this bill, which Lincoln
had hoped would introduce a system of " compensated emancipa-
tion," was not approved by the legislature of Delaware, which
considered it in February 1862.
LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
707
held as slaves are, therefore, declared for ever free." As soon
as this order, by the slow method of communication by sea,
reached the newspapers, Lincoln (May 19) published a proclama-
tion declaring it void; adding further, " Whether it be com-
petent for me as commander-in-chief of the army and navy to
declare the slaves of any state or states free, and whether at any
time or in any case it shall have become a necessity indispensable
to the maintenance of the government to exercise such supposed
power, are questions which under my responsibility I reserve
to myself, and which I cannot feel justified in leaving to the
decision of commanders in the field. These are totally different
questions from those of police regulations in armies or camps."
But in the same proclamation Lincoln recalled to the public
his own proposal and the assent of Congress to compensate states
which would adopt voluntary and gradual abolishment. " To
the people of these states now," he added, " I must earnestly
appeal. I do not argue. I beseech you to make the argument
for yourselves. You cannot, if you would, be blind to the signs
of the times." Meanwhile the anti-slavery sentiment of the
North constantly increased. Congress by express act (approved
on the ipth of June) prohibited the existence of slavery in all
territories outside of states. On July the I2th the president
called the representatives of the border slave states to the
executive mansion, and once more urged upon them his proposal
of compensated emancipation. " If the war continues long,"
he said, " as it must if the object be not sooner attained, the
institution in your states will be extinguished by mere friction
and abrasion — by the mere incidents of the war. It will be
gone, and you will have nothing valuable in lieu of it." Although
Lincoln's appeal brought the border states to no practical
decision — the representatives of these states almost without
exception opposed the plan— it served to prepare public opinion
for his final act. During the month of July his own mind
reached the virtual determination to give slavery its coup de
grdce; on the i7th he approved a new Confiscation Act, much
broader than that of the 6th of August 1861 (which freed only
those slaves in military service against the Union) and giving to
the president power to employ persons of African descent for
the suppression of the rebellion; and on the 22nd he submitted
to his cabinet the draft of an emancipation proclamation sub-
stantially as afterward issued. Serious military reverses con-
strained him for the present to withhold it, while on the other hand
they served to increase the pressure upon him from anti-slavery
men. Horace Greeley having addressed a public letter to him
complaining of " the policy you seem to be pursuing with regard
to the slaves of the rebels," the president replied on the 22nd of
August, saying, " My paramount object is to save the Union,
and not either to save or destroy slavery. If I could save the
Union without freeing any slave, I would do it; if I could save
it by freeing all the slaves, I would do it ; and, if I could do it by
freeing some and leaving others alone, I would also do that."
Thus still holding back violent reformers with one hand, and
leading up halting conservatives with the other, he on the isth
of September replied among other things to an address from
a delegation: " I do not want to issue a document that the whole
world will see must necessarily be inoperative like the pope's
bull against the comet. . . . I view this matter as a practical war
measure, to be decided on according to the advantages or dis-
advantages it may offer to the suppression of the rebellion. . . .
I have not decided against a proclamation of liberty to the
slaves, but hold the matter under advisement."
The year 1862 had opened with important Union victories.
Admiral A.H. Foote captured Fort Henry on the 6th of February,
and Gen. U. S. Grant captured Fort Donelson on the i6th of
February, and won the battle of Shiloh on the 6th and 7th
of April. Gen. A. E. Burnside took possession of Roanoke
island on the North Carolina coast (7th February). The famous
contest between the new ironclads " Monitor " and " Merrimac "
(pth April), though indecisive, effectually stopped the career
of the Confederate vessel, which was later destroyed by the
Confederates themselves. (See HAMPTON ROADS.) Farragut,
with a wooden fleet, ran past the twin forts St Philip and Jackson,
compelled the surrender of New Orleans (26th April), and
gained control of the lower Mississippi. The succeeding three
months brought disaster and discouragement to the Union
army. M'Clellan's campaign against Richmond was made
abortive by his timorous generalship, and compelled the with-
drawal of his army. Pope's army, advancing against the same
city by another line, was beaten back upon Washington in defeat.
The tide of war, however, once more turned in the defeat of
Lee's invading army at South Mountain and Antietam in
Maryland on the I4th and on the i6th and I7th of September,
compelling him to retreat.
With public opinion thus ripened by alternate defeat and
victory, President Lincoln, on the 22nd of September 1862,
issued his preliminary proclamation of emancipation, giving
notice that on the ist of January 1863, " all persons held as
slaves within any state or designated part of a state the people
whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States
shall be then, thenceforward and for ever free." In his message
to Congress on the ist of December following, he again urged
his plaji of gradual, compensated emancipation (to be com-
pleted on the ist of December 1900) " as a means, not in exclusion
of, but additional to, all others for restoring and preserving
the national authority throughout the Union." On the ist
day of January 1863 the final proclamation of emancipation
was duly issued, designating the States of Arkansas, Texas,
Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North
Carolina, and certain portions of Louisiana and Virginia, as
" this day in rebellion against the United States," and pro-
claiming that, in virtue of his authority as commander-in-
chief, and as a necessary war measure for suppressing rebellion,
" I do order and declare that all persons held as slaves within said
designated states and parts of states are and henceforward shall
be free," and pledging the executive and military power of the
government to maintain such freedom. The legal validity of
these proclamations was never pronounced upon by the national
courts; but their decrees gradually enforced by the march of
armies were soon recognized by public opinion to be practically
irreversible.1 Such dissatisfaction as they caused in the border
slave states died out in the stress of war. The systematic
enlistment of negroes and their incorporation into the army
by regiments, hitherto only tried as exceptional experiments,
were now pushed with vigour, and, being followed by several
conspicuous instances of their gallantry on the battlefield,
added another strong impulse to the sweeping change of popular
sentiment. To put the finality of emancipation beyond all
question, Lincoln in the winter session of 1863-1864 strongly
supported a movement in Congress to abolish slavery by con-
stitutional amendment, but the necessary two-thirds vote of the
House of Representatives could not then be obtained. In his
annual message of the 6th of December 1864, he urged the im-
mediate passage of the measure. Congress now acted promptly:
on the 3 ist of January 1865, that body by joint resolution
proposed to the states the I3th amendment of the Federal Con-
stitution, providing that " neither slavery nor involuntary
servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party
shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United
States or any place subject to their jurisdiction." Before the
end of that year twenty-seven out of the thirty-six states of
the Union (being the required three-fourths) had ratified the
1 It is to be noted that slavery in the border slave states was not
affected by the proclamation. The parts of Virginia and Louisiana
not affected were those then considered to be under Federal juris-
diction; in Virginia 55 counties were excepted (including the 48
which became the separate state of West Virginia), and in Louisiana
13 parishes (including the parish of Orleans). As the Federal Govern-
ment did not, at the time, actually have jurisdiction over the rest
of the territory of the Confederate States, that really affected, some
writers have questioned whether the proclamation really emancipated
any slaves when it was issued. The proclamation had the most im-
portant political effect in the North of rallying more than ever to the
support of the administration the large anti-slavery element. The
adoption of the 1 3th amendment to the Federal Constitution in 1865
rendered unnecessary any decision of the U.S. Supreme Court upon
the validity of the proclamation.
708
LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
amendment, and official proclamation made by President Johnson
on the i8th of December 1865, declared it duly adopted.
The foreign policy of President Lincoln, while subordinate
in importance to the great questions of the Civil War, nevertheless
presented several difficult and critical problems for his decision.
The arrest (8th of November 1861) by Captain Charles Wilkes
of two Confederate envoys proceeding to Europe in the British
steamer " Trent " seriously threatened peace with England.
Public opinion in America almost unanimously sustained the
act; but Lincoln, convinced that the rights of Great Britain
as a neutral had been violated, promptly, upon the demand
of England, ordered the liberation of the prisoners (26th of
December). Later friendly relations between the United
States and Great Britain, where, among the upper classes,
there was a strong sentiment in favour of the Confederacy,
were seriously threatened by the fitting out of Confederate
privateers in British ports, and the Administration owed much
to the skilful diplomacy of the American minister in London,
Charles Francis Adams. A still broader foreign question grew
out of Mexican affairs, when events culminating in the getting
up of Maximilian of Austria as emperor under protection of
French troops demanded the constant watchfulness of the United
States. Lincoln's course was one of prudent moderation.
France voluntarily declared that she sought in Mexico only
to satisfy injuries done her and not to overthrow or establish
local government or to appropriate territory. The United
States Government replied that, relying on these assurances,
it would maintain strict non-intervention, at the same time
openly avowing the general sympathy of its people with a
Mexican republic, and that " their own safety and the cheerful
destiny to which they aspire are intimately dependent on the
continuance of f ree republican institutions throughout America."
In the early part of 1863 the French Government proposed a
mediation between the North and the South. This offer President
Lincoln (on the 6th of February) declined to consider, Seward
replying for him that it would only be entering into diplomatic
discussion with the rebels whether the authority of the govern-
ment should be renounced, and the country delivered over to
disunion and anarchy.
The Civil War gradually grew to dimensions beyond all ex-
pectation. By January 1863 the Union armies numbered near
a million men, and were kept up to this strength till the end of
the struggle. The Federal war debt eventually reached the sum
of $2,700,000,000. The fortunes of battle were somewhat
fluctuating during the first half of 1863, but the beginning of
July brought the Union forces decisive victories. The reduction
of Vicksburg (4th of July) and Port Hudson (gth of July), with
other operations, restored complete control of the Mississippi,
severing the Southern Confederacy. In the east Lee had the
second time marched his army into Pennsylvania to suffer a
disastrous defeat at Gettysburg, on the ist, 2nd and 3rd of July,
though he was able to withdraw his shattered forces south of the
Potomac. At the dedication of this battlefield as a soldiers'
cemetery in November, President Lincoln made the following
oration, which has taken permanent place as a classic in American
literature: —
" Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this
continent a new nation conceived in liberty and dedicated to the
proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in
a great civil war testing whether that nation, or any nation so con-
ceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great
battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of
that field as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives
that that nation might five. It is altogether fitting and proper
that we should do this. But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate,
we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground. The brave
men, living and dead, who struggled here have consecrated it far
above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note
nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what
they did here. It is for us the living rather to be dedicated here
to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus
far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to
the great task remaining before us — that from these honoured dead
we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the
last full measure of devotion — that we here highly resolve that these
dead shall not have died in vain, that this nation under God shall
have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people,
by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth."
In the unexpected prolongation of the war, volunteer enlist-
ments became too slow to replenish the waste of armies, and in
1863 the government was forced to resort to a draft. The
enforcement of the conscription created much opposition in
various parts of the country, and led to a serious riot in the city
of New York on the I3th-i6th of July. President Lincoln
executed the draft with all possible justice and forbearance,
but refused every importunity to postpone it. It was made a
special subject of criticism by the Democratic party of the North,
which was now organizing itself on the basis of a discontinuance
of the war, to endeavour to win the presidential election of
the following year. Clement L. Vallandigham of Ohio, having
made a violent public speech at Mt. Vernon, Ohio, on the ist of
May against the war and military proceedings, was arrested on
the sth of May by General Burnside, tried by military commission,
and sentenced on the i6th to imprisonment; a writ of habeas
corpus had been refused, and the sentence was changed by the
president to transportation beyond the military lines. By way
of political defiance the Democrats of Ohio nominated Vallan-
digham for governor on the nth of June. Prominent Democrats
and a committee of the Convention having appealed for his
release, Lincoln wrote two long letters in reply discussing the
constitutional question, and declaring that in his judgment the
president as commander-in-chief in time of rebellion or invasion
holds the power and responsibility of suspending the privilege of
the writ of habeas corpus, but offering to release Vallandigham
if the committee would sign a declaration that rebellion exists,
that an army and navy are constitutional means to suppress it,
and that each of them would use his personal power and influence
to prosecute the war. This liberal offer and their refusal to accept
it counteracted all the political capital they hoped to make
out of the case; and public opinion was still more powerfully
influenced in behalf of the president's action, by the pathos of
the query which he propounded in one of his letters: " Must I
shoot the simple-minded soldier boy who deserts, while I must
not touch a hair of a wily agitator who induces him to desert?"
When the election took place in Ohio, Vallandigham was defeated
by a majority of more than a hundred thousand.
Many unfounded rumours of a willingness on the part of the
Confederate States to make peace were circulated to weaken the
Union war spirit. To all such suggestions, up to the time of
issuing his emancipation proclamation, Lincoln announced his
readiness to stop fighting and grant amnesty, whenever they
would submit to and maintain the national authority under the
Constitution of the United States. Certain agents in Canada
having in 1864 intimated that they were empowered to treat for
peace, Lincoln, through Greeley, tendered them safe conduct to
Washington. They were by this forced to confess that they
possessed no authority to negotiate. The president thereupon
sent them, and made public, the following standing offer: —
" To whom it may concern:
" Any proposition which embraces the restoration of peace, the
integrity of the whole Union, and the abandonment of slavery, and
which comes by and with an authority that can control the armies
now at war against the United States, will be received and con-
sidered by the Executive Government of the United States, and
will be met by liberal terms on substantial and collateral points,
and the bearer or bearers thereof shall have safe conduct both ways.
" July 18, 1864." " ABRAHAM LINCOLN.
A noteworthy conference on this question took place near the
close of the Civil War, when the strength of the Confederacy was
almost exhausted. F. P. Blair, senior, a personal friend of
Jefferson Davis, acting solely on his own responsibility, was
permitted to go from Washington to Richmond, where, on the
1 2th of January 1865, after a private and unofficial interview,
Davis in writing declared his willingness to enter a conference
" to secure peace to the two countries." Report being duly
made to President Lincoln, he wrote a note (dated i8th January)
consenting to receive any agent sent informally " with the view
of securing peace to the people of our common country." Upon
LINCOLN, ABRAHAM
709
the basis of this latter proposition three Confederate commissioners
(A. H. Stevens, J. A. C. Campbell and R. M. T. Hunter) finally
came to Hampton Roads, where President Lincoln and Secretary
Seward met them on the U.S. steam transport " River Queen,"
and on the 3rd of February 1865 an informal conference of four
hours' duration was held. Private reports of the interview agree
substantially in the statement that the Confederates proposed a
cessation of the Civil War, and postponement of its issues for
future adjustment, while for the present the belligerents should
unite in a campaign to expel the French from Mexico, and to
enforce the Monroe doctrine. President Lincoln, however,
although he offered to use his influence to secure compensation
by the Federal government to slave-owners for their slaves, if
there should be " voluntary abolition of slavery by the states,"
a liberal and generous administration of the Confiscation Act,
and the immediate representation of the southern states in
Congress, refused to consider any alliance against the French in
Mexico, and adhered to the instructions he had given Seward
before deciding to personally accompany him. These formulated
three indispensable conditions to adjustment: first, the restora-
tion of the national authority throughout all the states; second,
no receding by the executive of the United States on the slavery
question; third, no cessation of hostilities short of an end of
the war, and the disbanding of all forces hostile to the govern-
ment. These terms the commissioners were not authorized to
accept, and the interview ended without result.
As Lincoln's first presidential term of four years neared its
end, the Democratic party gathered itself for a supreme effort to
regain the ascendancy lost in 1860. The slow progress of the
war, the severe sacrifice of life in campaign and battle, the
enormous accumulation of public debt, arbitrary arrests and
suspension of habeas corpus, the rigour of the draft, and the
proclamation of military emancipation furnished ample subjects
of bitter and vindictive campaign oratory. A partisan coterie
which surrounded M'Clellan loudly charged the failure of his
Richmond campaign to official interference in his plans.
Vallandigham had returned to his home in defiance of his banish-
ment beyond military lines, and was leniently suffered to remain.
The aggressive spirit of the party, however, pushed it to a fatal
extreme. The Democratic National Convention adopted (August
29, 1864) a resolution (drafted by Vallandigham) declaring the
war a failure, and demanding a cessation of hostilities; it
nominated M'Clellan for president, and instead of adjourning
sine die as usual, remained organized, and subject to be con-
vened at any time and place by the executive national com-
mittee. This threatening attitude, in conjunction with alarming
indications of a conspiracy to resist the draft, had the effect to
thoroughly consolidate the war party, which had on the 8th of
June unanimously renominated Lincoln, and had nominated
Andrew Johnson of Tennessee for the vice-presidency. At the
election held on the 8th of November 1864, Lincoln received
2,216,076 of the popular votes, and M'Clellan (who had openly
disapproved of the resolution declaring the war a failure) but
1,808,725; while of the presidential electors 212 voted for
Lincoln and 21 for M'Clellan. Lincoln's second term of office
began on the 4th of March 1865.
While this political contest was going on the Civil War was
being brought to a decisive close. Grant, at the head of the
Army of the Potomac, followed Lee to Richmond and Peters-
burg, and held him in siege to within a few days of final surrender.
General W. T. Sherman, commanding the bulk of the Union
forces in the Mississippi Valley, swept in a victorious march
through the heart of the Confederacy to Savannah on the coast,
and thence northward to North Carolina. Lee evacuated Rich-
mond on the 2nd of April, and was overtaken by Grant and
compelled to surrender his entire army on the gth of April 1865.
Sherman pushed Johnston to a surrender on the 26th of April.
This ended the war.
Lincoln being at the time on a visit to the army, entered Rich-
mond the day after its surrender. Returning to Washington, he
made his last public address on the evening of the nth of April,
devoted mainly to the question of reconstructing loyal govern-
ments in the conquered states. On the evening of the i4th of
April he attended Ford's theatre in Washington. While seated
with his family and friends absorbed in the play, John Wilkes
Booth, an actor, who with others had prepared a plot to assassin-
ate the several heads of government, went into the little corridor
leading to the upper stage-box, and secured it against ingress
by a wooden bar. Then stealthily entering the box, he discharged
a pistol at the head of the president from behind, the ball penetrat-
ing the brain. Brandishing a huge knife, with which he wounded
Colonel Rathbone who attempted to hold him, the assassin rushed
through the stage-box to the front and leaped down upon the
stage, escaping behind the scenes and from the rear of the
building, but was pursued, and twelve days afterwards shot in a
barn where he had concealed himself. The wounded president
was borne to a house across the street, where he breathed his
last at 7 A.M. on the i5th of April 1865.
President Lincoln was of unusual stature, 6 ft. 4 in., and of spare
but muscular build; he had been in youth remarkably strong and
skilful in the athletic games of the frontier, where, however, his
popularity and recognized impartiality oftener made him an umpire
than a champion. He had regular and prepossessing features,
dark complexion, broad high forehead, prominent cheek bones,
grey deep-set eyes, and bushy black hair, turning to grey at the time
of his death. Abstemious in his habits, he possessed great physical
endurance. He was almost as tender-hearted as a woman. " I
have not willingly planted a thorn in any man's bosom," he was
able to say. His patience was inexhaustible. He had naturally a
most cheerful and sunny temper, was highly social and sympathetic,
loved pleasant conversation, wit, anecdote and laughter. Beneath
this, however, ran an undercurrent of sadness; he was occasionally
subject to hours of deep silence and introspection that approached
a condition of trance. In manner he was simple, direct, void of the
least affectation, and entirely free from awkwardness, oddity or
eccentricity. His mental qualities were — a quick analytic per-
ception, strong logical powers, a tenacious memory, a liberal estimate
and tolerance of the opinions of others, ready intuition of human
nature; and perhaps his most valuable faculty was rare ability to
divest himself of all feeling or passion in weighing motives of persons
or problems of state. His speech and diction were plain, terse,
forcible. Relating anecdotes with appreciative humour and fas-
cinating dramatic skill, he used them freely and effectively in
conversation and argument. He loved manliness, truth and justice.
He despised all trickery and selfish greed. In arguments at the bar
he was so fair to his opponent that he frequently appeared to concede
away his client's case. He was ever ready to take blame on himself
and bestow praise on others. " I claim not to have controlled events,"
he said, " out confess plainly that events have controlled me."
The Declaration of Independence was his political chart and in-
spiration. iHe acknowledged a universal equality of human rights.
" Certainly the negro is not our equal in colour," he said, " perhaps
not in many other respects; still, in the right to put into his mouth
the bread that his own hands have earned, he is the equal of every
other man white or black." He had unchanging faith in self-
government. " The people," he said, " are the rightful masters of
both congresses and courts, not to overthrow the constitution, but
to overthrow the men who pervert the constitution." Yielding and
accommodating in non-essentials, he was inflexiBjy firm in a principle
or position deliberately taken. " Let us have faith that right makes
might," he said, " and in that faith let us to the end dare to do our
duty as we understand it." The emancipation proclamation once
issued, he reiterated his purpose never to retract or modify it.
" There have been men base enough," he said, " to propose to me
to return to slavery our black warriors of Port Hudson and Olustee,
and thus win the respect of the masters they fought. Should I do
so I should deserve to be damned in time and eternity. Come what
will, I will keep my faith with friend and foe." Benevolence and
forgiveness were the very basis of his character; his world- wide
humanity is aptly embodied in a phrase of his second inaugural :
" With malice toward none, with charity for all." His nature was
deeply religious, but he belonged to no denomination.
Lincoln married in Springfield on the 4th of November 1842,
Mary Todd (1818-1882), also a native of Kentucky, who bore
him four sons, of whom the only one to grow up was the eldest,
Robert Todd Lincoln (b. 1843), who graduated at Harvard in
1864, served as a captain on the staff of General Grant in 1865,
was admitted to the Illinois bar in 1867, was secretary of war in
the cabinets of Presidents Garfield and Arthur in 1881-1885,
and United States Minister to Great Britain in 1880-1893, and
was prominently connected with many large corporations,
becoming in 1897 president of the Pullman Co.
Of the many statues of President Lincoln in American cities,
the best known is that, in Chicago, by St Gaudens. Among the
LINCOLN
others are two by Thomas Ball, one in statuary hall in the Capitol
at Washington, and one in Boston; two — one in Rochester,
N.Y., and one in Springfield, 111. — by Leonard W. Volk, who
made a life-mask and a bust of Lincoln in 1860; and one by
J. Q. A. Ward, in Lincoln Park, Washington. Francis B.
Carpenter painted in 1864 " Lincoln signing the Emancipation
Proclamation," now in the Capitol at Washington.
See The Complete Works of Abraham Lincoln (12 vols., New York,
1906-1907; enlarged from the 2-volume edition of 1894 by John G.
Nicolay and John Hay). There are various editions of the Lincoln-
Douglas debates of 1858; perhaps the best is that edited by E. E.
Sparks (1908). There are numerous biographies, and biographical
studies, including: John G. Nicolay and John Hay, Abraham Lincoln:
A History (10 vols., New York, 1890), a monumental work by his
private secretaries who treat primarily his official life; John G.
Nicolay, A Short Life 'of Abraham Lincoln (New York, 1904), con-
densed from the preceding; John T. Morse, Jr., Abraham Lincoln
(2 vols., Boston, 1896), in the " American Statesmen " series, an
excellent brief biography, dealing chiefly with Lincoln's political
career; Ida M.Tarbell, The Early Life of Lincoln (New York, 1896)
and Life of Abraham Lincoln (2 vols., New York, 1900), containing
new material to which too great prominence and credence is some-
times given; Carl Schurz, Abraham Lincoln: An Essay (Boston,
1891), a remarkably able estimate; Ward H. Lamon, The Life of
Abraham Lincoln from his Birth to his Inauguration as President
(Boston, 1872), supplemented by Recollections of Abraham Lincoln
1847-1865 (Chicago, 1895), compiled by Dorothy Lamon, valuable
for some personal recollections, but tactless, uncritical, and marred
by the effort of the writer, who as marshal of the District of Columbia,
knew Lincoln intimatejy, to prove that Lincoln's melancholy was
due to his lack of religious belief of the orthodox sort; William H.
Herndon and Jesse W. Weik, Abraham Lincoln, the True Story of a
Great Life (3 vols., Chicago, 1889; revised, 2 vols., New York,
1892), an intimate and ill-proportioned biography by Lincoln's law
partner who exaggerates the importance of the petty incidents of
his youth and young manhood; Isaac N. Arnold, History of Abraham
Lincoln and the Overthrow of Slavery (Chicago, 1867), revised and
enlarged as Life of Abraham Lincoln (Chicago, 1885), valuable for
personal reminiscences; Gideon Welles, Lincoln and Seward (New
York, 1874), the reply of Lincoln's secretary of the navy to Charles
Francis Adams's eulogy (delivered in Albany in April 1873) on
Lincoln's secretary of state, W. H. Seward, in which Adams claimed
that Seward was the premier of Lincoln's administration; F. B.
Carpenter, Six Months in the White House (New York, 1866), an
excellent account of Lincoln's daily life while president; Robert T.
Hill, Lincoln the Lawyer (New York, 1906) ; A. Rothschild, Lincoln,
the Master of Men (Boston, 1906); J. Eaton and E. O. Mason,
Grant, Lincoln, and the Freedmen (New York, 1907); R. W. Gilder,
Lincoln, the Leader, and Lincoln's Genius for Expression (New York,
W,
(New York, 1909); James H. Lea and J. R. Hutchinson, The
Ancestry of Abraham Lincoln (Boston, 1909), a careful genealogical
monograph ; and C. H. McCarthy, Lincoln's Plan of Reconstruction
(New York, 1901). For an excellent account of Lincoln as president
see J. F. Rhodes, History of the United States from the Compromise of
1850 (7 vols., 1893-1906). (J. G. N.; C. C. W.)
LINCOLN, a city and county of a city, municipal, county and
parliamentary borough, and the county town of Lincolnshire,
England. Pop. (1901) 48,784. It is picturesquely situated on
the summit and south slope of the limestone ridge of the Cliff
range of hills, which rises from the north bank of the river
Witham, at its confluence with the Foss Dyke, to an altitude of
200 ft. above the river. The cathedral rises majestically from
the crown of the hill, and is a landmark for many miles. Lincoln
is 130 m. N. by W. from London by the Great Northern railway;
it is also served by branches of the Great Eastern, Great Central
and Midland railways.
Lincoln is one of the most interesting cities in England. The
ancient British town occupied the crown of the hill beyond the
Newport or North Gate. The Roman town consisted of two
parallelograms of unequal length, the first extending west from
the Newport gate to a point a little west of the castle keep.
The second parallelogram, added as the town increased in size
and importance, extended due south from this point down the
hill towards the Witham as far as Newland, and thence in a
direction due east as far as Broad Street. Returning thence due
north, it joined the south-east corner of the first and oldest
parallelogram in what was afterwards known as the Minster
yard, and terminated its east side upon its junction with the
north wall in a line with the Newport gate. This is the oldest
part of the town, and is named " above hill." After the departure
of the Romans, the city walls were extended still farther in a
south direction across the Witham as far as the great bar gate,
the south entrance to the High Street of the city; the junction
of these walls with the later Roman one was effected immediately
behind Broad Street. The " above hill " portion of the city
consists of narrow irregular streets, some of which are too steep
to admit 'of being ascended by carriages. The south portion,
which is named " below hill," is much more commodious, and
contains the principal business premises. Here also are the
railway stations.
The glory of Lincoln is the noble cathedral of the Blessed
Virgin Mary, commonly known as the Minster. As a study to
the architect and antiquary this stands unrivalled, not only as
embodying the earliest purely Gothic work extant, but as
containing within its compass every variety of style from the
simple massive Norman of the central west front, and the later
and more ornate examples of that style in the west doorways and
towers; onward through all the Gothic styles, of each of which
both early and late examples appear. The building material is
the oolite and calcareous stone of Lincoln Heath and Haydor,
which has the peculiarity of becoming hardened on the surface
when tooled. Formerly the cathedral had three spires, all of wood
or leaded timber. The spire on the central tower, which would
appear to have been the highest in the world, was blown down in
1547. Those on the two western towers were removed in 1808.
The ground plan of the first church, adopted from that of Rouen,
was laid by Bishop Remigius in 1086, and the church was consecrated
three days after his death, on the 6th of May 1092. The west front
consists of an Early English screen (c. 1225) thrown over the Norman
front, the west towers rising behind it. The earliest Norman work is
part of that of Remigius; the great portals and the west towers
up to the third storey are Norman c. 1148. The upper parts of
them date from 1365. Perpendicular windows (c. 1450) are inserted.
The nave and aisles were completed c. 1220. The transepts mainly
built between 1186 and 1235 have two fine rose windows, that in
the N. is Early English, and that in the S. Decorated. The first
has beautiful contemporary stained glass. These are called re-
spectively the Dean's Eye and Bishop's Eye. A Galilee of rich
Early English work forms the entrance of the S. transept. Of the
choir the western portion known as St Hugh's (1186-1204) 's ^
famous first example of pointed work; the eastern, called the
Angel Choir, is a magnificently ornate work completed in 1280.
Fine Perpendicular canopied stalls fill the western part. The great
east window, 57 ft. in height, is an example of transition from Early
English to Decorated c. 1288. Other noteworthy features of the
interior are the Easter sepulchre (c. 1300), the foliage ornamentation
of which is beautifully natural; and the organ screen of a somewhat
earlier date. The great central tower is Early English as far as the
first storey, the continuation dates from 1307. The total height is
271 ft.; and the tower contains the bell, Great Tom of Lincoln,
weighing over 5 tons. The dimensions of the cathedral internally
are^-nave, 252X79-6X80 ft.; choir, 158X82X72 ft.; angel
choir, which includes presbytery and lady chapel, 166X44X72 ft.;
main transept, 220X63X74 ft. ; choir transept, 166X44X72 ft.
The west towers are 206 ft. nigh.
The buildings of the close that call for notice are the chapter-
house of ten sides, 60 ft. diameter, 42 ft. high, with a fine vestibule
of the same height, built c. 1225, and therefore the earliest of English
polygonal chapter-houses, and the library, a building of 1675, which
contains a small museum. The picturesque episcopal palace con-
tains work of the date of St Hugh, and the great hall is mainly
Early English. There is some Decorated work, and much Perpendi-
cular, including the gateway. It fell into disuse after the Reforma-
tion, but by extensive restoration was brought back to its proper
use at the end of the igth century. Among the most famous bishops
were St Hugh of Avalon (1186-1200); Robert Grosseteste (1235-
1253); Richard Flemming (1420-1431), founder of Lincoln College,
Oxford; William Smith (1495-1514), founder of Brasenose College,
Oxford; William Wake (1705-1716); and Edmund Gibson (1716-
1723). Every stall has produced a prelate or cardinal. The see
covers almost the whole of the county, with very small portions of
Norfolk and Yorkshire, and it included Nottinghamshire until the
format jon of the bishopric of Southwell in 1884. At its earliest
formation, when Remigius, almoner of the abbey of Fecamp, re-
moved the seat of the bishopric here from Dorchester in Oxfordshire
shortly after the Conquest, it extended from the Humber to the
Thames, eastward beyond Cambridge, and westward beyond
Leicester. It was reduced, however, by the formation of the sees
of Ely, Peterborough and Oxford, and by the rearrangement of
diocesan boundaries in 1837.
LINCOLN
711
The remains of Roman Lincoln are of the highest interest.
The Newport Arch or northern gate of Lindum is one of the most
perfect specimens of Roman architecture in England. It consists
of a great arch flanked by two smaller arches, of which one
remains. The Roman Ermine Street runs through it, leading
northward almost in a straight line to the Humber. Fragments
of the town wall remain at various points; a large quantity of
coins and other relics have been discovered; and remains of a
burial-place and buildings unearthed. Of these last the most
important is the series of column-bases, probably belonging to a
Basilica, beneath a house in the street called Bail Gate, adjacent
to the Newport Arch. A villa in Greet well; a tesselated pave-
ment, a milestone and other relics in the cloister; an altar un-
earthed at the church of St Swithin, are among many other
discoveries. Among churches, apart from the minster, two of
outstanding interest are those of St Mary-le-Wigford and St
Peter-at-Gowts (i.e. sluice-gates), both in the lower part of High
Street. Their towers, closely similar, are fine examples of
perhaps very early Norman work, though they actually possess
the characteristics of pre-Conquest workmanship. Bracebridge
church shows similar early work; but as a whole the churches of
Lincoln show plainly the results of the siege of 1644, and such
buildings as St Botolph's, St Peter's-at-Arches and St Martin's
are of the period 1720-1740. Several churches are modern
buildings on ancient sites. There were formerly three small
priories, five friaries and four hospitals in or near Lincoln. The
preponderance of friaries over priories of monks is explained by
the fact that the cathedral was served by secular canons. Bishop
Grosseteste was the devoted patron of the friars, particularly the
Franciscans, who were always in their day the town missionaries.
The Greyfriars, near St Swithin's church, is a picturesque two-
storied building of the i3th century. Lincoln is rich in early
domestic architecture. The building known as John of Gaunt's
stables, actually St Mary's Guild Hall, is of twf storeys, with
rich Norman doorway and moulding. The Jews' House is another
fine example of 12th-century building; and Norman remains
appear in several other houses, such as Deloraine Court and the
House of Aaron the Jew. Lincoln Castle, lying W. of the
cathedral, was newly founded by William the Conqueror when
Remigius decided to found his minster under its protection.
The site, with its artificial mounds, is of much earlier, probably
British, date. There are Norman remains in the Gateway
Tower; parts of the walls are of this period, and the keep dates
from the middle of the 1 2th century. Among medieval gateways,
the Exchequer Gate, serving as the finance-office of the chapter,
is a fine specimen of 13th-century work. Pottergate is of the
1 4th century, and Stonebow in High Street of the i5th, with
the Guildhall above it. St Dunstan's Lock is the name, corrupted
from Dunestall, now applied to the entrance to the street where
a Jewish quarter was situated; here lived the Christian boy
afterwards known as " little St Hugh," who was asserted to have
been crucified by the Jews in 1255. His shrine remains in the
S. choir aisle of the minster. Other antiquities are the Per-
pendicular conduit of St Mary in High Street and the High
Bridge, carrying High Street over the Witham, which is almost
unique in England as retaining some of the old houses upon it.
Among modern public buildings are the county hall, old and
new corn exchanges and public library. Educational establish-
ments include a grammar school, a girls' high school, a science
and art school and a theological college. The arboretum in
Monks Road is the principal pleasure-ground; and there is a
race-course. The principal industry is the manufacture of
agricultural machinery and implements; there are also iron
foundries and makings, and a large trade in corn and agricultural
produce. The parliamentary borough, returning one member,
falls between the Gainsborough division of the county on the N.,
and that of Sleaford on the S. Area, 3755 acres.
History. — The British Lindun, which, according to the
geography of Claudius Ptolemaeus, was the chief town of the
Coritani, was probably the nucleus of the Roman town of Lindum.
This was at first a Roman legionary fortress, and on the removal
of the troops northward was converted into a municipality with
the title of colonia. Such important structural remains as
have been described attest the rank and importance of the place,
which, however, did not attain a very great size. Its bishop
attended the council of Aries in 314, and Lincoln (Lindocolina,
Lincolle, Nicole) is mentioned in the Itinerary of Antoninus
written about 320. Although said to have been captured by
Hengest in 475 and recovered by Ambrosius in the following
year, the next authentic mention of the city is Bede's record
that Paulinus preached in Lindsey in 628 and built a stone
church at Lincoln in which he consecrated Honorius archbishop
of Canterbury. During their inroads into Mercia, the Danes
in 877 established themselves at Lincoln, which was one of the
five boroughs recovered by King Edmund in 941. A mint
established here in the reign of Alfred was maintained until the
reign of Edward I. (Mint Street turning from High Street near
the Stonebow recalls its existence.) At the time of the Domesday
Survey Lincoln was governed by twelve Lawmen, relics of Danish
rule, each with hereditable franchises of sac and soc. Whereas
it had rendered £20 annually to King Edward, and £10 to the
earl, it then rendered £100. There had been 1150 houses, but
240 had been destroyed since the time of King Edward. Of
these 1 66 had suffered by the raising of the castle by William I.
in 1068 partly on the site of the Roman camp. The strength
of the position of the castle brought much fighting on Lincoln.
In 1141 King Stephen regained both castle and city from the
empress Maud, but was attacked and captured in the same year
at the " Joust of Lincoln." In 1 144 he besieged the castle,
held by the earl of Chester, and recovered it as a pledge in 1146.
In 1191 it was held by Gerard de Camville for Prince John and
was besieged by William Longchamp, Richard's chancellor,
in vain; in 1216 it stood a siege by the partisans of the French
prince Louis, who were defeated at the battle called Lincoln
Fair on the igthof May 1217. Granted by Henry III. to William
Longepee, earl of Salisbury, in 1224, the castle descended by
the marriage of his descendant Alice to Thomas Plantagenet,
and became part of the duchy of Lancaster.
In 1157 Henry II. gave the citizens their first charter, granting
them the city at a fee-farm rent and all the liberties which they
had had under William II., with their gild merchant for them-
selves and the men of the county as they had then. In 1200
the citizens obtained release from all but pleas of the Crown
without the walls, and pleas of external tenure, and were
given the pleas of the Crown within the city according to the
customs of the city of London, on which those of Lincoln were
modelled. The charter also gave them quittance of toll and
lastage throughout the kingdom, and of certain other dues.
In 1 2 10 the citizens owed the exchequer £100 for the privilege
of having a mayor, but the office was abolished by Henry III.
and by Edward I. in 1290, though restored by the charter of
1300. In 1275 the citizens claimed the return of writs, assize
of bread and ale and other royal rights, and in 1301 Edward I.,
when confirming the previous charters, gave them quittance of
murage, pannage, pontage and other dues. The mayor and
citizens were given criminal jurisdiction in 1327, when the
burghmanmot held weekly in the gildhall since 1272 by the
mayor and bailiffs was ordered to hear all local pleas which led
to friction with the judges of assize. The city became a separate
county by charter of 1409, when it was decreed that the bailiffs
should henceforth be sheriffs and the mayor the king's escheator,
and the mayor and sheriffs with four others justices of the peace
with defined jurisdiction. As the result of numerous complaints
of inability to pay the fee-farm rent of £180 Edward IV. enlarged
the bounds of the city in 1466, while Henry VIII. in 1546 gave
the citizens four advowsons, and possibly also in consequence
of declining trade the city markets were made free of tolls in
1554. Incorporated by Charles I. in 1628 under a common
council with 13 aldermen, 4 coroners and other officers, Lincoln
surrendered its charters in 1684, but the first charter was
restored after the Revolution, and was in force till 1834.
Parliaments were held at Lincoln in 1301, 1316 and 1327,
and the city returned two burgesses from 1295 to 1885, when
it lost one member. After the i3th century the chief interests
712
of Lincoln were ecclesiastical and commercial. As early as
1103 Odericus declared that a rich citizen of Lincoln kept the
treasure of King Magnus of Norway, supplying him with all he
required, and there is other evidence of intercourse with Scandi-
navia. ' There was an important Jewish colony, Aaron of Lincoln
being one of the most influential financiers in the kingdom
between 1166 and 1186. It was probably jealousy of their
wealth that brought the charge of the crucifixion of " little
St Hugh " in 1255 upon the Jewish community. Made a staple
of wool, leather and skins in 1291, famous for its scarlet cloth
in the i3th century, Lincoln had a few years of great prosperity,
but with the transference of the staple to Boston early in the
reign of Edward III., its trade began to decrease. The craft
gilds remained important until after the Reformation, a pageant
still being held in 1566. The fair now held during the last whole
week of April would seem to be identical with that granted by
Charles II. in 1684. Edward III. authorized a fair from St
Botolph's day to the feast of SS Peter and Paul in 1327, and
William III. gave one for the first Wednesday in September
in 1696, while the present November fair is, perhaps, a survival
of that granted by Henry IV. in 1409 for fifteen days before the
feast of the Deposition of St Hugh.
See Historical Manuscripts Commission, Report, xiv., appendix
pt. 8; John Ross, Civitas Lincolina, from its municipal and other
Records (London, 1870); I. G. Williams, " Lincoln Civic Insignia,"
Lincolnshire Notes and Queries, yols. vi.-viii. (Horncastle, 1901-
1905); Victoria County History, Lincolnshire.
LINCOLN, a city and the county-seat of Logan county,
Illinois, U.S.A., in the N. central part of the state, 156 m. S.W.
of Chicago, and about 28 m. N.E. of Springfield. Pop. (1900)
8962, of whom 940 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 10,892.
It is served by the Illinois Central and the Chicago & Alton
railways and by the Illinois Traction Interurban Electric line.
The city is the seat of the state asylum for feeble-minded
children (established at Jacksonville in 1865 and removed to
Lincoln in 1878), and of Lincoln College (Presbyterian) founded
in 1865. There are also an orphans' home, supported by the
Independent Order of Odd Fellows, and a Carnegie library.
The old court-house in which Abraham Lincoln often practised
is still standing. Lincoln is situated in a productive grain region,
and has valuable coal mines. The value of the factory products
increased from $375,167 in 190x3 to $784,248 in 1905, or 109%.
The first settlement on the site of Lincoln was made in 1835,
and the city was first chartered in 1857.
LINCOLN, a city of S.E. Nebraska, U.S.A., county-seat of
Lancaster county and capital of the state. Pop. (1900) 40,169
(5297 being foreign-born) ; (1910 census) 43,973. It is served by
the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island &
Pacific, the Union Pacific, the Missouri Pacific and the Chicago &
North-Western railways. Lincoln is one of the most attractive
residential cities of the Middle West. Salt Creek, an affluent of the
Platte river, skirts the city. On this side the city has repeatedly
suffered from floods. The principal buildings include a state
capitol (built 1883-1889); a city-hall, formerly the U.S. govern-
ment building (1874-1879); a county court-house; a federal
building (1904-1906); a Carnegie library (1902); a hospital
for crippled children (1905) and a home for the friendless,
both supoorted by the state; a state penitentiary and asylum
for the insane, both in the suburbs; and the university of
Nebraska. In the suburbs there are three denominational
schools, the Nebraska Wesleyan University (Methodist Episcopal,
1888) at University Place; Union College (Seventh Day Ad-
ventists, 1891) at College View; and Cotner University (Disciples
of Christ, 1889, incorporated as the Nebraska Christian Uni-
versity) at Bethany. Just outside the city limits are the state
fair grounds, where a state fair is held annually. Lincoln is the
see of a Roman Catholic bishopric. The surrounding country is
a beautiful farming region, but its immediate W. environs
are predominantly bare and desolate salt-basins. Lincoln's
" factory " product increased from $2,763,484 in 1900 to
$5,222,620 in 1905, or 89%, the product for 1905 being 3-4%
of the total for the state. The municipality owns and operates
its electric-lighting plant and water-works.
LINCOLN— LINCOLN JUDGMENT
The salt-springs attracted the first permanent settlers to the
site of Lincoln in 1856, and settlers and freighters came long
distances to reduce the brine or to scrape up the dry-weather
surface deposits. In 1886-1887 tne state sank a test-well
2463 ft. deep, which discredited any hope of a great underground
flow or deposit. Scarcely any use is made of the salt waters
locally. Lancaster county was organized extra-legally in 1859,
and under legislative act in 1864; Lancaster village was platted
and became the county-seat in 1864 (never being incorporated);
and in 1867, when it contained five or six houses, its site was
selected for the state capital after a hard-fought struggle between
different sections of the state (see NEBRASKA).* The new city
was incorporated as Lincoln (and formally declared the county-
seat by the legislature) in 1869, and was chartered for the first
time as a city of the second class in 1871; since then its charter
has been repeatedly altered. After 1887 it was a city of the first
class, and after 1889 the only member of the highest subdivision
in that class. After a " reform " political campaign, the ousting
in 1887 of a corrupt police judge by the mayor and city council,
in defiance of an injunction of a federal court, led to a decision
of the U.S. Supreme Court, favourable to the city authorities
and important in questions of American municipal government.
LINCOLN JUDGMENT, THE. In this celebrated English
ecclesiastical suit, the bishop of Lincoln (Edward King, q.v.) was
cited before his metropolitan, the archbishop of Canterbury
(Dr Benson), to answer charges of various ritual offences com-
mitted at the administration of Holy Communion in the church
of St Peter at Gowts, in the diocese of Lincoln, on the 4th of
December 1887, and in Lincoln cathedral on the loth of December
1887. The promoters were Ernest de Lacy Read, William
Brown, Felix Thomas Wilson and John Marshall, all inhabitants
of the diocese of Lincoln, and the last two parishioners of St
Peter at Gowts. The case has a permanent importance in two
respects. First, certain disputed questions of ritual were legally
decided. Secondly, the jurisdiction of the archbishop of Canter-
bury alone to try one of his suffragan bishops for alleged ecclesi-
astical offences was considered and judicially declared to be well
founded both by the judicial committee of privy council and by
the archbishop of Canterbury with the concurrence of his
assessors. The proceedings were begun on the 2nd of June 1888
by a petition presented by the promoters to the archbishop,
praying that a citation to the bishop of Lincoln might issue
calling on him to answer certain ritual charges. On the 26th of
June 1888 the archbishop, by letter, declined to issue citation,
on the ground that until instructed by a competent court as to
his jurisdiction, he was not clear that he had it. The promoters
appealed to the judicial committee of the privy council, to which
an appeal lies under 25 Henry VIII. c. 19 for " lack of justice "
in the archbishop's court. The matter was heard on the 2oth
of July 1888, and on the 8th of August 1888 the committee
decided (i.) that an appeal lay from the refusal of the arch-
bishop to the judicial committee, and (ii.) that the archbishop
had jurisdiction to issue a citation to the bishop of Lincoln and
to hear the promoters' complaint, but they abstained from
expressing an opinion as to whether the archbishop had a discre-
tion to refuse citation — whether, in fact, he had any power of
" veto " over the prosecution. The case being thus remitted
to the archbishop, he decided to entertain it, and on the 4th of
January 1889 issued a citation to the bishop of Lincoln.
On the 1 2th of February 1889 the archbishop of Canterbury
sat in Lambeth Palace Library, accompanied by the bishops of
London (Dr Temple), Winchester (Dr Harold Browne), Oxford
(Dr Stubbs) and Salisbury (Dr Wordsworth), and the vicar-
general (Sir J. Parker Deane) as assessors. The bishop of Lincoln
appeared in person and read a " Protest " to the archbishop's
jurisdiction to try him except in a court composed of the arch-
bishop and all the bishops of the province as judges. * The court
adjourned in order that the question of jurisdiction might be
argued. On the nth of May the archbishop gave judgment to
1 Lincoln was about equally distant from Pawnee City and the
Kansas border, the leading Missouri river towns, and the important
towns of Fremont and Columbus on the N. side of the Platte.
LINCOLNSHIRE
the effect that whether sitting alone or with assessors he had
jurisdiction to entertain the charge. On the 23rd and 24th of
July 1889 a further preliminary objection raised by the bishop
of Lincoln's counsel was argued. The offences alleged against
the bishop of Lincoln were largely breaches of various rubrics
in the communion service of the Prayer Book which give direc-
tions to the " minister." These rubrics are by the Acts of
Uniformity (i Elizabeth c. 2, and 13 & 14 Car. II. c. 4) made
legally binding. But it was argued that a bishop is not a
" minister " so as to be bound by the rubrics. The archbishop,
however, held otherwise, and the assessors (except the bishop of
Salisbury, who dissented) concurred in this decision. At this and
subsequent hearings the bishop of Hereford (Dr Atlay) took the
place of the bishop of Winchester as an assessor, and the bishop
of Rochester (Dr Thorold), originally appointed an assessor, but
absent from England at the outset, was present.
The case was heard on its merits in February 1890, before the
archbishop and all the assessors, and the archbishop delivered
his judgment on the 2ist of November 1890. The
alleged offences were eight in number. No facts were
decisions, in dispute, but only the legality of the various matters
complained of. I. The bishop was charged with
having mixed water with wine in the chalice during the com-
munion service, and II. with having administered the chalice
so mixed to the communicants. It was decided that the mixing
of the water with the wine during service was illegal, because
an additional ceremony not enjoined in the Prayer Book, but
that the administration of the mixed chalice, the mixing having
been effected before service, was in accordance with primitive
practice and not forbidden in the Church of England. III. The
bishop was charged with the ceremonial washing of the vessels
used for the holy communion, and with drinking the water used
for these ablutions. It was decided that the bishop had com-
mitted no offence, and that what he had done was a reasonable
compliance with the requirement of the rubric that any of the
consecrated elements left over at the end of the celebration
should be then and there consumed. IV. The bishop was charged
with taking the eastward position (i.e. standing at the west
side of the holy table with his face to the east and his back to
the congregation) during the ante-communion service (i.e. the
part of the communion service prior to the consecration prayer).
The rubric requires the celebrant to stand at the north side of
the table. A vast amount of research convinced the archbishop
that this is an intentionally ambiguous phrase which may with
equal accuracy be applied to the north end of the table as now
arranged in churches, and to the long side of the table, which,
in Edward VI. 's reign, was often placed lengthwise down the
church, so that the long sides would face north and south.
It was therefore decided (one of the assessors dissenting) that
both positions are legal, and that the bishop had not offended
in adopting the eastward position. V. The bishop was charged
with so standing during the consecration prayer that the " Manual
Acts " of consecration were invisible to the people gathered round.
It should be stated that the courts (see Ridsdale v. Clifton,
L.R. i P.D. 316; 2 P.D. 276) had already decided that the
eastward position during the consecration prayer was legal,
but that it must not be so used by the celebrant as to conceal
the " Manual Acts." The archbishop held that the bishop of
Lincoln had transgressed the law in this particular. VI. The
bishop was charged with having, during the celebration of holy
communion, allowed two candles to be alight on a shelf or retable
behind the altar when they were not necessary for giving light.
The archbishop decided that the mere presence of two altar
candles burning during the service, but lit before it began,
was lawful under the First Prayer Book of Edward VI., and
has never been made unlawful, and, therefore, that the bishop
was justified in what he had done. VII. The" bishop was charged
with having permitted the hymn known as Agnus Dei to be sung
immediately after the consecration of the elements at a celebra-
tion of the holy communion. The archbishop decided that the
use of hymns in divine service was too firmly established to be
legally questioned, and that there was nothing to differentiate
the use of this particular hymn at this point of the service from
the use of other hymns on other occasions in public worship.
VIII. The bishop was charged with making the sign of the Cross
in the air with his hand in the benediction and 'at other times
during divine service. The archbishop held that these crossings
were ceremonies not enjoined and, therefore, illegal. The judg-
ment confined itself to the legal declarations here summarized,
and pronounced no monition or other sentence on the
bishop of Lincoln in respect of the matters in which he
appeared to have committed breaches of the ecclesiastical
law.
The promoters appealed to the judicial committee. The bishop
did not appear on the appeal, which was therefore argued on
the side of the promoters only. The appeal was heard in June
and July 1891, before Lords Halsbury, Hobhouse, Esher,
Herschell, Hannen and Shand and Sir Richard Couch, with
the bishop of Chichester (Dr Durnford), the bishop of St Davids
(Dr Basil Jones) and the bishop of Lichfield (Dr Maclagan) as
episcopal assessors. The points appealed were those above
numbered II., III., IV., VI., VII. Judgment was given on the
2nd of August 1892, and the appeal failed on all points. As to
II., III., IV., and VII. the Committee agreed with the arch-
bishop. As to VI. (altar lights) they held that, as it was not
shown that the bishop was responsible for the presence of
lighted candles, the charge could not be sustained against him,
and so dismissed it without considering the general question of
the lawfulness of altar lights. They also held that the arch-
bishop was within his right in pronouncing no sentence against
the bishop, who, it should be added, conformed his practice to
the judgment from the date of its delivery. (L. T. D.)
LINCOLNSHIRE, an eastern county of England, bounded N.
by the Humber, E. by the German Ocean and the Wash, S.E.
for 3 m. by Norfolk, S. by Cambridgeshire and Northampton-
shire, S.W. by Rutland, W. by Leicestershire and Nottingham-
shire and N. W. by Yorkshire. The area is 2646 sq. m. , the county
being second to Yorkshire of the English counties in size.
The coast-line, about no m. in length, including the Humber
shore, is generally low and marshy, and artificial banks for guard-
ing against the inroads of the sea are to be found, in places,
all along the coast. From Grimsby to Skegness traces of a sub-
marine forest are visible; but while the sea is encroaching upon
some parts of the coast it is receding from others, as shown by
Holbeach, which is now 6 m. from the sea. Several thousand
acres have been reclaimed from this part of the Wash, and round
the mouth of the Nene on the south-east. The deep bay between
the coasts of Lincolnshire and Norfolk, called the Wash, is full
of dangerous sandbanks and silt; the navigable portion off the
Lincolnshire coast is known as the Boston Deeps. The rapidity
of the tides in this inlet, and the lowness of its shores, which are
generally indistinct on account of mist from a moderate offing,
render this the most difficult portion of the navigation of the
east coast of England. On some parts of the coast there are
fine stretches of sand, and Cleethorpes, Skegness, Mablethorpe
and Sutton-on-Sea are favourite resorts for visitors.
The surface of Lincolnshire is generally a large plain, small
portions of which are slightly below the level of the sea. The
south-east parts are perfectly flat; and about' one-third of the
county consists of fens and marshes, intersected in all directions
by artificial drains, called locally dykes, delphs, drains, becks,
leams and eaux. This flat surface is broken by two ranges of
calcareous hills running north and south through the county,
and known as the Lincoln Edge or Heights, or the Cliff, and the
Wolds. The former range, on the west, runs nearly due north
from Grantham to Lincoln, and thence to the Humber, travers-
ing the Heaths of Lincolnshire, which were formerly open moors,
rabbit warrens and sheep walks, but are now enclosed and
brought into high cultivation. The Wolds form a ridge of bold
hills extending from Spilsby to Barton-on-Humber for about
40 m., with an average breadth of about 8 m. The Humber
separates Lincolnshire from Yorkshire. Its ports on the Lincoln-
shire side are the small ferry-ports of Barton and New Holland,
and the important harbour of Grimsby. The Trent forms part
7M-
LINCOLNSHIRE
of the boundary with Nottinghamshire, divides the Isle of
Axholme (q.v.) from the district of Lindsey, and falls into the
Humber about 30 m. below Gainsborough. The Witham rises
on the S.W. border of the county, flows north past Grantham
to Lincoln, and thence E. and S.E. to Boston, after a course of
about 80 m. The Welland rises in north-west Northamptonshire,
enters the county at Stamford, and, after receiving the Glen,
flows through an artificial channel into the Fosdyke Wash.
The Nene on the south-east has but a small portion of its course
in Lincolnshire; it flows due north through an artificial outfall,
called the Wisbech Cut. Between the Wolds and the sea lie
the Marshes, a level tract of rich alluvial soil extending from
Barton-on-Humber to Wainfleet, varying in breadth from 5 to
10 m. Between the Welland and the Nene in the south-east of
the county are Gedney Marsh, Holbeach Marsh, Moulton Marsh
and Sutton Marsh.
The Fens (q.v.}, the soil of which has been formed partly by
tidal action and partly by the decay of forests, occupy the Isle
of Axholme on the north-west, the vale of Ancholme on the north,
and most of the country south-east of Lincoln. The chief of
these are the Holland, Wildmore, West and East Fens draining
into the Witham; and the Deeping, Bourn, Great Porsand,
and Whaplode Fens draining into the Welland.
The low lands adjoining the tidal reaches of the Trent and
Humber, and part of those around the Wash have been raised
above the natural level and enriched by the process of warping,
which consists in letting the tide run over the land, and retaining
it there a sufficient time to permit the deposit of the sand and
mud held in solution by the waters.
Geology. — The geological formations for the most part extend in
parallel belts, nearly in the line of the length of the county, from
north to south, and succeed one another in ascending order from
west to east. The lowest is the Triassic Keuper found in the Isle of
Axholme and the valley of the Trent in the form of marls, sand-
stone and gypsum. Fish scales and teeth, with bones and foot-
prints of the Labyrinthodon, are met with in the sandstone. The
red clay is frequently dug for brick-making. The beds dip gently
towards the east. At the junction between the Trias and Lias are
series of beds termed Rhaetics, which seem to mark a transition from
one to the other. These belts are in part exposed in pits near
Newark, and extend north by Gainsborough to where the Trent
flows into the Humber, passing thence into Yorkshire. The char-
acteristic shells are found at Lea, 2 m. south of Gainsborough, with
a thin bone-bed full of fish teeth and scales. The Lower Lias comes
next in order, with a valuable bed of ironstone now largely worked.
This bed is about 27 ft. in thickness, and crops out at Scunthorpe
and Frodingham, where the workings are open and shallow. The
Middle Lias, which enters the county near Wpolsthorpe, is about
20 or 30 ft. thick, and is very variable both in thickness and mineral-
ogical character; the iron ores of Denton and Caythorpe belong to
this horizon. The Upper Lias enters the county at Stainby, passing
by Grantham and Lincoln where it is worked for bricks. The Lias
thus occupies a vale about 8 or I o m. in width in the south, narrowing
until on the Humber it is about a mile in width. To this succeed the
Oolite formations. The Inferior Oolite, somewhat narrower than
the Lias, extends from the boundary with Rutland due north past
Lincoln to the vicinity of the Humber; it forms the Cliff of Lincoln-
shire with a strong escarpment facing westward. At Lincoln the
ridge is notched by the river Witham. The principal member of
the Inferior Oolite is the Lincolnshire limestone, which is an important
water-bearing bed and is quarried at Lincoln, Ponton, Ancaster, and
Kirton Lindsey for building stone. Eastward of the Inferior Oolite
lie the narrow outcrops of the Great Oolite and Cornbrash. The
Middle Oolite, Oxford clay and Corallian is very narrow in the
south near Wilsthorpe, widening gradually about Sleaford. It then
proceeds north from Lincoln with decreasing width to the vicinity
of the Humber. The Upper Oolite, Kimeridge clay, starts from the
vicinity of Stamford, and after attaining its greatest width near
Horncastle, runs north-north-west to the Humber. The Kimeridge
clay is succeeded by the Spilsby sandstone, Tealby limestone,
Claxby ironstone, and carstone which represent the highest Jurassic
and lowest Cretaceous rocks. In the Cretaceous system of the
Wolds, the Lower Greensand runs nearly parallel with the Upper
Oolite past South Willingham to the Humber. The Upper Green-
sand and Gault, represented in Lincolnshire by the Red Chalk, run
north-west from Irby, widening out as far as Kelstern on the east,
and cross the Humber. The Chalk formation, about equal in
breadth to the three preceding, extends from Burgh across the
Humber. The rest of the county, comprising all its south-east
portions between the Middle Oolite belt and the sea, all its north-
east portions between the chalk belt and the sea, and a narrow
tract up the course of the Ancholme river, consists of alluvial
deposits or of reclaimed marsh. In the northern part boulder clay
and glacial sands cover considerable tracts of the older rocks.
Bunter, Permian, and Coal Measure strata have been revealed by
boring to underlie the Keuper near Haxey.
Gypsum is dug in the Isle of Axholme, whiting is made from the
chalk near the shores of the Humber, and lime is made on the
Wolds. Freestone is quarried around Ancaster, and good oolite
building stone is quarried near Lincoln and other places. Ironstone
is worked at several places and there are some blast furnaces.
At Woodhall Spa on the Horncastle branch railway there is a
much-frequented bromine and iodine spring.
Climate, Soil and Agriculture. — The climate of the higher grounds
is healthy, and meteorological observation does not justify the
reputation for cold and damp often given to the county as a whole.
The soils vary considerably, according to the geological formations;
ten or twelve different kinds may be found in going across the
country from east to west. A good sandy loam is common in the
Heath division; a sandy loam with chalk, or a flinty loam on chalk
marl, abounds on portions of the Wolds; an argillaceous sand,
merging into rich loam, lies on other portions of the Wolds; a black
loam and a rich vegetable mould cover most of the Isle of Axholme
on the north-west; a well-reclaimed marine marsh, a rich brown
loam, and a stiff cold clay variously occupy the low tracts along the
Humber, and between the north Wolds and the sea; a peat earth,
a deep sandy loam, and a rich soapy blue clay occupy most of the
east and south Fens; and an artificial soil, obtained by " warping,"
occupies considerable low strips of land along the tidal reaches of
the rivers.
Lincolnshire is one of the principal agricultural, especially grain-
producing, counties in England. Nearly nine-tenths of the total
area is under cultivation. The wide grazing lands have long been
famous, and the arable lands are specially adapted for the growth
of wheat and beans. The largest individual grain-crop, however, is
barley. Both cattle and sheep are bred in great numbers. The
cattle raised are the Shorthorns and improved Lincolnshire breeds.
The dairy, except in the vicinity of large towns, receives little
attention. The sheep are chiefly of the Lincolnshire and large
Leicestershire breeds, and go to the markets of Yorkshire and
London. Lincolnshire has long been famous for a fine breed of
horses both for the saddle and draught. Horse fairs are held every
year at Horncastle and Lincoln. Large flocks of geese were formerly
kept in the Fens, but their number has been diminished since the
drainage of these parts. Where a large number of them were bred,
nests were constructed for them one above another; they were
daily taken down by the gooseherd, driven to the water, and then
reinstated in their nests, without a single bird being misplaced.
Decoys were once numerous in the undrained state of the Fens.
Industries and Communications. — Manufactures are few and,
relatively to the agricultural industry, small. The mineral in-
dustries, however, are of value, and there are considerable agricul-
tural machine and implement factories at Lincoln, Boston, Gains-
borough, Grantham and Louth. At Little Bytham a very hard
brick, called adamantine clinker, is made of the siliceous clay that
the Romans used for similar works. Bone-crushing, tanning, the
manufacture of oil-cake for cattle, 'and rope-making are carried on
in various places. Grimsby is an important port both for continental
traffic and especially for fisheries; Boston is second to it in the
county; and Gainsborough has a considerable traffic on the Trent.
Sutton Bridge is a lesser port on the Wash.
The principal railway is the Great Northern, its main line touch-
ing the county in the S.W. and serving Grantham. Its principal
branches are from Peterborough to Spalding, Boston, Louth and
Grimsby; and from Grantham to Sleaford and Boston, and to
Lincoln, and Boston to Lincoln. This company works jointly with
the Great Eastern the line from March to Spalding, Lincoln, Gains-
borough and Doncaster, and with the Midland that from Saxby to
Bourn, Spalding, Holbeach, Sutton Bridge and King's Lynn.
The Midland company has a branch from Newark to Lincoln, and
the Lancashire, Derbyshire, and East Coast line terminates at
Lincoln. The Great Central railway connects the west, Sheffield
and Doncaster with Grimsby, and with Hull by ferry from New
Holland. Canals connect Louth with the Humber, Sleaford with the
Witham, and Grantham with the Trent near Nottingham; but the
greater rivers and many of the drainage cuts are navigable, being
artificially deepened and embanked.
Population and Administration. — The area of the ancient county
is 1,693,550 acres, with a population in 1891 of 472,878 and in 1901
of 498,847. The primary divisions are three trithings or Ridings
(q.v.). The north division is called the Parts of Lindsey, the south-
west the Parts of Kesteven, and the south-east the Parts of Holland.
Each of these divisions had in early times its own reeve or gerefa.
Each constitutes an administrative county, the Parts of Lindsey
having an area of 967,689 acres; Kesteven, 465,877 acres; and
Holland, 262,766 acres. The Parts of Lindsey contain 17 wapen-
takes; Kesteven, exclusive of the soke and borough of Grantham
and the borough of Stamford, 9 wapentakes; and Holland, 3 wapen-
takes. The municipal boroughs and urban districts are as follows : —
i. PARTS OF LINDSEY. — Municipal boroughs— Grimsby, a county
borough (pop. 63,138), Lincoln, a city and county borough and the
county town (48,784), Louth (9518). Urban districts — Alford
LINCOLNSHIRE
(2478), Barton-upon-Humber (5671), Brigg (3137), Broughton (1300),
Brumby and Frodingham (2273), Cleethorpes with Thrunscoe
(12,578), Crowle (2769), Gainsborough (17,660), Horncastle (4038),
Mablethorpe (934), Market Rasen (2188), Roxby-cum-Risby (389),
Scunthorpe (6750), Skegness (2140), Winterton (1361), Woodhall
Spa (988).
2. PARTS OF KESTEVEN. — Municipal boroughs — Grantham
(17,593), Stamford (8229). Urban districts — Bourne (4361), Brace-
bridge (1752), Ruskington (1196), Sleaford (5468). .
3. PARTS OF HOLLAND. — Municipal borough — Boston (15,667).
Urban districts — Holbeach (4755), Long Sutton (2524), Spalding
(9385), Sutton Bridge (2105). In the Parts of Holland the borough
of Boston has a separate commission of the peace and there are
two petty sessional divisions. Lincolnshire is in the Midland circuit.
In the Parts of Kesteven the boroughs of Grantham and Stamford
have each a separate commission of the peace and separate courts
of quarter sessions, and there are 4 petty sessional divisions. In the
Parts of Lindsey the county boroughs of Grimsby and Lincoln have
each a separate commission of the peace and a separate court of
quarter sessions, while the municipal borough of Louth has a separate
commission of the peace, and there are 14 petty sessional divisions.
The three administrative counties and the county boroughs _contain
together 761 civil parishes. The ancient county contains 580
ecclesiastical parishes and districts, wholly or in part. It is mostly
in the diocese of Lincoln, but in part also in the dioceses of South-
well and York. For parliamentary purposes the county is divided
into seven divisions, namely, West Lindsey or Gainsborough, North
Lindsey or Brigg, East Lindsey or Louth, South Lindsey or Horn-
castle, North Kesteven or Sleaford, South Kesteven or Stamford,
and Holland or Spalding, and the parliamentary boroughs of Boston,
Grantham, Grimsby and Lincoln, each returning one member.
History. — Of the details of the English conquest of the district
which is now Lincolnshire little is known, but at some time in
the 6th century Engle and Frisian invaders appear to have
settled in the country north of the Witham, where they became
known as the Lindiswaras, the southern districts from Boston
to the Trent basin being at this time dense woodland. In the
7th century the supremacy over Lindsey alternated between
Mercia and Northumbria, but few historical references to the
district are extant until the time of Alfred, whose marriage with
Ealswitha was celebrated at Gainsborough three years before
his accession. At this period the Danish inroads upon the coast
of Lindsey had already begun, and in 873 Healfdene wintered
at Torksey, while in 878 Lincoln and Stamford were included
among the five Danish boroughs, and the organization of the
districts dependent upon them probably resulted about this
time in the grouping of Lindsey, Kesteven and Holland to
form the shire of Lincoln. The extent and permanence of the
Danish influence in Lincolnshire is still observable in the names
of its towns and villages and in the local dialect, and, though
about 918 the confederate boroughs were recaptured by Edward
the Elder, in 993 a Viking fleet again entered the Humber and
ravaged Lindsey, and in 1013 the district of the five boroughs
acknowledged the supremacy of Sweyn. The county offered
no active resistance to the Conqueror, and though Hereward
appears in the Domesday Survey as a dispossessed under-tenant
of the abbot of Peterborough at Witham-on-the-Hill, the legends
surrounding his name do not belong to this county. In his north-
ward march in 1068 the Conqueror built a castle at Lincoln, and
portioned out the principal estates among his Norman followers,
but the Domesday Survey shows that the county on the whole
was leniently treated, and a considerable number of English-
men retained their lands as subtenants.
The origin of the three main divisions of Lincolnshire is anterior
to that of the county itself, and the outcome of purely natural
conditions, Lindsey being in Roman times practically an island
bounded by the swamps of the Trent and the Witham on the
west and south and on the east by the North Sea, while Kesteven
and Holland were respectively the regions of forest and of fen.
Lindsey in Norman times was divided into three ridings — North,
West and South — comprising respectively five, five and seven
wapentakes; while, apart from their division into wapentakes,
the Domesday Survey exhibits a unique planning out of the
ridings into approximately equal numbers of i2-carucate
hundreds, the term hundred possessing here no administrative
or local significance, but serving merely as a unit of area for
purposes of assessment. The Norman division of Holland into
the three wapentakes of Elloe, Kirton and Skirbeck has remained
unchanged to the present day. In Kesteven the wapentakes
of Aswardhurn, Aveland, Beltisloe, Haxwell, Langoe, Loveden,
Ness, Winnibriggs, and Grantham Soke have been practically
unchanged, but the Domesday wapentakes of Boothby and
Graffo now form the wapentake of Boothby Graffo. In North-
riding Bradley and Haverstoe have been combined to form
Bradley Haverstoe wapentake, and the Domesday wapentake
of Epworth in Westriding has been absorbed in that of Manley.
Wall wapentake in Westriding was a liberty of the bishop of
Lincoln, and as late as 1515 the dean and chapter of Lincoln
claimed delivery and return of writs in the manor and hundred
of Navenby. In the i3th century Baldwin Wake claimed return
of writs and a market in Aveland. William de Vesci claimed
liberties and exemptions in Cay thorpe, of which he was summoned
to render account at the sheriff's tourn at Halton. The abbot
of Peterborough, the abbot of Tupholme, the abbot of Bardney,
the prior of Catleigh, the prior of Sixhills, the abbot of St Mary's,
York, the prioress of Stixwould and several lay owners claimed
liberties and jurisdiction in their Lincolnshire estates in the
1 3th century.
The shire court for Lincolnshire was held at Lincoln every
forty days, the lords of the manor attending with their stewards,
or in their absence the reeve and four men of the vill. The
ridings were each presided over by a riding-reeve, and wapentake
courts were held in the reign of Henry I. twelve times a year,
and in the reign of Henry III. every three weeks, while twice a
year all the freemen of the wapentake were summoned to the
view of frankpledge or tourn held by the sheriff. The boundaries
between Kesteven and Holland were a matter of dispute as early j
as 1389 and were not finally settled until 1816..
Lincolnshire was originally included in the Mercian diocese of
Lichfield, but, on the subdivision of the latter by'Theodore in
680, the fen-district was included in the diocese of Lichfield,
while the see for the northern parts of the county' was placed
at " Sidnacester," generally identified with Stow: Subsequently
both dioceses were merged in the vast West-Saxon bishopric of
Dorchester, the see of which was afterwards transferred to
Winchester, and by Bishop Remigius in 1072 to Lincoln. The
archdeaconry of Lincoln was among those instituted by Remigius,
and the division into rural deaneries also dates from this period.
Stow archdeaconry is first mentioned in 1138, and in 1291
included four deaneries, while the archdeaconry of Lincoln
included twenty-three. In 1536 the additional deaneries of Hill,
Holland, Loveden and Grafibe had been formed within the
archdeaconry of Lincoln, and the only deaneries created since
that date are East and West Elloe and North and SouthGrantham
in Lincoln archdeaconry. The deaneries of Gartree, Grimsby,
Hill, Horncastle, Louthesk, Ludborough, Walshcroft, Wraggoe
and Yarborough have been transferred from the archdeaconry
of Lincoln to that of Stow. Benedictine foundations existed
at Ikanho, Barrow, Bardney, Partney and Crowland as early as
the 7th century, but all were destroyed in the Danish wars, and
only Bardney and Crowland were ever rebuilt. The revival of
monasticism after the Conquest resulted in the erection of ten
Benedictine monasteries, and a Benedictine nunnery at Stainfield.
The Cistercian abbeys at Kirkstead, Louth Park, Revesby,
Vaudey and Swineshead, and the Cistercian nunnery at Stix-
would were founded in the reign of Stephen, and at the time
of the Dissolution there were upwards of a hundred religious
houses in the county.
In the struggles of the reign of Stephen, castles at Newark and
Sleaford were raised by Alexander, bishop of Lincoln, against
the king, while Ranulf " Gernons," earl, of Chester, in 1140
garrisoned Lincoln for the empress. The seizure of Lincoln by
Stephen in 1141 was accompanied with fearful butchery and
devastation, and by an accord at Stamford William of Roumare
received Kirton in Lindsey, and his tenure of Gainsborough
Castle was confirmed. In the baronial outbreak of 1173 Roger
Mowbray, who had inherited the Isle of Axholme from Nigel
d'Albini, garrisoned Ferry East, or Kinnard's Ferry, and Axholme
against the king, and, after the destruction of their more northern
fortresses in this campaign, Epworth in Axholme became the
716
LINCOLNSHIRE
principal seat of the Mowbrays. In the struggles between John
and his barons Lincoln in 1216 made peace with the king by sur-
rendering hostages for the payment of a fine of 1000 marks, but
after the landing of Louis the city was captured by Gilbert de Gant,
then earl of Lincoln. After his disastrous march to Swineshead
Abbey, John journeyed through Sleaford to Newark, where he
died, and in the battle of Lincoln in 1217 Gilbert de Gant was
captured and the city sacked. At the time of the Wars of the
Roses the county, owing to territorial influence, was mainly
Lancastrian, and in 1461 the Yorkist strongholds of Grantham
and Stamford were sacked to such effect that the latter never
recovered. The Lincolnshire rising of 1470 was crushed by the
defeat of the rebels in the skirmish known as " Losecoat Field "
near Stamford. In the Civil War of the i7th century, Lindsey
for the most part declared for the king, and the Royalist cause
was warmly supported by the earl of Lindsey, Viscount Newark,
Sir Peregrine Bertie and the families of Dymoke, Heneage and
Thorold. Lord Willoughby of Parham was a prominent Parlia-
mentary leader, and the Isle of Axholme and the Puritan yeo-
manry of Holland declared for the parliament. In 1643 Cromwell
won a small victory near Grantham, and the Royalist garrisons
at Lynn and Lincoln surrendered to Manchester. In 1644,
however, Newark, Gainsborough, Lincoln, Sleaford and Crowland
were all in Royalist hands, and Newark only surrendered in
1646. Among other historic families connected with Lincoln-
shire were the Wakes of Bourne and the d'Eyncourts, who
flourished at Blankney from the Conquest to the reign of
Henry VI.; Belvoir Castle was founded by the Toenis, from
whom it passed by the Daubeneys, then to the Barons Ros
and later to the Manners, earls of Rutland. In the Lindsey
Survey of 1115-1118 the name of Roger Marmion, ancestor of
the Marmion family, who had inherited the fief of Robert
Despenser, appears for the first time.
At the time of the Domesday Survey there were between 400
and 500 mills in Lincolnshire; 2111 fisheries producing large
quantities of eels; 361 salt-works; and iron forges at Stow,
St Mary and at Bytham. Lincoln and Stamford were flourishing
centres of industry, and markets existed at Kirton-in-Lindsey,
Louth, Old Bolingbroke, Spalding, Barton and Partney. The
early manufactures of the county are all connected with the
woollen trade, Lincoln being noted for its scarlet cloth in the
I3th century, while an important export trade in the raw material
sprang up at Boston. The disafforesting of Kesteven in 1230
brought large areas under cultivation, and the same period is
marked by the growth of the maritime and fishing towns,
especially Boston (which had a famous fish-market), Grimsby,
Barton, Saltfleet, Wainfleet and Wrangle. The Lincolnshire
towns suffered from the general decay of trade in the eastern
counties which marked the isth century, but agriculture was
steadily improving, and with the gradual drainage of the fen-
districts culminating in the vast operations of the i7th century,
over 330,000 acres in the county were brought under cultivation,
including more than two-thirds of Holland. The fen-drainage
resulted in the extinction of many local industries, such as the
trade in goose-feathers and the export of wild fowl to the London
markets, a 17th-century writer terming this county "the aviary
of England, 3000 mallards with other birds having been caught
sometimes in August at one draught." Other historic industries
of Lincolnshire are the breeding of horses and dogs and rabbit-
snaring; the Witham was noted for its^pike; and ironstone
was worked in the south, now chiefly in the north and west.
As early as 1295 two knights were returned to parliament for
the shire of Lincoln, and two burgesses each for Lincoln, Grimsby
and Stamford. In the I4th century Lincoln and Stamford were
several times the meeting-places of parliament or important
councils, the most notable being the Lincoln Parliament of 1301,
while at Stamford in 1309 a truce was concluded between the
barons, Piers Gavpston and the king. Stamford discontinued
representation for some 150 years after the reign of Edward II.;
Grantham was enfranchised in 1463 and Boston in 1552. Under
the act of 1832 the county was divided into a northern and
southern division, returning each two members, and Great
Grimsby lost one member. Under the act of 1868 the county
returned six members in three divisions and Stamford lost one
member. Under the act of 1885 the county returned seven
members in seven divisions; Lincoln, Boston and Grantham
lost one member each and Stamford was disfranchised
Antiquities.^ — At the time of the suppression of the monasteries in
the reign of Henry VIII. there were upwards of one hundred religious
houses; and ftrnpng the Fens rose some of the finest abbeys held
by the Benedictines. The Gilbertines were a purely English order
which took its rise in Lincolnshire, the canons following the Austin
rule, the nuns and lay brothers that of the Cistercians. They
generally lived in separate houses, but formed a community having
a common church in which the sexes were divided by a longitudinal
wall. These houses were at Alvingham, Catley, Holland Brigg,
Lincoln, before the gate of which the first Eleanor Cross was erected
by Edward I. to his wife, Newstead in Lindsey, Sempringham, the
chief house of the order, founded by St Gilbert of Gaunt in 1139,
of which the Norman nave of the church is in use, Stamford (a college
for students) and Wellow. There were nunneries of the order at
Haverholme, Nun Ormsby and Tunstal.
The following are a few of the most famous abbeys. Barlings
(Premonstratensian), N.E. of Lincoln, was founded 1154, for
fourteen canons. The tower, Decorated, with arcading pierced
with windows, and the east wall of the south wing remain. The
Benedictine Mitred Abbey of Crowland (q.v.) was founded 716, and
refounded in 948. Part of the church is still in use. Thornton
Abbey (Black Canons) in the north near the Humber was founded
in 1 139. There remain a fragment of the south wing of the transept,
two sides of the decagonal chapter-house (1282) and the beautiful
west gate-house, Early Perpendicular (1332-1388), with an oriel
window on the east. Kirkstead Abbey (Cistercian) was founded
in 1139. Little remains beyond an Early English chapel of singular
beauty.
In the Parts of Lindsey several churches present curious early
features, particularly the well-known towers of St Peter, Barton-on-
Humber, St Mary-le-Wigford and St Peter at Gowts, Lincoln,
which exhibit work of a pre-Conquest type. Stow church for
Norman of various dates, Bottesford and St James, Grimsby, for
Early English, Tattershall and Theddlethorpe for Perpendicular are
fine examples of various styles.
In the Parts of Kesteven the churches are built of excellent
stone which abounds at Ancaster and near Sleaford. The church
of St Andrew, Heckington, is the best example of Decorated archi-
tecture in the county; it is famed for its Easter sepulchre and fine
sedilia. The noble church of St Wulfram, Grantham, with one of
the finest spires in England, is also principally Decorated; this
style in fact is particularly well displayed in Kesteven, as in the
churches of Caythorpe, Claypole, Navenby and Ewerby. At
Stamford (j.f.) there are five churches of various styles.
It is principally in the Parts of Holland that the finest churches
in the county are found; they are not surpassed by those of any
other district in the kingdom, which is the more remarkable as the
district is composed wholly of marsh land and is without stone of
any kind. It is highly probable that the churches of the south part
of this district owe their origin to the munificence of the abbeys of
Crowland and Spalding. The church of Long Sutton, besides its
fine Norman nave, possesses an Early English tower and spire which
is comparable with the very early specimen at Oxford cathedral.
Whaplode church is another noteworthy example of Norman work;
for Early English work the churches of Kirton-in-Holland, Pinch-
beck and Weston may be noticed ; for Decorated those at Donington
and Spalding; and for Perpendicular, Gedney, together with parts
of Kirton church. Of the two later styles, however, by far the most
splendid example is the famous church of St Botolph, Boston
(q. v.), with its magnificent lantern-crowned tower or " stump."
There are few remains of medieval castles, although the sites of a
considerable number are traceable. Those of Lincoln and Tatter-
shall (a fine Perpendicular building in brick) are the most note-
worthy, and there are also fragments at Boston and Sleaford.
Country seats worthy of note (chiefly modern) are Aswarby Hall,
Belton House, Brocklesby, Casewick, Denton Manor, Easton Hall,
Grimsthorpe (of the i6th and l8th centuries, with earlier remains),
Haverholm Priory, Nocton Hall, Panton Hall, Riby Grove, Somerby
Hall, Syston Park and Urfington. The city of Lincoln is remarkably
rich in remains of domestic architecture from the Norman period
onward, and there are similar examples at Stamford and elsewhere.
In this connexion the remarkable triangular bridge at Crowland of
the I4th century (see BRIDGES) should be mentioned.
See Victoria County History, Lincolnshire; Thomas Allen, The
History of the County of Lincoln (2 vols., London, 1834); C. G.
Smith, A Translation of that portion of the Domesday Book which
relates to Lincolnshire and Rutlandshire (London, 1870); G. S.
Streatfield, Lincolnshire and the Danes (London, 1884); Chronicle
of the Rebellion in Lincolnshire, 1470, ed. J. E. Nicholls, Camden
Society, Camden Miscellany, vol. i. (London, 1847); The Lincoln-
shire Survey, temp. Henry I., ed. James Greenstreet (London, 1884);
Lincolnshire Notes and Queries (Horncastle, 1888); Lincolnshire
Record Society (Horncastle, 1891).
LIND, JENNY— LINDAU, PAUL
LIND, JENNY (1820-1887), the famous Swedish singer, was
born at Stockholm on the 6th of October 1820, the daughter
of a lace manufacturer. Mile Lundberg, an opera-dancer, first
discovered her musical gift, and induced the child's mother
to have her educated for the stage; during the six or seven
years in which she was what was called an " actress pupil,"
she occasionally appeared on the stage, but in plays, not operas,
until 1836, when she made a first attempt in an opera by
A. F. Lindblad. She was regularly engaged at the opera-house
in 1837. Her first great success was as Agathe, in Weber's Der
Freischulz, in 1838, and by 1841, when she started for Paris,
she had already become identified with nearly all the parts in(
which she afterwards became famous. But her celebrity in
Sweden was due in great part to her histrionic ability, and there
is comparatively little said about her wonderful vocal art,
which was only attained after a year's hard study under Manuel
Garcia, who had to remedy many faults that had caused exhaus-
tion in the vocal organs. On the completion of her studies she
sang before G. Meyerbeer, in private, in the Paris Opera-house,
and two years afterwards was engaged by him for Berlin, to
sing in his Feldlager in Schlesien (afterwards remodelled as
L'Etoile du nord); but the part intended for her was taken
by another singer, and her first appearance took place in Norma
on the i sth of December 1844. She appeared also in Weber's
Euryanlhe and Bellini's La Sonnambula, and while she was
at Berlin the English manager, Alfred Bunn, induced her to
sign a contract (which she broke) to appear in London in the
following season. In December 1845 sne appeared at a
Gewandhaus concert at Leipzig, and made the acquaintance of
Mendelssohn, as well as of Joachim and many other distin-
guished German musicians. In her second Berlin season she
added the parts of Donna Anna (Mozart's Don Giovanni),
Julia (Spontini's Vestalin) and Valentine (Meyerbeer's Les
Huguenots) to her repertory. She sang in operas or concerts
at Aix-la-Chapelle, Hanover, Hamburg, Vienna, Darmstadt
and Munich during the next year, and took up two Donizetti
r61es, those of Lucia and " la Figlia del Reggimento," in which
she was afterwards famous. At last Lumley, the manager of
Her Majesty's Theatre, succeeded in inducing Mile Lind to
visit England, in spite of her dread of the penalties threatened
by Bunn on her breach of the contract with him, and she appeared
on the 4th of May 1847 as Alice in Meyerbeer's Robert le Diable.
Her debut had been so much discussed that the furore she created
was a foregone conclusion. Nevertheless it exceeded everything
of the kind that had taken place in London or anywhere else;
the sufferings and struggles of her well-dressed admirers, who
had to stand for hours to get into the pit, have become historic.
She sang" in several of her favourite characters, and in that of
Susanna in Mozart's Figaro, besides creating the part of Amalia
in Verdi's / Masnadieri, written for England and performed
on the 22nd of July. In the autumn she appeared in operas
. in Manchester and Liverpool, and in concerts at Brighton,
Birmingham, Hull, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Perth, Norwich,
Bristol, Bath, and Exeter. At Norwich began her acquaintance
with the bishop, Edward Stanley (1779-1849), which was
said to have led to her final determination to give up the stage
as a career. After four more appearances in Berlin, and a short
visit to Stockholm, she appeared in London in the season of
1848, when she sang in Donizetti's L'Elisire d'amore and
Bellini's I Puritani, in addition to her older parts. In the
same year she organized a memorable performance of Elijah,
with the receipts of which the Mendelssohn scholarship was
founded, and sang at a great number of charity and benefit
concerts. At the beginning of the season of 1849 she intended
to give up operatic singing, but a compromise was effected by
which she was to sing the music of six operas, performed without
action, at Her Majesty's Theatre; but the first, a concert per-
formance of Mozart's II Flauto magico, was so coldly received
that she felt bound, for the sake of the manager and the public,
to give five more regular representations, and her last performance
on the stage was on the xoth of May 1849, in Robert le Diable.
Her decision was not even revoked when the king of Sweden
717
urged her to reappear in opera at her old home. She paid
visits to Germany and Sweden again before her departure
for America in 1850. Just before sailing she appeared at
Liverpool, for the first time in England, in an oratorio of Handel,
singing the soprano music in The Messiah with superb art.
She remained in America for nearly two years, being for a
great part of the time engaged by P. T. Barnum. In Boston,
on the 5th of February 1852, she married Otto Goldschmidt
(1829-1907), whom she had met at Liibeck in 1850. For some
years after her return to England, her home for the rest of her
life, she appeared in oratorios and concerts, and her dramatic
instincts were as strongly and perhaps as advantageously dis-
played in these surroundings as they had been on the stage,
for the grandeur of her conceptions in such passages as the
" Sanctus " of Elijah, the intensity of conviction which she
threw into the scene of the widow in the same work, or the
religious fervour of " I know that my Redeemer liveth, " could
not have found a place in opera. In her later years she took
an active interest in the Bach Choir, conducted by her husband,
and not only sang herself in the chorus, but gave the benefit
of her training to the ladies of the society. For some years
she was professor of singing at the Royal College of Music.
Her last public appearance was at Dusseldorf on the 2oth of
January 1870 when she sang in Ruth, an oratorio composed by
her husband. She died at Malvern on the 2nd of November 1887.
The supreme position she held so long in the operatic world was
due not only to the glory of her voice, and the complete musician-
ship which distinguished her above all her contemporaries, but
also to the naive simplicity of her acting in her favourite parts,
such as Amina, Alice or Agathe. In these and others she
had the precious quality of conviction, and identified herself
with the characters she represented with a thoroughness rare in
her day. Unharmed by the perils of a stage career, she was a
model of rectitude, generosity and straightforwardness, carrying
the last quality into a certain blunt directness of manner that
was sometimes rather startling. (J. A. F. M.)
LINDAU, PAUL (1830- ), German dramatist and novelist,
the son of a Protestant pastor, was born at Magdeburg on the
3rd of June 1839. He was educated at the gymnasium in
Halle and subsequently in Leipzig and Berlin. He spent five
years in Paris to further his studies, acting meanwhile as foreign
correspondent to German papers. After his return to Germany in
1863 he was engaged in journalism in Dusseldorf and Elberfeld.
In 1870 he founded Das neue Blatt at Leipzig; from 1872 to
1881 he edited the Berlin weekly, Die Gegemvart; and in 1878
he founded the well-known monthly, Nord und Siid, which
he continued to edit until 1904. Two books of travel, Aus
Venetien (Dusseldorf, 1864) and Aus Paris (Stuttgart, 1865),
were followed by some volumes of critical studies, written in
a light, satirical vein, which at once made him famous. These
were Harmlose Briefe eines deutschen Kleinstadters (Leipzig,
2 vols., 1870), Moderne Marchen fiir grosse Kinder (Leipzig,
1870) and Literarische Rucksichtslosigkeiten (Leipzig, 1871).
He was appointed intendant of the court theatre at Meiningen
in 1895, but removed to Berlin in 1899, where he became
manager of the Berliner Theater, and subsequently, until 1905,
of the Deutsches Theater. He had begun his dramatic career
in 1868 with Marion, the first of a long series of plays in
which he displayed a remarkable talent for stage effect and
a command of witty and lively dialogue. Among the more
famous were Maria und Magdalena (1872), Tante Therese
(1876), Grafin Lea (1879), Die Erste (1895), Der Abend (1896),
Der Herr im Hause (1899), So ich dir (1903;, and he adapted
many plays by Dumas, Augier and Sardou for the German
stage. Five volumes of his plays have been published (Berlin,
1873-1888). Some of his volumes of short stories acquired
great popularity, notably Herr und Frau Bewer (Breslau, 1882)
and Toggenburg und andere Geschichten (Breslau, 1883). A
novel-sequence entitled Berlin included Der Zug nach dent
Westen (Stuttgart, 1886, loth ed. 1903), Arme Mddchen. (1887,
9th ed. 1905) and Spitzen (1888, 8th ed. 1904). Later novels
were Die Gehilfin (Breslau, 1894), Die Brilder (Dresden, 1895),
718
LINDAU— LINDLEY, JOHN
Der Konig von Sidon (Breslau, 1898). His earlier books on
Moliere (Leipzig, 1871) and Alfred de Mussel (Berlin, 1877)
were followed by some volumes of dramatic and literary criticism,
Gesammelte Aufsdtze (Berlin, 1875), Dramaturgische Blatter
(Stuttgart, 2 vols., 1875; new series, Breslau, 1878, 2 vols.),
Vorspiele auf dem Theater (Breslau, 1895).
His brother, RUDOLF LINDAU (b. 1829), was a well-known
diplomatist and author. His novels and tales were collected
in 1893 (Berlin, 6 vols.). The most attractive, such as Reise-
gefahrten and Der lange Hollander, deal with the life of Euro-
pean residents in the Far East.
See Hadlich, Paul Lindau als dramatischer Dichter (2nd ed.,
Berlin, 1876).
LINDAU, a town and pleasure resort in the kingdom of
Bavaria, and the central point of the transit trade between
that country and Switzerland, situated on two islands off the
north-eastern shore of Lake Constance. Pop. (1905) 6531.
The town is a terminus of the Vorarlberg railway, and of the
Munich-Lindau line of the Bavarian state railways, and is
connected with the mainland both by a wooden bridge and by
a railway enbankment erected in 1853. There are a royal
palace and an old and a new town-hall (the older one having
been built in 1422 and restored in 1886-1888), a museum and
a municipal library with interesting manuscripts and a collection
of Bibles, also classical, commercial and industrial schools.
The harbour is much frequented by steamers from Constance
and other places on the lake. There are also some Roman
remains, the Heidenmauer, and a fine modern fountain, the
Reichsbrunnen. Opposite the custom-house is a bronze statue
of the Bavarian king Maximilian II., erected in 1856.
On the site now occupied by the town there was a Roman
camp, the castrum Tiberii, and the authentic records of Lindau
date back to the end of the 9th century, when it was known
as Lintowa. In 1274, or earlier, it became a free imperial
town; in 1331 it joined the Swabian league, and in 1531 became
a member of the league of Schmalkalden, having just previously
accepted the reformed doctrines. In 1647 it was ineffectually
besieged by the Swedes. In 1804 it lost its imperial privileges and
passed to Austria, being transferred to Bavaria in 1805.
See Boulan, Lindau, vpr altent und jetzt (Lindau, 1872); and
Stettners, Fuhrer durch Lindau und Umgebungen (Lindau, 1900).
LINDEN, a town in the Prussian province of Hanover, 3 m.
S.W. by rail from the city of that name, of which it practically
forms a suburb, and from which it is separated by the Ihme.
Pop. (1905) 57,941. It has a fine modern town-hall, and a
classical and other schools. Chief among its industries are
machine building, weaving, iron and steel works arid the
manufacture of chemicals, india-rubber goods and carpets.
LINDESAY, ROBERT, of Pitscottie (c. 1530-0. 1590), Scottish
historian, of the family of the Lindesays of the Byres, was born
at Pitscottie, in the parish of Ceres, Fifeshire, which he held
in lease at a later period. His Historie and Cronicles of Scotland,
the only work by which he is remembered, is described as a
continuation of that of Hector Boece, translated by John
Bellenden. It covers the period from 1437 to 1565, and,
though it sometimes degenerates into a mere chronicle of short
entries, is not without passages of great picturesqueness. Sir
Walter Scott made use of it in Marmion; and, in spite of its
inaccuracy in details, it is useful for the social history of the
period. Lindesay's share in the Cronicles was generally supposed
to end with 1565; but Dr Aeneas Mackay considers that the
frank account of the events connected with Mary Stuart
between 1565 and 1575 contained in one of the MSS. is by
his hand and was only suppressed because it was too faithful
in its record of contemporary affairs.
The Historie and Cronicles was first published in 1728. A complete
edition of the text (2 vols.), based on the Laing MS. No. 218 in the
university of Edinburgh, was published by the Scottish Text Society
in 1809 under the editorship of Aeneas J. G. Mackay. The
MS., formerly in the possession of John Scott of Halkshill, is fuller,
and, though in a later hand, is, on the whole, a better representative
of Lindesay's text.
LINDET, JEAN BAPTISTE ROBERT (1749-1825), French
revolutionist, was born at Bernay (Eure). Before the Revolution
he was an avocat at Bernay. He acted as procureur-syndic of
the district of Bernay during the session of the Constituent
Assembly. Appointed deputy to the Legislative Assembly
and subsequently to the Convention, he attained considerable
prominence. He was very hostile to the king, furnished a
Rapport sur les crimes imputes a Louis Capet (loth of December
1792), and voted for the death of Louis without appeal or
respite. He was instrumental in the establishment of the
Revolutionary Tribunal and contributed to the downfall of
the Girondists. As member of the Committee of Public Safety,
he devoted himself particularly to the question of food-supplies,
and it was only by dint of dogged perseverance and great ad-
ministrative talent that he was successful in coping with this
difficult problem. He had meanwhile been sent to suppress
revolts in the districts of Rhone, Eure, Calvados and Finistere,
where he had been able to pursue a conciliatory policy. Without
being formally opposed to Robespierre, he did not support him,
and he was the only member of the Committee of Public Safety
who did not sign the order for the execution of Danton and
his party. In a like spirit of moderation he opposed the
Thermidorian reaction, and defended Barere, Billaud-Varenne
the Collot d'Herbois from the accusations launched against them
on the 22nd of March 1795. Himself denounced on the 2oth
of May 1795, he was defended by his brother Thomas, but only
escaped condemnation by the vote of amnesty of the 4th of
Brumaire, year IV. (26th of October 1795). He was minister
of finance from the i8th of June to the 9th of November 1799,
but refused office under the Consulate and the Empire. In
1816 he was proscribed by the Restoration government as a
regicide, and did not return to France until just before his
death on the i7th of February 1825. His brother Thomas
made some mark as a Constitutional bishop and member of
the Convention.
See Amand Montier, Robert Lindet (Paris, 1899); H. Turpin,
Thomas Lindet (Bernay, 1886); A. Montier, Correspondence de
Thomas Lindet (Paris, 1899).
LINDLEY, JOHN (1799-1865), English botanist, was born
on the 5th of February 1799 at Catton, near Norwich, where
his father, George Lindley, author of A Guide to the Orchard
and Kitchen Garden, owned a nursery garden. He was educated
at Norwich grammar school. His first publication, in 1819,
a translation of the Analyse du fruit of L. C. M. Richard, was
followed in 1820 by an original Monographia Rosarum, with
descriptions of new species, and drawings executed by himself,
and in 1821 by Monographia Digitalium, and by " Observations
on Pomaceae," contributed to the Linnean Society. Shortly
afterwards he went to London, where he was engaged by J. C.
Loudon to write the descriptive portion of the Encyclopaedia of
Plants. In his labours on this undertaking, which was completed
in 1829, he became convinced of the superiority of the " natural "
system of A. L. de Jussieu, as distinguished from the " artificial "
system of Linnaeus followed in the Encyclopaedia; the con-
viction found expression in A Synopsis of British Flora, arranged
according to the Natural Order (1829) and in An Introduction
to the Natural System oj Botany (1830). In 1829 Lindley, who
since 1822 had been assistant secretary to the Horticultural
Society, was appointed to the chair of botany in University
College, London, which he retained till 1860; he lectured also
on botany from 1831 at the Royal Institution, and from 1836
at the Botanic Gardens, Chelsea. During his professoriate
he wrote many scientific and popular works, besides contri-
buting largely to the Botanical Register, of which he was editor
for many years, and to the Gardener's Chronicle, in which he
had charge of the horticultural department from 1841. He was
a fellow of the Royal, Linnean and Geological Societies. He died
at Turnham Green on the ist of November 1865.
Besides those already mentioned, his works include An Outline
of the First Principles of Horticulture (1832), An Outline of the Structure
and Physiology of Plants (1832), A Natural System of Botany (1836),
The Fossil Flora of Great Britain (with William Hutton, 1831-1837),
Flora Medica (1838), Theory of Horticulture (1840), The Vegetable
Kingdom (1846), Folia Orchidacea (1852), Descriptive Botany (1858).
L1NDLEY, BARON— LINDSAY
719
LINDLEY, NATHANIEL LINDLEY, BARON (1828- ),
English judge, son of John Lindley (q.v.), was born at Acton
Green, Middlesex, on the agth of November 1828. He was
educated at University College School, and studied for a time
at University College, London. He was called to the bar at the
Middle Temple in 1850, and began practice in the Court of
Chancery. In 1855 he published An Introduction to the Study of
Jurisprudence, consisting of a translation of the general part of
Thibaut's System des Pandekten Rechts, with copious notes. In
1860 he published in two volumes his Treatise on the Law of
Partnership, including its Application to Joint Stock and other
Companies, and in 1862 a supplement including the Companies
Act of 1862. This work has since been developed into two text-
books well known to lawyers as Lindley on Companies and
Lindley on Partnership. He became a Q.C. in January 1872.
In 1874 he was elected a bencher of the Middle Temple, of which
he was treasurer in 1894. In 1875 he was appointed a justice of
common pleas, the appointment of a chancery barrister to a
common-law court being justified by the fusion of law and equity
then shortly to be brought about, in theory at all events, by
the Judicature Acts. In pursuance of the changes now made
be became a justice of the common pleas division of the High
Court of Justice, and in 1880 of the queen's bench division. In
1 88 1 he was raised to the Court of Appeal and made a privy
councillor. In 1897, Lord Justice Lindley succeeded Lord
Esher as master of the rolls, and in 1900 he was made a lord of
appeal in ordinary with a life peerage and the title of Baron
Lindley. He resigned the judicial post in 1905. Lord Lindley
was the last serjeant-at-law appointed, and the last judge to
wear the Serjeant's coif, or rather the black patch representing
it, on the judicial wig. He married in 1858 Sarah Katherine,
daughter of Edward John Teale of Leeds.
LINDLEY, WILLIAM (1808-1900), English engineer, was born
in London on the 7th of September 1808, and became a pupil
under Francis Giles, whom he assisted in designing the Newcastle
and Carlisle and the London and Southampton railways. Leaving
England about 1837, he was engaged for a time in railway work
in various parts of Europe, and then returned, as engineer-in-
chief to the Hamburg-Bergedorf railway, to Hamburg, near
which city he had received his early education, and to which he
was destined to stand in much the same relation as Baron Hauss-
mann to Paris. His first achievement was to drain the Hammer-
brook marshes, and so add some 1400 acres to the available area
of the city. His real opportunity, however, came with the great
fire which broke out on the 5th of May 1842 and burned for three
days. He was entrusted with the direction of the operations to
check its spread, and the strong measures he adopted, including
the blowing-up of the town hall, brought his life into danger
with the mob, who professed to see in him an English agent
charged with the destruction of the port of Hamburg. After the
extinction of the fire he was appointed consulting engineer to
the senate and town council, to the Water Board and to the
Board of Works. He began with the construction of a complete
sewerage system on principles which did not escape criticism,
but which experience showed to be good. Between 1844 and
1848 water- works were established from his designs, the intake
from the Elbe being at Rothenburgsort. Subsidence tanks were
used for clarification, but in 1853, when he designed large ex-
tensions, he urged the substitution of sand-filtration, which,
however, was not adopted until the cholera epidemic of 1892-
1893 had shown the folly of the opposition directed against it.
In 1846 he erected the Hamburg gas-works; public baths and
wash-houses were built, and large extensions to the port executed
according to his plans in 1854; and he supervised the construc-
tion of the Altona gas and water works in 1855. Among other
services he rendered to the city may be mentioned the trigono-
metrical survey executed between 1848 and 1860, and the
conduct of the negotiations which in 1852 resulted in the sale of
the " Steelyard " on the banks of the Thames belonging to it
jointly with the two other Hanseatic towns, Bremen and Liibeck.
In 1860 he left Hamburg, and during the remaining nineteen
years of his professional practice he was responsible for many
engineering works in various European cities, among them being
Frankfort-on-the-Main, Warsaw, Pesth, Dusseldorf, Galatz and
Basel. In Frankfort he constructed sewerage works on the
same principles as those he followed in Hamburg, and the system
was widely imitated not only in Europe, but also in America.
He was also consulted in regard to water-works at Berlin, Kiel,
Stralsund, Stettin and Leipzig; he advised the New River
Company of London on the adoption of the constant supply
system in 1851; and he was commissioned by the British
Government to carry out various works in Heligoland, including
the big retaining wall " Am Falm." He died at Blackheath,
London, on the 22nd of May 1900.
UNDO, MARK PRAGER (1819-1879), Dutch prose writer,
of English-Jewish descent, was born in London on the i8th of
September 1819. He went to Holland when nineteen years of
age, and once established there as a private teacher of the
English language, he soon made up his mind to remain. In
1842 he passed his examination at Arnhem, qualifying him
as a professor of English in Holland, subsequently becoming a
teacher of the English language and literature at the gymnasium
in that town. In 1853 he was appointed in a similar capacity
at the Royal Military Academy in Breda. Meanwhile Lindo
had obtained a thorough grasp of the Dutch language, partly
during his student years at Utrecht University, where in 1854 he
gained the degree of doctor of literature. His proficiency in the
two languages led him to translate into Dutch several of the
works of Dickens, Thackeray and others, and afterwards also of
Fielding, Sterne and Walter Scott. Some of Lindo's translations
bore the imprint of hasty and careless work, and all were very
unequal in quality. His name is much more likely to endure
as the writer of humorous original sketches and novelettes in
Dutch, which he published under the pseudonym of De Oude
Herr Smits (" Old Mr Smits "). Among the most popular are:
Brieven en Ontboezemingen (" Letters and Confessions," 1853,
with three " Continuations ") ; Familie van Ons (" Family of
Ours," 1855); Bekentenissen eener Jonge Dame (" Confessions of
a Young Lady," 1858); Uittreksels uU het Dagboek van Wijlen
den Heer Janus Snor (" Extracts from the Diary of the late Mr
Janus Snor," 1865); Typen (" Types," 1871); and, particularly,
Afdrukken van Indrukken (" Impressions from Impressions,"
1854, reprinted many times). The last-named was written in
collaboration with Lodewyk Mulder, who contributed some of its
drollest whimsicalities of Dutch life and character, which, for
that reason, are almost untranslatable. Lodewyk Mulder and
Lindo also founded together, and carried on, for a considerable
time alone, the Nederlandsche Spectator (" The Dutch Spectator "),
a literary weekly, still published at The Hague, which bears little
resemblance to its English prototype, and which perhaps reached
its greatest popularity and influence when Vosmaer contributed
to it a brilliant weekly letter under the fanciful title of Vlugmaren
(" Swifts "). Lindo's serious original Dutch writings he pub-
lished under his own name, the principal one being De Opkomst
en Ontwikkeling van het Engdsche Volk (" The Rise and Develop-
ment of the British People," 2 vols. 1868-1874) — a valuable
history. Lodewyk Mulder published in 1877-1879 a collected
edition of Lindo's writings in five volumes, and there has since
been a popular reissue. Lindo was appointed an inspector of
primary schools in the province of South Holland in 1865, a post
he held until his death at The Hague on the 9th of March 1879.
LINDSAY, the family name of the earls of Crawford. The
family is one of great antiquity in Scotland, the earliest to settle
in that country being Sir Walter de Lindesia, who attended David,
earl of Huntingdon, afterwards King David I., in his colonization
of the Lowlands early in the I2th century. The descendants of
Sir Walter divided into three branches, one of which held the
baronies of Lamberton in Scotland, and Kendal and Molesworth
in England; another held Luff ness and Crawford in Scotland
and half Limesi in England; and a third held Breneville and
Byres in Scotland and certain lands, not by baronial tenure, in
England. The heads of all these branches sat as barons in the
Scottish parliament for more than two hundred years before the
elevation of the chief of the house to an earldom in 1398. The
720
LINDSAY— LINE
Lindsays held the great mountain district of Crawford in Clydes-
dale, from which the title of the earldom is derived, from the 1 2th
century till the close of the isth, when it passed to the Douglas
earls of Angus. See CRAWFORD, EARLS or.
See A. W. C. Lindsay, afterwards earl of Crawford, Lives of the
Lindsays, or a Memoir of the Houses of Crawford and Belcarres (3 vols. ,
1843 and 1858).
LINDSAY, a town and port of entry of Ontario, Canada, and
capital of Victoria county, on the Scugog river, 57 m. N.E. of
Toronto by rail, on the Canadian Pacific railway, and at the
junction of the Port Hope and Haliburton branches and the
Midland division of the Grand Trunk railway. Pop. (1901) 7003.
It has steamboat communication, by way of the Trent canal,
with Lake Scugog and the ports on the Trent system. It contains
saw and grist mills, agricultural implement and other factories.
LINDSEY, THEOPHILUS (1723-1808), English theologian,
was born in Middlewich, Cheshire, on the 2oth of June 1723,
and was educated at the Leeds Free School and at St John's
College, Cambridge, where in 1747 he became a fellow. For
some time he held a curacy in Spitalfields, London, and from
1754 to 1756 he travelled on the continent of Europe as tutor
to the young duke of Northumberland. He was then presented
to the living of Kirkby-Wiske in Yorkshire, and after exchanging
it for that of Piddletown in Dorsetshire, he removed in 1763 to
Catterick in Yorkshire. Here about 1764 he founded one of the
first Sunday schools in England. Meanwhile he had begun to
entertain anti-Trinitarian views, and to be troubled in conscience
about their inconsistency with the Anglican belief; since 1769
the intimate friendship of Joseph Priestley had served to foster
his scruples, and in 1771 he united with Francis Blackburne,
archdeacon of Cleveland (his father-in-law), John Jebb (1736-
1786), Christopher Wyvill (1740-1822) and Edmund Law 1703-
1787), bishop of Carlisle, in preparing a petition to parliament
with the prayer that clergymen of the church and graduates of
the universities might be relieved from the burden of subscribing
to the thirty-nine articles, and " restored to their undoubted
rights as Protestants of interpreting Scripture for themselves."
Two hundred and fifty signatures were obtained, but in February
1772 the House of Commons declined even to receive the petition
by a majority of 217 to 71; the adverse vote was repeated in the
following year, and in the end of 1773, seeing no prospect of
obtaining within the church the relief which his conscience
demanded, Lindsey resigned his vicarage. In April 1774 he
began to conduct Unitarian services in a room in Essex Street,
Strand, London, where first a church, and afterwards the Uni-
tarian offices, were established. Here he remained till 1793,
when he resigned his charge in favour of John Disney (1746-
1816), who like himself had left the established church and had
become his colleague. ^He died on the 3rd of November 1808.
Lindsay's chief work is An Historical View of the Stale of the
Unitarian Doctrine and Worship from the Reformation to our own
Times (1783) ; in it he claims, amongst others, Burnet, Tillotson,
S. Clarke, Hoadly and Sir I. Newton for the Unitarian view. His
other publications include Apology on Resigning the Vicarage of
Catterick (1774), and Sequel to the Apology (1776); The Book of
Common Prayer reformed according to the plan of the late Dr Samuel
Clarke (1774); Dissertations on the Preface to St John's Gospel and
on praying to Jesus Christ (1779); Vindiciae Prieslleianae (1788);
Conversations upon Christian Idolatry (1792); and Conversations on
the Divine Government, showing that everything is from God, and for
good to all (1802). Two volumes of Sermons, with appropriate prayers
annexed, were published posthumously in 1810; and a volume of
Memoirs, by Thomas Bclsham, appeared in 1812.
LINDSTROM, GUSTAF (1820-1901), Swedish palaeontologist,
was born at Wisby in Gotland on the 27th of August 1829. In
1848 he entered the university at Upsala, and in 1854 he took
his doctor's degree. Having attended a course of lectures in
Stockholm by S. L. Loven, he became interested] in the zoology
of the Baltic, and published several papers on the invertebrate
fauna, and subsequently on the fishes. In 1856 he became a
school teacher, and in 1858 a master in the grammar school at
Wisby. His leisure was devoted to researches on the fossils of
the Silurian rocks of Gotland, including the corals, brachiopods,
gasteropods, pteropods, cephalopods and Crustacea. He described
also remains of the fish Cyathaspis from Wenlock Beds, and
(with T. Thorell) a scorpion Palaeophonus from Ludlow Beds at
Wisby. He determined the true nature of the operculated coral
Calceola; and while he described organic remains from other
parts of northern Europe, he worked especially at the Palaeozoic
fossils of Sweden. He was awarded the Murchison medal by the
Geological Society of London in 1895. In 1876 he was appointed
keeper of the fossil Invertebrata in the State Museum at Stock-
holm, where he died on the i6th of May 1901.
See obituary (with portrait), by F. A. Bather, in Geol. Mag
(July 1901), p. 333.
LINDUS, one of the three chief cities of the island of Rhodes,
before their synoecism in the city of Rhodes. It is situated on the
E. side of the island, and has a finely placed acropolis on a
precipitous hill, and a good natural harbour just N. of it. Recent
excavations have discovered the early temple of Athena Lindia
on the Acropolis, and splendid Propylaea and a staircase, resem-
bling those at Athens. The sculptors of the Laocoon are among
the priests of Athena Lindia, whose names are recorded by in-
scriptions. Some early temples have also been found, and
inscriptions cut on the rock recording the sacrifices known as
EovKaria. There are also traces of a theatre and rock-cut tombs.
On the Acropolis is a castle, built by the knights in the i4th
century, and many houses in the town show work of the same
date.
See RHODES; also Chr. Blinkenberg and K. F. Kinch, Exploration
arch, de Rhodes (Copenhagen, 1904-1907).
LINE, a word of which the numerous meanings may be deduced
from the primary ones of thread or cord, a succession of objects
in a row, a mark or stroke, a course or route in any particular
direction. The word is derived from the Lat. linea, where all
these meanings may be found, but some applications are due
more directly to the Fr. ligne. Linea, in Latin, meant originally
" something made of hemp or flax," hence a cord or thread,
from linum, flax. " Line " in English was formerly used in the
sense of flax, but the use now only survives in the technical
name for the fibres of flax when separated by heckling from the
tow (see LINEN). The ultimate origin is also seen in the verb
" to line," to cover something on the inside, originally used of the
" lining " of a garment with linen.
In mathematics several definitions of the line may be framed
according to the aspect from which it is viewed. The synthetical
genesis of a line from the notion of a point is the basis of Euclid's
definition, •Ypa.wj.fi, 81 JUIJKOS airfares (" a line is widthless
length "), and in a subsequent definition he affirms that the
boundaries of a line are points, 7pa/j/i7js 81 irepora oTjpieta.
The line appears in definition 6 as the boundary of a surface:
tin<t>aveia.5 81 irepara 'ypa.fifial (" the boundaries of a surface
are lines "), Another synthetical definition, also treated by
the ancient Greeks, but not by Euclid, regards the line as
generated by the motion of a point (pvo-ts cnj/wtou), and, in a
similar manner, the " surface " was regarded as the flux of a
line, and a " solid " as the flux of a surface. Proclus adopts this
view, styling the line apx^l in respect of this capacity. Analytical
definitions, although not finding a place in the Euclidean treat-
ment, have advantages over the synthetical derivation. Thus
the boundaries of a solid may define a plane, the edges a line,
and the corners a point; or a section of a solid may define the
surface, a section of a surface the line, and the section of a line
the " point." The notion of dimensions follows readily from
either system of definitions. The solid extends three ways,
i.e. it has length, breadth and thickness, and is therefore three-
dimensional; the surface has breadth and length and is therefore
two-dimensional; the line has only extension and is unidimen-
sional; and the point, having neither length, breadth nor thick-
ness but only position, has no dimensions.
The definition of a " straight " line is a matter of much com-
plexity. Euclid defines it as the line which lies evenly with
respect to the points on itself — fiiOtia ypannij ianv fjr« «£
ttrov TOW «/>' lavrijs ffrjfielois Kelroi: Plato defined it as the
line having its middle point hidden by the ends, a definition of
no purpose since it only defines the line by the path of a ray of
LINE-ENGRAVING
721
light. Archimedes defines a straight line as the shortest distance
between two points.
A better criterion of rectilinearity is that of Simplicius, an
Arabian commentator of the 5th century: Linea recta est
quaecumque super duas ipsius extremitates rotata non movetur
de loco suo ad alium locum (" a straight line is one which when
rotated about its two extremities does not change its position ").
This idea was employed by Leibnitz, and most auspiciously
by Gierolamo Saccheri in 1733.
The drawing of a straight line between any two given points
forms the subject of Euclid's first postulate — rfiTr]<r6u etiri
iravros <r?7,ueiou &ri TTO.V di\\iitiov evdftav ypawfiv aya-yav,
and the producing of a straight line continuously in a straight
line is treated in the second postulate — KCU ireirepaajutiTj)' eiiQfiav
Kara TO awexes iir' evddas e/c/3aXei>.
For a detailed analysis of the geometrical notion of the line and
rectilinearity, see W. B. Frankland, Euclid's Elements (1905). In
analytical geometry the right line is always representable by an
equation or equations of the first degree; thus in Cartesian co-
ordinates of two dimensions the equation is of the form
Aar+By+C =O, in triangular coordinates A.x+By+Cz = O. In
three-dimensional coordinates, the line is represented by two linear
equations. (See GEOMETRY, ANALYTICAL.) Line geometry is a
branch of analytical geometry in which the line is the element, and
not the point as with ordinary analytical geometry (see GEOMETRY,
LINE).
LINE-ENGRAVING, on plates of copper or steel, the method
of engraving (q.v.), in which the line itself is hollowed, whereas
in the woodcut when the line is to print black it is left in relief,
and only white spaces and white lines are hollowed.
The art of line engraving has been practised from the earliest
ages. The prehistoric Aztec hatchet given to Humboldt in
Mexico was just as truly engraved as a modern copper-plate
which may convey a design by Flaxman; the Aztec engrav-
ing is ruder than the European, but it is the same art. The
important discovery which made line engraving one of the
multiplying arts was the discovery how to print an incised line,
which was hit upon at last by accident, and known for some time
before its real utility was suspected. Line engraving in Europe
does not owe its origin to the woodcut, but to the chasing on
goldsmiths' work. The goldsmiths of Florence in the middle of
the isth century were in the habit of ornamenting their works
by means of engraving, after which they filled up the hollows
produced by the burin with a black enamel made of silver, lead
and sulphur, the result being that the design was rendered much
more visible by the opposition of the enamel and the metal.
An engraved design filled up in this manner was called a niello.
Whilst a niello was in progress the artist could not see it so well
as if the enamel were already in the lines, yet he did not like to
put in the hard enamel prematurely, as when once it was set
it could not easily be got out again. He therefore took a sulphur
cast of his niello in progress, on a matrix of fine clay, and filled
up the lines in the sulphur with lampblack, thus enabling him-
self to judge of the state of his engraving. At a later period
it was discovered that a proof could be taken on damped paper
by filling the engraved lines with a certain ink and wiping it
off the surface of the plate, sufficient pressure being applied
to make the paper go into the hollowed lines and fetch the ink
out of them. This was the beginning of plate printing. The
niello engravers thought it a convenient way of proving their
work — the metal itself — as it saved the trouble of the sulphur
cast, but they saw no further into the future. They went on
engraving nielli just the same to ornament plate and furniture;
nor was it until the i6th century that the new method of printing
was carried out to its great and wonderful results. There are,
however, certain differences between plate-printing and block-
printing which affect the essentials of art. When paper is driven
into a line so as to fetch the ink out of it, the line may be of un-
imaginable fineness, it will print all the same; but when the
paper is only pressed upon a raised line, the line must have some
appreciable thickness; the wood engraving, therefore, can never
— except in a lour de force — be so delicate as plate engraving.
Again, not only does plate-printing excel block-printing in
delicacy ; it excels it also in force and depth. There never was,
and there will never be, a woodcut line having the power of a
deep line in a plate, for in block-printing the line is only a blackened
surface of paper slightly impressed, whereas in plate-printing it
is a cast with an additional thickness of printing ink.
The most important of the tools used in line-engraving is
the burin, which is a bar of steel with one end fixed in a handle
rather like a mushroom with one side cut away, the burin itself
being shaped so that the cutting end when sharpened takes the
form of a lozenge, point downwards. The burin acts exactly
like a plough; it makes a furrow and turns out a shaving of
metal as the plough turns the soil of a field. The burin, however,
is pushed while the plough is pulled, and this peculiar character
of the burin, or graver, as a pushed instrument at once establishes
a wide separation between it and all the other instruments
employed in the arts of design, such as pencils, brushes, pens
and etching needles.
The elements of engraving with the burin upon metal will be
best understood by an example of a very simple kind, as in the
engraving of letters. The capital letter B contains in itself the
rudiments of an engraver's education. As at first drawn, before the
blacks are inserted, this letter consists of two perpendicular straight
lines and four curves, all the curves differing from each other.
Suppose, then, that the engraver has to make a B, he will scratch
these lines, reversed, very lightly with a sharp point or style. The
next thing is to cut out the blacks (not the whites, as in wood
engraving), and this would be done with two different burins. The
engraver would get his vertical black line by a powerful ploughing
with the burin between his two preparatory first lines, and then
take out some copper in the thickest parts of the two curves. This
done, he would then take a finer burin and work out the gradation
from the thick line in the midst of the curve to the thin extremities
which touch the perpendicular. When there is much gradation in
a line the darker parts of it are often gradually ploughed out by
returning to it over and over again. The hollows so produced are
afterwards filled with printing ink, just as the hollows in a niello
were filled with black enamel; the surplus printing ink is wiped
from the smooth surface of the copper, damped paper is laid upon it,
and driven into the hollowed letter by the pressure of a revolving
cylinder; it .fetches the ink out, and you have your letter B in
intense black upon a white ground.
When the surface of a metal plate is sufficiently polished to be
used for engraving, the slightest scratch upon it will print as a black
line, the degree of blackness being proportioned to the depth of the
scratch. An engraved plate from which visiting cards are printed
is a good example of some elementary principles of engraving. It
contains thin lines and thick ones, and a considerable variety of
curves. An elaborate line engraving, if it is a pure line engraving
and nothing else, will contain only these simple elements in different
combinations. The real line engraver is always engraving a line
more or less broad and deep in one direction or another; he has no
other business than this.
In the early Italian and early German prints, the line is used
with such perfect simplicity of purpose that the methods of the
artists are as obvious as if we saw them actually at work.
The student may soon understand the spirit and technical
quality of the earliest Italian engraving by giving his attention
to a few of the series which used erroneously to be called the
" Playing Cards of Mantegna," but which have been shown
by Mr Sidney Colvin to represent " a kind of encyclopaedia of
knowledge."
The history of these engravings is obscure. They are supposed
to be Florentine; they are certainly Italian; and their technical
manner is called that of Baccio Baldini. But their style is as
clear as a style can be, as clear as the artist's conception of his
art. In all these figures the outline is the main thing, and next
to that the lines which mark the leading folds of the drapery,
lines quite classical in purity of form and severity of selection,
and especially characteristic in this, that they are always really
engraver's lines, such as may naturally be done with the burin,
and they never imitate the freer line of the pencil or etching
needle. Shading is used in the greatest moderation with thin
straight strokes of the burin, that never overpower the stronger
organic lines of the design. Of chiaroscuro, in any complete
sense, there is none. The sky behind the figures is represented
by white paper, and the foreground is sometimes occupied by
flat decorative engraving, much nearer in feeling to calligraphy
than to modern painting. Sometimes there is a cast shadow,
but it is not studied, and is only used to give relief. In this
722
LINE-ENGRAVING
early metal engraving the lines are often crossed in the shading,
whereas in the earliest woodcuts they are not; the reason being
that when lines are incised they can as easily be crossed as not,
whereas, when they are reserved, the crossing involves much
labour of a non-artistic kind. Here, then, we have pure line-
engraving with the burin, that is, the engraving of the pure
line patiently studied for its own beauty, and exhibited in an
abstract manner, with care for natural form combined with
inattention to the effects of nature. Even the forms are idealized,
especially in the cast of draperies, for the express purpose of
exhibiting the line to better advantage. Such are the character-
istics of those very early Italian engravings which were attributed
erroneously to Mantegna. When we come to Mantegna himself
we find a style equally decided. Drawing and shading were for
him two entirely distinct things. He did not draw and shade
at the same time, as a modern chiaroscurist would, but he first
got his outlines and the patterns on his dresses all very accurate,
and then threw over them a veil of shading, a very peculiar
kind of shading, all the lines being straight and all the shading
diagonal. This is the primitive method, its peculiarities being
due, not to a learned self-restraint, but to a combination of natural
genius with technical inexperience, which made the early Italians
at once desire and discover the simplest and easiest methods.
Whilst the Italians were shading with straight lines the Germans
had begun to use curves, and as soon as the Italians saw good
German work they tried to give to their burins something of
the German suppleness.
The characteristics of early metal engraving in Germany are
seen to perfection in Martin Schongauer and Albert Diirer,
who, though with striking differences,had many points in common.
Schongauer died in 1488; whilst the date of Diirer's death is
1528. Schongauer was therefore a whole generation before
Diirer, yet not greatly inferior to him in the use of the burin,
though Diirer has a much greater reputation, due in great measure
to his singular imaginative powers. Schongauer is the first
great German engraver known by name, but he was preceded
by an unknown German master, called " the Master of 1466,"
who had Gothic notions of art (in strong contrast to the classicism
of Baccio Baldini), but used the burin skilfully, conceiving of
line and shade as separate elements, yet shading with an
evident desire to follow the form of the thing shaded, and with
lines in various directions. Schongauer's art is a great stride
in advance, and we find in him an evident pleasure in the bold
use of the burin. Outline and shade, in Schongauer, are not
nearly so much separated as in Baccio Baldini, and the shading,
generally in curved lines, is far more masterly than the straight
shading of Mantegna. Durer continued Schongauer's curved
shading, with increasing manual delicacy and skill; and as he
found himself able to perform feats with the burin which amused
both himself and his buyers, he over-loaded his plates with
quantities of living and inanimate objects, each of which he
finished with as much care as if it were the most important
thing in the composition. The engravers of those days had no
conception of any necessity for subordinating one part of their
work to another; they drew, like children, first one object
and then another object, and so on until the plate was furnished
from top to bottom and from the left side to the right. Here,
of course, is an element of facility in primitive art which is denied
to the modern artist. In Diirer all objects are on the same plane.
In his " St Hubert " (otherwise known as " St Eustace ") of
c. 1505, the stag is quietly standing on the horse's back, with
one hoof on the saddle, and the kneeling knight looks as if he
were tapping the horse on the nose. Durer seems to have per-
ceived the mistake about the stag, for he put a tree between us
and the animal to correct it, but the stag is on the horse's back
nevertheless. This ignorance of the laws of effect is least visible
and obtrusive in plates which have no landscape distances,
such as " The Coat of Arms with the Death's Head " (1503)
and " The Coat of Arms with the Cock " (c. 1512).
Diirer's great manual skill and close observation made him
a wonderful engraver of objects taken separately. He saw and
rendered all objects; nothing escaped him; he applied the same
intensity of study to everything. Though a thorough student of
the nude — witness his Adam and Eve (1504) and other plates —
he would pay just as much attention to the creases of a gaiter
as to the development of a muscle; and though man was his
main subject, he would study dogs with equal care (see the five
dogs in the "JSt Hubert"), as well as pigs (see the " Prodigal Son,"
c. 1495); and at a time when landscape painting was unknown
he studied every clump of trees, every visible trunk and branch,
nay, every foreground plant, and each leaf of it separately.
In his buildings he saw every brick like a bricklayer, and every
joint in the woodwork like a carpenter. The immense variety
of the objects which he engraved was a training in suppleness
of hand. His lines go in every direction, and are made to render
both the undulations of surfaces (see the plane in the Melencolia,
1514) and their texture (see the granular texture of the stones
in the same print).
From Diirer we come to Italy again, through Marcantonio,
who copied Diirer, translating more than sixty of his woodcuts
upon metal. It is one of the most remarkable things in the history
of art, that a man who had trained himself by copying northern
work, little removed from pure Gothicism, should have become
soon afterwards the great engraver of Raphael, who was much
pleased with his work and aided him by personal advice. Yet,
although Raphael was a painter, and Marcantonio his interpreter,
the reader is not to infer that engraving had as yet subordinated
itself to painting. Raphael himself evidently considered engrav-
ing a distinct art, for he never once set Marcantonio to work
from a picture, but always (much more judiciously) gave him
drawings, which the engraver might interpret without going
outside his own art; consequently Marcantonio's works are
always genuine engravings, and are never pictorial. Marc-
antonio was an engraver of remarkable power. In him the real
pure art of line-engraving reached its maturity. He retained
much of the early Italian manner in his backgrounds, where its
simplicity gives a desirable sobriety; but his figures are boldly
modelled in curved lines, crossing each other in the darker
shades, but left single in the passages from dark to light, and
breaking away in fine dots as they approach {he light itself, which
is of pure white paper. A school of engraving was thus founded
by Raphael, through Marcantonio, which cast aside the minute
details of the early schools for a broad, harmonious treatment.
The group known as the engravers of Rubens marked a new
development. Rubens understood the importance of engraving
as a means of increasing his fame and wealth, and directed
Vorsterman and others. The theory of engraving at that time
was that it ought not to render accurately the local colour of
painting, which would appear wanting- in harmony when dis-
sociated from the hues of the picture; and it was one of the
anxieties of Rubens so to direct his engravers that the result
might be a fine plate independently of what he had painted.
To this end he helped his engravers by drawings, in which he
sometimes indicated what he thought the best direction for the
lines. Rubens liked Vorsterman's work, and scarcely corrected
it, a plate he especially approved being " Susannah and the
Elders," which is a learned piece of work well modelled, and
shaded everywhere on the figures and costumes with fine curved
lines, the straight line being reserved for the masonry. Vorster-
man quitted Rubens after executing fourteen important plates,
and was succeeded by Paul Pontius, then a youth of twenty,
who went on engraving from Rubens with increasing skill until
the painter's death. Boetius a Bolswert engraved from Rubens
towards the close of his life, and his brother Schelte a Bolswert
engraved more than sixty compositions of Rubens, of the most
varied character, including hunting scenes and landscapes.
This brings us to the engraving of landscape as a separate study.
Rubens treated landscape in a broad comprehensive manner,
and Schelte's way of engraving it was also broad and compre-
hensive. The lines are long and often undulating, the cross-
hatchings bold and rather obtrusive, for they often substitute
unpleasant reticulations for the refinement and mystery of
nature, but it was a beginning, and a vigorous beginning. The
technical developments of engraving under the influence of
LINE-ENGRAVING
723
Rubens may be summed up briefly as follows: (i) The Italian
outline had been discarded as the chief subject of attention, and
modelling had been substituted for it; (2) broad masses had
been substituted for the minutely finished detail of the northern
schools; (3) a system of light and dark had been adopted which
was not pictorial, but belonged especially to engraving, which it
rendered (in the opinion of Rubens) more harmonious.
The history of line-engraving, from the time of Rubens to the
beginning of the igth century, is rather that of the vigorous
and energetic application of principles already accepted than any
new development. From the two sources already indicated, the
school of Raphael and the school of Rubens, a double tradition
flowed to England and France, where it mingled and directed
English and French practice. The first influence on English
line-engraving was Flemish, and came from Rubens through
Vandyck, Vorsterman, and others; but the English engravers
soon underwent French and Italian influences, for although
Payne learned from a Fleming, Faithorne studied in France
under Philippe de Champagne the painter and Robert Nanteuil
the engraver. Sir Robert Strange studied in France under
Philippe Lebas, and then five years in Italy, where he saturated
his mind with Italian art. French engravers came to England
as they went to Italy, so that the art of engraving became in the
1 8th century cosmopolitan. In figure-engraving the outline was
less and less insisted upon. Strange made it his study to soften
and lose the outline. Meanwhile, the great classical Renaissance
school, with Gerard Audran at its head, had carried forward
the art of modelling with the burin, and had arrived at great
perfection of a sober and dignified kind. Audran was very pro-
ductive in the latter half of the i;th century, and died in 1703,
after a life of severe self-direction in labour, the best external
influence he underwent being that of the painter Nicolas Poussin.
He made his work more rapid by the use of etching, but kept it
entirely subordinate to the work of the burin. One of the finest
of his large plates is " St John Baptizing," from Poussin, with
groups of dignified figures in the foreground and a background of
grand classical landscape, all executed with the most thorough
knowledge according to the ideas of that time. The influence of
Claude Lorrain on the engraving of landscape was exercised less
through his etchings than his pictures, which compelled the en-
gravers to study delicate distinctions in the values of light and
dark. Through Woollett and Vivares, Claude exercised an in-
fluence on landscape engraving almost equal to that of Raphael
and Rubens on the engraving of the figure, though he did not
direct his engravers personally.
In the i gth century line-engraving received first an impulse
and finally a check. The impulse came from the growth of public
wealth, the increasing interest in art and the increase in the
commerce of art, which, by means of engraving, fostered in
England mainly by John Boydell, penetrated into the homes of
the middle classes, as well as from the growing demand for
illustrated books, which gave employment to engravers of first-
rate ability. The check to line-engraving came from the desire
for cheaper and more rapid methods, a desire satisfied in various
ways, but especially by etching and by the various kinds of
photography. Nevertheless, the igih century produced most
highly accomplished work in line-engraving, both in the figure
and in landscape. Its characteristics, in comparison with the
work of other centuries, were chiefly a more thorough and delicate
rendering of local colour, light and shade, and texture. The
elder engravers could draw as correctly as the moderns, but they
either neglected these elements or admitted them sparingly, as
opposed to the spirit of their art. In a modern engraving from
Landseer may be seen the blackness of a man's boots (local
colour), the soft roughness of his coat (texture), and the exact
value in light and dark of his face and costume against the cloudy
sky. Nay more, there is to be found every sparkle on bit, boot
and stirrup. Modern painting pays more attention to texture
and chiaroscuro than classical painting did, and engraving
necessarily followed in the same directions. But there is a certain
sameness in pure line-engraving more favourable to some forms
and textures than to others. This sameness of line-engraving,
and its costliness, led to the adoption of mixed methods, extremely
prevalent in commercial prints from popular artists. In the
well-known prints from Rosa Bonheur, for example, by T. Land-
seer, H. T. Ryall, and C. G. Lewis, the tone of the skies is got by
machine-ruling, and so is much undertone in the landscape;
the fur of the animals is all etched, and so are the foreground
plants, the real burin work being used sparingly where most
favourable to texture. Even in the exquisite engravings after
Turner, by Cooke, Goodall, Wallis, Miller, Willmore, and others,
who reached a degree of delicacy in light and shade far surpassing
the work of the old masters, the engravers had recourse to
etching, finishing with the burin and dry point. Turner's name
may be added to those of Raphael, Rubens and Claude in the
list of painters who have had a special influence upon engraving.
The speciality of Turner's influence was in the direction of
delicacy of tone. In this respect the Turner vignettes to Roger's
poems were a high-water mark of human attainment, not likely
ever to be surpassed.
The record of the art of line-engraving during the last quarter
of the ipth century is one of continued decay. Technical im-
provements, it was hoped, might save the art; it was thought
by some that the slight revival resultant on the turning back of
the burin's cutting-point — whereby the operator pulled the
tool towards him instead of pushing it from him — might effect
much, in virtue of the time and labour saved by the device.
But by the beginning of the 2oth century pictorial line-engraving
in England was practically non-existent, and, with the passing
of Jeens and Stacpoole, the spasmodic demand by publishers
for engravers to engrave new plates remained unanswered.
Mr C. W. Sherborn, the exquisite and facile designer and engraver
of book-plates, has scarcely been surpassed in his own line, but
his art is mainly heraldic. There are now no men capable of
such work as that with which Doo, J. H. Robinson, and their
fellows maintained the credit of the English School. Line-
engraving has been killed by etching, mezzotint and the " mixed
method." The disappearance of the art is due not so much to
the artistic objection that the personality of the line-engraver
stands obtrusively between the painter and the public; it is
rather that the public refuse to wait for several years for the
proofs for which they have subscribed, when by another method
they can obtain their plates more quickly. An important line
plate may occupy a prodigious time in the engraving; J. H.
Robinson's " Napoleon and the Pope " took about twelve years.
The invention of steel-facing a copper plate would now enable
the engraver to proceed more expeditiously; but even in this
case he can no more compete with the etcher than the mezzotint-
engraver can keep pace with the photogravure manufacturer.
The Art Union of London in the past gave what encourage-
ment it could; but with the death of J. Stephenson (1886) and
F. Bacon (1887) it was evident that all hope was gone. John
Saddler at the end was driven, in spite of his capacity to do
original work, to spend most of his time in assisting Thomas
Landseer to rule the skies on his plates, simply because there
was not enough line-engraving to do. Since then there was some
promise of a revival, and Mr Bourne engraved a few of the
pictures by Gustave Dor6. But little followed. The last of the
line-engravers of Turner's pictures died in the person of Sir
Daniel Wilson (d. 1892), who, recognizing the hopelessness of his
early profession, laid his graver aside, and left Europe for Canada
and eventually became president of the university of Toronto.
If line-engraving still flourishes in France, it is due not a
little to official encouragement and to intelligent fostering by
collectors and connoisseurs. The prizes offered by the Ecole
des Beaux Arts would probably not suffice to give vitality to
the art but for the employment afforded to the finished artist
by the " Chalcographie du Musee du Louvre," in the name of
which commissions are judiciously distributed. At the same
time, it must be recognized that not only are French engravers
less busy than they were in days when line-engraving was the
only " important " method of picture-translation, but they
work for the most part for much smaller rewards. Moreover,
the class of the work has entirely changed, partly through the
724
LINEN AND LINEN MANUFACTURES
reduction of prices paid for it, partly through the change of
taste and fashion, and partly, again, through the necessities
of the situation. That is to say, that public impatience is but
a partial factor in the abandonment of the fine broad sweeping
trough cut deep into the copper which was characteristic of the
earlier engraving, either simply cut or crossed diagonally so as
to form the series of " lozenges " typical of engraving at its
finest and grandest period. That method was slow; but
scarcely less slow was the shallower work rendered possible by
the steel plate by reason of the much greater degree of elabora-
tion of which such plates were capable, and which the public
was taught — mainly by Finden — to expect. The French
engravers were therefore driven at last to simplify their work
if they were to satisfy the public and live by the burin. To
compensate for loss of colour, the art developed in the direc-
tion of elegance and refinement. Gaillard (d. 1887), Blanchard,
and Alphonse Francois (d. 1888) were perhaps the earliest
chiefs of the new school, the characteristics of which are the
substitution of exquisite greys for the rich blacks of old, sim-
plicity of method being often allied to extremely high elaboration.
Yet the aim of the modern engraver has always been, while
pushing the capability of bis own art to the farthermost limit,
to retain throughout the individual and personal qualities of
the master whose work is translated on the plate. The height
of perfection to which the art is reached is seen in the triptych
of Mantegna by Achille Jacquet (d. 1909), to whom may perhaps
be accorded the first place among several engravers of the front
rank. This " Passion " (from the three pictures in the Louvre
and at Tours, forming the predella of the San Zeno altarpiece
in Verona) not only conveys the forms, sentiment, and colour
of the master, but succeeds also in rendering the peculiar lumin-
osity of the originals. Jacquet, who gained the Prix de Rome
in 1870, also translated pictures of Sir Joshua Reynolds,
and engraved fine plates after Paul Dubois, Cabanel,
Bouguereau, Meissonier and Detaille. The freedom of much
of his work suggests an affinity with etching and dry-point;
indeed, it appears that he uses the etching-needle and acid
to lay in some of his groundwork and outlines. Leopold Flameng's
engraving after Jan van Eyck's " Virgin with the Donor," in
the Louvre, is one of the most admirable works of its kind,
retaining the quality and sentiment of the master, extreme
minuteness and elaboration notwithstanding. Jules Jacquet
is known for his work after Meissonier (especially the " Fried-
land ") and after Bonnat; Adrien Didier for his plates after
Holbein (" Anne of Cleves "), Raphael, and Paul Veronese,
among the Old Masters, and Bonnat, Bouguereau, and Roybet
among the new. Jazinski (Botticelli's " Primavera "), Sulpis
(Mantegna and Gustave Moreau), Patricot (Gustave Moreau),
Burney, and Champollion (d. 1901), have been among the
leaders of the modern school. Their object is to secure the faith-
ful transcript of the painter they reproduce, while readily
sacrificing the power of the old method, which, whatever its
force and its beauty, was easily acquired by mediocre artists of
technical ability who were nevertheless unable to appreciate
or reproduce anything beyond mechanical excellence.
The Belgian School of engraving is not without vitality.
Gustave Biot was equally skilful in portraiture and subject
(engraving after Gallait, Cabanel, Gustave Dor6, among his best
work); A. M. Danse executed plates after leading painters,
and elaborated an effective " mixed method " of graver-
work and dry-point; and de Meerman has engraved a number
of good plates; but private patronage is hardly sufficient in
Belgium to maintain the school in a state of prosperous
efficiency.
In Germany, as might be expected, line-engraving retains
not a little of its popularity in its more orthodox form. The
novel Stauffer-Bern method, in which freedom and lightness
are obtained with such delicacy that the fine lines, employed
in great numbers, run into tone, and yield a supposed advantage
in modelling, has not been without appreciation. But the more
usual virtue of the graver has been best supported,, and many
have worked in the old-fashioned manner. Friedrich Zimmer-
mann (d. 1887) began his career by engraving such prints as
Guido Reni's " Ecce Homo " in Dresden, and then devoted
himself to the translation of modern German painters. Rudolph
Pfnor was an ornamentist representative of his class; and
Joseph Kohlschein, of Dusseldorf, a .typical exponent of the
intelligent conservative manner. His " Marriage at Cana "
after Paul Veronese, " The Sistine Madonna " after Raphael,
and "St Cecilia " after the same master, are all plates of a high
order.
In Italy the art is well-nigh as moribund as in England.
When Vittorio Pica (of Naples) and Conconi (of Milan) have
been named, it is difficult to mention other successors to the fine
school of the ipth century which followed Piranesi and Volpato.
A few of the pupils of Rosaspina and Paolo Toschi lived into the
last quarter of the century, but to the present generation Asiolo,
Jesi, C. Raimondi, L. Bigola, and Antonio Isac are remembered
rather for their efforts than for their success in supporting their
art against the combined opposition of etching, "process"
and public indifference.
Outside Europe line-engraving can no longer be said to exist.
Here and there a spasmodic attempt may be made to appeal to
the artistic appreciation of a limited public; but no general
attention is paid to such efforts, nor, it may be added, are these
inherently worthy of much notice. There are still a few who
can engrave a head from a photograph or drawing, or a small en-
graving for book-illustration or for book-plates; there are more
who are highly proficient in mechanical engraving for decorative
purposes; but the engraving-machine is fast superseding this
class. In short, the art of worthily translating a fine painting
beyond the borders of France, Belgium, Germany and perhaps
Italy can scarcely be said to survive, and even in those countries
it appears to exist on sufferance and by hot-house encouragement.
AUTHORITIES. — P. G. Hamerton, Drawing and Engraving (Edin-
burgh, 1892); H. W. Singer and W. Strang, Etching, Engraving,
and other methods of Printing Pictures (London, 1897) ; A. de Lostalot,
Les Precedes de la gravure (Paris, 1882); Le Comte Henri Delaborde,
La Gravure (Paris, English trans., with a chapter on English
engraving methods, by William Walker, London, 1886); H. W.
Singer, Geschichte des Kupferstichs (Magdeburg and Leipzig, 1895),
and Der Kupferstich (Bielefeld and Leipzig, 1904) ; Alex. Waldow,
Illustrirte Encyklopddie der Graphischen Kunste (Leipzig, 1 88 1—
1884); Lippmann, Engraving and Engraving, translated by
Martin Hardie (London, 1906); and for those who desire books of
gossip on the subject, Arthur Hayden, Chats on Old Prints (London,
1906), and Malcolm C. Salaman, The Old Engravers of England
~ G. H.;M. H. S.)
(London, 1906).
(P-
LINEN and LINEN MANUFACTURES. Under the name
of linen are comprehended all yarns spun and fabrics woven
from flax fibre (see FLAX).
From the earliest periods of human history till almost the
close of the i8th century the linen manufacture was one of the
most extensive and widely disseminated of the domestic industries
of European countries. The industry was most largely developed
in Russia, Austria, Germany, Holland, Belgium, the northern
provinces of France, and certain parts of England, in the north
of Ireland, and throughout Scotland; and in these countries
its importance was generally recognized by the enactment of
special laws, having for their object the protection and extension
of the trade. The inventions of Arkwright, Hargreaves and
Crompton in the later part of the i8th century, benefiting
almost exclusively the art of cotton-spinning, and the unparalleled
development of that branch of textile manufactures, largely
due to the ingenuity of these inventors, gave the linen trade as
it then existed a fatal blow. Domestic spinning, and with it
hand-loom weaving, immediately began to shrink; the trade
which had supported whole villages and provinces entirely
disappeared, and the linen manufacture, in attenuated dimensions
and changed conditions, took refuge in special localities, where
it resisted, not unsuccessfully, the further assaults of cotton,
and, with varying fortunes, rearranged its relations in the com-
munity of textile industries. The linen industries of the United
Kingdom were the first to suffer from the aggression of cotton;
more slowly the influence of the rival textile reached other
countries.
LINEN AND LINEN MANUFACTURES
725
In 1810 Napoleon I. offered a reward of one million francs
to any inventor who should devise the best machinery for the
spinning of flax yarn. Within a few weeks thereafter Philippe
de Girard patented in France important inventions for flax
spinning by both dry and wet methods. His inventions, however,
did not receive the promised reward and were neglected in his
native country. In 1815 he was invited by the Austrian govern-
ment to establish a spinning mill at Hirtenberg near Vienna,
which was run with his machinery for a number of years, but
it failed to prove a commercial success. In the meantime
English inventors had applied themselves to the task of adapting
machines to the preparation and spinning of flax. The foundation
of machine spinning of flax was laid by John Kendrew and
Thomas Porthouse of Darlington, who, in 1787, secured a patent
for " a mill or machine upon new principles for spinning yarn
from hemp, tow, flax or wool." By innumerable successive
improvements and modifications, the invention of Kendrew
and Porthouse developed into the perfect system of machinery
with which, at the present day, spinning-mills are furnished;
but progress in adapting flax fibres for mechanical spinning,
and linen yarn for weaving cloth by power-loom was much
slower than in the corresponding case of cotton.
Till comparatively recent times, the sole spinning implements
were the spindle and distaff. The spindle, which is the funda-
mental apparatus in all spinning machinery, was a round stick
or rod of wood about 12 in. in length, tapering towards each
extremity, and having at its upper end a notch or slit into
which the yarn might be caught or fixed. In general, a ring
or " whorl " of stone or clay was passed round the upper part
of the spindle to give it momentum and steadiness when in
rotation, while in some few cases an ordinary potato served
the purpose of a whorl. The distaff, or rock, was a rather longer
and stronger bar or stick, around one end of which, in a loose
coil or ball, the fibrous material to be spun was wound. The
other extremity of the distaff was carried under ths left arm,
or fixed in the girdle at the left side, so as to have the coil of
flax in a convenient position for drawing out to form the
yarn. A prepared end of yarn being fixed into the notch, the
spinster, by a smart rolling motion of the spindle with the
right hand against the right leg, threw it out from her, spinning
in the air, while, with the left hand, she drew from the rock
an additional supply of fibre which was formed into a uniform
and equal strand with the right. The yarn being' sufficiently
twisted was released from the notch, wound around the lower
part of the spindle, and again fixed in the notch at the point
insufficiently twisted; and so the rotating, twisting and drawing
out operations went on till the spindle was full. So persistent is
an ancient and primitive art of this description that in remote
districts of Scotland — a country where machine spinning has
attained a high standard — spinning with rock and spindle is
still practised;1 and yarn of extraordinary delicacy, beauty
and tenacity has been spun by their agency. The first improve-
ment on the primitive spindle was found in the construction of
the hand-wheel, in which the spindle, mounted in a frame, was
fixed horizontally, and rotated by a band passing round it and
a large wheel, set in the same framework. Such a wheel became
known in Europe about the middle of the i6th century, but it
appears to have been in use for cotton spinning in the East
from time immemorial. At a later date, which cannot be fixed,
the treadle motion was attached to the spinning wheel, enabling
the spinster to sit at work with both hands free; and the intro-
duction of the two-handed or double-spindle wheel, with flyers or
twisting arms on the spindles, completed the series of mechanical
improvements effected on flax spinning till the end of the i8th
century. The common use of the two-handed wheel throughout
the rural districts of Ireland and Scotland is a matter still within
the recollection of some people; but spinning wheels are now
seldom seen.
1'he modern manufacture of linen divides itself into two
branches, spinning and weaving, to which may be added the
1 See Sir Arthur Mitchell's The Past in the Present (Edinburgh,
1880).
bleaching and various finishing processes, which, in the case of
many linen textures, are laborious undertakings and important
branches of industry. The flax fibre is received in bundles
from the scutch mill, and after having been classed into various
grades, according to the quality of the material, it is labelled
and placed in the store ready for the flax mill. The whole
operations in yarn manufacture comprise (i) hackling, (2)
preparing and (3) spinning.
Hackling. — This first preparatory process consists not only in
combing out, disentangling and laying smooth and parallel the
separate fibres, but also serves to split up and separate into their
ultimate filaments the strands of fibre which, up to this point,
have been agglutinated together. The hackling process was
originally performed by hand, and it was one of fundamental im-
portance, requiring the exercise of much dexterity and judgment.
The broken, ravelled and short fibres, which separate out in the
hackling process, form tow, an article of much inferior value to the
spinner. A good deal of hand-hackling is still practised, especially
in Irish and continental mills; and it has not been found practicable,
in any case, to dispense entirely with a rough preparation of the
fibre by hand labour. In hackling by hand, the hackler takes a
handful or " strick " of rough flax, winds the top end around his
hands, and then, spreading out the root end as broad and flat as
possible, by a swinging motion dashes the fibre into the hackle
teeth or needles of the rougher or " ruffer." The rougher is a board
plated with tin, and studded with spikes or teeth of steel about
7 in. in length, which taper to a fine sharp point. The hackler
draws his strick several times through this tool, working gradually
up from the roots to near his hand, till in his judgment the fibres
at the root end are sufficiently combed out and smoothed. He then
seizes the root end and similarly treats the top end of the strick.
The same process is again repeated on a similar tool, the teeth of
which are 5 in. long, and much more closely studded together;
and for the finer counts of yarn a third and a fourth hackle may be
used, of still increasing fineness and closeness of teeth. In dealing
with certain varieties of the fibre, for fine spinning especially, the
flax is, after roughing, broken or cut into three lengths — the top,
middle and root ends. Of these the middle cut is most valuable,
being uniform in length, strength and quality. The root end is
more woody and harsh, while the top, though fine in quality, is
uneven and variable in strength. From some flax of extra length it
is possible to take two short middle cuts; and, again, the fibre is
occasionally only broken into two cuts. Flax so prepared is known
as " cut line " in contradistinction to " long line " flax, which is
the fibre unbroken. The subsequent treatment of line, whether long
or cut, does not present sufficient variation to require further
reference to these distinctions.
In the case of hackling by machinery, the flax is first roughed
and arranged in stricks, as above described under hand hackling.
In the construction of hackling machines, the general principles of
those now most commonly adopted are identical. The machines
are known as vertical sheet hackling machines, thejr essential
features being a set of endless leather bands or sheets revolving
over a pair of rollers in a vertical direction. These sheets are crossed
by iron bars, to which hackle stocks, furnished with teeth, are
screwed. The hackle stocks on each separate sheet are of one size
and gauge, but each successive sheet in the length of the machine
is furnished with stocks of increasing fineness, so that the hackling
tool at the end where the flax is entered is the coarsest, say about
four pins per inch, while that to which the fibre is last submitted has
the smallest and most closely set teeth. The finest tools may contain
from 45 to 60 pins per inch. Thus the whole of the endless vertical
revolving sheet presents a continuous series of hackle teeth, and the
machines are furnished with a double set of such sheets revolving
face to face, so close together that the pins of one set of sheets
intersect those on the opposite stocks. Overhead, and exactly
centred between these revolving sheets, is the head or holder channel,
from which the flax hangs down while it is undergoing the hackling
process on both sides. The flax is fastened in a holder consisting of
two heavy flat plates of iron, between which it is spread and tightly
screwed up. The holder is n in. in length, and the holder channel
is fitted to contain a line of six, eight or twelve such holders, accord-
ing to the number of separate bands of hackling stocks in the machine.
The head or holder channel has a falling and rising motion, by
which it first presents the ends and gradually more and more of the
length of the fibre to the hackle teeth, and, after dipping down the
full length of the fibre exposed, it slowly rises and lifts the flax clear
of the hackle stocks. By a reciprocal motion all the holders are
then moved forward one length; that at the last and finest set of
stocks is thrown out, and place is made for filling in an additional
holder at the beginning of the series. Thus with a six-tool hackle,
or set of stocks, each holder full of flax from beginning to end descends
into and rises from the hackle teeth six times in travelling from
end to end of the machine. The root ends being thus first hackled,
the holders are shot back along an inclined plane, the iron plates
undamped, the flax reversed, and the top ends are then submitted
to the same hackling operation. The tow made during the hackling
726
LINEN AND LINEN MANUFACTURES
process is carried down by the pins of the sheet, and is stripped
from them by means of a circular brush placed immediately under
the bottom roller. The brush revolves in the same direction as, but
quicker than the sheet, consequently the tow is withdrawn from
the pins. The tow is then removed from the brush by a doffer
roller, from which it is finally removed by a doffing knife. This
material is then carded by a machine similar to, but finer than, the
one described under JUTE (q.v.). The hackled flax, however, is
taken direct to the preparing department.
Preparing. — The various operations in this stage have for their
object the proper assortment of dressed line into qualities fit for
spinning, and the drawing out of the fibres to a perfectly level and
uniform continuous ribbon or sliver, containing throughout an equal
quantity of fibre in any given length. From the hackling the now
smooth, glossy and clean stricks are taken to the sorting room,
where they are assorted into different qualities by the " line sorter,"
who judges by both eye and touch the quality and capabilities of
the fibre. So sorted, the material is passed to the spreading and
drawing frames, a series or system of machines all similar in con-
struction and effect. The essential features of the spreading frame
are: (i) the feeding cloth or creeping sheet, which delivers the
flax to (2) a pair of " feed and jockey " rollers, which pass it on (3)
to the gill frame or fallers. The gill frame consists of a series of
narrow hackle bars, with short closely studded teeth, which travel
between the feed rollers and the drawing or " boss and pressing "
rollers to be immediately attended to. They are, by an endless
screw arrangement, carried forward at approximately the same
rate at which the flax is delivered to them, and when they reach the
end of their course they fall under, and by a similar screw arrange-
ment are brought back to the starting-point; and thus they form
an endless moving level toothed platform for carrying away the flax
from the feed rollers. This is the machine in which the fibres are,
for the first time, formed into a continuous length termed a sliver.
In order to form this continuous sliver it is necessary that the short
lengths of flax should overlap each other on the spread sheet or
creeping sheet. This sheet contains four or six divisions, so that
four or six lots of overlapped flax are moving at the same time
towards the first pair of rollers — the boss rollers or retaining rollers.
The fibre passes between these rollers and is immediately caught by
the rising rills which carry the fibre towards the drawing rollers.
The pins ofthe gills should pass through the fibre so that they may
have complete control over it, while their speed should be a little
greater than the surface speed of the retaining rollers. The fibre
is thus carried forward to the drawing rollers, which have a surface
speed of from 10 to 30 times that of the retaining rollers. The great
difference between the speeds of the retaining and drawing rollers
results in each sliver being drawn out to a corresponding degree.
Finally all the slivers are run into one and in this state are passed
between the delivery rollers into the sliver cans. Each can should
contain the same length of sliver, a common length being 1000 yds.
A bell is automatically rung by the machine to warn the attendant
that the desired length has been deposited into the can. From the
spreading frame the cans of sliver pass to the drawing frames, where
from four to twelve slivers combined are passed through feed rollers
over gills, and drawn out by drawing rollers to the thickness of one.
A third and fourth similar doubling and drawing may be embraced
in a preparing system, so that the number of doublings the flax
undergoes, before it arrives at the roving frame, may amount to
from one thousand to one hundred thousand, according to the
quality of yarn in progress. Thus, for example, the doublings on
one preparing system may be 6X12X12X12 X8 = 82,944. The slivers
delivered by the last drawing frame are taken to the roving frame,
where they are singly passed through feed rollers and over gills,
and, after drafting to sufficient tenuity, they are slightly twisted
by flyers and wound on bobbins, in which condition the
material — termed " rove " or " rovings " — is ready for the spinning
frame.1
Spinning. — The spinning operation, which follows the roving,
is done in two principal ways, called respectively dry spinning and
wet spinning, the first being used for the lower counts or heavier
yarns, while the second is exclusively adopted in the preparation
of fine yarns. The spinning frame does not differ in principle from
the throstle spinning machine used in cotton manufacture. The
bobbins of flax rove are arranged in rows on each side of the frame
(the spinning frames being all double) on pins in an inclined plane.
1 The preparation of tow for spinning differs in essential features
from the processes above described. Tow from different sources,
such as scutching tow, hackle tow, &c. differs considerably in
quality and value, some being very impure, filled with woody shives,
&c. while other kinds are comparatively open and clean. A pre-
liminary opening and cleaning is necessary for the dirty much-
matted tows, and in general thereafter they are passed through two
carding engines called respectively the breaker and the finisher
cards till the slivers from their processes are ready for the drawing
and roving frames. In the case of fine clean tows, on the other
hand, passing through a single carding engine may be sufficient.
The processes which follow the carding do not differ materially from
those followed in the preparation of rove from line flax.
The rove passes downwards through an eyelet or guide to a pair of
nipping rollers between which and the final drawing rollers, placed
in the case of dry spinning from 18 to 22 in. lower down, the fibre
receives its final draft while passing over and under cylinders and
guide-plate, and attains that degree of tenuity which the finished
yarn must possess. From the last rollers the now attenuated
material, in passing to the flyers receives the degree of twist which
compacts the fibres into the round hard cord which constitutes spun
yarn; and from the flyers it is wound on the more slowly rotating
spool within the flyer arms, centred on the top of the spindle. The
amount of twist given to the thread at the spinning frame varies
from 1-5 to 2 times the square root of the count. In wet spinning
the general sequence of operations is the same, but the rove, as
unwound from its bobbin, first passes through a trough of water
heated to about 120° Fahr.; and the interval between the two pairs
of rollers in which the drawing out of the rove is accomplished is
very much shorter. The influence of the hot water on the flax
fibre appears to be that it softens the gummy substance which
binds the separate cells together, and thereby allows the elementary
cells to a certain extent to be drawn out without breaking the con-
tinuity of the fibre; and further it makes a finer, smoother and more
uniform strand than can be obtained by dry spinning. The extent
to which the original strick of flax as laid on the feeding roller for
(say) the production of a 50 lea yarn is, by doublings and drawings,
extended, when it reaches the spinning spindle, may be stated
thus: 35 times on spreading frame, 15 times on first drawing
frame, 15 times on second drawing frame, 14 times on third drawing
frame, 15 times on roving frame and 10 times on spinning frame,
in all 16,537,500 times its original length, with 8X12X16 = 1536
doublings on the three drawing frames. That is to say, I yd. of
hackled line fed into the spreading frame is spread out, mixed with
other fibres, to a length of about 9400 m. of yarn, when the above
drafts obtain. The drafts are much shorter for the majority of
yarns.
The next operation is reeling from the bobbins into hanks. By
act of parliament, throughout the United Kingdom the standard
measure of flax yard is the " lea," called also in Scotland the " cut "
of 300 yds. The flax is wound or reeled on a reel having a circum-
ference of 90 in. (2j yds.) making " a thread," and one hundred and
twenty such threads form a lea. The grist or count of all fine yarns
is estimated by the number of leas in I ft; thus "50 lea"
indicates that there are 50 leas or cuts of 300 yds. each in I ft of
the yard so denominated. With the heavier yarns in Scotland the
quality is indicated by their weight per " spyndle " of 48 cuts or
leas; thus " 3 ft tow yarn " is such as weighs 3 lb per spyndle,
equivalent to " 16 lea."
The hanks of yarn from wet spinning are either dried in a loft
with artificial heat or exposed over ropes in the open air. When
dry they are twisted back and forward to take the wiry feeling out
of the yarn, and made up in bundles for the market as ' grey yarn."
English spinners make up their yarns into " bundles " of 20 hanks,
•each hank containing 10 leas; Irish spinners make hanks of 12 leas,
i6| of which form a bundle; Scottish manufacturers adhere to the
spyndle containing 4 hanks of 12 cuts or leas.
Commercial qualities of yarn range from about 8 ft tow yarns
(6 lea) up to 160 lea line yarn. Very much finer yarn up even to
400 lea may be spun from the system of machines found in many
mills; but these higher counts are only used for fine thread for
sewing and for the making of lace. The highest counts of cut line
flax are spun in Irish mills for the manufacture of fine cambrics
and lawns which are characteristic features of the Ulster trade.
Exceedingly high counts have sometimes been spun by hand, and
for the preparation of the finest lace threads it is said the Belgian
hand spinners must work in damp cellars, where the spinner is
guided by the sense of touch alone, the filament being too fine to be
seen by the eye. Such lace yarn is said to have been sold for as
much as £240 per ft. In the Great Exhibition of 1851, yarn of 760
lea, equal to about 130 m. per ft, was shown which had been spun
by an Irish woman eighty-four years of age. In the same exhibition
there was shown by a Cambray manufacturing firm' hand-spun yarn
equal to 1200 warp and 1600 weft or to more than 204 and 272 m.
per ft respectively.
Bleaching. — A large proportion of the linen yarn of commerce
undergoes a more or less thorough bleaching before it is handed
over to the weaver. Linen yarns in the green condition contain
such a large proportion of gummy and resinous matter, removable
by bleaching, that cloths which might present a firm close
texture in their natural unbleached state would become thin and
impoverished in a perfectly bleached condition. Nevertheless,
in many cases it is much more satisfactory to weave the yarns
in the green or natural colour, and to perform all bleaching
operations in the piece. Manufacturers allow about 20 to 25%
of loss in weight of yarn in bleaching from the green to the
fully bleached stage; and the intermediate stages of boiled,
improved, duck, cream, half bleach and three-quarters bleach,
all indicating a certain degree of bleaching, have corresponding
LINEN-PRESS—LINER
727
degrees of loss in weight. The differences in colour resulting
from different degrees of bleaching are taken advantage of for
producing patterns in certain classes of linen fabrics.
Linen thread is prepared from the various counts of fine
bleached line yarn by winding the hanks on large spools, and
twisting the various strands, two, three, four or six cord as the
case may be, on a doubling spindle similar in principle to the yarn
spinning frame, excepting, of course, the drawing rollers. A
large trade in linen thread has been created by its use in the
machine manufacture of boots and shoes, saddlery and other
leather goods, and in heavy sewing-machine work generally.
The thread industry is largely developed at Lisburn near Belfast,
at Johnstone near Glasgow, Bridport, Dorsetshire, and at
Paterson, New Jersey, United States. Fine cords, net twine
and ropes are also twisted from flax.
Weaving. — The difficulties in the way of power-loom linen
weaving, combined with the obstinate competition of hand-loom
weavers, delayed the introduction of factory weaving of linen
fabrics for many years after the system was fully applied to other
textiles. The principal difficulty arose through the hardness and
inelasticity of the linen yarns, owing to which the yarn frequently
broke under the tension to which it was subjected. Competition
with the hand-loom against the power-loom in certain classes of
work is conceivable, although it is absolutely impossible for the
work of the spinning wheel to stand against the rivalry of draw-
ing, roving and spinning frames. To the present day, in Ireland
especially, a great deal of fine weaving is done by hand-loom.
Warden states that power was applied on a small scale to the
weaving of canvas in London about 1812; that in 1821 power-
looms were started for weaving linen at Kirkcaldy, Scotland;
and that in 1824 Maberly & Co. of Aberdeen had two hundred
power-looms erected for linen manu-
facture. The power-loom has been in
uninterrupted use in the Broadford
factory, Aberdeen, which then be-
longed to Maberly & Co., down to the
present day, and that firm may be
credited with being the effective in-
troducers of power-loom weaving in
the linen trade.
The various operations connected
with linen weaving, such as winding,
warping, dressing, beaming and draw-
ing-in, do not differ in essential features
from the like processes in the case of
cotton weaving, &c., neither is there any significant modification
in the looms employed (see WEAVING). Dressing is a matter of
importance in the preparation of linen warps for beaming. It
consists in treating the spread yarn with flour or farina paste,
applied to it by flannel-covered rollers, the lowermost of which
revolves in a trough of paste. The paste is equalized on the
yarn by brushes, and dried by passing the web over steam-heated
cylinders before it is finally wound on the beam for weaving.
Linen fabrics are numerous in variety and widely different in
their qualities, appearance and applications, ranging from heavy
sail-cloth and rough sacking to the most delicate cambrics,
**• lawns and scrims. The heavier manufactures include as
a principal item sail-cloth, with canvas, tarpaulin, sacking and
carpeting. The principal seats of the manufacture of these linens are
Dundee, Arbroath, Forfar, Kirkcaldy, Aberdeen and Barnsley.
The medium weight linens, which are used for a great variety of
purposes, such as tent-making, towelling, covers, outer garments
for men, linings, upholstery work, &c., include duck, huckaback,
crash, tick, dowlas, osnaburg, low sheetings and low brown linens.
Plain bleached linens form a class by themselves, and include
principally the materials for shirts and collars and for bed sheets.
Under the head of twilled linens are included drills, diapers and
dimity for household use; and damasks for table linen, of which
two kinds are distinguished — single or five-leaf damask, and double
or eight-leaf damask, the pattern being formed by the intersection
of warp and weft yarns at intervals of five and eight threads of yarn
respectively. The fine linens are cambrics, lawns and handkerchiefs ;
and lastly, printed and dyed linen fabrics may be assigned to a
special though not important class. In a general way it may be
said regarding the British industry that the heavy linen trade centres
in Dundee; medium goods are made in most linen manufacturing
districts ; damasks are chiefly produced in Belfast, Dunfermline and
Perth; and the fine linen manufactures have their seat in Belfast
and the north of Ireland. Leeds and Barnsley are the centres of
the linen trade in England.
Linen fabrics have several advantages over cotton, resulting
principally from the microscopic structure and length of the flax
fibre. The cloth is much smoother and more lustrous than cotton
cloth; aijd, presenting a less " woolly " surface, it does not soil so
readily, nor absorb and retain moisture so freely, as the more spongy
cotton; and it is at once a cool, clean and healthful material for
bed-sheeting and clothing. Bleached linen, starched and dressed,
possesses that unequalled purity, gloss and smoothness which
make it alone the material suitable for shirt-fronts, collars and
wristbands; and the gossamer delicacy, yet strength, of the thread
it may be spun into fits it for the fine lace-making to which it is
devoted. Flax is a slightly heavier material than cotton, while
its strength is about double.
As regards the actual number of spindles and power-looms
engaged in linen manufacture, the following particulars are taken
from the report of the Flax Supply Association for 1905: —
Number of
Number of
Country.
Year.
Spindles
for Flax
Year.
Power-looms
for Linen
Spinning.
Weaving.
Austria-Hungary
1903
280,414
1895
3357
Belgium
1902
280,000
1900
3400
England and Wales
1905
49,941
1905
4424
France .
1902
455-838
1891
18,083
Germany
1902
295.796
1895
7557
Holland
1896
8000
1891
1200
Ireland
1905
851,388
1905
34.498
Italy .
1902
77,000
1902
3500
Norway
1880
1 20
Russia
1902
300,000
1889
7312
Scotland
1905
160,085
1905
17.185
Spain .
1876
IOOO
Sweden
1884
286
British Exports of Linen Yarn and Cloth.
1891.
1896.
1901.
1906.
Weight of linen yarn in pounds.
14.859.900
18,462,300
12,971,100
14,978,200
Length in yards of linen piece goods,
plain, bleached or unbleached
144,416,700
150,849,300
137,521,000
173.334.200
Length in yards of linen piece goods,
checked, dyed or printed, also
damask and diaper
11,807,600
17,986,100
8,007,600
13,372,100
Length in yards of sailcloth .
3,233,400
5,372,600
4,686,700
4,251,400
Total length in yards of all kinds of
linen cloth
159,457.700
174,208,000
150,215,300
190,957.700
Weight in pounds of linen thread for
sewing
2,474,100
2,240,300
1,721,000
2,181,100
AUTHORITIES. — History of the trade, &c. : Warden's Linen
Trade, Ancient and Modern, Spinning: Peter Sharp, Flax, Tow
and Jute Spinning (Dundee) ; H. R. Carter, Spinning and Twisting
of Long Vegetable Fibres (London). Weaving: Woodhouse and
Milne, Jute and Linen Weaving, part i., Mechanism, part ii., Calcula-
tions and Cloth Structure (Manchester); and Woodhouse and Milne,
Textile Design: Pure and Applied (London). (T. Wo.)
LINEN-PRESS, a contrivance, usually of oak, for pressing
sheets, table-napkins and other linen articles, resembling a
modern office copying-press. Linen presses were made chiefly
in the i>7th and i8th centuries, and are now chiefly interest-
ing as curiosities of antique furniture. Usually quite plain,
they were occasionally carved with characteristic Jacobean
designs.
LINER, or LINE OF BATTLE SHIP, the name formerly given
to a vessel considered large enough to take part in a naval battle.
The practice of distinguishing between vessels fit, and those not
fit, to " lie in a line of battle," arose towards the end of the
1 7th century. In the early i8th century all vessels of 50
guns and upwards were considered fit to lie in a line. After
the Seven Years' War (1756-63) the so-gun ships were
rejected as too small. When the great revolutionary wars
broke out the smallest line of battle ship was of 64 guns.
These also came to be considered as too small, and later the
line of battle-ships began with those of 74 guns. The term is
now replaced by "battleship"; "liner" being the colloquial
name given to the great passenger ships used on the main lines
of sea transport.
728
LING, P. H.— LINGAYAT
LING, PER HENRIK (1776-1839), Swedish medical-gymnastic
practitioner, son of a minister, was born at Ljunga in the south
of Sweden in 1776. He studied divinity, and took his degree
in 1 797 , but then went abroad for some years, first to Copenhagen,
where he taught modern languages, and then to Germany,
France and England. Pecuniary straits injured his health, and
he suffered much from rheumatism, but he had acquired mean-
while considerable proficiency in gymnastics and fencing. In
1804 he returned to Sweden, and established himself as a teacher
in these arts at Lund, being appointed in 1805 fencing-master
to the university. He found that his daily exercises had com-
pletely restored his bodily health, and his thoughts now turned
towards applying this experience for the benefit of others. He
attended the classes on anatomy and physiology, and went
through the entire curriculum for the training of a doctor; he
then elaborated a system of gymnastics, divided into four
'branches, (i) pedagogical, (2) medical, (3) military, (4) aesthetic,
which carried out his theories. After several attempts to interest
the Swedish government, Ling at last in ,1813 obtained their
co-operation, and the Royal Gymnastic Central Institute, for the
training of gymnastic instructors, was opened in Stockholm,
with himself as principal. The orthodox medical practitioners
were naturally opposed to the larger claims made by Ling and
his pupils respecting the cure of diseases — so far at least as
anything more than the occasional benefit of some form of skil-
fully applied " massage " was concerned; but the fact that in
1831 Ling was elected a member of the Swedish General Medical
Association shows that in his ownt country at all events his
methods were regarded as consistent with professional recog-
nition. Ling died in 1839, having previously named as the
repositories of his teaching his pupils Lars Gabriel Branting
(1799-1881), who succeeded him as principal of the Institute,
and Karl Augustus Georgii, who became sub-director; his son,
Hjalmar Ling (1820-1886), being for many years associated with
them. All these, together with Major Thure Brandt, who from
about 1 86 1 specialized in the treatment of women (gynecological
gymnastics), are regarded as the pioneers of Swedish medical
gymnastics.
It may be convenient to summarize here the later history of
Ling's system of medical gymnastics. A Gymnastic Orthopaedic
Institute at Stockholm was founded in 1822 by Dr Nils Akerman,
and after 1827 received a government grant; and Dr Gustaf
Zander elaborated a medico-mechanical system of gymnastics,
known by his name, about 1857, and started his Zander Institute
at Stockholm in 1865. At the Stockholm Gymnastic Central
Institute qualified medical men have supervised the medical
department since 1864; the course is three years (one year
for qualified doctors). Broadly speaking, there have been two
streams of development in the Swedish gymnastics founded on
Ling's beginnings — either in a conservative direction, making
certain forms of gymnastic exercises subsidiary to the prescrip-
tions of orthodox medical science, or else in an extremely
progressive direction, making these exercises a substitute for
any other treatment, and claiming them as a cure for disease
by themselves. Modern medical science recognizes fully the
importance of properly selected exercises in preserving the
body from many ailments; but the more extreme claim, which
rules out the use of drugs in disease altogether, has naturally
not been admitted. Modern professed disciples of Ling
are divided, the representative of the more extreme section
being Henrik Kellgren (b. 1837), who has a special school and
following.
Ling and his earlier assistants left no proper written account of
their treatment, and most of the literature on the subject is re-
pudiated by one set or other of the gymnastic practitioners. Dr
Anders Wide, M.D., of Stockholm, has published a Handbook of
Medical Gymnastics (English edition, 1899), representing the more
conservative practice. Henrik Kellgren's system, which, though
based on Ling's, admittedly goes beyond it, is described in The
Elements of Kellgren's Manual Treatment (1903), by Edgar F. Cyriax,
who before taking the M.D. degree at Edinburgh had passed out of
the Stockholm Institute as a gymnastic director," See also the
encyclopaedic work on Sweden: its People and Industry (1904),
p. 348, edited by G. Sundbarg for the Swedish government.
LING1 (Molva vulgaris), a fish of the family Gadidae, which is
readily recognized by its long body, two dorsal fins (of which the
anterior is much shorter than the posterior), single long anal
fin, separate caudal fin, a barbel on the chin and large teeth in
the lower jaw and on the palate. Its usual length is from 3 to
4 ft., but individuals of 5 or 6 ft. in length, and some 70 ft in
weight, have been taken. The ling is found in the North Atlantic,
from Spitzbergen and Iceland southwards to the coast of Portugal.
Its proper home is the North Sea, especially on the coasts of
Norway, Denmark, Great Britain and Ireland, it occurs in great
abundance, generally at some distance from the land, in depths
varying between 50 and 100 fathoms. During the winter months
it approaches the shores, when great numbers are caught by means
of long lines. On the American side of the Atlantic it is less
common, although generally distributed along the south coast
of Greenland and on the banks of Newfoundland. Ling is one
of the most valuable species of the cod-fish family; a certain
number are consumed fresh, but by far the greater portion are
prepared for exportation to various countries (Germany, Spain,
Italy). They are either salted and sold as " salt-fish," or split
from head to tail and dried, forming, with similarly prepared
cod and coal-fish, the article of which during Lent immense
quantities are consumed in Germany and elsewhere under the
name of " stock-fish." The oil is frequently extracted from the
liver and used by the poorer classes of the coast population for
the lamp or as medicine.
LINGARD, JOHN (1771-1851), English historian, was born on
the 5th of February 1771 at Winchester, where his father, of
an ancient Lincolnshire peasant stock, had established himself
as a carpenter. The boy's talents attracted attention, and in
1782 he was sent to the English college at Douai, where he
continued until shortly after the declaration of war by England
(1793). He then lived as tutor in the family of Lord Stourton,
but in October 1794 he settled along with seven other former
members of the old Douai college at Crook Hall near Durham,
where on the completion of his theological course he became vice-
president of the reorganized seminary. In 1795 he was ordained
priest, and soon afterwards undertook the charge of the chains of
natural and moral philosophy. In 1808 he accompanied the
community of Crook Hall to the new college at Ushaw, Durham,
but in 1811, after declining the presidency of the college at*
Maynooth, he withdrew to the secluded mission at Hornby in
Lancashire, where for the rest of his life he devoted himself to
literary pursuits. In 1817 he visited Rome, where he made
researches in the Vatican' Library. In 1821 Pope Pius VII.
created him doctor of divinity and of canon and civil law; and
in 1825 Leo XII. is said to have made him cardinal in petto. He
died at Hornby on the i7th of July 1851.
Lingard wrote The Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church (1806),
of which a third and greatly enlarged addition appeared in 1845
under the title The History and Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon
Church; containing an account of its origin, government, doctrines,
worship, revenues, and clerical^ and monastic institutions; but the
work with which his name is chiefly associated is A History of
England, from the first invasion by the Romans to the commencement of
the reign of William III., which appeared originally in 8 vols. at
intervals between 1819 and 1830. Three successive subsequent
editions had the benefit of extensive revision by the author; a
fifth edition in 10 vpls. 8vo appeared in 1849, and a sixth, with life
of the author by Tierney prefixed to vol. x., in 1854-1855. Soon
after its appearance it was translated into French, German and
Italian. It is a work of ability and research; and, though Cardinal
Wiseman's claim for its author that he was " the only impartial
historian of our country" may be disregarded, the book remains
interesting as representing the view taken of certain events in
English history by a devout, but able and learned, Roman Catholic
in the earlier part of the igth century.
LINGAYAT (from linga, the emblem of Siva), the name of a
peculiar sect of Siva worshippers in southern India, who call
themselves Vira-Saivas (see HINDUISM). They carry on the
person a stone linga (phallus) in a silver casket. The founder of
1 As the name of the fish, " ling " is found in other Teut. languages;
cf. Dutch and Ger. Leng, Norw. langa, &c. It is generally connected
in origin with " long," from the length of its body. As the name
of the common heather, Calluna vulgaris (see HEATH) the word is
Scandinavian; cf. Dutch and Dan. lyng, Swed. ljung.
LINGAYEN— LINGUET
729
the sect is said to have been Basava, a Brahman prime minister
of a Jain king in the izth century. The Lingayats are specially
numerous in the Kanarese country, and to them the Kanarese
language owes its cultivation as literature. Their priests are
called Jangamas. In 1901 the total number of Lingayats in all
India was returned as more than 25 millions, mostly in Mysore
and the adjoining districts of Bombay, Madras and Hyderabad.
LINGAYEN, a town and the capital of the province of Pan-
gasinan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, about no m. N. by W. of
Manila, on the S. shore of the Gulf of Lingayen, and on a low
and fertile island in the delta of the Agno river. Pop. (1903)
21,529. It has good government buildings, a fine church and
plaza, the provincial high school and a girls' school conducted
by Spanish Dominican friars. The climate is cool and healthy.
The chief industries are the cultivation -of rice (the most im-
portant crop of the surrounding country), fishing and the making
of nipa-wine from the juice of the nipa palm, which grows
abundantly in the neighbouring swamps. The principal language
is Pangasinan; Ilocano is also spoken.
LINGEN, RALPH ROBERT WHEELER LINGEN, BARON
(1810-1905), English civil servant, was born in February 1819 at
Birmingham, where his father, who came of an old Hertfordshire
family, with Royalist traditions, was in business. He became a
scholar of Trinity College, Oxford, in 1837; won the Ireland
(1838) and Hertford (1839) scholarships; and after taking a
first-class in Liter ae Humaniores (1840), was elected a fellow of
Balliol (1841). He subsequently won the Chancellor's Latin
Essay (1843) and the Eldon Law scholarship (1846). After taking
his degree in 1840, he became a student of Lincoln's Inn, and was
called to the bar in 1847; but instead of practising as a barrister,
he accepted an appointment in the Education Office, and after a
short period was chosen in 1849 to succeed Sir J. Kay Shuttle-
worth as its secretary or chief permanent official. He retained
this position till 1869. The Education Office of that day had to
administer a somewhat chaotic system of government grants to
local schools, and Lingen was conspicuous for his fearless dis-
crimination and rigid economy, qualities which characterized
his whole career. When Robert Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke) became,
as vice-president of the council, his parliamentary chief, Lingen
worked congenially with him in producing the Revised Code of
1862 which incorporated " payment by results "; but the
education department encountered adverse criticism, and in
1864 the vote of censure in parliament which caused Lowe's
resignation, founded (but erroneously) on an alleged " editing "
of the school inspectors' reports, was inspired by a certain
antagonism to Lingen's as well as to Lowe's methods. Shortly
before the introduction of Forster's Education Act of 1870, he
was transferred to the post of permanent secretary of the
treasury. In this office, which he held till 1885, he proved a
most efficient guardian of the public purse, and he was a tower
of strength to successive chancellors of the exchequer. It used
to be said that the best recommendation for a secretary of the
treasury was to be able to say " No " so disagreeably that
nobody would court a repetition. Lingen was at all events a
most successful resister of importunate claims, and his un-
doubted talents as a financier were most prominently displayed
in the direction of parsimony. In 1885 he retired. He had
been made a C.B. in 1869 and a K.C.B. in 1878, and on his retire-
ment he was created Baron Lingen. In 1889 he was made one
of the first aldermen of the new London County Council, but
he resigned in 1892. He died on the 22nd of Juty 1905. He
had married in 1852, but left no issue.
LINGEN, a town in 'the Prussian province of Hanover, on the
Ems canal, 43 m. N.N.W. of Munster by rail. Pop. 7500. It has
iron foundries, machinery factories, railway workshops and a
considerable trade in cattle, and among its other industries are
weaving and malting and the manufacture of cloth. Lingen was
the seat of a university from 1685 to 1819.
The county of Lingen, of which this town was the capital, was
united in the middle ages with the county of Treklenburg. In
1508, however, it was separated from this and was divided into
an upper and a lower county, but the two were united in 1541.
A little later Lingen was sold to the emperor Charles V., from
whom it passed to his son, Philip II. of Spain, who ceded it
in 1597 to Maurice, prince of Orange. After the death of the
English king, William III., in 1702, it passed to Frederick I.,
king of Prussia, and in 1815 the lower county was transferred to
Hanover, only to be united again with Prussia in 1866.
See Moller, Geschichte der vormaligen Grafschaft Linden (Lingen,
1874); Herrmann, Die Erwerbung der Stadt und Grafschaft Lingen
durch die Krone Preussen (Lingen, 1902) ; and Schriever, Geschichte
des Kreiges Lingen (Lingen, 1905).
LINGUET, SIMON NICHOLAS HENRI (1736-1794), French
journalist and advocate, was born on the i4th of July 1736,
at Reims, whither his father, the assistant principal in the
College de Beauvais of Paris, had recently been exiled by lettre
de cachet for engaging in the Jansenist controversy. He attended
the College de Beauvais and won the three highest prizes there
in 1751. He accompanied the count palatine of Zweibriicken
to Poland, and on his return to Paris he devoted himself to
writing. He published partial French translations of Calderon
and Lope de Vega, and wrote parodies for the Opera Comique
and pamphlets in favour of the Jesuits. Received at first in
the ranks of the philosophes, he soon went over to their opponents,
possibly more from contempt than from conviction, the immediate
occasion for his change being a quarrel with d'Alembert in 1762.
Thenceforth he violently attacked whatever was considered
modern and enlightened, and while he delighted society with
his numerous sensational pamphlets, he aroused the fear and
hatred of his opponents by his stinging wit. He was admitted
to the bar in 1764, and soon became one of the most famous
pleaders of his century. But in spite of his brilliant ability
and his record of having lost but two cases, the bitter attacks
which he directed against his fellow advocates, especially against
Gerbier (1725-1788), caused his dismissal from the bar in 1775.
He then turned to journalism and began the Journal de politique
et de litterature, which he employed for two years in literary,
philosophical and legal criticisms. But a sarcastic article on
the French Academy compelled him to turn over the Journal
to La Harpe and seek refuge abroad. Linguet, however, con-
tinued his career of free lance, now attacking and now supporting
the government, in the Annales politiques, civttes et litteraires,
published from 1777 to 1792, first at London, then at Brussels
and finally at Paris. Attempting to return to France in 1780
he was arrested for a caustic attack on the due de Duras (1715-
1789), an academician and marshal of France, and imprisoned
nearly two years in the Bastille. He then went to London,
and thence to Brussels, where, for his support of the reforms
of Joseph II., he was ennobled and granted an honorarium of
one thousand ducats. In 1786 he was permitted by Vergennes
to return to France as an Austrian counsellor of state, and to
sue the due d'Aiguillon (1730-1798), the former minister of
Louis XV., for fees due him for legal services rendered some
fifteen years earlier. He obtained judgment to the amount of
24,000 livres. Linguet received the support of Marie Antoinette;
his fame at the time surpassed that of his rival Beaumarchais,
and almost excelled that of Voltaire. Shortly afterwards he
visited the emperor at Vienna to plead the case of Van der
Noot and the rebels of Brabant. During the early years of the
Revolution he issued several pamphlets against Mirabeau,
who returned his ill-will with interest, calling him " the ignorant
and bombastic M. Linguet, advocate of Neros, sultans and
viziers." On his return to Paris in 1791 he defended the rights
of San Domingo before the National Assembly. His last work
was a defence of Louis XVI. He retired to Marnes near Ville
d'Avray to escape the Terror, but was sought out and summarily
condemned to death " for having flattered the despots of Vienna
and London." He was guillotined at Paris on the 27th of June
1794.
Linguet was a prolific writer in many fields. Examples of his
attempted historical writing are Histoire du siecle d'Alexandre le
Grand (Amsterdam, 1762), and Histoire impartiale des Jesuites
(Madrid, 1768), the latter condemned to be burned. His opposition
to 'the philosophes had its strongest expressions in Fanatisme des
philosophes (Geneva and Paris, 1764) and Histoire des revolutions de
730
LINK— LINLITHGOW, MARQUESS OF
I'empire remain (Paris, 1766-1768). His Theorie des lois civiles
(London, 1767) is a vigorous defence of absolutism and attack on
the politics of Montesquieu. His best legal treatise is Memoire pour
le comte de Morangies (Paris, 1772); Linguet's imprisonment in the
Bastille afforded him the opportunity of writing his Memoires sur la
Bastille, first published in London in 1789; it has been translated
into English (Dublin, 1783, and Edinburgh, 1884-1887), and is the
best of his works, though untrustworthy.
See A. Deverite, Notice pour seroir a I'histoire de la vie et des
ecrits de S. N. H. Linguet (Liege, 1782); Gardoz, Essai historique sur
la vie et les ouvrages de Linguet (Lyon, 1808) ; J. F. Barriere, Memoire
de Linguet et de Latude (Paris, 1884) ; Ch. Monselet, Les Oublies et les
dedaignes (Paris, 1885), pp. 1-41; H. Monin, " Notice sur Linguet,"
in the 1889 edition of Memoires sur la Bastille; J. Cruppi, Un avocat
journaliste au 18' siecle, Linguet (Paris, 1895) ; A. Philipp, Linguet,
ein Nationalokonom des XV III Jahrhunderts in seinen rechtlichen,
socialen und volksvrirtschaftlichen Anschauungen (Zurich, 1896);
A. Lichtenberger, Le Socialisme utopique (1898), pp. 77-131.
LINK, (i) (Of Scandinavian origin; cf. Swed. lank, Dan.
laenke; cognate with " flank," and Ger. Gelenk, joint), one of
the loops of which a chain is composed; used as a measure of
length in surveying, being 1-^j th part of a "chain." In Gunter's
chain, a "link"= 7-92 in.; the chain used by American
engineers consists of 100 links of a foot each in length (for " link
work " and " link motions " see MECHANICS: § Applied, and
STEAM ENGINE). The term is also applied to anything used for
connecting or binding together, metaphorically or absolutely.
(2) (O. Eng. Mine, possibly from the root which appears in " to
lean "), a bank or ridge of rising ground; in Scots dialect, in
the plural, applied to the ground bordering on the sea-shore,
characterized by sand and coarse grass; hence a course for
playing golf. (3) A torch made of pitch or tow formerly carried
in the streets to light passengers, by men or boys called " link-
boys " who plied for hire with them. Iron link-stands supporting
a ring in which the link might be placed may still be seen at
the doorways of old London houses. The word is of doubtful
origin. It has been referred to a Med. Lat. lichinus, which
occurs in the form linchinus (see Du Cange, Glossarium) ; this,
according to a isth-century glossary, meant a wick or match.
It is an adaptation of Gr. \vxvos, lamp. Another suggestion
connects it with a supposed derivation of " linstock," from " lint."
The New English Dictionary thinks the likeliest suggestion is
to identify the word with the " link " of a chain. The tow and
pitch may have been manufactured in lengths, and then cut
into sections or " links."
LINKOPING, a city of Sweden, the seat of a bishop, and chief
town of the district (Ian) of Ostergotland. Pop. (1900) 14,552.
It is situated in a fertile plain 142 m. by rail S.W. of Stockholm,
and communicates with Lake Roxen (| m. to the north) and the
Gota and Kinda canals by means of the navigable Stingi.
The cathedral (1150-1499), a Romanesque building with a
beautiful south portal and a Gothic choir, is, next to the cathedral
of Upsala, the largest church in Sweden. It contains an altar-
piece by Martin Heemskerck (d. 1574), which is said to have
been bought by John II. for twelve hundred measures of wheat.
In the church of St Lars are some paintings by Per Horberg
(1746-1816), the Swedish peasant artist. Other buildings of
note are the massive episcopal palace (1470-1500), afterwards
a royal palace, and the old gymnasium founded by Gustavus
Adolphus in 1627, which contains the valuable library of old
books and manuscripts belonging to the diocese and state college,
and collection of coins and antiquities. There is also the
Ostergotland Museum, with an art collection. The town has
manufactures of tobacco, cloth and hosiery. It is the head-
quarters of the second army division.
Linkoping early became a place of mark, and was already a
bishop's see in 1082. It was at a council held in the town in
1153 that the payment of Peter's pence was agreed to at the
instigation of Nicholas Breakspeare, afterwards Adrian IV.
The coronation of Birger Jarlsson Valdemar took place in the
cathedral in 1251; and in the reign of Gustavus Vasa several
important diets were held in the town. At St3.ngS.bro (Stanga
Bridge), close by, an obelisk (1898) commemorates the battle of
Stangabro (1598), when Duke Charles (Protestant) defeated
the Roman Catholic Sigismund. A circle of stones in the Iron
Market of Linkoping marks the spot where Sigismund's adherents
were beheaded in 1600.
LINLEY, THOMAS (1732-1795), English musician, was born
at Wells, Somerset, and studied music at Bath, where he settled
as a singing-master and conductor of the concerts. From 1774
he was engaged in the management at Drury Lane theatre,
London, composing or compiling the music of many of the pieces
produced there, besides songs and madrigals, which rank high
among English compositions. He died in London on the igth
of November 1795. His eldest son THOMAS (1756-1778) was a
remarkable violinist, and also a composer, who assisted his father;
and he became a warm friend of Mozart. His works, with some
of his father's, were published in two volumes, and these contain
some lovely madrigals and songs. Another son, WILLIAM
(1771-1835), who held a writersbip at Madras, was devoted to
literature and music and composed glees and songs. Three
daughters were similarly gifted, and were remarkable both for
singing and beauty; the eldest of them ELIZABETH ANN
(1754-1792), married Richard Brinsley Sheridan in 1773, and
thus linked the fortunes of her family with his career.
LINLITHGOW, JOHN ADRIAN LOUIS HOPE, IST MARQUESS
OF (1860-1908), British administrator, was the son of the 6th earl
of Hopetoun. The Hope family traced their descent to John de
Hope, who accompanied James V.'s queen Madeleine of Valois
from France to Scotland in 1537, and of whose great-grand-
children Sir Thomas Hope (d. 1646), lord advocate of Scotland,
was ancestor of the earls of Hopetoun, while Henry Hope settled
in Amsterdam, and was the ancestor of the famous Dutch
bankers of that name, and of the later Hopes of Bedgebury,
Kent. Sir Thomas's son, Sir James Hope of Hopetoun (1614-
1661), Scottish lord of session, was grandfather of Charles, ist
earl of Hopetoun in the Scots peerage (1681-1742), who was
created earl in 1703; and his grandson, the 3rd earl, was in 1809
made a baron of the United Kingdom. John, the 4th earl (1765-
1823), brother of the 3rd earl, was a distinguished soldier, who
for his services in the Peninsular War was created Baron Niddry
in 1814 before succeeding to the earldom. The marquessate of
Linlithgow was bestowed on the 7th earl of Hopetoun in 1902, in
recognition of his success as first governor (1900-1902) of the
commonwealth of Australia; he died on the ist of March 1908,
being succeeded as 2nd marquess by his eldest son (b. 1887).
An earldom of Linlithgow was in existence from 1600 to 1716,
this being held by the Livingstones, a Scottish family descended
from Sir William Livingstone. Sir William obtained the barony of
Callendar in 1346, and his descendant, Sir Alexander Livingstone
(d. c. 1450), and other members of this family were specially pro-
minent during the minority of King James II. Alexander Living-
stone, 7th Lord Livingstone (d. 1623), the eldest son of William,
the 6th lord (d. c. 1580), a supporter of Mary, queen of Scots, was a
leading Scottish noble during the reign of James VI. and was created
earl of Linlithgow in 1600. Alexander's grandson, George, 3rd earl
of Linlithgow (1616-1690), and the latter s son, George, the 4th earl
(c. 1652-1695), were both engaged against the Covenanters during
the reign of Charles II. When the 4th earl died without sons in
August 1695 the earldom passed to his nephew, James Livingstone,
4th earl of Callendar. James, who then became the 5th earl of
Linlithgow, joined the Stuart rising in 1715; in 1716 he was
attainted, being thus deprived of all his honours, and he died
without sons in Rome in April 1723.
The earldom of Callendar, which was thus united with that of
Linlithgow, was bestowed in 1641 upon James Livingstone, the third
son of the ist earl of Linlithgow. Having seen military service in
Germany and the Netherlands, James was created Lord Livingstone
of Almond in 1633 by Charles I., and eight years later the king
wished to make him lord high treasurer of Scotland. Before this,
however, Almond Ifed acted with the Covenanters, and during the
short war between England and Scotland in 1640 he served under
General Alexander Leslie, afterwards earl of Leven. But the trust
reposed in him by the Covenanters did not prevent him in 1640
from signing the " band of Cumbernauld," an association for defence
against Argyll, or from being in some way mixed up with the
" Incident, a plot for the seizure of the Covenanting leaders,
Hamilton and Argyll. In 1641 Almond became an earl, and,
having declined the offer of a high position in the army raised by
Charles I., he led a division of the Scottish forces into England in
1644 and helped Leven to capture Newcastle. In 1645 Callendar,
who often imagined himself slighted, left the army, and in 1647 he
was one of the promoters of the " engagement " for the release of
the king. In 1648, when the Scots marched into England, he served
LINLITHGOW— LINLITHGOWSHIRE
as lieutenant-general under the duke of Hamilton, but the duke
found him as difficult to work with as Leven had done previously,
and his advice was mainly responsible for the defeat at Preston.
After this battle he escaped to Holland. In 1650 he was allowed to
return to Scotland, but in 1654 his estates were seized and he was
imprisoned; he came into prominence once more at the Restoration.
Callendar died on March 1674, leaving no children, and, according
to a special remainder, he was succeeded in the earldom by his
nephew Alexander (d. 1685), the second son of the and earl of
LinlithgJw; and he again was succeeded by his nephew Alexander
(d. 1692), the second son of the 3rd earl of Linlithgow. The 3rd
earl's son, James, the 4th earl, then became 5th earl of Linlithgow
(see supra).
LINLITHGOW, a royal, municipal and police burgh and
county town of Linlithgowshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 4279.
It lies in a valley on the south side of a loch, 1 7 J m. W. of Edin-
burgh by the . North British railway. It long preserved an
antique and picturesque appearance, with gardens running
down to the lake, or climbing the lower slopes of the rising
ground, but in the ipth century much of it was rebuilt. About
4 m. S. by W. lies the old village of Torphichen (pop. 540),
where the Knights of St John of Jerusalem had their chief
Scottish preceptory. The parish kirk is built on the site of the
nave of the church of the establishment, but the ruins of the
transept and of part of the choir still exist. Linlithgow belongs
to the Falkirk district group of parliamentary burghs with
Falkirk, Airdrie, Hamilton and Lanark. The industries include
shoe-making, tanning and currying, manufactures of paper, glue
and soap, and distilling. An old tower-like structure near the
railway station is traditionally regarded as a mansion of the
Knights Templar. Other public buildings are the first town
house (erected in 1668 and restored in 1848 after a fire) ; the town
hall, built in 1888; the county buildings and the burgh school,
dating from the pre-Reformation period. There are some fine
fountains. The Cross Well in front of the town house, a striking
piece of grotesque work carved in stone, originally built in the
reign of James V., was rebuilt in 1807. Another fountain is
surmounted by the figure of St Michael, the patron-saint of the
burgh. Linlithgow Palace is perhaps the finest ruin of its kind
in Scotland. Heavy but effective, the sombre walls rise above
the green knolls of the promontory which divides the lake into
two nearly equal portions. In plan it is almost square (168 ft. by
174 ft.), enclosing a court (91 ft. by 88 ft.), in the centre of which
stands the ruined fountain of which an exquisite copy was erected
in front of Holyrood Palace by the Prince Consort. At each
corner there is a tower with an internal spiral staircase, that of
the north-west angle being crowned by a little octagonal turret
known as " Queen Margaret's Bower," from the tradition that
it was there that the consort of James IV. watched and waited
for his return from Flodden. The west side, whose massive
masonry, hardly broken by a single window, is supposed to date
in part from the time of James III., who later took refuge in one
of its vaults from his disloyal nobles; but the larger part of the
south and east side belongs to the period of James V., about
1535; and the north side was rebuilt in 1619-1620 by James VI.
Of James V.'s portion, architecturally the richest, the main
apartments are the Lyon chamber or parliament hall and the
chapel royal. The grand entrance, approached by a drawbridge,
was on the east side; above the gateway are still some weather-
worn remains of rich allegorical designs. The palace was reduced
to ruins by General Hawley's dragoons, who set fire to it in 1746.
Government grants have stayed further dilapidation. A few
yards to the south of the palace is the church of St Michael, a
Gothic (Scottish Decorated) building (180 ft. long internally
excluding the apse, by 62 ft. in breadth excluding the transepts),
probably founded by David I. in 1 242, but mainly built by George
Crichton, bishop of Dunkeld (1528-1536). The central west
front steeple was till 1821 topped by a crown like that of St
Giles', Edinburgh. The chief features of the church are the em-
battled and pinnacled tower, with the fine doorway below, the
nave, the north porch and the flamboyant window in the south
transept. The church contains some fine stained glass, including
a window to the memory of Sir Charles Wyville Thomson (1830-
1882), the naturalist, who was born in the parish.
Linlithgow (wrongly identified with the Roman Lindum) was
made a royal burgh by David I. Edward I. encamped here the
night before the battle «f Falkirk (1298), wintered here in 1301,
and next year built " a pele [castle] mekill and strong," which in
1313 was captured by the Scots through the assistance of William
Bunnock, or Binning, and his hay-cart. In 1369 the customs of
Linlithgow yielded more than those of any other town in Scotland,
except Edinburgh; and the burgh was taken with Lanark to
supply the place of Berwick and Roxburgh in the court of
the Four Burghs (1368). Robert II. granted it a charter of
immunities in 1384. The palace became a favourite residence
of the kings of Scotland, and often formed part of the marriage
settlement of their consorts (Mary of Guelders, 1449; Margaret
of Denmark, 1468; Margaret of England, 1503). James V.
was born within its walls in 1512, and his daughter Mary on the
7th of December 1542. In 1570 the Regent Moray was assassin-
ated in the High Street by James Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh.
The university of Edinburgh took refuge at Linlithgow from
the plague in 1645-1646; in the same year the national parlia-
ment, which had often sat in the palace, was held there for the
last time. In 1661 the Covenant was publicly burned here, and
in 1745 Prince Charles Edward passed through the town. In
1859 the burgh was deprived by the House of Lords of its claim
to levy bridge toll and custom from the railway company.
LINLITHGOWSHIRE, or WEST LOTHIAN, a south-eastern
county of Scotland, bounded N. by the Firth of Forth, E. and
S.E. by Edinburghshire, S.W. by Lanarkshire and N.W. by
Stirlingshire. It has an area of 76,861 acres, or 120 sq. m.,
and a coast line of 17 m. The surface rises very gradually from
the Firth to the hilly district in the south. A few miles from
the Forth a valley stretches from east to west. Between the
county town and Bathgate are several hills, the chief being
Knock) (1017 ft.), Cairnpapple, or Cairnnaple (1000), Cocklerue
(said to be a corruption of Cuckold-le-Roi, 912), Riccarton Hills
(832) terminating eastwards in Binny Craig, a striking eminence
similar to those of Stirling and Edinburgh, Torphichen Hills
(777) and Bowden (749). In the coast district a few bold rocks
are found, such as Dalmeny, Dundas (well wooded and with
a precipitous front), the Binns and a rounded eminence of
559 ft. named Glower-o'er-'em or Bonnytoun, bearing on its
summit a monument to General Adrian Hope, who fell in the
Indian Mutiny. The river Almond, rising in Lanarkshire and
pursuing a north-easterly direction, enters the Firth at Cramond
after a course of 24 m., during a great part of which it forms
the boundary between West and Mid Lothian. Its right-hand
tributary, Breich Water, constitutes another portion of the
line dividing the same counties. The Avon, rising in the detached
portion of Dumbartonshire, flows eastwards across south Stir-
lingshire and then, following in the main a northerly direction,
passes the county town on the west and reaches the Firth about
midway between Grangemouth and Bo'ness, having served
as the boundary of Stirlingshire, during rather more than the
latter half of its course. The only loch is Linlithgow Lake (102
acres), immediately adjoining the county town on the north,
a favourite resort of curlers and skaters. It is 10 ft. deep at
the east end and 48 ft. at the west. Eels, perch and braise (a
species of roach) are abundant.
Geology. — The rocks of Linlithgowshire belong almost without
exception to the Carboniferous system. At the base is the Calci-
ferous Sandstone series, most of which lies between the Bathgate
Hills and the eastern boundary of the county. In this series are the
Queensferry limestone, the equivalent of the Burdiehouse limestone
of Edinburgh, and the Binny sandstone group with shales and clays
and the Houston coal bed. At more than one horizon in this series
oil shales are found. The Bathgate Hills are formed of basaltic
lavas and tuffs — an interbedded volcanic group possibly 2000 ft.
thick in the Calciferous Sandstone and Carboniferous Limestone
series. A peculiar serpentinous variety of the prevailing rock is
quarried at Blackburn for oven floors; it is known as " lakestone."
Binns Hill is the site of one of the volcanic cones of the period.
The Carboniferous Limestone series consists of an upper and lower
limestone group — including the Petershill, Index, Dykeneuk and
Craigenbuck limestones — and a middle group of shales, ironstones
and coals; the Smithy, Easter Main, Foul, Red and Splint coals
belong to this horizon. Above the Carboniferous Limestone the
732
LINNAEUS
Millstone grit series crops in a belt which may be traced from the
mouth of the Avon southwards to Whitburn. This is followed by
the true coal-measures with the Boghead or Torbanehill coal, the
Colinburn, Main, Ball, Mill and Upper Cannel or Shotts gas coals
of Armadale, Torbanehill and Fauldhouse.
Climate and Agriculture. — The average rainfall for the year is
29-9 in., and the average temperature 47-5° F. (January 38° F.;
July 59-5° F.). More than three-fourths of the county, the agri-
culture of which is highly developed, is under cultivation. The best
land is found along the coast, as at Carriden and Dalmeny. The
farming is mostly arable, permanent pasture being practically
stationary (at about 22,000 acres). Oats is the principal grain crop,
but barley and wheat are also cultivated. Farms between 100 and
too acres are the most common. Turnips and potatoes are the
leading green crops. Much land has been reclaimed; the parish
of Livingston, for example, which in the beginning of the 1 8th
century was covered with heath and juniper, is now under rotation.
In Torphichen and Bathgate, however, patches of peat moss and
swamp occur, and in the south there are extensive moors at Fauld-
house and Polkemmet. Live stock does not count for so much in
West Lothian as in other Scottish counties, though a considerable
number^of cattle are fattened and dairy farming is followed success-
fully, the fresh butter and milk finding a market in Edinburgh.
There is some sheep-farming, and horses and pigs are reared. The
wooded land occurs principally in the parks and " policies " sur-
rounding the many noblemen's mansions and private estates.
Other Industries. — The shale-oil trade flourishes at Bathgate,
Broxburn, Armadale, Uphall, Winchburgh, Philpstoun and Dalmeny.
There are important iron-works with blast furnaces at Bo'ness,
Kinneil, Whitburn and Bathgate, and coal is also largely mined at
these places. Coal-mining is supposed to have been followed since
Roman times, and the earliest document extant regarding coalpits
in Scotland is a charter granted about the end of the I2th century
to William Oldbridge of Carriden. Fire-clay is extensively worked
in connexion with the coal, and ironstone employs many hands.
Limestone, freestone and whinstone are all quarried. Binny free-
stone was used for the Royal Institution and the National Gallery
in Edinburgh, and many important buildings in Glasgow. Some
fishing is carried on from Queensferry, and Bo'ness is the principal
port.
Communications. — The North British Railway Company's line
from Edinburgh to Glasgow runs across the north of the county,
it controls the approaches to the Forth Bridge, and serves the rich
mineral district around Airdrie and Coatbridge in Lanarkshire via
Bathgate. The Caledonian Railway Company's line from Glasgow
to Edinburgh touches the extreme south of the shire. The Union
Canal, constructed in 1818-1822 to connect Edinburgh with the
Forth and Clyde Canal near Camelon in Stirlingshire, crosses the
county, roughly following the N.B.R. line to Falkirk. The Union
Canal, which is 31 m. long and belongs to the North British railway,
is carried across the Almond and Avon on aqueducts designed by
Thomas Telford, and near Falkirk is conveyed through a tunnel
2100 ft. long.
Population and Administration. — In 1891 the population
amounted to 52,808, and in 1901 to 65,708, showing an increase
of 24-43% in the decennial period, the highest of any Scottish
county for that decade, and a density of 547 persons to the
sq. m. In 1901 five persons spoke Gaelic only, and 575 Gaelic
and English. The chief towns, with populations in 1901, are
Bathgate .(7549), Borrowstounness (9306), Broxburn (7099)
and Linlithgow (4279). The shire returns one member to parlia-
ment. Linlithgowshire is part of the sheriffdom of the Lothian's
and Peebles, and a resident sheriff-substitute sits at Linlithgow
and Bathgate. The county is under school-board jurisdiction,
and there are academies at Linlithgow, Bathgate and Bo'ness.
The local authorities entrust the bulk of the " residue " grant
to the County Secondary Education Committee, which subsidizes
elementary technical classes (cookery, laundry and dairy)
and science and art and technological classes, including their
equipment.
History. — Traces of the Pictish inhabitants still exist. Near
Inveravon is an accumulation of shells — mostly oysters, which
have long ceased to be found so far up the Forth — considered
by geologists to be a natural bed, but pronounced by antiquaries
to be a kitchen midden. Stone cists have been discovered at
Carlowrie, Dalmeny, Newliston and elsewhere; on Cairnnaple
is a circular structure of remote but unknown date; and at
Kipps is a cromlech that was once surrounded by stones. The
wall of Antoninus lies for several miles in the shire. The
discovery of a fine legionary tablet at Bridgeness in 1868 is
held by some to be conclusive evidence that the great rampart
terminated at that point and not at Carriden. Roman camps
can be distinguished at several spots. On the hill of Bowden
is an earthwork, which J. Stuart Glennie and others connect
with the struggle of the ancient Britons against the Saxons
of Northumbria. The historical associations of the county
mainly cluster round the town of Linlithgow (<?.».). Kingscavil
(pop. 629) disputes with Stonehouse in Lanarkshire the honour
of being the birthplace of Patrick Hamilton, the martyj: (1504-
1528).
See Sir R. Sibbald, History of the Sheriffdoms of Linlithgow and
Stirlingshire (Edinburgh, 1710); G. Waldie, Walks along the Northern
Roman Wall (Linlithgow, 1883); R. J. H. Cunningham, Geology of
the Lothians (Edinburgh, 1838).
LINNAEUS, the name usually given to CARL VON LINNE
(1707-1778), Swedish botanist, who was born on the I3th of
May, O.S. (May 23, N.S.) 1707 at Rashult, in the province
of Smaland, Sweden, and was the eldest child of Nils Linnaeus
the comminister, afterwards pastor, of the parish, and Christina
Brodersonia, the daughter of the previous incumbent. In
1717 he was sent to the primary school at Wexio, and in 1724
he passed to the gymnasium. His interests were centred on
botany, and his progress in the studies considered necessary
for admission to holy orders, for which he was intended, was
so slight that in 1726 his father was recommended to apprentice
him to a tailor or shoemaker. He was saved from this fate
through Dr Rothman, a physician in the town, who expressed
the belief that he would yet distinguish himself in medicine
and natural history, and who further instructed him in physi-
ology. In 1727 he entered the university of Lund, but removed
in the following year to that of Upsala. There, through lack
of means, he had a hard struggle until, in 1729, he made the
acquaintance of Dr Olaf Celsius (1670-1756), professor of
theology, at that time working at his Hierobotanicon, which
saw the light nearly twenty years .later. Celsius, impressed
with Linnaeus's knowledge and botanical collections, and
finding him necessitous, offered him board and lodging.
During this period, he came upon a critique which ultimately
led to the establishment of his artificial system of plant classi-
fication. This was a review of Sebastien Vaillant's Sermo de
Structura Florum (Leiden, 1718), a thin quarto in French and
Latin; it set him upon examining the stamens and pistils of-
flowers, and, becoming convinced of the paramount importance
of these organs, he formed the idea of basing a system of arrange-
ment upon them. Another work by Wallin, Fd/uos <t>vruv, siiie
Nuptiae Arborum Dissertatio (Upsala, 1729), having fallen into
his hands, he drew up a short treatise on the sexes of plants,
which was placed in the hands of the younger Olaf Rudbeck
(1660-1740), the professor of botany in the university. In
the following year Rudbeck, whose advanced age compelled
him to lecture by deputy, appointed Linnaeus his adjunctus;
in the spring of 1730, therefore, the latter began his lectures.
The academic garden was entirely remodelled under his auspices,
and furnished with many rare species, In the preceding
year he had solicited appointment to the vacant post of gardener,
which was refused him on the ground of his capacity for better
things.
In 1732 he undertook to explore Lapland, at the cost of the
Academy of Sciences of Upsala; he traversed upwards of
4600 m., and the cost of the journey is given at 53oTx>pper dollars,
or about £25 sterling. His own account was published in
English by Sir J. E. Smith, under the title Lachesis Lapponica,
in 1811; the scientific results were published in his Flora '
Lapponica (Amsterdam, 1737). In 1733 Linnaeus was engaged
at Upsala in teaching the methods of assaying ores, but was
prevented from delivering lectures on botany for academic
reasons. At this juncture the governor of Dalecarlia invited
him to travel through his province, as he had done through
Lapland. Whilst on this journey, he lectured at Fahlun to
large audiences; and J. Browallius (1707-1755), the chaplain
there, afterwards bishop of Abo, strongly urged him to go abroad
and take his degree of M.D. at a foreign university, by which
means he could afterwards settle where he pleased. Accordingly
he left Sweden in 1735. Travelling by Lubeck and Hamburg,
LINNELL
733
he proceeded to Harderwijk, where he went through the requisite
examinations, and defended his thesis on the cause of intermittent
fever. His scanty funds were now nearly spent, but he passed
on through Haarlem to Leiden; there he called on Jan Fredrik
Gronovius (1690-1762), who, returning the visit, was shown
the Systema naturae in MS., and was so greatly astonished at
it that he sent it to press at his own expense. This famous
system, which, artificial as it was, substituted order for confusion,
largely made its way on account of the lucid and admirable laws,
and comments on them, which were issued almost at the same
time (see BOTANY). H. Boerhaave, whom Linnaeus saw after
waiting eight days for admission, recommended him to J. Burman
(1707-1780), the professor of botany at Amsterdam, with whom
he stayed a twelvemonth. While there he issued his Fundamenla
Botanica, an unassuming small octavo, which exercised immense
influence. For some time also he lived with the wealthy banker,
G. Clifford (1685-1750), who had a magnificent garden at
Hartecamp, near Haarlem.
In 1736 Linnaeus visited England. He was warmly recom-
mended by Boerhaave to Sir Hans Sloane, who seems to have
received him coldly. At Oxford Dr Thomas Shaw welcomed
him cordially; J. J. Dillenius, the professor of botany, was
cold at first, but afterwards changed completely, kept him
a month, and even offered to share the emoluments of the chair
with him. He saw Philip Miller (1691-1771), the Hortulanorum
Princeps, at Chelsea Physic Garden, and took some plants
thence to Clifford; but certain other stories which are current
about his visit to England are of very doubtful authenticity.
On his return to the Netherlands he completed the printing
of his Genera Planlarum, a volume which must be considered
the starting-point of modern systematic botany. During the
same year, 1737, he finished arranging Clifford's collection
of plants, living and dried, described in the Hortus Cliffortianus.
During the compilation he used to " amuse " himself with
drawing up the Critica Botanica, also printed in the Netherlands.
But this strenuous and unremitting labour told upon him; the
atmosphere of the Low Countries seemed to oppress him beyond
endurance; and, resisting all Clifford's entreaties to remain
with him, he started homewards, yet on the way he remained
a year at Leiden, and published his Classes Plantarum (1738).
He then visited Paris, where he saw Antoine and Bernard de
Jussieu, and finally sailed for Sweden from Rouen. In September
1738 he established himself as a physician in Stockholm, but,
being unknown as a medical man, no one at first cared to consult
him; by degrees, however, he found patients, was appointed
naval physician at Stockholm, with minor appointments, and in
June 1739 married Sara Moraea. In 1741 he was appointed to
the chair of medicine at Upsala, but soon exchanged it for that of
botany. In the same year, previous to this exchange, he travelled
through Oland and Gothland, by command of the state, publish-
ing his results in Oldndska och Gothlandska Resa (1745). The
index to this volume shows the first employment of specific
names in nomenclature.
Henceforward his time was taken up by teaching and the
preparation of other works. In 1745 he issued his Flora Suecica
and Fauna Suecica, the latter having occupied his attention
during fifteen years; afterwards, two volumes of observations
made during journeys in Sweden, Wiistgdta Resa (Stockholm,
1747), and Skanska Resa (Stockholm, 1751). In 1748 he brought
out his Hortus Upsaliensis, showing that he had added eleven
hundred species to those formerly in cultivation in that garden.
In 1750 his Philosophia Botanica was given to the world; it
consists of a commentary on the various axioms he had published
in 1735 in his Fundamenta Botanica, and was dictated to his
pupil P. Lofling (1729-1756), while the professor was confined
to his bed by an attack of gout. But the most important work
of this period was his Species Plantarum (Stockholm, 1753), in
which the specific names are fully set forth. In the same year
he was created knight of the Polar Star, the first time a scientific
man had been raised to that honour in Sweden. In 1755 he
was invited by the king of Spain to settle in that country, with
a liberal salary, and full liberty of conscience, but he declined
on the ground that whatever merits he possessed should be
devoted to his country's service, and Lofling was sent instead.
He was enabled now to purchase the estates of Safja and
Hammarby; at the latter he built his museum of stone, to
guard against loss by fire. His lectures at the university drew
men from all parts of the world; the normal number of students
at Upsala was five hundred, but while he occupied the chair
of botany there it rose to fifteen hundred. In 1761 he was
granted a patent of nobility, antedated to 1757, from which
time he was styled Carl von Linne. To his great delight the
tea-plant was introduced alive into Europe in 1763; in the
same year his surviving son Carl (1741-1783) was allowed to assist
his father in his professorial duties, and to be trained as his
successor. At the age of sixty his memory began to fail; an
apoplectic attack in 1774 greatly weakened him; two years
after he lost the use of his right side; and he died on the loth
of January 1778 at Upsala, in the cathedral of which he was
buried.
With Linnaeus arrangement seems to have been a passion; he
delighted in devising classifications, and not only did he systematize
the three kingdoms of nature, but even drew up a treatise on the
Genera Morborum. When he appeared upon the scene, new plants
and animals were in course of daily discovery in increasing numbers,
due to the increase of trading facilities; he _ devised schemes of
arrangement by which these acquisitions might be sorted pro-
visionally, until their natural affinities should have become clearer.
He made many mistakes ; but the honour due to him for having first
enunciated the principles for defining genera and species, and his
uniform use of specific names, is enduring. His style is terse and
laconic; he methodically treated of each organ in its proper turn,
and had a special term for each, the meaning of which did not vary.
The reader cannot doubt the author's intention; his sentences are
business-like and to the point. The omission of the *erb in his
descriptions was an innovation, and gave an abruptness to his
language which was foreign to the writing of his time; but it
probably by its succinctness added to the popularity of his works.
No modern naturalist has impressed his own character with greater
force upon his pupils than did Linnaeus. He imbued them with
his own intense acquisitiveness, reared them in an atmosphere of
enthusiasm, trained them to close and accurate observation, and
then despatched them to various parts of the globe.
His published works amount to more than one hundred and
eighty, including the Amoenitates Academicae, for which he provided
the material, revising them also for press; corrections in his hand-
writing may be seen in the Banksian and Linnean Society's libraries.
Many of his works were not published during his lifetime; those
which were are enumerated by Dr Richard Pulteney in his General
View of the Writings of Linnaeus ( 1 78 1 ) . His widow sold his collections
and books to Sir J. E. Smith, the first president of the Linnean
Society of London. When Smith died in 1828, a subscription was
raised to purchase the herbarium and library for the Society, whose
property they became. The manuscripts of many of Linnaeus's
publications, and the letters he received from his contemporaries,
also came into the possession of the Society. (B. D. J.)
LINNELL, JOHN (1792-1882), English painter, was born in
London on the i6th of June 1792. His father being a carver and
gilder, Linnell was early brought into contact with artists,
and when he was ten years old he was drawing and selling his
portraits in chalk and pencil. His first artistic instruction was
received from Benjamin West, and he spent a year in the house
of John Varley the water-colour painter, where he had William
Hunt and Mulready as fellow-pupils, and made the acquaintance
of Shelley, Godwin and other men of mark. In 1805 he was
admitted a student of the Royal Academy, where he obtained
medals for drawing, modelling and sculpture. He was also
trained as an engraver, and executed a transcript of Varley's
" Burial of Saul." In after life he frequently occupied himself
with the burin, publishing, in 1834, a series of outlines from
Michelangelo's frescoes in the Sistine chapel, and, in 1840,
superintending the issue of a selection of plates from the pictures
in Buckingham Palace, one of them, a Titian landscape, being
mezzotinted by himself. At first he supported himself mainly by
miniature painting, and by the execution of larger portraits,
such as the likenesses of Mulready, Whately, Peel and Carlyle.
Several of his portraits he engraved with his own hand in line
and mezzotint. He also painted many subjects like the " St John
Preaching," the " Covenant of Abraham," and the "Journey
to Emmaus," in which, while the landscape is usually prominent
the figures are yet of sufficient importance to supply the title
734
LINNET— LINSEED
of the work. But it is mainly in connexion with his paintings
of pure landscape that his name is known. His works commonly
deal with some scene of typical uneventful English landscape,
which is made impressive by a gorgeous effect of sunrise or sunset.
They are full of true poetic feeling, and are rich and glowing
in colour. Linnell was able to command very large prices for
his pictures, and about 1850 he purchased a property at Redhill,
Surrey, where he resided till his death on the 2oth of January
1882, painting with unabated power till within the last few years
of his life. His leisure was greatly occupied with a study of
the Scriptures in the original, and he published several pamphlets
and larger treatises of Biblical criticism. Linnell was one of
the best friends and kindest patrons of William Blake. He
gave him the two largest commissions he ever received for
single series of designs— £150 for drawings and engravings
of The Inventions to the Book of Job, and a like sum for those
illustrative of Dante.
LINNET, O. Eng. Linete and Linet-wige, whence seems to have
been corrupted the old Scottish " Lintquhit," and the modern
northern English "Lintwhite" — originally a somewhat generalized
bird's name, but latterly specialized for the Fringilla cannabina
of Linnaeus, the Linola cannabina of recent ornithologists.
This is a common song-bird, frequenting almost the whole of
Europe south of lat. 64°, and in Asia extending to Turkestan.
It is known as a winter visitant to Egypt and Abyssinia, and
is abundant at all seasons in Barbary, as well as in the Canaries
and Madeira. Though the fondness of this species for the seeds
of flax (Linum) and hemp (Cannabis) has given it its common
name in so many European languages,1 it feeds largely, if not
chiefly in Britain on the seeds of plants of the order Compositae,
especially those growing on heaths and commons. As these
waste places have been gradually brought under the plough,
in England and Scotland particularly, the haunts and means
of subsistence of the linnet have been curtailed, and hence
its numbers have undergone a very visible diminution throughout
Great Britain. According to its sex, or the season of the year,
it is known as the red, grey or brown linnet, and by the earlier
English writers on birds, as well as in many localities at the
present time, these names have been held to distinguish at
least two species; but there is now no question among
ornithologists on this point, though the conditions under which
the bright crimson-red colouring of the breast and crown of
the cock's spring and summer plumage is donned and doffed
may still be open to discussion. Its intensity seems due,
however, in some degree at least, to the weathering of the brown
fringes of the feathers which hide the more brilliant hue, and
in the Atlantic islands examples are said to retain their gay
tints all the year round, while throughout Europe there is
scarcely a trace of them visible in autumn and winter; but,
beginning to appear in spring, they reach their greatest brilliancy
towards midsummer; they are never assumed by examples
in confinement. The linnet begins to breed in April, the nest
being generally placed in a bush at no great distance from the
ground. It is nearly always a neat structure composed of
fine twigs, roots or bents, and lined with wool or hair. The
eggs, often six in number, are of a very pale blue marked with
reddish or purplish brown. Two broods seem to be common
in the course of the season, and towards the end of summer the
birds— the young greatly preponderating in number — collect
in large flocks and move to the sea-coast, whence a large pro-
portion depart for more southern latitudes. Of these emigrants
some return the following spring, and are recognizable by the
more advanced state of their plumage, the effect presumably
of having wintered in countries enjoying a brighter and hotter
sun.
Nearly allied to the foregoing species is the twite, so named
from its ordinary call-note, or mountain-linnet, the Linota
flamrostris, or L. montium of ornithologists, which can be dis-
tinguished by its yellow bill, longer tail and reddish-tawny
throat. This bird never assumes any crimson on the crown or
breast, but the male has the rump at all times tinged more or
1 E.g. Fr. Linotte, Ger. Hanfling, Swed. Hampling.
less with that colour. In Great Britain in the breeding-season
it seems to affect exclusively hilly and moorland districts from
Herefordshire northward, in which it partly or wholly replaces
the common linnet, but is very much more local in its distribu-
tion, and, except in the British Islands and some parts of Scandi-
navia, it only appears as an irregular visitant in winter. At.
that season it may, however, be found in large flocks in the
low-lying countries, and as regards England even on the sea-
shore. In Asia it seems to be represented by a kindred form
L. brevirostris.
The redpolls form a little group placed by many authorities
in the genus Linota, to which they are unquestionably closely
allied, and, as stated elsewhere (see FINCH), the linnets seem
to be related to the birds of the genus Leucosticle, the species
of which inhabit the northern parts of North-West America
and of Asia. L. tephrocotis is generally of a chocolate colour,
tinged on some parts with pale crimson or pink, and has the
crown of the head silvery-grey. Another species, L. arctoa,
was formerly said to have occurred in North America, but its
proper home is in the Kurile Islands or Kamchatka. This has
no red in its plumage. The birds of the genus Leucosticte seem
to be more terrestrial in their habit than those of Linota, perhaps
from their having been chiefly observed where trees are scarce;
but it is possible that the mutual relationship of the two groups
is more apparent than real. Allied to Leucosticte is Monti-
fringilla, to which belongs the snow-finch of the Alps, M. nivalis,
often mistaken by travellers for the snow-bunting, Plectrophanes
nivalis. (A. N.)
LINSANG, the native name of one of the members of the
viverrine genus Linsanga. There are four species of the genus,
from the Indo-Malay countries. Linsangs are civet-like
creatures, with the body and tail greatly elongated; and the
ground colour fulvous marked with bold black patches, which
in one species (L. pardicolor) are oblong. In West Africa the
group is represented by the smaller and spotted Poiana richard-
soni which has a genet-like hind-foot. (See CARNIVORA.)
LINSEED, the seed of the common flax (q.v.) or lint, Linum
usitatissimum. These seeds, the linseed of commerce, are of
a lustrous brown colour externally, and a compressed and
elongated oval form, with a sh'ght beak or projection at one
extremity. The brown testa contains, in the outer of the four
coats into which it is microscopically distinguishable, an abundant
secretion of mucilaginous matter; and it has within it a thin
layer of albumen, enclosing a pair of large oily cotyledons.
The seeds when placed in water for some time become coated
with glutinous matter from the exudation of the mucilage in
the external layer of the epidermis; and by boiling in sixteen
parts of water they exude sufficient mucilage to form with the
water a thick pasty decoction. The cotyledons contain the
valuable linseed oil referred to below. Linseed grown in tropical
countries is much larger and more plump than that obtained
in temperate climes, but the seed from the colder countries
yields a finer quality of oil.
Linseed formed an article of food among the Greeks and
Romans, and it is said that the Abyssinians at the present day
eat it roasted. The oil is to some extent used as food in Russia
and in parts of Poland and Hungary. The still prevalent use of
linseed in poultices for open wounds is entirely to be reprobated.
It has now been abandoned by practitioners. The principal
objections to this use of linseed is that it specially favours the
growth of micro-organisms. There are numerous clean and
efficient substitutes which have all its supposed advantages
and none of its disadvantages. There are now no medicinal
uses of this substance. Linseed cake, the marc left after the
expression of the oil, is a most valuable feeding substance for
cattle.
Linseed is subject to extensive and detrimental adulterations,
resulting not only from careless harvesting and cleaning, whereby
seeds of the flax dodder, and other weeds and grasses are mixed
with it, but also from the direct admixture of cheaper and inferior
oil-seeds, such as wild rape, mustard, sesame, poppy, &c., the
latter adulterations being known in trade under the generic
LINSTOCK— LINTON, E. L.
735
name of " buffum." In 1864, owing to the serious aspect of
the prevalent adulteration, a union of traders was formed
under the name of the " Linseed Association." This body
samples all linseed oil arriving in England and reports on
its value.
Linseed oil, the most valuable drying oil, is obtained by expression
from the seeds, with or without the aid of heat. Preliminary to the
operation of pressing, the seeds are crushed and ground to a fine
meal. Cold pressing of the seeds yields a golden-yellow oil, which
is often used as an edible oil. Larger quantities are obtained by
heating the crushed seeds to 160° F. (71 C.), and then expressing
the oil. So obtained, it is somewhat turbid and yellowish-brown in
colour. On storing, moisture and mucilaginous matter gradually
settle out. After storing several years it is known commercially as
" tanked oil," and has a high value in varnish-making. The delay
attendant on this method of purification is avoided by treating the
crude oil with I to 2 % of a somewhat strong sulphuric acid, which
chars and carries down the bulk of the impurities. For the prepara-
tion of " artist's oil," the finest form of linseed oil, the refined oil is
placed in shallow trays covered with glass, and exposed to the
action of the sun's rays. Numerous other methods of purification,
some based on the oxidizing action of ozone, have been suggested.
The yield of oil from different classes of seed varies, but from 23 to
28% of the weight of the seed operated on should be obtained. A
good average quality of seed weighing about 392 Ib per quarter has
been found in practice to give out 109 Ib of oil.
Commercial linseed oil has a peculiar, rather disagreeable sharp
taste and smell; its specific gravity is given as varying from 0-928
to 0-953, and it solidifies at about —27°. By sappnification it yields
a number of fatty acids— palmitic, myristic, oleic, linolic, linolenic
and isolinolenic. Exposed to the air in thin films, linseed oil absorbs
oxygen and forms " linoxyn," a resinous semi-elastic, caoutchouc-
like mass, of uncertain composition. The oil, when boiled with
small proportions of litharge and minium, undergoes the process of
resinification in the air with greatly increased rapidity.
Its most important use is in the preparation of oil paints and
varnishes. By painters both raw and boiled oil are used, the latter
forming the principal medium in oil painting, and also serving
separately as the basis of all oil varnishes. Boiled oil is prepared in
a variety of ways — that most common being by heating the raw oil
in an iron or copper boiler, which, to allow for frothing, must only
be about three-fourths filled. The boiler is heated by a furnace,
and the oil is brought gradually to the point of ebullition, at which
it is maintained for two hours, during which time moisture is driven
off, and the scum and froth which accumulate on the surface are
ladled out. Then by slow degrees a proportion of " dryers " is
added— usually equal weights of litharge and minium being used to
the extent of 3% of the charge of oil; and with these a small
proportion of umber is generally thrown in. After the addition of
the dryers the boiling is continued two or three hours; the fire is
then suddenly withdrawn, and the oil is left covered up in the boiler
for ten hours or more. Before sending out, it is usually stored in
settling tanks for a few weeks, during which time the uncombined
dryers settle at the bottom as " foots." Besides the dryers already
mentioned, lead acetate, manganese borate, manganese dioxide,
zinc sulphate and other bodies are used.
Linseed oil is also the principal ingredient in printing and litho-
graphic inks. The oil for ink-making is prepared by heating it in
an iron pot up to the point where it either takes fire spontaneously
or can be ignited with any flaming substance. After the oil has
been allowed to burn for some time according to the consistence
of the varnish desired, the pot is covered over, and the product
when cooled forms a viscid tenacious substance which in its most
concentrated form may be drawn into threads. By boiling
this varnish with dilute nitric acid vapours of acrolein are given
off, and the substance gradually becomes a solid non-adhesive
mass the same as the ultimate oxidation product of both raw and
boiled oil.
Linseed oil is subject to various falsifications, chiefly through the
addition of cotton-seed, niger-seed and hemp-seed oils; and rosin
oil and mineral oils also are not infrequently added. Except by
smell, by change of specific gravity, and by deterioration of drying
properties, these adulterations are difficult to detect.
LINSTOCK (adapted from the Dutch lontstok, i.e. " match-
stick," from lont, a match, stok, a stick; the word is sometimes
erroneously spelled " lintstock " from a supposed derivation
from " lint " in the sense of tinder), a kind of torch made of a
stout stick a yard in length, with a fork at one end to hold a
lighted match, and a point at the other to stick in the ground.
" Linstocks " were used for discharging cannon in the early
days of artillery.
LINT (in M. Eng. linnet, probably through Fr. linette, from tin,
the flax-plant; cf. " line "), properly the flax-plant, now only
in Scots dialect; hence the application of such expressions as
" lint-haired," " lint white locks " to flaxen hair. It is also
the term applied to the flax when prepared for spinning, and
to the waste material left over which was used for tinder.
" Lint " is still the name given to a specially prepared material
for dressing wounds, made soft and fluffy by scraping or ravelling
linen cloth.
LINTEL (O. Fr. lintel, mod. linteau, from Late Lat. limitellum,
limes, boundary, confused in sense with limen, threshold; the
Latin name is supercilium, Ital. soprasogli, and Ger. Sturz), in
architecture, a horizontal piece of stone or timber over a door-
way or opening, provided to carry the superstructure. In order
to relieve the lintel from too great a pressure a " discharging
arch " is generally built over it.
LINTH, or LIMMAT, a river of Switzerland, one of the
tributaries of the Aar. It rises in the glaciers of the Todi range,
and has cut out a deep bed which forms the Grossthal that
comprises the greater portion of the canton of Glarus. A little
below the town of Glarus the river, keeping its northerly direction,
runs through the alluvial plain which it has formed, towards the
Walensee and the Lake of Zurich. But between the Lake of Zurich
and the Walensee the huge desolate alluvial plain grew ever in
size, while great damage was done by the river, which over-
flowed its bed and the dykes built to protect the region near it.
The Swiss diet decided in 1804 to undertake the " correction "
of this turbulent stream. The necessary works were begun in
1807 under the supervision of Hans Conrad Escher of Zurich
(1767-1823). The first portion of the undertaking was completed
in 1811, and received the name of the " Escher canal," the river
being thus diverted into the Walensee. The second portion,
known as the " Linth canal," regulated the course of the river
between the Walensee and the Lake of Zurich and was completed
in 1816. Many improvements and extra protective works were
carried out after 1816, and it was estimated that the total cost
of this great engineering undertaking from 1807 to 1902 amounted
to about £200,000, the date for the completion of the work being
1911. To commemorate the efforts of Escher, the Swiss diet in
1823 (after his death) decided that his male descendants should
bear the name of " Escher von der Linth." On issuing from the
Lake of Zurich the Linth alters its name to that of " Limmat,"
it does not appear wherefore, and, keeping the north-westerly
direction it had taken from the Walensee, joins the Aar a little
way below Brugg, and just below the junction of the Reuss
with the Aar. (W. A. B. C.)
LINTON, ELIZA LYNN (1822-1898), English novelist, daughter
of the Rev. J. Lynn, vicar of Crosthwaite, in Cumberland, was
born at Keswick on the loth of February 1822. She early
manifested great independence of character, and in great measure
educated herself from the stores of her father's library. Coming
to London about 1845 with a large stock of miscellaneous erudi-
tion, she turned this to account in her first novels, Azeth the
Egyptian (1846) and Amymone (1848), a romance of the days of
Pericles. Her next story, Realities, a tale of modern life (1851),
was not successful, and for several years she seemed to have
abandoned fiction. When, in 1865, she reappeared with Grasp
your Nettle, it was as an expert in a new style of novel-writing —
stirring, fluent, ably-constructed stories, retaining the attention
throughout, but affording little to reflect upon or to remember.
Measured by their immediate success, they gave her an honour-
able position among the writers of her day, and secure of an
audience, she continued to write with vigour nearly until her
death. Lizzie Lorton of Greyrigg (1866), Patricia Kemball (1874),
The Atonement of Learn Dundas (1877) are among the best
examples of this more mechanical side of her talent, to which
there were notable exceptions in Joshua Davidson (1872), a bold
but not irreverent adaptation of the story of the Carpenter
of Nazareth to that of the French Commune; and Christopher
Kirkland, a veiled autobiography (1885). Mrs Linton was a
practised and constant writer in the journals of the day; her
articles on the " Girl of the Period " in the Saturday Review
produced a great sensation, and she was a constant contributor
to the St James's Gazette, the Daily News and other leading news-
papers. Many of her detached essays have been collected. In
1858 she married W. J. Linton, the engraver, but the union was
LINTON, W. J.— LINUS
soon terminated by mutual consent; she nevertheless brought
up one of Mr Linton's daughters by a former marriage. A
few years before her death she retired to Malvern. She died in
London on the i4th of July 1898.
Her reminiscences appeared after her death under the title of
My Literary Life (1899) and her life has been written by G. S.
Layard (1901).
LINTON, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1897), English wood-
engraver, republican and author, was born in London. He was
educated at Stratford, and in his sixteenth year was apprenticed
to the wood-engraver G. W. Bonner. His earliest known work
is to be found in Martin and Westall's Pictorial Illustrations of the
Bible (1833). He rapidly rose to a place amongst the foremost
wood-engravers of the time. After working as a journeyman
engraver with two or three firms, losing his money over a cheap
political library called the " National," and writing a life of
Thomas Paine, he went into partnership (1842) with John Orrin
Smith. The firm was immediately employed on the Illustrated
London News, just then projected. The following year Orrin
Smith died, and Linton, who had married a sister of Thomas
Wade, editor of Bell's Weekly Messenger, found himself in sole
charge of a business upon which two families were dependent.
For years he had concerned himself with the social and European
political problems of the time, and was now actively engaged in
the republican propaganda. In 1844 he took a prominent part
in exposing the violation by the English post-office of Mazzini's
•correspondence. This led to a friendship with the Italian
revolutionist, and Linton threw himself with ardour into European
politics. He carried the first congratulatory address of English
workmen to the French Provisional Government in 1848. He
edited a twopenny weekly paper, The Cause of the People, pub-
lished in the Isle of Man, and he wrote political verses for the
Dublin Nation, signed " Spartacus." He helped to found the
" International League " of patriots, and, in 1850, with G. H.
Lewes and Thornton Hunt, started The Leader, an organ which,
however, did not satisfy his advanced republicanism, and from
which he soon withdrew. The same year he wrote a series of
articles propounding the views of Mazzini in The Red Republican.
In 1852 he took up his residence at Brantwood, which he after-
wards sold to John Ruskinj and from there issued The English
Republic, first in the form of weekly tracts and afterwards as a
monthly magazine — " a useful exponent of republican principles,
a faithful record of republican progress throughout the world;
an organ of propagandism and a medium of communication for
the active republicans in England." Most of the paper, which
never paid its way and was abandoned in 1855, was written by
himself. In 1852 he also printed for private circulation an
anonymous volume of poems entitled The Plaint of Freedom.
After the failure of his paper he returned to his proper work of
wood-engraving. In 1857 his wife died, and in the following year
he married Eliza Lynn (afterwards known as Mrs Lynn Linton)
and returned to London. In 1864 he retired to Brantwood, his
wife remaining in London. In 1867, pressed by financial diffi-
culties, he determined to try his fortune in America, and finally
separated from his wife, with whom, however, he always corre-
sponded affectionately. With his children he settled at Appledore,
New Haven, Connecticut, where he set up a printing-press. Here
he wrote Practical Hints on Wood- Engraving (1879), James
Watson, a Memoir of Chartist Times (1879), A History of Wood-
Engraving in America (1882), Wood- Engraving, a Manual of
Instruction (1884), The Masters of Wood-Engraving, for which,
he made two journeys to England (1890), The Life of Whittier
(1893), and Memories, an autobiography (1895). He died at
New Haven on the 29th of December 1897. Linton was a singu-
larly gifted man, who, in the words of his wife, if he had not
bitten the Dead Sea apple of impracticable politics, would have
risen higher in the world of both art and letters. As an engraver
on wood he reached the highest point of execution in his own line.
He carried on the tradition of Bewick, fought for intelligent as
against merely manipulative excellence in the use of the graver,
and championed the use of the " white line " as well as of the
black, believing with Ruskin that the former was the truer and
! more telling basis of aesthetic expression in the wood-block
printed upon paper.
See W. J. Linton, Memories; F. G. Kitton, article on " Linton"
in English Illustrated Magazine (April 1891); G. S. Layard, Life of
Mrs Lynn Linton (1901). (G. S. L.)
LINTOT, BARNABY BERNARD (1675-1736), English pub-
lisher, was born at Southwater, Sussex, on the ist of December
1675, and started business as a publisher in London about 1698.
He published for many of the leading writers of the day, notably
Vanbrugh, Steele, Gay and Pope. The latter's Rape of the Lock
in its original form was first published in Lintot's Miscellany,
and Lintot subsequently issued Pope's translation of the Iliad
and the joint translation of the Odyssey by Pope, Fenton and
Broome. Pope quarrelled with Lintot with regard to the supply
of free copies of the latter translation to the author's subscribers,
and in 1728 satirized the publisher in the Dunciad, and in 1735
in the Prologue to the Satires, though he does not appear to have
had any serious grievance. Lintot died on the 3rd of February
1736.
LINUS, one of the saints of the Gregorian canon, whose festival
is celebrated on the 23rd of September. All that can be said with
certainty about him is that his name appears at the head of all
the lists of the bishops of Rome. Irenaeus (Adv. Haer. iii. 3. 3)
identifies him with the Linus mentioned by St Paul in 2 Tim. iv.
21. According to the Liber Pontificalis, Linus suffered martyr-
dom, and was buried in the Vatican. In the I7th century an
inscription was found near the confession of St Peter, which was
believedito contain the name Linus; but it is not certain that
this epitaph has been read correctly or completely. The
apocryphal Latin account of the death of the apostles Peter and
Paul is falsely attributed to Linus.
See Acta Sanctorum, Septembris, vi. 539-545; C. de Smedt,
Dissertationes selectae in primam aetatem hist. eccl. pp. 300-312
(Ghent, 1876) ; L. Duchesne's edition of the Liber Pontificalis, i.
121 (Paris, 1886); R. A. Lipsius, Die apokryphen Appstelgeschichten,
ii. 85-96 (Brunswick, 1883-1890); J. B. de Rossi, Bullettino di
archeologia cristiana, p. 50 (1864). (H. DE.)
LINUS, one of a numerous class of heroic figures in Greek
legend, of which other examples are found in Hyacinthus and
Adonis. The connected legend is always of the same character:
a beautiful youth, fond of hunting and rural life, the favourite
of some god or goddess, suddenly perishes by a terrible death.
In many cases the religious background of the legend is preserved
by the annual ceremonial that commemorated it. At Argos
this religious character of the Linus myth was best preserved:
the secret child of Psamathe by the god Apollo, Linus is exposed,
nursed by sheep and torn in pieces by sheep-dogs. Every year
at the festival Amis or Cynophontis, the women of Argos mourned
for Linus and propitiated Apollo, who in revenge for his child's
death had sent a female monster (Poine), which tore the children
from their mothers' arms. Lambs were sacrificed, all dogs found
running loose were killed, and women and children raised a
lament for Linus and Psamathe (Pausanias i. 43. 7; Conon,
Narrat. 19). In the Theban version, Linus, the son of Amphi-
marus and the muse Urania, was a famous musician, inventor
of the Linus song, who was said to have been slain by Apollo,
because he had challenged him to a contest (Pausanias ix.
29. 6). A later story makes him the teacher of Heracles, by whom
he was killed because he had rebuked his pupil for stupidity
(Apollodorus ii. 4. 9). On Mount Helicon there was a grotto
containing his statue, to which sacrifice was offered every year
before the sacrifices to the Muses. From being the inventor of
musical methods, he was finally transformed by later writers
into a composer of prophecies and legends. He was also said to
have adapted the Phoenician letters introduced by Cadmus to
the Greek language. It is generally agreed that Linus and
Ailinus are of Semitic origin, derived from the words ai lanu
(woe to us), which formed the burden of the Adonis and similar
songs popular in the East. The Linus song is mentioned in
Homer; the tragedians often use the word atXivos as the refrain
in mournful songs, and Euripides calls the custom a Phrygian
one. Linus, originally the personification of the song of lamenta-
tion, becomes, like Adonis, Maneros, Narcissus, the representative
LINZ— LION
737
of the tender life of nature and of the vegetation destroyed by
the fiery heat of the dog-star.
The chief work on the subject is H. Brugsch, Die Adonisklage
und das Linoslied (1852); see also article in Roscher's Lexikon der
Mythologie; J. G. Frazer, Golden Bough (ii. 224, 253), where,
the identity of Linus with Adonis (possibly a corn-spirit) being
assumed, the lament is explained as the lamentation of the reapers
over the dead corn-spirit; W. Mannhardt, Wold- und Feldculte,
ii. 281.
LINZ, capital of the Austrian duchy and crownland of Upper
Austria, and see of a bishop, 117 m. W. of Vienna by rail. Pop.
(1900) 58,778. It lies on the right bank of the Danube and is
connected by an iron bridge, 308 yds. long, with the market-
town of Urfahr (pop. 12,827) on the opposite bank. Linz
possesses two cathedrals, one built in 1669-1682 in rococo style,
and another in early Gothic style, begunin 1862. IntheCapuchin
church is the tomb of Count Raimondo Montecucculi, who died
at Linz in 1680. The museum Francisco-Carolinum, founded
in 1833 and reconstructed in 1895, contains several important
collections relating to the history of Upper Austria. In the
Franz Josef-Platz stands a marble monument, known as Trinity
Column, erected by the emperor Charles VI. in 1723, com-
memorating the triple deliverance of Linz from war, fire, and
pestilence. The principal manufactories are of tobacco, boat-
building, agricultural implements, foundries and cloth factories.
Being an important railway junction and a port of the Danube,
Linz has a very active transit trade.
Linz is believed to stand on the site of the Roman station
Lentia. The name of Linz appears in documents for the first
time in 799 and it received municipal rights in 1324. In 1490
it became the capital of the province above the Enns. It success-
fully resisted the attacks of the insurgent peasants under Stephen
Fadinger on the 2ist and 22nd of July 1626, but its suburbs
were laid in ashes. During the siege of Vienna in 1683, the castle
of Linz was the residence of Leopold I. In 1741, during the
War of the Austrian Succession, Linz was taken by the Bavarians,
but was recovered by the Austrians in the following year. The
bishopric was established in 1784.
See F. Krackowitzer, Die Donaustadt Linz (Linz, 1901).
LION (Lat. leo, leonis; Gr. \tuv). From the earliest historic
times few animals have been better known to man than the lion.
Its habitat made it familiar to all the races among whom human
civilization took its origin. The literature of the ancient Hebrews
abounds in allusions to the lion; and the almost incredible
numbers stated to have been provided for exhibition and destruc-
tion in the Roman amphitheatres (as many as six hundred on
a single occasion by Pompey, for example) show how abundant
these animals must have been within accessible distance of Rome.
Even within the historic period the geographical range of the
lion covered the whole of Africa, the south of Asia, including
Syria, Arabia, Asia Minor, Persia and the greater part of northern
and central India. Professor A. B. Meyer, director of the
zoological museum at Dresden, has published an article on the
alleged existence of the lion in historical times in Greece, a
translation of which appears in the Report of the Smithsonian
Institution for 1905. Meyer is of opinion that the writer of the
Iliad was probably acquainted with the lion, but this does not
prove its former existence in Greece. The accounts given by
Herodotus and Aristotle merely go to show that about 500 B.C.
lions existed in some part of eastern Europe. The Greek name
for the lion is very ancient, and this suggests, although by no
means demonstrates, that it refers to an animal indigenous to
the country. Although the evidence is not decisive, it seems
probable that lions did exist in Greece at the time of Herodotus;
and it is quite possible that the representation of a lion-chase
incised on a Mycenean dagger may have been taken from life.
In prehistoric times the lion was spread over the greater part
of Europe; and if, as is very probable, the so-called Felis
atrox be inseparable, its range also included the greater part of
North America.
At the present day the lion is found throughout Africa (save
in places where it has been exterminated by man) and in Meso-
potamia, Persia, and some parts of north-west India. According
xvi. 24
to Dr W. T. Blanford, lions are still numerous in the reedy
swamps, bordering the Tigris and Euphrates, and also occur on
the west flanks of the Zagros mountains and the oak-clad ranges
near Shiraz, to which they are attracted by the herds of swine
which feed on the acorns. The lion nowhere exists in the table-
land of Persia, nor is it found in Baluchistan. In India it is
confined to the province of Kathiawar in Gujerat, though
within the iQth century it extended through the north-west
parts of Hindustan, from Bahawalpur and Sind to at least the
Jumna (about Delhi) southward as far as^Khandesh, and in central
India through the Sagur and Narbuda territories, Bundelkund,
and as far east as Palamau. It was extirpated in Hariana
about 1824. One was killed at Rhyli, in the Dumaoh district,
Sagur and Narbuda territories, so late as in the cold season
of 1847-1848; and about the same time a few still remained
in the valley of the Sind river in Kotah, central India.
The variations in external characters which lions present,
especially in the colour and the amount of mane, as well as in
the general colour of the fur, indicate local races, to which
After a Drawing by Woll in Elliot's Monograph of the Fclidac.
FIG. i. — Lion and Lioness ( Felis leo).
special names have been given; the Indian lion being F. leo
gujralensis. It is noteworthy, however, that, according to Mr
F. C. Selous, in South Africa the black-maned lion and others
with yellow scanty manes are found, not only in the same locality,
but even among individuals of the same parentage.
The lion belongs to the genus Felis of Linnaeus (for the
characters and position of which see CARNIVORA), and differs,
from the tiger and leopard in its uniform colouring, and from
all the other Felidae in the hair of the top of the head, chin and
neck, as far back as the shoulder, being not only much longer,
but also differently disposed from the hair elsewhere, being
erect or directed forwards, and so constituting the characteristic
ornament called the mane. There is also a tuft of elongated
hairs at the end of the tail, one upon each elbow, and in most
lions a copious fringe along the middle line of the under surface
of the body, wanting, however, in some examples. These
characters are, however, peculiar to the adults of the male
sex; and even as regards coloration young lions show indications
of the darker stripes and mottlings so characteristic of the greater
number of the members of the genus. The usual colour of the
adult is yellowish-brown, but it may vary from a deep red or
chestnut brown to an almost silvery grey. The mane, as well
as the long hair of the other parts of the body, sometimes scarcely
differs from the general colour, but is usually darker and not
738
LION
unfrequently nearly black. The mane begins to grow when the
animal is about three years old, and is fully developed at five
or six.
In size the lion is only equalled or exceeded by the tiger among
existing Felidae; and though both species present great varia-
tions, the largest specimens of the latter appear to surpass
the largest lions. A full-sized South African lion, according to
Selous, measures slightly less than 10 ft. from nose to tip of tail,
following the curves of the body. Sir Cornwallis Harris gives
10 ft. 6 in., of which the tail occupies 3 ft. The lioness is about
a foot less.
The internal structure of the lion, except in slight details, re-
sembles that of other Felidae, the whole organization being that of
an animal adapted for an active, predaceous existence. The teeth
especially exemplify the carnivorous type in its highest condition
of development. The most important function they have to per-
form, that of seizing and holding firmly animals of considerable
size and strength, violently struggling for life, is provided for by
the great, sharp-pointed and sharp-edged canines, placed wide
apart at the angles of the mouth, the incisors between them being
greatly reduced in size and kept back nearly to the same level, so
as not to interfere with their action. The jaws are short and strong,
and the width of the zygomatic arches, and great development of
the bony ridges on the skull, give ample space for the attachment
of the powerful muscles by which they are closed. In the cheek-
teeth the sectorial or scissor-like cutting function is developed at
the expense of the tubercular or grinding, there being only one
rudimentary tooth of the latter form in the upper jaw, and none in
FIG. 2. — Front View of Skull of Lion.
the lower. They are, however, sufficiently strong to break bones
of large size. The tongue is long and flat, and remarkable for the
development of the papillae of the anterior part of the dorsal sur-
face, which (except near the edge) are modified so as to resemble
long, compressed, recurved, horny spines or claws, which, near
the middle line, attain the length of one-fifth of an inch. They give
the part of the tongue on which they occur the appearance and feel
of a coarse rasp. The feet are furnished with round soft pads or
cushions covered with thick, naked skin, one on the under surface
of each of the. principal toes, and one larger one of trilobed form,
behind these, under the lower ends of the metacarpal and metatarsal
bones, which are placed nearly vertically in ordinary progression.
The claws are large, strongly compressed, sharp, and exhibit the
retractile condition in the highest degree, being drawn backwards
and upwards into a sheath by the action of an elastic ligament
so long as the foot is in a state of repose, but exerted by muscular
action when the animal strikes its prey.
The lion lives chiefly in sandy plains and rocky places inter-
spersed with dense thorn-thickets, or frequents the low bushes
and tall rank grass and reeds that grow along the sides of streams
and near the springs where it lies in wait for the larger herbi-
vorous animals on which it feeds. Although occasionally
seen abroad during the day, especially in wild and desolate
regions, where it is subject to little molestation, the night
is, as in the case of so many other predaceous animals,
the period of its greatest activity. It is then that its character-
istic roar is chiefly heard, as thus graphically described by
Gordon-Cumming : —
" One of the most striking things connected with the lion is his
voice, which is extremely grand and peculiarly striking. It con-
sists at times of a low deep moaning, repeated five or six times,
ending in faintly audible sighs; at other times he startles the
forest with loud, deep-toned, solemn roars, repeated in quick suc-
cession, each increasing in loudness to the third or fourth, when his
voice dies away in five or six low muffled sounds very much resemb-
ling distant thunder. ' At times, and not unfrequently, a troop may
be heard, roaring in concert, one assuming the lead, and two, three
or four more regularly taking up their parts, like persons singing a
catch. Like our Scottish stags at the rutting season, they roar
loudest in cojd frosty nights; but on no occasions are their voices
to be heard in such perfection, or so intensely powerful, as when
two or three troops of strange lions approach a fountain to drink
at the same time. When this occurs, every member of each troop
sounds a bold roar of defiance at the opposite parties; and when
one roars, all roar together, and each seems to vie with his com-
rades in the intensity and power of his voice. The power and
grandeur of these nocturnal concerts is inconceivably striking and
pleasing to the hunter's ear."
" The usual pace of a lion," C. J. Andersson says, " is a walk,
and, though apparently rather slow, yet, from the great length
of his body, he is able to get over a good deal of ground in a
short time. Occasionally he trots, when his speed is not in-
considerable. His gallop— or rather succession of bounds— is,
for a short distance, very fast — nearly or quite equal to that of a
horse."
" The lion, as with other members of the feline family," the
same writer says, " seldom attacks his prey openly, unless
compelled by extreme hunger. For the most part he steals
upon it in the manner of a cat, or ambushes himself near to the
water or a pathway frequented by game. At such times he lies
crouched upon his belly in a thicket until the animal approaches
sufficiently near, when, with one prodigious bound, he pounces
upon it. In most cases he is successful, but should his intended
victim escape, as at times happens, from his having miscalculated
the distance, he may make a second or even a third bound,
which, however, usually prove fruitless, or he returns disconcerted
to his hiding-place, there to wait for another opportunity."
His food consists of all the larger herbivorous animals of the
country in which he resides — buffaloes, antelopes, zebras,
giraffes or even young elephants or rhinoceroses. In cultivated
districts cattle, sheep, and even human inhabitants are never
safe from his nocturnal ravages. He appears, however, as
a general rule, only to kill when hungry or attacked, and
not for the mere pleasure of killing, as with some other
carnivorous animals. He, moreover, by no means limits
himself to animals of his own killing, but, according to Selous,
often prefers eating game that has been killed by man, even
when not very fresh, to taking the trouble to catch an animal
himself.
The lion appears to be monogamous, a single male and female
continuing attached to each other irrespectively of the pairing
season. At all events the lion remains with the lioness while the
cubs are young and helpless, and assists in providing her and
them with food, and in educating them in the art of providing
for themselves. The number of cubs at a birth is from two to
four, usually three. They are said to remain with their parents
till they are about three years old.
Though not strictly gregarious, lions appear to be sociable
towards their own species, and often are found in small troops
sometimes consisting of a pair of old ones with their nearly full-
grown cubs, but occasionally of adults of the same sex ; and there
seems to be evidence that several lions will associate for the
purpose of hunting upon a preconcerted plan. Their natural
ferocity and powerful armature are sometimes turned upon one
another; combats, often mortal, occur among male lions under
the influence of jealousy; and Andersson relates an instance of a
quarrel between a hungry lion and lioness over the carcase of an
antelope which they had just killed, and which did not seem
sufficient for the appetite of both, ending in the lion not only
killing, but devouring his mate. Old lions, whose teeth have
become injured with constant wear, become " man-eaters,"
finding their easiest means of obtaining a subsistence in lurking
in the neighbourhood of villages, and dashing into the tents at
night and carrying off one of the sleeping inmates. Lions never
climb.
With regard to the character of the lion, those who have had
LIONNE— LIPARI ISLANDS
739
opportunities of observing it in its native haunts differ greatly.
The accounts of early writers as to its courage, nobility and
magnanimity have led to a reaction, causing some modern authors
to accuse it of cowardice and meanness. Livingstone goes so
far as to say, " nothing that I ever learned of the lion could
lead me to attribute to it either the ferocious or noble character
ascribed to it elsewhere," and he adds that its roar is not dis-
tinguishable from that of the ostrich. These different estimates
depend to a great extent upon the particular standard of the
writer, and also upon the circumstance that lions, like other
animals, show considerable individual differences in character,
and behave differently under varying circumstances.
(W. H. F.; R. L.*)
LIONNE, HUGUES DE (1611-1671), French statesman, was
born at Grenoble on the nth of October 1611, of an old family
of Dauphine. Early trained for diplomacy, his remarkable
abilities attracted the notice of Cardinal Mazarin, who sent him
as secretary of the French embassy to the congress of Miinster,
and, in 1642, on a mission to the pope. In 1646 he became
secretary to the queen regent; in 1653 obtained high office in
the king's household; and in 1654 was ambassador extraordinary
at the election of Pope Alexander VII. He was instrumental in
forming the league of the Rhine, by which Austria was cut off
from the Spanish Netherlands, and, as minister of state, was
associated with Mazarin in the Peace of the Pyrenees (1659),
which secured the marriage of Louis XIV. to the infanta Maria
Theresa. At the cardinal's dying request he was appointed his
successor in foreign affairs, and, for the next ten years, continued
to direct French foreign policy. Among his most important
diplomatic successes were the treaty of Breda (1667), the treaty
of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668) and the sale of Dunkirk. He died in
Paris on the ist of September 1671, leaving memoirs. He was
a man of pleasure, but his natural indolence gave place to an
unflagging energy when the occasion demanded it; and, in an
age of great ministers, his consummate statesmanship placed
him in the front rank.
See Ulysse Chevalier, Lettres inedites de Hugues de Lionne . . .
precedees d'une notice historique sur la famille de Lionne (Valence,
!879); J- Valfrey, La diplomatic fran^aise au XVIII' siecle: Hugues
de Lionne, ses ambassadeurs (2 vals., Paris, 1877-1881). For further
works see Rochas, Biogr. du Dauphine (Paris, 1860), tome ii. p. 87.
LIOTARD, JEAN ETIENNE (1702-1789), French painter, was
born at Geneva. He began his studies under Professor Gardelle
and Petitot, whose enamels and miniatures he copied with con-
siderable skill. He went to Paris in 1725, studying under J. B.
Masse and F. le Moyne, on whose recommendation he was taken
to Naples by the Marquis Puysieux. In 1735 he was in Rome,
painting the portraits of Pope Clement XII. and several cardinals.
Three years later he accompanied Lord Duncannon to Con-
stantinople, whence he went to Vienna in 1742 to paint the
portraits of the imperial family. His eccentric adoption of
oriental costume secured him the nickname of " the Turkish
painter." Stil under distinguished patronage he returned to
Paris in 1744, visited England, where he painted the princess of
Wales in 1753, and went to Holland in 1756, where, in the follow-
ing year, he married Marie Fargues. Another visit to England
followed in 1772, and in the next two years his name figures
among the Royal Academy exhibitors. He returned to his native
town in 1776 and died at Geneva in 1789.
Liotard was an artist of great versatility, and though his fame
depends largely on his graceful and delicate pastel drawings, of
which "La Liseuse," the "Chocolate Girl," and "La Belle
Lyonnaise " at the Dresden Gallery are delightful examples,
he achieved distinction by his enamels, copperplate engravings
and glass painting. He also wrote a Treatise on the Art of Paint-
ing, and was an expert collector of paintings by the old masters.
Many of the masterpieces he had acquired were sold by him at
high prices on his second visit to England. The museums of
Amsterdam, Berne, and Geneva are particularly rich in examples
of his paintings and pastel drawings. A picture of a Turk seated
is at the Victoria and Albert Museum, while the British Museum
owns two of his drawings. The Louvre has, besides twenty-two
drawings, a portrait of General H6rault and a portrait of the
artist is to be found at the Sala dei pittori, in the Uffizi Gallery,
Florence.
See La Vie et les (euvres de Jean Etienne Liotard (i7O2-i?8f>), etude
biographique et iconographique, by E. Humbert, A. Revilliod, and
J. W. R. Tilanus (Amsterdam, 1897).
LIP (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages,
cf Ger. Lippe, Dan. laebe; Lat. labium is cognate), one of the
two fleshy protuberant edges of the mouth in man and other
animals, hence transferred to such objects as resemble a lip,
the edge of a circular or other opening, as of a shell, or of a wound,
or of any fissure in anatomy and zoology; in this last usage the
Latin labium is more usually employed. It is also used of any
projecting edge, as in coal-mining, &c. Many figurative uses
are derived from the connexion with the mouth as the organ of
speech. In architecture " lip moulding " is a term given to a
moulding employed in the Perpendicular period, from its resem-
blance to an overhanging lip. It is often found in base mould-
ings, and is not confined to England, there being similar examples
in France and Italy.
LIPA, a town of the province of Batangas, Luzon, Philippine
Islands, about 90 m. S. by E. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 37,934.
Lipa is on high ground at the intersection of old military roads,
is noted for its cool and healthy climate, and is one of the largest
and wealthiest inland towns of the archipelago. Many of its
houses have two storeys above the ground-floor, and its church
and convent together form a very large building. The sur-
rounding country is very fertile, producing sugar-cane, Indian
corn, cacao, tobacco and indigo. The cultivation of coffee
was begun here on a large scale about the middle of the igth
century and was increased gradually until 1880-1890 when
an insect pest destroyed the trees. The language of Lipa is
Tagalog.
LIPAN, a tribe of North American Indians of Athabascan
stock. Their former range was central Texas. Later they were
driven into Mexico. They were pure nomads, lived entirely by
hunting, and were perhaps the most daring of the Texas Indians.
A few survivors were brought back from Mexico in 1905 and
placed on a reservation in New Mexico.
LIPARI ISLANDS (anc. A&Xew VTJO-OL, or Aeoliae Insttlae),
a group of volcanic islands N. of the eastern portion of Sicily.
They are seven in number — Lipari (Lipara, pop. in 1901,
15,290), Stromboli (Strongyle), Salina (Didyme, pop. in 1901,
4934), Filicuri (Phoenicusa), Alicuri (Ericusa), Vulcano (Hiera,
Therasia or Thermissa), the mythical abode of Hephaestus,
and Panaria (Euonymus). The island of Aiolie, the home of
Aiolos, lord of the winds, which Ulysses twice visited in his
wanderings, has generally been identified with one of this group.
A colony of 'Cnidians and Rhodians was established on Lipara
in 580-577 B.C.1 The inhabitants were allied with the Syra-
cusans, and were attacked by the Athenian fleet in 427 B.C.,
and by the Carthaginians in 39^ B.C., while Agathocles plundered
a temple on Lipara in 301 B.C. During the Punic wars the
islands were a Carthaginian naval station of some importance
until the Romans took possession of them in 252 B.C. Sextus
Pompeius also used them as a naval base. Under the Empire
the islands served as a place of banishment for political prisoners.
In the middle ages they frequently changed hands. The island
of Lipari contains the chief town (population in 1901, 5855), which
bears the same name and had municipal rights in Roman times.
It is the seat of a bishop. It is fertile and contains sulphur springs
and vapour baths, which were known and used in ancient times.
Pumicestone is exported.
Stromboli, 22m. N.E. of Lipari, is a constantly active volcano,
ejecting gas and lava at brief intervals, and always visible at
night. Salina, 3 m. N.W. of Lipari, consisting of the cones of
two extinct volcanoes, that on the S.E., Monte Salvatore (3155
ft.), being the highest point in the islands, is the most fertile
of the whole group and produces good Malmsey wine: it takes
its name from the salt-works on the south coast. Vulcano, J m.
1 Greek coins of the Lipari Islands are preserved in the museum at
Cefalu.
740
LIPETSK— LIPPE
S. of Lipari, contains a still smoking crater. Sulphur works
were started in 1874, but have since been abandoned.
See Archduke Ludwig Salvator of Austria, Die Liparischen
Inseln, 8 vols. (for private circulation) (Prague, 1893 seqq.).
LIPETSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Tambov,
108 m. by rail W. of the city of Tambov, on the right bank
of the river Voronezh. Pop. (1897) 16,333- The town is built
of wood and the streets are unpaved. There are sugar, tallow,
and leather works, and distilleries, and an active trade in horses,
cattle, tallow, skins, honey and timber. The Lipetsk mineral
springs (chalybeate) came into repute in the time of Peter the
Great and attract a good many visitors.
LIPPE, a river of Germany, a right-bank tributary of the
Rhine. It rises near Lippspringe under the western declivity
of the Teutoburger Wald, and, after being joined by the Alme,
the Pader and the Ahse on the left, and by the Stever on the
right, flows into the Rhine near Wesel, after a course of 154 m.
It is navigable downwards from Lippstadt, for boats and barges,
by the aid of twelve locks, drawing less than 4 ft. of water.
The river is important for the transport facilities it affords
to the rich agricultural districts of Westphalia.
LIPPE, a principality of Germany and constituent state of the
German empire, bounded N.W., W. and S. by the Prussian
province of Westphalia and N.E. and E. by the Prussian provinces
of Hanover and Hesse-Nassau and the principality of Waldeck-
Pyrmont. It also possesses three small enclaves — Kappel
and Lipperode in Westphalia and Grevenhagen near Hoxter.
The area is 469 sq. m., and the population (1905) 145,610,
showing a density of 125 to the sq. m. The greater part of the
surface is hilly, and in the S. and W., where the Teutoburger
Wald practically forms its physical boundary, mountainous.
The chief rivers are the Weser, which crosses the north extremity
of the principality, and its affluents, the Werre, Exter, Kalle
and Emmer. The Lippe, which gives its name to the country,
is a purely Westphalian river and does not touch the principality
at any point. The forests of Lippe, among the finest in Germany,
produce abundance of excellent timber. They occupy 28%
of the whole area, and consist mostly of deciduous trees, beech
preponderating. The valleys contain a considerable amount
of good arable land, the tillage of which employs the greater
part of the inhabitants. Small farms, the larger proportion
of which are under 25 acres, are numerous, and their yield shows
a high degree of prosperity among the peasant farmers. The
principal crops are potatoes, beetroot (for sugar), hay, rye,
oats, wheat and barley. Cattle, sheep and swine are also
reared, and the " Senner " breed of horses, in the stud farm
at Lopshorn, is celebrated. The industries are small and consist
mainly in the manufacture of starch, paper, sugar, tobacco,
and in weaving and brewing. Lemgo is famous for its meerschaum
pipes and Salzuflen for its brine-springs, producing annually
about 1500 tons of salt, which is mostly exported. Each
year, in spring, about 15,000 brickmakers leave the principality
and journey to other countries, Hungary, Sweden and Russia,
to return home in the late autumn.
The roads are well laid and kept in good repair. A railway
intersects the country from Herford (on the Cologne-Hanover
main line) to Altenbeken; and another from Bielefeld to Hameln
traverses it from W. to E. More than 95% of the population
in 1905 were Protestants. Education is provided for by two
gymnasia and numerous other efficient schools. The principality
contains seven small towns, the chief of which are Detmold,
the seat of government, Lemgo, Horn and Blomberg. The
present constitution was granted in 1836, but it was altered in
1867 and again in 1876. It provides for a representative chamber
of twenty-one members, whose functions are mainly consultative.
For electoral purposes the population is divided into three
classes, rated according to taxation, each of which returns
seven members. The courts of law are centred at Detmold,
whence an appeal lies to the court of appeal at Celle in the
Prussian province of Hanover. The estimated revenue in
1909 was £113,000 and the expenditure £116,000. The public
debt in 1908 was £64,000. Lippe has one vote in the German
Reichstag, and also one vote in the Bundesrat, or federal council.
Its military forces form a battalion of the 6th Westphalian
infantry.
History. — The present principality of Lippe was inhabited
in early times by the Cherusii, whose leader Arminius (Hermann)
annihilated in A.D. 9 the legions of Varus in the Teutoburger
Wald. It was afterwards occupied by the Saxons and was
subdued by Charlemagne. The founder of the present reigning
family, one of the most ancient in Germany, was Bernard I.
(1113-1144), who received a grant of the territory from the
emperor Lothair, and assumed the title of lord of Lippe (edler
Herr von Lippe). He was descended from a certain Hoold who
flourished about 950. Bernard's successors inherited or obtained
several counties, and one of them, Simon III. (d. 1410), intro-
duced the principles of primogeniture. Under Simon V. (d. 1536),
who was the first to style himself count, the Reformation was
introduced into the country. His grandson, Simon VI. (1555-
1613), is the ancestor of both lines of the princes of Lippe. In
1613 the country, as it then existed, was divided among his
three sons, the lines founded by two of whom still exist, while
the third (Brake) became extinct in 1709. Lippe proper was
the patrimony of the eldest son, Simon VII. (1587-1627), upon
whose descendant Frederick William Leopold (d. 1802) the title
of jprince of the empire was bestowed in 1789, a dignity already
conferred, though not confirmed, in 1720. Philip, the youngest
son of Simon VI., received but a scanty part of his father's
possessions, but in 1640 he inherited a large part of the count-
ship of Schaumburg, including Biickeburg, and adopted the
title of count of Schaumburg-Lippe. The ruler of this territory
became a sovereign prince in 1807. Simon VII. had a younger
son, Jobst Hermann (d. 1678), who founded the line of counts
of Lippe-Biesterfeld, and a cadet branch of this family were
the counts of Lippe- Weissenfeld. In 1762 these two counties —
Biesterfeld and Weissenfeld — passed by arrangement into the
possession of the senior and ruling branch of the family. Under
the prudent government of the princess Pauline (from 1802
to 1820), widow of Frederick William Leopold, the little state
enjoyed great prosperity. In 1807 it joined the Confederation
of the Rhine and in 1813 the German Confederation. Pauline's
son, Paul Alexander Leopold, who reigned from 1820 to 1851,
also ruled in a wise and liberal spirit, and in 1836 granted the
charter of rights upon which the constitution is based. In 1842
Lippe entered the German Customs Union (Zollverein) , and in
1866 threw in its lot with Prussia and joined the North German
Confederation.
The line of rulers in Lippe dates back, as already mentioned,
to Simon VI. But besides this, the senior line, the two collateral
lines of counts, Lippe-Biesterfeld and Lippe- Weissen-
feld and the princely line of Schaumburg-Lippe,
also trace their descent to the same ancestor, and these dispute.
three lines stand in the above order as regards their
rights to the Lippe succession, the counts being descended from
Simon's eldest son and the princes from his youngest son.
These facts were not in dispute when in March 1895 the death
of Prince Woldemar, who had reigned since 1875, raised a dispute
as to the succession. Woldemar's brother Alexander, the last
of the senior line, was hopelessly insane and had been declared
incapable of ruling. On the death of Woldemar, Prince Adolph
of Schaumburg-Lippe, fourth son of Prince Adolph George of
that country and brother-in-law of the German emperor, took
over the regency by virtue of a decree issued by Prince Woldemar,
but which had until the latter's death been kept secret. The
Lippe house of representatives consequently passed a special
law confirming the regency in the person of Prince Adolph,
but with the proviso that the regency should be at an end as
soon as the disputes touching the succession were adjusted;
and with a further proviso that, should this dispute not have
been settled before the death of Prince Alexander, then, if a
competent court of law had been secured before that event
happened, the regency of Prince Adolph should continue until
such court had given its decision. The dispute in question had
arisen because the heads of the two collateral countly lines had
LIPPI
entered a caveat. In order to adjust matters the Lippe govern-
ment moved the Bundesrat, on the 5th of July 1895, to pass an
imperial law declaring the Reichsgericht (the supreme tribunal
of the empire) a competent court to adjudicate upon the claims
of the rival lines to the succession. In consequence the Bundesrat
passed a resolution on the ist of February 1896, requesting the
chancellor of the empire to bring about a compromise for the
appointment of a court of arbitration between the parties.
Owing to the mediation of the chancellor a compact was on the
3rd of July 1896 concluded between the heads of the three
collateral lines of the whole house of Lippe, binding " both on
themselves and on the lines of which they were the heads."
By clause 2 of this compact, a court of arbitration was to be
appointed, consisting of the king of Saxony and six members
selected by him from among the members of the supreme court
of law of the empire. This court was duly constituted, and on
the 22nd of June 1897 delivered judgment to the effect that
Count Ernest of Lippe-Biesterfeld, head of the line of Lippe-
Biesterfeld, was entitled to succeed to the throne of Lippe on
the death of Prince Alexander. In consequence of this judgment
Prince Adolph resigned the regency and Count Ernest became
regent in his stead. On the 26th of September 1904 Count Ernest
died and his eldest son, Count Leopold, succeeded to the regency;
but the question of the succession was again raised by the prince
of Schaumburg-Lippe, who urged that the marriage of Count
William Ernest, father of Count Ernest, with Modeste von Unruh,
and that of the count regent Ernest himself with Countess
Carline von Wartensleben were not ebenburlig (equal birth),
and that the issue of these marriages were therefore excluded
from the succession. Prince George of Schaumburg-Lippe and
the count regent, Leopold, thereupon entered into a compact,
again referring the matter to the Bundesrat, which requested
the chancellor of the empire to agree to the appointment of a
court of arbitration consisting of two civil senates of the supreme
court, sitting at Leipzig, to decide finally the matter in dispute.
It was further provided in the compact that Leopold should
remain as regent, even after the death of Alexander, until the
decision of the court had been given. Prince Alexander died on
the I3th of January 1905; Count Leopold remained as regent,
and on the 25th of October the court of arbitration issued its
award, declaring the marriages in question (which were, as proved
by document, contracted with the consent of the head of the
house in each case) ebenbiirtig, and that in pursuance of the award
of the king of Saxony the family of Lippe-Biesterfeld, together
with the collateral lines sprung from Count William Ernest
(father of the regent, Count Ernest) were in the order of nearest
agnates called to the succession. Leopold (b. 1871) thus became
prince of Lippe.
See A. Falkmann, Beitrdge zur Geschichte des Furstenthums Lippe
(Detmold, 1857-1892; 6 vols.); Schwanold, Das Furstentum
Lippe, das Land und seine Bewohner (Detmold, 1899); Piderit, Die
lippischen Edelherrn im Mittelalter (Detmold, 1876); A. Falkmann
and O. Preuss, Lippische Regenten (Detmold, 1860-1868); H.
Triepel, Der Streit um die Thronfolge im Furstentum Lippe (Leipzig,
1903) ; and P. Laband, Die Thronfolge tm Furstentum Lippe (Frei-
burg, 1891) ; and Schiedsspruch in dem Rechtstreit uber die Thronfolge
im Furstentum Lippe vom 25 Okl. 1905 (Leipzig, 1906).
LIPPI, the name of three celebrated Italian painters.
I. FRA FILIPPO LIPPI (1406-1469), commonly called Lippo
Lippi, one of the most renowned painters of the Italian quat-
trocento, was born in Florence — his father, Tommaso, being a
butcher. His mother died in his childhood, and his father
survived his wife only two years. His aunt, a poor woman
named Monna Lapaccia, then took charge of the boy; and in
1420, when fourteen years of age, he was registered in the
community of the Carmelite friars of the Carmine in Florence.
Here he remained till 1432, and his early faculty for fine arts
was probably developed by studying the works of Masaccio
in the neighbouring chapel of the Brancacci. Between 1430
and 1432 he executed some works in the monastery, which were
destroyed by a fire in 1771; they are specified by Vasari, and
one of them was particularly marked by its resemblance to
Masaccio's style. Eventually Fra Filippo quitted his convent,
but it appears that he was not relieved from some sort of religious
vow; in a letter dated in 1439 he speaks of himself as the poorest
friar of Florence, and says he is charged with the maintenance
of six marriageable nieces. In 1452 he was appointed chaplain
to the convent of S. Giovannino in Florence, and in 1457 rector
(Rettore Commendatarid) of S. Quirico at Legania, and his
gains were considerable and uncommonly large from time to
time; but his poverty seems to have been chronic, the money
being spent, according to one account, in frequently recurring
amours.
Vasari relates some curious and romantic adventures of Fra
Filippo, which modern biographers are not inclined to believe.
Except through Vasari, nothing is known of his visits to Ancona
and Naples, and his intermediate capture by Barbary pirates
and enslavement in Barbary, whence his skill in portrait-sketch-
ing availed to release him. This relates to a period, 1431-1437,
when his career is not otherwise clearly accounted for. The
doubts thrown upon his semi-marital relations with a Florentine
lady appear, however, to be somewhat arbitrary; Vasari 's
account is circumstantial, and in itself not greatly improbable.
Towards June 1456 Fra Filippo was settled in Prato (near
Florence) for the purpose of fulfilling a commission to paint
frescoes in the choir of the cathedral. Before actually undertaking
this work he set about painting, in 1458, a picture for the convent
chapel of S. Margherita of Prato, and there saw Lucrezia Buti,
the beautiful daughter of a Florentine, Francesco Buti; she
was either a novice or a young lady placed under the nuns'
guardianship. Lippi asked that she might be permitted to sit
to him for the figure of the Madonna (or it might rather appear
of S. Margherita); he made passionate love to her, abducted
her to his own house, and kept her there spite of the utmost
efforts the nuns could make to reclaim her The fruit of their
loves was a boy, who became the painter, not less celebrated
than his father, Filippino Lippi (noticed below). Such is sub-
stantially Vasari's narrative, published less than a century after
the alleged events; it is not refuted by saying, more than three
centuries later, that perhaps Lippo had nothing to do with
any such Lucrezia, and perhaps Lippino was his adopted son,
or only an ordinary relative and scholar. The argument that
two reputed portraits of Lucrezia in paintings by Lippo are not
alike, one as a Madonna in a very fine picture in the Pitti gallery,
and the other in the same character in a Nativity in the Louvre,
comes to very little; and it is reduced to nothing when the
disputant adds that the Louvre painting is probably not done
by Lippi at all. Besides, it appears more likely that not the
Madonna in the Louvre but a S. Margaret in a picture now in
the Gallery of Prato is the original portrait (according to the
tradition) of Lucrezia Buti.
The frescoes in the choir of Prato cathedral, being the stories of
the Baptist and of St Stephen, represented on the two opposite
wall spaces, are the most important and monumental works
which Fra Filippo has left, more especially the figure of Salome
dancing, and the last of the series, showing the ceremonial
mourning over Stephen's corpse. This contains a portrait of the
painter, but which is the proper figure is a question that has
raised some diversity of opinion. At the end wall of the choir
are S. Giovanni Gualberto and S. Alberto, and on the ceiling the
four evangelists.
The close of Lippi's life was spent at Spoleto, where he had been
commissioned to paint, for the apse of the cathedral, some scenes
from the life of the Virgin. In the semidome of the apse is Christ
crowning the Madonna, with angels, sibyls and prophets. This
series, which is not wholly equal to the one at Prato, was com-
pleted by Fra Diamante after Lippi's death. That Lippi died
in Spoleto, on or about the 8th of October 1469, is an undoubted
fact; the mode of his death is again a matter of dispute. It
has been said that the pope granted Lippi a dispensation for
marrying Lucrezia, but that, before the permission arrived,
he had been poisoned by the indignant relatives either of Lucrezia
herself, or of some lady who had replaced her in the inconstant
painter's affections. This is now generally regarded as a fable;
and indeed a vendetta upon a man aged sixty-three for a
742
LIPPSPRINGE
seduction committed at the already mature age of fifty-two
seems hardly plausible. Fra Filippo lies buried in Spoleto, with
a monument erected to him by Lorenzo the Magnificent; he had
always been zealously patronized by the Medici family, beginning
with Cosimo, Pater Patriae. Francesco di Pesello (called Pesel-
lino) and Sandro Botticelli were among his most distinguished
pupils.
In 1441 Lippi painted an altarpiece for the nuns of S. Ambrogio
which is now a prominent attraction in the Academy of Florence,
and has been celebrated in Browning's well-known poem. It re-
presents the coronation of the Virgin among angels and saints, of
whom many are Bernardine monks. One of these, placed to the
right, is a half-length portrait of Lippo, pointed out by an inscription
upon an angel's scroll " Is perfecit opus." The price paid for this
work in 1447 was 1200 Florentine lire, which seems surprisingly
large. For Germiniano Inghirami of Prato he painted the " Death of
St Bernard," a fine specimen still extant. His principal altarpiece
in this city is a Nativity in the refectory of S. Domenico — the Infant
on the ground adored by the Virgin and Joseph, between Sts George
and Dominic, in a rocky landscape, with the shepherds playing and
six angels in the sky. In the Uffizi is a fine Virgin adoring the infant
Christ, who is held by two angels; in the National Gallery, London, a
" Vision of St Bernard." The picture of the " Virgin and Infant with
an Angel," in this same gallery, also ascribed to Lippi, is disputable.
Few pictures are so thoroughly enjoyable as those of Lippo Lippi ;
they show the naivete of a strong, rich nature, redundant in lively and
somewhat whimsical observation. He approaches religious art from
its human side, and is not pietistic though true to a phase of Catholic
devotion. He was perhaps the greatest cplourist and technical adept
of his time, with good draughtsmanship — a naturalist, with less
vulgar realism than some of his contemporaries, and with much
genuine episodical animation, including semi-humorous incidents
and low characters. He made little effort after perspective and none
for foreshortenings, was fond of ornamenting pilasters and other
architectural features. Vasari says that Lippi was wont to hide the
extremities in drapery to evade difficulties. His career was one of
continual development, without fundamental variation in style or
in colouring. In his great works the proportions are larger than
life.
Along with Vasari's interesting and amusing, and possibly not
very unauthentic, account of Lippo Lippi, the work of Crowe and
Cavalcaselle should be consulted. Also: E. C. Strutt, Fra Lippo
Lippi (1901); C. M. Phillimore, Early Florentine Painters (1881);
B. Supino, Fra Filippo Lippi (illustrated) (1902). It should be
observed that Crowe and Cavalcaselle give 1412 as the date of the
painter's birth, and this would make a considerable difference in
estimating details of his after career. We have preferred to follow
the more usual account. The self-portrait dated 1441 looks like a
man much older than twenty-nine.
II. FILIPPINO, or LIPPINO LIPPI (1460-1505), was the natural
son of Fra Lippo Lippi and Lucrezia Buti, born in Florence and
educated at Prato. Losing his father before he had completed
his tenth year, the boy took up his avocation as a painter,
studying under Sandro Botticelli and probably under Fra
Diamante. The style which he formed was to a great extent
original, but it bears clear traces of the manner both of Lippo
and of Botticelli — more ornamental than the first, more realistic
and less poetical than the second. His powers developed early;
for we find him an accomplished artist by 1480, when he painted
an altarpiece, the " Vision of St Bernard," now in the Badia of
Florence; it is in tempera, with almost the same force as oil
painting. Soon afterwards, probably from 1482 to 1490, he
began to work upon the frescoes which completed the decoration
of the Brancacci chapel in the Carmine, commenced by Masolino
and Masaccio many years before. He finished Masaccio's
" Resurrection of the King's Son," and was the sole author of
" Paul's Interview with Peter in Prison," the " Liberation of
Peter," the " Two Saints before the Proconsul " and the " Cruci-
fixion of Peter." These works are sufficient to prove that Lippino
stood in the front rank of the artists of his time. The dignified
and expressive figure of St Paul in the second-named subject
has always been particularly admired, and appears to have
furnished a suggestion to Raphael for his " Paul at Athens."
Portraits of Luigi Pulci, Antonio Pollajuolo, Lippino himself and
various others are in this series. In 1485 he executed the great
altarpiece of the " Virgin and Saints," with several other figures,
now in the Uffizi Gallery. Another of his leading works is the
altarpiece for the Nerli chapel in S. Spirito — the " Virgin En-
throned," with splendidly living portraits of Nerli and his wife,
and a thronged distance. In 1489 Lippino was in Rome, painting
in the church of the Minerva, having first passed through Spoleto
to design the monument for his father in the cathedral of that
city. Some of his principal frescoes in the Minerva are still
extant, the subjects being in celebration of St Thomas Aquinas.
In one picture the saint is miraculously commended by a crucifix;
in another, triumphing over heretics. In 1496 Lippino painted
the " Adoration of the Magi " now in the Uffizi, a very striking
picture, with numerous figures. This was succeeded by his last
important undertaking, the frescoes in the Strozzi chapel, in the
church of S. Maria Novella in Florence — " Drusiana Restored to
Life by St John, the Evangelist," " St John in the Cauldron of
Boiling Oil " and two subjects from the legend of St Philip.
These are conspicuous and attractive works, yet somewhat
grotesque and exaggerated — full of ornate architecture, showy
colour and the distinctive peculiarities of the master. Filippino,
who had married in 1497, died in 1505. The best reputed of his
scholars was Raffaellino del Garbo.
Like his father, Filippino had a most marked original genius for
painting, and he was hardly less a chief among the artists of his
time than Fra Filippo had been in his; it may be said that in all
the annals of the art a rival instance is not to be found of a father
and son each of whom had such pre-eminent natural gifts and
leadership. The father displayed more of sentiment and candid
sweetness of motive; the son more of richness, variety and lively
pictorial combination. He was admirable in all matters of decora-
tive adjunct and presentment, such as draperies, landscape back-
grounds and accessories; and he was the first Florentine to introduce
a taste for antique details of costume, &c. He formed a large
collection of objects of this kind, and left his designs of them to
his son. In his later works there is a tendency to a mannered
development of the extremities, and generally to facile overdoing.
The National Gallery, London, possesses a good and characteristic
though not exactly a first-rate specimen of Lippino, the " Virgin and
Child between Sts Jerome and Dominic "; also an " Adoration of
the Magi," of which recent criticism contests the authenticity.
Crowe and Cavalcaselle, supplemented by the writings of Berenson,
should be consulted as to this painter. An album of his works is in
Newnes' Art-library.
III. LORENZO LIPPI (1606-1664), painter and poet, was born
in Florence. He studied painting under Matteo Rosselli, the
influence of whose style, and more especially of that of Santi di
Tito, is to be traced in Lippi's works, which are marked by taste,
delicacy and a strong turn for portrait-like naturalism. His
maxim was " to poetize as he spoke, and to paint as he saw."
After exercising his art for some time in Florence, and having
married at the age of forty the daughter of a rich sculptor named
Susini, Lippi went as court painter to Innsbruck, where he has
left many excellent portraits. There he wrote his humorous poem
named Malmantile Racquistato, which was published under the
anagrammatic pseudonym of " Perlone Zipoli." Lippi was some-
what self-sufficient, and, when visiting Parma, would not look
at the famous Correggios there, saying that they could teach him
nothing. He died of pleurisy in 1664, in Florence.
The most esteemed works of Lippi as a painter are a " Cruci-
fixion " in the Uffizi gallery at Florence, and a " Triumph of David "
which he executed for the saloon of Angiolo Galli, introducing into
it portraits of the seventeen children of the owner. The Malmantile
Racquistato is a burlesque romance, mostly compounded out of a
variety of popular tales; its principal subject-matter is an ex-
pedition for the recovery of a fortress and territory whose queen
had been expelled by a female usurper. It is full of graceful or racjr
Florentine idioms, and is counted by Italians as a " testo di lingua. '
Lippi is more generally or more advantageously remembered by this
poem than by anything which he has left in the art of painting.
It was not published until 1688, several years after his death.
Lanzi as to Lorenzo Lippi's pictorial work, and Tiraboschi and
other literary historians as to his writings, are among the best
authorities. (WT M. R.)
LIPPSPRINGE, a town and watering-place in the Prussian
province of Westphalia, lying under the western slope of the
Teutoburger Wald, 5 m. N. of Paderborn. Pop. (1905) 3IO°-
The springs, the Arminius Quelle and the Liborius Quelle, for
which it is famous, are saline waters of a temperature of 70° F.,
and are utilized both for bathing and drinking in cases of pul-
monary consumption and chronic diseases of the respiratory
organs. The annual number of visitors amounts to about 6000.
Lippspringe is mentioned in chronicles as early as the 9th century,
LIPPSTADT— LIPTON
743
and here in the i3th century the order of the Templars established
a stronghold. It received civic rights about 1400.
See Dammann, Der Kurort Lippspringe (Paderborn, 1900);
Koniger, Lippspringe (Berlin, 1893); and Frey, Lippspringe,
Kurort fur Lungenkranke (Paderborn, 1899).
LIPPSTADT, a town in the Prussian province of Westphalia,
on the river Lippe, 20 m. by rail W. by S. of Paderborn, on the
main line to Diisseldorf. Pop. (1905) 15,436. The Marien Kirche
is a large edifice in the Transitional style, dating from the i3th
century. It has several schools, among them being one which
was originally founded as a nunnery in 1 185. The manufactures
include cigar-making, distilling, carriage-building and metal-
working.
Lippstadt was founded in 1 168 by the lords of Lippe, the rights
over one half of the town passing subsequently by purchase to
the counts of the Mark, which in 1614 was incorporated with
Brandenburg. In 1850 the prince of Lippe-Detmold sold his
share to Prussia when this joint lordship ceased. In 1620
Lippstadt was occupied by the Spaniards and in 1757 by the
French.
See Chalybaus, Lippstadt, ein Beitrag zur deutschen Stddtegeschichte
(Lippstadt, 1876).
LIPSIUS, JUSTUS (1547-1606), the Latinized name of Joest
(Juste or Josse) Lips, Belgian scholar, born on the i8th of
.October (i5th of November, according to Amiel) 1547 at
Overyssche, a small village in Brabant, near Brussels. Sent
early to the Jesuit college in Cologne, he was removed at the age
of sixteen to the university of Louvain by his parents, who feared
that he might be induced to become a member of the Society of
Jesus. The publication of his Variarum Lectionum Libri Tres
(1567), dedicated to Cardinal Granvella, procured him an appoint-
ment as Latin secretary and a visit to Rome in the retinue of the
cardinal. Here Lipsius remained two years, devoting his spare
time to the study of the Latin classics, collecting inscriptions and
examining MSS. in the Vatican. A second volume of miscel-
laneous criticism (Anliquarum Lectionum Libri Quinque, 1575),
published after his return from Rome, compared with the
Variae Lectiones of eight years earlier, shows that he had advanced
from the notion of purely conjectural emendation to that of
emending by collation. In 1570 he wandered over Burgundy,
Germany, Austria, Bohemia, and was engaged for more than a
year as teacher in the university of Jena, a position which implied
an outward conformity to the Lutheran Church. On his way
back to Louvain, he stopped some time at Cologne, where he
must have comported himself as a Catholic. He then returned to
Louvian, but was soon driven by the Civil War to take refuge
in Antwerp, where he received, in 1579, a call to the newly
founded university of Leiden, as professor of history. At Leiden,
where he must have passed as a Calvinist, Lipsius remained
eleven years, the period of his greatest productivity. It was
now that he prepared his Seneca, perfected, in successive editions,
his Tacitus and brought out a series of works, some of pure
scholarship, others collections from classical authors, others again
of general interest. Of this latter class was a treatise on politics
(Polilicorum Libri Sex, 1589), in which he showed that, though a
public teacher in a country which professed toleration, he had
not departed from the state maxims of Alva and Philip II.
He lays it down that a government should recognize only one
religion, and that dissent should be extirpated by fire and
sword. From the attacks to which this avowal exposed him, he
was saved by the prudence of the authorities of Leiden, who
prevailed upon him to publish a declaration that his expression,
Ure, seca, was a metaphor for a vigorous treatment. In the
spring of 1590, leaving Leiden under pretext of taking the waters
at Spa, he went to Mainz, where he was reconciled to the Roman
Catholic Church. The event deeply interested the Catholic
world, and invitations poured in on Lipsius from the courts and
universities of Italy, Austria and Spain. But he preferred to
remain in his own country, and finally settled at Louvain, as
professor of Latin in the Collegium Buslidianum. He was not
expected to teach, and his trifling stipend was eked out by the
appointments of privy councillor and historiographer to the king
of Spain. He continued to publish dissertations as before, the
chief being his De militia romana (Antwerp, 1595) and Lovanium
(Antwerp, 1605; 4th ed., Wesel, 1671), intended as an intro-
duction to a general history of Brabant. He died at Louvian on
the 23rd of March (some give 24th of April) 1606.
Lipsius's knowledge of classical antiquity was extremely
limited. He had but slight acquaintance with Greek, and in
Latin literature the poets and Cicero lay outside his range.
His greatest work was his edition of Tacitus. This author he
had so completely made his own that he could repeat the whole,
and offered to be tested in any part of the text, with a poniard
held to his breast, to be used against him if he should fail. His
Tacitus first appeared in 1575, and was five times revised and
corrected — the last time in 1606, shortly before his death. His
Opera Omnia appeared in 8 vols. at Antwerp (1585, 2nd ed.,
1637)-
A full list of his publications will be found in van der Aa, Bio-
graphisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden (1865), and in Bibliographie
Lipsienne (Ghent, 1886-^1888). In addition to the biography by
A. le Mire (Aubertus Miraeus) (1609), the only original account of
his life, see M. E. C. Nisard, Le Triumvir at litteraire au XVI" siede
(1852); A. Rass, Die Convertiten seit der Reformation (1867);
P. Bergman's Autobiographic de J. Lipse (1889); L. Galeslopt,
Particutarites sur la vie de J. Lipse (1877); E. Amiel, Un Publiciste
du XVI' siede. Juste Lipse (1884); and L. Miiller, Geschichte der
klassischen Philologie in den Niederlanden. The articles by J. J.
Thonissen of Louvain in the Nouvelle Biographie generate, and L.
Roersch in Biographie nationale de Belgique, may also be consulted.
LIPSIUS, RICHARD ADELBERT (1830-1892), German
Protestant theologian, son of K. H. A. Lipsius (d. 1861), who
was rector of the school of St Thomas at Leipzig, was born at
Gera on the I4th of February 1830. He studied at Leipzig, and
eventually (1871) settled at Jena as professor ordinarius. He
helped to found the " Evangelical Protestant Missionary Union "
and the " Evangelical Alliance," and from 1874 took an active
part in their management. He died at Jena on the igth of August
1892. Lipsius wrote principally on dogmatics and the history
of early Christianity from a liberal and critical standpoint. A
Neo-Kantian, he was to some extent an opponent of Albrecht
Ritschl, demanding " a connected and consistent theory of the
universe, which shall comprehend the entire realm of our ex-
perience as a whole. He rejects the doctrine of dualism in a
truth, one division of which would be confined to ' judgments of
value,' and be unconnected with our theoretical knowledge of the
external world. The possibility of combining the results of our
scientific knowledge with the declarations of our ethico-religious
experience, so as to form a consistent philosophy, is based,
according to Lipsius, upon the unity of the personal ego, which
on the one hand knows, the world scientifically, and on the other
regards it as the means of realizing the ethico-religious object of
its life " (Otto Pfleiderer). This, in part, is his attitude in
Philosophic und Religion (1885). In his Lehrbuch der evang.-
prot. Dogmatik (1876; 3rd ed., 1893) he deals in detail with the
doctrines of " God," " Christ," " Justification " and the
" Church." From 1875 he assisted K. Hase, 0. Pfleiderer and
E. Schrader in editing the Jahrbucher fur prol. Theologie, and
from 1885 till 1891 he edited the Theol. Jahresbericht.
His other works include Die Pilatusakten (1871, new ed., 1886),
Dogmatische Beilrage (1878), Die Quellen der altesten Ketzergeschichte
(1875), Die apokryphen Apostelgeschichten (1883-1890), Hauptpunkte
der christl. Glaubenslehre im Umriss dargestellt (1889), and com-
mentaries on the Epistles to the Galatians, Romans and Philippians
in H. J. Holtzmann's Handkommentar zum Neuen Testament (1891-
1892).
LIPTON, SIR THOMAS JOHNSTONE, BART. (1850- ),
British merchant, was born at Glasgow in 1850, of Irish parents.
At a very early age he was employed as errand boy to a Glasgow
stationer; at fifteen he emigrated to America, where at first he
worked in a grocery store, and afterwards as a tram-car driver in
New Orleans, as a traveller for a portrait firm, and on a plantation
in South Carolina. Eventually, having saved some money, he
returned to Glasgow and opened a small provision shop. Busi-
ness gradually increased, and by degrees Lipton had provision
shops first all over Scotland and then all over the United King-
dom. To supply his retail shops on the most favourable terms, he
744
LIQUEURS— LIQUID GASES
purchased extensive tea, coffee and cocoa plantations in Ceylon,
and provided his own packing-house for hogs in Chicago, and
fruit farms, jam factories, bakeries and bacon-curing establish-
ments in England. In 1898 his business was converted into a
limited liability company. At Queen Victoria's diamond jubilee
in 1897 he gave £20,000 for providing dinners for a large number
of the London poor. In 1898 he was knighted, and in 1902 was
made a baronet. In the world of yacht-racing he became well
known from his repeated attempts to win the America Cup.
LIQUEURS, the general term applied to perfumed or flavoured
potable spirits, sweetened by the addition of sugar. The term
" liqueur " is also used for certain wines and unsweetened spirits
of very superior quality, or remarkable for their bouquet, such
as tokay or fine old brandy or whisky. The basis of all the
" liqueurs " proper consists of (a) relatively strong alcohol or
spirit, which must be as pure and neutral as possible; (b) sugar
or syrup; and (c) flavouring matters. There are three distinct
main methods of manufacturing liqueurs. The first, by which
liqueurs of the highest class are prepared, is the " distillation "
or " alcoholate " process. This consists in macerating various
aromatic substances such as seeds, leaves, roots and barks of
plants, &c., with strong spirit and subsequently distilling the
infusion so obtained generally in the presence of a whole or a
part of the solid matter. The mixture of spirit, water and
flavouring matters which distils over is termed the " alcoholate."
To this is added a solution of sugar or syrup, and frequently
colouring matter in the shape of harmless vegetable extracts or
burnt sugar, and a further quantity of flavouring matter in the
shape of essential oils or clear spirituous vegetable extracts.
The second method of making liqueurs is that known as the
" essence " process. It is employed, as a rule, for cheap and
inferior articles; the process resolving itself into the addition
of various essential oils, either natural or artificially prepared,
and of spirituous extracts to strong spirit, filtering and adding
the saccharine matter to the clear nitrate. The third method
of manufacturing liqueurs is the " infusion " process, in
which alcohol and sugar are added to various fresh fruit
juices. Liqueurs prepared by this method are frequently called
" cordials." It has been suggested that " cordials " are articles
of home manufacture, and that liqueurs are necessarily of foreign
origin, but it is at least doubtful whether this is entirely correct.
The French, who excel in the preparation of liqueurs, grade their
products, according to their sweetness and alcoholic strength,
into cremes, huiles or baumes, which have a thick, oily consist-
ency; and eaux, extraits or elixirs, which, being less sweetened,
are relatively limpid. Liqueurs are also classed, according to
their commercial quality and composition, as ordinaires, demi-
fines, fines and sur-fines. Certain liqueurs, containing only a
single flavouring ingredient, or having a prevailing flavour of a
particular substance, are named after that body, for instance,
crime de vanille, anisette, kiimmel, creme de menthe, &c. On the
other hand, many well-known liqueurs are compounded of very
numerous aromatic principles. The nature and quantities of the
flavouring agents employed in the preparation of liqueurs of
this kind are kept strictly secret, but numerous " recipes " are
given in works dealing with this subject. Among the substances
frequently used as flavouring agents are aniseed, coriander,
fennel, wormwood, gentian, sassafras, amber, hyssop, mint,
thyme, angelica, citron, lemon and orange peel, peppermint,
cinnamon, cloves, iris, caraway, tea, coffee and so on. The
alcoholic strength of liqueurs ranges from close on 80% of
alcohol by volume in some kinds of absinthe, to 27 % in anisette.
The liqueur industry is a very considerable one, there being in
France some 25,000 factories. Most of these are small, but
some 600,000 gallons are annually exported from France alone.
For absinthe, benedictine, chartreuse, curacoa, kirsch and
vermouth see under separate headings. Among other well-
known trade liqueurs may be mentioned maraschino, which takes
its name from a variety of cherry — the marasca — grown in
Dalmatia, the centre of the trade being at Zara; kiimmel, the
flavour of which is largely due to caraway seeds; allasch,
which is a rich variety of kiimmel ; and cherry and other " fruit "
brandies and whiskies, the latter being perhaps more properly
termed cordials.
See Duplais, La Fabrication des liqueurs; and Rocques, Les Eaux-
de-vie et liqueurs.
LIQUIDAMBAR, LIQUID AMBER or SWEET GUM, a product of
Liquidambar styraciflua (order Hamamelideae), a deciduous
tree of from 80 to 140 ft. high, with a straight trunk 4 or 5 ft. in
diameter, a native of the United States, Mexico and Central
America. It bears palmately-lobed leaves, somewhat resembling
those of the maple, but larger. The male and female inflores-
cences are on different branches of the same tree, the globular
heads of fruit resembling those of the plane. This species is
nearly allied to L. orientalis, a native of a very restricted portion
of the south-west coast of Asia Minor, where it forms forests.
The earliest record of the tree appears to be in a Spanish work by
F. Hernandez, published in 1651, in which he describes it as a
large tree producing a fragrant gum resembling liquid amber,
whence the name (Nov. Plant., &c., p. 56). In Ray's Historic,
Plantarum (1686) it is called Styrax liquida. It was introduced
into Europe in 1681 by John Banister, the missionary collector
sent out by Bishop Compton, who planted it in the palace gardens
at Fulham. The wood is very compact and fine-grained — the
heart- wood being reddish, and, when cut into planks, marked
transversely with blackish belts. It is employed for veneering
in America. Being readily dyed black, it is sometimes used
instead of ebony for picture frames, balusters, &c.; but it is
too liable to decay for out-door work.
The gum resin yielded by this tree has no special medicinal
virtues, being inferior in therapeutic properties to many others
of its class. Mixed with tobacco, the gum was used for smoking at
the court of the Mexican emperors (Humboldt iv. 10). It has long
been used in France as a perfume for gloves, &c. It is mainly
produced in Mexico, little being obtained from trees growing in
higher latitudes of North America, or in England.
LIQUIDATION (i.e. making " liquid " or clear), in law, the
clearing off or settling of a debt. The word was more especially
used in bankruptcy law to define the method by which, under
the Bankruptcy Act 1869, the affairs of an insolvent debtor were
arranged and a composition accepted by his creditors without
actual bankruptcy. It was abolished by the Bankruptcy Act
1883 (see BANKRUPTCY). In a general sense, liquidation is used
for the act of adjusting debts, as the Egyptian Law of Liquida-
tion, July 1880, for a general settlement of the liabilities of
Egypt. In company law, liquidation is the winding up and
dissolving a company. The winding up may be either voluntary
or compulsory, and an officer, termed a liquidator, is appointed,
who takes into his custody all the property of the company
and performs such duties as are necessary on its behalf (see
COMPANY).
LIQUID GASES.1 Though Lavoisier remarked that if the earth
were removed to very cold regions of space, such as those of
Jupiter or Saturn, its atmosphere, or at least a portion of its
aeriform constituents, would return to the state of liquid ((Euvres,
ii. 805), the history of the liquefaction of gases may be said
to begin with the observation made by John Dalton in his essay
" On the Force of Steam or Vapour from Water and various other
Liquids " (1801): " There can scarcely be a doubt entertained
respecting the reducibility of all elastic fluids of whatever
kind into liquids; and we ought not to despair of effecting it in
low temperatures and by strong pressures exerted on the un-
mixed gases." It was not, however, till 1823 that the question
was investigated by systematic experiment. In that year
Faraday, at the suggestion of Sir Humphry Davy, exposed
hydrate of chlorine to heat under pressure in the laboratories
of the Royal Institution. He placed the substance at the end of
one arm of a bent glass tube, which was then hermetically sealed,
and decomposing it by heating to 100° F., he saw a yellow liquid
distil to the end of the other arm. This liquid he surmised to be
chlorine separated from the water by the heat and " condensed
into a dry fluid by the mere pressure of its own abundant vapour,"
and he verified his surmise by compressing chlorine gas, freed
1 Figs. I, 5, 6, 7, 10 ft, 12, 13 in this article are from Proc. Roy.
Inst., by permission
LIQUID GASES
745
from water by exposure to sulphuric acid, to a pressure of about
four atmospheres, when the same yellow fluid was produced
(Phil. Trans., 1823, 113, pp. 160-165). He proceeded to experi-
ment with a number of other gases subjected in sealed tubes to
the pressure caused by their own continuous production by
chemical action, and in the course of a few weeks liquefied
sulphurous acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, carbonic acid, euchlorine,
nitrous acid, cyanogen, ammonia and muriatic acid, the last
of which, however, had previously been obtained by Davy.
But he failed with hydrogen, oxygen, fluoboric, fluosilicic and
phosphuretted hydrogen gases (Phil. Trans., ib. pp. 189-198).
Early in the following year he published an " Historical statement
respecting the liquefaction of gases " (Quart. Journ. Sci., 1824,
1 6, pp. 229-240), in which he detailed several recorded cases in
which previous experimenters had reduced certain gases to
their liquid state.
In 1835 Thilorier, by acting on bicarbonate of soda with
sulphuric acid in a closed vessel and evacuating the gas thus
obtained under pressure into a second vessel, was able to accumu-
late large quantities of liquid carbonic acid, and found that when
the liquid was suddenly ejected into the air a portion of it was
solidified into a snow-like substance (Ann. chim. phys., 1835, 60,
pp. 427-432). Four years later J. K. Mitchell in America, by
mixing this snow with ether and exhausting it under an air
pump, attained a minimum temperature of 146° below zero F.,
by the aid of which he froze sulphurous acid gas to a solid.
Stimulated by Thilorier's results and by considerations arising
out of the work of J. C. Cagniard de la Tour (Ann. chim. phys.,
1822, 21, pp. 127 and 178, and 1823, 22, p. 410), which appeared
to him to indicate that gases would pass by some simple law
into the liquid state, Faraday returned to the subject about
1844, in the " hope of seeing nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen
either as liquid or solid bodies, and the latter probably as a
metal " (Phil. Trans., 1845, 135, pp. 155-157). On the basis of
Cagniard de la Tour's observation that at a certain temperature
a liquid under sufficient pressure becomes a vapour or gas having
the same bulk as the liquid, he inferred that " at this temperature
or one a little higher, it is not likely that any increase of pressure,
except perhaps one exceedingly great, would convert the gas
into a liquid." He further surmised that the Cagniard de la
Tour condition might have its point of temperature for oxygen,
nitrogen, hydrogen, &c., below that belonging to the bath of
solid carbonic acid and ether, and he realized that in that case
no pressure which any apparatus would be able to bear would be
able to bring those gases into the liquid or solid state, which
would require a still greater degree of cold. To fulfil this con-
dition he immersed the tubes containing his gases in a bath of
solid carbonic acid and ether, the temperature of which was
reduced by exhaustion under the air pump to -166° F., or a
little lower, and at the same time he subjected the gases to
pressures up to 50 atmospheres by the use of two pumps working
in series. In this way he added six substances, usually gaseous,
to the list of those that could be obtained in the liquid state,
and reduced seven, including ammonia, nitrous oxide and
sulphuretted hydrogen, into the solid form, at the same time
effecting a number of valuable determinations of vapour tensions.
But he failed to condense oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen, the
original objects of his pursuit, though he found reason to think
that " further diminution of temperature and improved apparatus
for pressure may very well be expected to give us these bodies
in the liquid or solid state." His surmise that increased pressure
alone would not suffice to bring about change of state in these
gases was confirmed by subsequent investigators, such as
M. P. E. Berthelot, who in 1850 compressed oxygen to 780
atmospheres (Ann. chim. phys., 1850, 30, p. 237), and Natterer,
who a few years later subjected the permanent gases to a pressure
of 2790 atmospheres, without result; and in 1869 Thomas
Andrews (Phil. Trans., n) by his researches on carbonic acid
finally established the conception of the " critical temperature "
as that temperature, differing for different bodies, above which
no gas can be made to assume the liquid state, no matter what
pressure it be subjected to (see CONDENSATION OF GASES).
About 1877 the problem of liquefying the permanent gases
was taken up by L. P. Cailletet and R. P. Pictet, working almost
simultaneously though independently. The former relied on
the cold produced by the sudden expansion of the gases at high
compression. By means of a specially designed pump he com-
pressed about ico cc. of oxygen in a narrow glass tube to about
200 atmospheres, at the same time cooling it to about - 29° C.,
and on suddenly releasing the pressure he saw momentarily in
the interior of the tube a mist (brouillard) , from which he inferred
the presence of a vapour very near its point of liquefaction.
A few days later he repeated the experiment with hydrogen,
using a pressure of nearly 300 atmospheres, and observed in his
tube an exceedingly fine and subtle fog which vanished almost
instantaneously. At the time when these experiments were
carried out it was generally accepted that the mist or fog con-
sisted of minute drops of the liquefied gases. Even had this been
the case, the problem would not have been completely solved,
for Cailletet was unable to collect the drops in the form of a true
stable liquid, and at the best obtained a " dynamic " not a
" static " liquid, the gas being reduced to a form that bears the
same relation to a true liquid that the partially condensed
steam issuing from the funnel of a locomotive bears to water
standing in a tumbler. But subsequent knowledge showed that
even this proximate liquefaction could not have taken place,
and that the fog could not have consisted of drops of liquid
hydrogen, because the cooling produced by the adiabatic ex-
pansion would give a temperature of only 44° abs., which is
certainly above the critical temperature of hydrogen. Pictet
again announced that on opening the tap of a vessel containing
hydrogen at a pressure of 650 atmospheres and cooled by the
cascade method (see CONDENSATION OF GASES) to -140° C.,
he saw issuing from the orifice an opaque jet which he assumed to
consist of hydrogen in the liquid form or in the liquid and solid
forms mixed. But he was no more successful than Cailletet in
collecting any of the liquid, which — whatever else it may have
been, whether ordinary air or impurities associated with the
hydrogen — cannot have been hydrogen because the means he
employed were insufficient to reduce the gas to what has sub-
sequently been ascertained to be its critical point, below which
of course liquefaction is impossible. It need scarcely be added
that if the liquefaction of hydrogen be rejected a fortiori Pictet 's
claim to have effected its solidification falls to the ground.
After Cailletet and Pictet, the next important names in the
history of the liquefaction of gases are those of Z. F. Wroblewski
and K. S. Olszewski, who for some years worked together at
Cracow. In April 1883 the former announced to the French
Academy that he had obtained oxygen in a completely liquid
state and (a few days later) that nitrogen at a temperature of
- 136° C., reduced suddenly from a pressure 'of 1 50 atmospheres to
one of 50, had been seen as a liquid which showed a true meniscus,
but disappeared in a few seconds. But with hydrogen treated
in the same way he failed to obtain even the mist reported by
Cailletet. At the beginning of 1884 he performed a more satis-
factory experiment. Cooling hydrogen in a capillary glass tube
to the temperature of liquid oxygen, he expanded it quickly
from loo atmospheres to one, and obtained the appearance of
an instantaneous ebullition. Olszewski confirmed this result
by expanding from a pressure of 190 atmospheres the gas cooled
by liquid oxygen and nitrogen boiling under reduced pressure,
and even announced that he saw it running down the walls
of the tube as a colourless liquid.
Wroblewski, however, was unable to observe this phenomenon,
and Olszewski himself, when seven years later he repeated the
experiment in the more favourable conditions afforded by a
larger apparatus, was unable to produce again the colourless
drops he had previously reported: the phenomenon of the
appearance of sudden ebullition indeed lasted longer, but he
failed to perceive any meniscus such as would have been a certain
indication of the presence of a true liquid. Still, though neither
of these investigators succeeded in reaching the goal at which
they aimed, their work was of great value in elucidating the
conditions of the problem and in perfecting the details of the
746
LIQUID GASES
apparatus employed. Wroblewski in particular devoted the
closing years of his life to a most valuable investigation of the
isothermals of hydrogen at low temperatures. From the data
thus obtained he constructed a van der Waals equation which
enabled him to calculate the critical temperature, pressure and
density of hydrogen with very much greater certainty than had
previously been possible. Liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen and
liquid air — the last was first made by Wroblewski in 1885 —
became something more than mere curiosities of the laboratory,
and by the year 1891 were produced in such quantities as to be
available for the purposes of scientific research. Still, nothing
was added to the general principles upon which the work of
Cailletet and Pictet was based, and the " cascade " method,
together with adiabatic expansion from high compression (see
CONDENSATION or GASES), remained the only means of procedure
at the disposal of experimenters in this branch of physics.
In some quarters a certain amount of doubt appears to have
arisen as to the sufficiency of these methods for the liquefaction
of hydrogen. Olszewski, for example, in 1895 pointed out
that the succession of less and less condensible gases necessary
for the cascade method breaks down between nitrogen and
hydrogen, and he gave as a reason for hydrogen not having been
reduced to the condition of a static liquid the non-existence of
a gas intermediate in volatility between those two. By 1894
attempts had been made in the Royal Institution laboratories
to manufacture an artificial gas of this nature by adding a small
proportion of air to the hydrogen, so as to get a mixture with a
critical point of about -200° C. When such a mixture was
cooled to that temperature and expanded from a high degree of
compression into a vacuum vessel, the result was a white mass
of solid air together with a clear liquid of very low density.
This was in all probability hydrogen in the true liquid state,
but it was not found possible to collect it owing to its extreme
volatility. Whether this artificial gas might ultimately have
enabled liquid hydrogen to be collected in open vessels we can-
not say, for experiments with it were abandoned in favour of
other measures, which led finally to a more assured success.
Vacuum Vessels. — The problem involved in the liquefaction
of hydrogen was in reality a double one. In the first place, the
gas had to be cooled to such a temperature that the change to
the liquid state was rendered possible. In the second, means had
to be discovered for protecting it, when so cooled, from the influx
of external heat, and since the rate at which heat is transferred
from one body to another increases very rapidly with the difference
between their temperatures, the question of efficient heat insula-
tion became at once more difficult and more urgent in proportion
to the degree of cold attained. The second part of the problem
was in fact solved first. Of course packing with non-conducting
materials was an obvious expedient when it was not necessary
that the contents of the apparatus should be visible to the eye,
but in the numerous instances when this was not the case such
measures were out of the question. Attempts were made to
secure the desired end by surrounding the vessel that contained
the cooled or liquid gas with a succession of other vessels, through
which was conducted the vapour given off from the interior one.
Such devices involved awkward complications in the arrange-
ment of the apparatus, and besides were not as a rule very efficient,
although some workers, e.g. Dr Kamerlingh Onnes, of Leiden,
reported some success with their use. In 1892 it occurred to
Dewar that the principle of an arrangement he had used nearly
twenty years before for some calorimetric experiments on the
physical constants of hydrogenium, which was a natural deduc-
tion from the work of Dulong and Petit on radiation, might be
employed with advantage as well to protect cold substances
from heat as hot ones from cold. He therefore tried the effect
of surrounding his liquefied gas with a highly exhausted space.
The result was entirely successful. Experiment showed that
liquid air contained in a glass vessel with two walls, the space
between which (was a high vacuum, evaporated at only one
fifth the rate it did when in an ordinary vessel surrounded with
air at atmospheric pressure, the convective transference of heat
by means of the gas particles being enormously reduced owing
to the vacuum. But in addition these vessels lent themselves
to an arrangement by which radiant heat could still further be
cut off, since it was found that when the inner wall was coated
with a bright deposit of silver, the influx of heat was diminished
to one-sixth of the amount existing without the metallic coating.
The total effect, therefore, of the high vacuum and silvering is
to reduce the in-going heat to one-thirtieth part. In making such
vessels a mercurial vacuum has been found very satisfactory.
The vessel in which the vacuum is to be produced is provided
with a small subsidiary vessel joined by a narrow tube with the
main vessel, and connected with a powerful air-pump. A quantity
of mercury having been placed in it, it is heated in an oil- or
air-bath to about 200° C., so as to volatilize the mercury, the
vapour of which is removed by the pump. After the process
has gone on for some time, the pipe leading to the pump is sealed
off, the vessel immediately removed from the bath, and the small
subsidiary part immersed in some cooling agent such as solid
carbonic acid or liquid air, whereby the mercury vapour is
condensed in the small vessel and a vacuum of enormous tenuity
left in the large one. The final step is to seal off the tube con-
necting the two. In this way a vacuum may be produced having
a vapour pressure of about the hundred-millionth of an atmo-
sphere at o° C. If, however, some liquid mercury be left in the
space in which the vacuum is produced, and the containing part
of the vessel be filled with liquid air, the bright mirror of mercury
which is deposited on the inside wall of the bulb is still more
effective than silver in protecting the chamber from the influx of
heat, owing to the high refractive index, which involves great re-
flecting power, and the bad heat-conducting powers of mercury.
With the discovery of the remarkable power of gas absorption
possessed by charcoal cooled to a low temperature (see below),
it became possible to make these vessels
of metal. Previously this could not be
done with success, because gas occluded
in the metal gradually escaped and vitiated
the vacuum; but now any stray gas may
be absorbed by means of charcoal so
placed in a pocket within the vacuous
space that it is cooled by the liquid in the
interior of the vessel. Metal vacuum
vessels (fig. i), of a capacity of from 2 to
20 litres, may be formed of brass, copper,
nickel or tinn'ed iron, with necks of some
alloy that is a bad conductor of heat,
silvered glass vacuum cylinders being
fitted as stoppers. Such flasks, when
properly constructed, have an efficiency
equal to that of the chemically-silvered
glass vacuum vessels now commonly used
in low temperature investigations, and
they are obviously better adapted for
principle of the Dewar vessel is utilized in the Thermos flasks
which are now extensively manufactured and employed for
keeping liquids warm in hospitals* &c.
Thermal Transparency at Low Temperatures. — The proposition,
once enunciated by Pictet, that at low temperatures all substances
have practically the same thermal transparency, and are equally
ineffective as non-conductors of heat, is based on erroneous observa-
tions. It is true that if the space between the two walls of a double-
walled vessel is packed with substances like carbon, magnesia, or
silica, liquid air placed in the interior will boil off even more quickly
than it will when the space merely contains air at atmospheric
Eressure; but in such cases it is not so much the carbon, &c., that
ring about the transference of heat, as the air contained in their
interstices. If this air be pumped out such substances are seen to
exert a very considerable influence in stopping the influx of heat,
and a vacuum vessel which has the space between its two walls
filled with a non-conducting material ot this kind preserves a liquid
gas even better than one in which that space is simply exhausted
of air. In experiments on this point double-walled glass tubes, as
nearly identical in shape and size as possible, were mounted in sets
of three on a common stem which communicated with an air-pump,
so that the degree of exhaustion in each was equal. In two of each
three the space between the double walls was filled with the powdered
material it was desired to test, the third being left empty and used
as the standard. The time required for a certain quantity of liquid
FIG. i. — Metallic
Vacuum Vessel.
transport. The
LIQUID GASES
747
(6) Vacuum space empty,
silvered on inside
surfaces
Silica in silvered
vacuum space .
(" Empty silvered vacuum i
•i Charcoal in silvered
(_ vacuum . . . . i-
It appears from these experiments that silica, charcoal, lamp-
black, and oxide of bismuth all increase the heat insulations to
four, five and six times that of the empty vacuum space. As the
chief communication of heat through an exhausted space is by
molecular bombardment, the fine powders must shorten the free
path of the gaseous molecules, and the slow conduction of heat
through the porous mass must make the conveyance of heat-
energy more difficult than when the gas molecules can impinge
upon the relatively hot outer glass surface, and then directly
on the cold one without interruption. (See Proc. Roy. Inst. xv.
821-826.)
Density of Solids and Coefficients of Expansion at Low Tempera-
tures.— The facility with which liquid gases, like oxygen or nitrogen,
can be guarded from evaporation by the proper use of vacuum
vessels (now called Dewar vessels), naturally suggests that the
specific gravities of solid bodies can be got by direct weighing when
immersed in such fluids. If the density of the liquid gas is accurately
known, then the loss of weight by fluid displacement gives the
specific gravity compared to water. The metals and alloys, o_r
substances that can be got in large crystals, are the easiest to mani-
pulate. If the body is only to be had in small crystals, then it must
be compressed under strong hydraulic pressure into coherent blocks
weighing about 40 to 50 grammes. Such an amount of material
gives a very accurate density of the body about the boiling point of
air, and a similar density taken in a suitable liquid at the ordinary
temperature enables the mean coefficient of expansion between
+ 15° C. and -185° C. to be determined. One of the most interesting
results is that the density of ice at the boiling point of air is not more
than 0-93, the mean coefficient of expansion being therefore 0-000081.
As the value of the same coefficient between o° C. and -27° C. is
0-000155, it is clear the rate of contraction is diminished to about
one-half of what it was above the melting point of the ice. This
suggests that by no possible cooling at our command is it likely we
could ever make ice as dense as water at o°C., far less 4° C. In other
words, the volume of ice at the zero of temperature would not be
the minimum volume of the water molecule, though we have every
reason to believe it would be so in the case of the majority of known
substances. Another substance of special interest is solid carbonic
acid. This body has a density of 1-53 at -78° C. and 1-633 at
-185" C., thus giving a mean coefficient of expansion between these
temperatures of 0-00057. This value is only_ about | of the co-
efficient of expansion of the liquid carbonic acid gas just above its
melting point, but it is still much greater at the low temperature
than that of highly expansive solids like sulphur, which at 40° C.
has a value of 0-00019. The following table gives the densities at the
temperature of boiling liquid air (-l8s°C.) and at ordinary tempera-
tures (17° C.), together with the mean coefficient of expansion be-
air to evaporate from the interior of this empty bulb being called i,
in each of the eight sets of triple tubes, the times required for the
tween those temperatures, in the case of a number of hydrated salts
and other substances:
same quantity to boil off from the other pairs of tubes were as
TABLE I.
follows : —
Mean
I
Charcoal ... 5 5 Lampblack .... 5
Density
at -185°
Density
at +17°
coefficient
of expansion
between
(Graphite . . . 1-3 (Lampblack .... 4
C.
C.
-185° C. and
1 Alumina . . . 3'3 ( Lycopodium . . .2-5
+ 17° C.
( Calcium carbonate 2-5 ( Barium carbonate . 1-3
I Calcium fluoride . 1-25 I Calcium phosphate . . 2-7
Aluminium sulphate (18)' .
Sodium biborate (10)
1-7194
1-7284
•6913
•6937
0-0000811
O-OOOIOOO
( Phosphorus (amor- J Lead oxide ... 2
Calcium chloride (6)
1-7187
•6775
0-0001191
phous) ... i ( Bismuth oxide ... 6
* Mercuric iodide . . 1-5
Magnesium chloride (6)
Potash alum (24)
1-6039
1-6414
•5693
•6144
0-0001072
0-0000813
Other experiments of the same kind made — (a) with similar
vacuum vessels, but with the powders replaced by metallic and
other septa ; and (b) with vacuum vessels having their walls silvered,
yielded the following results: —
Chrome alum (24) .
Sodium carbonate (10) .
Sodium phosphate (12) .
Sodium thiosulphate (5)
Potassium ferrocyanide (3)
1-7842
1-4926
1-5446
1-7635
1-8988
•7669
•4460
•5200
•7290
•8533
0-0000478
0-0001563
0-0000787
0-0000969
0-0001195
.
" (a) Vacuum space empty i f Vacuum space empty . i
Three turns silver | Three turns black paper,
paper, bright sur- black outside ... 3
face inside ... 4 Three turns black paper,
Three turns silver L black inside ... 3
Potassium ferricyanide
Sodium nitro-prusside (4) .
Ammonium chloride
Oxalic acid (2) ....
Methyl oxalate ....
1-8944
1-7196
1-5757
1-7024
1-5278
•8109
•6803
1-5188
1-6145
1-4260
0-0002244
0-0001138
0-0001820
0-0002643
0-0003482
paper, bright sur-
Paraffin .......
0-9770
0-9103
0-0003567
face outside • 4-
Naphthalene ....
1-2355
1-1589
0-0003200
Vacuum space empty i f Vacuum space empty . i
Three turns gold paper, Three turns, not touch-
gold outside . . 4 ing, of sheet lead . . 4
Some pieces of gold- ] Three turns, not touch-
Chloral hydrate ....
Urea
lodoform
Iodine
Sulphur
1-9744
1-3617
4-4459
4-8943
2-0989
1-9151
1-3190
4-1955
4-6631
2-0522
0-0001482
0-0001579
0-0002930
0-0002510
0-0001152
leaf put in so as ing, of sheet alumi-
Mercury
14-382
0-0000881 2
Sodium
1-0056
0-972
0-0001810
between walls of
\7antiim-tnVip . O-'i
Graphite (Cumberland) .
2-1302
2-0990
0-0000733
1 The figures within parentheses refer to the number of molecules
of water of crystallization.
»- 189° to -38-85° C.
It will be seen from this table that, with the exception of carbonate
of soda and chrome alum, the hydrated salts have a coefficient of
expansion that does not differ greatly from that of ice at low tempera-
tures, lodoform is a highly expansive body like iodine, and oxalate
of methyl has nearly as great a coefficient as paraffin, which is a very
expansive solid, as are naphthalene and oxalic acid. The coefficient
of solid mercury is about half that of the liquid metal, while that
of sodium is about the value of mercury at ordinary temperatures.
Further details on the subject can be found in the Proc. Roy. Inst.
(1895), and Proc. Roy. Soc. (1902).
Density of Gases at Low Temperatures. — The ordinary mode of de-
termining the density of gases may be followed, provided that the
glass flask, with its carefully ground stop-cock sealed on, can stand
an internal pressure of about five atmospheres, and that all the
necessary corrections for change of volume are made. All that is
necessary is to immerse the exhausted flask in boiling oxygen, and
then to allow the second gas to enter from a gasometer by opening
the stop-cock until the pressure is equalized. The stop-cock being
closed, the flask is now taken out of the liquid oxygen and left in
the balance-room until its temperature is equalized. It is then
weighed against a similar flask used as a counterpoise. Following
such a method, it has been found that the weight of I litre of oxygen
vapour at its boiling point of 90-5° absolute is 4-420 grammes, and
therefore the specific volume is 226-25 cc. According to the ordinary
gaseous laws, the litre ought to weigh 4-313 grammes, and the
specific volume should be 231-82 cc. In other words, the product
of pressure and volume at the boiling point is diminished by 2-46%.
In a similar way the weight of a litre of nitrogen vapour at the boiling
point of oxygen was found to be 3-90, and the inferred value for
78° absolute, or its own boiling point, would be 4-51, giving a specific
volume of 221-3.
Regenerative Cooling. — One part of the problem being thus
solved 'and a satisfactory device discovered for warding off
heat in such vacuum vessels, it remained to arrange some practi-
cally efficient method for reducing hydrogen to a temperature
sufficiently low for liquefaction. To gain that end, the idea
naturally occurred of using adiabatic expansion, not inter-
mittently, as when gas is allowed to expand suddenly from a high
compression, but in a continuous process, and an obvious way of
attempting to carry out this condition was to enclose the orifice
at which expansion takes place in a tube, so as to obtain a constant
stream of cooled gas passing over it. But further consideration
of this plan showed that although the gas jet would be cooled
near the point of expansion owing to the conversion of a portion
of its sensible heat into dynamical energy of the moving gas,
yet the heat it thus lost would be restored to it almost
LIQUID GASES
immediately by the destruction of this mechanical energy through
friction and its consequent reconversion into heat. Thus the net
result would be nil so far as change of temperature through the
performance of external work was concerned. But the con-
ditions in such an arrangement resemble that in the experiments
of Thomson and Joule on the thermal changes which occur in a
gas when it is forced under pressure through a porous plug or
narrow orifice, and those experimenters found, as the former
of them had predicted, that a change of temperature does take
place, owing to internal work being done by the attraction of the
gas molecules. Hence the effective result obtainable in practice
by such an attempt at continuous adiabatic expansion as that
suggested above is to be measured by the amount of the
" Thomson-Joule effect," which depends entirely on the internal,
not the external, work done by the gas. To Linde belongs the
credit of having first seen the essential importance of this effect
in connexion with the liquefaction of gases by adiabatic ex-
pansion, and he was, further, the first to construct an industrial
plant for the production of liquid air based on the application of
this principle.
The change of temperature due to the Thomson-Joule effect
varies in amount with different gases, or rather with the tempera-
ture at which the opera-
tion is conducted. At
ordinary temperatures
oxygen and carbonic
acid are cooled, while
hydrogen is slightly
heated. But hydrogen
also is cooled if before
being passed through the
nozzle or plug it is
brought into a thermal
condition comparable to
that of other gases at
ordinary temperatures —
that is to say, when it is
initially cooled to a tem-
perature having the same
ratio to its critical point
as their temperatures
have to their critical
points — and similarly the
more condensible gases
would be heated, and
not cooled, by passing
through a nozzle or plug
if they were employed at
a temperature sufficiently
above their critical points.
Each gas has therefore a
point of inversion of the
Thomson - Joule effect,
and this temperature is,
according to the theory
of van der Waals, about
6-75 times the critical
temperature of the body.
Olszewski has determined
the inversion-point in the
case of hydrogen, and
finds it to be 192-5°
absolute, the theoretical
critical point being thus
about 28-5° absolute,
small, being for air about
FIG.
2. — Laboratory
Machine.
Liquid
A, Air or oxygen inlet.
B, Carbon dioxide inlet.
C, Carbon dioxide valve.
D, Regenerator coils.
F, Air or oxygen expansion valve.
G, Vacuum vessel with liquid air or
oxygen.
H, Carbon dioxide and air outlet
O, Air coil.
•, Carbon dioxide coil.
The cooling effect obtained is
J° C. per atmosphere difference of pressure at ordinary tem-
peratures. But the decrement of temperature is proportional
to the difference of pressure and inversely as the absolute
temperature, so that the Thomson- Joule effect increases rapidly
by the combined use of a lower temperature and greater difference
of gas pressure. By means of the " regenerative " method of
working, which was described by C.W. Siemens in 1857, developed
and extended by Ernest Solvay in 1885, and subsequently utilized
by numerous experimenters in the construction of low tempera-
ture apparatus, a practicable liquid air plant was constructed
by Linde. The gas which has passed the orifice and is therefore
cooled is made to flow backwards round the tube that leads to the
nozzle; hence that portion of the gas that is just about to pass
through the nozzle has some of its heat abstracted, and in
consequence on expansion is cooled to a lower temperature
than the first portion. In its turn it cools a third portion in the
same way, and so the reduction of temperature goes on pro-
gressively until ultimately a portion of the gas is liquefied.
Apparatus based on this principle has been employed not only
by Linde in Germany, but also by Tripler in America and by
Hampson and Dewar in England. The last-named experimenter
exhibited in December 1895 a laboratory machine of this kind
(fig. 2), which when supplied with oxygen initially cooled to
-79° C., and at a pressure of 100-150 atmospheres, began to
yield liquid in about a quarter of an hour after starting. The
initial cooling is not necessary, but it has the advantage of
FIG. 3. — Hydrogen Jet Apparatus. A, Cylinder containing com-
pressed hydrogen. B and C, Vacuum vessels containing carbonic
acid under exhaustion and liquid air respectively. D, Regenerating
coil in vacuum vessel. F, Valve. G, Pin-hole nozzle.
reducing the time required for the operation. The efficiency of
the Linde process is small, but it is easily conducted and only
requires plenty of cheap power. When we can work turbines or
other engines at low temperatures, so as to effect cooling through
the performance of external work, then the economy in the
production of liquid air and hydrogen will be greatly increased.
This treatment was next extended to hydrogen. For the
reason already explained, it would have been futile to experiment
with this substance at ordinary temperatures, and therefore
as a preliminary it was cooled to the temperature of boiling
liquid air, about -190° C. At this temperature it is still 2^
times above its critical temperature, and therefore its liquefaction
in these circumstances would be comparable to that of air,
taken at + 60° C., in an apparatus like that just described.
Dewar showed in 1896 that hydrogen cooled in this way and ex- •
panded in a regenerative coil from a pressure of 200 atmospheres
was rapidly reduced in temperature to such an extent that
after the apparatus had been working a few minutes the issuing
jet was seen to contain liquid, which was sufficiently proved
to be liquid hydrogen by the fact that it was so cold as to freeze
liquid air and oxygen into hard white solids. Though with this
apparatus, a diagrammatic representation of which is shown
in fig. 3, it was now found possible at the time to collect the
LIQUID GASES
749
liquid in an open vessel, owing to its low specific gravity and the
rapidity of the gas-current, still the general type of the arrange-
ment seemed so promising that in the next two years there
was laid down in the laboratories of the Royal Institution
a large plant — it weighs 2 tons and contains 3000 ft. of pipe —
which is designed on precisely the same principles, although
its construction is far more elaborate. The one important
novelty, without which it is practically impossible to succeed,
is the provision of a device to surmount the difficulty of with-
drawing the liquefied hydrogen after it has
been made. The desideratum is really a
means of forming an aperture in the bottom
of a vacuum vessel by which the contained
liquid may be run out. For this purpose the
lower part of the vacuum vessel (D in fig. 3)
containing 'the jet is modified as shown in
fig. 4; the inner vessel is prolonged in a
fine tube, coiled spirally, which passes
through the outer wall of the vacuum vessel,
and thus sufficient elasticity is obtained to
pIG . Bottom enat>le the tube to withstand without fracture
of Vacuum Vessel, the great contraction consequent on the
extreme cold to which it is subjected. Such
peculiarly shaped vacuum vessels were made by Dewar's
directions in Germany, and have subsequently been supplied to
and employed by other experimenters.
With the liquefying plant above referred to liquid hydrogen
was for the first time collected in an open vessel on the loth of
May 1898. The gas at a pressure of 180 atmospheres was cooled
to -205° C. by means of liquid air boiling in vacua, and was
then passed through the nozzle of the regenerative coil, which
was enclosed in vacuum vessels in such a way as to exclude
external heat as perfectly as possible. In this way some 20 cc.
of the liquid had been collected when the experiment came
to a premature end, owing to the nozzle of the apparatus becom-
ing blocked by a dense solid — air-ice resulting from the con-
gelation of the air which was present to a minute extent as an
impurity in the hydrogen. This accident exemplifies what is
a serious trouble encountered in the production of liquid hydro-
gen, the extreme difficulty of obtaining the gas in a state of
sufficient purity, for the presence of i % of foreign matters,
such as air or oxygen, which are more condensible than hydrogen,
is sufficient to cause complete stoppage, unless the nozzle valve
and jet arrangement is of special construction. In subsequent
experiments the liquid was obtained in larger quantities —
on the i3th of June 1901 five litres of it were successfully con-
veyed through the streets of London from the laboratory of
the Royal Institution to the rooms of the Royal Society — and
it may be said that it is now possible to produce it in any desired
amount, subject only to the limitations entailed by expense.
Finally, the reduction of hydrogen to a solid state was success-
fully undertaken in 1899. A portion of the liquid carefully
isolated in vacuum-jacketed vessels was suddenly transformed
into a white mass resembling frozen foam, when evaporated
under an air-pump at a pressure of 30 or 40 mm., and sub-
sequently hydrogen was obtained as a clear transparent ice by
immersing a tube containing the liquid in this solid foam.
Liquefaction of Helium. — The subjection of hydrogen com-
pleted the experimental proof that all gases can be reduced to
the liquid and solid states by the aid of pressure and low tempera-
ture, at least so far as regards those in the hands of the chemist
at the beginning of the last decade of the igth century. But
a year or so before hydrogen was obtained in the liquid form,
a substance known to exist in the sun from spectroscopic re-
searches carried out by Sir Edward Frankland and Sir J. Norman
Lockyer was shown by Sir William Ramsay to exist on the earth
in small quantities. Helium (q.v.), as this substance was named,
was found by experiment to be a gas much less condensable
than hydrogen. Dewar in 1901 expanded it from a pressure
of 80-100 atmospheres at the temperature of solid hydrogen
without perceiving the least indication of liquefaction. Olszewski
repeated the experiment in 1905, using the still higher initial
compression of 180 atmospheres, but he equally failed to find
any evidence of liquefaction, and in consequence was inclined
to doubt whether the gas was liquefiable at all, whether in fact
it was not a truly " permanent " gas. Other investigators,
however, took a different and more hopeful view of the matter.
Dewar, for instance (Pres. Address Brit. Assoc., 1902), basing
his deductions on the laws established by van der Waals and
others from the study of phenomena at much higher tempera-
tures, anticipated that the boiling-point of the substance would
be about 5° absolute, so that the liquid would be about four
times more volatile than liquid hydrogen, just as liquid hydrogen
is four times more volatile than liquid air; and he expressed the
opinion that the gas would succumb on being subjected to the
process that had succeeded with hydrogen, except that liquid
hydrogen, instead of liquid air, evaporating under exhaustion
must be employed as the primary cooling agent, and must also
be used to surround the vacuum vessel in which the liquid
was collected.
Various circumstances combined to prevent Dewar from
actually carrying out the operation thus foreshadowed, but
his anticipations were justified and the sufficiency of the method
he indicated practically proved by Dr H. Kamerlingh Onnes,
who, working with the splendid resources of the Leiden cryogenic
laboratory, succeeded in obtaining helium in the liquid state
on the loth of July 1908. Having prepared 200 litres of the
gas (160 litres in reserve) from monazite sand,1 he cooled it with
exhausted liquid hydrogen to a temperature of 15 or 16° abs.,
and expanded it through a regenerative coil under a pressure
of 50 to 100 atmospheres, making use of the most elaborate
precautions to prevent influx of heat and securing the absence
of less volatile gases that might freeze and block the tubes of
the apparatus by including in the helium circuit charcoal cooled
to the temperature of liquid air. Operations began at 5-45
in the morning with the preparation of the necessary liquid
hydrogen, of which 20 litres were ready by 1-30. The circulation
of the helium was started at 4-30 in the afternoon and was con-
tinued until the gas had been pumped round the circuit twenty
times; but it was not till 7-30, when the last bottle of liquid
hydrogen had been brought into requisition, that the surface
of the liquid was seen, by reflection of light from below, standing
out sharply like the edge of a knife against the glass wall of the
vacuum vessel. Its boiling-point has been determined as being
4° abs., its critical temperature 5°, and its critical pressure not
more than three atmospheres. The density of the liquid is
found to be 0-015 or about twice that of liquid hydrogen. It
could not be solidified even when exhausted under a pressure
of 2 mm., which in all probability corresponds to a temperature
of 2° abs. (see Communications from the physical laboratory at
the University of Leiden, 1908-1909).
The following are brief details respecting some of the more
important liquid gases that have become available for study
within recent years. (For argon, neon, krypton, &c., see ARGON.)
Oxygen. — Liquid oxygen is a mobile transparent-liquid, possessing
a faint blue colour. At atmospheric pressure it boils at — 181-5° C. ;
under a reduced pressure of I cm. of mercury its temperature falls
to —210° C. At the boiling point it has a density of 1-124 according
to Olszewski, or of i-i68- according to Wroblewski; Dewar obtained
the value 1-1375 as the mean of twenty observations by weighing
a number of solid substances in liquid oxygen, noting the apparent
relative density of the liquid, and thence calculating its real density,
Fizeau's values for the coefficients of expansion of the solids being
employed. The capillarity of liquid oxygen is about one-sixth that
of water; it is a non-conductor of electricity, and is strongly mag-
netic. By its own evaporation it cannot be reduced to the solid
state, but exposed to the temperature of liquid hydrogen it is frozen
1 It may be noted that now that the commercial production of
oxygen is effected by the liquefaction of air, with separation of its
constituents in what is essentially a Coffey still, the chemist has at
his command large quantities not only of the less volatile con-
stituents, krypton and xenon, but also of the more volatile ones,
neon and helium. Roughly a million volumes of air contain 20
volumes of neon and helium, about 15 of the former to 5 of the latter,
approximately I volume of hydrogen being associated with them,
so that in view of the enormous amounts of oxygen that are pro-
duced, helium can be obtained in practically any quantity directly
from the atmosphere.
750
LIQUID GASES
into a solid mass, having a pale bluish tint, showing by reflection all
the absorption bands of the liquid. It is remarkable that the same
absorption bands occur in the compressed gas. Dewar gives the
melting-point as 38° absolute, and the density at the boiling-point
of hydrogen as 1-4526. The refractive index of the liquid for the
D sodium ray is 1-2236.
Ozone. — This gas is easily liquefied by the use of liquid air. The
liquid obtained is intensely blue, and on allowing the temperature
to rise, boils and explodes about -120° C. About this temperature
it may be dissolved in bisulphide of carbon to a faint blue solution.
The liquid ozone seems to be more magnetic than liquid oxygen.
Nitrogen forms a transparent colourless liquid, having a density
of 0-8042 at its boiling-point, which is -195-5° C. The refractive
index for the D line is 1-2053. Evaporated under diminished
pressure the liquid becomes solid at a temperature of -215° C.,
melting under a pressure of 90 mm. The density of the solid at
the boiling-point of hydrogen is 1-0265.
Air. — Seeing that the boiling-points of nitrogen and oxygen are
different, it might be expected that on the liquefaction of atmospheric
air the two elements would appear as two separate liquids. Such,
however, is not the case; they come down simultaneously as one
homogeneous liquid. Prepared on a large scale, liquid air may
contain as much as 50 % of oxygen when collected in open vacuum-
vessels, but since nitrogen is the more volatile it boils off first, and
as the liquid gradually becomes richer in oxygen the temperature
at which it boils rises from about -192° C. to about -182° C.
At the former temperature it has a density of about 0-910. It is a
non-conductor of electricity. Properly protected from external
heat, and subjected to high exhaustion, liquid air becomes a stiff
transparent jelly-like mass, a magma of solid nitrogen containing
liquid oxygen, which may indeed be extracted from it by means of
a magnet, or by rapid rotation of the vacuum vessel in imitation
of a centrifugal machine. The temperature of this solid under a
vacuum of about 14 mm. is -216°. At the still lower temperatures
attainable by the aid of liquid hydrogen it becomes a white solid,
having, like solid oxygen, a faint blue tint. The refractive index
of liquid air is I -2068.
Fluorine, prepared in the free state by Moissan's method of
electrolysing a solution of potassium fluoride in anhydrous hydro-
fluoric acid, was liquefied in the laboratories of the Royal Institution,
London, in 1897. Exposed to the temperature of quietly-boiling
liquid oxygen, the gas did not change its state, though it lost much
of its chemical activity, and ceased to attack glass. But a very small
vacuum formed over the oxygen was sufficient to determine lique-
faction, a result which was also obtained by cooling the gas to the
temperature of freshly-made liquid air boiling at atmospheric
pressure. Hence the boiling-point is fixed at about -187° C. The
liquid is of a clear yellow colour, possessing great mobility. Its density
is 1-14, and its capillarity rather less than that of liquid oxygen. The
liquid, when examined in a thickness of I cm., does not show any
absorption bands, and it is not attracted by a magnet. Cooled in
liquid hydrogen it is frozen to a white solid, melting at about 40° abs.
Hydrogen.— Liquid hydrogen is the lightest liquid known to the
chemist, having a density slightly less than 0-07 as compared with
water, and being six times lighter than liquid marsh-gas, which is
next in order of lightness. One litre weighs only 70 grammes, and
i gramme occupies a volume of 14-15 cc. In spite of its extreme
lightness, however, it is easily seen, has a well-defined meniscus
and drops well. At its boiling-point the liquid is only 55 times
denser than the vapour it is giving off, whereas liquid oxygen in
similar condition is 258 times denser than its vapour, and nitrogen
177 times. Its atomic volume is about 14-3, that of liquid oxygen
being 13-7, and that of liquid nitrogen 16-6, at their respective
boiling-points. Its latent heat of vaporization about the boiling-
point is about 121 gramme-calories, and the latent heat of fluidity
cannot exceed 16 units, but may be less. Hydrogen appears to have
the same specific heat in the liquid as in the gaseous state, about 3-4.
Its surface tension is exceedingly low, about one-fifth that of liquid
air at its boiling-point, or one-thirty-fifth that of water at ordinary
temperatures, and this is the reason that bubbles formed in the
liquid are so small as to give it an opalescent appearance during
ebullition. The liquid is without colour, and gives no absorption
spectrum. Electric sparks taken in the liquid between platinum
poles give a spectrum showing the hydrogen lines C and F bright
on a background of continuous spectrum. Its refractive index at
the boiling-point has theoretically the value i-n. It was measured
by determining the relative difference of focus for a parallel beam
of light sent through a spherical vacuum vessel filled successively
with water, liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen ; the result obtained
was 1-12. Liquid hydrogen is a non-conductor of electricity. The
precise determination of its boiling-point is a matter of some difficulty.
Ine nrst results obtained from the use of a platinum resistance
thermometer gave -238° C., while a similar thermometer made
with an alloy of rhodium-platinum indicated a value 8 degrees
lower. Later, a gold thermometer indicated about -249° C
while with an iron one the result was only -210" C. It was thus
evident that electrical resistance thermometers are not to be trusted
e low temperatures, since the laws correlating resistance and
:mperature are not known for temperatures at and below the
boiling-point of hydrogen, though they are certainly not the same
as those which hold good higher up the thermpmetric scale. The
same remarks apply to the use of thermo-electric junctions at such
exceptional temperatures. Recourse was therefore had to a constant-
volume hydrogen thermometer, working under reduced pressure,
experiments having shown that such a thermometer, filled with
either a simple or a compound gas (e.g. oxygen or carbonic acid)
at an initial pressure somewhat less than one atmosphere, may be
relied upon to determine temperatures down to the respective boiling-
points of the gases with which they are filled. The result obtained
was -252° C. Subsequently various other determinations were
carried out in thermometers filled with hydrogen derived from
different sources, and also with helium, the average value given by
the experiments being -252-5° C. (See " The Boiling Point of
Liquid Hydrogen determined by Hydrogen and Helium Gas Ther-
mometers," Proc. Roy. Soc., 7th February 1001.) The critical
temperature is about 30° absolute (-243° C.), and the critical
pressure about 15 atmospheres. Hydrogen has not only the lowest
critical temperature of all the old permanent gases, but it has the
lowest critical pressure. Given a sufficiently low temperature,
therefore, it is the easiest gas to liquefy so far as pressure is con-
cerned. Solid hydrogen has a temperature about 4° less. By
exhaustion under reduced pressure a still lower depth of cold may
be attained, and a steady temperature reached less than 16°
above the zero of absolute temperature. By the use of high ex-
haustion, and the most stringent precautions to prevent the influx
of heat, a temperature of 13 absolute (-260° C.) may be reached.
This is the lowest steady temperature which can be maintained by
the evaporation of solid hydrogen. At this temperature the solid
has a density of about 0-077. Solid hydrogen presents no metallic
characteristics, such as were predicted for it by Faraday, Dumas,
Graham and other chemists and neither it nor the liquid is magnetic.
The Approach to the Absolute Zero. — The achievement of
Kamerlingh Onnes has brought about the realization of a
temperature removed only 3° from the absolute zero, and the
question naturally suggests itself whether there is any proba-
bility of a still closer approach to that point. The answer is
that if, as is not impossible, there exists a gas, as yet unisolated,
which has an atomic weight one-half that of helium, that gas,
liquefied in turn by the aid of liquid helium, would render that
approach possible, though the experimental difficulties of the
operation would be enormous and perhaps prohibitive. The
results of experiments bearing on this question and of theory
based on them are shown in table II. The third column shows
the critical temperature of the gas which can be liquefied by
continuous expansion through a regenerative cooling apparatus,
the operation being started from the initial temperature shown
in the second column, while the fourth column gives the tempera-
ture of the resulting liquid. It will be seen that by the use of
liquid or solid hydrogen as a cooling agent, it should be possible
to liquefy a body having a critical temperature of about 6° to
8° on the absolute scale, and a boiling point of about 4° or 5°,
while with the aid of liquid helium at an initial temperature
of 5° we could liquefy a body having a critical temperature of
2° and a boiling point of i°.
TABLE II.
Substance.
Initial
Temperature.
Abs. Degrees.
Critical
Temperature.
Abs. Degrees.
Boiling Points.
Abs. Degrees.
(Low red heat) .
(52° C.). . .
Liquid air under
exhaustion
Liquid hydrogen
Solid hydrogen .
Liquid helium .
760
325
75
20
15
5
3°4
130
3°S
6
2
195 (C02)
86 (Air)
20 (H)
5 (He)
4
I
It is to be remarked, however, that even so the physicist
would not have attained the absolute zero, and he can scarcely
hope ever to do so. It is true he would only be a very short
distance from it, but it must be remembered that in a thermo-
dynamic sense one degree low down the scale, say at 10° absolute,
is equivalent to 30° at the ordinary temperature, and as the
experimenter gets to lower and lower temperatures, the difficulties
of further advance increase, not in arithmetical but in geo-
metrical progression. Thus the step between the liquefaction
of air and that of hydrogen is, thermodynamically and practically,
greater than that between the liquefaction of chlorine and that
of air, but the number of degrees of temperature that separates
LIQUID GASES
751
the boiling-points of the first pair of substances is less than half
what it is in the case of the second pair. But the ratio of the
absolute boiling-points in the first pair of substances is as i to 4,
whereas in the second pair it is only i to 3, and it is this value
that expresses the difficulty of the transition.
But though Ultima Thule may continue to mock the physicist's
efforts, he will long find ample scope for his energies in the
investigation of the properties of matter at the temperatures
placed at his command by liquid air and liquid and solid
hydrogen. Indeed, great as is the sentimental interest attached
to the liquefaction of these refractory gases, the importance of the
achievement lies rather in the fact that it opens out new fields
of research and enormously widens the horizon of physical
science, enabling the natural philosopher to study the properties
and behaviour of matter under entirely novel conditions. We
propose to indicate briefly the general directions in which such
inquiries have so far been carried on, but before doing so will
call attention to the power of absorbing gases possessed by cooled
charcoal, which has on that account proved itself a most valuable
agent in low temperature research.
Gas Absorption by Charcoal. — Felix Fontana was apparently
the first to discover that hot charcoal has the power of absorbing
gases, and his observations were confirmed about 1770 by Joseph
Priestley, to whom he had communicated them. A generation
later Theodore de Saussure made a number of experiments on
the subject, and noted that at ordinary temperatures the
absorption is accompanied with considerable evolution of heat.
Among subsequent investigators were Thomas Graham and
Stenhouse, Faure and Silberman, and Hunter, the last-named
showing that charcoal made from coco-nut exhibits greater
absorptive powers than other varieties. In 1874 Tait and
Dewar for the first time employed charcoal for the production of
high vacua, by using it, heated to a red heat, to absorb the
mercury vapour in a tube exhausted by a mercury pump; and
thirty years afterwards it occurred to the latter investigator to
try how its absorbing powers are affected by cooling it, with the
result that he found them to be greatly enhanced. Some of his
earlier observations are given in table III., but it must be pointed
TABLE III. — Gas Absorption by Charcoal.
Volume
absorbed at
o° Cent.
Volume
absorbed at
-185° Cent.
Helium
2 CC.
15 cc.
Hydrogen . . ...
Electrolytic gas
Argon ... ...
Nitrogen . . ...
Oxygen ... ...
Carbonic oxide
4
12
12
15
18
21
135
150
175
155
230
190
Carbonic oxide and oxygen
30
195
out that much larger absorptions were obtained subsequently
when it was found that the quality of the charcoal was greatly
influenced by the mode in which it was prepared, the absorptive
power being increased by carbonizing the coco-nut shell slowly
at a gradually increasing temperature. The results in the table
were all obtained with the same specimen of charcoal, and the
volumes of the gases absorbed, both at ordinary and at low
temperatures, were measured under standard conditions — at
o° C., and 760 mm. pressure. It appears that at the lower
temperature there is a remarkable increase of absorption for
every gas, but that the increase is in general smaller as the
boiling-points of the various gases are lower. Helium is con-
spicuous for the fact that it is absorbed to a comparatively
slight extent at both the higher and the lower temperature, but
in this connexion it must be remembered that, being the most
volatile gas known, it is being treated at a temperature which
is relatively much higher than the other gases. At -185°
( = 88° abs.), while hydrogen is at about 4^ times its boiling-point
(20° abs.), helium is at about 20 times its boiling-point (4-3° abs.),
and it might, therefore, be expected that if it were taken at a
temperature corresponding to that of the hydrogen, i.e. at 4 or 5
times its boiling-point, or say 20° abs., it would undergo much
greater absorption. This expectation is borne out by the results
shown in table IV., and it may be inferred that charcoal cooled
TABLE IV. — Gas Absorption by Charcoal at Low Temperatures.
Temperature.
Helium.
Vols. of
Carbon.
Hydrogen.
Vols. of
Carbon.
-185° C. (boiling-point of liquid air) .
-210° C. (liquid air under exhaustion)
—252° C. (boiling-point of liquid hydrogen)
-258° C. (solid hydrogen) ....
2i
5
1 60
195
137
1 80
258
in liquid helium would absorb helium as freely as charcoal
cooled in liquid hydrogen absorbs hydrogen. It is found that a
given specimen of charcoal cooled in liquid oxygen, nitrogen and
hydrogen absorbs about equal volumes of those three gases
(about 260 cc. per gramme; and, as the relation between
volume and temperature is nearly lineal at the lowest portions
of either the hydrogen or the helium absorption, it is a legitimate
inference that at a temperature of 5° to 6° abs. helium would be
as freely absorbed by charcoal as hydrogen is at its boiling-
point and that the boiling-point of helium lies at about 5° abs.
The rapidity with which air is absorbed by charcoal at-i8s° C.
and under small pressures is illustrated by table V., which shows
the reductions of pressure effected in a tube of 2000 cc. capacity
by means of 20 grammes of charcoal cooled in liquid air.
TABLE V.— -Velocity of Absorption.
Time of
Exhaustion.
Pressure
in mm.
Time of
Exhaustion.
Pressure
in mm.
o sec.
10
20
30
40
50
2-190
1-271
0-869
0-632
0-543
0-435
60 sec.
2 min.
5 „
10 „
19 -.
0-347
0-153
0-0274
0-00205
0-00025
Charcoal Occlusion Pressures. — For measuring the gas concen-
tration, pressure and temperature, use may be made of an apparatus
of the type shown in fig. 5. A mass of charcoal, E, immersed in
liquid air, is employed for the preliminary exhaustion of the McLeod
gauge G and of the charcoal C, which is to be used in the actual
experiments, and is then sealed off at S. The bulb C is then placed
in a large spherical vacuum vessel containing liquid oxygen which
can be made to boil at any definite temperature under diminished
pressure which is measured by the manometer R. The volume of
gas admitted into the charcoal is determined by the burette D and
the pipette P, and the corresponding occlusion pressure at any
concentration and any temperature below 90° abs. by the gauge G.
In presence of charcoal, and for small concentrations, great variations
are shown in the relation between the pressure and the concentration
of different gases, all at the same temperature. Table VI. gives the
TABLE VI.
Volume
of Gas
absorbed.
Occlusion
Hydrogen
Pressure.
Occlusion
Nitrogen
Pressure.
cc.
mm.
mm.
0
0-00003
0-00005
5
0-0228
10
0-0455
15
0-0645
20
0-086 1
25
0-1105
30
0-1339
0-00031
35
0-1623
40
0-1870
130
.
O-OOIIO
500
.
0-00314
IOOO
0-01756
1500
.
0-02920
2500
0-06172
comparison between hydrogen and nitrogen at the temperature of
liquid air, 25 grammes of charcoal being employed. It is seen that
15 cc. of hydrogen produce nearly the same pressure (0-0645 mm.)
as 2500 cc. of nitrogen (0-06172 mm.). This result shows how
752
LIQUID GASES
enormously greater, at the temperature of liquid air, is the volatility
of hydrogen as compared with that of nitrogen. In the same way
the concentrations, for the same pressure, vary greatly with tempera-
FIG. 5.
ture, as is exemplified by table VII., even though the pressures are
not quite constant. The temperatures employed were the boiling-
points of hydrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide.
TABLE VII.
Gas.
Concentration
in cc. per grm.
of Charcoal.
Pressure
in mm.
Temperature
Absolute.
Helium .
97
2-2
20°
Hydrogen
397
2-2
20°
Hydrogen
Nitrogen .
15
250
2-1
1-6
9°^
90'
Oxygen
300
I-O
90"
Carbon dioxide .
90
3-6
195°
Heat of Occlusion. — In every case when gases are condensed to the
liquid state there is evolution of heat, and during the absorption of
a gas in charcoal or any other occluding body, as hydrogen in
palladium, the amount of heat evolved exceeds that of direct lique-
faction. From the relation between occlusion-pressure and tempera-
ture at the same concentration, the reaction being reversible, it is
possible to calculate this heat evolution. Table VIII. gives the
TABLE VIII.
Gas.
Concentration
cc. per grm.
Molecular
Latent Heat.
Mean
Temperature
Absolute.
Helium
97
483-0
18°
Hydrogen .
390
524-4
18°
Hydrogen .
Nitrogen .
20
250
2005-6
3059-0
78"
82°
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
300
90
3146-4
6099-6
82°
1 80°
mean molecular latent heats of occlusion resulting from Dewar's
experiments for a number of gases, having concentrations in the
charcoal as shown. The concentrations were so regulated as to start
with an initial pressure not exceeding 3 mm. at the respective
boiling-points of hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Production of High Vacua. — Exceedingly high vacua can be
obtained by the aid of liquid gases, with or without charcoal.
If a vessel containing liquid hydrogen be freely exposed to the
atmosphere, a rain of snow (solid air) at once begins to fall upon
the surface of the liquid; similarly, if one end of a sealed tube
containing ordinary air be immersed in the liquid, the same
thing happens, but since there is now no new supply to take the
place of the air that has been solidified and has accumulated in
the cooled portion of the tube, the pressure is quickly reduced
to something like one-millionth of an atmosphere, and a vacuum
is formed of such tenuity that the electric discharge can be made
to pass only with difficulty. Liquid air can be employed in the
same manner if the tube, before sealing, is filled with some less
volatile gas or vapour, such as sulphurous acid, benzol or water
vapour. But if a charcoal condenser be used in conjunction with
the liquid air it becomes possible to obtain a high vacuum when
the tube contains air initially. For instance, in one experiment,
with a bulb having a capacity of 300 cc. and filled with air at a
pressure of about 1-7 mm. and at a temperature of 15° C., when
an attached condenser with 5 grammes of charcoal was cooled
in liquid air, the pressure was reduced to 0-0545 mm. of mercury
in five minutes, to 0-01032 mm. in ten minutes, 100-000139 mm.
in thirty minutes, and to 0-000047 mm- in sixty minutes. The
condenser then being cooled in liquid hydrogen the pressure fell
to 0-0000154 mm. in ten minutes, and to 0-0000058 mm. in a
further ten minutes when solid hydrogen was employed as the
cooling agent, and no doubt, had it not been for the presence
of hydrogen and helium in the air, an even greater reduction
could have been effected. Another illustration of the power
of cooled charcoal to produce high vacua is afforded by a Crookes
radiometer. If the instrument be filled with helium at atmo-
spheric pressure and a charcoal bulb attached to it be cooled
in liquid air, the vanes remain motionless even when exposed to
the concentrated beam of an electric arc lamp; but if liquid
hydrogen be substituted for the liquid air rapid rotation at once
sets in. When a similar radiometer was filled with hydrogen and
the attached charcoal bulb was cooled in liquid air rotation took
place, because sufficient of the gas was absorbed to permit
motion. But when the charcoal was cooled in liquid hydrogen
instead of in liquid air, the absorption increased and consequently
the rarefaction became so high that there was no motion when
the light from the arc was directed on
the vanes. These experiments again per-
mit of an inference as to the boiling-
point of helium. A fall of 75% in the
temperature of the charcoal bulb, from
the boiling-point of air to the boiling-
point of hydrogen, reduced the vanes to
rest in the case of the radiometer filled
with hydrogen; hence it might be in-
ferred that a fall of like amount from
the boiling-point of hydrogen would
reduce the vanes of the helium radio-
meter to rest, and consequently that the
boiling-point of helium would be about
5° abs.
The vacua obtainable by means of
cooled charcoal are so high that it is
difficult to determine the pressures by the
McLeod gauge, and the radiometer ex-
periments referred to above suggested
the possibility of another means of
ascertaining such pressures, by determin-
ing the pressures below which the radio-
meter would not spin. The following experiment shows how the
limit of pressure can be ascertained by reference to the pressures
of mercury vapour which have been very accurately determined
through a wide range of temperature. To a radiometer (fig. 6)
with attached charcoal bulb B was sealed a tube ending in a
small bulb A containing a globule of mercury. The radiometer
and bulb B were heated, exhausted and repeatedly washed out
with pure oxygen gas, and then the- mercury was allowed to distil
FIG. 6.
LIQUID GASES
753
for some time into the charcoal cooled in liquid air. On exposure
to the electric beam the vanes began to spin, but soon ceased
when the bulb A was cooled in liquid air. When, however, the
mercury was warmed by placing the bulb in liquid water, the
vanes began to move again, and in the particular
radiometer used this was found to happen when the
temperature of the mercury had risen to -23° C.
corresponding to a pressure of about one fifty-millionth
of an atmosphere.
For washing out the radiometer with oxygen the
arrangement shown in fig. 7 is convenient. Here A
is a bulb containing perchlorate of potash, which when
heated gives off pure oxygen; C is again the radiometer
and B the charcoal bulb. The side tube E is for the
purpose of examining the gas given off by minerals like
thorianite or the gaseous products of the transforma-
tion of radioactive bodies.
Analytic Uses. — Another important use of liquid
gases is an analytic agents, and for this purpose
liquid air is becoming an almost essential laboratory
reagent. It is one of the most convenient agents for
drying gases and for their purification. If a mixture
of gases be subjected to the temperature of liquid
air, it is obvious that all the constituents that are more
condensable than air will be reduced to liquid, while
those that are less condensable will either remain as
a gaseous residue or be dissolved in the liquid obtained,
bodies present in the latter may be separated by fractional
distillation, while the
contents of the gaseous
residue may be further
differentiated by the air
of still lower tempera-
tures, such as are ob-
tainable by liquid hy-
drogen. An apparatus
such as the following
can be used to separate
both the less and the
£ more volatile gases of
the atmosphere, the
former being obtained
from their solution in
liquid air by fractional
distillation at low pres-
sure and separation of
the condensable part of
the distillate by cooling
in liquid hydrogen, while
the latter are extracted
The
FIG. 7.
from the residue of liquid air, after the distillation of the first
fraction, by allowing it to evaporate gradually at a temperature
rising only very slowly.
In fig. 8, A represents a vacuum-jacketed vessel, containing
liquid air; this can be made to boil at reduced pressure and there-
fore be lowered in temperature by means of an air-pump, which is
in communication with the vessel through the pipe s. The liquid
boiled away is replenished when necessary from the reservoir C, p
being a valve, worked by handle q, by which the flow along r is
regulated. The vessel B, immersed in the liquid air of A, com-
municates with the atmosphere by a; hence when the temperature
of A falls under exhaustion below that of liquid air, the contents
of B condense, and if the stop-cock m is kept open, and n shut, air
from the outside is continuously sucked in until B is full of liquid,
which contains in solution the whole of the most volatile gases of
the atmosphere which have passed in through a. At this stage of
the operation m is closed and n opened, a passage thus being opened
along b from A to the remainder of the apparatus seen on the left
side of the figure. Here E is a vacuum vessel containing liquid
hydrogen, and d a three-way cock by which communication can be
established either btween 6 and D, between b and e, the tube lead-
ing to the sparking-tube g, or between D and e. If now d is arranged
so that there is a free passage from b to D, and the stop-cock n also
opened, the gas dissolved in the liquid in B, together with some of
the most volatile part of that liquid, quickly distils over into D,
which is at a much lower temperature than B, and some of it con-
denses there in the solid state. When a small fraction of the contents
of B has thus distilled over, d is turned so as to close the passage
between D and b and open that between D and e, with the result
that the gas in D is pumped out by the mercury-pump, shown
diagrammatically at F, along the tube e (which is immersed in the
Topump
FIG. 8. — Apparatus for Fractional Distillation.
liquid hydrogen in order that any more condensable gas carried
along by the current may be frozen out) to the sparking-tube or
tubes g, where it can be examined spectroscppically. When the
apparatus is used to separate the least volatile part of the gases
in the atmosphere, the vessel E and its contents are omitted, and the
tube b made to communicate with the pump through a number of
sparking-tubes which can be sealed off successively. The nitrogen
and oxygen which make up the bulk of the liquid in B are allowed
to evaporate gradually, the temperature being kept low so as to
check the evaporation of gases less volatile than oxygen. When
most of the oxygen and nitrogen have thus been removed, the stop-
cock n is closed, and the tubes partially exhausted by the pump;
spectroscopic examination is made of the gases they contain, and
repeated from time to time as more gas is allowed to evaporate from
B. The general sequence of spectra, apart from those of nitrogen,
oxygen and carbon compounds, which are never eliminated by the
process of distillation alone, is as follows: The spectrum of argon
first appears, followed by the brightest (green and yellow) rays of
krypton. Then the intensity of the argon spectrum wanes and it gives
way to that of krypton, until, as Runge observed, when a Leyden
jar is in the circuit, the capillary part of the sparking-tube has a
magnificent blue colour, while the wide ends are bright pale yellow.
Without a jar the tube is nearly white in the middle and yellow
about the poles. As distillation proceeds, the temperature of the
vessel containing the residue of liquid air being allowed to rise slowly,
the brightest (green) rays of xenon begin to appear, and the krypton
rays soon die out,
being superseded
by those of xenon.
At this stage the
capillary part of
the sparking-tube
is, with a jar in
circuit, a brilliant
green, and it re-
mains green,
though less
brilliant, if the
jar is removed.
An improved
form of apparatus
for the fractiona-
tion is repre-
sented in fig. 9.
The gases to be
separated, that is,
the least volatile
part of atmo-
spheric air, enter
the bulb B from a
gasholder by the FIG. 9. — Apparatus for continuous Spectroscopic
tube a with stop- Examination,
cock c. B, which
is maintained at a low temperature by being immersed in liquid
hydrogen, A, boiling under reduced pressure, in turn communi-
cates through the tube b and stop-cock d with a sparking-tube
or tubes /, and so on through e with a mercurial pump. To
754
LIQUID GASES
use the apparatus, stop-cock d is closed and c opened, and gas
allowed to pass from the gasholder into B, where it is con-
densed in the solid form. Stop-cock c then being closed and a
opened, gas passes into the exhausted tube /, where it is examined
with the spectroscope. The vessel D contains liquid air, in which
the tube e is immersed in order to condense vapour of mercury which
would otherwise pass from the pump into the sparking-tube. The
success of the operation of separating all the gases which occur in
air and which boil at different temperatures, depends on keeping
the temperature of B as low as possible, as will be understood from
the following consideration : —
The pressure p, of a gas G, above the same material in the liquid
state, at temperature T, is given approximately by the formula
For some
where A and B are constants for the same material.
other gas G' the formula will be
and
Now for argon, krypton and xenon respectively the values of A
are 6-782, 6-972 and 6-963, and those of B are 339, 496-3 and
669-2 ; ' so that for these substances and many others A-Ai is
p o
always a small quantity, while — I—. — is considerable and increases
as T diminishes. Hence the ratio of p to pi increases rapidly as T
diminishes, and by evaporating all the gases from the solid state,
and keeping the solid at as low a temperature as possible, the gas
that is taken off by the mercurial pump first consists mainly of the
substance which has the lowest boiling point, in this case nitrogen,
and is succeeded with comparative abruptness by the gas which
has the next higher boiling point. Examination of the spectrum
in the sparking-tube easily reveals the change from one gas to
another, and when that is observed the reservoirs into which the
eises are pumped can be changed and the fractions stored separately,
r several sparking-tubes may be arranged so as to form parallel
communications between b and e, and can be successively sealed off
at the desired stages of fractionation.
Analytical operations can often be performed still more
conveniently with the help of charcoal, taking advantage of the
selective character of its absorption, the general law of which is
that the more volatile the gas the less is it absorbed at a given
temperature. The following are some examples of its employ-
ment for this purpose. If it be required to separate the helium
which is often found in the gases given off by a thermal spring,
they are subjected to the action of charcoal cooled with liquid air.
The result is the absorption of the less volatile constituents, i.e.
all except hydrogen and helium. The gaseous residue, with the
addition of oxygen, is then sparked, and the water thus formed is
removed together with the excess of oxygen, when helium alone
remains. Or the 'separation may be effected by a method of
fractionation as described above. To separate the most volatile
constituents of the atmosphere an apparatus such as that shown
in fig. 10 may be employed. In one experiment with this, when
FIG. 10.
200 c.c. was supplied from the graduated gas-holder F to the
vessel D, containing 15 grammes of charcoal cooled in liquid air,
the residue which passed on unabsorbed to the sparking-tube
AB, which had a small charcoal bulb C attached, showed the C
and F lines of hydrogen, the yellow and some of the orange lines
of neon and the yellow and green of helium. By using a second
charcoal vessel E, with stop-cocks at H, I, J, K and L to facilitate
manipulation, considerable quantities of the most volatile gases
can be collected. After the charcoal in E has been saturated,
the stop-cock K is closed and I and J are opened for a short time,
to allow the less condensable gas in E to be sucked into the second
condenser D along with some portion of air. The condenser E
is then taken out of the liquid air, heated quickly to 15° C. to
expel the occluded air and replaced. More air is then passed in,
and by repeating the operation several times 50 litres of air
can be treated in a short time, supplying sparking-tubes
which will show the complete spectra of the volatile constituents
of the air.
The less volatile constituents of the atmosphere, krypton and
xenon, may be obtained by leading a current of air, purified by
passage through a series of tubes cooled in liquid air, through a
charcoal condenser also cooled in liquid air. The condenser is
then removed and placed in solid carbon dioxide at -78° C.
The gas that comes off is allowed to escape, but what remains
in the charcoal is got out by heating and exhaustion, the carbon
compounds and oxygen are removed and the residue, consisting
of nitrogen with krypton and xenon, is separated into its con-
stituents by condensation and fractionation. Another method
is to cover a few hundred grammes of charcoal with old liquid air,
which is allowed to evaporate slowly in a silvered vacuum
vessel; the gases remaining in the charcoal are then treated in
the manner described above.
Charcoal enables a mixture containing a high percentage of
oxygen to be extracted from the atmosphere. In one experiment
50 grammes of it, after being heated and exhausted were allowed
to absorb air at -185° C.; some 5 or 6 litres were taken up in
ten minutes, and it then presumably contained air of the com-
position of the atmosphere, i.e. 20% oxygen and 80% nitrogen,
as shown in fig. n. But
when more air was passed
over it, the portion that was
not absorbed was found to
consist of about 98% nitro-
gen, showing that excess of
oxygen was being absorbed,
and in the course of a few
hours the occluded gas
attained a new and apparently definite composition exhibited
in fig. 12. When the charcoal containing this mixture was
transferred to a vacuum vessel and allowed to warm up
slowly, the successive litres of gas when collected and analyzed
separately showed the following composition: —
1st litre 18-5% oxygen
2nd litre 20-6%
3rd litre 53-o%
4th litre 72-0%
5th litre 79-o%
6th litre 84-0%
Calorimetry. — Certain liquid gases lend themselves conveni-
ently to the construction of a calorimeter, in which the heat in
weighed quantities of any substance with which it is desired
to experiment may be measured by the quantity of liquid gas
they are able to evaporate. One advantage of this method is
that a great range of temperature is available when liquid air,
oxygen, nitrogen or hydrogen is employed as the calorimetric
FIG. ii.
FIG. 12.
yielded by the evaporation, as may be seen from table IX.,
TABLE IX.
Liquid Gases.
Boiling
Point.
Liquid Volume
of i gram at
Boiling Point
in c.c.
Latent Heat
in gram
Calories.
Volume of Gas
at o° C. and
760 mm. per
gram Calorie
in c.c.
Sulphurous acid
Carbonic acid
Ethylene
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Hydrogen
Helium
+ IO°C.
- 78-0
-103-0
-182-5
-195-6
-252-5
— 269-0
0-7
0-65 (solid)
i-7
0-9
1-3
H-3
7-0
97-0
142-4
119-0
53-o
50-0
125-0
13-0
»1
3-6
7-0
13-2
15-9
88-9
45o-o
which shows the special p.
that are of importance ir
easy to detect ^ gram a
•gfa gram calorie with liqu
lysical constants of the
i calorimetry. In con
various gases
sequence it is
nd so little as
ilorie with liquid air a
d hydrogen.
LIQUID GASES
755
The apparatus (fig. 13) consists of a large vacuum vessel A, of
2 or 3 litres' capacity, containing liquid air, in which is inserted a
smaller vacuum vessel B, of 25-30 c.c. capacity, having sealed to
it a long narrow tube G that projects above the mouth of A and is
held in place by some loosely packed cotton wool. To the top of
this tube the test tube C, containing the material under investiga-
tion, is connected by a piece of flexible rubber tubing D; this enables
C to be tilted so as to throw a piece or pieces of the contained material
FIG. 13. — Calorimetric Apparatus.
into the calorimeter. An improved form of this receptacle, attached
to B by a flexible tube at D', is shown at C'. In this P is a wire
movable through a cork Q and having at its end a hook by which a
piece of the substance under examination can be pulled up and
dropped into B. In the absence of other arrangements the substance
is at the temperature of the room, but when lower initial tempera-
tures are desired a vacuum vessel H containing solid carbonic acid,
liquid ethylene, air or other gas, can be placed to envelop C or C',
or higher temperatures may be obtained by filling the surrounding
vessel with vapour of water or other liquids. The gas volatilized in
B is conveyed by a side tube E to be collected in a graduated receiver
F over water, oil or other liquid. If liquid hydrogen is to be used
as the calorimetric substance the instrument must be so modified
as to prevent the ordinary atmosphere from entering G, and to
that end a current of hydrogen supplied from a Kipp apparatus is
arranged to flow continuously through D and E until the moment
of making the experiment, when it is cut off by a suitable stop-cock.
In this case the outer vessel must contain liquid hydrogen instead
of liquid air.
Dewar used pure metallic lead for the purpose of conveying
definite amounts of heat to liquid gas calorimeters of this kind,
that metal being selected on the ground of the small variation in
its specific heat at low temperatures. He was thus able to
determine the latent heats of evaporation of liquid oxygen,
nitrogen and hydrogen directly at their boiling points, and he
also ascertained the specific heats of a large number of inorganic
and organic bodies, and of some gases in the solid state, such as
carbon dioxide, sulphurous acid and ammonia. Perhaps his
most interesting results were those which showed the variation
in the specific heats of diamond, graphite and ice as typical
bodies (table X.). With Professor Curie he used both the liquid
TABLE X.
1 8° to
-78° to
-188° to
Substance.
-78° C.,
or, at
-i88°C.,
or, at
-252° C.,
or, at
-30° c.
-133° c.
-220° C.
Diamond .
Graphite
0-0794
0-1341
0-0190
0-0599
0-0043
0-0133
Ice ....
0-463*
0-285
0-146
*This is from -18° to -78° in the ice experiment
oxygen and the liquid hydrogen calorimeter for preliminary
measurements of the rate at which radium bromide gives out
energy at low temperatures. The quantity of the salt available
was 0-42 gram, and the thermal evolutions were as follows: —
Gas evolved Calories
per minute. per hour.
Liquid oxygen . 5-5 c.c. 22-8")
Liquid hydrogen 51-0 „ 31-6 [-Crystals.
Melting ice . . . 24- 1 J
Liquid oxygen . 2-0 „ 8-3 After fusion.
Liquid oxygen . 2-5 „ 10-3 Emanation condensed.
The apparent increase of heat evolution at the temperature of
liquid hydrogen was probably due to the calorimeter being too
small; hydrogen spray was thus carried away with the gas,
making the volume of gas too great and inferentially also the
heat evolved.
Liquid air and liquid hydrogen calorimeters open up an
almost unlimited field of research in the determination of specific
heats and other thermal constants, and are certain to become
common laboratory instruments for such purposes.
Chemical Action. — By extreme cold chemical action is enorm-
ously reduced, though it may not in all cases be entirely abolished
even at the lowest temperatures yet attained; one reason for
this diminution of activity may doubtless be sought in the fact
that in such conditions most substances are solid, that is, in
the state least favourable to chemical combination. Thus an
electric pile of sodium and carbon ceases to yield a current when
immersed in liquid oxygen. Sulphur, iron and other substances
can be made to burn under the surface of liquid oxygen if the
combustion is properly established before the sample is im-
mersed, and the same is true of a fragment of diamond. Nitric
oxide in the gaseous condition combines instantly with free
oxygen, producing the highly-coloured gas, nitric peroxide, but
in the solid condition it may be placed in contact with liquid
oxygen without showing any signs of chemical action. If the
combination of a portion of the mixture is started by elevation
of temperature, then detonation may take place throughout the
cooled mass. The stability of endothermic bodies like nitric
oxide and ozone at low temperatures requires further investiga-
tion. The behaviour of fluorine, which may be regarded as the
most active of the elements, is instructive in this respect. As a
gas, cooled to— 180° C. it loses the power of attacking glass;
similarly silicon, borax, carbon, sulphur and phosphorus at the
same temperature do not become incandescent in an atmosphere
of the gas. Passed into liquid oxygen, the gas dissolves and
imparts a yellowish tint to the liquid; if the oxygen has been
exposed to the air for some hours, the fluorine produces a white
flocculent precipitate, which if separated by filtering deflagrates
with violence as the temperature rises. It appears to be a
hydrate of fluorine. As a liquid at —210° fluorine attacks
turpentine also cooled to that temperature with explosive force
and the evolution of light, while the direction of a jet of hydrogen
upon its surface is immediately followed by combination and a
flash of flame. Even when the point of a tube containing solid
fluorine is broken off under liquid hydrogen, a violent explosion
ensues.
Photographic Action. — The action of light on photographic
plates, though greatly diminished at — 180°, is far from being
in abeyance; an Eastman film, for instance, remains fairly
sensitive at — 210°. At the still lower temperature of liquid
hydrogen the photographic activity is reduced to about half
what it is at that of liquid air; in other words, about 10%
of the original sensitivity remains. Experiments carried out
with an incandescent lamp, a Rontgen bulb and the ultra-violet
spark from magnesium and cadmium, to discover at what
distances from the source of light the plates must be placed in
order to receive an equal photographic impression, yielded the
results shown in table XI.
TABLE XI.
Source of Light.
Cooled
Plate.
Uncooled
Plate.
Ratio of
Intensities
at Balance.
16 C.P. lamp . .
Rontgen bulb .
Ultra-violet spark .
20 in.
10 in.
22', in.
50 in.
24! in.
90 in.
I to 6
i to 6
I to 16
It appears that the photographic action of both the incan-
descent lamp and the Rontgen rays is reduced by the temperature
of liquid air to 17% of that exerted at ordinary temperatures,
while ultra-violet radiation retains only 6%. It is possible
that the greater dissipation of the latter by the photographic
film at low temperatures than at ordinary ones is due to its
LIQUID GASES
absorption and subsequent emission as a phosphorescent glow,
and that if the plate could be developed at a low temperature
it would show no effect, the photographic action taking place
subsequently through an internal phosphorescence in the film
during the time it is heating up. With regard to the transparency
of bodies to the Rontgen radiation at low temperatures, small
tubes of the same bore, filled with liquid argon and chlorine,
potassium, phosphorus, aluminium, silicon and sulphur, were
exposed at the temperature of liquid air (hi order to keep the
argon and chlorine solid), in front of a photographic plate
shielded with a sheet of aluminium, to an X-ray bulb. The
sequence of the elements as mentioned represents the order of
increasing opacity observed in the shadows. Sodium and
liquid oxygen and air, nitrous and nitric oxides, proved much
more transparent than chlorine. Tubes of potassium, argon and
liquid chlorine showed no very marked difference of density on
the photographic plates. It appears that argon is relatively
more opaque to the Rontgen radiation than either oxygen,
nitrogen or sodium, and is on a level with potassium, chlorine,
phosphorus, aluminium and sulphur. This fact may be regarded
as supporting the view that the atomic weight of argon is twice
its density relative to hydrogen, since in general the opacity of
elements in the solid state increases with the atomic weight.
Phosphorescence. — Phosphorescing sulphides of calcium, which
are luminous at ordinary temperatures, and whose emission of
light is increased by heating, cease to be luminous if cooled to
-80° C. But their light energy is merely rendered latent, not
destroyed, by such cold, and they still retain the capacity of
taking in light energy at the low temperature, to be evolved again
when they are warmed. At the temperature of liquid air many
bodies become phosphorescent which do not exhibit the pheno-
menon at all, or only to a very slight extent, at ordinary tem-
peratures, e.g. ivory, indiarubber, egg-shells, feathers, cotton-
wool, paper, milk, gelatine, white of egg, &c. Of definite chemical
compounds, the platinocyanides among the inorganic bodies
seem to yield the most brilliant effects. Crystals of ammonium
platinocyanide, if stimulated by exposure to the ultra-violet
radiation of the electric arc — or better still of a mercury vapour
lamp in quartz — while kept moistened with liquid air, may be
seen in the dark to glow faintly so long as they are kept cold, but
become exceedingly brilliant when the liquid air evaporates
and the temperature rises. Among organic bodies the pheno-
menon is particularly well marked with the ketonic compounds
and others of the same type. The chloro-, bromo-, iodo-,
sulpho- and nitro-compounds show very little effect as a rule.
The activity of the alcohols, which is usually considerable, is
destroyed by the addition of a little iodine. Coloured salts, &c.,
are mostly inferior in activity to white ones. When the lower
temperature of liquid hydrogen is employed there is a great
increase in phosphorescence under light stimulation as compared
with that observed with liquid air. The radio-active bodies, like
radium, which exhibit self-luminosity in the dark, maintain that
luminosity unimpaired when cooled in liquid hydrogen.
Some crystals become for a time self-luminous when placed in
liquid hydrogen, because the high electric stimulation due to
the cooling causes actual electric discharges between the crystal
molecules. This phenomenon is very pronounced with nitrate
of uranium and some platinocyanides, and cooling such crystals
even to the temperature of liquid air is sufficient to develop
marked electrical and luminous effects, which are again observed,
when the crystal is taken out of the liquid, during its return to
normal temperature. Since both liquid hydrogen and liquid
air are good electrical insulators, the fact that electric discharges
take place in them proves that the electric potential generated
by the cooling must be very high. A crystal of nitrate of uranium
indeed gets so highly charged electrically that it refuses to sink
in liquid air, although its density is 2-8 times greater, but sticks
to the side of the vacuum vessel, and requires for its displacement
a distinct pull on the silk thread to which it is attached. Such
a crystal quickly removes cloudiness from liquid air by attracting
all the suspended particles to its surface, just as a fog is cleared
out of air by electrification. It is interesting to observe that
neither fuse'd nitrate of uranium nor its solution in absolute
alcohol shows any of the remarkable effects of the crystalline
state on cooling.
Cohesion. — The physical force known as cohesion is greatly
increased by low temperatures. This fact is of much interest
in connexion with two conflicting theories of matter. Lord
Kelvin's view was that the forces that hold together the ultimate
particles of bodies may be accounted for without assuming any
other forces than that of gravitation, or any other law than the
Newtonian. An opposite view is that the phenomena of cohe-
sion, chemical union, &c., or the general phenomena of the
aggregation of molecules, depend on the molecular vibrations as
a physical cause (Tolver Preston, Physics of the Ether, p. 64).
Hence at the zero of absolute temperature, this vibrating energy
being in complete abeyance, the phenomena of cohesion should
cease to exist and matter generally be reduced to an incoherent
heap of " cosmic dust." This second view receives no support
from experiment. Atmospheric air, for instance, frozen at the
temperature of liquid hydrogen, is a hard solid, the strength of
which gives no hint that with a further cooling of some 20
degrees it would crumble into powder. On the contrary, the
lower the scale of temperature is descended, the more powerful
become the forces which hold together the particles of matter.
A spiral of fusible metal, which at ordinary temperatures cannot
support the weight of an ounce without being straightened out,
will, when cooled to the temperature of liquid oxygen, and so
long as it remains in that cooled condition, support several
pounds and vibrate like a steel spring. Similarly a bell of fusible
metal at -182° C. gives a distinct metallic ring when struck.
Balls of iron, lead, tin, ivory, &c., thus cooled, exhibit an in-
creased rebound when dropped from a height; an indiarubber
ball, on the other hand, becomes brittle, and is smashed to atoms
by a very moderate fall. Tables XII. and XIII., which give the
mean results of a large number of experiments, show the increased
breaking stress gained by metals while they are cooled to the
temperature of liquid oxygen.
TABLE XII. — Breaking Stress in Pounds of Metallic Wires 0-098 inch
in diameter.
+ 15° C. -182° C.
Steel (soft)
Iron
Copper .
Brass
German silver
Gold
Silver
420
320
200
310
470
255
700
670
300
440
600
340
420
TABLE XIII.— Breaking Stress in Pounds of Cast Metallic Test-
pieces; diameter of rod— 0-2 inch.
+ 15° C -182° C.
Tin . 200 390
Lead . 77 170
Zinc . 35 26
Mercury O 31
Bismuth 60 30
Antimony 6l 30
Solder 300 645
Fusible metal (Wood) 140 450
In the second series of experiments the test-pieces were 2 in.
long and were all cast in the same mould. It will be noticed that
in the cases of zinc, bismuth and antimony the results appear
to be abnormal, but it may be pointed out that it is difficult
to get uniform castings of crystalline bodies, and it is probable
that by cooling such stresses are set up in some set of cleavage
planes as to render rupture comparatively easy. In the case of
strong steel springs the rigidity modulus does not appear to be
greatly affected by cold, for although a number were examined,
no measurable differences could be detected in their elongation
under repeated additions of the same load. No quantitative
experiments have been made on the cohesive properties of the
metals at the temperature of boiling hydrogen (-252°), owing
to the serious cost that would be involved. A lead wire cooled
in liquid hydrogen did not become brittle, as it could be bent
backwards and forwards in the liquid.
Electrical Resistivity. — The first experiments on the con-
ductivity of metals at low temperatures appear to have been
LIQUID GASES
757
made by Wroblewski (Comptes rendus, ci. 160), and by
Cailletet and Bouty (Journ. de phys. 1885, p. 297). The former's
experiments were undertaken to test the suggestion made by
Clausius that the resistivity of pure metals is sensibly proportional
to the absolute temperature; he worked with copper having a
conductibility of 98 %, and carried out measurements at various
temperatures, the lowest of which was that given by liquid
nitrogen boiling under reduced pressure. His general conclusion
was that the resistivity decreases much more quickly than the
absolute temperature, so as to approach zero at a point not far
below the temperature of nitrogen evaporating in vacua . Cailletet
and Bouty, using ethylene as the refrigerant, and experimenting
at temperatures ranging from o° C. to -100° C. and -123° C.,
constructed formulae intended to give the coefficients of variation
in electrical resistance for mercury, tin, silver, magnesium,
aluminium, copper, iron and platinum. Between 1892 and 1896
Dewar and Fleming carried out a large number of experiments
to ascertain the changes of conductivity that occur in metals
and alloys cooled in liquid air or oxygen to -200° C. The method
employed was to obtain the material under investigation in the
form of a fine regular wire and to wind it in a small coil; this
was then plunged in the liquid and its resistance determined.
The accompanying chart (fig. 14) gives the results in a com-
pendious form, the temperatures being expressed not in degrees
of the ordinary air-thermometer scale, but in platinum degrees
as given by one particular platinum resistance thermometer
which was used throughout the investigation. A table showing
the value of these degrees in degrees centigrade according to
Dickson will be found in the Phil. Mag. for June 1898, p. 527;
to give some idea of the relationship, it may be stated here that
-100° of the platinum thermometer= -94°-2 C., -150° plat.
= - i40°-78 C., and -200° plat. = - 185° 53 C. In general, the
resistance of perfectly pure metals was greatly decreased by cold
— so much so that, to judge by the course of the curves on the
chart, it appeared probable that at the zero of absolute tempera-
ture resistance would vanish altogether and all pure metals
become perfect conductors of electricity. This conclusion,
however, has been rendered very doubtful by subsequent
observations by Dewar, who found that with the still lower
temperatures attainable with liquid hydrogen the increases of
conductivity became less for each decrease of temperature, until
a point was reached where the curves bent sharply round and
any further diminution of resistance became very small; that is,
the conductivity remained finite. The reduction in resistance
of some of the metals at the boiling point of hydrogen is very
remarkable. Thus copper has only rirth, gold^th, platinum^th
to -fa th, silver -j^th the resistance at melting ice, but iron is only
reduced to jth part of the same initial resistance. Table XIV.
shows the progressive decrease of resistance for certain metals
and one alloy as the temperature is lowered from that of boiling
water down to that of liquid hydrogen boiling under reduced
pressure; it also gives the " vanishing temperature," at which
the conductivity would become perfect if the resistance continued
to decrease in the same ratio with still lower temperatures,
the values being derived from the extrapolation curves of the
relation between resistance and temperature, according to
Callendar and Dickson. It will be seen that many of the sub-
stances have actually been cooled to a lower temperature than
that at which their resistance ought to vanish.
In the case of alloys and impure metals, cold brings about a
much smaller decrease in resistivity, and the continuations of the
curves at no time show any sign of passing through the zero
point. The influence of the presence of impurities in minute
quantities is strikingly shown in the case of bismuth. Various
specimens of the metal, prepared with great care by purely
chemical methods, gave in the hands of Dewar and Fleming
some very anomalous results, appearing to reach at -80° C. a
maximum of conductivity, and thereafter to increase in resistivity
with decrease of temperature. But when the determinations
were carried out on a sample of really pure bismuth prepared
electrolytically, a normal curve was obtained corresponding to
that given by other pure metals. As to alloys, there is usually
some definite mixture of two pure metals which has a maximum
resistivity, often greater than that of either of the constituents.
It appears too that high, if not the highest, resistivity corresponds
to possible chemical compounds of the two metals employed,
e.g. platinum 33 parts with silver 66 parts = PtAg4; iron 80 with
nickel 2o=Fe4Ni; platinum 80 with iridium 2o = IrPt4; and
50 000
45.000
35.000
30.000
25.000
JO.OOO
15.000
10.000
VARIATION OF
ELECTRICALRESISTANCE OF PURE METALS AND ALLOYS
WITH TEMPERATURE .
DEWAR AND FLEMING
MAN6ANIN
*/
s-
at 200° C.
30.000
-300 -250 -200 -ISO -100 -50 0 -SO -100 -ISO
TEMPERATURE IN PLATINUM DEGREES'.
«sooo
4.000
25000
too*
liOM
•200
FIG. 14. — Chart of the Variation of Electrical Resistance of Pure
Metals and Alloys with Temperature. (Dewar and Fleming.)
copper 70 with manganese 30 = Cu2Mn. The product obtained by
adding a small quantity of one metal to another has a higher
specific resistance than the predominant constituent, but the
curve is parallel to, and therefore the same in shape as, that of
the latter (cf . the curves for various mixtures of Al and Cu on the
chart). The behaviour of carbon and of insulators like gutta-
percha, glass, ebonite, &c., is in complete contrast to the metals,
758
LIQUID GASES
TABLE XIV.
Metals.
Platinum.
Platinum-
rhodium
Alloy.
Gold.
Silver.
Copper.
Iron.
Resistance at 100° C. . . . . .
o°C
carbonic acid . . . .
liquid oxygen . . . .
„ nitrogen
,, oxygen under exhaustion
„ hydrogen
,, hydrogen under exhaustion
Resistance coefficients
Vanishing temperatures (Centigrade) . . . j
39-655
28-851
19-620
7-662
4-634
0-826
0-705
0-003745
-244-50°
-244-15°
36-87
31-93
22-17
20-73
18-96
18-90
0-003607
-543-39°
-530-32°
16-10
11-58
3-380
0-381
0-298
0-003903
-257-90°
-257-8°
8-336
5-990
1-669
0-244
0-226
0-003917
-252-26°
-252-25°
11-572
8-117
1-589
1-149
0-077
0-071
0-004257
-225-62°
-226-04°
4-290
2-765
0-633
0-356
0-005515
-258-40° C.
-246-80° D.
for their resistivity steadily increases with cold. The thermo-
electric properties of metals at low temperatures are discussed
in the article THERMOELECTRICITY.
Magnetic Phenomena. — Low temperatures have very marked
effects upon the magnetic properties of various substances.
Oxygen, long known to be slightly magnetic in the gaseous state,
is powerfully attracted in the liquid condition by a magnet,
and the same is true, though to a less extent, of liquid air,
owing to the proportion of liquid oxygen it contains. A magnet
of ordinary carbon steel has its magnetic moment temporarily
increased by cooling, that is, after it has been brought to a
permanent magnetic condition (" aged "). The effect of the first
immersion of such a magnet in liquid air is a large diminution
in its magnetic moment, which decreases still further when it is
allowed to warm up to ordinary temperatures. A second cooling,
however, increases the magnetic moment, which is again decreased
by warming, and after a few repetitions of this cycle of cooling
and heating the steel is brought into a condition such that its
magnetic moment at the temperature of liquid air is greater by
a constant percentage than it is at the ordinary temperature of
the air. The increase of magnetic moment seems then to have
reached a limit, because on further cooling to the temperature
of liquid hydrogen hardly any further increase is observed. The
percentage differs with the composition of the steel and with its
physical condition. It is greater, for example, with a specimen
tempered very soft than it is with another specimen of the same
steel tempered glass hard. Aluminium steels show the same kind
of phenomena as carbon ones, and the same may be said of chrome
steels in the permanent condition, though the effect of the
first cooling with them is a slight increase of magnetic moment.
Nickel steels present some curious phenomena. When containing
small percentages of nickel (e.g. 0-84 or 3-82), they behave under
changes of temperature much like carbon steel. With a sample
containing 7-65%, the phenomena after the permanent state
had been reached were similar, but the first cooling produced
a slight increase in magnetic moment. But steels containing
18-64 and 29% of nickel behaved very differently. The result
of the first cooling was a reduction of the magnetic moment,
to the extent of nearly 50% in the case of the former. Warming
again brought about an increase, and the final condition was that
at the temperature of liquid air the magnetic moment was always
less than at ordinary temperatures. This anomaly is all the more
remarkable in that the behaviour of pure nickel is normal, as
also appears to be generally the case with soft and hard iron.
Silicon, tungsten and manganese steels are also substantially
normal in their behaviour, although there are considerable
differences in the magnitudes of the variations they display
(Proc. Roy. Soc. Ix. 57 et seq.; also "The Effect of Liquid
Air Temperatures on the Mechanical and other Properties
of Iron and its Alloys," by Sir James Dewar and Sir Robert
Hadfield, Id. Ixxiv. 326-336).
Low temperatures also affect the permeability of iron, i.e. the
degree of magnetization it is capable of acquiring under the
influence of a certain magnetic force. With fine Swedish iron,
carefully annealed, the permeability is slightly reduced by
cooling to - 185° C. Hard iron, however, in the same circum-
stances suffers a large increase of permeability. Unhardened
steel pianoforte wire, again, behaves like soft annealed iron. As
to hysteresis, low temperatures appear to produce no appreciable
effect in soft iron; for hard iron the observations are undecisive.
Biological Research. — The effect of cold upon the life of living
organisms is a matter of great intrinsic interest as well as of wide
theoretical importance. Experiment indicates that moderately
high temperatures are much more fatal, at least to the lower
forms of life, than are exceedingly low ones. Professor M'Ken-
drick froze for an hour at a temperature of -182° C. samples of
meat, milk, &c., in sealed tubes; when these were opened, after
being kept at blood-heat for a few days, their contents were
found to be quite putrid. More recently some more elaborate
tests were carried out at the Jenner (now Lister) Institute of
Preventive Medicine on a series of typical bacteria. These were
exposed to the temperature of liquid air for twenty hours, but
their vitality was not affected, their functional activities re-
mained unimpaired and the cultures which they yielded were
normal in every respect. The same result was obtained when
liquid hydrogen was substituted for air. A similar persistence of
life has been demonstrated in seeds, even at the lowest tempera-
tures; they were frozen for over 100 hours in liquid air at the
instance of Messrs Brown and Escombe, with no other effect than
to afflict their protoplasm with a certain inertness, from which it
recovered with warmth. Subsequently commercial samples of
barley, peas and vegetable-marrow and mustard seeds were
literally steeped for six hours in liquid hydrogen at the Royal
Institution, yet when they were sown by Sir W. T. Thiselton
Dyer at Kew in the ordinary way, the proportion in which
germination occurred was no smaller than with other batches
of the same seeds which had suffered no abnormal treatment.
Mr Harold Swithinbank has found that exposure to liquid air
has little or no effect on the vitality of the tubercle bacillus,
although by very prolonged exposures its virulence is modified
to some extent; but alternate exposures to normal and very
cold temperatures do have a decided effect both upon its vitality
and its virulence. The suggestion once put forward by Lord
Kelvin, that life may in the first instance have been conveyed
to this planet on a meteorite, has been objected to on the ground
that any living organism would have been killed before reaching
the earth by its passage through the intense cold of interstellar
space; the above experiments on the resistance to cold offered
by seeds and bacteria show that this objection at least is not
fatal to Lord Kelvin's idea.
At the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine liquid air has
been brought into use as an agent in biological research. An
inquiry into the intracellular constituents of the typhoid bacillus,
initiated under the direction of Dr Allan Macfadyen, necessitated
the separation of the cell-plasma of the organism. The method
at first adopted for the disintegration of the bacteria was to
mix them with silver-sand and churn the whole up in a closed
vessel in which a series of horizontal vanes revolved at a high
speed. But certain disadvantages attached to this procedure,
and accordingly some means was sought to do away with the
sand and triturate the bacilli per se. This was found in liquid
air, which, as had long before been shown at the Royal Institution,
has the power of reducing materials like grass or the leaves of
plants to such a state of brittleness that they can easily be
LIQUORICE— LIQUOR LAWS
759
powdered in a mortar. By its aid a complete trituration of the
typhoid bacilli has been accomplished at the Jenner Institute,
and the same process, already applied with success also to yeast
cells and animal cells, is being extended in other directions.
Industrial Applications. — While liquid air and liquid hydrogen
are being used in scientific research to an extent which increases
every day, their applications to industrial purposes are not so
numerous. The temperatures they give used as simple refriger-
ants are much lower than are generally required industrially,
and such cooling as is needed can be obtained quite satisfactorily,
and far more cheaply, by refrigerating machinery employing
more easily condensable gases. Their use as a source of motive
power, again, is impracticable for any ordinary purposes, on the
score of inconvenience and expense. Cases may be conceived
of in which for special reasons it might prove advantageous
to use liquid air, vaporized by heat derived from the surrounding
atmosphere, to drive compressed-air engines, but any advantage
so gained would certainly not be one of cheapness. No doubt
the power of a waterfall running to waste might be temporarily
conserved in the shape of liquid air, and thereby turned to useful
effect. But the reduction of air to the liquid state is a process
which involves the expenditure of a very large amount of energy,
and it is not possible even to recover all that expended energy
during the transition of the material back to the gaseous state.
Hence to suggest that by using liquid air in a motor more power
can be developed than was expended in producing the liquid air
by which the motor is worked, is to propound a fallacy worse than
perpetual motion, since such a process would have an efficiency
of more than 100%. Still, in conditions where economy is of
no account, liquid air might perhaps, with effectively isolated
storage, be utilized as a motive power, e.g. to drive the engines
of submarine boats and at the same time provide a supply of
oxygen for the crew; even without being used in the engines,
liquid air or oxygen might be found a convenient form in which
to store the air necessary for respiration in such vessels. But a
use to which liquid air machines have already been put to a
large extent is for obtaining oxygen from the atmosphere.
Although when air is liquefied the oxygen and nitrogen are
condensed simultaneously, yet owing to its greater volatility the
latter boils off the more quickly of the two, so that the remaining
liquid becomes gradually richer and richer in oxygen. The
fractional distillation of liquid air is the method now universally
adopted for the preparation of oxygen on a commercial scale,
while the nitrogen simultaneously obtained is used for the
production of cyanamide, by its action on carbide of calcium.
An interesting though minor application of liquid oxygen, or
liquid air from which most of the nitrogen has evaporated,
depends on the fact that if it be mixed with powdered charcoal,
or finely divided organic bodies, it can be made by the aid of a
detonator to explode with a violence comparable to that of
dynamite. This explosive, which might properly be called an
emergency one, has the disadvantage that it must be prepared
on the spot where it is to be used and must be fired without delay,
since the liquid evaporates in a short time and the explosive
power is lost; but, on the other hand, if a charge fails to go off
it has only to be left a few minutes, when it can be withdrawn
without any danger of accidental explosion.
For further information the reader may consult W. L. Hardin,
Rise and^ Development of the Liquefaction of Gases (New York, 1899),
and Lefevre, La Liquefaction des gaz et ses applications; also the
article CONDENSATION OF GASES. But the literature of liquid gases
is mostly contained in scientific periodicals and the proceedings of
learned societies. Papers by Wroblewski and Olszewski on the
liquefaction of oxygen and nitrogen may be found in the Comptes
rendus, vols. xcvi.-cii., and there are important memoirs by the
former on the relations between the gaseous and liquid states and on
the compressibility of hydrogen in Wien. Akad. Sitzber. vols. xciv.
and xcvii. ; his pamphlet Comme I' air a ete liquefie (Paris, 1885)
should also be referred to. For Dewar's work, see Proc. Roy. Inst.
from 1878 onwards, including " Solid Hydrogen " (1900) ; " Liquid
Hydrogen Calorimetry " (1904); " New Low Temperature Pheno-
mena' (1905); " Liquid Air and Charcoal at Low Temperatures "
(1906) ; " Studies in High Vacua and Helium at Low Temperatures "
1907); also "The Nadir of Temperature and Allied Problems"
Bakerian Lecture), Proc. Roy. Soc. (1901), and the Presidential
i
Address to the British Association (1902). The researches of Fleming
and Dewar on the electrical and magnetic properties of substances
at low temperatures are described in Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. lx., and
Proc. Roy. Inst. (1896) ; see also " Electrical Resistance of Pure
Metals, Alloys and Non-Metals at the Boiling-point of Oxygen,"
Phil. Mag. vol. xxxiv. (1892); "Electrical Resistance of Metals
and Alloys at Temperatures approaching the Absolute Zero," ibid.
vol. xxxvi. (1893); " Thermoelectric Powers of Metals and Alloys
between the Temperatures of the Boiling-point of Water and the
Boiling-point of Liquid Air, " ibid. vol. xl. (1895) ; and papers on the
dielectric constants of various substances at low temperatures in
Proc. Roy. Soc. vols. Ixi. and Ixii. Optical and spectroscopic work
by Liveing and Dewar on liquid gases is described in Phil. Mag.
vols. xxxiv. (1892), xxxvi. (1893), xxxviii. (1894) and xl. (1895);
for papers by the same authors on the separation and spectroscopic
examination of the most volatile and least volatile constituents of
atmospheric air, see Proc. Roy. Soc. vols. Ixiv., Ixvii. and Ixviii.
An account of the influence of very low temperatures on the ger-
minative power of seeds is given by H. T. Brown and F. Escombe
in Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. Ixii., and by Sir W. Thiselton Dyer, ibid.
vol. Ixv., and their effect on bacteria is discussed by A. Macfadyen,
ibid. vols. Ixvi. and Ixxi. (J. DR.)
LIQUORICE. The hard and semi-vitreous sticks of paste,
black in colour and possessed of a sweet somewhat astringent
taste, known as liquorice paste or black sugar, are the inspissated
juice of the roots of a leguminous plant, Glycyrrhiza glabra, the
radix glycyrrhizae of the pharmacopoeia. The plant is cultivated
throughout the warmer parts of Europe, especially on the
Mediterranean shores, and to some extent in Louisiana and
California. The roots for use are obtained in lengths of 3 or 4 ft.,
varying in diameter from J to i in.; they are soft, flexible and
fibrous, and internally of a bright yellow colour, with a character-
istic, sweet pleasant taste. To this sweet taste of its root the plant
owes its generic name Glycyrrhiza (y\vKvppi£a, the sweet-root),
of which the word liquorice is a corruption. The roots contain
grape-sugar, starch, resin, asparagine, malic acid and the
glucoside glycyrrhizin, CM H^ O9, a yellow amorphous powder
with an acid reaction and a distinctive bitter-sweet taste. On
hydrolysis, glycyrrhizin yields glucose and glycyrrhetin.
Stick liquorice is made by crushing and grinding the roots to a
pulp, which is boiled in water over an open fire, and the decoction
separated from the solid residue of the root is evaporated till a
sufficient degree of concentration is attained, after which, on cooling,
it is rolled into the form of sticks or other shapes for the market.
The preparation of the juice is a widely extended industry along
the Mediterranean coasts; but the quality best appreciated in the
United Kingdom is made in Calabria, and sold under the names of
Solazzi and Corigliano juice. Liquorice enters into the composition
of many cough lozenges and other demulcent preparations; and in
the form of aromatic syrups and elixirs it has a remarkable effect in
masking the taste of nauseous medicines.
LIQUOR LAWS. In most Western countries the sale of
alcoholic liquor is regulated by law. The original and principal
object is to check the evils arising from the immoderate use of
such liquor, in the interest of public order, morality and health;
a secondary object is to raise revenue from the traffic. The
form and the stringency of the laws passed for these purposes
vary very widely in different countries according to the habits
of the people and the state of public opinion. The evils which
it is desired to check are much greater in some countries than
in others. Generally speaking they are greater in northern
countries and cold and damp climates than in southern and
more sunny ones. Climate has a marked influence on diet for
physiological reasons over which we have no control. The fact
is attested by universal experience and is perfectly natural and
inevitable, though usually ignored in those international com-
parisons of economic conditions and popular customs which have
become so common. It holds good both of food and drink. The
inhabitants of south Europe are much less given to alcoholic
excess than those of central Europe, who again are more
temperate than those of the north. There is even a difference
between localities so near together as the east and west of
Scotland. The chairman of the Prison Commissioners pointed
out before a British royal commission in the year 1897 the
greater prevalence of drunkenness in the western half, and
attributed it in part to the dampness of the climate on the
western coast. But race also has an influence. The British
carry the habit of drinking wherever they go, and their colonial
LIQUOR LAWS
[UNITED KINGDOM
descendants retain it even in hot and dry climates. The Slav
peoples and the Magyars in central Europe are much more
intemperate than the Teutonic and Latin peoples living under
similar climatic conditions. These natural differences lead, in
accordance with the principle discerned and enunciated by
Montesquieu, to the adoption of different laws, which vary with
the local conditions. But social laws of this character also vary
with the state of public opinion, not only in different countries
but in the same country at different times. The result is that
the subject is in a state of incessant flux. There are not only
many varieties of liquor laws, but also frequent changes in them,
and new experiments are constantly being tried. The general
tendency is towards increased stringency, not so much because
the evils increase, though that happens in particular places at
particular times, as because public opinion moves broadly to-
wards increasing condemnation of excess and increasing reliance
on legislative interference. The first is due partly to a general
process of refining manners, partly to medical influence and the
growing attention paid to health; the second to a universal
tendency which seems inherent in democracy.
Liquor laws may be classified in several ways, but the most
useful way for the present purpose will be to take the principal
methods of conducting the traffic as they exist, under four main
headings, and after a brief explanation give some account of the
laws in the principal countries which have adopted them. The
four methods are: (i) licensing or commercial sale for private
profit under a legal permit; (2) sale by authorized bodies not
for private profit, commonly known as the Scandinavian or
company system; (3) state monopoly; (4) prohibition. It is
not a scientific classification, because the company system is a
form of licensing and prohibition is no sale at all; but it follows
the lines of popular discussion and is more intelligible than one
of a more technical character would be. All forms of liquor
legislation deal mainly with retail sale, and particularly with
the sale for immediate consumption on the spot.
1. Licensing. — This is by far the oldest and the most widely
adopted method; it is the one which first suggests itself in the
natural course of things. Men begin by making and selling a
thing without let or hindrance to please themselves. Then
objections are raised, and when they are strong or general enough
the law interferes in the public interest, at first mildly; it says
in effect — This must not go on in this way or to this extent;
there must be some control, and permission will only be given to
duly authorized persons. Such persons are licensed or permitted
to carry on the traffic under conditions, and there is obviously
room for infinite gradations of strictness in granting permission
and infinite variety in the conditions imposed. The procedure
may vary from mere notification of the intention to open an
establishment up to a rigid and minutely detailed system of
annual licensing laid down by the law. But in all cases, even
when mere notification is required, the governing authority has
the right to refuse permission or to withdraw it for reasons given,
and so it retains the power of control. At the same time holders
of the permission may be compelled to pay for the privilege and
so contribute to the public revenue. The great merit of the
licensing system is its perfect elasticity, which permits adjust-
ment to all sorts of conditions and to the varying demands of
public opinion. It is in force in the United Kingdom, which first
adopted it, in most European countries, in the greater part of
North America, including both the United States and Canada,
in the other British dominions and elsewhere.
2. The Scandinavian or Company System. — The principle
of this method is the elimination of private profit on the ground
that it removes an incentive to the encouragement of excessive
drinking. A monopoly of the sale of liquor is entrusted to a
body of citizens who have, or are supposed to have, no personal
interest in it, and the profits are applied to public purposes.
The system, which is also called " disinterested management,"
is adopted in Sweden and Norway; and the principle has been
applied in a modified form in England and Finland by the
operation of philanthropic societies which, however, have no
monopoly but are on the same legal footing as ordinary traders.
3. State Monopoly. — As the name implies, this system consists
in retaining the liquor trade in the hands of the state, which
thus secures all the profit and is at the same time able to exercise
complete control. It is adopted in Russia, in certain parts of the
United States and, in regard to the wholesale trade, in Switzer-
land.
4. Prohibition. — This may be general or local; in the latter
case it is called " local option " or " local veto." The sale of
liquor is made illegal in the hope of preventing drinking altogether
or of diminishing it by making it more difficult. General pro-
hibition has been tried in some American states, and is still in
force in a few; it is also applied to native races, under civilized
rule, both in Africa and North America. Local prohibition
is widely in force in the United States, Canada and Australasia,
Sweden and Norway. In certain areas in other countries,
including the United Kingdom, the sale of liquor is in a sense
prohibited, not by the law, but by the owners of the property
who refuse to allow any public-houses. Such cases have nothing
to do with the law, but they are mentioned here because reference
is often made to them by advocates of legal prohibition.
THE UNITED KINGDOM
England has had a very much longer experience of liquor
legislation than any other country, and the story forms an intro-
duction necessary to the intelligent comprehension of liquor
legislation in general. England adopted a licensing system
in 1551, and has retained it, with innumerable modifications,
ever since. The English were notorious for hard drinking for
centuries before licensing was adopted, and from time to time
sundry efforts had been made to check it, but what eventually
compelled the interference of the law was the growth of crime
and disorder associated with the public-houses towards the end
of the 1 5th century. Numbers of men who had previously been
engaged in the civil wars or on the establishment of feudal
houses were thrown on the world and betook themselves to the
towns, particularly London, where they frequented the ale-
houses, " dicing and drinking," and lived largely on violence
and crime. An act was passed in 1495 against vagabonds and
unlawful games, whereby justices of the peace were empowered
to " put away common ale-selling in towns and places where
they should think convenient and to take sureties of keepers
of ale-houses in their good behaviour." That was the beginning
of statutory control of the trade. The act clearly recognized
a connexion between public disorder and public-houses. The
latter were ale-houses, for at that time ale was the drink of the
people; spirits had not yet come into common use, and wine,
the consumption of which on the premises was prohibited in
1552, was only drunk by the wealthier classes.
Early History of Licensing. — The act of 1551-1552, which
introduced licensing, was on the same lines but went further.
It confirmed the power of suppressing common ale-selling, and
enacted that no one should be allowed to keep a common ale-
house or " tippling " house without obtaining the permission
of the justices in open session or of two of their number. It
further " directed that the justices should take from the persons
whom they licensed such bond and surety by recognisance as
they should think convenient, and empowered them in quarter
session to inquire into and try breaches by licensed persons of
the conditions of their recognisances and cases of persons keep-
ing ale-houses without licences and to punish the offenders "
(Bonham Carter, Royal Commission on Liquor Licensing Laws,
vol. iii.). This act embodied the whole principle of licensing,
and the object was clearly stated in the preamble: " For
as much as intolerable hurts and troubles to the commonwealth
of this realm doth daily grow and increase through such abuses
and disorders as are had and used in common ale-houses and
other places called tippling houses." The evil was not due
merely to the use of alcoholic liquor but to the fact that these
houses, being public-houses, were the resort of idle and disorderly
characters. The distinction should be borne in mind.
The act seems to have been of some effect, for no further
legislation was alternated for half a century, though there is
UNITED KINGDOM]
LIQUOR LAWS
761
Mr
abundant evidence of the intemperate habits of all classes.
Bonham Carter (loc. cit.) observes: —
" The recognisances referred to in the act were valuable instru-
ments for controlling the conduct of ale-house keepers. The justices,
in exercise of their discretion, required the recognisances to contain
such conditions for the management and good order of the business
as they thought suitable. In this way a set of regulations came into
existence, many of which were subsequently embodied in acts of
Parliament. In some counties general rules were drawn up, which
every ale-house keeper was bound to observe."
It is interesting to note that among the conditions laid
down about this time were the following: Closing at 9 P.M.
and during divine service on Sunday; in some cases complete
closing on Sunday except to travellers; the licence-holder to
notify to the constable all strangers staying for more than a night
and not to permit persons to continue drinking or tippling; pro-
hibition of unlawful games, receiving stolen goods and harbour-
ing bad characters; the use of standard measures and prices
fixed by law. There was, however, no uniformity of practice
in these respects until the I7th century, when an attempt was
made to establish stricter and more uniform control by a whole
series of acts passed between 1603 and 1627. The evils which
it was sought to remedy by these measures were the existence of
unlicensed houses, the use of ale-houses for mere drinking and
the prevalence of disorder. It was declared that the ancient
and proper use of inns and ale-houses was the refreshment
and lodging of travellers, and that they were not meant for
" entertainment and harbouring of lewd and idle people to spend
and consume their money and their time in lewd and drunken
manner." Regulations were strengthened for the suppression
of unlicensed houses, licences were made annual, and the justices
were directed to hold a special licensing meeting once a year
(1618). Penalties were imposed on innkeepers for permitting
tippling, and also on tipplers and drunkards (1625). In 1634
licensing was first applied to Ireland. Later in the century
heavy penalties were imposed for adulteration.
The next chapter in the history of licensing has to do with
spirits, and is very instructive. Spirits were not a native product
like beer; brandy was introduced from France, gin from the
Netherlands and whisky from Ireland; but down to the year
1690 the consumption was small. The home manufacture
was strictly limited, and high duties on imported spirits rendered
them too dear for the general public unless smuggled. Con-
sequently the people had not acquired the taste for them. But
in 1690 distilling was thrown open to any one on the payment
of very trifling duties, spirits became extremely cheap and the
consumption increased with great rapidity. Regulation of the
retail traffic was soon found to be necessary, and by an act
passed in 1700-1701, the licensing requirements already existing
for ale-house keepers were extended to persons selling distilled
liquors for consumption on the premises. A new class of public-
houses in the shape of spirit bars grew up. In the year 1732
a complete and detailed survey of all the streets and houses
in London was carried out by William Maitland, F.R.S. Out
of a total of 95,968 houses he found the following: brew-houses
171, inns 207, taverns 447, ale-houses 5975, brandy-shops
8659; total number of licensed houses for the retail sale of
liquor 15,288, of which considerably more than one-half were
spirit bars. The population was about three-quarters of a
million. About one house in every six was licensed at this time,
and that in spite of attempts made to check the traffic by
restrictive acts passed in 1728-1729. The physical and moral
evils caused by the excessive consumption of spirits were fully
recognized; an additional duty of 53. a gallon was placed on
the distiller, and retailers were compelled to take out an excise
licence of £20 per annum. The object was to make spirits
•dearer and therefore less accessible. At the same time, with a
view to lessening the number of houses, the licensing procedure
of the justices was amended by the provision that licences
should only be granted at a general meeting of the justices
acting in the division where the applicant resided, thus abolishing
the power conferred by the original licensing act, of any two
justices to grant a licence. This change, effected in 1729, was a
permanent improvement, though it did not prevent the existence
of the prodigious numbers of houses recorded by Maitland in
1732. The attempt to make spirits dearer by high excise duties,
on the other hand, was adjudged a failure because it led to
illicit trade, and the act of 1728 was repealed in 1732. But
the evil was so glaring that another and more drastic attempt
in the same direction was made in 1736, when the famous
Gin Act was passed in response to a petition presented to parlia-
ment by the Middlesex magistrates, declaring " that the drinking
of geneva and other distilled waters had for some years past
greatly increased; that the constant and excessive use thereof
had destroyed thousands of His Majesty's subjects; that great
numbers of others were by its use rendered unfit for useful
labour, debauched in morals and drawn into all manner of vice
and wickedness. . . ." The retailing of spirits in quantities
of less than 2 gallons was made subject to a licence costing
£50 and the retailer had also to pay a duty of 203. on every
gallon sold. This experiment in " high licensing " was a dis-
astrous failure, though energetic attempts were made to enforce
it by wholesale prosecutions and by strengthening the regulations
against evasion. Public opinion was inflamed against it, and the
only results were corruptions of the executive and an enormous
increase of consumption through illicit channels. The consump-
tion of spirits in England and Wales nearly doubled between
1733 and 1742, and the state of things was so intolerable that
after much controversy the high duties were repealed in 1742 with
the object of bringing the trade back into authorized channels;
the cost of a licence was reduced from £50 to £i and the retail
duty from 205. to id. a gallon.
This period witnessed the high-water mark of intemperance
in England. From various contemporary descriptions it is
abundantly clear that the state of things was incomparably
worse than anything in modern times, and that women, whose
participation in the practice of drinking and frequenting public-
houses is recorded by writers in the previous century, were
affected as well as men. The experience is particularly instructive
because it includes examples of excess and deficiency of oppor-
tunities and the ill effects of both on a people naturally inclined
to indulgence in drink. It was followed by more judicious
action, which showed the adaptability of the licensing system
and the advantages of a mean between laxity and severity.
Between 1743 and 1753 acts were passed which increased control
in a moderate way and proved much more successful than the
previous measures. The retail licence duty was moderately
raised and the regulations were amended and made stricter.
The class of houses eligible for licensing was for the first time
taken into account, and the retailing of spirits was only permitted
on premises assessed for rates and, in London, of the annual
value of £10; justices having an interest in the trade were
excluded from licensing functions. Another measure which
had an excellent effect made " tippling " debts — that is, small
public-houses debts incurred for spirits — irrecoverable at law.
The result of these measures was that consumption diminished
and the class of houses improved. At the same time (1753)
the general licensing provisions were strengthened and extended.
The distinction between new licences and the renewal of old
ones was for the first time recognized; applicants for new
licences in country districts were required, to produce a certificate
of character from the clergy, overseers and church-wardens or
from three or four householders. The annual licensing sessions
were made statutory, and the consent of a justice was required
for the transfer of a licence from one person to another during
the term for which it was granted. Penalties for infringing the
law were increased, and the h'censing system was extended to
Scotland (1755-1756). With regard to wine, it has already been
stated that consumption on the premises was forbidden in 1552,
and at the same time the retail sale was restricted to towns of
some importance and the number of retailers, who had to obtain
an appointment from the corporation or the justices, was strictly
limited. In 1660 consumption on the premises was permitted
under a Crown (excise) licence, good for a variable term of years;
in 1756 this was changed to an annual excise licence of fixed
LIQUOR LAWS
[UNITED KINGDOM
amount, and in 1792 wine was brought under the same jurisdic-
tion of the justices as other liquors.
It is clear from the foregoing that a great deal of legislation
occurred during the i8th century, and that by successive enact-
ments, particularly about the middle of the century, the licensing
system gradually became adjusted to the requirements of the
time and took a settled shape. The acts then passed still form
the basis of the law. In the early part of the igth century another
period of legislative activity set in. A parliamentary inquiry
into illicit trade in spirits took place in i82i,andini828 important
acts were passed amending and consolidating the laws for
England and for Scotland; in 1833 a general Licensing Act was
passed for Ireland. These are still the principal acts, though they
have undergone innumerable amendments and additions. The
English act of 1828 introduced certain important changes. A
licence from the justices was no longer required for the sale of
liquor for consumption off the oremises, and the power of the
justices to suppress public-houses at their discretion (apart
from the annual licensing), which they had possessed since 1495,
was taken away. The removal of this power, which had long
been obsolete, was the natural corollary of the development
of the licensing system, its greater stringency and efficiency
and the increase of duties imposed on the trade. Men on whom
these obligations were laid, and who were freshly authorized
to carry on the business every year, could not remain liable to
summary deprivation of the privileges thus granted and paid for.
The justices had absolute discretion to withhold licences from
an applicant whether new or old; but an appeal was allowed
to quarter sessions against refusal and also against conviction
for offences under the act. The main points in the law at this
time were the following. The sale of alcoholic liquors for con-
sumption on the premises was forbidden under penalties except
to persons authorized according to law by the justices. Licences
were granted for one year and had to be renewed annually.
The justices held a general meeting each year at a specified
time for the purpose of granting licences; those peculiarly
interested in the liquor trade were disqualified. The licence
contained various provisions for regulating the conduct of the
house and maintaining order, but closing was only required during
the hours of divine service on Sunday. Applicants for new
licences and for the transfer of old ones (granted at a special
sessions of the justices) were required to give notice to the local
authorities and to post up notices at the parish church and on
the house concerned.
Excise Licences. — It will be convenient at this point to explain
the relation between that part of the licensing system which
is concerned with the conduct of the traffic and lies in the juris-
diction of the justices and that part which has to do with taxation
or revenue. The former is the earlier and more important
branch of legislative interference; we have traced its history
from 1495 down to 1828. Its object from the beginning was
the maintenance of public order and good conduct, which were
impaired by the misuse of public-houses; and all the successive
enactments were directed to that end. They were attempts
to suppress or moderate the evils arising from the traffic by
regulating it. The excise licensing system has nothing to do with
public order or the conduct of the traffic; its object is simply
to obtain revenue, and for a long time the two systems were quite
independent. But time and change gradually brought them into
contact and eventually they came to form two aspects of one
unified system. Licensing for revenue was first introduced in
1660 at the same time as duties on the manufacture of beer and
spirits; but it was of an irregular character and was only
applied to wine, which was not then under the jurisdiction of
the justices at all (see above). In 1710 a small annual tax was
imposed on the retailers of beer and ale and collected by means
of a stamp on the justices' licence. In 1728 an annual excise
licence of £20 was imposed on retailers of spirits, and in 1736
this was raised to £50 (see above). The object of these particular
imposts, however, was rather to check the sale, as previously
explained, than to secure revenue. In 1756 the previous tax
on the retail sale of wine for consumption on the premises was
changed to an annual excise licence, which was in the next year
extended to " made wines " and " sweets " (British wines).
Similar licences, in place of the previous stamps, were temporarily
required for beer and ale between 1725 and 1 742 and permanently
imposed in 1808. Thus the system of annual excise licences
became gradually applied to all kinds of liquor. In 1825 the
laws relating to them were consolidated and brought into direct
relation with the other licensing laws. It was enacted that excise
licences for the retail of liquor should only be granted to persons
holding a justices' licence or — to use the more correct term —
certificate. The actual permission to sell was obtained on pay-
ment of the proper dues from the excise authorities, but they had
no power to withhold it from persons authorized by the justices.
And that was still the system in 1910.
Licensing since 1828. — There was no change in the form of the
British licensing system between the consolidation of the law in
1825-1828 and the time (1910) at which we write; but there
were a great many changes in administrative detail and some
changes in principle. Only the most important can be men-
tioned. In 1830 a bold experiment was tried in exempting
the sale of beer from the requirement of a justice's licence. Any
householder rated to the parish was entitled, under a bond with
sureties, to take out an excise licence for the sale of beer for
consumption on or off the premises. This measure, which
applied to England and was commonly known as the Duke of
Wellington's Act, had two objects; one was to encourage the
consumption of beer in the hope of weaning the people from
spirits; the other was to counteract the practice of " tieing "
public-houses to breweries by creating free ones. With regard
to the first, it was believed that spirit-drinking was increasing
again at the time and was doing a great deal of harm. The
reason appears to have been a great rise in the returns of con-
sumption, which followed a lowering of the duty on spirits from
us. 8jd. to 73. a gallon in 1825. The latter step was taken
because of the prevalence of illicit distillation. In 1823 the duty
had been lowered for the same reason in Scotland from 6s. 2d.
and in Ireland from 53. ?d. to a uniform rate of 25. 4! d. a gallon,
with so much success in turning the trade from illegal to legal
channels that a similar change was thought advisable in Eng-
land, as stated. The legal or apparent consumption rose at once
from 7 to nearly 13 million gallons; but it is doubtful if there
was much or any real increase. According to an official state-
ment, more than half the spirits consumed in 1820 were illicit.
The facts are of much interest in showing what had already been
shown in the i8th century, that the liquor trade will not bear
unlimited taxation; the traffic is driven underground. It is
highly probable that this accounts for part of the great fall in
consumption which followed the raising of the spirit duty from
us. to 143. gd. under Mr Lloyd George's Budget in 1909. With
regard to " tied " houses, this is the original form of public-
house. When beer was first brewed for sale a " tap " for retail
purposes was attached to the brewery, and public-houses may
still be found bearing the name " The Brewery Tap." At the
beginning of the igth century complaints were made of the in-
creasing number of houses owned or controlled by breweries
and of the dependence of the licence-holders, and in 1817 a Select
Committee inquired into the subject. The Beerhouse Act does
not appear to have checked the practice or to have diminished
the consumption of spirits; but it led to a great increase in the
number of beer-houses. It was modified in 1834 and 1840, but
not repealed until 1869, when beer-houses were again brought
under the justices.
Most of the other very numerous changes in the law were
concerned with conditions imposed on licence-holders. The
hours of closing are the most important of these. Apart from
the ancient regulations of closing during divine service on Sunday,
there were no restrictions in 1828; but after that at least a
dozen successive acts dealt with the point. The first important
measure was applied in London under a Police Act in 1839; it
ordered licensed houses to be closed from midnight on Saturday
to mid-day on Sunday, and produced a wonderful effect on
public order. In 1853 a very important act (Forbes Mackenzie)
UNITED KINGDOM]
LIQUOR LAWS
763
was passed for Scotland, by which sale on Sunday was wholly
forbidden, except to travellers and lodgers, and was restricted
on week days to the hours between 8 A.M. and n P.M. This act
also introduced a distinction between hotels, public-houses and
grocers licensed to sell liquor, and forbade the sale to children
under 14 years, except as messengers, and to intoxicated persons.
In England, after a series of enactments in the direction of pro-
gressive restriction, uniform regulations as to the hours of opening
and closing for licensed premises were applied in 1874, and are
still in force (see below). In 1878 complete Sunday closing, as
in Scotland, was applied in Ireland, with the exemption of the
five largest towns, Dublin, Belfast, Cork, Limerick and Water-
ford; and in 1881 the same provision was extended to Wales.
Other changes worthy of note are the following. In 1860 the
free sale of wine for consumption off the premises was introduced
by the Wine and Refreshment , Houses Act, which authorized
any shopkeeper to take out an excise licence for this purpose; the
licences so created were subsequently known as grocers' licences.
By the same act refreshment houses were placed under certain
restrictions, but were permitted to sell wine for consumption on
the premises under an excise licence. In 1861 spirit dealers were
similarly authorized to sell spirits by the bottle. The effect of
these measures was to exempt a good deal of the wine and spirit
trade from the control of the justices, and the idea was to wean
people from public-house drinking by encouraging them to take
what they wanted at home and in eating-houses.
In 1869 this policy of directing the habits of the people into
channels thought to be preferable, which had been inaugurated
in 1830, was abandoned for one of greater stringency all round,
which has since been maintained. All the beer and wine retail
licences were brought under the discretion of the justices, but
they might only refuse "off " licences and the renewal of previously
existing beer-house " on " licences upon specified grounds, namely
(i) unsatisfactory character, (2) disorder, (3) previous misconduct,
(4) insufficient qualification of applicant or premises. In 1872
an important act further extended the policy of restriction;
new licences had to be confirmed, and the right of appeal in case
of refusal was taken away; penalties for offences were increased
and extended, particularly for public drunkenness, and for per-
mitting drunkenness; the sale of spirits to persons under 16
was prohibited. In 1876 many of these provisions were extended
to Scotland. In 1886 the sale of liquor for consumption on the
premises was forbidden to persons under 13 years. In 1901 the
sale for " off " consumption was prohibited to persons under 14,
except in sealed vessels; this is known as the Child Messenger Act.
These measures for the protection of children were extended in
1908 by an act which came into operation in April 1909, excluding
children under 14 from the public-house bars altogether. The
progressive protection of children by the law well illustrates the
influence of changing public opinion. The successive measures
enumerated were not due to increasing contamination of children
caused by their frequenting the public-house, but to recognition
of the harm they sustain thereby. The practice of taking and
sending children to the public-house, and of serving them with
drink, is an old one in England. A great deal of evidence
on the subject was given before a Select Committee of the House
of Commons in 1834; but it is only in recent years, when the
general concern for children has undergone a remarkable develop-
ment in all directions, that attempts have been made to stop it.
In 1902 clubs, which had been increasing, and habitual drunkards,
were brought under the law.
In 1904 a new principle was introduced into the licensing
system in England, and this, too, was due to change in public
opinion. Between 1830 and 1869, under the influence of the
legislation described above, a continuous increase in the number
of public-houses took place in England; but after 1869 they
began to diminish through stricter control, and this process
has gone on continuously ever since. Reduction of numbers
became a prime object with many licensing benches; they were
reluctant to grant new licences, and made a point of extinguishing
old ones year by year. At first this was easily effected under the
new and stringent provisions of the legislation of 1869-1872, but
it gradually became more difficult as the worst houses disappeared
and the remaining ones were better conducted, and gave less and
less excuse for interference. But the desire for reduction still
gained ground, and a new principle was adopted. Houses
against which no ill-conduct was alleged were said to be " super-
fluous," and on that ground licences were taken away. But
this, again, offended the general sense of justice; it was felt that
to take away a man's living or a valuable property for no fault
of his own was to inflict a great hardship. To meet the difficulty
the principle of compensation was introduced by the act of 1904.
It provides that compensation shall be paid to a licence-holder
(also to the owner of the premises) whose licence is withdrawn
on grounds other than misconduct of the house or unsuitability
of premises or of character. The compensation is paid out of a
fund raised by an annual charge on the remaining licensed
houses. This act has been followed by a large reduction of
licences.
Slate of the Law in igio. — In consequence of the long history
and evolution of legislation in the United Kingdom and of the
innumerable minor changes introduced, only a few of which
have been mentioned above, the law has become excessively
complicated. The differences between the English, Scottish
and Irish codes, the distinction between the several kinds of
liquor, between consumption on and off the premises, between
new licences and the renewal of old ones, between premises
licensed before 1869 and those licensed since, between excise
and justices' licences — all these and many other points make
the subject exceedingly intricate; and it is further complicated
by the uncertainty of the courts and a vast body of case-made
law. Only a summary of the chief provisions can be given here.
1. The open sale of intoxicating liquor (spirits, wine, sweets,
beer, cider) by retail is confined to persons holding an excise
licence, with a few unimportant exceptions, including medicine.
2. A condition precedent to obtaining such a licence is
permission granted by the justices who are the licensing authority
and called a justices' licence or certificate. Theatres, passenger
boats and canteens are exempted from this condition; also
certain dealers in spirits and wine.
3. Justices' licences are granted at special annual meetings
of the local justices, called Brewster Sessions. Justices having a
pecuniary interest in the liquor trade of the district, except as
railway shareholders, are disqualified from acting; " bias "
due to other interests may also be a disqualification.
4. Justices' licences are only granted for one year and must
be renewed annually, with the exception of a particular class,
created by the act of 1904 and valid for a term of years. Dis-
tinctions are made between granting a new licence and renewing
an old one. The proceedings are stricter and more summary in
the case of a new licence; notice of application must be given to
the local authorites; the premises must be of a certain annual
value; a plan of the premises must be deposited beforehand in
the case of an " on " licence; the justices may impose conditions
and have full discretion to refuse without any right of appeal;
the licence, if granted, must be confirmed by a higher authority.
In the case of old licences on the other hand, no notice is required;
they are renewed to the former holders on application, as a matter
of right; unless there is opposition or objection, which may
come from the police or from outside parties or from the justices
themselves. If there is objection the renewal may be refused,
but only on specified grounds — namely misconduct, unfitness
of premises or character, disqualification; otherwise compensa-
tion is payable on the plan explained above. There is a right of
appeal to a higher court against refusal. In all cases, whether
the justices have full discretion or not, they must exercise their
discretion in a judicial manner and not arbitrarily.
5. Licences may be transferred from one person to another
in case of death, sickness, bankruptcy, change of tenancy, wilful
omission to apply for renewal, forfeiture or disqualification.
Licences may also be transferred from one house to another in
certain circumstances.
6. A licence may be forfeited through the conviction of the
holder of certain specified serious offences.
764
LIQUOR LAWS
[UNITED KINGDOM
7. Persons may similarly be disqualified from holding a
licence.
8. Liquor may only be sold on the premises specified in the
licence and during the following hours: — week-days; London,
5 A.M. to 12.30 P.M. (Saturday, midnight); large towns 6 A.M.
to ii P.M.; other places 6 A.M. to 10 P.M. — Sundays; London,
i P.M. to 3 P.M., 6 P.M. to ii P.M.; other places 12.30 P.M. (or
i P.M.) to 2.30 P.M. (or 3 P.M.), 6 P.M. to 10 P.M.; Christmas Day
and Good Friday are counted as Sunday. In Scotland, Wales
and Ireland (except the five chief towns) no sale is permitted on
Sunday. Licence holders may sell during prohibited hours to
lodgers staying in the house and to bona-fide travellers, who must
be not less than 3 m. from the place they slept in on the previous
night. Extension of hours of sale may be granted for special
occasions and for special localities (e.g. early markets).
9. The following proceedings are prohibited in licensed
premises: permitting children under 14 to be in a bar, selling
any liquor to children under 14 for consumption on the premises,
selling liquor to children under 14 as messengers except in corked
and sealed vessels, selling spirits for consumption on the premises
to persons under 16; selling to drunken persons and to habitual
drunkards; permitting drunkenness, permitting disorder,
harbouring prostitutes, harbouring constables, supplying liquor
to constables on duty, bribing constables, permitting betting
(persistent) or gaming, permitting premises to be used as a
brothel, harbouring thieves, permitting seditious meetings;
permitting the payment of wagers on premises; permitting
premises to be used for election committee rooms. In and
within 20 m. of London music and dancing are prohibited on
licensed premises except under special licences.
10. The police have the right of entry to licensed premises
at any time for the purpose of preventing or detecting offences.
11. The injurious adulteration of any liquor is prohibited;
also the dilution of beer; but dilution of spirits is not unlawful
if the customer's attention is drawn to the fact.
12. All clubs in which intoxicating liquor is sold must be
registered. If the liquor is the collective property of the members
no licence is required for retail sale, but no liquor can be sold for
consumption off the premises. Clubs run
for profit, known as proprietory clubs,
are on the same legal footing as public-
houses.
13. Penalties incurred by licence-holders
for offences under the foregoing pro-
visions. For selling any other kind of
liquor than that authorized — first offence,
fine not exceeding £50 or one month's
imprisonment; second offence, fine not
exceeding £100 or 3 months' imprison-
ment with forfeiture of licence and, if
ordered, confiscation of liquor and dis-
qualification for five years; third offence,
fine not exceeding £100 or six months'
imprisonment with forfeiture of licence
and, if ordered, confiscation of liquor
and unlimited disqualification. Under
the Excise Acts the penalty for
selling without a licence is — for spirits, a
fine of £100, confiscation of liquor, for-
feiture of licence and perpetual dis-
qualification; for wine, a fine of £20; for
beer or cider "on" consumption £20, "off"
consumption £10. For sale to children;
first offence, fine up to £2, second offence,
fine up to £5. Permitting premises to be
used as a brothel, fine of £20, forfeiture
of licence and perpetual disqualification.
Other offences, fine up to £10 for first
conviction, up to £20 for second.
14. The following are offences on the
part of the public. Being found drunk on
any highway or other public place or on
licensed premises; penalty, fine up to IDS. for first conviction,
up to 2os. for second, and up to 405. for third. Riotous or
disorderly conduct while drunk; fine up to 403. Falsely pretend-
ing to be a traveller or lodger; fine up to £5. Causing children
to be in a bar or sending them for liquor contrary to the law;
fine up to £2 for first and up to £5 for second offence. Attempt
to obtain liquor by a person notified to the police as an habitual
drunkard; fine up to 203. for first offence, up to 405. for subse-
quent ones. Giving drunken persons liquor or helping them to
get it on licensed premises; fine up to 403. or imprisonment for
a month. Causing children under 1 1 to sing or otherwise perform
on licensed premises, and causing boys under 14 or girls under
16 to do so between 9 P.M. and 6 A.M.; fine up to £25 or three
months' imprisonment.
The foregoing statement of the law does not in all respects
apply to Scotland and Ireland, where the administration differs
somewhat from that of England. In Scotland the provost and
bailies are the licensing authority in royal and parliamentary
burghs, and elsewhere the justices. They hold two sessions
annually for granting licences and have considerably more
power in some respects than ;n England. The hours of opening
are from 8 A.M. to ii P.M. (week days only), but there is a dis-
cretionary power to close at 10 P.M. In Ireland the licensing
authority is divided between quarter sessions and petty sessions.
Public-house licences are granted and transferred at quarter
sessions; renewals and other licences are dealt with at petty
sessions. In Dublin, Belfast, Cork, Londonderry and Galway the
licensing jurisdiction of quarter sessions is exercised by the
recorder, elsewhere by the justices assembled and presided over
by the county court judge. The licensing jurisdiction of petty
sessions is exercised by two or more justices, but in Dublin by
one divisional justice.
Excise Licences and Taxation. — The excise licences may be
divided into four classes, (i) manufacturers', (2) wholesale
dealers', (3) retail dealers' for " on " consumption, (4) retail
dealers' for " off " consumption. Only the two last classes come
under the jurisdiction of the justices, as explained above. The
total number of different excise licences is between 30 and 40, but
Licence.
Manufacturers' Licences —
Distiller (spirits)
Rectifier (spirits)
Brewer . .
Sweets (British wines)
Wholesale Dealers' Licences —
Spirits . . . .
Beer .
Wine . . . .
Sweets . . . .
Retail Licences On —
Full or Publican's
(spirits, beer, wine and
cider)
Beer-house
Wine (confectioners')
Cider .
Sweets ....
Retail Licences Of —
Spirits ....
Spirits (grocers', Scotland)
Spirits (grocers', Ireland) .
Beer (England)
Beer (grocers', Scotland) .
Wine (grocers').
Old Duty.
£10, los.
£10, los.
£i
£i
£10, lOs.
3, 6s. Id.
[10, los.
£5, 5s-
£4, ros. to £60
according to
annual value
of premises.
£3, los.
£3. 'OS-
Li, 5s.
£i. 5s.
13, 3s.
£4, 4s. to
£13, 135. 6d.
£9, 1 8s. 5d. to
£14, 6s. yd.
r £l' 5f>
£2, los. and £4, 4$.
£2, los. od.
New Duty 1909-1910.
£10 for first 50,000 gallons, £10 for
every additional 25,000 gallons.
i for first 100 barrels, 123. for every
additional 50 barrels.
£5, 5s.
£i5, I5s-
£10, IDS.
No change.
No change.
Half the annual value of premises,
with a fixed minimum ranging
from £5 in places with less than
2000 inhabitants to £35 in towns
having over 100,000 inhabitants.
One-third of annual value of premises,
with a minimum as above ranging
from £3, los. to £23, los.
From £4, los. to £12 according to
annual value.
From £2, 53. to £6.
From £2, 53. to £6.
From £10 to £50 according to annual
value.
£ i, los. to £10.
El, IDS. to £10.
[2, los. to £10.
UNITED KINGDOM]
LIQUOR LAWS
765
several of them are subvarieties and unimportant or are peculiar
to Scotland or Ireland. The duties charged on them were greatly
changed and increased by the Finance Act of 1909-1910, and it
seems desirable to state the changes thus introduced. The
table on the previous page gives the principal kinds of licence
with the old and the new duties.
There are in addition " occasional " licences valid for one or
more days, which come under the jurisdiction of the justices;
the duty is 23. 6d. a day for the full licence (raised to IDS.) and
is. for beer or wine only (raised to 55.).
The total amount raised by the excise licences in the United
Kingdom for the financial year ending 3ist March 1909 was
£2,209,928. Of this amount £1,712,160, or nearly four-fifths,
was derived from the full or publicans' licence, £126,053 from the
wholesale spirit licence and £88,167 from the beer-house licence;
the rest are comparatively unimportant. But the licences only
represent a small part of the revenue derived from liquor. The
great bulk of it is collected by means of duties on manufacture
and importation. The total amount for the year ending March
1909 was £37,428,189, or nearly 30% of the total taxation
revenue of the country. The excise duties on the manufacture
of spirits yielded £17,456,366 and those on beer £12,691,332;
customs duties on importation yielded £5,046,949. The excise
duty on spirits was at the rate of us. a gallon, raised at the end
of April 1909 to 145. gd. ; the corresponding duty on beer is
•js. gd. a barrel (36 gallons). The relative taxation of the liquor
trade in the United States, which has become important as a
political argument, is discussed below.
Effects of Legislation. — The only effects which can be stated
with precision and ascribed with certainty to legislation are the
increase or diminution of the number of licences or licensed
premises; secondary effects, such as increase or diminution of
consumption and of drunkenness, are affected by so many causes
that only by a very careful, well-informed and dispassionate
examination of the facts can positive conclusions be drawn with
regard to the influence of legislation (see TEMPERANCE). There
is no more prolific ground for fallacious statements and arguments,
whether unconscious or deliberate. The course of legislation
traced above, however, does permit the broad conclusion that
great laxity and the multiplication of facilities tend to increase
drinking and disorder in a country like the United Kingdom,
and that extreme severity produces the same or worse effects by
driving the trade into illicit channels, which escape control, and
thus really increasing facilities while apparently diminishing
them. The most successful course has always been a mean
between these extremes in the form of restraint judiciously
applied and adjusted to circumstances. The most salient
feature of the situation as influenced by the law in recent years
is the progressive reduction in the number of licensed houses
since 1869. Previously they had been increasing in England.
The number of public-houses, including beer-houses for " on "
consumption, in 1831 was 82,466; in 1869 it had risen to 118,602;
in 1909 it had fallen again to 94,794. But if the proportion of
public-houses to population be taken there has been a continuous
fall since 1831, as the following table shows: —
England and Wales.
Year.
No. of
" on " Licences.
Proportion
per 10,000 of
Population.
1831
1871
1901
1909
82,466
112,886
101,940
94,794
59
49
31
26
The change may be put in another way. 'In 1831 there was
one public-house to 168 persons; in 1909 the proportion was i
to 375. The proportional reduction goes back to the i8th century.
In 1732 there was in London one public-house to every 50
persons (see above).
In Scotland the number of public-houses has been diminishing
since 1829, when there were 17,713; in 1909 there were only
7065, while the population had more than doubled. The number
in proportion to population has therefore fallen far more rapidly
than in England, thus — 1831, i to 134 persons; 1909, i to 690
persons. In Ireland the story is different. There has been a fall
in the number of public-houses since 1829, when there were
20,548; but it has not been large or continuous and the popula-
tion has been steadily diminishing during the time, so that the
proportion to population has actually increased, thus — 1831,
1 to 395 persons; 1909, i to 249 persons. As a whole, however,
the United Kingdom shows a large and progressive diminution
of public-houses to population; nor is this counterbalanced
by an increase of " off " licences. If we take the whole number
of licences we get the following movement in recent years: —
No. of Retail Licences (" on " and " off ") per 10,000 of Population.
I893-
1903.
1909.
England and Wales
Scotland ....
Ireland. ....
United Kingdom .
46
37
41
45
42
33
46
42
37
30
45
37
The diminution in the number of public-houses in England
was markedly accelerated by the act of 1904, which introduced
the principle of compensation. The average annual rate of
reduction in the ten years 1894-1904 before the act was 359;
in the four years 1905-1908; after the act it rose to 1388. The
average annual number of licences suppressed with compensation
was 1137, and the average annual amount of compensation paid
was £1,096,946, contributed by the trade as explained above.
The reduction of public-houses has been accompanied in recent
years by a constant increase in the number of clubs. By the act
of 1902, which imposed registration, they were brought under
some control and the number of legal clubs was accurately
ascertained. Previously the number was only estimated from
certain data with approximate accuracy. The following table
gives the official figures: —
Clubs: England and Wales.
1887.
1896.
1904.
1905-
1906.
1907.
1908.
1909.
Number
Proportion
per 10,000
1982
0-7
3655
i-i
6371
1-89
6589
1-93
6721
1-95
6907
1-98
7133
2-O2
7353
2-08
Clubs represent alternative channels to the licensed trade and
they are under much less stringent control; they have no
prohibited hours and the police have not the same right of entry.
In so far, therefore, as clubs replace public-houses the reduction
of the latter does not mean diminished facilities for drinking, but
the contrary. In the years 1903-1908 the average number of
clubs proceeded against for offences was 74 and the average
number struck off the register was 52. The increase of clubs and
the large proportion struck off the register suggest the need of
caution in dealing with the licensed trade; over-stringent
measures defeat their own end.
Persistent attempts have for many years been made to effect
radical changes in the British system of licensing by the introduc-
tion of some of the methods adopted in other countries, and
particularly those in the United States. But it is difficult to
engraft new and alien methods, involving violent change, upon an
ancient system consolidated by successive statutory enactments
and confirmed by time and usage. The course of the law and
administration since 1869 has made it particularly difficult.
The stringent conditions imposed on licence-holders have given
those who fulfil them a claim to consideration, and the reduction
of licences, by limiting the market, has enhanced their value.
An expectation of renewal, in the absence of misconduct, has
grown up by usage and been confirmed by the law, which recog-
nizes the distinction between granting a new licence and renewing
an old one, by the treasury which levies death duties on the
assumption that a licence is an enduring property, by local
authorities which assess upon the same assumption, and by the
High Courts of Justice, whose decisions have repeatedly turned
on this point. The consequence of all this is that very large sums
766
have been invested in licensed property, which has become part
of the settled order of society; and to destroy it by some sudden
innovation would cause a great shock. The position is entirely
different in other countries where no such control has ever been
exercised. It is possible to impose a new system where previously
there was none, but not to replace suddenly an old and settled
one for something entirely different. Only the most convinc-
ing proof of the need and the advantages of the change would
justify it; and such proof has not been forthcoming. The British
system has the great merit of combining adaptability to different
circumstances and to changing customs with continuity and
steadiness of administration. The advantages of abandoning
it for some other are more than doubtful, the difficulties are real
and serious. Over a very long period it has been repeatedly
readjusted in conformity with the movement of public opinion
and of national habits ; while under it the executive have gradually
got the traffic well in hand, and a great and progressive improve-
ment in order and conduct has taken place. The process is
gradual but sure, and the record will compare favourably with
that of any other comparable country. Further readjustment
will follow and is desirable. The great defect of the law is its
extreme complexity; it needs recasting and simplification.
There are too many kinds of licence, and the classification does
not correspond with the actual conditions of the traffic. Some
licences are obsolete and superfluous; others make no distinction
between branches of the trade which fulfil entirely different
functions and require different treatment. The full or publican's
licence, which is incomparably the most important, places on
the same legal footing hotels, restaurants, village inns and mere
drinking bars, and the lack of distinction is a great stumbling-
block. In the attempt made in 1908 to introduce new legisla-
tion it was found necessary to incorporate distinctions between
different classes of establishment, although that was not con-
templated in the original bill. It will always be found necessary
whenever the subject is seriously approached, because the law
has to deal with things as they actually are. It does not fall
within the scope of this article to discuss the numerous contro-
versial questions which arise in connexion with various legislative
proposals for dealing with the liquor traffic; but an account of
the methods which it has been proposed to adopt from other
countries will be found below.
THE UNITED STATES
The liquor legislation of the United States presents a great
contrast to that of the United Kingdom, but it is not less interest-
ing in an entirely different way. In place of a single homogeneous
system gradually evolved in the course of centuries it embraces
a whole series of different ones based on the most diverse principles
and subject to sudden changes and frequent experiments. It is
not sufficiently understood in Europe that the legislatures of the
several states are sovereign in regard to internal affairs and make
what laws they please subject to the proviso that they cannot
over-ride the Federal law. There is therefore no uniformity
in regard to such matters as liquor legislation, and it is a mistake
to speak of any particular system as representing the whole
country. The United States government only interferes with
the traffic to tax it for revenue, and to regulate the sale of
liquor to Indians, to soldiers, etc. The liquor traffic is subject —
whether in the form of manufacture, wholesale or retail trade
— to a uniform tax of 25 dollars (£5) per annum imposed on
every one engaged in it. Congress, under the constitu-
tion, controls interstate commerce, and the Supreme Court
has decided that without its consent no state can prevent
a railway or other carrying agency from bringing liquor to any
point within its borders from outside. Thus no state can keep
out liquor or prevent its consumption, but any state legislature
may make what internal regulations it pleases and may prohibit
the manufacture and sale altogether within its own borders.
It may go further. In 1887 a judgment was delivered by the
Supreme Court of the United States that it is within the dis-
cretionary power of a state to protect public health, safety and
morals even by the destruction of property without compensation,
LIQUOR LAWS
[UNITED STATES
and that the constitution of the United States is not thereby
violated. Use has been made of this power in Kansas, and it
appears therefore that persons who engage in the liquor trade
do so at their own risk. There is in fact no stability at all except
in a few states which have incorporated some principle in their
constitutions, and even that does not ensure continuity of practice,
as means are easily found for evading the law or substituting
some other system which amounts to the same thing. As a
whole the control of the liquor traffic oscillates violently between
attempted suppression and great freedom combined with heavy
taxation of licensed houses.
In the great majority of the states some form of licensing
exists; it is the prevailing system and was adopted, no doubt
from England, at an early period. It is exercised in various
ways. The licensing authority may be the municipality or a
specially constituted body or the police or a judicial body.
The last, which is the method in Pennsylvania, seems to be
exceptional. According to Mr Fanshawe there is a general
tendency, due to the prevailing corruption, to withdraw from
municipal authorities power over the licensing, and to place
this function in the hands of commissioners, who may be elected
or nominated. In New York state the licensing commissioners
used to be nominated in cities by the mayors and elected else-
where; but by the Raines law of 1896 the whole administration
was placed under a state commissioner appointed by the
governor with the consent of the Senate. A similar plan is in
force in some important cities in other states. In Boston the
licensing is in the hands of a police board appointed by the
governor; in Baltimore and St Louis the authority is vested
in commissioners similarly appointed; and in Washington the
licensing commissioners are appointed by the president. In
Pennsylvania, where the court of quarter sessions is the authority,
the vesting of licensing in a judicial body dates back to 1676
and bears the stamp of English influence. It is noteworthy
that in Philadelphia and Pittsburg (Allegheny county) the judicial
court was for a time given up in favour of commissioners, but
the change was a great failure and abandoned in 1888. The
powers of the licensing authority vary widely; in some cases the
only grounds of refusal are conduct and character, and licences
are virtually granted to every applicant ; in others the discretion
to refuse is absolute. In Massachusetts the number of licences
allowed bears a fixed ratio to the population, namely i to 1000,
except in Boston, where it is i to 500, but as a rule where licences
are given they are given freely. They are valid for a year and
granted on conditions. The first and most general condition is
the payment of a fee or tax, which varies in amount in different
states. Under the " high licence " system (see below) it generally
varies according to the size of the locality and the class of licence
where different classes are recognized. In Massachusetts there
are six licences; three for consumption on the premises — namely
(i) full licence for all liquors, (2) beer, cider, and light wine,
(3) beer and cider; two for consumption off the premises —
namely (i) spirits, (2) other liquors; the sixth is for druggists.
In New York state also there are six classes of licence, though
they are not quite the same; but in many states there appears
to be only one licence, and no distinction between on and off
sale, wholesale or retail. Another condition generally imposed
in addition to the tax is a heavy bond with sureties; it varies
in amount but is usually not less than 2000 dollars (£400) and
may be as high as 6000 dollars (£1200). A condition precedent
to the granting of a licence imposed in some states is the deposit
of a petition or application some time beforehand, which may
have to be backed by a certain number of local residents or tax-
payers. In Pennsylvania the required number is 12, and this
is the common practice elsewhere; in Missouri a majority of
tax-payers is required, and the licence may even then be refused,
but if the petition is signed by two-thirds of the tax-payers the
licensing authority is bound to grant it. This seems to be a
sort of genuine local option. Provision is also generally made
for hearing objectors. Another condition sometimes required
(Massachusetts and Iowa) is the consent of owners of adjoining
property. In some states no licences are permitted within a
UNITED STATES]
LIQUOR LAWS
767
stated distance of certain institutions; e.g. public parks (Missouri)
and schools (Massachusetts). -Regulations imposed on the
licensed trade nearly always include prohibition of sale to minors
under 18 and to drunkards, on Sundays, public holidays and
election days, and prohibition of the employment of barmaids.
Sunday closing, which is universal, dates at least from 1816
(Indiana) and is probably much older. The hours of closing on
week days vary considerably but are usually 10 P.M. or n P.M.
Other things are often prohibited including indecent pictures,
games and music.
State Prohibition. — In a few states no licences are allowed.
State prohibition was first introduced in 1846 under the influence
of a strong agitation in Maine, and within a few years the example
was followed by the other New England states; by Vermont in
1852, Connecticut in 1854, New Hampshire in 1855 and later by
Massachusetts and Rhode Island.' They have all now after a
more or less prolonged trial given it up except Maine. Other
states which have tried and abandoned it are Illinois (1851-1853),
Indiana (1855-1858), Michigan, Iowa, Nebraska, South Dakota.
The great Middle states have either never tried it, as in the case
of New York (where it was enacted in 1855 but declared uncon-
stitutional), Pennsylvania and New Jersey, or only gave it a
nominal trial, as with Illinois and Indiana. A curious position
came about in Ohio,1 one of the great industrial states. It did not
adopt prohibition, which forbids the manufacture and sale of
liquor; but in 1851 it abandoned licensing, which had been in
force since 1792, and incorporated a provision in the constitution
declaring that no licence should thereafter be granted in the state.
The position then was that retail sale without a licence was illegal
and that no licence could be granted. This singular state of
things was changed in 1886 by the " Dow law," which authorized
a tax on the trade and rendered it legal without expressly sanction-
ing or licensing it. There were therefore no licences and no
licensing machinery, but the traffic was taxed and conditions
imposed. In effect the Dow law amounted to repeal of pro-
hibition and its replacement by the freest possible form of licens-
ing. In Iowa, which early adopted a prohibitory law, still
nominally in force, a law, known as the " mulct law," was
passed in 1894 for taxing the trade and practically legalizing
it under conditions. The story of the forty years' struggle
in this state between the prohibition agitation and the natural
appetites of mankind is exceedingly instructive; it is an extra-
ordinary revelation of political intrigue and tortuous proceed-
ings, and an impressive warning against the folly of trying to
coerce the personal habits of a large section of the population
against their will. It ended in a sort of compromise, in which
the coercive principle is preserved in one law and personal
liberty vindicated by another contradictory one. The result
may be satisfactory, but it might be attained in a less expensive
manner. What suffers is the principle of law itself, which is
brought into disrepute.
State prohibition, abandoned by the populous New
England and central states, has in recent years found a
home in more remote regions. In 1907 it was in force in five
states — Maine, Kansas, North Dakota, Georgia and Oklahoma;
in January, 1909, it came into operation in Alabama, Miss-
issippi, and North Carolina; and in July 1909 in Tennessee.
Local Prohibition. — The limited form of prohibition known as
local veto is much more extensively applied. It is an older plan
than state prohibition, having been adopted by the legislature of
Indiana in 1832. Georgia followed in the next year, and then
other states took it up for several years until the rise of state
prohibition in the middle of the century caused it to fall into
neglect for a time. But the states which adopted and then
abandoned general prohibition fell back on the local form, and a
great many others have also adopted it. In 1907 it was in force
in over 30 states, including all the most populous and important,
with one or two exceptions. But the extent to which it is applied
varies very widely and is constantly changing, as different places
take it up and drop it again. Some alternate in an almost
regular manner every two or three years, or even every year;
1 In 1908 local option was adopted in Ohio.
and periodical oscillations of a general character occur in favour
of the plan or against it as the result of organized agitation
followed by reaction. The wide discrepancies between the
practice of different states are shown by some statistics collected
in 1907, when the movement was running favourably to the adop-
tion of no licence. In Tennessee the whole state was under
prohibition with the exception of 5 municipalities; Arkansas,
56 out of 75 counties; Florida, 35 out of 46 counties; Mississippi,
56 out of 77 counties; North Carolina, 70 out of 97 counties;
Vermont, 3 out of 6 cities and 208 out of 241 towns. These appear
to be the most prohibitive states, and they are all of a rural
character. At the other end of the scale were Pennsylvania
with i county and a few towns (" town " in America is generally
equivalent to "village" in England); Michigan, i county and
a few towns; California, parts of 8 or 10 counties. New York
had 308 out of 933 towns, Ohio, 480 out of 768 towns, Massa-
chusetts, 19 out of 33 cities and 249 out of 321 towns. At the
end of 1909 a strong reaction against the prohibition policy set
in, notably in Massachusetts.
There is no more uniformity in the mode of procedure than
in the extent of application. At least five methods are distin-
guished. In the most complete and regular form a vote is taken
every year in all localities whether there shall be licences or not
in the ensuing year and is decided by a bare majority. A second
method of applying the general vote is to take it at any time,
but not oftener than once in four years, on the demand of one-
tenth of the electorate. A third plan is to apply this principle
locally and put the question to the vote, when demanded, in
any locality. A fourth and entirely different system is to invest
the local authority with powers to decide whether there shall be
licences or not; and a fifth is to give residents power to prevent
licences by means of protest or petition. The first two methods
are those most widely in force; but the third plan of taking a
local vote by itself is adopted in some important states, including
New York, Ohio and Illinois. Opinions differ widely with regard
to the success of local veto, but all independent observers agree
that it is more successful than state prohibition, and the prefer-
ence accorded to it by so many states after prolonged experience
proves that public opinion broadly endorses that view. Its
advantage lies in its adaptability to local circumstances and local
opinion. It prevails mainly in rural districts and small towns;
in the larger towns it is best tolerated where they are in close
proximity to " safety valves " or licensed areas in which liquor
can be obtained; the large cities do not adopt it. On the other
hand, it has some serious disadvantages. The perpetually re-
newed struggle between the advocates and opponents of prohibi-
tion is a constant cause of social and political strife; and the
alternate shutting up and opening of public houses in many
places makes continuity of administration impossible, prevents
the executive from getting the traffic properly in hand, upsets
the habits of the people, demoralizes the trade and stands in the
way of steady improvement.
Public Dispensaries. — This entirely different system of con-
trolling the traffic has been in general operation in one state only,
South Carolina; but it was also applied to certain areas in
the neighbouring states of North Carolina, Georgia and Alabama.
The coloured element is very strong in these states, especially in
South Carolina, where the coloured far exceeds the white popula-
tion. The dispensary system was inaugurated there in 1893.
It had been preceded by a licensing system with local veto
(adopted in 1882), but a strong agitation for state prohibition
brought matters to a crisis in 1891. The usual violent political
struggle, which is the only constant feature of liquor legislation
in the United States, took place, partly on temperance and partly
on economic grounds; and a way out was found by adopting
an idea from the town of Athens in Georgia, where the liquor
trade was run by the municipality through a public dispensary. A
law was passed in 1892 embodying this principle but applying
it to the whole state. The measure was fiercely contested in the
courts and the legislature for years and it underwent numerous
amendments, but it survived. Under it the state became the
sole purveyor of liquor, buying wholesale from the manufacturers
768
LIQUOR LAWS
[EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
and selling retail through dispensaries under public management
and only for consumption off the premises. Many changes were
introduced from time to time without abandoning the principle,
but in 1907 the system of state control was replaced by one of
county administration. Local veto is also in force, and thus the
localities have the choice of a dispensary or no sale at all. The
regulations are very strict. The dispensaries are few and only
open on week-days and during the day-time; they close at
sunset. Liquor is only sold in bottles and in not less quantities
than half a pint of spirits and a pint of beer, and it must be
taken away; bars are abolished. There is a general consensus
of testimony to the effect of the system in improving public
order especially among the coloured population, who are very
susceptible to drink. The law seems to be well carried out in
general, but Charleston and Columbia, the only two considerable
towns, are honeycombed with illicit drink-shops, as the writer
has proved by personal experience. Columbia is the capital and
the seat of cotton manufactures, as are all the larger towns,
with the exception of Charleston, which is the port and business
centre. The population of the state is predominantly rural, and
local prohibition obtains in 18 out of 41 counties.
The following statistical comparison, extracted from the United
States Census of 1900 and the Inland Revenue Returns by Mr W. O.
Tatum (New Encyclopedia of Social Reform) and here presented in
tabular form, is highly instructive. It shows the population and
number of liquor dealers paying the United States tax in two prohi-
bition states, one state under what is considered the best licensing
system, and South Carolina.
State.
Population.
Wholesale
Liquor
Dealers.
Retail
Liquor
Dealers.
Maine (Prohibition)
Kansas (Prohibition)
Massachusetts (Licence) .
S. Carolina (Dispensary) .
694,466
1,470,495
2,805,346
1,340,316
51
129
617
13
1366
3125
5092
534
This table may be said to epitomize the results of the United States
restrictive liquor laws. It presents examples of three different
systems; the proportion of retail liquor sellers to population is —
under complete prohibition, i to 508 and I to 475 ; under licence and
local prohibition, I to 530; under dispensary and local prohibition,
I to 2509. But the remarkable thing is the enormous amount of
illicit traffic existing under all three systems. It is incomparably
greatest under complete prohibition because the whole of the
traffic in these states is illicit. In South Carolina one of the whole-
sale dealers and 388 of the 534 retailers were illicit. In Massa-
chusetts the number cannot be stated, but it is very large. If the
whole state were under licence the total legal number of licences,
which is limited in proportion to population (see above), would be
3400 ; and in that case there would be some 1 700 illicit retailers. But
a large part of the state, probably more than half, is under local
prohibition, so that the majority of the 5000 retail dealers must be
illicit. These facts, which are typical and not exceptional, reveal
the failure of the laws to control the traffic ; only partial or spas-
modic attempts are made to enforce them and to a great extent
they are ignored by common consent. The illegal trade is carried
on so openly that the United States revenue officers have no difficulty
in collecting the federal tax. It is not a satisfactory state of things,
or one which countries where law is respected would care to imitate.
The example is a good lesson in what to avoid.
Taxation. — Mention has been made above of the federal and
state taxation_imposed on the liquor trade. The former is uniform ;
the latter varies greatly, even in those states which have adopted
the " high licence." This system is intended to fulfil two purposes;
to act as an automatic check on the number of licences and to pro-
duce revenue. It was introduced in Nebraska in i88i,when a tax
of 1000 dollars (£200) was placed on saloons (public houses) in large
towns, and half that amount in smaller ones. The practice gradually
spread and has now been adopted by a large number of states,
noticeably the populous and industrial north-eastern and central
states. In Massachusetts, where the high licence was adopted in
1874 when the state returned to licensing after a trial of prohibition,
the fees are exceptionally high, the minimum for a fully licensed on
and off house being 1300 dollars (£260); in Boston the average tax
is £310. In New York state it ranges from 150 dollars (£30) in
sparsely populated districts to 1200 dollars (£240), and in Penn-
sylvania it is much the same. In New Jersey, on the other hand, it
ranges from £20 to £60; in Connecticut from £50 to £90; in Rhode
Island from £40 to £80. In Missouri, which has a special system
of its own and a sort of sliding scale, great variations occur and in
some cases the tax exceeds £500. In Michigan it is uniform at £100.
The mean for the large cities is £133. The revenue derived from this
source is distributed in many ways, but is generally divided in
varying proportions between the state, the county and the munici-
pality; sometimes a proportion goes to the relief of the poor, to
road-making or some other public purpose. The amount levied in
the great cities is very large. It will be seen from the foregoing that
the taxation of licences is much heavier in the United States than
in the United Kingdom. The total yield was ascertained by a
special inquiry in 1896 and found to be rather less than 12 millions
sterling; in the same year the yield from the same source in the
United Kingdom was just under 2 millions. Allowing for difference
of population the American rate of taxation was 3 \ times as great
as the British. It has been inferred that the liquor trade is much
more highly taxed in the United States and that it would bear
largely increased taxation in the United Kingdom; that argument
was brought forward in support of Mr Lloyd George's budget of
1909. But it only takes account of the tax on licences and leaves
put of account the tax on liquor which is the great source of revenue
in the United Kingdom, as has been shown above. The scales are
much lower in the United States, especially on spirits, which are
only taxed at the average rate of 53. 8d. a gallon against us. (raised
to 145. gd. in 1909) in the United Kingdom. Mr Frederic Thompson
has calculated out the effect of the two sets of rates and shown that
if British rates were applied to the United States the average yield
in the three years ending 1908 would be raised from 44 millions to
76 millions; and conversely if American rates were applied to the
United Kingdom the average yield would be lowered from 36
millions to 23 millions. Taking licences and liquor taxation together
he finds that the application of the British standards for both
would still raise the total yield in the United States by 39 % ; and
that even the exceptionally high rates prevailing in Massachusetts
would, if applied to the United Kingdom, produce some 4 millions
less revenue than the existing taxation. Other calculations based
on the consumption and taxation per head lead to the same con-
clusion that the trade is actually taxed at a considerably higher
rate in the United Kingdom. In the three years ending 1908 the
average amount paid per head in taxation was 133. 8Jd. in the
United States and 173. 6fd. in the United Kingdom. It may be
added that the method of taxing licences heavily has certain dis-
advantages; it stimulates that illicit trade which is the most put-
standing feature of the traffic in the United States, and combined
with the extreme insecurity of tenure involved in local option it
gives licence-holders additional inducements to make as much
money as possible by any means available, while they have the
opportunity, for no compensation is ever paid for sudden dis-
possession. The notion that the trade will stand an indefinite amount
of taxation is a dangerous and oft-proved fallacy.
European Countries.
With the exception of Sweden, Norway and Russia, which
have special systems of their own, the continental countries
of Europe have as yet paid comparatively little legislative
attention to the subject of the liquor traffic, which is recognized
by the law but for the most part freely permitted with a mini-
mum of interference. Differences exist, but, generally speaking,
establishments may be opened under a very simple procedure,
which amounts to an elementary form of licensing, and the
permission is only withdrawn for some definite and serious
offence. Regulations and conditions are for the most part
left to the discretion of the local authority and the police and
are not burdensome. The reason for such freedom as compared
with the elaborate and stringent codes of the United Kingdom
and the United States is not less concern for public welfare
but the simple fact that the traffic gives less trouble and causes
less harm through the abuse of drink; the habits of the people
are different in regard to the character of the drinks consumed/
the mode of consumption and the type of establishment. Cafes,,
restaurants and beer-gardens are much more common, and mere
pot-houses less so than in the English-speaking countries. Where
trouble arises and engages the attention of the authorities
and the legislature, it is almost invariably found to be associated
with the consumption of spirits. In several of the wine-producing
countries, which are generally marked by the temperate habits
of the people, the widespread havoc among the vines caused
some years ago by the phylloxera led to an increased consumption
of spirits which had a bad effect and aroused considerable anxiety.
This was notably the case in France, where an anti-alcohol
congress, held in 1903, marked the rise of public and scientific
opinion on the subject. Temperance societies have become
active, and in some countries there is a movement towards
stricter regulations or at least a demand for it; but in others
the present law is a relaxation of earlier ones.
EUROPEAN COUNTRIES]
LIQUOR LAWS
769
France. — The present law governing the licensing of establish-
ments where liquor is sold for consumption on the premises was
passed in 1880; it abrogated the previous decree of 1851, by which
full discretion was vested in the local authorities, and freed the
traffic from arbitrary restrictions. It provides that any person
desiring to open a cafe, cabaret or other place for retailing liquor must
give notice to the authorities, with details concerning himself, the
establishment and the proprietor, at least 15 days beforehand;
the authority in Paris is the prefecture of police and elsewhere the
mairie. Transfers of proprietorship or management must be notified
within 15 days, and intended transference of location 8 days before-
hand. The penalty for infraction is a fine of 16 francs to loo francs.
Legal minors and persons convicted of certain crimes and offences —
theft, receiving stolen goods, various forms of swindling, offences
against morality, the sale of adulterated articles — are prohibited;
in the case of crimes, for ever; in the case of offences, for five years.
Otherwise permission cannot be refused, subject to conditions which
the local authority has power to lay down regulating the distance
of such establishments from churches, cemeteries, hospitals, schools
and colleges. But persons engaged in the trade, who are convicted
of the offences mentioned above and of infraction of the law for the
suppression of public drunkenness, are disabled, as above. The
law practically amounts to free trade and the number of houses
has increased under it; in 1900 there was one to every 81 persons.
This proportion is only exceeded by Belgium. Under the Local
Government Act of 1884 municipal authorities are empowered, for
the maintenance of public order, to fix hours of closing, regulate
dancing, forbid the employment of girls and the harbouring of
prostitutes and make other regulations. The hours of closing differ
considerably but usually they are II P.M., midnight or I A.M.
The trade is lightly taxed; retailers pay from 15 to 50 francs a
year; wholesale dealers, 125 francs; breweries the same in most
departments, distilleries 25 francs. The excise revenue from liquor
amounted to £20,000,000 in 1900.
Germany. — The German law and practice are broadly similar to
the French, but the several states vary somewhat in detail. Under
the imperial law of 1879 inns or hotels and retail trade in spirits for
on or off consumption may not be carried on without a permit or
licence from the local authority which, however, can only be refused
on the ground of character or of unsuitability of premises. This is
the general law of the empire; but the state governments are
empowered to make the granting of a licence for retailing spirits
dependent on proof that it is locally required, and also to impose
the same condition on inn-keeping and the retailing of other drinks
in places with less than 15,000 inhabitants and in larger ones which
obtain a local statute to that effect. Before a licence is granted the
opinion of the police and other executive officers is to be taken.
The licensing authority is the mayor in towns and the chairman of
the district council in rural areas. The provisions with regard to the
dependence of a licence on local requirements have been adopted
by Prussia and other states, but apparently little or no use is made
of them. Permits are very freely granted, and the number of
licensed houses, though not so great as in France, is very high in
proportion to population. Three classes of establishment are
recognized — (i) Gast-wirthschaft, (2) Schank-wirthschaft, (3) Klein-
handel. Gast-wirthschaft is inn-keeping, or the lodging of strangers in
an open house for profit, and includes " pensions " of a public
character; the imperial law provides that a licence may be limited
to this function and need not include the retailing of liquor. Schank-
wirthschaft is the retailing for profit of all sorts of drinks, including
coffee and mineral waters; it corresponds to caf6 in France and
refreshment house in England; but the mere serving of food does
not come under the law with which we are here concerned. Klein-
handel is retail sale either for on or off consumption, and the liquor
for which a licence is required in this connexion is described as
branntwein or spiritus, and is defined as distilled alcoholic
liquor, whether by itself or in combination. A licence for Schank-
wirthschaft includes Klein-handel, but not vice-versa; none is re-
quired for the retail sale of wine which is the seller's own produce.
Licences may be withdrawn for offences against the law. Licensed
houses are under the supervision of the police, who fix the hours of
closing; it is usually 10 P.M., but is commonly extended to II P.M.
or midnight in the larger towns and still later in the case of particular
establishments. Some caf6s in Berlin do not close till 3 A.M. and some
never close at all. Persons remaining on the premises in forbidden
hours after being ordered to leave by the landlord are liable to
Cunishment. Serving drunkards and persons of school age is for-
idden. Drunkards, in addition to fines or imprisonment for dis-
orderly conduct, are liable to be deprived of control of their affairs
and placed under guardianship. For music and dancing special
permits are required. With regard to taxation, in Prussia all
business establishments beyond a certain value pay an annual tax
and licensed houses are on the same footing as the rest. Businesses
producing less than £75 a year or of less than £150 capital value are
free; the rest are arranged in four classes on a rising scale. In
the three lower classes the tax ranges from a minimum of 45. to a
maximum of £24; in the highest class, which represents businesses
producing £2500 and upwards (or a capital value of £50,000 and
upwards) the tax is I % of the profits. There is also a stamp duty
on the licence ranging from is. 6d. to £5. The latter goes to the
xvi. 25
local revenue, the business tax to the government. Beer and spirits
are also subject to an excise tax, from which the imperial revenue
derived £7,700,000 in 1901 ; but the total taxation of the liquor
trade could only be calculated from the returns of all the federated
states.
The laws of France and Germany are fairly representative of the
European states, with some minor variations. In Holland the
number of licensed spirit retailers is limited in proportion to popula-
tion (i to 500), and the taxation, which is both national and local,
ranges from 10 to 25 % of the annual value.
In Austria-Hungary and Rumania the licence duty is graduated
according to the population of the place, as used to be the case in
Prussia. In 1877 a severe police law was applied to Galicia in
order to check the excesses of spirit-drinking. The Poles, it may be
observed, are spirit-drinkers, and the exceptional treatment of this
part of the Austrian empire is one more illustration of the trouble
arising from that habit, which forces special attempts to restrain it.
The law, just mentioned, in Holland is another instance; and the
particular cases of Russia and Scandinavia, described below, enforce
the same lesson. Where the drink of the people is confined to wine
and beer there is comparatively little trouble. In Switzerland the
manufacture and wholesale sale of spirits has been a federal monopoly
since 1887, but the retailing is a licensed trade, as elsewhere, and is
less restricted than formerly. Before federation in 1874 the cantons
used to direct local authorities to restrict the number of licences in
proportion to population; but under the new constitution the
general principle of free trade was laid down, and the Federal Council
intimated to the cantonal authorities that it was no longer lawful
to refuse a licence on the ground that it was not needed.
Russia. — In 1895 Russia entered upon an experiment in regard
to the spirit traffic and began to convert the previously existing
licence system into a state monopoly. The experiment was held to
be successful and was gradually extended to the whole country.
Under this system, which to some extent resembles that of South
Carolina but is much less rigid, the distilleries remain in private
hands but their output is under government control. The retail
sale is confined to government shops, which sell only in sealed bottles
for consumption off the premises, and to commercial establishments
which sell on commission for the government. Spirit bars are
abolished and only in a few high class restaurants are spirits sold
by the glass; in ordinary eating-houses and at railway refreshment
rooms they are sold in sealed government bottles but may be con-
sumed on the premises. The primary object was to check the
excesses of spirit-drinking which were very great in Russia among
the mass of the people. The effect has been a very large reduction
in the number of liquor shops, which has extended also to the
licensed beer-houses though they are not directly affected as such.
Presumably when they could no longer sell spirits it did not pay
them to take out a licence for beer.
Sweden and Norway. — In these countries the celebrated " Gothen-
burg " or company system is in force together with licensing and
local veto. Like the Russian state monopoly the company system
applies only to spirits, and for the same reason ; spirits are or were
the common drink of the people and excessive facilities in the early
part of the igth century produced the usual result. The story is
very similar to that of England in the 1 8th century, given above.
From 1774 to 1788 distilling in Sweden was a crown monopoly, but
popular opposition and illicit trade compelled the abandonment of
this plan in favour of general permission granted to farmers, inn-
keepers and landowners. At the beginning of the igth century
the right to distil belonged to every owner and cultivator of land
on payment of a trifling licence duty, and it was further extended to
occupiers. In 1829 the number of stills paying licence duty was
173,124 or I to every 16 persons; the practice was in fact universal
and the whole population was debauched with spirits. The physical
and moral results were the same as those recorded in England a
hundred years before. The supply was somewhat restricted by royal
ordinance in 1835, but the traffic was not effectively dealt with
until 1855 when a law was passed which practically abolished
domestic distilling by fixing a minimum daily output of 200 gallons,
with a tax of about lod. a gallon. This turned the business into a
manufacture and speedily reduced the number of stills. At the
same time the retail sale was subjected to drastic regulations. A
licensing system was introduced which gave the local authority
power to fix the number of licences and put them up to auction or
to hand over the retail traffic altogether to a company formed for
the purpose of carrying it on. The latter idea, which is the Gothen-
burg system, was taken from the example of Falun and Jonkoping
which had a few years ago voluntarily adopted the plan. The law
of 1855 further gave rural districts the power of local veto. Four-
fifths of the population live in rural districts, and the great majority
of them immediately took advantage of the provision. The company
system, on the other hand, was not applied by the towns until 1865,
when Gothenburg adopted it.
In Norway the course of events was very similar. There, too,
distilling and spirit-drinking, were practically universal in the early
part of the century under the laws of 1816, but were checked by
legislation a few years sooner than in Sweden. In 1845 a special
licensing system was introduced, giving the local authority power
to fix the number of licences, and in 1848 the small and domestic
770
LIRA— LIROCONITE
stills were stopped. The Gothenburg system was not adopted in
Norway until 1871 and then with some modification. The essence
of this method of conducting the retail traffic is that the element
of private gain is eliminated. A monopoly is granted to a company
consisting of a number of disinterested citizens of standing with a
capital, and they manage the sale both for ' 'on' 'and "off' 'consumption
in the public interest. The profits, after payment of 5% on the
capital, originally went in Sweden mainly to the municipality in
relief of rates, in Norway to objects of public utility. The latter
was considered preferable because it offers less temptation to make
the profits as high as possible. Fault has, however, been found with
both methods, and payment of profits to the state is now preferred.
In 1894 a law was passed in Norway providing for the following
distribution: 65% to the state, 20% to the company, and 15%
to the municipality. In 1907 Sweden adopted a law in the same
direction. The intention is to eliminate more completely the motive
of gain from the traffic. In 1898 the net profits of the companies
exceeded half a million sterling in Sweden and reached £117,500
in Norway.
The company system had in 1910 had more than half a century's
trial; it had gone through some vicissitudes and been subjected to
much criticism, which was balanced by at least as much eulogy. It
had held its own in Sweden, where 101 towns had adopted it in
1906. In Norway at the same date it was in force in 32 towns while
29 had adopted local veto, which was extended from the country
districts, where it had previously been optional, to the towns by the
law of 1894.
As we have already said, it only applies to spirits. In both
countries the sale of beer and wine for " on " consumption is carried on
in the ordinary way under a licensing system; the sale of beer in
bottles for consumption off the premises is practically free. The
beer traffic is regarded by some as a " safety valve " and by others
as a defect in the system. The consumption has greatly increased in
Sweden; in Norway it increased up to 1900 and has since declined.
But other more deleterious substitutes for spirits have come into
use in the shape of concocted " wines " and methylated spirits.
The company management has had the following effects: it has
greatly reduced the number of spirit bars, improved their character
and conduct, added eating-rooms, where good and cheap meals are
served, stopped drinking on credit and by persons under 18 years
of age, shortened the hours of sale, raised the price and lowered the
strength of spirits. But the restrictions placed on the sale for
consumption on the premises has stimulated the retail bottle trade
and home drinking.
British Dominions.
Canada. — Liquor legislation in Canada has been much influenced
by the proximity and example of the United States. Licensing,
modified by local veto, prevails throughout the Dominion except in
the Indian settlements; but the several provinces have their own
laws, which vary in stringency. As a whole the licensing system
rather resembles the American than the British type. The licensing
authority is either a board of commissioners or the municipality,
and there has been the same tendency as in the United States to
substitute the former for the latter. In British Columbia no new
hotel licence is granted in cities except on the request of two-thirds
of the owners and occupiers of the adjoining property, but their
consent is not necessary for renewal. In other provinces the muni-
cipal authority has power to limit as well as regulate the licensed
trade. Sunday closing is the rule; on week-days the usual closing
hour in the large towns is 1 1 P.M. The power of locally prohibiting
licensed houses by vote was introduced by the Canada Temperance
Act, a federal law passed in 1875 and commonly known as the Scott
Act. Extensive use has been made of it, especially in the maritime
provinces, where the temperance sentiment is very strong, but in
recent years it has rather lost ground. In 1908 it was in force in
22 counties or cities, of which ten were in Nova Scotia, ten in New
Brunswick and two in Manitoba; it was nowhere in force in the
remaining provinces. Three elections were held under the act in
1907-1908, two in Nova Scotia and one in New Brunswick, and in
the first two prohibition was defeated. In 1910 Nova Scotia,
apparently dissatisfied with the progress of local prohibition under
the Scott Act, passed a prohibitory law for the whole province,
exempting Halifax, the capital and only considerable town, but
making provision for its subsequent inclusion by a referendum to
the ratepayers. There is in Canada the same oscillation of public
opinion as in the United States, and the same toleration- of evasion
of the law. The writer has stayed in hotels in several prohibition
towns, where there was not only a regular bar but a printed wine
list from which anything could be ordered at meals without any
concealment at all. The chief difference between the conduct of
hotels under prohibition and under licensing is that under licensing
the bar is closed at the legal hour, which is usually 1 1 o'clock, and
under prohibition it remains open as long as there are any customers
to serve. The law is nominally respected by imposing a periodical
fine. In small towns and rural districts local prohibition is much
more effective. In short the experience of Canada confirms that
of the United States. In addition to the federal law, the local
authorities have power, in Quebec, to prohibit as well as to regulate
the trade. The high licence system has not been adopted in Canada.
The total revenue derived by the Dominion government in 1908
from taxation of the liquor trade, including duties and licence fees,
was £1,800,000.
Australia. — The licensing laws of Australia are less repressive
and the practice more resembles the British model. Queensland
has adopted local prohibition, but it is not applied. New South
Wales has a limited form of veto applying only to new licences;
South Australia has the same together with a provision for the
optional reduction of licences; Victoria, on the other hand, allows
an option both ways, for reducing or increasing the licences; West
Australia and Tasmania merely give the local ratepayers the right
of protest; in West Australia it holds good against new licences
only and if a majority object the licence is refused; in Tasmania
protest may be made against renewals and transfers also, but the
decision lies with the licensing authority. There is practically no
prohibition in the Commonwealth.
New Zealand. — This state has a licensing system with local option
provisions of its own. The licensing authority is a local committee,
and there are seven kinds of licence, of which two are for consumption
on the premises. The fees range from £i for a wine licence to £40
for a full publican's licence in towns, or £45 for one permitting an
additional hour's sale at night; the fees go to the revenue of the
local authority. In 1907 the total number of licences granted was
2179 and the fees paid amounted to £45,865. Of the whole number,
I3^7, or I to every 666 persons, were houses licensed for on con-
sumption. The closing hour is 10 P.M. except for houses specially
licensed to be open till II P.M. In 1893 local option was introduced
by the Alcoholic Liquors Sale Control Act, which provided for the
taking of a poll on the question of licences. The electoral districts
for the purpose are the same as for the House of Representatives,
except that the cities of Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch and
Dunedin each form a single district for the licensing poll. It is
taken at the same time as the election of members of the House of
Representatives, and three questions are propounded — (i) continu-
ance of existing licences, (2) reduction, (3) no licences. A voter
may vote for two proposals but not more. An absolute majority
of all the votes recorded carries (l); an absolute majority of all the
votes recorded carries (2), whereupon the licensing committee re-
duces the licences by any number from 5 to 25 % of the total.
But if three-fifths of all the votes cast are in favour of no licence
then that supersedes (l) and (2). The poll taken in December 1905
gave the following results: of the 68 districts 40 carried no pro-
posal (which is equivalent to continuance of existing licences), 18
carried continuance, 4 reduction, 6 no licence, including 3 which
had previously adopted no licence. Women, it must be remembered,
vote as well as men. The aggregate vote in favour of no licence
shows a large proportional increase since the first poll in the
present system in 1896.
AUTHORITIES. — Royal Commission on Liquor Licensing Laws
1896-1899, Reports and Appendices; Licensing Statistics of England
and Wales, annual. Canada Year-book; New Zealand Year-book;
Code de Commerce, France; Gewerbeordnung, German Empire;
Hand-book of Canada (British Association) ; New Encyclopedia
of Social Reform; Brewers' Almanack; Committee of Fifty (New
York),The Liquor Problem in its Legislative Aspects (F. H. Wines and
J. Koren); E. L. Fanshawe, Liquor Legislation in the United States
and Canada; E.R.L. Gould, The Gothenburg System (Special Report
of the United States Commissioner of Labor) ; E. A. Pratt, Licensing
and Temperance in Sweden, Norway and Denmark; J. Rowntree and
A. Sherwell, The Temperance Problem and Social Reform; The
Taxation of the Liquor Trade ; A. Shadwell, Drink, Temperance and
Legislation; Strauss und Torney, Schanks-Konzessionswesen;
F. . W. Thompson, High Licence. See also TEMPERANCE. (A. SL.)
LIRA, the Italian name (Lat. libra, pound) for a silver coin,
the Italian unit of value in the Latin Monetary Union, corre-
sponding to the French, Swiss and Belgian franc (<?.».), and the
drachma of Greece, &c. The name is sometimes used of the
Turkish pound, medjidie.
LIRI, or GARIGLIANO (anc. Liris), a river of central Italy,
which rises at Cappadocia, 7 m. W. of Avezzano, and traverses
a beautiful valley between lofty mountains, running S.S.E. as
far as Arce. This valley is followed by the railway from Avezzano
to Roccasecca. At Isola del Liri are two fine waterfalls. Below
Ceprano, the ancient Fregellae, after it has issued from the
mountains, the Liri is joined by the Sacco (anc. Trerus) formed
by the union of several torrents between Palestrina and Segni,
and the Melfa from the mountains N.E. of Atina, and runs
E. through a broader valley. It then turns S. again through
the mountains S.W. of the Via Latina (the line of which is
followed by the modern railway to Naples), keeping W. of Rocca
Monfina, and falls into the sea just below Minturnae, after a
course of 104 m. It is not navigable at any point.
LIROCONITE, a rare mineral consisting of hydrous basic
copper and aluminium arsenate, with the probable formula
LISBON
771
Cu9Al4(OH)i5(AsO4)5.20H2O. It crystallizes in the monoclinic
system, forming flattened octahedra almost lenticular in shape
(hence the German name Linsenkupfer) . Characteristic is the
bright sky-blue colour, though sometimes, possibly owing to
differences in chemical composition, it is verdigris-green. The
colour of the streak or powder is rather paler; hence the name
liroconite, from the Gr. Xeipos, pale, and novla, powder. The
hardness is 2%, and the specific gravity 2-95. The mineral
was found at the beginning of the igth century in the copper
mines near Gwennap in Cornwall, where it was associated with
other copper arsenates in the upper, oxidized portions of the
lodes. (L. J. S.)
LISBON (Lisboa), the capital of the kingdom of Portugal
and of the department of Lisbon; on the right bank of the
river Tagus, near its entrance into the Atlantic Ocean, in
38° 42' 24" N. and 9° n' 10" W.' Pop. (1900) 356,009. Lisbon,
the westernmost of European capitals, is built in a succession
of terraces up the sides of a range of low hills, backed by the
granite mountains of Cintra. It fronts the Tagus, and the view
from the river of its white houses, and its numerous parks and
gardens, is comparable in beauty with the approach to Naples
or Constantinople by sea. The lower reaches of the estuary
form a channel (Entrada do Tejo) about 2 m. wide and 8 m.
long, which is partially closed at its mouth by a bar of silt.
Owing to the reclamation of the foreshore on the right, and
the consequent narrowing of the waterway, the current flows
very swiftly down this channel, which is the sole outlet for
the immense volume of water accumulated in the Rada de
Lisboa — a tidal lake formed by the broadening of the estuary
in its upper part to fill a basin 1 1 m. long with an average breadth
of nearly 7 m. The southern or left shore of the channel rises
sharply from the water's edge in a line of almost unbroken
though not lofty cliffs; the margin of the lake is flat, marshy
and irregular. Lisbon extends for more than 5 m. along the
shores of both channel and lake, and for more than 3 m. inland.
Its suburbs, which generally terminate in a belt of vineyards,
parks or gardens, interspersed with villas and farms, stretch
in some cases beyond the Estrada Militar, or Estrada da Nova
Circumvallacao, an inner line of defence 25m. long.supplementary
to the forts and other military works at the mouth of the Tagus,
on the heights of Cintra and Alverca, and at Caxias, Sacavem,
Monsanto and Ameixoeira. The climate of Lisbon is mild and
equable, though somewhat oppressive in summer. Extreme
cold is so rare that in the twenty years 1856-1876 snow fell
only thrice; and in the i8th and early igth centuries Lisbon
was justly esteemed as a winter health-resort. The mean
annual temperature is 60- 1° F., the mean for winter 50-9°, the
average rainfall 29-45 m- As in 1906, when no rain fell between
April and September, long periods of drought are not uncommon,
although the proximity of the Atlantic and the frequency of
sea-fogs keep the atmosphere humid; the mean atmospheric
moisture is nearly 71 (i 00 = saturation). There is a good water
supply, conveyed to the city by two vast aqueducts. The older
of these is the Aqueducto das Aguas Livres, which was built
in the first half of the i8th century and starts from a point near
Bellas, 15 m. W.N.W. Its conduits, which are partly under-
ground, are conveyed across the Alcantara valley through a
magnificent viaduct of thirty-five arches, exceeding 200 ft. in
height. At the Lisbon end of the aqueduct is the Mae d'Agua
(i.e. " Mother of Water "), containing a huge stone hall in the
midst of which is the reservoir. The Alviella aqueduct, opened
in 1880, brings water from Alviella near Pernes, 70 m. N.N.E.
Numerous fountains are among the means of distribution.
Sewage is discharged into the Tagus, and the sanitation of the
city is good, except in the older quarters.
Divisions of the City. — The four municipal districts (bairros)
into which Lisbon is divided are the Alfama, or old town, in
the east; the Cidade Baixa, or lower town, which extends
inland from the naval arsenal and custom house; the Bairro
Alto, comprising all the high ground west of the Cidade Baixa;
and the Alcantara, or westernmost district, named after the
small river Alcantara, which flows down into the Tagus. Other
names commonly used, though unofficial, are " Lisboa Oriental "
as an alternative for Alfama; " Lisboa Occidental " for the
slopes which lead from the Cidade Baixa to the Bairro Alto;
" Buenos Ayres " (originally so named from the number of
its South American residents) for the Bairro Alto S.W. of the
Estrella Gardens and E. of the Necessidades Park; " Campo de
Ourique " and " Rato " for the suburbs respectively N.W. and
N.E. of Buenos Ayres.
The Alfama. — The Alfama, which represents Roman and
Moorish Lisbon, is less rich in archaeological interest than its
great antiquity might suggest, although parts of a Roman
temple, baths, &c., have been disinterred. But as the earthquake
of 1755 did comparatively little damage to this quarter, many of
its narrow, steep and winding alleys retain the medieval aspect
which all other parts of the city have lost; and almost rival the
slums of Oporto in picturesque squalor. The most conspicuous
feature of the Alfama is the rocky hill surmounted by the
Castello de Sao Jorge, a Moorish citadel which has been converted
into a fort and barracks. The Se Patriarchal, a cathedral
founded in 1150 by Alphonso I., is said by tradition to have been
a Moorish mosque. It was wrecked by an earthquake in 1344 and
rebuilt in 1380, but the earthquake of 1755 shattered the dome,
the roof and belfry were subsequently burned, and after the
work of restoration was completed the choir and facade were
the only parts of the 14th-century Gothic church unspoiled.
In one of the side chapels is the tomb of St Vincent (d. 304),
patron saint of Lisbon; a pair of ravens kept within the cathedral
precincts are popularly believed to be the same birds which,
according to the legend, miraculously guided the saint's vessel
to the city. The armorial bearings of Lisbon, representing a ship
and two ravens, commemorate the legend. Other noteworthy
buildings in the Alfama are the 12th-century church of Sao
Vicente de Fora, originally, as its name implies, " outside " the
city; the 13th-century chapel of Nossa Senhora do Monte;
the 16th-century church of Nossa Senhora da Graca, which
contains a reputed wonder-working statue of Christ and the tomb
of Alphonso d' Albuquerque (1453-1515); and a secularized
Augustinian monastery, used as the archbishop's palace.
Modern Lisbon. — West of the Alfama the city dates chiefly
from the period after the great earthquake. Its lofty houses,
arranged in long straight streets, its gardens and open spaces,
a few of its public buildings, and almost all its numerous statues
and fountains, will bear comparison with those of any European
capital. The centre of social and commercial activity is the
district which comprises the Praca do Commercio, Rua Augusta,
Rocio, and Avenida da Liberdade, streets and squares occupying
the valley of a vanished tributary of the Tagus. The Praca
do Commercio is a spacious square, one side of which faces the
river, while the other three sides are occupied by the arcaded
buildings of the custom house, post office and other government
property. In the midst is a bronze equestrian statue of Joseph I.,
by J. M. de Castro, which was erected in 1775 and gives point
to the name of " Black Horse Square " commonly applied to the
Praca by the British. A triumphal arch on the north side leads
to Rua Augusta, originally intended to be the cloth-merchants'
street; for the plan upon which Lisbon was rebuilt after 1755
involved the restriction of each industry to a specified area.
This plan succeeded in the neighbouring Rua Aurea and Rua da
Prata, still, as their names indicate, famous for goldsmiths' and
silversmiths' shops. Rua Augusta terminates on the north in
the Rocfo or Praca de Dom Pedro Quarto, a square paved with
mosaic of a curious undulatory pattern and containing two
bronze fountains, a lofty pillar surmounted by a statue of
Pedro IV., and the royal national theatre (Theatro de Dona
Maria Segunda), erected on the site which the Inquisition build-
ings occupied from' 1520 to 1836. The narrow Rua do Principe,
leading past the central railway station, a handsome Mauresque
building, connects the Rocio with the Avenida da Liberdade, one
of the finest avenues in Europe. The central part of the Avenida,
a favourite open-air resort of Lisbon society, is used for riding
and driving; on each side of it are paved double avenues of
trees, with flower-beds, statues, ponds, fountains, &c., and
772
LISBON
between these and the broad pavements are two roadways for
trams and heavy traffic. Thus the Avenida has the appearance
of three parallel streets, separated by avenues of trees instead of
houses. Its width exceeds 300 ft. It owes its name to an obelisk
98 ft. high, erected in 1882 at its southern end, to commemorate
the liberation of Portugal from Spanish rule (December, 1640).
North and north-east of the Avenida are the Avenida Park,
the Edward VII. Park (so named in memory of a visit paid to
Lisbon by the king of England in 1903), Campo Grande, with its
finely wooded walks, and Campo Pequeno, with the bull-ring.
Other noteworthy public gardens are the Passeio da Estrella,
commanding magnificent views of the city and river, the Largo
do Principe Real, planted with bananas and other tropical
trees, the Tapada das Necessidades, originally the park of one
of the royal residences, and the Botanical Gardens of the poly-
technic school, with a fine avenue of palms and collections of
tropical and subtropical flora hardly surpassed in Europe.
There are large Portuguese cemeteries east and west of Lisbon,
a German cemetery, and an English cemetery, known also as
Os Cyprestes from the number of its cypresses. This was laid
out in 1717 at the cost of the British and Dutch residents
and contains the graves of Henry Fielding (1707-1754),
the novelist, and Dr Philip Doddridge (1702-1751), the Non-
conformist divine.
Lisbon is the seat of an archbishop who since 1716 has borne
ex officio the honorary title of patriarch; he presides over the
House of Peers and is usually appointed a cardinal. The churches
of modern Lisbon are generally built in the Italian style of the
i8th century; the interiors are overlaid with heavy ornament.
Perhaps the finest is the Estrella church, with its white marble
dome and twin towers visible for many miles above the city.
The late Renaissance church of Sao Roque contains two beautiful
chapels dating from the i8th century, one of which is inlaid with
painted tiles, while the other was constructed in Rome of coloured
marbles, and consecrated by the pope before being shipped to
Lisbon. Its mosaics and lapis lazuli pillars are exceptionally fine.
The 14th-century Gothic Igreja do Carmo was shattered by the
great earthquake. Only the apse, pillared aisles and outer walls
remain standing, and the interior has been converted into an
archaeological museum. The church of Nossa Senhora da
Conceicao has a magnificent Manoeline facade.
The Palacio das Cortes, in which both Houses of Parliament
sit, is a 16th-century Benedictine convent, used for its present
purpose since 1834. It contains the national archives, better
known as the Torre do Tombo collection, because in 1375 the
archives were first stored in a tower of that name. The royal
palace, or Paco das Necessidades, west of Buenos Ayres, is a
vast 18th-century mansion occupying the site of a chapel
dedicated to Nossa Senhora das Necessidades (i.e. " Our Lady
who helps at need ").
The Suburbs of Ajuda and Belem. — In the extreme west of Lisbon,
beyond the Alcantara valley, are Belem (i.e. " Bethlehem "), beside
the Tagus, and Ajuda, on the heights above. The Pago de Belcm,
built in 1700 for the counts of Aveiro, became the chief royal palace
under John V. (1706-1750). The Torre de Belem, on the foreshore,
is a small tower of beautiful design, built in 1520 for the protection
of shipping. The finest ecclesiastical building in Portugal except
the monasteries of Alcobaca and Batalha also fronts the river.
It is the Convento dos Jeronymos, a Hieronymite convent and
church, founded in 1499 to commemorate the discovery of the sea-
route to India by Vasco da Gama. It was built of white limestone
by Joao de Castilho (d. 1581), perhaps the greatest of Manoeline archi-
tects. Its cloisters form a square with blunted corners, surrounded
by a two-storeyed arcade, every available portion of which is covered
with exquisite sculptures. Parts of the building have been restored,
but the cloisters and the beautiful central gateway remain unspoiled.
The interior contains many royal tombs, including that of Catherine
of Braganza (d. 1705), the wife of Charles II. of England. The
supposed remains of Camoens and Vasco da Gama were interred
here in 1880. In 1834, when the convent was secularized, its build-
ings were assigned to the Casa Pia, an orphanage founded by Maria I.
Since 1903 they have contained the archaeological collections of
the Portuguese Ethnological Museum. The royal Ajuda palace,
begun (1816-1826) by John VI. but left unfinished, derives its
name from the chapel of N. S. de Ajuda (" Our Lady of Aid ").
It contains some fine pictures and historical trophies. In the coach-
house there is an unsurpassed collection of state coaches, the cars
upon which figures of saints are borne in procession, sedan chairs,
old cabriolets and other curious vehicles.
The Environs of Lisbon. — The administrative district of Lisbon
has an area of 3065 sq. m., with a population of 709,509 in 1900.
It comprises the lower parts of the Tagus and Sado; the sea-coast
from 5 m. S. of Cape Carvoeiro to within 3 m. of the bluff called
the Escarpa do Rojo; and a strip of territory extending inland for
a mean distance of 30 m. This region corresponds with the southern
part of Estremadura (g.f.). Its more important towns, Setubal,
Cintra, Torres Vedras and Mafra, are described in separate articles.
Sines, a small seaport on Cape Sines, was the birthplace of Vasco da
Gama. On the left bank of the Tagus, opposite Lisbon, are the
small towns of Almada, Barreiro, Aldeia Gallega and Seixal, and
the hamlet of Trafaria, inhabited by fishermen. The beautiful strip
of coast west of Oeiras and south of Cape Roca is often called the
" Portuguese Riviera." Its fine climate, mineral springs and sea-
bathing attract visitors at all seasons to the picturesque fortified bay
of Cascaes, or to Estoril, Mont' Estoril and Sao Joao do Estoril,
modern towns consisting chiefly of villas, hotels and gardens.
The Boca do Inferno (" Mouth of Hell ") is a cavity in the rocks at
Cascaes resembling the Bufador at Peniscola (q.v.). The villages of
Carcavellos, Bucellas, Lumiar and Collares produce excellent
wines; at Carcavellos is the receiving station for cables, with a
large British staff, and a club and grounds where social and athletic
meetings are held by the British colony. Alhandra, on the right
bank ofthe Tagus, above Lisbon, was the birthplace of Albuquerque ;
fighting bulls for the Lisbon arena are bred in the adjacent pastures.
Railways, Shipping and Commerce. — Lisbon has five railway
stations — the central (Lisboa-Rocio), for the lines to Cintra,
northern and central Portugal, and Madrid via Valencia de
Alcantara; the Santa Apolonia or Caes dos Soldados, at the
eastern extremity of the quays, for the same lines (excluding
Cintra) and for southern Portugal and Andalusia; the Caes do
Sodre and Santos, farther west along the quays, for Cascaes;
and the Barreiro, on the left bank of the Tagus, for southern
Portugal. In 1902 the railways north and south of the Tagus
were connected near Lisbon by a bridge. In the previous year
an extensive system of electric tramways replaced the old-
fashioned cable cars and mule trams. Electric and hydraulic
lifts are used where the streets are too steep for trams. Lisbon
is lighted by both electricity and gas; it has an admirable
telephone service, and is connected by the Carcavellos cable-
station with Cornwall (England), Vigo in Galicia, Gibraltar, the
Azores and Madeira.
Ships of the largest size can enter the Tagus, and the Barreiro
inlet is navigable at low water by vessels drawing 16 ft. There
are extensive quays along the right bank, with hydraulic cranes,
two graving docks, a slipway, warehouses and lines of railway.
The government and private docks are on the left bank. Loading
and discharging are principally effected by means of lighters.
The exports are wines, oil, fruit, tinned fish, salt, colonial produce,
cork, pitwood, leather and wool. The imports include cotton and
woollen goods, linen, ale and porter, butter, tea, hardware, tin
plates, coal, iron, machinery, chemical manure, &c., from Great
Britain; grain and petroleum from the United States; dried
codfish from Norway and Newfoundland; silks, perfumery and
fancy goods from France; hemp, flax, grain, petroleum and
cloth from Russia; linen, machinery, hardware, sugar, &c.,
from Germany and Holland; iron, steel, timber, pitch and salt
fish from the Baltic; cocoa, coffee, wax and rubber from the
Portuguese colonies. Towards the close of the igth century the
tourist traffic from Great Britain and Germany attained con-
siderable importance, and Lisbon has long been one of the
principal ports of debarcation for passengers from Brazil and of
embarcation for emigrants to South America. Shipbuilding,
including the construction of vessels for the national navy, is a
growing industry. The fisheries have always been important,
and in no European fishmarket is the produce more varied.
Sardines and tunny are cured and tinned for export. In addition
to a fleet of about 600 sailing boats, the Tagus is the headquarters
of a small fleet of steam trawlers. The industries of Lisbon in-
clude dyeing, distillation of spirits and manufactures of woollen,
cotton, silk and linen fabrics, of pottery, soap, paper, chemicals,
cement, corks, tobacco, preserved foods and biscuits.
Education and Charity. — Although the seat of the only uni-
versity in Portugal was fixed at Coimbra in 1527, Lisbon is the
educational centre of the Portuguese world, including Brazil.
LISBURN
773
Its chief learned societies are the Society of Medical Sciences,
the Geographical Society, the Royal Academy of Sciences, the
Academy of Fine Arts, the Royal Conservatory of Music and the
Propaganda de Portugal. The museum of the Academy of Fine
Arts contains the largest collection of pictures and statues by
native and foreign artists in Portugal. The Geographical Society
has gained an international reputation; it possesses a valuable
library and museum. The National Library, founded in 1796,
contains over 400,000 printed books, and upwards of 9000 MSS.
There are also colonial, naval, artillery, natural history and
commercial museums, meteorological and astronomical ob-
servatories, zoological gardens and'an aquarium. Purely edu-
cational institutions include the medical, polytechnic, military
and naval schools, commercial, agricultural and industrial
institutes, a school of art, a central lyceum, a school for teachers,
&c. The English college for British Roman Catholics dates
from 1628. The Irish Dominicans have a seminary, and Portu-
guese ecclesiastical schools are numerous. There are hospitals
for women, and for contagious diseases, almshouses, orphanages,
a foundling hospital and a very large quarantine station on the
south bank of the Tagus, founded in 1857 after an outbreak of
yellow fever had devastated the city. Foremost among the
theatres, circuses and other places of amusement is the royal
opera-house of Sao Carlos, built in 1792-1793 on the model of
the Scala at Milan.
Population. — The population of Lisbon, 187,404' in 1878,
rose to 301,206 in 1890 and 356,009 in 1900. It includes a large
foreign colony, composed chiefly of Spaniards, British, Germans,
French, Brazilians and immigrants from the Portuguese colonies,
among whom are many half-castes. The majority of the Spaniards
are domestic servants and labourers from Galicia, whose industry
and easily gained knowledge of the kindred Portuguese language
enables them to earn a better livelihood here than in their own
homes. The British, German and French communities control a
large share of the foreign trade. The Brazilians and colonial
immigrants are often merchants and landowners who come to
the mother-country to spend their fortunes in a congenial social
environment.
The street life of the city is full of interest. The bare-footed,
ungainly fishwives, dressed in black and bearing flat trays of fish
on their heads; the Galician water-carriers, with their casks; the
bakers, bending beneath a hundredweight of bread slung in a huge
basket from their shoulders; the countrymen, with their sombreros,
sashes and hardwood quarter-staves, give colour and animation to
their surroundings; while the bag-pipes played by peasants from
the north, the whistles of the knife-grinders, and the distinctive
calls of the vendors of fruit, lottefy tickets, or oil and vinegar,
contribute a babel of sound. For church festivals and holidays the
country-folk come to town, the women riding on pillions behind the
men, adorned in shawls, aprons and handkerchiefs of scarlet or
other vivid hues, and wearing the strings of coins and ornaments of
exquisite gold and silver filigree which represent their savings or
dowries. The costumes and manners of all classes may be seen at
their best in the great bull-ring of Campo Pequeno, a Mauresque
building which holds many thousands of spectators. A Lisbon bull-
fight is a really brilliant exhibition of athletic skill and horseman-
ship, in which amateurs often take part, and neither horses nor
bulls are killed. There is a Tauromachic Club solely for amateurs.
History. — The name Lisbon is a modification of the ancient
name Olisipo, also written Ulyssippo under the influence of a
mythical story of a city founded by Odysseus (Ulysses) in Iberia,
which, however, according to Strabo, was placed by ancient
tradition rather in the mountains of Turdetania (the extreme
south of Spain). Under the Romans Olisipo became a muni-
cipium with the epithet of Felicitas Julia, but was inferior in
importance to the less ancient Emerita Augusta (Merida). From
407 to 585 it was occupied by Alaric, and thenceforward by the
Visigoths until 711, when it was taken by the Moors. Under the
Moors the town bore in Arabic the name of Al Oshbuna or Lash-
buna. It was the first point of Moslem Spain attacked by the
Normans in 844. When Alphonso I. of Portugal took advantage
of the decline and fall of the Almoravid dynasty to incorporate
the provinces of Estremadura and Alemtejo in his new kingdom,
1 This figure represents the population of a smaller area than
that of modern Lisbon, for the civic boundaries were extended by
a decree dated the 23rd of December 1886.
Lisbon was the last city of Portugal to fall into his hands, and
yielded only after a siege of several months (2ist October 1147),
in which he was aided by English and Flemish crusaders on their
way to Syria. In 1184 the city was again attacked by the
Moslems under the powerful caliph Abu Yakub, but the enterprise
failed. In the reign of Ferdinand I., the greater part of the
town was burned by the Castilian army under Henry II. (1373),
and in 1384 the Castilians again besieged Lisbon, but without
success. Lisbon became the seat of an archbishop in 1390, the
seat of government in 1422. During the i6th century it gained
much in wealth and splendour from the establishment of a
Portuguese empire in India and Africa. From 1580 to 1640
Lisbon was a provincial town under Spanish rule, and it was
from this port that the Spanish Armada sailed in 1588. In
1640 the town was captured by the duke of Braganza, and
the independence of the kingdom restored.
For many centuries the city had suffered from earthquakes,
and on the ist of November 1755 the greater part of it was
reduced almost in an instant to a heap of ruins. A tidal wave
at the same time broke over the quays and wrecked the shipping
in the Tagus; fire broke out to complete the work of destruction;
between 30,000 and 40,000 persons lost their lives; and the value
of the property destroyed was about £20,000,000. The shock
was felt from Scotland to Asia Minor. Careful investigation by
Daniel Sharpe, an English geologist, has delimited the area in
and near Lisbon to which its full force was confined. Lisbon is
built in a geological basin of Tertiary formation, the upper
portion of which is loose sand and gravel destitute of organic
remains, while below these are the so-called Almada beds of
yellow sand, calcareous sandstone and blue clay rich in organic
remains. The Tertiary deposits, which altogether cover an area
of more than 2000 sq. m., are separated near Lisbon from rocks
of the Secondary epoch by a great sheet of basalt. The upper-
most of these Secondary rocks is the hippurite limestone. It
was found that no building on the blue clay escaped destruction,
none on any of the Tertiary deposits escaped serious injury,
and all on the hippurite limestone and basalt were undamaged.
The line at which the earthquake ceased to be destructive thus
corresponded exactly with the boundary of the Tertiary deposits.
At the beginning of the igth century the French invasion,
followed by the removal of the court to Rio de Janeiro, the
Peninsular War, the loss of Brazil and a period of revolution
and dynastic trouble, resulted in the utter decadence of Lisbon,
from which the city only recovered after 1850 (see PORTUGAL:
History).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Every book which deals with the topography,
trade or history of Portugal as a whole necessarily devotes a portion
of its space to the capital ; see PORTUGAL : Bibliography. The follow-
ing treat more exclusively of Lisbon: A. Dayot, Lisbonne (No. ix.
of the " Capitales du monde " series) (Paris, 1892) ; Freire de Oliveira,
Elementos para a historia do municipio de Lisboa (9 vols., Lisbon,
1885-1898); J. de Castilho, Lisboa antiga (7 vols., Lisbon, 1890),
and (by the same author) A Ribeira de Lisboa (Lisbon, 1893).
LISBURN, a market town, and cathedral city of Co.
Antrim, Ireland, situated in a beautiful and fertile district
on the Lagan, and on the Great Northern railway, 8 m. S.S.W.
of Belfast. Pop. (1901) 11,461. Christ Church (1622) which
possesses a fine octagonal spire, is the cathedral church of the
united Protestant dioceses of Down, Connor and Dromore, and
contains a monument to Jeremy Taylor, who was bishop of the
see. The public park was presented to the town by Sir Richard
Wallace (d. 1890), and after his death the castle gardens were also
given to the town. The staple manufacture is linen, especially
damasks and muslins, originally introduced by Huguenots.
There are also bleaching and dyeing works, and a considerable
agricultural trade. The town is governed by an urban district
council. The ruins of Castle Robin, 2 m. N. of the town, stand
on a summit of the White Mountains, and the building dates
from the time of Queen Elizabeth. At Drumbo, 3! m. E. of
Lisburn, is one of the finest examples of early fortification
in Ireland, known as the Giant's Ring, with a cromlech in the
centre. Here are also a round tower and the remains of a
church ascribed to St Patrick.
774
LISIEUX— LISLE
In the reign of James I., Lisburn, which was then known as
Lisnegarvy (Gambler's Fort), was an inconsiderable village,
but in 1627 it was granted by Charles I. to Viscount Conway,
who erected the castle for his residence, and laid the foundation
of the prosperity of the town by the introduction of English
and Welsh settlers. In November 1641 the town was taken by
the insurgents, who on the approach of superior numbers set
fire to it. The troops of Cromwell gained a victory near the
town in 1648, and the castle surrendered to them in 1650. The
church was constituted a cathedral in 1662 by Charles II., from
whom the town received the privilege of returning two members
to parliament, but after the Union it returned only one and
in 1885 ceased to be a parliamentary borough. Lisburn gives
the titles of earl and viscount to the family of Vaughan.
LISIEUX, a town of north-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Calvados, 30 m. E. of
Caen by rail. Pop. (1906) 15,194. Lisieux is prettily situated in
the valley of the Touques at its confluence with the Orbiquet.
Towers of the i6th century, relics of the old fortifications, remain,
and some of the streets, bordered throughout by houses of the
I4th, isth and i6th centuries, retain their medieval aspect.
The church of St Peter, formerly a cathedral, is reputed to be
the first Gothic church built in Normandy. Begun in the
latter half of the i2th century it was completed in the I3th and
i6th centuries. There is a lantern-tower over the crossing and
two towers surmount the west facade, one only of which has
a spire, added towards the end of the i6th century. In the
interior there is a Lady-Chapel, restored in the isth century
by Bishop Pierre Cauchon, one of the judges of Joan of Arc.
The church of St Jacques (late isth century) contains beautiful
glass of the Renaissance, some remarkable stalls and old frescoes,
and a curious picture on wood, restored in 1681. The church of
St Desir (i8th century) once belonged to a Benedictine abbey.
The old episcopal palace near the cathedral is now used as a
court-house, museum, library and prison, and contains a beautiful
hall called the salle doree. Lisieux is the seat of a sub-prefect,
and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber
of arts and manufactures, a board of trade arbitrators and a
communal college. Its manufactures of woollens are important,
and bleaching, wool and flax-spinning, tanning, brewing, timber-
sawing, metal-founding, and the manufacture of machinery,
hosiery and boots and shoes are carried on; there is trade
in grain, cattle and cheese.
In the time of Caesar, Lisieux, under the name of Noviomagus,
was the capital of the Lexovii. Though destroyed by the
barbarians, by the 6th century it had become one of the most
important towns of Neustria. Its bishopric, suppressed in 1802,
dates from that period. In 877 it was pillaged by the Normans;
and in 91 1 was included in the duchy of Normandy by the treaty
of St Clair-sur-Epte. Civil authority was exercised by the
bishop as count of the town. In 1136 Geoffrey Plantagenet
laid siege to Lisieux, which had taken the side of Stephen
of Blois. The town was not reduced till 1141, by which time
both it and the neighbourhood had been brought to the direst
extremities of famine. In 1152 the marriage of Henry II. of
England to Eleanor of Guienne, which added so largely to his
dominions, was celebrated in the cathedral. Thomas a Becket
took refuge here, and some vestments used by him are shown
in the hospital chapel. Taken by Philip Augustus and reunited
to France in 1203, the town was a frequent subject of dispute
between the contending parties during the Hundred Years'
War, the religious wars, and those of the League.
LISKEARD, a market town and municipal borough in the
Bodmin parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 15 m.
W.N.W. of Plymouth, on the Great Western and the Liskeard
and Looe railways. Pop. (IQOI) 4010. It lies high, above
two small valleys opening to that of the Looe river, in a hilly,
picturesque district. The Perpendicular church of St Martin,
with a tower of earlier date, having a Norman arch, is one of
the largest ecclesiastical buildings in the county. The site of
a castle built by Richard, brother of Henry III. and earl of
Cornwall, is occupied by public gardens. At the grammar school,
which formerly occupied a building in those gardens, Dr John
Wolcot, otherwise known as Peter Pindar, was educated.
Liskeard was formerly an important mining centre. Its manu-
factures include leather and woollen goods, and there are iron
foundries. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and
12 councillors. Area, 2704 acres.
Liskeard (Liscarret) was at the time of the Domesday Survey an
important manor with a mill rendering i2d. yearly and a market
rendering 45. By the Conqueror it had been given to the count
of Mortain by whom it was held in demesne. Ever since that
time it has passed with the^earldom or duchy of Cornwall. The
fertility of its soil and the river Looe probably led to early
settlement at Liskeard. Richard, king of the Romans, recognized
its natural advantages and built the manor house or castle
and resided there occasionally. In 1240 he constituted Liskeard
a free borough and its burgesses freemen with all the liberties
enjoyed by the burgesses of Launceston and Helston. In
1266 he granted fairs at the Feasts of the Assumption and St
Matthew. His son Edmund earl of Cornwall in 1275 granted
to the burgesses for a yearly rent of £18 (sold by William III.
to Lord Somers) the borough in fee farm with its mills, tolls,
fines and pleas, pleas of the crown excepted. Liskeard was
made a coinage town for tin in 1304. Edward the Black Prince
secured to the burgesses in 1355 immunity from pleas outside
their franchise for trespass done within the borough. Queen
Elizabeth granted a charter of incorporation in 1580 under
which there were to be a mayor, recorder and eight councillors.
This charter was surrendered to Charles II. in 1680 and a new
one granted by his brother under which the corporation became
a self-elected body. From 1295 to 1832 Liskeard sent two
members to the House of Commons. The parliamentary franchise,
at first exercised by the burgesses, was vested by James' charter
in the corporation and freemen. By determining to admit
no new freemen the voters became reduced to between 30 and
60. Sir Edward Coke was returned for this borough in 1620,
and Edward Gibbon the historian in 1774. In 1832 Liskeard
was deprived of one of its members and in 1885 it became
merged in the county.
Besides the fairs already mentioned a third was added by Eliza-
beth's charter to be held on Ascension Day. These are still among
the most considerable cattle fairs in the county. The same charter
ratified a market on Mondays and provided for another on Saturdays.
The latter is now held weekly, the former twice a month. The
flour mill at Lamellion mentioned in the charter of 1275, and pro-
bably identical with the mill of the Domesday Survey, is still driven
by water.
LISLE, ALICE (c. 1614-1685), commonly known as Lady
Alice Lisle, was born about 1614. Her father, Sir White
Beckenshaw, was descended from an old Hampshire family;
her husband, John Lisle (d. 1664), had been one of the judges
at the trial of Charles I., and was subsequently a member of
Cromwell's House of Lords — hence his wife's courtesy title.
Lady Lisle seems to have leaned to Royalism, but with this
attitude she combined a decided sympathy with religious
dissent. On the 2oth of July 1685, a fortnight after the battle
of Sedgemoor, the old lady consented to shelter John Hickes,
a well-known Nonconformist minister, at her residence, Moyles
Court, near Ringwood. Hickes, who was a fugitive from
Monmouth's army, brought with him Richard Nelthorpe, also
a partizan of Monmouth, and under sentence of outlawry.
The two men passed the night at Moyles Court, and on the follow-
ing morning were arrested, and their hostess, who had denied
their presence in the house, was charged with harbouring traitors.
Her case was tried by Judge Jeffreys at the opening of the "Bloody
Assizes " at Winchester. She pleaded that she had no knowledge
that Hickes's offence was anything more serious than illegal
preaching, that she had known nothing previously of Nelthorpe
(whose name was not included in the indictment, but was,
nevertheless, mentioned to strengthen the case for the Crown),
and that she had no sympathy with the rebellion. The jury
reluctantly found her guilty, and, the law recognizing no distinc-
tion between principals and accessories in treason, she was
sentenced to be burned. Jeffreys ordered that the sentence
LISMORE— LISSA
775
should be carried out that same afternoon, but a few days' respite
was subsequently granted, and James II. allowed beheading to
be substituted for burning. Lady Lisle was executed in Win-
chester market-place on the 2nd of September 1685. By many
writers her death has been termed a judicial murder, and one
of the first acts of parliament of William and Mary reversed
the attainder on the ground that the prosecution was irregular
and the verdict injuriously extorted by " the menaces and
violences and other illegal practices " of Jeffreys. It is, however,
extremely doubtful whether Jeffreys, for all his gross brutality,
exceeded the strict letter of the existing law.
See Howell, State Trials; H. B. Irving, Life of Judge Jeffreys;
Stephen, History of the Criminal Law of England.
LISMORE, an island in the entrance to Loch Linnhe, Argyll-
shire, Scotland, 5 m. N.W. of Oban. Pop. (1901) 500. It lies
S.W. and N.E., is g% m. long and if m. broad, and has an area
of 9600 acres. It divides the lower end of the loch into two
channels, the Lynn of Morvern on the W. and the Lynn of
Lome on the E. The name is' derived from the Gaelic Has mor,
" great garden." Several ruined castles stand on the coast,
and the highest point of the island is 500 ft. above the sea.
The inhabitants raise potatoes, oats, cattle and horses, and
these, with dairy produce, form the bulk of the trade. Steamers
call at Auchnacrosan. A Columban monastery was founded in
Lismore by St Moluag about 592. About 1200 the see of Argyll
was separated from Dunkeld by Bishop John, " the English-
man," and Lismore soon afterwards became the seat of the bishop
of Argyll, sometimes called " Episcopus Lismoriensis," quite
distinct from the bishop of the Isles (Sudreys and Isle of Man),
called " Episcopus Sodoriensis " or " Insularum," whose see
was divided in the i4th century into the English bishopric of
Sodor and Man and the Scottish bishopric of the Isles. The Rev.
John Macaulay (d. 1789), grandfather of Lord Macaulay, the
historian, and the Rev. Donald M'Nicol (1735-1802), who took
up the defence of the Highlands against Dr Johnson, were
ministers of Lismore.
For the Book of the Dean of Lismore see CELT: Scottish Gaelic
Literature.
LISMORE, a town of Rous county, New South Wales, Australia,
320 m. direct N. by E. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 4378. It is the
principal town of the north coast district, and the seat of a
Roman Catholic bishop. The surrounding country is partly
pastoral, and partly agricultural, the soil being very fertile.
The town has a cathedral, school of art, and other public buildings,
while its industrial establishments include saw-mills, sugar-
mills, butter factories and an iron foundry. Standing at the
head of navigation of the Richmond river, Lismore has a large
export trade in dairy produce, poultry, pigs, and pine and
cedar timber.
LISMORE, a market town and seat of a diocese in Co.
Waterford, Ireland, 43 m. W.S.W. of Waterford by the Waterford
and Mallow branch of the Great Southern & Western Railway.
Pop. (1901) 1583. It is beautifully situated on a steep eminence
rising abruptly from the Blackwater. At the verge of the rock
on the western side is the old baronial castle, erected by King
John in 1185, which was the residence of the bishops till the
1 4th century. It was besieged in 1641 and 1643, and in 1645
it was partly destroyed by fire. The present fabric is largely
modern; while the portico was designed by Inigo Jones. To the
east, on the summit of the height, is the cathedral of St Carthagh,
of various dates. There are portions probably of the 1 2th and
i3th centuries, but the bulk of the building is of the I7th century,
and considerable additions, including the tower and spire, were
made in the igth. There are a grammar school, a free school
and a number of charities. Some trade is carried on by means of
the river, and the town is the centre of a salmon fishery district.
The original name of Lismore was Maghsciath. A monastery
founded here by St Carthagh in 633 became so celebrated as a
seat of learning that it is said no fewer than twenty churches
were erected in its vicinity. The bishopric, which is said to have
originated with this foundation, was united to that of Waterford
in 1363. In the 9th and beginning of the loth centuries the town
was repeatedly plundered by the Danes, and in 978 the town
and abbey were burned by the men of Ossory. Henry II., after
landing at Waterford, received in Lismore castle the allegiance
of the archbishops and bishops of Ireland. In 1518 the manor
was granted to Sir Walter Raleigh, from whom it passed to
Sir Richard Boyle, afterwards earl of Cork. From the earls
of Cork it descended by marriage to the dukes of Devonshire.
It was incorporated as a municipal borough in the time of Charles
I., when it also received the privilege of returning members to
parliament, but at the Union in 1800 it was disfranchised and
also ceased to exercise its municipal functions.
LISSA (Serbo-Croation Vis; Lat. Issa), an island in the
Adriatic sea, forming part of Dalmatia, Austria. Lissa lies
31 m. S. by W. of Spalato, and is the outermost island of the
Dalmatian Archipelago. Its greatest length is io| m.; its
greatest breadth 45 m. In shape it is a long, roughly drawn
parallelogram, surrounded by a wall of rock, which incloses the
fertile central plain, and is broken, on the north, west and
east by natural harbours. Its culminating point is Mount Hum
(1942 ft.), on the south-west. The island, which belongs to the
administrative district of Lesina, is divided between two com-
munes, named after the chief towns, Lissa (Vis), on the north,
and Comisa (Komiza), on the west. Lissa, the capital, has a
strongly fortified harbour. It contains the palace of the old
Venetian counts Gariboldi, the former residence of the English
governor, the monastery of the Minorites and at a little distance
to the west the ruins of the ancient city of Issa. The islanders
gain their livelihood by viticulture, for which Issa was once
famous, by sardine fishing and by the distillation of rosemary
oil. Pop. (1900) 9918, of whom 5261 belonged to the town
and commune of Lissa, and 4657 to Comisa.
Issa is said to have been settled by people from Lesbos, the
Issa of the Aegean. The Parians, assisted by Dionysius the
Elder of Syracuse, introduced a colony in the 4th century B.C.
During the First Punic War (265-241 B.C.) the Issaeans with
their beaked ships helped the Roman Duilius; and the great
republic, having defended their island against the attacks of
Agron of Illyria and his queen Teuta, again found them service-
able allies in the war with Philip of Macedon (c. 215-211). As
early as 996 the Venetians ruled the island, and, though they
retired for a time before the Ragusans, their power was effectually
established in 1278. Velo Selo, then the chief settlement, was
destroyed by Ferdinand of Naples in 1483 and by the Turks in
1571. The present city arose shortly afterwards. During the
Napoleonic wars, the French held Lissa until 1811, and during
this period the island prospered greatly, its population increasing
from 4000 to 12,000 between 1808 and 1811. In the latter year
the French squadron was defeated by the British (see below);
though in the same year a French fleet, flying British colours,
entered Lissa, and only retired after burning 64 merchantmen.
Thenceforward the island gained a valuable trade in British goods,
which, being excluded from every port under French control,
were smuggled into Dalmatia. In 1812 the British established
an administrative system, under native officials, in Lissa and
the adjoining islands of Curzola and Lagosta. All three were
ceded to Austria in 1815.
Battles of Lissa. — Two naval actions have been fought in
modern times near this island. The first took place on the i3th
of March 1811, and was fought between a Franco-Venetian
squadron, under the command of an officer named Dubourdieu
(of whom little or nothing else is known), and Captain (afterwards
Sir) William Hoste with a small British force. The Franco-
Venetian squadron (Venice was then part of the dominions of the
emperor Napoleon) consisted of six frigates, of which four were
of forty guns, and of five corvettes or small craft. The British
squadron was composed of three frigates, the " Amphion," 32
(Captain William Hoste), the " Cerberus " (Captain Henry
Whitby) and the " Active," 38 (Captain James A. Gordon).
With them was the " Volage," 22 (Captain Phipps Hornby).
The action has a peculiar interest because the French captain
imitated the method of attack employed by Nelson at Trafalgar.
He came down from windward in two lines parallel to one another,
776
LISSA— LIST, F.
and at an angle to the British squadron. Captain Hoste was not
compelled to lie still as the allies did at Trafalgar. He stood on,
and as the two French lines had to overtake him as he slipped
away at an angle to their course, one of them got in the way
of the other. Captain Hoste materially forwarded the success
of his manoeuvre by leading the foremost French ship, the
" Favorite," 40, on to a reef, which was known to himself, but
not to the enemy. Both squadrons then turned, and the Franco-
Venetians falling into great confusion were defeated in spite of
the gallant fighting of the individual ships. Two prizes were
taken and Dubourdieu was killed.
The second naval battle of Lissa was fought between the
Austrian and Italian navies on the aoth of July 1866. The
island, then in possession of the Austrians, was attacked by an
Italian squadron from Ancona of 12 ironclads and 22 wooden
vessels. One of the ironclads was damaged in a bombardment
of the forts, and two were detached on other service, when an
Austrian squadron of 7 ironclads, one unarmoured warship the
" Kaiser " and a number of small craft which had left Fasano
under the command of Admiral Tegethoff came to interrupt
their operations. The Italian admiral Persano arranged his
ships in a single long line ahead, which allowing for the necessary
space between them meant that the Italian formation stretched
for more than 2 m. Just before the action began Admiral
Persano shifted his flag from the " Re d'ltalia," the fourth ship
in order from the van, to the ram " Affondatore," the fifth.
This made it necessary for the " Affondatore " and the ships
astern to shorten speed, and, as the leading vessels stood on,
a gap was created in the Italian line. Admiral Tegethoff, who
was on the port bow of the Italians, attacked with his squadron
in three divisions formed in obtuse angles. The Italians opened
a very rapid and ill-directed fire at a distance of 1000 yds. The
Austrians did not reply till they were at a distance of 300 yds.
Under Tegethoff 's vigorous leadership, and aided by the disorder
in the Italian line, the Austrians brought on a brief, but to
the Italians destructive, melee. They broke through an interval
between the third and fourth Italian ships. The unarmed
Austrian ships headed to attack the unarmed Italians in the
rear. At this point an incident occurred to which an exaggerated
importance was given. The Italian ironclad " Re di Portogallo "
of 5600 tons, in the rear of the line, stood out to cover the un-
armoured squadron by ramming the Austrians. She was herself
rammed by the wooden " Kaiser " (5000 tons), but received
little injury, while the Austrian was much injured. The
" Kaiser " and the wooden vessels then made for the protection
of fort San Giorgio on Lissa unpursued. In the centre, where the
action was hottest, the Austrian flagship " Ferdinand Max " of
5200 tons rammed and sank the " Re d'ltalia." The Italian
" Palestro " of 2000 tons was fired by a shell and blew up. By
midday the Italians were in retreat, and Tegethoff anchored at
San Giorgio. His squadron had suffered very little from the wild
fire of the Italians. The battle of the 2oth July was the first
fought at sea by modern ironclad steam fleets, and. therefore
attracted a great deal of attention. The sinking of the " Re
d'ltalia " and the ramming of the " Portogallo " by the " Kaiser "
gave an immense impulse to the then popular theory that the
ram would be a leading, if not the principal, weapon in modern
sea warfare. This calculation has not been borne out by more
recent experience, and indeed was not justified by the battle
itself, in which the attempts to ram were many and the successes
very few. The " R6 d'ltalia " was struck only because she was
suddenly and most injudiciously backed, so that she had no way
on when charged by the " Ferdinand Max."
For the first battle of Lissa see James's Naval History, vol. v.
(1837). A clear account of the second battle will be found in Sir S.
Eardley-Wilmot's Development of Navies (London, 1892); see also
H. W. Wilson's Ironclads in Action (London, 1896). (D. H.)
LISSA (Polish Lezno), a town in the Prussian province of
Posen, 25m. N.E. from Glogau by rail and at the junction of lines
to Breslau, Posen and Landsberg. Pop. (1905) 16,021. The
chief buildings are the handsome palace, the medieval town-hall,
the four churches and the synagogue. Its manufactures consist
chiefly of shoes, machinery, liqueurs and tobacco; it also possesses
a large steam flour-mill, and carries on a brisk trade in grain and
cattle.
Lissa owes its rise to a number of Moravian Brothers who
were banished from Bohemia by the emperor Ferdinand I.
in the i6th century and found a refuge in a village on the
estate of the Polish family of Leszczynski. Their settlement
received municipal rights in 1561. During the Thirty Years'
War the population was reinforced by other refugees, and Lissa
became an important commercial town and the chief seat of
the Moravian Brothers in Poland. Johann Amos Comenius
was long rector of the celebrated Moravian school here. In 1656
and 1707 Lissa was burned down.
See Voigt, Aus Lissas erster Bliilezeit (Lissa, 1905), and Sanden,
Geschichte der Lissaer Schule (Lissa, 1905).
LIST, FRIEDRICH (1780-1846), German economist, was born
at Reutlingen, WiLrttemberg, on the 6th of August 1789. Un-
willing to follow the occupation of his father, who was a pros-
perous tanner, he became a clerk in the public service, and by
1816 had risen to the post of ministerial under-secretary. In
1817 he was appointed professor of administration and politics
at the university of Tubingen, but the fall of the ministry in
1819 compelled him to resign. As a deputy to the Wurttemberg
chamber, he was active in advocating administrative reforms.
He was eventually expelled from the chamber and in April 1822
sentenced to ten months' imprisonment with hard labour in
the fortress of Asperg. He escaped to Alsace, and after visiting
France and England returned in 1824 to finish his sentence,
and was released on undertaking to emigrate to America. There
he resided from 1825 to 1832, first engaging in farming and
afterwards in journalism. It was in America that he gathered
from a study of Alexander Hamilton's work the inspiration
which made him an economist of his pronounced " National "
views. The discovery of coal on some land which he had acquired
made him financially independent, and he became United States
consul at Leipzig in 1832. He strongly advocated the extension
of the railway system in Germany, and the establishment of the
Zollverein was due largely to his enthusiasm and ardour. His
latter days were darkened by many misfortunes; he lost much
of his American property in a financial crisis, ill-health also
overtook him, and he brought his life to an end by his own hand
on the 3oth of November 1846.
List holds historically one of the highest places in economic
thought as applied to practical objects. His principal work is
entitled Das Nationale System der Politischen Okonomie (1841).
Though his practical conclusions were different from those of
Adam Miiller (1770-1829), he was largely influenced not only by
Hamilton but also by the general mode of thinking of that writer,
and by his strictures on the doctrine of Adam Smith. It was
particularly against the cosmopolitan principle in the modern
economical system that he protested, and against the absolute
doctrine of free trade, which was in harmony with that principle.
He gave prominence to the national idea, and insisted on the
special requirements of each nation according to its circumstances
and especially to the degree of its development.
He refused to Smith's system the title of the industrial, which
he thought more appropriate to the mercantile system, and desig-
nated the former as " the exchange-value system." He denied
the parallelism asserted by Smith between the economic conduct
proper to an individual and to a nation, and held that the immediate
private interest of the separate members of the community would
not lead to the highest good of the whole. That the nation was
an existence, standing between the individual and humanity, and
formed into a unity by its language, manners, historical development,
culture and constitution. That this unity must be the first con-
dition of the security, wellbeing, progress and civilization of the
individual; and private economic interests, like all others, must be
subordinated to the maintenance, completion and strengthening
of the nationality. The nation haying a continuous life, its true
wealth must consist — and this is List's fundamental doctrine — not
in the quantity of exchange-values which it possesses, but in the full
and many-sided development of its productive powers. Its economic
education should be more important than the immediate production
of values, and it might be right that one generation should sacrifice
its gain and enjoyment to secure the strength and skill of the future.
In the sound and normal condition of a nation which has attained
LIST— LISTER, BARON
777
economic maturity, the three productive powers of agriculture,
manufactures and commerce should be alike developed. But the
two latter factors are superior in importance, as exercising a more
effective and fruitful influence on the whole culture of the nation,
as well as on its independence. Navigation, railways, all higher
technical arts, connect themselves specially with these factors;
whilst in a purely agricultural state there is a tendency to stagnation.
But for the growth of the higher forms of industry all countries
are not adapted — only those of the temperate zones, whilst the
torrid regions have a natural monopoly in the production of certain
raw materials; and thus between these two groups of countries
a division of labour and confederation of powers spontaneously
takes place.
List then goes on to explain his theory of the stages of economic
development through which the nations of the temperate zone,
which are furnished with all the necessary conditions, naturally
pass, in advancing to their normal economic state. These are (i)
pastoral life, (2) agriculture, (3) agriculture united with manu-
factures; whilst in the final stage agriculture, manufactures and
commerce are combined. The economic task of the state is to
bring into existence through legislative and administrative action
the conditions required for the progress of the nation through these
stages. Out of this view arises List's scheme of industrial politics.
Every nation, according to him, should begin with free trade,
stimulating and improving its agriculture by intercourse with richer
and more cultivated nations, importing foreign manufactures and
exporting raw products. When it is economically so far advanced
that it can manufacture for itself, then a system of protection should
be employed to allow the home industries to develop themselves
fl*Uy, and save them from being overpowered in. their earlier efforts
by the competition of more matured foreign industries in the home
market. When the national industries have grown strong enough
no longer to dread this competition, then the highest stage of progress
has been reached ; free trade should again become the rule, and the
nation be thus thoroughly incorporated with the universal industrial
union. What a nation loses for a time in exchange values during
the protective period she much more than gains in the long run
in productive power — the temporary expenditure being strictly
analogous, when we place ourselves at the point of view of the life
of the nation, to thecostof the industrial education of the individual.
The practical conclusion which List drew for Germany was that she
needed for her economic progress an extended and conveniently
bounded territory reaching to the sea-coast both on north and south,
and a vigorous expansion of manufactures and commerce, and that
the way to the latter lay through judicious protective legislation
with a customs union comprising all German lands, and a German
marine with a Navigation Act. The national German spirit, striving
after independence and power through union, and the national
industry, awaking from its lethargy and eager to recover lost ground,
were favourable to the success of List's book, and it produced a great
sensation. He ably represented the tendencies and demands of
his time in his own country; his work had the effect of fixing the
attention, not merely of the speculative and official classes, but of
practical men generally, on questions of political economy; and
his ideas were undoubtedly the economic foundation of modern
Germany, as applied by the practical genius of Bismarck.
See biographies of List by Goldschmidt (Berlin, 1878) and Jentsch
(Berlin, 1901), also Fr. List, ein Vorldufer und ein Opfer fur das
Vaterland (Anon., 2 vols., Stuttgart, 1877); M. E. Hirst's Life of
Friedrich List (London, 1909) contains a bibliography and a reprint
of List's Outlines of American Political Economy (1827).
LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lijst, Ger. Leiste,
adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle), properly a border or edging.
The word was thus formerly used of a geographical boundary
or frontier and of the lobe of the ear. In current usage " list "
is the term applied to the " selvage " of a piece of cloth, the
edging, i.e. of a web left in an unfinished state or of different
material from the rest of the fabric, to be torn or cut off when
it is made up, or used for forming a seam. A similar edging
prevents unravelling. The material, cut off and collected,
is known as " list," and is used as a soft cheap material for
making slippers, padding cushions, &c. Until the employment
of rubber, list was used to stuff the cushions of billiard tables.
The same word probably appears, in a plural form " lists,"
applied to the barriers or palisades enclosing a space of ground
set apart for tilting (see TOURNAMENT). It is thus used of any
place of contest, and the phrase " to enter the lists " is frequently
used in the sense of " to challenge." The word in this applica-
tion was taken directly from the 0. Fr. lisse, modern lice, in
Med. Lat. liciae. This word is usually taken to be a Romanic
adaptation of the Teutonic word. In medieval fortifications the
lices were the palisades forming an outwork in front of the main
walls of a castle or other fortified place, and the word was also
used of the space enclosed between the palisades and the en-
ceinte; this was used for exercising troops, &c. From a trans-
'erence of " list," meaning edge or border, to a "strip" of paper,
parchment, &c., containing a " list " of names, numbers, &c.,
comes the use of the word for an enumeration of a series of names
of persons or things arranged in order for some specific purpose.
[t is the most general word for such an enumeration, other
words, such as " register," " schedule," " inventory," " cata-
logue," having usually some particular connotation. The chief
early use of list in this meaning was of the roll containing the
names of soldiers; hence to " list a soldier " meant to enter
a recruit's name for service, in modern usage " to enlist " him.
There are numerous particular applications of " list," as in " civil
list " (q.v.), " active or retired list " in the navy or army. The
term " free list " is used of an enumeration of such commodities
as may at a particular time be exempt from the revenue laws
imposing an import duty.
The verb " to list," most commonly found in the imperative,
meaning " hark ! " is another form of " listen," and is to be referred,
as to its ultimate origin, to an Indo-European root klu-, seen in Gr.
xXieic, to hear, xXtos, glory, renown, and in the English " loud."
The same root is seen in Welsh dust and Irish cluas, err. Another
lusten, Ger. lusten, to take pleasure in, and is also found in the
English doublet " lust," now always used in the sense of an evil
or more particularly sexual desire. It is probably an application of
this word, in the sense of " inclination," that has given rise to the
nautical term " list," for the turning over of a ship on to its side.
LISTA Y ARAGON, ALBERTO (1775-1848), Spanish poet
and educationalist, was born at Seville on the isth of October
1775. He began teaching at the age of fifteen, and when little
over twenty was made professor of elocution and poetry at
Seville university. In 1813 he was exiled, on political grounds,
but pardoned in 1817. He then returned to Spain and, after
teaching for three years at Bilbao, started a critical review at
Madrid. Shortly afterwards he founded the celebrated college
of San Mateo in that city. The liberal character of the San
Mateo educational system was not favoured by the government,
and in 1823 the college was closed. Lista after some time spent
in Bayonne, Paris and London was recalled to Spain in 1833
to edit the official Madrid Gazette. He was one of the founders
of the Ateneo, the free university of Madrid, and up till 1840
was director of a college at Cadiz. All the leading spirits of the
young generation of Spaniards, statesmen, writers, soldiers and
diplomatists came under his influence. He died at Seville on
the sth of October 1848.
LISTER, JOSEPH LISTER, ist BARON (1827- ), English
surgeon, was born at Upton, in Essex, on the 5th of April 1827.
His father, Joseph Jackson Lister, F.R.S., was eminent in
science, especially in optical science, his chief claim to remem-
brance being that by certain improvements in lenses he raised
the compound microscope from the position of a scientific toy,
" distorting as much as it magnified," to its present place as a
powerful engine of research. Other members of Lord Lister's
family were eminent in natural science. In his boyhood Joseph
Lister was educated at Quaker schools; first at Hitchin in Hert-
fordshire, and afterwards at Tottenham, near London. In
1844 he entered University College, London, as a student in arts,
and took his B.A. degree at the University of London in 1847.
He continued at University College as a medical student, and
became M.B. and F.R.C.S. in 1852. The keen young student
was not long in bringing his faculties to bear upon pathology
and the practice of medicine. While house-surgeon at University
College Hospital, he had charge of certain cases during an out-
break of hospital gangrene, and carefully observed the phenomena
of the disease and the effects of treatment upon it. He was
thus early led to suspect the parasitic nature of the disorder,
and searched with the microscope the material of the spreading
sore, in the hope of discovering in it some invading fungus;
he soon convinced himself of the cardinal truth that its causes
were purely local. He also minutely investigated cases of
pyaemia, another terrible scourge of hospitals at that time,
LISTER, BARON
and made camera lucida sketches of the appearances revealed
by the microscope.
To realize Lister's work it is necessary to remember the con-
dition of surgical practice at that date. About the middle of
the igth century the introduction of anaesthetics had relieved
the patient of much of the horror of the knife, and the surgeon
of the duty of speed in his work. The agony of the sufferer
had naturally and rightly compelled the public to demand rapid
if not slap-dash surgery, and the surgeon to pride himself on it.
Within decent limits of precision, the quickest craftsman was
the best. With anaesthetics this state of things at any rate
was changed. The pain of the operation itself no longer counted,
and the surgeon was enabled not only to be as cautious and
sedulous as dexterous, but also to venture upon long, pro-
found and intricate operations which before had been out of the
question. Yet unhappily this new enfranchisement seemed to be
but an ironical liberty of Nature, who with the other hand took
away what she had given. Direct healing of surgical wounds
(" by first intention "), far from being the rule, was a piece of
luck too rare to enter into the calculations of the operator;
while of the graver surgical undertakings, however successful
mechanically, the mortality by sepsis was ghastly. Suppuration,
phagedaena and septic poisonings of the system carried away
even the most promising patients and followed even trifling
operations. Often, too, these diseases rose to the height of
epidemic pestilences, so that patients, however extreme their
need, dreaded the very name of hospital, and the most skilful
surgeons distrusted their own craft. New hospitals or new
wards were built, yet after a very short time the new became
as pestiferous as the old; and even scrupulous care in ventilation
and housemaids' cleanliness failed to prevent the devastation.
Surgery had enlarged its freedom, but only to find the weight
of its new responsibilities more than it could bear.
When Lister was appointed to the chair of surgery in Glasgow
the infirmary of that city was a hotbed of septic disease; so
much so that his hospital visits evidently distressed him greatly.
Windows were widely opened, piles of clean towels were supplied,
but still the pestilence stalked through the wards. The building
stands to-day as it stood then, with no substantial alteration;
but by the genius of Lister its surgical wards are now as free
from septic accidents as the most modern hospital in the land.
James Simpson, early in the 'sixties, pathetically denounced
the awful mortality of operations in hospitals, and indeed
uttered desperate protests against the hospital system itself;
yet, not long afterwards, Lister came to prove that it was not in
the hospital that the causes of that mortality lay hidden, but in
the operator himself, his tools and his assistants. Happily this
beneficent discovery was made in time to preserve the inestim-
able boon of the hospital system from the counsels of despair.
When Lister took up the task speculation was on the wrong
tack; the oxygen of the air was then supposed to be the chief
cause of the dissolution of the tissues, and to prevent access
of air was impossible. For instance, a simple fracture, as of a bone
of the leg, would do perfectly well, while in the very next bed a
compound fracture — one, that is, where the skin is lacerated, and
access to the seat of injury opened out — would go disastrously
wrong. If the limb were amputated, a large proportion of such
cases of amputation succumbed to septic poisoning.
On graduation as bachelor of medicine, Lister went to Edin-
burgh, where he soon afterwards became house-surgeon to Mr
Syme; and he was much impressed by the skill and judgment
of this great surgeon, and also by the superiority of his method
of dressing recent wounds with dry lint, as compared with the
" water dressing " in use at University College. Yet under
these more favourable conditions the amelioration was only one
of degree; in most wounds indeed " union by first intention "
was rendered impossible by the presence of the silk ligatures
employed for arresting bleeding, for these could come away only
by a process of suppuration. On the expiry of his house-
surgeoncy in Edinburgh, Lister started in that city an extra-
academical course of lectures on surgery; and in preparation for
these he entered on a series of investigations into inflammation
and allied subjects. These researches, which were detailed fully
in three papers in Phil. Trans. (i85g),andinhisCroonian lecture
to the Royal Society in 1863, testified to an earnestness of pur-
pose, a persevering accuracy of observation and experiment
and an insight of scientific conception which show that if Lister
had never developed the aseptic method of surgery, he would
have taken a very high place in pathology. In his speech in
Paris at the Thirteenth International Congress of Medicine in
1900, Lord Lister said that he had done no more than seize upon
Pasteur's discoveries and apply them to surgery. But though
Lister saw the vast importance of the discoveries of Pasteur, he
saw it because he was watching on the heights; and he was
watching there alone. From Pasteur Lister derived no doubt
two fruitful ideas: first, that decomposition in organic substances
is due to living " germs "; and, secondly, that these lowly and
minute forms of vegetable life spring always, like higher organ-
isms, from parents like themselves, and cannot arise de novo in
the animal body. After his appointment to the Glasgow chair
in 1860, Lister had continued his researches on inflammation;
and he had long been led to suspect that decomposition of the
blood in the wound was the main cause of suppuration. The two
great theories established by Pasteur seemed to Lister-to open
out the possibility of what had before appeared hopeless —
namely, the prevention of putrefaction in the wound, and conse-
quently the forestalling of suppuration. To exclude the oxygen
of the air from wounds was impossible, but it might be practicable
to protect them from microbes.
The first attempt to realize this idea was made upon com-
pound fractures; and the means first employed was carbolic
acid, the remarkable efficacy of which in deodorizing sewage
made Lister regard it as a very powerful germicide. It was
applied to the wound undiluted, so as to form with the blood a
dense crust, the surface of which was painted daily with the acid
till all danger had passed. The results, after a first failure,
were in the highest degree satisfactory, so that, as Lister said
in his presidential address to the British Association in Liverpool,
he " had the joy of seeing these formidable injuries follow the
same safe and tranquil course as simple fractures." The caustic
property of undiluted carbolic acid, though insignificant in com-
parison with the far greater evils to be avoided in compound
fracture, made it unsuited for general surgery. To make it
applicable to the treatment of abscesses and incised wounds,
it was necessary to mitigate its action by blending it with some
inert body; and the endeavour to find the best medium for this
purpose, such as to combine perfect antiseptic efficiency with the
least possible irritation of the tissues, formed the subject of
experiments continued for many years in the laboratory and in
the ward. At one stage in these inquiries an attempt was made
to provide an atmosphere free from living organisms by means
of a fine spray of a watery solution of carbolic acid; for it was
then supposed by Lister to be necessary not only to purify the
surgeon's hands and instruments and the skin of the patient about
the seat of operation, but also to wage war with the microbes
which, as Pasteur had shown, people every cubic inch of the air
of an inhabited room. Under the use of the spray better results
were obtained than ever before, and this success encouraged its
use. But researches carried on for several years into the rela-
tions of the blood to micro-organisms led Lister to doubt the
harmfulness of the atmospheric dust. At the London Congress
in 1 88 1 he narrated experiments which proved that the serum
of the blood is a very unfavourable soil for the development of
the bacteria diffused through the air, and others which showed
that the cells of an organizing blood-clot have a very remarkable
power of disposing of microbes and of limiting their advance.
Hence he considered it probable that in surgical operations the
atmosphere might be disregarded altogether.1 As long, however,
as this was only a matter of probability, he did not dare to discard
the spray. But at length, at the Berlin Congress in 1890, he
was able to announce that the certainty he had so long desired
had been arrived at. A careful consideration of the physical
1 See Trans, of the International Medical Congress (1881), vol. ii.
P- 373-
LISTER, M.
779
constitution of the spray had shown him that the microbes of the
dust involved in its vortex could not possibly have their vitality
destroyed or even impaired by it. Such being the case, the uni-
form success obtained when he had trusted the spray implicitly
as an aseptic atmosphere, abandoning completely certain other
precautions which he had before deemed essential, proved con-
clusively to his mind that the air might safely be left entirely out
of consideration in operating.1 Thus he learnt that not the spray
only, but all antiseptic irrigations or washings of the wound also,
with their attendant irritation of the cut surfaces, might be
dispensed with — a great simplification, indirectly due to experi-
ments with the spray. The spray had also served a very useful
purpose by maintaining a pure condition of the entourage of
the operation; not indeed in the way for which it was devised,
but as a very mild form of irrigation. And Lister took care to
emphasize the necessity for redoubled vigilance on the part of
the surgeon and his assistants when this " unconscious caretaker,"
as he called it, had been discarded.
The announcement that he had given up the spray was
absurdly interpreted in some quarters to mean that he had
virtually abandoned his theory and his antiseptic methods.
The truth is that the spray was only one of many devices tried
for a while in the course of the long-continued endeavour to apply
the antiseptic principle to the best advantage, and abandoned
in favour of something better. / Two main objects were always
kept steadily in view by him — during the operation to guard
the wound against septic microbes by such means as existing
knowledge indicated, and afterwards to protect it against their
introduction, avoiding at the same time all r.eedless irritation
of the tissues by the antiseptic. Upon the technical methods
of attaining these ends this is not the place to enlarge; suffice
it to say that the endowments and the industry of the discoverer,
as seen in the rapidity and flexibility of mind with which he
seized upon and selected the best means, were little less
remarkable than the activity of the same faculties in his
original ideas.
To illustrate this opinion, his work on the ligature may be
taken. It had long been the universal practice of surgeons to
employ threads of silk or flax for tying arteries, long ends being
left to provide escape of the pus (invariably formed during the
tedious process of the separation of the ligature) together with
the portion of the arterial coats included in the knot. Lister
hoped that if, by antiseptic means, the thread were deprived of
living microbes, it would no longer cause suppuration, but might
be left with short cut ends to become embedded permanently
among the tissues of the wound, which thus would be allowed to
heal by primary union throughout. A trial of this method upon
the carotid artery of a horse having proved perfectly successful,
he applied it in a case of aneurysm in the human subject; and
here again the immediate results were all that could be desired.
But a year later, the patient having died from other causes, the
necropsy showed remnants of the silk thread incompletely
absorbed, with appearances around them which seemed to
indicate that they had been acting as causes of disturbance.
Thus was suggested to him the idea of employing for the ligature
some material susceptible of more speedy absorption; and the
antiseptic treatment of contused wounds having shown that
dead tissue, if protected from putrefaction, is removed by the
surrounding structures without the intervention of suppuration,
he resolved to try a thread of some such nature. Catgut, which
is prepared from one of the constituents of the small intestine
of the sheep, after steeping in a solution of carbolic acid, was
used in a preliminary trial upon the carotid artery of a calf.
The animal was killed a month later, when, on dissection, a
very beautiful result was disclosed. The catgut, though removed,
had not been simply absorbed; pari passu with its gradual
removal, fibrous tissue of new formation had been laid down,
so that in place of the dead catgut was seen a living ligature
embracing the artery and incorporated with it. The wound
meanwhile had healed without a trace of suppuration. This
success appeared to justify the use of the catgut ligature in the
1 See Verhandlungen des X internationalen Congresses, Bd. i. p. 33.
human subject, and for a while the results were entirely satis-
factory. But though this was the case with the old samples of
catgut first employed, which, as Lister was afterwards led to
believe, had been " seasoned " by long keeping, it was found that
when catgut was used fresh as it comes from the makers, it was
unsuited in various ways for surgical purposes. The attempt
by special preparation to obtain an article in all respects trust-
worthy engaged his attention from time to time for years after-
wards. To quote the words of Sir Hector Cameron, who was
for several years assistant to Lord Lister, it required " labour
and toilsome investigation and experiment of which few can have
any adequate idea."
In 1869 Lister succeeded his father-in-law, Syme, in the chair
of clinical surgery of Edinburgh. In 1877 he accepted an invita-
tion to the chair of surgery at King's College, London, in the
anticipation that here he would be more centrally placed for
communication with the surgical world at home and abroad, and
might thus exercise his beneficent mission to more immediate
advantage. In 1896 Lister retired from practice, but not from
scientific study. From 1895 to 1900 he was President of the
Royal Society. In 1883 he was created a baronet, and in 1897
he was raised to the peerage as Baron Lister of Lyme Regis.
Among the Coronation honours in 1902, he was nominated an
original member of the new Order of Merit.
In England Lister's teaching was slow in making its way.
The leading surgeons of Germany were among the first to seize
upon the new idea with avidity and practical success; so early
as 1875, in the course of a tour he made on the Continent, great
festivals were held in his honour in Munich and Leipzig. The
countrymen of Pasteur did not lag far behind; and it is no
exaggeration to speak of Lister's appearances in foreign countries
at this time as triumphal.
The relation of Semmelweiss to Lister is of historical import-
ance. Lister's work on the antiseptic system began in 1864;
his first publication on the subject was in March 1867. At this
date, and for long afterwards, Semmelweiss was unknown, or
ignored, not only by French and Germans, but also by his own
Hungarian people; and this neglect broke his heart. The
French Academy pronounced against his opinions, and so did the
highest pathological authority in Germany. In England, till
long after his death, probably his name was not so much as
mentioned. In the early 'seventies Lister's method was in full
operation in Hungary as elsewhere, yet none of the surgeons of
Budapest ever mentione'd Semmelweiss; not even when, in 1883,
they gave a great banquet to Lister. It was after this occasion
that Dr Duka, a Hungarian physician practising in London, wrote
a biography of Semmelweiss, which he sent to Lister, and thus
brought Semmelweiss before him for the first time. Thenceforth
Lister generously regarded Semmelweiss as in some measure his
forerunner; though Semmelweiss was not aware of the microbic
origin of septic poisons, nor were his methods, magnificent
as was their success in lying-in hospitals, suitable for surgical
work.
In public Lord Lister's speeches were simple, clear and graceful,
avoiding rhetorical display, earnest for the truth, jealous for
his science and art, forgetful of himself. His writings, in like
manner plain, lucid and forcible, scarcely betray the labour and
thought of their production. With the courtesy and serenity of
his carriage he combined a passionate humanity, so often
characteristic of those who come of the Society of Friends,
and a simple love of truth which showed itself in his generous
encouragement of younger workers. (T. C. A.)
LISTER, MARTIN (c. 1638-1712), English naturalist and
physician, was born at Radclive, near Buckingham. He was
nephew of Sir Matthew Lister, physician to Anne, queen of
James I., and to Charles I. He was educated at St John's
College, Cambridge, 1653, graduated in 1658/9, and was
elected a fellow in 1660. He became F.R.S. in 1671. He
practised medicine at York until 1683, when he removed to
London. In 1684 he received the degree of M.D. at Oxford, and
in 1687 became F.R.C.P. He contributed numerous articles
on natural history, medicine and antiquities to the Philosophical
y8o
LISTON, J.— LISZT
Transactions. His principal works were Historiae animalium
Angliae Ires tractatus (1678); Historiae Conchyliorum (1685-
1692), and Conchyliorum Bivalvium (1696). As a conchologist
he was held in high esteem, but while he recognized the similarity
of fossil mollusca to living forms, he regarded them as inorganic
imitations produced in the rocks. In 1683 he communicated to
the Royal Society (Phil. Trans., 1684), An ingenious proposal for
a new sort of maps of countries; together with tables of sands
and clays, such as are chiefly found in the north parts of England.
In this essay he suggested the preparation of a soil or mineral
map of the country, and thereby is justly credited with being the
first to realize the importance of a geological survey. He died at
Epsom on the 2nd of February 1712.
LISTON, JOHN (c. 1776-1846), English comedian, was born
in London. He made his public debut on the stage at Weymouth
as Lord Duberley in The Heir-at-law. After several dismal
failures in tragic parts, some of them in support of Mrs Siddons,
he discovered accidentally that his forte was comedy, especially
in the personation of old men and country boys, in which he
displayed a fund of drollery and broad humour. An introduc-
tion to Charles Kemble led to his appearance at the Hay-
market on the loth of June 1805 as Sheepface in the Village
Lawyer, and his association with this theatre continued with few
interruptions until 1830. Paul Pry, the most famous of all his
impersonations, was first presented on the i3th of September
1825, and soon became, thanks to his creative genius, a real
personage. Listen remained on the stage till 1837; during his
last years his mind failed, and he died on the 22nd of March 1846.
He had married in 1807 Miss Tyrer (d. 1854), a singer and actress.
Several pictures of Liston in character are in the Garrick Club,
London, and one as Paul Pry in the South Kensington Museum.
LISTON, ROBERT (1794-1847), Scottish surgeon, was born
on the 28th of October 1794 at Ecclesmachan, Linlithgow, where
his father was parish minister. He began the study of anatomy
under Dr John Barclay (1758-1826) at Edinburgh in 1810, and
soon became a skilful anatomist. After eight years' study, he
became a lecturer on anatomy and surgery in the Edinburgh
School of Medicine; and in 1827 he was elected one of the
surgeons to the Royal Infirmary. In 1835 he was chosen
professor of clinical surgery in University College, London, and
this appointment he held until his death, which occurred in
London on the 7th of December 1847. Liston was a teacher
more by what he did than by what he said. He taught simplicity
in all operative procedures; fertile in expedients, of great nerve
and of powerful frame, he is remembered as an extraordinarily
bold, skilful and rapid operator. He was the author of The
Elements of Surgery (1831-1832) and Practical Surgery (1837),
and made several improvements in methods of amputation, and
in the dressing of wounds.
LISZT, FRANZ (1811-1886), Hungarian pianist and composer,
was born on the 22nd of October 1811, at Raiding, in Hungary.
His appeal to musicians was made in a threefold capacity, and
we have, therefore, to deal with Liszt the unrivalled pianoforte
virtuoso (1830-1848); Liszt the conductor of the "music of
the future " at Weimar, the teacher of Tausig, Billow and a host
of lesser pianists, the eloquent writer on music and musicians,
the champion of Berlioz and Wagner (1848-1861); and Liszt
the prolific composer, who for some five-and-thirty years con-
tinued to put forth pianoforte pieces, songs, symphonic orchestral
pieces, cantatas, masses, psalms and oratorios (1847-1882). As
virtuoso he held his own for the entire period during which he
chose to appear in public; but the militant conductor and
prophet of Wagner had a hard time of it, and the composer's
place is still in dispute. Liszt's father, a clerk to the agent of the
Esterhazy estates and an amateur musician of some attainment,
was Hungarian by birth and ancestry, his mother an Austrian-
German. The boy's gifts attracted the attention of certain
Hungarian magnates, who furnished 600 gulden annually for
some years to enable him to study music at Vienna and Paris.
At Vienna he had lessons in pianoforte playing from Carl Czerny
of " Velocity " fame, and from Salieri in harmony and analysis
of scores. In his eleventh year he began to play in public there,
and Beethoven came to his second concert in April 1823. During
the three years following he played in Paris, the French provinces
and Switzerland, and paid three visits to England. In Paris
he had composition lessons from Pae'r, and a six months' course
of lessons in counterpoint from Reicha. In the autumn of 1825
the handsome and fascinating enfant gate of the salons and ateliers
— "La Neuvieme Merveille du monde " — had the luck to get an
operetta (Don Sancho) performed three times at the Academic
Royale. The score was accidentally destroyed by fire, but a
set of studies a la Czerny and Cramer, belonging to 1826 and
published at Marseilles as 12 Etudes, op. i., is extant, and shows
remarkable precocity. After the death of his father in 1828
young Liszt led the life of a teacher of the pianoforte in Paris,
got through a good deal of miscellaneous reading, and felt the
influence of the religious, literary and political aspirations of
the time. He attended the meetings of the Saint-Simonists,
lent an ear to the romantic mysticism of Pere Enfantin and later
to the teaching of Abbe Lamennais. He also played Beethoven
and Weber in public — a very courageous thing in those days.
The appearance of the violinist Paganini in Paris, 1831, marks
the starting-point of the supreme eminence Liszt ultimately
attained as a virtuoso. Paganini's marvellous technique
inspired him to practise as no pianist had ever practised before.
He tried to find equivalents for Paganini's effects, transcribed
his violin caprices for the piano, and perfected his own technique
to an extraordinary degree. After Paganini he received a
fresh impulse from the playing and the compositions of Chopin,
who arrived in 1831, and yet another impulse of equal force
from a performance of Berlioz's " Symphonic Fantastique,
episode de la vie d'un artiste," in 1832. Liszt transcribed this
work, and its influence ultimately led him to the composition
of his " Poemes symphoniques " and other examples of orchestral
programme-music.
From 1833 to 1848 — when he gave up playing in public — he
was greeted with frantic applause as the prince of pianists.
Five years (1835-1840) were spent in Switzerland and Italy,
in semi-retirement in the company of Madame la comtesse
d'Agoult (George Sand's friend and would-be rival, known in
literary circles as " Daniel Stern," by whom Liszt had three
children, one of them afterwards Frau Cosima Wagner): these
years were devoted to further study in playing and composition,
and were interrupted only by occasional appearances at Geneva,
Milan, Florence and Rome, and by annual visits to Paris, when
a famous contest with Thalberg took place in 1837. The
enthusiasm aroused by Liszt's playing and his personality —
the two are inseparable — reached a climax at Vienna and
Budapest in 1830-1840, when he received a patent of nobility
from the emperor of Austria, and a sword of honour from the
magnates of Hungary in the name of the nation. During the
eight years following he wasTieard at all the principal centres —
including London, Leipzig, Berlin, Copenhagen, St Petersburg,
Moscow, Warsaw, Constantinople, Lisbon and Madrid. He
gained much money, and gave large sums in charity. His
munificence with regard to the Beethoven statue at Bonn made
a great stir. The subscriptions having come in but sparsely,
Liszt took the matter in hand, and the monument was completed
at his expense, and unveiled at a musical festival conducted
by Spohr and himself in 1845. In 1848 he settled at Weimar
with Princess Sayn-Wittgenstein (d. 1887), and remained there
till 1861. During this period he acted as conductor at court
concerts and on special occasions at the theatre, gave lessons
to a number of pianists, wrote articles of permanent value on
certain works of Berlioz and the early operas of Wagner, and
produced those orchestral and choral pieces upon which his
reputation as a composer mainly depends. His ambition to
found a school of composers as well as a school of pianists met
with complete success on the one hand and partial failure on the
other. His efforts on behalf of Wagner, who was then an exile
in Switzerland, culminated in the first performance of Lohengrin
on the 28th of August 1850, before a special audience assembled
from far and near. Among the works produced for the first time
or rehearsed with a view to the furtherance of musical art were
LISZT
781
Wagner's Tannhauser, Der fliegende Hollander, Das Liebesmahl
der Apostel, and Eine Faust Overture, Berlioz's Benvenuto Cellini,
the Symphonic Fanlaslique, Harold en Italie, Romeo et Juliette,
La Damnation de Faust, and L'Enfance du Christ — the last two
conducted by the composer— Schumann's Genoveva, Paradise and
the Peri, the music to Manfred and to Faust, Weber's Euryanthe,
Schubert's Alfonso und Estrella, Raff's Konig Alfred, Cornelius's
Der Barbier von Baghdad and many more. It was Liszt's habit
to recommend novelties to the public by explanatory articles
or essays, which were written in French (some for the Journal
des debats and the Gazette musicale of Paris) and translated for
the journals of Weimar and Leipzig — thus his two masterpieces
of sympathetic criticism, the essays Lohengrin et Tannhauser a
Weimar and Harold en Italie, found many readers and proved
very effective. They are now included, together with articles
on Schumann and Schubert, and the elaborate and rather high-
flown essays on Chopin and Des Bohemiens et de leur musique en
Hongrie (the latter certainly, and the former probably, written
in collaboration with Madame de Wittgenstein), in his Gesam-
melte Schriflen (6 vols., Leipzig). The compositions belonging
to the period of his residence at Weimar comprise two pianoforte
concertos, in E flat and in A, the " Todtentanz," the " Concerto
pathetique " for two pianos, the solo sonata " An Robert
Schumann," sundry "Etudes," fifteen " Rhapsodies Hongroises,"
twelve orchestral " Poemes symphoniques, " " Eine Faust
Symphonic," and " Eine Symphonie zu Dante's ' Divina Corn-
media,' " the " i3th Psalm " for tenor solo, chorus and orchestra,
the choruses to Herder's dramatic scenes " Prometheus," and
the " Missa solennis " known as the " Graner Fest Messe."
Liszt retired to Rome in 1861, and joined the Franciscan order
in 186s.1 From 1869 onwards Abbe Liszt divided his time
between Rome and Weimar, where during the summer months
he received pupils — gratis as formerly — and, from 1876 up to his
death at Bayreuth on the 3ist of July 1886, he also taught for
several months every year at the Hungarian Conservatoire of
Budapest.
About Liszt's pianoforte technique in general it may be said
that it derives its efficiency from the teaching of Czerny, who
brought up his pupil on Mozart, a little Bach and Beethoven, a
good deal of Clementi and Hummel, and a good deal of his
(Czerny 's) own work. Classicism in the shape of solid, respectable
Hummel on the one hand, and Carl Czerny, a trifle flippant,
perhaps, and inclined to appeal to the gallery, on the other,
these gave the musical parentage of young Liszt. Then appears
the Parisian Incroyable and grand seigneur — " Monsieur Lits,"
as the Parisians called him. Later, we find him imitating
Paganini and Chopin, and at the same time making a really
passionate and deep study of Beethoven, Weber, Schubert,
Berlioz. Thus gradually was formed the master of style —
whose command of the instrument was supreme, and who played
like an inspired poet. Liszt's strange musical nature was long in
maturing its fruits. At the pianoforte his achievements culminate
in the two books of studies, twice rewritten, and finally published
in 1852 as Etudes d' execution transcendante, the Etudes de concert
and the Paganini Studies; the two concertos and the Tod-
tentanz, the Sonata in B minor, the Hungarian Rhapsodies and
the fine transcriptions of Beethoven's symphonies (the gth for
two pianofortes as well as solo), and of Berlioz's Symphonie
fantaslique, and the symphony, Harold en Italie. In his orchestral
pieces Liszt appears — next to Berlioz — as the most conspicuous
and most thorough-going representative of programme music,
i.e. instrumental music expressly contrived to illustrate in detail
some poem or some succession of ideas or pictures. It was
Liszt's aim to bring about a direct alliance or amalgamation of
instrumental music with poetry. To effect this he made use of
the means of musical expression for purposes of illustration,
and relied on points of support outside the pale of music proper.
There is always danger of failure when an attempt is thus made
1 It is understood that, in point of fact, the Princess Wittgenstein
was determined to marry Liszt; and as neither he nor her family
wished their connexion to take this form, Cardinal Hohenlohe
quietly had him ordained. — [Eo. E.B.].
to connect instrumental music with conceptions not in themselves
musical, for the order of the ideas that serve as a programme
is apt to interfere with the order which the musical exposition
naturally assumes — and the result in most cases is but an
amalgam of irreconcilable materials. In pieces such as Liszt's
" Poemes symphoniques," Ce qu'on entend sur la montagne
(1848-1856), afterapoem by Victor Hugo, and Die Ideale (1853-
1857), after a poem by Schiller, the hearer is bewildered by a
series of startling orchestral effects which succeed one another
apparently without rhyme or reason. The music does not con-
form to any sufficiently definite musical plan— it is hardly in-
telligible as music without reference to the programme. Liszt's
masterpiece in orchestral music is the Dante Symphony (1847-
1855), the subject of which was particularly well suited to his
temperament, and offered good chances for the display of his
peculiar powers as a master of instrumental effect. By the side
of it ranks the Faust Symphony (1854-1857), in which the moods
of Goethe's characters — Faust, Gretchen and Mephistopheles —
are depicted in three instrumental movements, with a chorus of
male voices, supplying a kind of comment, by way of close.
The method of presentation in both symphonies is by means of
representative themes (Leitmotif), and their combination and
interaction. Incidents of the poem or the play are illustrated
or alluded to as may be convenient, and the exigencies of musical
form are not unfrequently disregarded for the sake of special
effects. Of the twelve Poemes symphoniques, Orphee is the most
consistent from a musical point of view, and is exquisitely scored.
Melodious, effective, readily intelligible, with a dash of the
commonplace, Les Preludes, Tasso, Mazeppa and Fesl-Klange
bid for popularity. In these pieces, as in almost every production
of his, in lieu of melody Liszt offers fragments of melody —
touching and beautiful, it may be, or passionate, or tinged with
triviality; in lieu of a rational distribution of centres of harmony
in accordance with some definite plan, he presents clever com-
binations of chords and ingenious modulations from point to
point; in lieu of musical logic and consistency of design, he is
content with rhapsodical improvisation. The power of persist-
ence seems wanting. The musical growth is spoilt, the develop-
ment of the themes is stopped, or prevented, by some reference
to extraneous ideas. Everywhere the programme stands in the
way. In much of Liszt's vocal music, particularly in the songs
and choral pieces written to German words, an annoying dis-
crepancy is felt to exist between the true sound of the words
and the musical accents. The music is generally emotional,
the expression direct and passionate; there is no lack of melodic
charm and originality, yet the total effect is frequently dis-
appointing. In the choral numbers of the five masses, and in the
oratorios Die Heilige Elisabeth and Christus, the rarity of fugal
polyphony acts as a drawback. Its almost complete absence
in some of these works makes for monotony and produces a sense
of dullness, which may not be inherent in all the details of the
music, but is none the less distinctly present.
Omitting trifles and all publications that have been cancelled,
the following list of compositions may be taken as fairly compre-
hensive : —
Pianoforte Pieces. — Etudes d'exdcution transcendante; Etudes de
concert; Zwei Etuden, Waldesrauschen, Gnomentanz; Ab Irato;
Paganini Studies; Annees de P61erinage, 3 sets; Harmonies po6-
tiques et religieuses, i-io; Consolations, 1-6; Ave Maria in E;
Sonata in B minor; Konzert-Solo in E minor; Scherzo und Marsch;
Ballades, I. II.; Polonaises, I. II.; Apparitions, 1-3; Berceuse;
Valse impromptu; Mazurka brillant; 3 Caprices Valses; Galop
chromatique; Mephisto-Walzer, I. ,11. ,111. and Polka ; Zwei Legenden,
" Die Vogelpredigt," " Der heilige Franciscus auf den Wogen
schreitend"; "Der Weihnachtsbaum," 1-12; Sarabande und
Chaconne (" Almira ") ; Elegies, I., II. and III.; La lugubre
Gondola; Dem Andenken Petofi's; Mosonyi's Grab^ejeit; Romance
oubli^e; Valses oubliees, 1-3; Liebestraume, 1-3 (originally songs);
Hexameron; Rhapsodies Hongroises, 1-18.
Pieces for Two Pianos. — Concerto path&ique (identical with the
Konzert-Solo in E minor); Dante symphony; Faust symphony;
Poemes symphoniques, 1-12; Beethoven's 9th symphony.
Pianoforte with Orchestra. — Concertos I. in E flat, II. in A;
Todtentanz; Fantasie ueber Motif aus Beethoven's " Ruinen von
Athen "; Fantasie ueber Ungarische National Melodien; Schubert's
Fantasia in C; Weber's Polacca in E.
LITANY
Fantaisies de Concert for Piano Solo. — Don Juan; Norma; Son-
nambula; I Puritani; Lucia, I., II.; Lucrezia, I., II.; La Juive;
Robert le Diable; Les Huguenots; Le Prophete, 1-4. Paraphrases,
Auber, Tarantella di bravura (Masaniello) ; Verdi, Rigoletto, Ernani,
II Trovatore; Mendelssohn, " Hochzeitsmarsch und Elfenreigen " ;
Gounod, Valse de Faust, Les Adieux de Romeo et Juliette; Tschai-
kowsky, Polonaise; Dargomiyski, Tarantelle; Cui, Tarantella;
Saint-Saens, Danse macabre; Schubert, Soirees de Vienne, Valses
caprices, 1-9.
Transcriptions. — Beethoven's Nine Symphonies; Berlioz's " Sym-
phonic fantastique," " Harold en Italic "; Benediction et Serment
(Benvenuto Cellini) ; Danse des Sylphes (Damnation de Faust) ;
Weber's overtures, Der Freischlitz, Euryanthe, Oberon, Jubilee;
Beethoven's and Hummel's Septets; Schubert's Divertissement a
la Hongroise; Beethoven's Concertos in C minor, G and E flat
(orchestra for a second piano) ; Wagner's Tannhauser overture,
march, romance, chorus of pilgrims; Lohengrin, Festzug und
Brautlied, Elsa's Brautgang, Elsa's Traum, Lohengrin's Verweiss an
Elsa; Fliegender Hollander, Spinnlied; Rienzi, Gebet; Rheingold,
Walhall; Meistersinger, "Am stillen Herd"; Tristan, Isolde's
Liebestod; Chopin's six Chants Polonais; Meyerbeer's Schiller-
marsch; Bach's six organ Preludes and Fugues; Prelude and Fugue
in G minor; Beethoven, Adelaide; 6 miscellaneous and 6 Geistliche
Lieder; Liederkreis; Rossini's Les Soirees musicales; Schubert,
59 songs; Schumann, 13 songs; Mendelssohn, 8 songs; Robert
Franz, 13 songs.
Organ Pieces. — Missa pro organo; Fantasia and Fugue, " Ad nos,
ad salutarem undam"; B-A-C-H Fugue; Variations on Bach's
Basso continue, " Weinen, Klagen"; Bach's Introduction and
Fugue, " Ich hatte viel Bekummerniss " ; Bach's Choral Fugue,
" Lob und Ehre"; Nicolai's Kirchliche Festouverture, " Ein feste
Burg"; Allegri's Miserere; Mozart's Ave Verum; Arcadelt's Ave
Maria; Lasso's Regina Coeli.
Orchestral Pieces. — Eine Symphonic zu Dante's " Divina Corn-
media"; Eine Faust Symphonic; Poemes symphoniques: I. " Ce
qu'on entend sur la montagne"; 2. Tasso; 3. Les Preludes; 4.
Orphee; 5. Promethee; 6. Mazeppa; 7. Fest-Klange; 8. Hero'idc
funebre; 9. Hungaria; 10. Hamlet; II. Hunnenschlacht ; 12. Die
Ideale; Zwei Episoden aus Lenau's Faust: I. Der nachtliche Zug,
II. Der Tanz in der Dorfschenke; Marches, Rakoczy, Goethe, Hul-
digung, " Vom Fels zum Meer " (for a military band) ; Ungarischer,
Heroischer and Sturmmarsch; Le Triomphe fun&bre du Tasse;
" Von der Wiege bis zum Grab "; six Hungarian rhapsodies; four
marches; four songs, and Die Allmacht, by Schubert.
Vocal Music. — Oratorios: " Die Legende von der Heiligen Elisa-
beth," " Christus," " Stanislaus " (unfinished). Masses: Missa
solennis for the inauguration of the cathedral at Gran; Ungarische
Kronungs-messe; Missa choralis (with organ); Missa and Requiem
for male voices (with organ); Psalms, 13, 137, 23 and 18; 12
Kirchen-Chor-Gesange (with organ). Cantatas: Prometheus-chore;
"Beethoven Cantata"; "An die Kunstler"; Die Glocken dcs
Strassburger Miinsters; 12 Chore fur Mannergesang ; Songs, 8
books; Scena, Jeanne d'Arc au bflcher.
Melodramatic Pieces for Declamation, with Pianoforte Accompani-
ment.— Leonore (Burger) ; Der traurigc Monch (Lenau) ; Des tod-
ten Dichter's Liebe (Jokai); Der blinde Sanger (Tolstoy).
Editions, Text and Variants. — Beethoven's Sonatas; Weber's Con-
certstuck and Sonatas; Schubert Fantasia, 4 Sonatas, Impromptus,
Valses and Moments musicaux.
See also L. Ramaun, Fr. Liszt als Kunstler und Mensch (1880—
1894) ; E. Dannreuther, Oxford Hist, of Music,vo\. vi.tigos).
(E. DA.)
LITANY. This word (Airama), like XITIJ (both from Xtro^cu),
is used by Eusebius and Chrysostom, commonly in the plural, in a
general sense, to denote a prayer or prayers of any sort, whether
public or private; it is similarly employed in the law of Arcadius
(Cod. Theod. xvi. tit. 5, leg. 30), which forbids heretics to hold
assemblies in the city " ad litaniam faciendam." But some trace
of a more technical meaning is found in the epistle (Ep. 63) of
Basil to the church of Neocaesarea, in which he argues, against
those who were objecting to certain innovations, that neither
were " litanies " used in the time of Gregory Thaumaturgus.
The nature of the recently introduced litanies, which must be
assumed to have been practised at Neocaesarea in Basil's day,
can only be conjectured; probably they had many points in
common with the " rogationes," which, according to Sidonius
Apollinaris, had been coming into occasional use in France about
the beginning of the 5th century, especially when rain or fine
weather was desired, and, so far as the three fast days before
Ascension were concerned, were first fixed, for one particular
district at least, by Mamertus or Mamercus of Vienne (A.D. c. 450) .
We gather that they were penitential and intercessory prayers
offered by the community while going about in procession,
fasting and clothed in sackcloth. In the following century the
manner of making litanies was to some extent regulated for
the entire Eastern empire by one of the Novels of Justinian,
which forbade their celebration without the presence of the
bishops and clergy, and ordered that the crosses which were
carried in procession should not be deposited elsewhere than in
churches, nor be carried by any but duly appointed persons.
The first synod of Orleans (A.D. 511) enjoins for all Gaul that the
" litanies " before Ascension be celebrated for three days; on
these days all menials are to be exempt from work, so that every
one may be free to attend divine service. The diet is to be the
same as in Quadragesima; clerks not observing these rogations
are to be punished by the bishop. In A.D. 517 the synod of
Gerunda provided for two sets of " litanies "; the first were
to be observed for three days (from Thursday to Saturday) in
the week after Pentecost with fasting, the second for three days
from November i . The second council of Vaison (529), consisting
of twelve bishops, ordered the Kyrie eleison — now first introduced
from the Eastern Church — to be sung at matins, mass and vespers.
A synod of Paris (573) ordered litanies to be held for three days
at the beginning of Lent, and the fifth synod of Toledo (636)
appointed litanies to be observed throughout the kingdom for
three days from December 14. The first mention of the word
litany in connexion with the Roman Church goes back to the
pontificate of Pelagius I. (555), but implies that the thing was
at that time already old. In 590 Gregory I., moved by the
pestilence which had followed an inundation, ordered a " litania
septiformis," sometimes called litania major, that is to say, a
sevenfold procession of clergy, laity, monks, virgins, matrons,
widows, poor and children. It must not be confused with the
litania septena used in church on Easter Even. He is said also
to have appointed the processions or litanies of April 25 (St
Mark's day), which seem to have come in the place of the cere-
monies of the old Robigalia. In 747 the synod of Cloveshoe
ordered the litanies or rogations to be gone about on April 25
" after the manner of the Roman Church," and on the three days
before Ascension " after the manner of our ancestors." The latter
are still known in the English Church as Rogation Days. Games,
horse racing, junkettings were forbidden; and in the litanies the
name of Augustine was to be inserted after that of Gregory. The
reforming synod of Mainz in 813 ordered the major litany to be
observed by all for three days in sackcloth and ashes, and bare-
foot. The sick only were exempted.
As regards the form of words prescribed for use in these
" litanies " or " supplications," documentary evidence is
defective. Sometimes it would appear that the " procession "
or " litany " did nothing else but chant Kyrie eleison without
variation. There is no reason to doubt that from an early period
the special written litanies of the various churches all showed the
common features which are now regarded as essential to a litany,
in as far as they consisted of (i) invocations, (2) deprecations, (3)
intercessions, (4) supplications. But in details they must have
varied immensely. The offices of the Roman Catholic Church
at present recognize two litanies, the " Litaniae majores "
and the " Litaniae breves," which differ from one another
chiefly in respect of the fulness with which details are entered
upon under the heads mentioned above. It is said that in the
time of Charlemagne the angels Orihel, Raguhel, Tobihel were
invoked, but the names were removed by Pope Zacharias as
really belonging to demons. In some medieval litanies there
were special invocations of S. Fides, S. Spes, S. Charitas. The
litanies, as given in the Breviary, are at present appointed to be
recited on bended knee, along with the penitential psalms, in all
the six week-days of Lent when ordinary service is held. Without
the psalms they are said on the feast of Saint Mark and on the
three rogation days. A litany is chanted in procession before
mass on Holy Saturday. The " litany " or " general supplica-
tion " of the Church of England, which is appointed " to be sung
or said after morning prayer upon Sundays, Wednesdays and
Fridays, and at other times when it shall be commanded by the
ordinary," closely follows the " Litaniae majores " of the
Breviary, the invocations of saints being of course omitted.
A similar German litany will be found in the works of Luther.
LITCHFIELD— LITERATURE
783
In the Roman Church there are a number of special litanies
peculiar to particular localities or orders, such as the " Litanies
of Mary " or the "Litanies of the Sacred Name of Jesus."
There was originally a close connexion between the litany
and the liturgy (q.v .) . The ninefold Kyrie eleison at the beginning
of the Roman Mass is a relic of a longer litany of which a specimen
may still be seen in the Stowe missal. In the Ambrosian liturgy,
the threefold Kyrie eleison or Lesser Litany occurs thrice, after
the Gloria in excelsis, after the gospel and at the end of Mass;
and on the first five Sundays in Lent a missal litany is placed
before the Oratio super populum, and on the same five Sundays
in the Mozarabic rite before the epistle. In Eastern liturgies
litanies are a prominent feature, as in the case of the deacon's
litany at the beginning of the Missa fidelium in the Clementine
liturgy, immediately before the Anaphora in the Greek liturgy of
St James, &c. (F. E. W.)
LITCHFIELD, a township and the county-seat of Litchfield
county, Connecticut, U.S.A., about 28 m. W. of Hartford, and
including the borough of the same name. Pop. of the township
(1890) 3304; (1900) 3214; (1910) 3005; of the borough (1890)
1058; (1900) 1120; (1910) 903. Area of the township, 48-6
sq. m. The borough is served by the New York, New
Haven & Hartford railroad. It is situated on elevated land,
and is one of the most attractive of southern New England
summer resorts. The principal elevation in the township is
Mt. Prospect, at the base of which there is a vein of pyrrhotite,
with small quantities of nickel and copper. On the southern
border of the borough is Lake Bantam (about 900 acres, the
largest lake in the state) whose falls, at its outlet, provide water
power for factories of carriages and electrical appliances. Dairy-
ing is the most important industry, and in 1899 the county
ranked first among the counties of the state in the value of its
dairy products — $1,373,957, from 3465 farms, the value of the
product for the entire state being $7,090,188.
The lands included in the township of Litchfield (originally
called Bantam) were bought from the Indians in 1715-1716 for
£15, the Indians reserving a certain part for hunting. The town-
ship was incorporated in 1719, was named Litchfield, after
Lichficld in England, and was settled by immigrants from Hart-
ford, Windsor, Wethersfield, Farmington and Lebanon (all
within the state) in 1720-1721. In 1751 it became the county-
seat of Litchfield county, and at the same time the borough of
Litchfield (incorporated in 1879) was laid out. From 1776 to
1780 two depots for military stores and a workshop for the
Continental army were maintained, and the leaden statue of
George III., erected in Bowling Green, New York City, in 1770,
and torn down by citizens on the gth of July 1776, was cut up
and taken to Litchfield, where, in the house (still standing) of
Oliver Wolcott it was melted into bullets for the American army
by Wolcott's daughter and sister. Aaron Burr, whose only sister
married Tapping Reeve (1744-1823), lived in Litchfield with
Reeve in 1774-1775. In 1784 Reeve established here the Litch-
field Law School, the first institution of its kind in America.
In 1798 he associated with himself James Gould (1770-1838),
who, after Reeve's retirement in 1820, continued the work, with
the assistance of Jabez W. Huntington (1788-1847), until 1833.
The school was never incorporated, it had no buildings, and the
lectures were delivered in the law offices of its instructors, but
among its 1000 or more students were many who afterwards
became famous, including John C. Calhoun; Levi Woodbury
(1789-1851), United States senator from New Hampshire in
1825-1831 and in 1841-1845, secretary of the navy in 1831-
1834 and of the treasury in 1834-1841, and a justice of the
United States Supreme Court from 1845; John Y. Mason;
John M. Clayton; and Henry Baldwin (1780-1844), a justice
of the United States Supreme Court from 1830. In 1792 Mrs
Sarah Pierce made one of the first efforts toward the higher
education of women in the United States by opening in Litchfield
her Female Seminary, which had an influential career of about
forty years, and numbered among its alumnae Harriet Beecher
Stowe, Mrs Marshall O. Roberts, Mrs Cyrus W. Field and Mrs
Hugh McCulloch. Litchfield was the birthplace of Ethan Allen;
of Henry Ward Beecher; of Harriet Beecher Stowe, whose novel,
Poganuc People, presents a picture of social conditions in Litch-
field during her girlhood; of Oliver Wolcott, Jr. (1760-1833); of
John Pierpont (1785-1866), the poet, preacher and lecturer;
and of Charles Loring Brace, the philanthropist. It was also the
home, during his last years, of Oliver Wolcott (1726-1797); of
Colonel Benjamin Tallmadge (1774-1835), an officer on the
American side in the War of Independence and later (from 1801
to 1817) a Federalist member of Congress; and of Lyman Beecher,
who was pastor of the First Congregational church of Litchfield
from 1810 to 1826.
See Payne K. Kilbourne, Sketches and Chronicles of the Town of
Litchfield, Connecticut (Hartford, Conn., 1859); George C. Boswell,
The Litchfield Book of Days (Litchfield, 1900) ; and for an account
of the Litchfield Female Seminary, Emily N. Vanderpoel, Chronicles
of a Pioneer School (Cambridge, Mass., 1903).
LITCHFIELD, a city of Montgomery county, Illinois, U. S. A.,
about som.N.E. of St Louis, Missouri. Pop. (1900) 5918; (1910)
5971. Its principal importance is as a railway and manufacturing
centre; it is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the
Chicago & Alton, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St
Louis, the Illinois Central, the Wabash, and the Litchfield &
Madison railways, and by electric lines connecting with St
Louis and the neighbouring towns. In the vicinity are deposits
of bituminous coal, fire-clay and moulding sand. There are
various manufactures in the city. Litchfield was incorporated
as a town in 1856, and was first chartered as a city in 1859.
LITCHI, or LEE-CHEE, the fruit of Nephelium Litchi, a small
tree, native of southern China and one of the most important
indigenous fruits. It is also cultivated in India. The tree bears
large compound leaves with two to four pairs of leathery lan-
ceolate pointed leaflets about 3 in. long, and panicles of small
flowers without petals. The fruits are commonly roundish, about
ij in. in diameter, with a thin, brittle, red shell which bears rough
protuberances. In the fresh state they are filled with a sweet
white pulp which envelops a large brown seed, but in the dried
condition the pulp forms a blackish fleshy substance. The pulp
is of the nature of an aril, that is, an additional seed-coat.
Nephelium Longana, the longan tree, also a native of southern
China, is cultivated in that country, in the Malay Peninsula, India
and Ceylon for its fruit, which is smaller than that of the litchi, being
half an inch to an inch in diameter with a nearly smooth yellowish-
brown brittle skin, and containing a pulpy aril resembling that of the
litchi in flavour. Another species, N. lappaceum, a tall tree native
of the Malay Peninsula, where it is known under the names Ram-
butan or Rambosteen, is also cultivated for its pleasantly acid pulpy
aril. The fruit is oval, bright red in colour, about 2 m. long and
covered with long fleshy hairs.
Nephelium belongs to the natural order Sapindaceae, and contains
about twenty-two species.
LITERATURE, a general term which, in default of precise
definition, may stand for the best expression of the best thought
reduced to writing. Its various forms are the result of race
peculiarities, or of diverse individual temperaments, or of political
circumstances securing the predominance of one social class which
is thus enabled to propagate its ideas and sentiments. In early
stages of society, the classes which first attain a distinct literary
utterance are priests who compile the chronicles of tribal religious
development, or rhapsodes who celebrate the prowess of tribal
chiefs. As man feels before he reasons, so poetry generally
precedes prose. It embodies more poignantly the sentiment of
unsophisticated man. Hence sacred books and war- songs are
everywhere the earliest literary monuments, and both are
essentially poetic compositions which have received a religious
or quasi-religious sanction. The recitation of the Homeric poems
at the Panathenaea corresponds to the recitation elsewhere of the
sacred texts in the temple; the statement of Phemios (Odyssey,
xxii. 347) that a god inspired his soul with all the varied ways
of song expresses the ordinary belief of early historical times.
Versicles of the sacred chronicles, or fragments of epic poems,
were learned by heart and supplied a standard of popular literary
taste. The public declamation of long chosen passages by priests,
and still more by contending rhapsodes, served to evoke the
784
LITERATURE
latent sense of literary criticism; and, at a later stage, the
critical spirit was still further stimulated by the performance oi
dramatic pieces written by competing poets. The epical record
of the past was supplemented by the lyrical record of contem-
porary events, and as the Homeric poets had immortalized the
siege of Troy, so Pindar commemorated Salamis. Prose of any
permanent value would first show itself in the form of oratory,
and the insertion of speeches by early historians indicates a
connexion with rhetoric. The development of abstract reasoning
would tend to deprive prose of its superfluous ornament and to
provide a simpler and more accurate instrument.
No new genre has been invented since the days of Plato.
The evolution of literature is completed in Greece, and there
its subdivisions may best be studied. Epic poetry is represented
by the Homeric cycle, lyrical poetry by Tyrtaeus, dramatic
poetry by Aeschylus, history by Herodotus, oratory by Pericles,
philosophy by Plato, and criticism by Zoilus, the earliest of
slashing reviewers; and in each department there is a long
succession of illustrious names. Roughly speaking, all subse-
quent literature is imitative. Ennius transplanted Greek methods
to Rome; his contemporary L. Fabius Pictor, the earliest
Roman historian, wrote in Greek; and the later Roman poets
from Lucretius to Horace abound in imitations of Greek originals.
The official adoption of Christianity as the state religion changed
the spirit of literature, which became more and more provincial
after the downfall of the empire. Literature did not perish
during the " dark ages " which extend from the sixth century to
the beginning of the nth, but it was subordinate to scholarship.
The dissolution of Latin was not complete till about the middle
of the 9th century, and the new varieties of Romance did not
become ripe for literary purposes till a hundred years later.
Meanwhile, not a single literary masterpiece was produced
in western Europe for five centuries; by comparison only do
Boethius and Venantius Fortunatus seem to be luminous points
in the prolonged night; the promise of a literary renaissance
at the court of Charlemagne was unfulfilled, and the task of
creating a new literature devolved upon the descendants of the
barbarians who had destroyed the old. The Celtic and Teutonic
races elaborated literary methods of their own; but the fact
that the most popular form of Irish verse is adopted from Latin
prosody is conclusive evidence that the influence of Roman —
and therefore of Greek — models persisted in the literature of the
outlying provinces which had attained political independence.
The real service rendered to literature by the provincials lay in
the introduction and diffusion of legends freighted with a burden
of mystery which had disappeared with Pan, and these new
valuable materials went to form the substance . of the new
poetry.
The home of modern European literature must be sought in
France, which assimilated the best elements in Celtic and Teutonic
literature. From the nth to the I4th century, France wag the
centre of intellectual life in Europe, as Greece and Rome had
been before, and as Italy was to be afterwards. The chansons
de geste, inspired by the sense of patriotism and the yearning for
religious unity, inculcate feudal and Catholic doctrine, and as
society in the western world was universally committed to
feudalism and Catholicism, these literary expressions of both
theories were widely accepted and copied. The Germanic
origin of the French epic is lost sight of, and imitators are attracted
by the French execution, and by the creative power of the
chansons de geste. Again, France takes the stories of the Arthurian
court from Welsh texts or from the lips of Welsh settlers, re-
handles the romantic element, and, through Marie de France and
Chretien de Troyes, imparts to the whole a touch of personal
artistry which is absent from the chansons de geste. The matiere
de Brelagne goes forth to Italy, Germany and England — later
to Portugal and Spain — bearing the imprint of the French genius.
Thus France internationalizes local subjects, and first assumes
a literary function which, with few interruptions, she has since
discharged. She further gives to Europe models of allegory
in the Roman de la rose, founds the school of modern history
through Villehardouin, inaugurates the religious drama and the
secular theatre. She never again dominated the literatures of
Europe so absolutely.
The literary sceptre passed from France to Italy during the
I4th century. Brunette Latini, who wrote in French as well as
in Italian, is the connecting link between the literatures of the
two countries; but Italy owes its eminence not so much to a
general diffusion of literary accomplishment as to the emergence
of three great personalities. Dante, Boccacio and Petrarch
created a new art of poetry and of prose. England yielded to the
fascination in the person of Chaucer, Spain in the person of her
chancellor Lopez de Ayala, and France in the person of Charles
d'Orleans, the son of an Italian mother. Petrarch, once
ambassador in France, alleged that there were no poets out of
Italy, and indeed there were no living poets to compare with him
elsewhere. But in all countries he raised up rivals — Chaucer,
Marot, Garcilaso de la Vega — as Sannazaro did a century and
a half later. Sannazaro's Arcadia captured the Portuguese
Montemor, whose pastoral novel the Diana, written in Spanish,
inspired d'Urfe no less than Sidney, and, as d'Urfe's Astree is
considered the starting-point of the modern French novel, the
historical importance of the Italian original cannot be exagger-
ated. Spain never obtained any intellectual predominance
corresponding to that exercised by France and Italy, or to her
political authority during the i6th and lyth centuries. This
may be attributed partly to her geographical position which
lies off the main roads of Europe, and partly to the fact that her
literature is essentially local. Cervantes, indeed, may be said
to have influenced all subsequent writers of fiction, and the in-
fluence of Spanish literature is visible in the body of European
picaresque tales; but, apart from Corneille and a few other
dramatists who preceded Moliere in France, and apart from the
Restoration drama in England, the influence of the Spanish
drama was relatively small. In some respects it was too original
to be imitated with success. Much the same may be said of
England as of Spain. Like Spain, she lies outside the sphere
of continental influence; like Spain, she has innumerable great
names in every province of literature, and, in both cases, to
Europe at large these long remained names and nothing more;
like Spain, she is prone to reproduce borrowed materials in shapes
so transformed and rigid as to be unrecognizable and unadaptable.
Moreover, the Reformation isolated England from literary
commerce with the Latin races, and till the iSth century Germany
was little more than a geographical expression. Even when
Germany recovered her literary independence, Lessing first heard
of Shakespeare through Voltaire. Neither Shakespeare nor
Milton was read in France before the i8th century — the first
translated by Ducis, the second by Dupre de Saint-Maur — and
they were read with curiosity rather than with rapture. On
the other hand, Boileau, Rapin and Le Bossu were regarded
as oracles in England, and through them French literature
produced the " correctness " of Queen Anne's reign. Horace
Walpole is half a Frenchman, Hume imitates Montesquieu's
cold lucidity, Gibbon adapts Bossuet's majestic periods to other
purposes. On the other hand Voltaire takes ideas from Locke,
but his form is always intensely personal and inimitably French.
After the i6th century English literature, as a whole, is refractory
to external influence. Waves of enthusiasm pass over England —
for Rousseau, for Goethe — but leave no abiding trace on English
literature. During the latter half of the i8th century France
resumed something of her old literary supremacy; the literatures
of Italy and Spain at this period are purely derivative, and
French influence was extended still further on the continent
as the result of the Romantic movement. Since that impulse
was exhausted, literature everywhere has been in a state of
flux: it is less national, and yet fails to be cosmopolitan. All
writers of importance, and many of no importance, are trans-
ated into other European languages; the quick succession of
liverse and violent impressions has confused the scheme of
iterature. Literature suffers likewise from the competition
of the newspaper press, and as the press has multiplied it has
grown less literary. The diversities of modern interests, the
want of leisure for concentrated thought, suggest that literature
LITERNUM— LITHOGRAPHY
785
may become once more the pleasure of a small caste. But the
desire for the one just form which always inspires the literary
artist visits most men sometimes, and it cannot be doubted
that literature will continue to accommodate itself to new
conditions. (J- F.-K.)
LITERNUM, an ancient town of Campania, Italy, on the
low sandy coast between Cumae and the mouth of the Volturnus.
It was probably once dependent on Cumae. In 194 B.C. it
became a Roman colony. It is mainly famous as the residence
of the elder Scipio, who withdrew from Rome and died here.
His tomb and villa are described by Seneca. Augustus is said
to have conducted here a colony of veterans,1 but the place never
had any great importance, and the lagoons behind it made it
unhealthy, though the construction of the Via Domitiana
through it must have made it a posting station. It ceased to
exist in the 8th century. No remains are visible.
See J. Beloch, Campanien,ed. ii. (Breslau, 1890), 377.
LITHGOW, WILLIAM (1582-? 1650), Scottish traveller and
writer, was born and educated in Lanark. He was caught in
a love-adventure, mutilated of his ears by the brothers of the
lady (hence the sobriquet " Cut-lugged Willie "), and forced
to leave Scotland. For nineteen years he travelled, mostly on
foot, through Europe, the Levant, Egypt and northern Africa,
covering, according to his estimate, over 36,000 m. The story
of his adventures may be drawn from The Totall Discourse of
the Rare Adventures and painfull Peregrinations of long nine-
leene Yeares (London, 1614; fuller edition, 1632, &c.); A True
and Experimentall Discourse upon the last siege of Breda (London,
1637); and a similar book giving an account of the siege of
Newcastle and the battle of Marston Moor (Edinburgh, 1645).
He is the author of a Present Surveigh of London (London, 1643).
He left six poems, written between 1618 and 1640 (reprinted
by Maidment, Edinburgh, 1 863) . Of these " Scotland's Welcome
to King Charles, 1633 " has considerable antiquarian interest.
His writing has no literary merit; but its excessively aureate
style deserves notice.
The best account of Lithgowand his works is by F. Hindes Groome
in the Diet. Nat. Biog. The piece entitled Scotland's Paraenesis to
King Charles II. (1660), ascribed to him in the catalogue of the
Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, cannot, from internal evidence, be
his.
LITHGOW, a town of Cook county, New South Wales, Aus-
tralia, 96 m. W.N.W. of Sydney by rail. Pop. (1901) 5268. The
town is situated at an altitude of 3000 ft., in a valley of the
Blue Mountains. It has pottery and terra-cotta works, breweries,
a tweed factory, iron-works, saw-mills, soap-works and brick-
fields. Coal, kerosene shale, iron ore and building stone are
found in the district.
LITHIUM [symbol Li, atomic weight 7-00 (O=i6)], an alkali
metal, discovered in 1817 by J. A. Arfvedson (Ann. Mm. phys.
10, p. 82). It is only found in combination, and is a constituent
of the minerals petalite, triphyline, spodumene and lepidolite
or lithia mica. It occurs in small quantities in sea, river and
spring water, and is also widely but very sparingly distributed
throughout the vegetable kingdom. It may be obtained (in
the form of its chloride) by fusing lepidolite with a mixture of
barium carbonate and sulphate, and potassium sulphate (L.
Troost, Comptes rendus, 1856, 43, p. 921). The fused mass
separates into two layers, the upper of which contains a mixture
of potassium and lithium sulphates; this is lixiviated with
water and converted into the mixed chlorides by adding barium
chloride, the solution evaporated and the lithium chloride
extracted by a mixture of dry alcohol and ether. The metal
may be obtained by heating dry lithium hydroxide with mag-
nesium (H. N. Warren, Chem. News, 1896, 74, p. 6). L. Kahlen-
berg (Jour. phys. Chem., 3, p. 601) obtained it by electrolysing
the chloride in pyridine solution, a carbon anode and an iron
or platinum cathode being used. O. Ruff and O. Johannsen
(Zeit. elektrochem., 1906, 55, p. 537) electrolyse a mixture of
bromide and chloride which melts at 520°. It is a soft, silvery-
1 Mommsen in C.I.L. x. 343 does not accept this statement, but
an inscription found in 1885 confirms it.
white metal, which readily tarnishes on exposure. Its specific •
gravity is 0-59, and it melts at 180° C. It burns on ignition, in
air, and when strongly heated in an atmosphere of nitro-
gen it forms lithium nitride, LisN. It decomposes water at
ordinary temperature, liberating hydrogen and forming lithium
hydroxide.
Lithium hydride, LiH, obtained by heating the metal in a current
of hydrogen at a red heat, or by heating the metal with ethylene to
700° C. (M. Guntz, Comptes rendus, 1896, 122, p. 244; 123, p. 1273).
is a white solid which inflames when heated in chlorine. With
alcohol it forms lithium ethylate, LiOC2H6, with liberation of
hydrogen. Lithium oxide, Li2O, is obtained by burning the metal
in oxygen, or by ignition of the nitrate. It is a white powder which
readily dissolves in water to form the hydroxide, LiuH, which is
also obtained by boiling the carbonate with milk of lime. It forms a
white caustic mass, resembling sodium hydroxide in appearance.
It absorbs carbon dioxide, but is not deliquescent. Lithium chloride
LiCl, prepared by heating the metal in chlorine, or by dissolving the
oxide or carbonate in hydrochloric acid, is exceedingly deliquescent,
melts below a red heat, and is very soluble in alcohol. Lithium
carbonate, Li2CO3, obtained as a white amorphous precipitate by
adding sodium carbonate to a solution of lithium chloride, is sparingly
soluble in water. Lithium phosphate, LisPOi, obtained by the addi-
tion of sodium phosphate to a soluble lithium salt in the presence of
sodium hydroxide, is almost insoluble in water. Lithium ammonium,
LiNHs, is obtained by passing ammonia gas over lithium, the product
being heated to 70° C. in order to expel any excess of ammonia. It
turns brown-red on exposure to air, and is inflammable. It is
decomposed by water evolving hydrogen, and when heated in vacua
at 5p°-6o° C. it gives lithium and ammonia. With ammonia solution
it gives hydrogen and lithiamide, LiNH2 (H. Moissan, ibid., 1898,
127, p. 685). Lithium carbide, Li2C2, obtained by heating lithium
carbonate and carbon in the electric furnace, forms a transparent
crystalline mass of specific gravity 1-65, and is readily decomposed
by cold water giving acetylene (H. Moissan, ibid., 1896, 122, p. 362).
Lithium is detected by the faint yellow line of wave-length 6104,
and the bright red line of wave-length 6708, shown in its flame
spectrum. It may be distinguished from sodium and potassium by
the sparing solubility of its carbonate and phosphate. The atomic
weight of lithium was determined by J. S. Stas from the analysis of
the chloride, and also by conversion of the chloride into the nitrate,
the value obtained being 7-03 (O = 16).
The preparations of lithium used in medicine are: Lithii Carbonis,
dose 2 to 5 grs. ; Lithii Citras, dose 5 to 10 grs. ; and Lithii Citras
effervescens, a mixture of citric acid, lithium citrate, tartaric acid and
sodium bicarbonate, dose 60 to 120 grs. Lithium salts render the
urine alkaline and are in virtue of their action diuretic. They are
much prescribed for acute or chronic gout, and as a solvent to uric
acid calculi or gravel, but their action as a solvent of uric acid has
been certainly overrated, as it has been shown that the addition of
medicinal doses of lithium to the blood serum does not increase the
solubility of uric acid in it. In concentrated or large doses lithium
salts cause vomiting and diarrhoea, due to a gastro-enteritis set up
by their action. In medicinal use they should therefore be always
freely diluted.
LITHOGRAPHY (Gr. XWos, a stone, and yp&<t>fiv, to write),
the process of drawing or laying down a design or transfer,
on a specially prepared stone or other suitable surface, in such
a way that impressions may be taken therefrom. The principle
on which lithography is based is the antagonism of grease and
water. A chemically pure surface having been secured on some
substance that has an equal affinity for both grease and water,
in a method hereafter to be described, the parts intended to
print are covered with an unctuous composition and the rest
of the surface is moistened, so that when a greasy roller is applied,
the portion that is wet resists the grease and that in which an
affinity. for grease has been set up readily accepts it; and from
the surface chus treated it will be seen that it is an easy thing
to secure an impression on paper or other material by applying
suitable pressure.
The inventor of lithography was Alois Senef elder (1771-1834);
and it is remarkable what a grip he at once seemed to get of his
invention, for whereas the invention of printing seems almost
a matter of evolution, lithography seems to come upon the scene
fully equipped for the battle of life, so that it would be a bold
craftsman at the present day who would affirm that he knew
more of the principles underlying his trade than Senefelder
(q.v.) did within thirty years of its invention. Of course practice
has led to dexterity, and the great volume of trade has induced
many mechanical improvements and facilities, but the principles
have not been taken any further, while some valuable methods
786
LITHOGRAPHY
have been allowed to fall into desuetude and would well repay
some experimentally disposed person to revive.
Lithography may be divided into two main branches —
that which is drawn with a greasy crayon (rather illogically
called " chalk ") on a grained stone, and that which is drawn
in " ink " on a polished stone. Whatever may be thought in
regard to the original work of the artists of various countries
who have used lithography as a means of expression, there
can be little doubt that in the, former method the English pro-
fessed lithographer has always held the pre-eminence, while
French, German and American artists have surpassed them in
the latter.
Chalk lithography subdivides itself into work in which the
black predominates, although it may be supported by 5 or 6
shades of modified colour — this branch is known as "black
and tint " work — and that in which the black is only used
locally like any other colour. Frequently this latter class of
work will require a dozen or more colours, while some of the
finest examples have had some twenty to thirty stones employed
in them. Work of this description is known as chromo-litho-
graphy. Each colour requires a separate stone, and work of
the highest quality may want two or three blues with yellows,
reds, greys and browns in proportion, if it is desired to secure
a result that is an approximate rendering of the original painting
or drawing. The question may perhaps be asked: " If the well-
known three-colour process" (see PROCESS) "can give the full
result of the artist's palette, why should it take so many more
colours in lithography to secure the same result ? " The answer
is that the stone practically gives but three gradations — the
solid, the half tint and the quarter tint, so that the combination
of three very carefully prepared stones will give a very limited
number of combinations, while a moderate estimate of the shades
on a toned block would be six; so that a very simple mathe-
matical problem will show the far greater number of combinations
that the three blocks will give. Beyond this, the chromo-
lithographer has to exercise very great powers of colour analysis;
but the human mind is quite unable to settle offhand the exact
proportion of red, blue and yellow necessary to produce some
particular class say of grey, and this the camera with the aid
of colour filters does with almost perfect precision.
Notwithstanding these disadvantages, lithography has these
strong points: (i) its utility for small editions on account of
its, at present, smaller prime cost; (2) its suitability for subjects
of large size; (3) its superiority for subjects with outlines, for
in such cases the outline can be done in one colour, whereas to
secure this effect by the admixture of the three colours requires
marvellously good registration, the absence of which would
produce a very large proportion of " waste " or faulty copies;
(4) capacity for printing on almost any paper, whereas, at the
time of writing, the tri-colour process is almost entirely limited
to printing on coated papers that are very heavy and not very
enduring.
With regard to the two branches of chalk lithography, the
firms that maintained the English supremacy for black and
tint work in the early days were Hulemandel, Day and Haghe
and Maclure, while the best chromo-lithographic work in the
same period was done by Vincent Brooks, the brothers Hanhart,
Thomas Kell and F. Kell. In reference to the personal work
of professed lithographers during the same period, the names
of Louis Haghe, J. D. Harding, J. Needham, C. Baugniet, L.
Ghemar, William Simpson, R. J. Lane, J. H. Lynch, A. Maclure
and Rimanozcy stand for black and tint work; while in chromo-
lithography J. M. Carrick, C. Risdon, William Bunney, W.
Long, Samuel Hodson, Edwin Buckman and J. Lewis have been
conspicuous among those who have maintained the standard
of their craft. In the foregoing list will be recognized the names
of several who have had admirable works on the walls of the
Royal Academy and other exhibitions; Mr Lane, who exhibited
lithographs from 1824 to 1872, was for many years the doyen of
lithographers, and the only one of their number to attain aca-
demic rank, but Lynch and John Cardwell Bacon were his pupils,
and Bacon's son, the painter John H. F. Bacon, was elected
to the Royal Academy in 1903. In the first decade of the 2oth
century the number of firms doing high-class work, and the
artists who aided them in doing it, were more numerous than
ever, and scarcely less able, but it would be outside the present
purpose to differentiate between them.
The raison d'etre of "stipple" work is its capacity for re-
transferring without serious loss of quality, for it can scarcely
be contended that it is as artistic as the methods just described.
Retransferring is the process of pulling impressions from the
original stones with a view to making up a large sheet of one
or more small subjects, or where it is desired to print a very
large number without deterioration of the original or matrix
stone. The higher class work in this direction has been done in
France, Germany and the United States, where for many years
superiority has been shown in regard to the excellence and
rapidity of retransferring. To this cause may be attributed
the fact that the box tops and Christmas cards on the English
market were so largely done abroad until quite recent times.
The work of producing even a small face in the finest hand stipple
is a lengthy and tedious affair, and the English craftsman has
seldom shown the patience necessary for this work; but since
the American invention known as Ben Day's shading medium
was introduced into England the trade has largely taken it up,
and thereby much of the tedium has been avoided, so that it
has been found possible by its means to introduce a freedom
into stipple work that had not before been found possible, and
a very much better class of work has since been produced in
this department.
About the year 1868 grained paper was invented by Maclure,
Macdonald & Co. Thismethodconsistsinimpressing on ordinary
Scotch transfer or other suitable paper a grain closely allied to
that of the lithographic stone. It appears to have been rather an
improvement than a new invention, for drawing paper and even
canvas had been coated previously with a material that adhered
to a stone and left on the stone the greasy drawing that had been
placed thereon; but still from this to the beautifully prepared
paper that was placed on the market by the firm of which the
late Andrew Maclure was the head was a great advance, and
although the first use was by the ordinary craftsman it was not
long before artists of eminence saw that a new and convenient
mode of expression was opened up to them.
On the first introduction of lithography the artists of every
nation hastened to avail themselves of it, but soon the cumbrous
character of the stone, and the fact that their subjects had to be
drawn backwards in order that they might appear correctly on
the paper, wore down,their newly-born zeal, and it was only when
the grained paper system was perfected, by which they could
make their drawings in the comfort of their studios without re-
versing, that any serious revival took place. Although excellent
work on grained paper had been done by Andrew Maclure,
Rimanozcy, John Cardwell Bacon, Rudofsky and other crafts-
men, the credit for its furtherance among artists must be given
to Thomas Way and his son T. R. Way, who did much valuable
pioneer work in this direction. The adhesion of such artists of
eminence as Whistler, Legros, Frank Short, Charles Shannon,
Fantin Latour, William Strang, Will Rothenstein, Herbert
Railton and Joseph Pennell, did not a little to aid lithography in
resisting the encroachments of other methods into what may
still be considered its sphere. As a means of reproducing effects
which an artist would otherwise get by pencil or crayon, it
remains entirely unequalled, and it is of obvious advantage to
art that twenty-five or fifty copies of an original work should
exist, which, without the aid of lithography, might have only been
represented by a single sketch, perhaps stowed away among the
possessions of one private collector.
In regard to grained paper work, undue stress has often been
placed upon the rapid deterioration of the stone, some contending
that only a few dozen first-class proofs can be taken; this has
led to the feeling that it is unsuited to book illustration, and
damage has been done to the trade of lithography thereby.
It may be mentioned that quite recently about 100 auto-litho-
graphs in black and three colours, the combined work of Mr and
LITHOGRAPHY
787
Mrs Herbert Railton, have been treated by the Eberle system
of etching described below, and although an infinitesimal loss
of quality may have arisen, such as occurs when a copper
etching is steel faced, some 2000 to 3000 copies were printed
without further deterioration, and an edition of vignetted
sketches was secured, far in advance of anything that could
have been attained from the usual screen or half-toned blocks.
Grained paper is much used in the ordinary lithographic studio
for work such as the hill shading of maps that can be done without
much working up, but the velvety effects that in the hands of
Louis Haghe and his contemporaries were so conspicuous, cannot
be secured by this method. The effects referred to were obtained
by much patient work of a " tinter," who practically laid a ground
on which the more experienced and artistic craftsman did his
work either by scraping or accentuation. Where fine rich blacks
are needed, artists will do well to read the notes on the " aqua-
tint " and " wash " methods described by Senefelder in his
well-known treatise, and afterwards practised with great skill by
Hulemandel.
Lithography is of great service in educational matters, as
its use for diagrams, wall pictures and maps is very general;
nor does the influence end with schooldays, for in the form of
pictures at a moderate price it brings art into homes and lives
that need brightening, and even in the form of posters on the
much-abused hoardings does something for those who have
to spend much of their time in the streets of great cities.
According to the census of 1901, 14,686 people in the United
Kingdom found their occupation within the trade, while accord-
ing to a Home Office return (1906), 20,367 persons other than
lithographic printers were employed by the firms carrying on the
business. As it may be assumed that an equal number are
employed in France, Germany, the United States of America
and the world at large, it is clear that a vast industrial army
is employed in a trade that, like letterpress printing, has a very
beneficial influence upon those engaged in it.
Technical Details. — The following description of the various
methods of lithography is such as may be considered of interest
to the general reader, but the serious student who will require
formulas and more precise directions will do well to consult one
of the numerous text-books on the subject.
Stone and Stone Substitutes. — The quality of stone first used by
Alois Senefelder, and discovered by him at the village of Solenhofen
in Bavaria, still remains unsurpassed. This deposit, which covers
a very large area and underlies the villages of Solenhofen, Moernsheim
and Langenaltheim, has often been described, sometimes for inter-
ested motives, as nearly exhausted; but a visit in 1906 revealed
that the output — considerable as it had been during a period little
short of a century — was very unimportant when compared to the
great mass of carbonaceous limestone existing in the neighbourhood.
The strong point in favour of this source of supply, in addition to its
unrivalled quality, is the evenness of its stratification, and the
fact that after the removal of the surface deposits, which are very
thin, the stones come put of large size, in thickness of 3 to 5 in., and
thus just suited for lithographic purposes and needing only to be
wrought in the vertical direction. Other deposits of suitable stone
have been found in France, Spain, Italy and Greece, but transit and
the absence of suitable stratification have restricted them to little
more than local use. Beyond this, few of the deposits other than in
the neighbourhood of Solenhofen have been of the exact degree of
density necessary, and the heavier varieties do not receive the grease
with sufficient readiness. The desire to find other sources of supply
has been stimulated by the social conditions existing in southern
Bavaria, for the quarries are largely owned by peasant proprietors,
who have very well-defined business habits of their own which make
transactions difficult. Among other things, they will seldom supply
the highest grades and the largest sizes to those who will not take
their proportion of lower quality and smaller sizes; and this, in view
of the very expensive transit down the Rhine to Rotterdam, with a
railway journey at one end and a sea journey at the other, is a source
of difficulty to the importer in other countries.
The earliest substitute for lithographic stone was zinc, which has
been used from early days and is now more in demand than ever;
it requires very careful printing as the grease only penetrates the
material to a very slight extent, and the same must be said in regard
to the water. From this cause, when not in experienced hands,
trouble is likely to arise; and when this has occurred, remedial
methods are much more difficult than with stones. When put away
for storage, a dry place is very essential, as corrosion is easily set up.
At first the plates were quite thick, and almost invariably grained by
a zinc " muller " and acid; now a bath of acid is more generally
used, and the operation is known as " passing," while the plates are
quite thin, which renders them suitable for bending round the
cylinders of rotary machines.
So far we have been dealing with plain zinc, but variations are
caused, either by the oxidization of the surface or by coating the plate
with a composition closely allied to lithographic stone and applied in
a form of semi-solution. This class of plate was first invented by
Messrs C. & E. Layton, and a modification was invented by Messrs
Wezel and Naumann of Leipzig, who brought its use to a high pitch
of perfection for transferred work such as Christmas cards. A treat-
ment of iron plates by exposing them to a high temperature has
recently been patented, and has had some measure of success, while
the Parker printing plate, which is practically a sheet of zinc so
treated as to secure greater porosity and freedom from oxidization, is
rapidly securing a good position as a stone substitute.
Preparation of the Stones. — In this department the cleanliness so
necessary right through the lithographic process must be carefully
observed, and a leading point is to secure a level surface and to ensure
that the front and back of the stone are strictly parallel, i.e. that the
stones stand the test of both the straight edge and the callipers. A
good plan to ensure evenness on the surface is to mark the front with
two diagonal lines of some non-greasy substance till the top stone
(which should not be too small, and should be constantly revolved
on the larger one) has entirely removed them. The application of
the straight edge from time to time will end in securing the desired
flatness, on which so much of the future printing quality depends.
The usual method is to rub out with sand, and then rub with pumice
and polish with water of Ayr or snake stone. For chalk work, the
further work of graining has to be done by revolving a small stone
muller on the surface with exceedingly fine sand or powdered glass.
Many appliances (some very expensive) have been devised for doing
the principal part of this work by machine — none more effective
than those methods by which a disk of about 12 in. is kept revolving
on a rod attached to the ceiling, guided by hand over all parts of the
stone; but for large surfaces the ceiling needs to be rather high so
as to allow of a long expanding rod reaching the surface at a moderate
angle. When this machine is fitted with friction disk driving, very
wide variations of speed are possible, and the machine can be driven
so slowly and evenly as to secure a very fair (but not first class)
grain, in addition to speedy rubbing out, which is the chief aim of
the apparatus.
Preparing a Subject in Chalk or Chalk and Tints. — This branch of
work is much less in demand than formerly. A grey stone having
been selected and finely grained with sand or powdered glass passed
through a sieve of 80 to 120 meshes to the lineal inch, and the artist
having made his tracing, this tracing is reversed upon the stone with
the interposition of a piece of paper coated with red chalk, and the
chalk side towards the surface; the lines on the tracing are then gone
over with a tracing point, so that a reproduction in red chalk is left
upon the stone. It will then be desirable to secure a stock of pointed
Lemercier chalks of at least two grades, hard and soft : the pointing is
a matter that requires experience, and is done by the worker drawing
a sharp pen-knife towards him in a slicing manner as though trying
to put a point upon a piece of cheese. Care should be taken that the
fajling pieces are gathered into a box, or they may do irreparable
mischief to the work. The work of outlining is done with No. I or
hard chalk, and until experience is gained it will be well to depend
chiefly on this grade, securing rich dark effects by tinting or going
over the stone in various directions and then finishing with litho-
graphic ink where absolute blacks are required. This ink
(Vanhymbeck's or Lemercier's are two good makes) needs careful
preparation, the method being to warm a saucer and rub the ink
dry upon it, then add a little distilled water and incorporate with the
finger. It is of great importance not to use any ink left over for the
next day, but always to have a fresh daily supply.
When the drawing is thus completed, it will require what is termed
etching, by which the parts intended to receive the printing ink, and
already protected by an acid-resisting grease, will be left above the
unprotected surface. The acid and gum mixture varies in accordance
with the quality of the work and the character of the stone. A
patiently executed specimen will, for instance, stand more etching
than a hastily drawn one; while a grey stone will require more of
the nitric acid than a yellow one. This is one of the most important
tasks that a lithographer has to perform. A proportion of 1-5 parts
of acid to top parts of a strong solution of gum arable will be found
to be approximately what is required, but the exact proportion must
be settled by experience, a safe course being to watch the action that
occurs when a small quantity is placed on the unused margin of the
stone. Many put the etching mixture on with a flat camel-hair
brush, which should be of good width to avoid streaks. The present
writer's own preference is to pour the mixture on to the stone when it
is in a slanting position; or it is perhaps better to have an etching
trough, a strong box lined with pitch, with bearers at the bottom to
prevent the stone coming in contact with it, and a hole through
which the diluted acid may pass away for subsequent use. The etch-
ing is then done with acid and water poured over the stone while in a
sloping position, and the subsequent pouring of a solution of gum
arable completes the preparation. The late Mr William Simpson,
whose Crimean lithographs are well known, once stated at the
Society of Arts that in his opinion Mr Louis Haghe's reproduction
788
LITHOGRAPHY
of David Robert's great picture of " The Taking of Jerusalem " was
the most important piece of chalk lithography ever executed, and
that he well remembered that it took two years to execute it, and
that all the combined talent of Messrs Day & Haghe's establishment
was utilized in its etching. He stated that, notwithstanding every
precaution, it was under-etched, and that after half a dozen im-
pressions the great beauty and brilliancy of the work had departed.
This incident indicates sufficiently the serious nature of this part of
the lithographer's work.
If the chalk drawing has to have tints, it will be necessary to make
as many dusted off setts as there are colours to be used ; in this class
of work there are generally only two, — ;one warm or sandy shade and
the other a quiet blue, — and these, with the black and the neutral
colour secured by the superposition of the two shades, give an
excellent result, of which Haghe's sketches in Belgium may be taken
as a leading example.
In making such subjects suitable for present-day printing in the
machine, the paper will require to be of a good " rag " quality, free
from size and damped before printing. To secure accuracy of
register the paper must be kept in a damp cloth to prevent the edges
drying, and other machines should be kept available for each of the
tints so that all work printed in black in the morning may be com-
pleted the same night. In this way large editions might be printed of
either original or retransferred work at prices rendering] the prints
suitable for high-class magazines.
Preparing a Chroma Lithograph.— 7 or this purpose the proceedings
will be much the same as those suggested for the black and tint work,
but the preliminary tracing will be done in lithographic ink on
tracing transfer paper or scratched on gelatine, the lines being
subsequently filled in with transfer ink, and will be used as a " key,"
a guide stone that will not be printed; and the number of stones
necessary will probably be much more numerous. The initial point
will be to consider if the work is to have the edition printed from it,
or whether it has to be transferred after proving and before printing;
generally speaking, large subjects such as diagrams or posters will be
worked direct, while Christmas cards, postcards, handbills or labels,
will be repeated many times on larger stones. For the former class
a much wider range of methods is possible, but many of these are
difficult to transfer, and the deterioration that arises makes it de-
sirable to limit their use when transferring is contemplated. There-
fore, chalk-rubbed tints, varnish tints, stumping, wash, air brush, are
the methods for original work, while work that has to be transferred
is limited to ink work in line or stipple on a polished stone with the
aid of " mediums " as before described, and ink " spluttered " on to
the stone from a tooth brush. It should be mentioned that work
done on grained paper is more suitable for retransfer -than ordinary
chalk work, and so is often very useful when a chalk effect is desired
from a polished stone. In proving, opaque colours will be got on
first, and it will often be found a good plan to put the black on early,
for it gives a good idea of how the work is proceeding, and the strength
of the touches (for the black should generally be used sparingly) is
often pleasantly softened by the semi-opaque colours which should
come on next. It is desirable to pull impressions of each colour on
thoroughly white paper, and beyond this in important work there
should be a progressive colour pattern that will show how the work
looked when two, three or more colours were on, for this may at the
finish be invaluable to show where error has crept in, and is in any
event an immense aid to the machine minder.
In regard to paper, a description made of rag or rag and esparto
is most desirable for all work on grained stones, but for work in ink
and consequently from polished stone a good _ coated paper with
sufficient " size in it is frequently desirable; this paper is generally
called " chromo " paper.
There is at the present time very little encouragement for the high
class of chromo-lithography that was so much in evidence from 1855
to 1875, but there is little doubt that the work could be done equally
well by the present-day craftsmen if the demand revived. Belonging
to the period mentioned, distinguished examples of chromo-litho-
graphy are "Blue Lights," after Turner, by Carrick; "Spanish
Peasants" and the Lumley portrait of Shakespeare, by Risdon;
" Queen Victoria receiving the Guards," by W. Bunney, after John
Gilbert; and the series of chromos after John Leech, produced
under the general direction of Vincent Brooks. A small proportion
only of the Arundel Society's prints were executed in England, but
many reproductions of water-colours after Birket Foster, Richardson,
Wainwnght and others were executed by Samuel Hodson, James
Lewis and others. Perhaps the most consistently good work of
modern times has been the reproduction of Pellegrini's and Leslie
Ward's drawings for Vanity Fair, which from 1870 to 1906 were
with very few exceptions executed by the firm of Vincent Brooks,
Day & Son.
Transfers. — A very large proportion of work is got on to the stone
by transfer, and there is no more important part of the business
perhaps at the present time. When there is so much original litho-
graphy done on grained paper by artists of eminence, the trans-
ferring of grained paper drawings is the most important. The stone
most desirable for this purpose will be neither a grey nor a light
yellow, but one that stands mid-way between the two; it should be
very carefully polished so as to be quite free from scratches, and
brought to blood-heat by being gradually heated in an iron cupboard
prepared with the necessary apparatus. The methods that some-
times prevail of pouring boiling water over the stone, heating with the
flame of an ordinary plumber s lamp, or even heating the surface in
front of a fire, are ineffective substitutes, for the surface may thus
become unduly hot and spread the work, and there is no increased
tendency for the chalk to enter into the stone and thus give the work
a long life. If there are no colours or registration troubles to be
considered, it is well to place the transfer in a damping book till the
composition adheres firmly to the finger, before placing it on the
stone; it should then be pulled through twice, after which it should
be damped on the back and pulled through several times; after
this has again been well damped the paper will be found to peel
easily off the stone, leaving the work and nearly all the composition
attached; the latter should then be very gently washed away.
In cases where the work for some reason must not stretch, such as
the hills on a map, it will be necessary to keep the transfer dry and
put it on a wet stone, but a piece of the margin of the paper should be
tested to see that it is of a class that will adhere to the stone the first
time it is pulled through. Unless the adhesion is very complete it
may not be safe to pull it through more than once. For a small
number of copies a very moderate " etch " is desirable, but for a long
run, where the object is to secure a good edition rather than a few
good proofs, the Eberle system may be adopted. This method
consists in protecting the work with finely powdered resin and then
applying the flame of an ordinary plumber's lamp; this will melt
the protecting medium round the base of each grain of work and
allow of a very vigorous " etch " being applied. As before stated it is
not unusual to secure 2000 to 3000 good copies in the machine after
this treatment; but the rollers, the ink and the superintendence
must be of the best.
When the artist who is not a professed lithographer desires to
make tints to his work, a reversed offset on grained paper should be
made for each colour; this is done by pulling an impression in the
usual way on a hard piece of paper, and while it is yet wet this should
be faced with a piece of grained paper and pulled through again,
when the grained paper will be found to have received the greater
portion of the ink; this should be immediately dusted with offset
powder of a red shade to prevent the grease passing into the paper,
and the drawing of the tints should then be proceeded with in the
usual way. Another method of transfer work is to pull impressions
from copper or steel plates in transfer ink; it is in such way that
simple etchings like those of Cruikshank, Phiz and others are pro-
duced, and nearly all commercial work such as maps, bill heads, &c.,
are prepared in the same manner.
Beyond this, much work is done in lithographic ink on what is
called writing transfer paper, such as circulars, law writing for
abstracts, specifications and plans.
Machinery. — The chief items are the hand presses and the machines,
whether flat bed or rotary, the principal places of manufacture being
Leeds, Otley and Edinburgh. Stimulated by American competition,
the standard of excellence in the Unked Kingdom has been very
considerably raised of late years. The rotary machines have only
been possible since the more frequent use of aluminium and zinc, but
these materials are more suitable to receive transfer than for the
general use of an office, the chief reason being that corrections on
stone are more easily accomplished and more lasting when done.
Preliminary work is therefore frequently done on the stone and
transferred to plates for the machine.
The question is very frequently asked as to how the necessary
registration of the colours is secured; it may be stated for the
benefit of the amateur that in hand printing this is generally done by
pricking with a pair of needles through printed marks present on each
stone ; but in the machine this has been done in different ways, although
in quite early days " pointing " or " needling " was done even on the
machine. On modern machines this registration depends on the
accurate cutting of the edge of the paper, of which at least one
corner must be an absolute right angle. The paper is then laid on a
sloping board in such a way that the longest of the two true edges
gravitates into the gripper of the machine, the stops of which move
slightly forward as the gripper closes; simultaneously what is called
the " side lay " moves forward automatically to a given extent, and
in this way at the critical moment the sheet is always in the same
position in regard to the stone, which has already been firmly
secured in the bed of the machine.
Quite recently a new method has come into use that is probably
destined to be a great aid to the craft in its competition with other
methods. This is known as offset printing; it is more a matter of
evolution than invention, and proceeds from the method adopted in
tin-plate decoration so much used for box-making and lasting forms
of advertisement. It consists in bringing a sheet of rubber into
contact with the charged stone and then setting-off the impression
so obtained upon card, paper, pegamoid, cloth or other material,
the elasticity of the rubber making it possible to print upon rough
surfaces that have been previously unsuited to lithographic printing.
Both flat bed and rotary machines are available for this system, the
latter being restricted to zinc or aluminium plates, but giving a high
speed, while the former can use both stones and metal plates and may
be more effective for the highest grade of colour work; by both
classes of machines the finest engraved note headings can be printed
on rough paper, and colour work that has for so long been confined
LITHOSPHERE— LITHUANIANS AND LETTS
789
to coated or burnished papers will be available on surfaces such as the
artists themselves use.
The following treatises may be referred to with advantage by those
in search of more detailed information : A Complete Course of Litho-
graphy, by Alois Senefelder (R. Ackermann, London, 1819); The
Grammar of Lithography, by W. D. Richmond (l3th edition, E.
Menken, London) ; Handbook of Lithography, by David Gumming
(London, A. & C. Black). The first of these will only be found in
libraries of importance : the others are present-day text-books.
(F. V. B.)
LITHOSPHERE (Gr. Xiflos , a stone, and <7<£<upa, a sphere),
the crust of the earth surrounding the earth's nucleus. The super-
ficial soil, a layer of loose earthy material from a few feet to a
few hundreds of feet in thickness, lies upon a zone of hard rock
many thousands of feet in thickness but varying in character,
and composed mainly of sandstones, shales, clays, limestones
and metamorphic rocks. These two layers form the lithosphere.
All the tectonic movements of the solid nucleus produce changes
in the mobile lithosphere. Volcanic and seismic activity is
manifested, mountains are folded, levels change, fresh surfaces
are exposed to denudation, erosion and deposition. The crust
is thus subject to constant change while retaining its more or less
permanent character.
LITHUANIANS and LETTS, two kindred peoples of Indo-
European origin, which inhabit several western provinces of
Russia and the north-eastern parts of Poland and Prussia, on
the shores of the Baltic Sea, and in the basins of the Niemen and
of the Duna. Large colonies of Lithuanian and Lettic emigrants
have been established in the United States. The two races
number about 3,500,000, of whom 1,300,000 are Letts. Little
is known about their origin, and nothing about the time of
their appearance in the country they now inhabit. Ptolemy
mentions (iii. 5) two clans, the Galindae and Sudeni, who
probably belonged to the western subdivision of this racial
group, the Borussians. In the loth century the Lithuanians
were already known under the name of Litva, and, together with
two other branches of the same stem — the Borussians and the
Letts — they occupied the south-eastern coast of the Baltic Sea
from the Vistula to the Duna, extending north-east towards the
Lakes Vierzi-jarvi and Peipus, south-east to the watershed
between the affluents of the Baltic and those of the Black Sea,
and south to the middle course of the Vistula (Brest Litovsk) —
a tract bounded by Finnish tribes in the north, and by Slavs
elsewhere.
Inhabiting a forested, marshy country the Lithuanians have
been able to maintain their national character, notwithstanding
the vicissitudes of their history. Their chief priest, Krive-
Kriveyto (the judge of the judges), under whom were seventeen
classes of priests and elders, worshipped in the forests; the
Waidelots brought their offerings to the divinities at the foot
of oaks; even now, the veneration of great oaks is a widely
spread custom in the villages of the Lithuanians, and even of
the Letts.
Even' in the loth century the Lithuanian stem was divided into
three main branches: — the Borussians or Prussians; the Letts
(who call themselves Lalvis, whilst the name under which they
are known in Russian chronicles, Lelygola, is an abbreviation of
Lalvin-galas, " the confines of Lithuania ") ; and the Lithuanians,
or rather Lituanians, Litva or Letuvininkai, — these last being
subdivided into Lithuanians proper, and Zhmud? (Zmudz, Samog-
itians or Zemailey), the " Lowlanders." To these main branches
must be added the Yatvyags, or Yadzvings, a warlike, black-
haired people who inhabited the forests at the upper tributaries
of the Niemen and Bug, and the survivors of whom are easily
distinguishable as a mixture with White-Russians and Mazurs
in some parts of Grodno, Plotsk, Lomza and Warsaw. Nestor's
chronicle distinguishes also the Zhemgala, who later became
known under the name of Semigallia, and in the loth century
inhabited the left bank of the Duna. Several authors consider
also as Lithuanians the Kors of Russian chronicles, or Courons of
Western authors, who inhabited the peninsula of Courland, and
the Golad, a clan settled on the banks of the Porotva, tributary
of the Moskva river, which seems to have been thrown far from
the main stem during its migration to the north. The Krivichi,
who inhabited what is now the government of Smolensk, seem to
belong to the same stem. Their name recalls the Krive-Kriveyto,
and their ethnological features recall the Lithuanians; but
they are now as much Slavonic as Lithuanian.
All these peoples are only ethnographical subdivisions, and
each of them was subdivided into numerous independent clans
and villages, separated from one another by forests and marshes;
they had no towns or fortified places. The Lithuanian territory
thus lay open to foreign invasions, and the Russians as well as
the German crusaders availed themselves of the opportunity.
The Borussians soon fell under the dominion of Germans, and
ceased to constitute a separate nationality, leaving only their
name to the state which later became Prussia. The Letts were
driven farther to 'the north, mixing there with Livs and Ehsts,
and fell under the dominion of the Livonian order. Only the
Lithuanians proper, together with Samogitians, succeeded in
forming an independent state. The early history of this state
is imperfectly known. During the continuous petty war carried
on against Slavonic invasions, the military chief of one of the
clans, Ryngold, acquired, in the first half of the i3th century, a
certain preponderance over other clans of Lithuania and Black
Russia (Yatvyags), as well as over the republics of Red Russia.
At this time, the invasions of the Livonian order becoming more
frequent, and always extending southward, there was a general
feeling of the necessity of some organization to resist them, and
Ryngold's son, Mendowg, availed himself of this opportunity
to pursue the policy of his father. He made different concessions
to the order, ceded to it several parts of Lithuania, and even
agreed to be baptized, in 1250, at Novograd Litovsk, receiving
in exchange a crown from Innocent IV., with which he was
crowned king of Lithuanians. He also ceded the whole of
Lithuania to the order in case he should die without leaving
offspring. But he had accepted Christianity only to increase
his influence among other clans; and, as soon as he had con-
solidated a union between Lithuanians, Samogitians and Cours,
he relapsed, proclaiming, in 1260, a general uprising of the
Lithuanian people against the Livonian order. The yoke was
shaken off, but internal wars followed, and three years later
Mendowg was killed. About the end of the i3th century a new
dynasty of rulers of Lithuania was founded by Lutuwer, whose
second son, Gedymin (1316-1341), with the aid of fresh forces
he organized through his relations with Red Russia, established
something like regular government; he at the same time ex-
tended his dominions over Russian countries — over Black Russia
(Novogrodok, Zditov, Grodno, Slonim and Volkovysk) and the
principalities of Polotsk, Tourovsk, Pinsk, Vitebsk and Volhynia.
He named himself Rex Lethowinorum et multorum Ruthenorum.
In 1325 he concluded a treaty with Poland against the Livonian
order, which treaty was the first step towards the union of both
countries realized two centuries later. The seven sons of Gedymin
considered themselves as quite independent; but two of them,
Olgierd and Keistut, soon became the more powerful. They
represented two different tendencies which existed at that time
in Lithuania. Olgierd, whose family relations attracted him
towards the south, was the advocate of union with Russia;
rather politician than warrior, he increased his influence by
diplomacy and by organization. His wife and sons being
Christians, he also soon agreed to be baptized in the Greek Church.
Keistut represented the revival of the Lithuanian nationality.
Continually engaged in wars with Livonia, and remaining true
to the national religion, he became the national legendary hero.
In 1345 both brothers agreed to re-establish the great principality
of Lithuania, and, after having taken Vilna, the old sanctuary
of the country, all the brothers recognized the supremacy of
Olgierd. His son, Jagiello, who married the queen of Poland,
Yadviga, after having been baptized in the Latin Church, was
crowned, on the i4th of February 1386, king of Poland. At the
beginning of the i5th century Lithuania extended her dominions
as far east as Vyazma on the banks of the Moskva river, the
present government of Kaluga, and Poutivl, and south-east as
far as Poltava, the shores of the Sea of Azov, and Haji-bey
(Odessa), thus including Kiev and Lutsk. The union with
79°
LITHUANIANS AND LETTS
Poland remained, however, but nominal until 1569, when Sigis-
mund Augustus was king of Poland. In the i6th century
Lithuania did not extend its power so far east and south-east
as two centuries before, but it constituted a compact state,
including Polotsk, Moghilev, Minsk, Grodno, Kovno, Vilna, Brest,
and reaching as far south-east as Chernigov. From the union
with Poland, the history of Lithuania becomes a part of Poland's
history, Lithuanians and White-Russians partaking of the fate
of the Polish kingdom (see POLAND: History). After its three
partitions, they fell under the dominion of the Russian empire.
In 1792 Russia took the provinces of Moghilev and Polotsk, and
in 1793 those of Vilna, Troki, Novgorod-Syeversk, Brest and
Vitebsk. In 1797 all these provinces were united together, con-
stituting the " Lithuanian government " (Litovskaya Gubernia).
But the name of Lithuanian provinces was usually given
only to the governments of Vilna and Kovno, and, though
Nicholas I. prohibited the use of this name, it is still used, even
in official documents. In Russia, all the White-Russian popula-
tion of the former Polish Lithuania are usually considered as
Lithuanians, the name of Zhmud being restricted to Lithuanians
proper.
The ethnographical limits of the Lithuanians are undefined, and
their number is variously estimated. The Letts occupy a part
of the Courland peninsula of Livonia and of Vitebsk, a few other
settlements being spread also in the governments of Kovno,
St Petersburg and Moghilev. The Lithuanians proper inhabit the
governments of Kovno, Vilna, Suvalki and Grodno; while the
Samogitians or Zhmud inhabit the governments of Kovno and
Suvalki. To these must be added about 200,000 Borussians, the
whole number of Lithuanians and Letts in Russia being, according
to the census of 1897, 3,094,469. They are slowly extending
towards the south, especially the Letts; numerous emigrants
have penetrated into Slavonic lands as far as the government of
Voronezh.
The Lithuanians are well built ; the face is mostly elongated, the
features fine; the very fair hair, blue eyes and delicate skin dis-
tinguish them from Poles and Russians. Their dress is usually plain
in comparison with that of Poles, and the predominance in it of
greyish colours has been frequently noticed. Their chief occupation
is agriculture. The trades in towns are generally carried on by men
of other races — mostly by Germans, Jews or Poles. The only
exception is afforded to some extent by the Letts. The Samogitians
are good hunters, and all Lithuanians are given to apiculture and
cattle breeding. But the Lithuanians, as well in the Baltic provinces
as in the central ones, were not until the most recent time proprietors
of the soil they tilled. They have given a few families to the Russian
nobility, but the great mass of the people became serfs of foreign
landowners, German and Polish, who reduced them to the greatest
misery. Since the Polish insurrection of 1863, the Russian govern-
ment has given to the Lithuanians the land of the Polish proprietors
on much easier terms than in central Russia ; but the allotments of
soil and the redemption taxes are very unequally distributed; and
a not insignificant number of peasants (the chinsheviki) were even
deprived of the land they had for centuries considered their own.
The Letts remain in the same state as before, and are restrained from
emigrating en masse only by coercive measures.
The Letts of Courland, with the exception of about 50,000 who
belong to the Greek Church, are Lutherans. Nearly all can read.
Those of the government of Vitebsk, who were under Polish dominion,
are Roman Catholics, as well as the Lithuanians proper, a part of
whom, however, have returned to the Greek Church, in which they
were before the union with Poland. The Samogitians are Roman
Catholics; they more than other Lithuanians have conserved their
national features. But all Lithuanians have maintained much of
their heathen practices and creed; the names of pagan divinities,
very numerous in the former mythology, are continually mentioned
in songs, and also in common speech.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Schiemann, Russland, Polen und Livland bis ins
l?te Jahrhundert (2 vols., Berlin, 1886-1887); S. Daukantas,
Lietuvos Istorija (Plymouth, Pa., 1893); J. de Brye, j£tude historigue
sur la Lithuanie (Paris, 1894); P. D. Bryantsev, Istoriya Litovskago
Gosudarstva (Vilna, 1899). (P. A. K.)
Language and Literature. — The Lithuanian, Lettic or Lettish
and Borussian or Old Prussian languages together constitute a
distinct linguistic subdivision, commonly called the Baltic
subdivision, within the Indo-European family. They have
many affinities to the Slavonic languages, and are sometimes
included with them in a single linguistic group, the Balto-Slavic.
In their phonology, however, though not in their structure the
Baltic languages appear to be more primitive than the Slavonic.
Lithuanian, for example, retains the archaic diphthongs which
disappear in Slavonic — Lith. veidas, " face," Gr. tldos, O.S.
tiidu. Among other noteworthy phonological characteristics
of Lithuanian are the conversion of k into a sibilant, the loss of h
and change of all aspirates into tenues and the retention of
primitive consonantal noun-terminations, e.g. the final j in Sans.
Vrkas, Lith. vilkas, O.S. iiulku. Lettic is phonologically less
archaic than Lithuanian, although in a few cases it has preserved
Indo-European forms which have been changed in Lithuanian,
e.g. the s and z which have become Lith. sz (sh) and z (zh). The
accent in Lithuanian is free; in Lettic, and apparently in Old
Prussian, it ultimately became fixed on the first syllable.
In its morphology Lettic represents a later stage of development
than Lithuanian, their mutual relationship being analogous to that
between Old High German and Gothic. Both languages have pre-
served seven out of the eight Indo-European cases; Lithuanian has
three numbers, but Lettic has lost the dual (except in diwi, " two "
and abbi, " both ") ; the neuter gender, which still appears in Lithu-
anian pronouns, has also been entirely lost in Lettic; in Lithuanian
there are four simple tenses (present, future, imperfect, preterite),
but in Lettic the imperfect is wanting. In both languages the number
of periphrastic verb-forms and of diminutives is large; in both there
are traces of a suffix article; and both have enriched their vocabu-
laries with many words of foreign, especially German, Russian and
Polish origin. The numerous Lithuanian dialects are commonly
divided into High or Southern, which changes ty and dy into cz, dz,
and Low or Northern, which retains ty, dy. Lettic is divided into
High (the eastern dialects), Low (spoken in N.W. Courland) and
Middle (the literary language). Old Prussian ceased to be a spoken
language in the I7th century; its literary remains, consisting chiefly
of three catechisms and two brief vocabularies, date almost entirely
from the period 1517-1561 and are insufficient to permit of any
thorough reconstruction of the grammar.
The literary history of the Lithuanians and Letts dates from the
Reformation and comprises three clearly defined periods, (i)
Up to 1700 the chief printed books were of a liturgical character.
(2) During the i8th century a vigorous educational movement
began; dictionaries, grammars and other instructive works were
compiled, and written poems began to take the place of songs
preserved by oral tradition. (3) The revival of national sentiment
at the beginning of the igth century resulted in the establishment
of newspapers and the collection and publication of the national
folk-poetry. In both literatures, works of a religious character
predominate, and both are rich in popular ballads, folk-tales and
fables.
The first book printed in Lithuanian was a translation of
Luther's shorter Catechism (Konigsberg, 1547); other transla-
tions of devotional or liturgical works followed, and by 1701
59 Lithuanian books had appeared, the most noteworthy being
those of the preacher J. Bretkun (1535-1602). The spread of
Calvinism led to the publication, in 1701, of a Lithuanian New
Testament. The first dictionary was printed in 1749. But
perhaps the most remarkable work of the second period was
The Four Seasons, a pastoral poem in hexameters by Christian
Donalitius (1714-1780), which was edited by Nesselmann
(Konigsberg, 1869) with a German translation and notes. In
the i gth century various collections of fables and folk-tales
were published, and an epic, the Onikshla Grove, was written
by Bishop Baranoski. But it was in journalism that the chief
original work of the third period was done. F. Kelch (1801-1877)
founded the first Lithuanian newspaper, and between 1834 and
1895 no fewer than 34 Lithuanian periodicals were published
in the United States alone.
Luther's Catechism (Konigsberg, 1586) was the first book
printed in Lettic, as in the sister speech. In the I7th century
various translations of psalms, hymns and other religious works
were published, the majority being Calvinistic in tone. The
educational movement of the i8th century was inaugurated
by G. F. Slender (1714-1796), author of a Lettic dictionary
and grammar, of poems, tales and of a Book of Wisdom which
treats of elementary science and history. Much educational
work was subsequently done by the Lettic Literary Society,
which publishes a magazine (Magazin, Mitau, from 1827),
and by the " Young Letts," who published various periodicals
and translations of foreign classics, and endeavoured to free
LITMUS— LITOPTERNA
791
their language and thought from German influences. Somewhat
similar tasks were undertaken by the " Young Lithuanians,"
whose first magazine the Auszra (" Dawn ") was founded in
1883. From 1890 to 1910 the literature of both peoples was
marked by an ever-increasing nationalism; among the names
most prominent during this period may be mentioned those of
the dramatist Steperman and the poet Martin Lap, both of
whom wrote in Lettic.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Lithuanian dictionaries: Nesselmann, Worter-
buch der litauischen Sprache (Konigsberg, 1851); Kurschat, Wiirter-
buch der litauischen Sprache (Halle, 1870-1883); A. Juszkiewicz,
Litovskiy Slovar (St Petersburg, 1897, &c.); P. Saurusaitis, An
Abridged Dictionary of the English-Lithuanian Languages, 2 pts.
(Waterbury, Conn., 1899-1900); A. Lalis, Dictionary of the Lithu-
anian and English Languages (Chicago, 1903, &c.). Grammar and
Linguistic : Schleicher, Handbuch der litauischen Sprache (Prague,
1856-1857); O. Wiedemann, Handbuch der litauischen Sprache
(Strassburg, 1897); A. Bezzenberger , Beitrage zur Geschichte der
litauischen Sprache (Gottingen, 1877); J. Schiekopp, Gramatyka
litewska poczatkowa (Cracow, 1902). Literature: Nesselmann,
Litauische Volkslieder (Berlin, 1853); A. Juszkiewicz, Liettiwiskos
Dajnos Uzrasytos, &c. (Kazan, 1881); A. Leskien and C. Brugman,
Litauische Volkslieder (Strassburg, 1882); C. Bartsch. Melodieen
litauischer Volksheder (Heidelberg, 1886); A. Juszkiewicz, Melodje
ludowe litewskie (Cracow, 1900, &c.) ; E. A. Vol'ter, Litovskaya
Khrestomatiya (St Petersburg, 1901, &c.).
Lettic dictionaries and grammars: Bielenstein, Die Lettische
Sprache (Berlin, 1863-1864); id., Lettische Grammatik (Mitau, 1863) ;
Ulmann and Brasche, Lettisches Worterbuch (Riga, 1872-1880); A.
Bezzenberger, Uber die Sprache der preussischen Letten and lettische
Dialekt-Studien (Gottingen, 1885)- Bielenstein, Grenzen des lettischen
Vplksstammes und der lettischen Sprache (St Petersburg, 1892),
Literature: Bielenstein Tausend lettische Rathsel (Mitau, 1881);
T. Treuland, Latyshskiya Narodnyya Skazki (Moscow, 1887, &c.);
K. Baron and H. Wissendorff , Latwju dainas (Mitau 1894, &c.) ;
V. Andreyanov, Lettische Volkslieder und My then (Halle; 1896).
Old Prussian: Nesselmann, Die Sprache der alien Preussen
(Berlin, 1845); id., Thesaurus linguae prussicae (Berlin, 1873);
Berneker, Die preussische Sprache (Strassburg, 1896); M. Schultze,
Grammatik der altpreussischen Sprache (Leipzig, 1897).
LITMUS (apparently a corruption of lacmus, Dutch lacmoes, lac,
lac, and moes, pulp, due to association with " lit," an obsolete
word for dye, colour; the Ger. equivalent is Lackmus, Fr
tournesol), a colouring matter which occurs in commerce in the
form of small blue tablets, which, however, consist mostly, not of
the pigment proper, but of calcium carbonate and sulphate and
other matter devoid of tinctorial value. Litmus is extensively
employed by chemists as an indicator for the detection of free
acids and free alkalis. An aqueous infusion of litmus, when
exactly neutralized by an acid, exhibits a violet colour, which by
the least trace of free acid is changed to red, while free alkali
turns it to blue. The reagent is generally used in the form of
test paper — bibulous paper dyed red, purple or blue by the
respective kind of infusion. Litmus is manufactured in Holland
from the same kinds of lichens (species of Roccella and Lecanora)
as are used for the preparation of archil (q.v.).
LITOPTERNA, a suborder of South American Tertiary
ungulate mammals typified by Macrauchenia, and taking their
name (" smooth-heel ") from the presence of a flat facet on the
heel-bone, or calcaneurrr for the articulation of the fibula.
The more typical members of the group were digitigrade animals,
recalling in general build the llamas and horses; they have small
brains, and a facet on the calcaneum for the fibula. The cheek-
dentition approximates more or less to the perissodactyle type.
Both the terminal faces of the cervical vertebrae are flat, the
femur carries a third trochanter, the bones of both the carpus
and tarsus are arranged in linear series, and the number of toes,
although commonly three, varies between one and five, the third
or middle digit being invariably the largest.
Of the two families, the first is the ProterotherMae, which
exhibits, in respect of the reduction of the digits, a curious
parallelism to the equine line among the Perissodactyla; in this
feature, as well as in the reduction of the teeth, it is more
specialized than the second family.
The molar teeth approximate to the Palaeotherium type, but have
a more or less strongly developed median longitudinal cleft. The
three-toed type is represented by Diadiaphorus , in which the dental
formula is i. \,c.\,p \, m. g, and the feet are very like those of Hipparion.
T. he cervical vertebrae are of normal form, the orbit (as in the second
family) is encircled by bone, the last molar has a third lobe, the single
pair of upper incisors are somewhat elongated, and have a gap
between and behind them, while the outer lower incisors are larger
than the inner pair, the canines being small. The skull has a short
muzzle, with elongated nasals. Remains of this and the other repre-
sentatives of the group are found in the Patagonian Miocene. In
Proterotherium, which includes smaller forms having the same, or
nearly the same, dental formula, the molar teeth differ from those of
Diadiaphorus by the deeper median longitudinal cleft, which com-
pletely divides the crown into an inner and an outer moiety, the two
cones of the inner half being united. According to the description
given by Argentine palaeontologists, this genus is also three-toed,
the single-toed representative of the family being Thoatherium, in
which the lateral metapodials, or splint-bones, are even more reduced
than in the Equidae.
In the second family — Macraucheniidae — the dentition is
complete (forty-four) and without a gap, the crowns of nearly
all the teeth being of nearly uniform height, while the upper
molars are distinguished from those of the Prolerotheriidae by
a peculiar arrangement of their two inner cones, and the eleva-
tion of the antero-posterior portion of the cingulum so as to form
an extra pit on the crown. To describe this arrangement in detail
is impossible here, but it may be stated that the two inner cones
are closely approximated, and separated by a narrow V-shaped
notch on the inner side of the crown. The elongated cervical
vertebrae are peculiar in that the arch is perforated by the artery
in the same manner as in the llamas.
In the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia the family is represented
by the generalized genus Oxyodontotherium (in which Theosodon
may apparently be included). It comprises animals ranging
up to the size of a tapir, in which the nostrils were more or less
in the normal anterior position, and the cheek-teeth short-
crowned, with the inner cones of the upper molars well developed
and separated by a notch, and the pits of moderate depth.
The last upper premolar is simpler than the molars, and the
canine, which may be double-rooted, is like the earlier premolars.
The radius and ulna, like the tibia and fibula, are distinct, and
the metapodials rudimentary. On the other hand, in Macrau-
chenia, which was a much larger llama-like animal, the skull is
elongated and narrow, with rudimentary nasals, and the aperture
of the nose placed nearly on the line of the eyes and directed up-
wards, the muzzle not improbably terminating in a short trunk.
Deep pits on the forehead probably served for the attachment of
special muscles connected with the latter. Very curious is the
structure of the cheek-teeth, which are high-crowned, with the
two inner cones reduced to mere points, and the pits on the
crown-surface large and funnel-shaped. In fact, the perissodac-
tyle type is almost lost. The cervical vertebrae and limb-bones
are very long, the radius and ulna being completely, and the tibia
and fibula partially, united. The typical M. patagonica is a
Pleistocene form as large as a camel, ranging from Patagonia
to Brazil, but remains of smaller species have been found in
the Pliocene (?) of Bolivia and Argentina.
The imperfectly known Scalabrinia of the Argentine Pliocene
appears to occupy a position intermediate between Oxyodonto-
therium and Macrauchenia, having the nasal aperture situated
in the middle of the length of the skul], and the crowns of the
cheek-teeth nearly as tall as in the latter, but the lower molars
furnished with a projecting process in the hinder valley, similar
to one occurring in those of the former.
In this place may be mentioned another strange ungulate
from the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia, namely, Astrapotherium,
sometimes regarded as typifying a suborder by itself. This huge
ungulate had cheek-teeth singularly like those of a rhinoceros,
and an enormous pair of tusk-like upper incisors, recalling the
upper canines of Machaerodus on an enlarged scale. In the
lower jaw are two large tusk-like canines, between which are
three pairs of curiously-formed spatulate incisors, and in both
jaws there is a long diastema. The dental formula appears
to be i.\, c.%, p.\, w.f .
Next Astrapotherium may be provisionally placed the genus
Homalodontotherium, of which the teeth have much lower crowns,
and are of a less decidedly rhinocerotic type than in Astrapotherium,
and the whole dentition forms an even and unbroken series. The
bodies of the cervical vertebrae are short, with flattened articular
792
LITOTES— LITTLE ROCK
surfaces, the humerus has an enormous deltoid crest, suggestive of
fossorial powers, and the femur is flattened, with a third trochanter.
According to the Argentine palaeontologists, the carpus is of the
alternating type, and the terminal phalanges of the pentedactyle
feet are bifid, and very like those of Edentata. Indeed, this type
of foot shows many edentate resemblances. The astragalus is
square and flattened, articulating directly with the navicular,
although not with the cuboid, and having a slightly convex facet
for the tibia. From the structure of the above-mentioned type of
foot, which is stated to have been found in association with the skull,
it has been suggested that Homalodontotherium should be placed in
the Ancylopoda (q.v.), but, to say nothing of the different form of the
cheek-teeth, all the other South American Santa Cruz ungulates are
so distinct from those of other countries that this seems unlikely.
It may be suggested that we have rather to deal with an instance of
parallelism — a view supported by the parallelism to the Equidae
presented by certain members of the Proterotheriidae. (R. L.*)
LITOTES (Gr. XITOTTJS, plainness, XITOS, plain, simple, smooth),
a rhetorical figure in which emphasis is secured for a statement
by turning it into a denial of the contrary, e.g. " a citizen of no
mean city," i.e. a citizen of a famous city, "A. is not a man
to be neglected." Litotes is sometimes used for what should be
more strictly called " meiosis " (Gr. ^oocrw, lessening, diminu-
tion, fitidiv, lesser), where the expressions used apparently are
weak or understated, but the effect is to intensify.
LITTER (through O. Fr. litere or litiere, mod. litiere from
Med. Lat. lectaria, classical lectica, lectus, bed, couch), a word
used of a portable couch, shut in by curtains and borne
on poles by bearers, and of a bed of straw or other suitable
substance for animals; hence applied to the number of young
produced by an animal at one birth, and also to any disordered
heap of waste material, rubbish, &c. In ancient Greece, prior
to the influence of Asiatic luxury after the Macedonian conquest,
the litter (<f>opeioi>) was only used by invalids or by women.
The Romans, when the lectica was introduced, probably about
the latter half of the 2nd century B.C. (Gellius x. 3), used it only
for travelling purposes. Like the Greek or Asiatic litter, it had
a roof of skin (pellis) and side curtains (vela, plagae). Juvenal
(iv. 20) speaks of transparent sides (latis specularibus) . The slaves
who bore the litter on their shoulders (succollare) were termed
lecticarii, and it was a sign of luxury and wealth to employ six
or even eight bearers. Under the Empire the litter began to be
used in the streets of Rome, and its use was restricted and
granted as a privilege (Suet. Claudius). The travelling lectica
must be distinguished from the much earlier lectica funebris
or jeretrum, the funeral bier on which the dead were carried to
their burial-place.
LITTLE FALLS, a city and the county-seat of Morrison
county, Minnesota, U.S.A., on both banks of the Mississippi
river, about 88 m. N.W. of Minneapolis. Pop. (1890) 2354;
(1900) 5774, of whom 1559 were foreign-born, chiefly Germans
and Swedes; (1905) 5856; (1910) 6078. It is served by the
Northern Pacific railway. The city is situated in a prosperous
farming region, and has excellent water-power and various
manufactures. Little Falls was settled about 1850, was chartered
as a city in 1889 and adopted a new charter in 1902. Here
was buried the Chippewa chief, Hole-in-the-Day (c. 1827-1868),
or Bagwunagijik, who succeeded his father, also named Hole-
in-the-Day, as head chief of the Chippewas in 1846. Like his
father, the younger Hole-in-the-Day led his tribe against the
Sioux, and he is said to have prevented the Chippewas from
joining the Sioux rising in 1862. His body was subsequently
removed by his relatives.
LITTLE FALLS, a city of Herkimer county, New York,
U.S.A., on the Mohawk river, 21 m. E.S.E. of Utica. Pop.
(1890) 8783; (1900) 10,381, of whom 1915 were foreign-born;
(1910 census) 12,273. It is served by the New York Central
& Hudson River, the West Shore, the Utica & Mohawk Valley
(electric), and the Little Falls & Dolgeville railways (the last
named being 13 m. long and running only to Salisbury Center
and by the Erie canal. The Mohawk river falls here by a series
of rapids 45 ft. in less than a mile, furnishing water power.
Among the manufactures are cotton yarn, hosiery and knit goods,
leather, &c. In 1905 the city's factory products were valued
at $4,471,080. The city has one of the largest cheese-markets
in the United States. The manufacture of flour and grist-mill
products was formerly an important industry; a mill burned
in 1782 by Tories and Indians had supplied almost the entire
Mohawk Valley, and particularly Forts Herkimer and Dayton.
Near the city is the grave of General Nicholas Herkimer, to
whom a monument was erected in 1896. Little Falls was settled
by Germans in 1782, and was almost immediately destroyed by
Indians and Tories. It was resettled in 1790, and was in-
corporated as a village in 1811 and as a city in 1895.
See George A. Hardin, History of Herkimer County (Syracuse,
1893).
LITTLEHAMPTON, a seaport and watering-place in the
Chichester parliamentary division of Sussex, England, at the
mouth of the Arun, 62 m. S. by W. from London by the London,
Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901) 7363. There is a beach of firm sand. The harbour is
easily accessible in all weathers, and has a small general trade.
LITTLE ROCK, the capital of Arkansas, U.S.A., and the
county-seat of Pulaski county, situated near the centre of the
state and on the S. bank of the Arkansas river, at the E. edge
of the Ozark foothills. Pop. (1890) 25,874; (1900) 38,307, of
whom 14,694 were of negro blood, and 2099 were foreign-
born; (1910 census) 45,941. Little Rock is served by the
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the St Louis South Western,
and the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railways and by
river boats. It occupies a comparatively level site of n sq. m.
at an altitude of 250 to 400 ft. above sea-level and 50 ft. or more
above the river, which is crossed here by three railway bridges
and by a county bridge. The city derived its name (originally
" le Petit Roche " and " The Little Rock ") from a rocky
peninsula in the Arkansas, distinguished from the " Big Rock "
(the site of the army post, Fort Logan H. Roots), i m. W. of the
city, across the river. The Big Rock is said to have been first
discovered and named " Le Rocher Francais " in 1722 by Sieur
Bernard de la Harpe, who was in search of an emerald mountain;
the Little Rock is now used as an abutment for a railway bridge.
The state capitol, the state insane asylum, the state deaf
mute institute, the state school for the blind, a state reform
school, the penitentiary, the state library and the medical and
law departments of the state university are at Little Rock;
and the city is also the seat of the United States court for the
eastern district of Arkansas, of a United States land office, of
Little Rock College, of the St Mary's Academy, of a Roman
Catholic orphanage and a Roman Catholic convent, and of two
schools for negroes — the Philander Smith College (Methodist
Episcopal, 1877), co-educational, and the Arkansas Baptist
College. The city is the seat of Protestant Episcopal and
Roman Catholic bishops. Little Rock has a Carnegie library
(1908), an old ladies' home, a Florence Crittenton rescue
home, a children's home, St Vincent's infirmary, a city
hospital, a Catholic hospital, a physicians' and surgeons'
hospital and the Arkansas hospital for nervous diseases.
A municipal park system includes City, Forest, Wonderland
and West End parks. Immigration 'from the northern states
has been encouraged, and northern men control much of the
business of the city. In 1905 the value of factory products
was $4,689,787, being 38-8% greater than the value in 1900.
Cotton and lumber industries are the leading interests; the value
of cotton-seed oil and cake manufactured in 1905 was $967,043,
of planing mill products $835,049, and of lumber and timber
products $342,134. Printing and publishing and the manu-
facture of foundry and machine shop products and of furniture
are other important industries. Valuable deposits of bauxite
are found in Pulaski county, and the mines are the most important
in the United States.
Originally the site of the city was occupied by the Quapaw
Indians. The earliest permanent settlement by the whites
was about 1813-1814; the county .was organized in 1818
while still a part of Missouri Territory; Little Rock was surveyed
in 1821, was incorporated as a town and became the capital of
Arkansas in 1821, and was chartered as a city in 1836. In 1850
its population was only 2167, and in 1860 3727; but in 1870
LITTLETON, BARON— LITTLETON, SIR T. DE
793
it was 12,380. Little Rock was enthusiastically anti-Union
at the outbreak of the Civil War. In February 1861, the United
States Arsenal was seized by the state authorities. In September
1863 the Federal generals William Steele (1819-1885) and
John W. Davidson (1824-1881), operating against General
Sterling Price, captured the city, and it remained throughout
the rest of the war under Federal control. Constitutional
conventions met at Little Rock in 1836, 1864, 1868 and 1874,
and also the Secession Convention of 1861. The Arkansas
Gazette, established at Arkansas Post in 1819 and soon after-
wards removed to the new capital, was the first newspaper
published in Arkansas and one of the first published west of the
Mississippi.
LITTLETON (or LYTTELTON), EDWARD, BARON (1589-1645),
son of Sir Edward Littleton (d. 1621) chief-justice of North Wales,
was born at Munslow in Shropshire; he was educated at Oxford
and became a lawyer, succeeding his father as chief-justice of
North Wales. In 1625 he became a member of parliament
and acted in 1628 as chairman of the committee of grievances
upon whose report the Petition of Right was based. As a member
of the party opposed to the arbitrary measures of Charles I.
Littleton had shown more moderation than some of his colleagues,
and in 1634, three years after he had been chosen recorder of
London, the king attached him to his own side by appointing
him solicitor-general. In the famous case about ship-money
Sir Edward argued against Hampden. In 1640 he was made
chief-justice of the common pleas and in 1641 lord keeper of
the great seal, being created a peer as Baron Lyttelton. About
this time, the lord keeper began to display a certain amount of
indifference to the royal cause. In January 1642 he refused to
put the great seal to the proclamation for the arrest of the five
members and he also incurred the displeasure of Charles by
voting for the militia ordinance. However, he assured his friend
Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of Clarendon, that he had only
taken this step to allay the suspicions of the parliamentary
party who contemplated depriving him of the seal, and he under-
took to send this to the king. He fulfilled his promise, and in
May 1642 he himself joined Charles at York, but it was some
time before he regained the favour of the king and the custody
of the seal. Littleton died at Oxford on the 2yth of August
1645; he left no sons and his barony became extinct. His only
daughter, Anne, married her cousin Sir Thomas Littleton,
Bart. (d. 1681), and their son Sir Thomas Littleton (c. 1647-
T7io), was speaker of the House of Commons from 1698 to 1700,
and treasurer of the navy from 1700 to 1710. Macaulay thus
sums up the character of Speaker Littleton and his relations to
the Whigs: " He was one of their ablest, most zealous and most
steadfast friends; and had been, both in the House of Commons
and at the board of treasury, an invaluable second to Montague "
(the earl of Halifax).
LITTLETON, SIR THOMAS DE (c. 1407-1481), English judge
and legal author, was born, it is supposed, at Frankley Manor
House, Worcestershire, about 1407. Littleton's surname was
that of his mother, who was the sole daughter and heiress of
Thomas de Littleton, lord of Frankley. She married one
Thomas Westcote. Thomas was the eldest of four sons of the
marriage, and took the name of Littleton, or, as it seems to have
been more commonly spelt, Luttelton. The date of his birth
is uncertain; a MS. pedigree gives 1422, but it was probably
earlier than this. If, as is generally accepted, he was born at
Frankley Manor, it could not have been before 1407, in which
year Littleton's grandfather recovered the manor from a distant
branch of the family. He is said by Sir E. Coke to have " at-
tended one of the universities," but there is no corroboration
of this statement. He was probably a member of the Inner
Temple, and lectured there on the statute of Westminster II.,
De Donis Conditionalibus. His name occurs in the Paston Letters
(ed. J. Gairdner, i. 60) about 1445 as that of a well-known
counsel and in 1481/2 he received a grant of the manor of
Sheriff Hales, Shropshire, from a Sir William Trussel as a reward
for his services as counsel. He appears to have been recorder
of Coventry in 1450; he was made escheator of Worcestershire,
and in 1447/8 was under-sheriff of the same county; he
became serjeant-at-law in 1453 and was afterwards a justice
of assize on the northern circuit. In 1466 he was made a judge
of the common pleas, and in 1475 a knight of the Bath. He
died, according to the inscription on his tomb in Worcester
cathedral, on the 23rd of August 1481. He married, about
1444, Joan, widow of Sir Philip Chetwind of Ingestrie in Stafford-
shire, and by her had three sons, through whom he became
ancestor of the families holding the peerages of Cobham (formerly
Lyttelton, q.v.) and Hatherton.
His Treatise on Tenures was probably written after he had
been appointed to the bench. It is addressed to his second son
Richard, who went to the bar, and whose name occurs in the
year books of the reign of Henry VII. The book, both histori-
cally and from its intrinsic merit, may be characterized as the
first text-book upon the English law of property. The law of
property in Littleton's time was mainly concerned with rights
over land,* and it was the law relating to this class of rights which
Littleton set himself to digest and classify. The time was ripe
for the task. Ever since the Conquest regular courts of justice
had been at work administering a law which had grown out of
an admixture of Teutonic custom and of Norman feudalism.
Under Henry II. the courts had been organized, and the practice
of keeping regular records of the proceedings had been carefully
observed. The centralizing influence of the royal courts and of
the justices of assize, working steadily through three centuries,
had made the rules governing the law of property uniform
throughout the land; local customs were confined within certain
prescribed limits, and were only recognized as giving rise to certain
well-defined classes of rights, such, .for instance, as the security
of tenure acquired by villeins by virtue of the custom' of the
manor, and the rights of freeholders, in some towns, to dispose
of their land by will. Thus, by the time of Littleton (Henry VI.
and Edward IV.), an immense mass of material had been ac-
quired and preserved in the rolls of the various courts. Reports
of important cases were published in the " year books." A
glance at Statham's Abridgment, the earliest digest of decided
cases, published nearly at the same time as Littleton's Tenures,
is sufficient to show the enormous bulk which reported cases had
already attained as materials for the knowledge of English law.
Littleton's treatise was written in that peculiar dialect com-
pounded of Norman-French and English phrases called law
French. Although it had been provided by a statute of 36
Edward III. that viva voce proceedings in court should no longer
be conducted in the French tongue, " which was much unknown
in the realm," the practice of reporting proceedings in that
language, and of using it in legal treatises, lingered till a much
later period, and was at length prohibited by a statute passed
in the time of the Commonwealth in 1650. Unlike the preceding
writers on English law, Glanville, Bracton and the authors
of the treatises known by the names of Britton and Fleta, Little-
ton borrows nothing from the sources of Roman law or the
commentators. He deals exclusively with English law.
The book is written on a definite system, and is the first
attempt at a scientific classification of rights over land. Little-
ton's method is to begin with a definition, usually clearly and
briefly expressed, of the class of rights with which he is dealing.
He then proceeds to illustrate the various characteristics and
incidents of the class by stating particular instances, some of
which refer to decisions which had actually occurred, but more
commonly they are hypothetical cases put by way of illustration
of his principles. He occasionally refers to reported cases.
His book is thus much more than a mere digest of judicial
decisions; to some extent he pursues the method which gave
to Roman law its breadth and consistency of principle. In
Roman law this result was attained through the practice of
putting to jurisconsults hypothetical cases to be solved by them.
Littleton, in like manner, is constantly stating and solving by
reference to principles of law cases which may or may not have
occurred in actual practice.
In dealing with freehold estates Littleton adopts a classification
which has been followed by all writers who have attempted to
794
LITTRE
scientific
the English lav of land. especially Sir M. Hale and Sir
Bbckstone. It is indeed the only possible approach to a
"
: of the intricate " estates in land " known to
law. He classifies estates in land by reference to their
duration, or m other words by reference to the uuTeienccs between
the persons who are entitled to succeed upon the death of the person
in possession or " tenant." First of all, he describes the character-
istics of tenancy in fee simple. This is stifl as it was in Littleton's
time the largest interest in land known to the law. Next in order
comes tenancy in fee tan, the various classes of which are sketched
by Littleton with brevity and accuracy, but he is silent as to the
important practice, which first received judicial recognition shortly
before his death, of " suffering a recover)-," whereby through a series
of judicial fictions a tenant in tan was enabled to convert his estate
tan into a fee simple, thus acquiring full power of alienation. After
discussing in their logical order other freehold interests in land, he
pas«fs to interests in land called bv later writers interests less than
freehold, namely, truancies for terms of years and tenancies at wilL
With the exception of tenancy from year to year, now so familiar
to us, but which was a judicial creation of a date later than the
time of Littleton, the first book '
principles of the common law, as
governing and regulating interests in
with a very interesting chapter on copyhold tenures, which marks the
exact point at which the tenant by cop)' of court rofl, the successor of
the vulein. who in his turn represented the freeman reduced to
The second book relates to the
id tenant, and is mainly of
rights and duties of lord
interest to the modern lawyer.
It contains a complete statement of the law as it stood in Littleton's
time relating to homage, fealty and escuage, the money compensa-
tion to be paid to the lord in lieu of military- service to be rendered
to the king, a peculiar characteristic of F-«gi»«Jy as *i»*^ •••g"»*fc^l from
Continental feudalism.
Littleton then proceeds to notice the important features of tenure
by knight's service with its distinguishing incidents of the right of
wardship of the lanH* and person of the infant heir or heiress, and
the right of disposing of the ward in marriage. The non-military
freehold tenures are next dealt with; we have an account of " socage
tenure," into which aH military tenures «CTC subsequently com-
muted by a now unrecognized act of the Long Parliament in 1650,
afterwards re-enacted by the well-known statute of Charles II. (1660),
and of " frankalmoign. or the »|»"1"jl tenure by which churchmen
held. In the description of burgage tenure and tenure in vffienage,
the life of which consists in the validity of ancient customs recognized
by law, we recognize survivals of a time before the iron rule of
feudalism had moulded the law of land in the interests of the king
and the great lords. Finally he deals with the law of rents, discussing
the various kinds of rents which may be reserved to the grantor upon
a grant of lands and the ntmtdif- for recovery of rent, especially the
remedy by distress.1
The third and concluding book of Littleton's treatise deals mainl
ways in which rights
with the various ways i
land can be acquired and
in the case of a single pnmrsnor or several possessors.
This leads him to discuss the various modes in which several persons
may simultaneously have rights over the same land, as parceners : —
daughters who are co-heiresses, or sons in gavelkind ; joint tenants
and tenants in * <i*tif*Mui- ^iext follows an elaborate discussion upon
what are called estates upon condition — a class of interests which
occupied a large space in the early common law, riving rise on one
side to estates tail, on another to mortgages. In Littleton's time a
mortgage, which be carefully describes, was merely a conveyance of
land by the tenant to the mortgagee, with a condition that, if the
tenant paid to the mortgage? a certain sum on a certain day, he
might re-enter and have the land again. If the condition was not
fulfilled, the interest of the mortgagee became absolute, and Littleton
gives no indication of any modification of this strict rule,
introduced by courts of equity, permitting the debtor to redeem
his land by payment of all that was due to the mortgagee although
the day of payment had passed, and his interest had become at law
indefeasible. The remainder of the work is occupied with an ex-
position of a miscellaneous class of modes of acquiring rights of
paaunly. the analysis of which would occupy too large a space.
The work is thus a complete summary of the common law as it
stood at the time. It is nearly silent as to the remarkable class of
rights which had already assumed vast practical importance —
equitable interests in land*. These are only noticed incidentally in
the chapter on " Releases." But it was already dear in Littleton's
time that this class of rights would become the most important of
all. Littleton's own will, which has been preserved, may be adduced
in proof of this assertion. Although nothing was more opposed to
1 These two books are stated, in a note to the table at the con-
clusion of the work, to have been made for the better understanding
of certain chapters of the Amlient Book of Tenures. This refers
to a tract called The Old Tenures, said to have been written in the
reign of Edward III. By way of distinguishing h from this work.
Littleton's book is called in all the early editions " Tenores SoveOL"
the spirit of Norman feudalism than that a tenant of lands should
dispose of them by will, we find Littleton directing by his will the
feoffees of certain manors to make estates to the persons nam>^
in his win. In other words, in order to acquire over lands poweis
unknown to the common law, the lands had been conveyed to
" feoffees " who had full right over them according to the <
law, but who were under a conscientious obligation to exercise those
rights at the direction and for the exclusive benefit of the person to
whose " use " the lands were held. This conscientious obligation
was recognized and enforced by the chancellor, and thus arose the
class of equitable interests in lands. Littleton is the first writer on
English law after these rights had risen into a prominent position,
and h is curious to find to what extent they are ignored by him.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The work of Littleton occupies a place in the
history of typography as well as of law. The earnest printed edition
seems to be that by John Letton and William de Machlinia. two
printers who probably came from the Continent, and carried on
their business in partnership, as their note to the edition of Littleton
states, " in avhate Londomamm, juxta ecclesiam omnium sanct-
orum." The date of this edition is uncertain, but the roost probable
jecture, based on typographical grounds, places it about the
The next edition is one by Machlinia alone,
later than the former. Machlinia
latter part of 1481.
probably about two or three ye
was then in business alone " juxta pontem quae vulgo diciror Fleta
Next came the Rohan or Rouen edition, erroneously stated
brigge."
by Sir E. Coke to be the earnest, and to have been printed about
1533. It was, however, of a much earner date. Tomfins, the latest
editor of Littleton, gives reasons for thinfcing that it cannot have
been later than 1490. It is stated in a note to have been printed at
Rouen by William le Tafflenr " ad instantiam Richard! Pynson."
Copies of aU these editions are in the British Museum. In aU these
editions the work is styled Tenures XoceBi, probably to distinguish it
from the " Old Tenures."
There are three early MSS. of Littleton in the University Library at
Cambridge. One of these formeriv contained a note on its first page
to the effect that it was bought in St Paul's Churchyard on Jury 20,
1480. It was therefore in circulation in Littleton's lifetime. The
other two MSS. are of a somewhat later date; but one of them
contains what seems to be the earliest F-ngKA translation of the
Tenures, and is probably not later than 1500.
In the 1 6th centurv editions of Littleton followed in rapid succession
from the presses of Pynson, Redmayne, Bertbelet, Tottyl and others.
The practice of annotating the text caused several additions to be
duced, whi
int
ch, h
: are easily detected by comparison of the
earlier copies. In 1581 West divided the text into 746 sections,
which have ever since been preserved. Many of these <
printed with large margins for purposes of annotation,
of which may be seen in Lincoln s Inn Library.
The practice of annotating Littleton was very general, and was
adopted by many eminent lawyers besides Sir E. Coke, anwmp*
others by Sir M. Hale. One commentary of this kind, bv an •tnkmnMM
handof earlier date than Sir E. Coke's, was edited by Car)' in 1820.
Following the general practice of dealing with Littleton as the great
authority on the law of England. " the most perfect and absolute
work that ever was written in any human science." Sir E. Coke made
it in 1628 the text of that portion of his work which be calls the first
part of the institutes of the law of FngbnH, in other words, the law
of property.
The first printed English translation of Littleton was by Rastefl.
who seems to have combined the professions of author, printer and
serjeant-at-law, between 1514 and 1533. Many FogKA editions by
various editors followed, the best of which is Tottyl's in 1556. Sir
E. Coke adopted some translation earner than this, which has since
gone by the name of Sir E. Coke's translation. He. however.
throughout comments not on the translation but on the French text ;
and the reputation of the commentary has to some extent obscured
the intrinsic merit of the original.
See E. Wambangh, IMOeton's Tenures in Engfist (Washington.
D.C, 1903).
LITTR6. MAXDOLIEN PAUL 6MILE (1801-1881), French
ipber and philosopher, was born in Paris on the ist of
February 1801. His father had been a gunner, and afterwards
sergeant-major of marine art 3kry, in the French navy, and was
deeply imbued with the revolutionary ideas of theday. Settling
down as a collector of taxes, he married Sophie Johannot. a
free-thinker like himself . and devoted himself to the education of
his son Emfle. The boy was sent to the Lycee Louis-Ie-Grand.
where be had for friends TTachrttf and Eugene Bumoui. After
he had completed his coarse at school, be hesitated for a time
as to what profession be should adopt, and meanwhile made
himself master, not only of the F-nglisli and German languages,
but of the riamdral and Sanskrit literature and philology. At
last he determined to study medicine, and in 1822 entered his
name as a student of medicine. He passed all his examinations
in due course, and had only his thesis to prepare in order to obtain
LITURGY
795
his degree as doctor when in 1827 his father died, leaving his
mother absolutely without resources. He at once renounced
his degree, and, while attending the lectures of P. F. 0. Rayer
and taking a keen interest in medicine, began teaching Latin
and Greek for a livelihood. He carried a musket on the popular
side in the revolution of February 1830, and was one of the
national guards who followed Charles X. to Rambouillet. In
1831 he obtained an introduction to Armand Carrel, the editor
of the National, who gave him the task of reading the English
and German papers for excerpts. Carrel by chance, in 1835,
discovered the ability of his reader, who from that time became
a constant contributor, and eventually director of the paper.
In 1836 Littre began to contribute articles on all sorts of subjects
to the Revue des deux mond.es; in 1837 he married; and in
1839 appeared the first volume of his edition of the works of
Hippocrates. The value of this' work was recognized by his
election the same year into the Academic des Inscriptions et
Belles-Lettres. At this epoch he came across the works of
Auguste Comte, the reading of which formed, as he himself
said, " the cardinal point of his life," and from this time onward
appears the influence of positivism on his own life, and, what
is of more importance, his influence on positivism, for he gave
as much to positivism as he received from it. He soon became
a friend of Comte, and popularized his ideas in numerous works
on the positivist philosophy. At the same time he continued
his edition of Hippocrates, which was not completed till 1862,
published a similar edition of Pliny's Natural History, and after
1844 took Fauriel's place on the committee engaged on the
Histoire lilteraire de la France, where his knowledge of the early
French language and literature was invaluable.
It was about 1844 that he started working on his great Diction-
naire de la langue fran$aise, which was, however, not to be
completed till thirty years after. In the revolution of July
1848 he took part in the repression of the extreme republican
party in June 1849. His essays, contributed during this period
to the National, were collected together and published under
the title of Conservation, revolution el positivisme in 1852,
and show a thorough acceptance of all the doctrines propounded
by Comte. However, during the later years of his master's
life, he began to perceive that he could not wholly accept all
the dogmas or the more mystic ideas of his friend and master,
but he concealed his differences of opinion, and Comte failed
to perceive that his pupil had outgrown him, as he himself had
outgrown his master Saint-Simon. Comte's death in 1858 freed
Littre from any fear of embittering his master's later years,
and he published his own ideas in his Paroles de la philosophic
positive in 1859, and at still greater length in his work in Auguste
Comte et la philosophic positive in 1863. In this book he traces
the origin of Comte's ideas through Turgot, Kant and Saint-
Simon, then eulogizes Comte's own life, his method of philosophy,
his great services to the cause and the effect of his works, and
finally proceeds to show where he himself differs from him. He
approved wholly of Comte's philosophy, his great laws of society
and his philosophical method, which indeed he defended warmly
against J. S. Mill, but declared that, while he believed in a
positivist philosophy, he did not believe in a religion of humanity.
About 1863, after completing his Hippocrates and his Pliny,
he set to work in earnest on his French dictionary. In the same
year he was proposed for the Academic Franchise, but rejected,
owing to the opposition of Mgr. Dupanloup, bishop of Orleans,
who denounced him in his Averlissement aux peres de famille
as the chief of the French materialists. He also at this time
started with G. Wyrouboff the Philosophic Positive, a review
which was to embody the views of modern positivists. His
life was thus absorbed in literary work till the overthrow of the
empire called on him to take a part in politics. He felt himself
too old to undergo the privations of the siege of Paris, and
retired with his family to Britanny, whence he was summoned
by M. Gambetta to Bordeaux, to lecture on history, and thence
to Versailles to take his seat in the senate to which he had been
chosen by the department of the Seine. In December 1871
he was elected a member of the Academic Franchise in spite
of the renewed opposition of Mgr. Dupanloup, who resigned
his seat rather than receive him. Littre's Dictionary was com-
pleted in 1873. An authoritative interpretation is given of the
use of each word, based on the various meanings it had held
in the past. In 1875 Littre was elected a life senator. The
most notable of his productions in these years were his political
papers attacking and unveiling the confederacy of the Orleanists
and legitimists, and in favour of the republic, his republication
of many of his old articles and books, among others the Con-
servation, revolution et posilivisme of 1852 (which he reprinted
word for word, appending a formal, categorical renunciation
of many of the Comtist doctrines therein contained), and a little
tract Pour la dernierefois, in which he maintained his unalterable
belief in materialism. When it became obvious that the old
man could not live much longer, his wife and daughter, who had
always been fervent Catholics, strove to convert him to their
religion. He had long interviews with Pere Milleriot, a celebrated
controversialist, and was much grieved at his death; but it
is hardly probable he would have ever been really converted.
Nevertheless, when on the point of death, his wife had him
baptized, and his funeral was conducted with the rites of the
Catholic Church. He died on the 2nd of June 1881.
The following are his most important works: his editions of
Hippocrates (1839^1861), and of Pliny's Natural History (1848-
1850); his translation of Strauss's Vie de Jesus (1839-1840), and
Miiller's Manuel de physiologic (1851); his edition of the works of
Armand Carrel, with notes (1854—1858); the Histoire de la langue
franqaise, a collection of magazine articles (1862); and his Diction-
naire de la langue franfaise (1863-1872). In the domain of science
must be noted his edition, with Charles Robin, of Nysten's Diction-
naire de medicine, de chirurgie, &c. (1855) ; in that of philosophy, his
Analyse raisonnee du cours de philosophie positive de M. A. Comte
(1845); Application de la philosophie positive au gouvernement
(1849); Conservation, revolution et posilivisme (1852, 2nd ed., with
supplement, 1879); Paroles de la philosophie positive (1859);
Auguste Comte et la philosophie positive (1863); La Science au point
de vue philosophique (1873) ; Fragments de philosophie et de sociologie
contemporaine (1876); and his most interesting miscellaneous works,
his Etudes et glanures (1880); La Verite sur la mart d'Alexandre le
grand (1865); Htudes sur les barbares et le moyen age (1867); Mede-
cine et medecins (1871); Litlerature et histoire (1875); and Discours
de reception a I'Academie franfaise (1873).
For his life consult C. A. Sainte-Beuve, Notice sur M. Littre, sa
vie et ses travaux (1863); and Nouveaux Lundis, vol. v. ; also
the notice by M. Durand-Grtiville in the Nouvelle Revue of August
1881; E. Caro, Littre et le positivisme (1883); Pasteur, Discours de
reception at the Academy, where he succeeded Littre', and a reply by
E. Renan. (H. M. S.)
LITURGY (Low Lat. liturgia; Gr. Xetroj, public, and tpyov,
work; Aemw/xyos, a public servant), in the technical language
of the Christian Church, the order for the celebration and ad-
ministration of the Eucharist. In Eastern Christendom the Greek
word \tiTovpyia is used in this sense exclusively. But in English-
speaking countries the word " liturgy " has come to be used in
a more popular sense to denote any or all of the various services
of the Church, whether contained in separate volumes or bound
up together in the form of a Book of Common Prayer. In this
article the liturgy is treated in the former and stricter sense.
(For the ancient Athenian Xetrou/rytat, as forms of taxation,
see FINANCE.)
In order to understand terms and references it will be con-
venient to give the tabular form the chief component parts of a
liturgy, selecting the Liturgy of Rome as characteristic of Western,
and that of Constantinople as characteristic of Eastern, Christen-
dom; at the same time appending an explanation of some of
the technical words which must be employed in enumerating
those parts.
ORDER OF THE ROMAN LITURGY
Ordinary of the Mass.
1. Introit, or as it is always called in the Sarum rite, " Office," a
Psalm or part of a Psalm sung at the entry of the priest, or clergy and
choir.
2. Kyrie eleison, ninefold, and sometimes lengthily farsed repre-
senting an older, now obsolete, litany.
3. Collect, i.e. the collect for the day.
4. Prophetic lection, now obsolete, except on the Wednesday
and Saturday Ember Days, Good Friday and Easter Even, and
Wednesday after fourth and sixth Sundays in Lent.
5. Epistle.
796
LITURGY
6. Gradual. A few verses from the Psalms, the shrunken re-
mainder of a whole Psalm.
7. Sequence. A hymn now obsolete except on Feast of the Seven
Dolours, Easter, Pentecost, Corpus Christi and at Masses for the dead.
8. Gospel.
9. Creed.
10. Collect, now obsolete, though the unanswered invitation,
" Let us pray," still survives.
11. Offertory. A verse or verses from the Psalms sung at the
offering of the elements.
12. Secret. A prayer or prayers said at the conclusion of the
Offertory.
13. Sursum Corda. " Lift up your hearts.'" with following
versicles.
14. Preface. There are now ten proper or special prefaces and
one common preface. In older missals they were extremely numerous,
almost every Sunday and Holy-day having one assigned to it. Many
of them were very beautiful. In older missals, Nos. 13, 14 and 15
were sometimes arranged not as the concluding part of the Ordinary,
but as the opening part of the Canon of the mass.
15. Sanctus, or Tersanctus, or Triumphal Hymn, " Holy, Holy,
Holy," &c., ending with the Benedictus, " Blessed is he that cometh,"
&c.
Canon of the Mass.
1. Introductory prayer for acceptance. Te igitur, &c.
2. Intercession for the living. Memento, Domine famulorum, &c.
3. Commemoration of apostles and martyrs. Communicantes et
memoriam, &c.
4. Prayer for acceptance and consecration of offering. Hanc
igitur oblationem, &c.
5. Recital of words of institution. Qui pridie quam pateretur, &c.
6. Oblation. Unde et memores, &c.
7. Invocation. A passage difficult of interpretation, but appar-
ently meant to be equivalent to the Eastern Epiklesis or invocation of
the Holy Ghost. Supplices te rogamus, &c.
8. Intercession for the dead. Memento etiam, Domine, famul-
orum, &c.
9. Lord's Prayer, with a short introduction and the expansion of
the last petition into a prayer known as the " Embolismus."
10. Fraction, i.e. breaking of the host into three parts, to
symbolize the death and passion of Christ.
11. Commixture, i.e. placing a small portion of the consecrated
bread into the chalice symbolizing the reunion of Christ's body and
soul at the resurrection.
12. Agnus Dei, i.e. a three-fold petition to the Lamb of God.
13. Pax, i.e. the kiss of peace. The ancient ritual of the Pax has
become almost obsolete.
14. Three prayers, accompanying the Pax and preliminary to
communion.
15. Communion of priest and people (if any), a short anthem
called '' Communio " being sung meanwhile.
16. Ablution of paten and chalice.
17. Post-communion, i.e. a concluding prayer.
1 8. Dismissal.
The Canon of the Mass strictly ends with No. 9; Nos. IO-I8 being
an appendix to it.
LITURGY OF CONSTANTINOPLE
Mass of the Catechumens. After preparation and vesting.
1. The Deacon's Litany.
2. Three Anthems with accompanying prayers.
3. Little Entrance, i.e. ceremonial bringing in of the Book of the
Gospels.
4. The Trisagion, i.e. an anthem with an accompanying prayer
different from the Latin Sanctus or Tersanctus
5. Epistle.
6. Gospel with a prayer preceding it.
7. Bidding prayer.
8. Prayer for catechumens.
9. Dismissal of catechumens.
IO. Spreading of the corporal.
Mass of the Faithful.
11. Prayers of the faithful.
12. Cherubic Hymn, " Let us who mystically represent the
Cherubim, &c." not represented in the Latin liturgy.
13. Great Entrance, i.e. of the unconsecrated elements with incense
and singing and intercessions.
14. Kiss of peace.
15. Creed.
16. The Benediction, i.e. 2 Cor. xiii. 14.
17. Sursum corda.
1 8. Preface.
19. Sanctus, or Tersanctus, or " Triumphal Hymn."
20. Recital of Words of Institution, prefaced by recital of the
Redemption.
21. The oblation.
22. The invocation or Epiklesis.
23. Intercession for the dead.
24. Intercession for the living.
25. The Lord's Prayer.
26. Prayer of humble access (a) for people (6) for priest.
27. Elevation with the invitation " Holy things to holy people."
28. Fraction.
29. Commixture.
30. Thanksgiving.
3 1 . Benediction.
In both these lists many interesting features of ceremonial, the use
of incense, the infusion of warm water (Byzantine only), &c., have
not been referred to. The lists must be regarded as skeletons only.
There are six main families or groups of liturgies, four of
them being of Eastern and two of them of Western origin and
use. They are known either by the names of the apostles with
whom they are traditionally connected, or by the names of the
countries or cities in which they have been or are still in use.
Group I. The Syrian Rite (St James). — The principal liturgies
to be enumerated under this group are the Clementine liturgy,
so called from being found in the eighth book of the Apostolic
Constitutions, which claim in their title, though erroneously,
to have been compiled by St Clement, the ist-century bishop
of Rome; the Greek liturgy of St James; the Syriac liturgy
of St James. Sixty-four more liturgies of this group have
existed, the majority being still in existence. Their titles are
given in F. E. Brightman's Liturgies, Eastern and Western
(1896), pp. Iviii.-lxi.
Group II. The Egyptian Rite (St Mark).— This group in-
cludes the Greek liturgies of St Mark, St Basil and St Gregory,
and the Coptic liturgies of St Basil, St Gregory, St Cyril or St
Mark; together with certain less known liturgies the titles of
which are enumerated by Brightman (op. cit. pp. Ixxiii. Ixxiv.).
The liturgy of the Ethiopian church ordinances and the liturgy
of the Abyssinian Jacobites, known as that of the Apostles,
fall under this group.
Group III. The Persian Rite (SS. Adaeus and Man's).— This
Nestorian rite is represented by the liturgy which bears the
names of SS. Adaeus and Maris together with two others named
after Theodore of Mopsuestia and Nestorius. This group has
sometimes been called " East-Syrian." The titles of three more
of its now lost liturgies have been preserved, namely those of
Narses, Barsumas and Diodorus of Tarsus. The liturgy of the
Christians of St Thomas, on the Malabar coast of India, formerly
belonged to this group, but it was almost completely assimilated
to the Roman liturgy by Portuguese Jesuits at the synod of
Diamper in 1599.
Group IV. The Byzantine Rite.— The Greek liturgies of St
Chrysostom, St Basil and St Gregory Dialogus, or The Pre-
sanctified, also extant in other languages, are the living repre-
sentatives of this rite. The Greek liturgy of St Peter is classified
under this group, but it is merely the Roman canon of the Mass,
&c., inserted in a Byzantine framework, and seems to have been
used at one time by some Greek communities in Italy. To
this group also belongs the Armenian liturgy, of which ten
different forms have existed in addition to the liturgy now in
general use named after St Athanasius.
We now come to the two western groups of liturgies, which
more nearly concern the Latin-speaking nations of Europe,
and which, therefore, must be treated of more fully.
Group V. The Hispano-Gallican Rite (St John). — This group
of Latin liturgies, which once prevailed very widely in Western
Europe, has been almost universally superseded by the liturgy
of the Church of Rome. Where it survives, it has been more
or less assimilated to the Roman pattern. It prevailed once
throughout Spain, France, northern Italy, Great Britain and
Ireland. The term " Ephesine " has been applied to this group
or family of liturgies, chiefly by English liturgiologists, and the
names of St John and of Ephesus, his place of residence, have
been pressed into service in support of a theory of Ephesine
origin, which, however, lacks proof and may now be regarded as
a discarded hypothesis. Other theories represent the Gallican to
be a survival of the original Roman liturgy, or as an importation
LITURGY
797
into Western Europe from the east through a Milanese channel.
The latter is Duchesne's theory (Christian Worship, London,
1904, 2nd ed., p. 94).
We must be content with mentioning these theories without
attempting to discuss them.
The chief traces of oriental influence and affinity lie in the following
points: — (i) various proclamations made by the deacon, including
that of " Silentium facite " before the epistle (Migne, Pat. Lat. torn.
Ixxxv. col. 534); (2) the presence of a third lesson preceding the
epistle, taken from the Old Testament ; (3) the occasional presence
of " preces " a series of short intercessions resembling the Greek
" Ekten6 " or deacon's litany; (4) the position of the kiss of peace
at an early point in the service, before the canon, instead of the
Roman position after consecration; (§) the exclamation " Sancta
sanctis " occurring in the Mozarabic rite, being the counterpart of
the Eastern " Td &JM rots dT^is," that is " holy things to holy
people "; (6) traces of the presence of the " Epiklesis," that is to
say, the invocation of the Holy Spirit, in its Eastern position after
the words of institution, as in the prayer styled the Post-pridie in the
Mozarabic service for the second Sunday after the octave of the
Epiphany: " We beseech thee that thpu wouldest sanctify this
oblation with the permixture of thy Spirit, and conform it with full
transformation into the body and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ "
(Migne, Pat. Lat. torn. Ixxxv. col. 250). On the other hand the great
variableness of its parts, and the immense number of its proper
prefaces, ally it to the Western family of liturgies.
We proceed now to give a more detailed account of the chief
liturgies of this group.
1. The Mozarabic Liturgy. — This was the national liturgy
of the Spanish church till the close of the nth century, when
the Roman liturgy was forced upon it. Its use, however, lingered
on, till in the i6th century Cardinal Jimenes, anxious to prevent
its becoming quite obsolete, had its books restored and printed,
and founded a college of priests at Toledo to perpetuate its use.
It survives now only in several churches in Toledo and in a chapel
at Salamanca, and even there not without certain Roman
modifications of its original text and ritual.
Its date and origin, like the date and origin of all existing liturgies,
are uncertain, and enveloped in the mists of antiquity. It is not
derived from the present Roman liturgy. Its whole structure, as
well as separate details disprove such a parentage, and therefore it
is strange to find St Isidore of Seville (Lib. de Eccles. Ojfic. i. 15)
attributing it to St Peter. No proof is adduced, and the only value
which can be placed upon such an unsupported assertion is that it
shows that a very high and even apostolic antiquity was claimed for
it. A theory, originating with Pinius, that it may have been brought
by the Goths from Constantinople when they invaded Spain, is as
improbable as it is unproven. It may have been derived from Gaul.
The Galilean sister stood to it in the relation of twin-sister, if it could
not claim that of mother. The resemblance was so great that when
Charles the Bald (843-877) wished to get some idea of the character
of the already obsolete Gallican rite, he sent to Toledo for some
Spanish priests to perform Mass according to the Mozarabic rite
in his presence. But there is no record of the conversion of Spain by
Gallican missionaries. Christianity existed in Spain from the
earliest times. Probably St Paul travelled there (Rom. xv. 24). It
may be at least conjectured that its liturgy was Pauline rather than
Petrine or Johannine.
2. Gallican Liturgy. — This was the ancient and national
liturgy of the church in France till the commencement of the
9th century, when it was suppressed by order of Charlemagne,
who directed the Roman missal to be everywhere substituted
in its place. All traces of it seemed for some time to have been
lost until three Gallican sacramentaries were discovered and
published by Thomasius in 1680 under the titles of Missale
Gothicum, Missale Gallicum and Missale Francorum, and a
fourth was discovered and published by Mabillon in 1687 under
the title of Missale Gallicanum. Fragmentary discoveries have
been made since. Mone discovered fragments of eleven Gallican
masses and published them at Carlsruhe in 1850. Other frag-
ments from the library at St Gall have been published by
Bunsen (Analecta Ante-Nicaena, iii. 263-266), and from the
Ambrosian library at Milan by Cardinal Mai (Scriptt. Vet. Vat.
Coll. iii. 2. 247). A single page was discovered in Gonville and
Caius College, Cambridge, published in Zeitschrift fiir Kath.
Theologie, vi. 370.
These documents, illustrated by early Gallican canons, and by
allusions in the writings of Sulpicius Severus, Caesarius of Aries,
Gregory of Tours, Germanus of Paris and other authors, enable us
to reconstruct the greater part of this liturgy. The previously
enumerated signs of Eastern origin and influence are found here as
well as in the Mozarabic liturgy, together with certain other more or
less minute peculiarities, which would be of interest to professed
liturgiologists, but which we must not pause to specify here. They
are the origin of the Ephesine theory that the Gallican liturgy was
introduced into use by Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons (c. 130-200) who
had learned it in the East from St Polycarp, the disciple of the
apostle St John.
3. Ambrosian Liturgy. — Considerable variety of opinion
has existed among liturgical writers as to the proper classification
of the "Ambrosian " or " Milanese" liturgy. If we are to accept
it in its present form and to make the present position of the
great intercession for quick and dead the test of its genus, then
we must classify it as " Petrine " and consider it as a branch of
the Roman family. If, on the other hand, we consider the
important variations from the Roman liturgy which yet exist,
and the traces of still more marked variation which confront
us in the older printed and MS. copies of the Ambrosian rite,
we shall detect in it an original member of the Hispano-Gallican
group of liturgies, which for centuries underwent a gradual
but ever-increasing assimilation to Rome. We know this
as a matter of history, as well as a matter of inference from
changes in the text itself. Charlemagne adopted the same policy
towards the Milanese as towards the Gallican church. He
carried off all the Ambrosian church books which he could obtain,
with the view of substituting Roman books in their place, but
the completion of his intentions failed, partly through the attach-
ment of the Lombards to their own rites, partly through the
intercession of a Gallican bishop named Eugenius (Mabillon,
Mus. Ital. torn. i. Pars. ii. p. 106). It has been asserted by
Joseph Vicecomes that this is an originally independent liturgy
drawn up by St Barnabas, who first preached the Gospel at
Milan (De Missae Rit. i capp. xi. xii.), and this tradition is pre-
served in the title and proper preface for St Barnabas Day in
the Ambrosian missal (Pamelius, Liturgicon, i. 385, 386), but
it has never been proved.
We can trace the following points in which the Ambrosian differs
from the Roman liturgy, many of them exhibiting traces of Eastern
influence. Some of them are no longer found in recent Ambrosian
missals and only survive in earlier MSS. such as those published by
Pamelius (Liturgicon, torn. i. p. 293), Muratori (Lit. Rom. Vet. i. 132)
andCeriani (in his edition, 1881, of anancient MS. at Milan), (a) The
prayer entitled " oratio super sindonem " corresponding to the prayer
after the spreading of the corporal ; (6) the proclamation of silence by
the deacon before the epistle; (c) the litanies said after the Ingressa
(Introit) on Sundays in Lent, closely resembling the Greek Ektene;
(d) varying forms of introduction to the Lord's Prayer, in Coena
Domini (Ceriani p. 116) in Pascha (Ib. p. 129); (e) the presence of
passages in the prayer of consecration which are not part of the
Roman canon and one of which at least corresponds in import and
position though not in words to the Greek Invocation: Tuum vero,
est, omnipotens Pater, millere, &c. (76. p. 116); (/) the survival of a
distinctly Gallican formula of consecration in the Post-sanctus " in
Sabbato Sancto." Vere sanctus, vere benedictus Dominus noster, &c.
(76. p. 125) ; (g) the varying nomenclature of the Sundays after
Pentecost; (h) the position of the fraction or ritual breaking of
bread before the Lord's Prayer; (i) the omission of the second
oblation after the words of institution (Muratori, Lit. Rom. Vet. i.
133) I (k) a third lection or Prophetia from the Old Testament
preceding the epistle and gospel; (/) the lay offering of the obla-
tions and the formulae accompanying their reception (Pamelius,
Liturgicon, i. 297) ; (m) the position of the ablution of the hands in
the middle of the canon just before the words of institution; (n) the
position of the " oratio super populum," which corresponds in
matter but not in name to the collect for the day, before the Gloria in
Excelsis.
4. Celtic Liturgy. — We postpone the consideration of this
liturgy till after we have treated of the next main group.
VI. The Roman Rite (St Peter). — There is only one liturgy
to be enumerated under this group, viz. the present liturgy
of the Church of Rome,which, though originally local in character
and circumscribed in use, has come to be nearly co-extensive
with the Roman Catholic Church, sometimes superseding earlier
national liturgies, as in Gaul and Spain, sometimes incorporating
more or less of the ancient ritual of a country into itself and
producing from such incorporation a sub-class of distinct Uses,
as in England, France and elsewhere. Even these subordinate
Uses have for the most part become, or are rapidly becoming,
obsolete.
798
LITURGY
The date, origin and early history of the Roman liturgy are
obscure. The first Christians at Rome were a Greek-speaking
community, and their liturgy must have been Greek, and is
possibly represented in the so-called Clementine liturgy. But
the date when such a state of things ceased, when and by whom
the present Latin liturgy was composed, whether it is an original
composition, or, as its structure seems to imply, a survival of
some intermediate form of liturgy — all these are questions
which are waiting for solution.
One MS. exists which has been claimed to represent the Roman
liturgy as it existed in the time of Leo I., 440-461. It was discovered
at Verona by Bianchini in 1 735 and assigned by him to the 8th century
and published under the title of Sacramentarium Leonianum; but
this title was from the first conjectural, and is in the teeth of the
internal evidence which the MS. itself affords. The question is dis-
cussed at some length by Muratori (Lit. Rom. Vet. torn. i. cap. i. col. 16).
Assemani published it under the title of Sacramentarium Veronense in
torn. vi. of his Codex Liturg. Eccles. Univ.
A MS. of the 7th or 8th century was found at Rome by Thomasius
and published by him in 1680 under the title of Sacramentarium
Gelasianum. But it was written in France and is certainly not a pure
Gelasian codex; and although there is historical evidence of Pope
Gelasius I. (492-496) having made some changes in the Roman
liturgy, and although MSS. have been published by Gerbertus and
others, claiming the title of Gelasian, we neither have nor are likely
to have genuine and contemporary MS. evidence of the real state of
the liturgy in that pope's time. The most modern and the best
edition of the Gelasian Sacramentary is that by H. A. Wilson
(Oxford, 1894).
The larger number of MSS. of this group are copies of the
Gregorian Sacramentary, that is to say, MSS. representing or purport-
ing to represent, the state of Roman liturgy in the days of Pope
Gregory the Great. But they cannot be accepted as certain evidence
for the following reasons : not one of them was written earlier than
the 9th century, not one of them was written in Italy, but every one
north of the Alps; every one contains internal evidence of a post-
Gregorian date in the shape of masses for the repose or for the
intercession of St Gregory and in various other ways.
The Roman liturgy seems to have been introduced into England
in the 7th, into France in the gth and into Spain in the nth
century, though no doubt it was known in both France and Spain
to some extent before these dates. In France certain features
of the service and certain points in the ritual of the ancient
national liturgy became interwoven with its text and formed
those many varying medieval Gallican Uses which are associated
with the names of different French sees.
The chief distinguishing characteristics of the Roman rite
are these: (a) the position of the great intercession for quick
and dead within the canon, the commemoration of the living
being placed just before and the commemoration of the departed
just after the words of institution; (b) the absence of an
" Epiklesis " or invocation of the Holy Ghost upon the elements;
(c) the position of the " Pax " or " Kiss of Peace after the con-
secration " and before the communion, whereas in other liturgies
it occurs at a much earlier point in the service.
Liturgies of the British Islands.
Period I. The Celtic Church. — Until recently almost nothing
was known of the character of the liturgical service of the Celtic
church which existed in these islands before the Anglo-Saxon
Conquest, and continued to exist in Ireland, Scotland, Wales
and Cornwall for considerable though varying periods of time
after that event. But in recent times a good deal of light has
been thrown on the subject, partly by the publication or re-
publication of the few genuine works of Patrick, Columba,
Columbanus, Adamnan and other Celtic saints; partly by the
discovery of liturgical remains in the Scottish Book of Deer and
in the Irish Books of Dimma and Mulling and the Slowe Missal,
&c.; partly by the publication of medieval Irish compilations,
such as the Lebar Brecc, Liber Hymnorum, Marlyrology of Oengus,
&c., which contain ecclesiastical kalendars, legends, treatises,
&c., of considerable but very varying antiquity. The evidence
collected from these sources is sufficient to prove that the liturgy
of the Celtic church was of the Gallican type. In central England
the churches, with everything belonging to them, were destroyed
by the heathen invaders at the close of the sth century; but
the Celtic church in the remoter parts of England, as well as
in the neighbouring kingdoms of Scotland and Ireland, retained
its independence for centuries afterwards.
An examination of its few extant service-books and fragments
of service-books yields the following evidence of the Gallican
origin and character of the Celtic liturgy: (a) the presence
of collects and anthems which occur in the Gallican or Mozarabic
but not in the Roman liturgy; (b) various formulae of thanks-
giving after communion; (c) frequent biddings or addresses
to the people in the form of Gallican Praefationes; (d) the
Gallican form of consecration, being a prayer called " Post-
Sanctus " leading up to the words of institution; (e) the com-
plicated rite of " fraction " or " the breaking of bread," as
described in the Irish treatise at the end of the Slowe Missal,
finds its only counterpart in the elaborate ceremonial of the
Mozarabic church ; (/) the presence of the Gallican ceremonial
of Pedilamum or " Washing of feet " in the earliest Irish baptismal
office.
For a further description of these and other features which are
characteristic of or peculiar to the Celtic liturgy the reader is referred
to F. E. Warren's Liturgy and Ritual of the Celtic Church (Oxford,
1881).
Period II. The Anglo-Saxon Church. — We find ourselves
here on firmer ground, and can speak with certainty as to the
nature of the liturgy of the English church after the beginning
of the 7th century. Information is drawn from liturgical allusions
in the extant canons of numerous councils, from the voluminous
writings of Bede, Alcuin and many other ecclesiastical authors
of the Anglo-Saxon period, and above all from a considerable
number of service-books written in England before the Norman
Conquest. Three of these books are missals of more or less
completeness: (i) the Leofric M issal, a composite loth- to nth-
century MS. presented to the cathedral of Exeter by Leofric,
the first bishop of that see (1046-1072), now in the Bodleian
library at Oxford; edited by F. E. Warren (Oxford, 1883);
(2) the missal of Robert of Jumieges, archbishop of Canterbury
(1051-1052), written probably at Winchester and presented by
Archbishop Robert to his old monastery of Jumieges in the
neighbourhood of Rouen, in the public library of which it now
lies; edited by H. A. Wilson (London, 1896); (3) the Red Book
of Derby, a MS. missal of the second half of the nth century,
now in the library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.
A perusal of these volumes proves what we should have
expected a priori, that the Roman liturgy was in use in the Anglo-
Saxon church. This was the case from the very first. That
church owed its foundation to a Roman pontiff, and to Roman
missionaries, who brought, as we are told by Bede. their native
liturgical codices with them (Hist. Eccles. lib. ii. cap. 28).
Accordingly, when we speak of an Anglo-Saxon missal, we mean
a Roman missal only exhibiting one or more of the following
features, which would differentiate it from an Italian missal of
the same century, (a) Rubrics and other entries of a miscel-
laneous character written in the vernacular language of the
country, (b) The commemoration of national or local saints in
the kalendar, in the canon of the mass and in the litanies which
occur for use on Easter Even and in the baptismal offices, (c)
The presence of a few special masses in honour of those local
saints, together with a certain number of collects of a necessarily
local character, for the rulers of the country, for its natural
produce, &c. (d) The addition of certain peculiarities of liturgical
structure and arrangement interpolated into the otherwise
purely Roman service from an extraneous source. There are
two noteworthy examples of this in Anglo-Saxon service-books.
Every Sunday and festival and almost every votive mass has its
proper preface, although the number of such prefaces in the
Gregorian Sacramentary of the same period had been reduced
to eight. There was a large but not quite equal number of triple
episcopal benedictions to be pronounced by the bishop after the
Lord's Prayer and before the communion. This custom must
either have been perpetuated from the old Celtic liturgy or
directly derived from a Gallican source.
Period III. Anglo-Norman Church. — The influx of numerous
foreigners, especially from Normandy and Lorraine, which
LITURGY
799
preceded, accompanied and followed the Conquest, and the
occupation by them of the highest posts in church as well as
state had a distinct effect on the liturgy of the English church.
These foreign ecclesiastics brought over with them a preference
for and a habit of using certain features of the Gallican liturgy
and ritual, which they succeeded in incorporating into the service-
books of the church of England. One of the Norman prelates,
Osmund, count of Seez, earl of Dorset, chancellor of England,
and bishop of Salisbury (1078-1099), is credited with having
undertaken the revision of trie English service-books; and the
missal which we know as the Sarum Missal, or the Missal according
to the Use of Sarum, practically became the liturgy of the English
church. It was not only received into use in the province of
Canterbury, but was largely adopted beyond those limits — in
Ireland in the i2th and in various Scottish dioceses in the I2th
and 1 3th centuries.
It would be beyond our scope here to give a complete list of
the numerous and frequently minute differences between a
medieval Sarum and the earlier Anglo-Saxon or contemporaneous
Roman liturgy. They lie mainly in differences of collects and
lections, variations of ritual on Candlemass, Ash Wednesday and
throughout Holy Week; the introduction into the canon of the
mass of certain clauses and usages of Gallican character or
origin; the wording of rubrics in the subjunctive or imperative
tense; the peculiar " Preces in prostratione "; the procession of
Corpus Christi on Palm Sunday; the forms of ejection and
reconciliation of penitents, &c. The varying episcopal bene-
dictions as used in the Anglo-Saxon church were retained, but
the numerous proper prefaces were discarded, the number being
reduced to ten.
Besides the famous and far-spreading Use of Sarum, other
Uses, more local and less known, grew up in various English
dioceses. In virtue of a recognized diocesan independence,
bishops were able to regulate or alter their ritual, and to add
special masses or commemorations for use within the limits of
their jurisdiction. The better known and the more distinctive
of these Uses were those of York and Hereford, but we also find
traces of or allusions to the Uses of Bangor, Lichfield, Lincoln,
Ripon, St Asaph, St Paul's, Wells and Winchester.
Service-books. — The Eucharistic service was contained in the
volume called the Missal (q.v.), as the ordinary choir offices were
contained in the volume known as the Breviary (q.v.). But besides
these two volumes there were a large number of other service-books.
Mr W. Maskell has enumerated and described ninety-one such
volumes employed by the Western Church only. It must be under-
stood, however, that many of these ninety-one names are synonyms
(Man. Pjt. Eccles. Anglic., 1882, vol. i. p. ccxxx.). The list might be
increastfl( but it will be possible here only to name and briefly
describe a few of the more important of them. (l) The Agenda is the
same as the Manual, for which see below. (2) The A ntiphonary con-
tained the antiphons or anthems, sung at the canonical hours, and
certain other minor parts of the service. (3) The Benedictional
contained those triple episcopal benedictions previously described
as used on Sundays and on the chief festivals throughout the year.
(4) The Collectarium contained the collects for the season, together
with a few other parts of the day offices. It was an inchoate breviary.
(5) The Epistolarium contained the epistles, and the Evangelislarium
the gospels for the year. (7) The Gradual contained the introit,
gradual, sequences, and the other portions of the communion service
which were sung by the choir at high mass. (8) The Legenda con-
tained the lections which were read at matins and at other times,
and may be taken as a generic term to include the Homiliarium,
Passional and other volumes. (9) The Manual was the name usually
employed in England to denote the Ritual, which contained the
baptismal, matrimonial and other offices which might be performed
by the parish priest. (10) The Pontifical contained the orders of
consecration, ordination, and such other rites as could, ordinarily,
only be performed by a bishop. To these we must add a book which
was not strictly a church office book, but a 'handy book for the use
of the laity, and which was in very popular use and often very highly
embellished from the I4th to the i6th century, the Book of Hours,
or Horae Beatae Marias Virginis, also known as the Prymer or
Primer. It contained portions of the canonical hours, litanies, the
penitential Psalms, and other devotions of a miscellaneous and
private character. Detailed information about all these and other
books is to be found in C. Wordsworth and H. Littlehales', The Old
Service Books of the English Church.
The Eastern Church too possessed and still possesses numerous
and voluminous service-books, of which the chief are the following:
(i) The Euchologian, containing the liturgy itself with the remaining
sacramental offices bound up in the same volume. (2) TheHorologion,
containing the unvarying portion of the Breviary. (3) The Menaea,
being equivalent to a complete Breviary. (4) The Menologion or
Martyrology. (5) The Or.toechus and (6) The Paracletice, containing
Troparia and answering to the Western antiphonary. (7) The
Pentecostarion, containing the services from Easter Day to All
Saints' Sunday. (8) The Triodion, containing those from Septua-
gesima Sunday to Easter Even. (9) The Typicum is a general book
of rubrics corresponding to the Ordinale or the Pie of Western
Christendom.
Period IV. The Reformed Church. — The Anglican liturgy of
Reformation and post-Reformation times is described under
the heading of PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON, but a brief
description may be added here of the liturgies of other reformed
churches.
The Liturgy of the Scottish Episcopal Church. — This liturgy
in nearly its present form was compiled by Scottish bishops in
1636 and imposed — or, to speak more accurately, attempted to
be imposed — upon the Scottish people by the royal authority of
Charles I. in 1637. The prelates chiefly concerned in it were
Spottiswood, bishop of Glasgow; Maxwell, bishop of Ross;
Wedderburn, bishop of Dunblane; and Forbes, bishop of Edin-
burgh. Their work was approved and revised by certain members
of the English episcopate, especially Laud, archbishop of Canter-
bury; Juxon, bishop of London; and Wren, bishop of Ely.
This liturgy has met with varied fortune and has passed through
several editions. The present Scottish office dates from 1764.
It is now used as an alternative form with the English com-
munion office in the Scottish Episcopal Church.
The general arrangements of its parts approximates more
closely to that of the first book of Edward VI. than to the present
Anglican Book of Common Prayer. Among its noteworthy
features are (a) the retention in its integrity and in its primi-
tive position after the words of institution of the invocation of
the Holy Spirit. That invocation runs thus: " And we most
humbly beseech thee, O merciful Father, to hear us and of thy
almighty goodness -vouchsafe to bless and sanctify with thy
word and Holy Spirit these thy gifts and creatures of bread and
wine that they may become the body and blood of thy most
dearly beloved Son" (edit. 1764). This kind of petition thus
placed is found in the Eastern but not in the Roman or Anglican
liturgies, (b) The reservation of the sacrament is permitted, by
traditional usage, for the purpose of communicating the absent
or the sick, (c) The minimum number of communicants is fixed
at one or two instead of three or four.
For fuller information see Bishop J. Dowden, The Annotated
Scottish Communion Service (Edinburgh, 1884).
American Liturgy. — The Prayer Book of " the Protestant
Episcopal Church " in America was adopted by the general
convention of the American church in 1789. It is substantially
the same as the English Book of Common Prayer, but among
important variations we may name the following: (a) The
arrangement and wording of the order for Holy Communion
rather resembles that of the Scottish than that of the English
liturgy, especially in the position of the oblation and invocation
immediately after the words of institution, (b) The Magnificat,
Nunc dimittis and greater part of Benedictus were disused;
but these were reinstated among the changes made in the
Prayer Book in 1892. (c) Ten selections of Psalms are appointed
for use as alternatives for the Psalms of the day. (d) Gloria in
excelsis is allowed as a substitute for Gloria Patri at the end of
the Psalms at morning and evening prayer. In addition to these
there are many more both important and unimportant variations
from the English Book of Common Prayer.
The Irish Prayer Book. — The Prayer Book in use in the Irish
portion of the United Church of England and Ireland was the
Anglican Book of Common Prayer, but after the disestablish-
ment of the Irish church several changes were introduced into it
by a synod held at Dublin in 1870. These changes included
such important points as: (a) the excision of all lessons from
the Apocrypha, (b) of the rubric ordering the recitation of the
Athanasian Creed,' (c) of the rubric ordering the vestments of
the second year of Edward VI., (d) of the form of absolution in
the office for the visitation of the sick, (e) the addition to the
8oo
LITUUS— LIVE OAK
Catechism of a question and answer bringing out more clearly
the spiritual character of the real presence.
The Presbyterian Church. — The Presbyterian churches of
Scotland at present possess no liturgy properly so called. Certain
general rules for the conduct of divine service are contained in
the " Directory for the Public Worship of God " agreed upon by
the assembly of divines at Westminster, with the assistance of
commissioners from the Church of Scotland, approved and
established by an act of the general assembly, and by an act of
parliament, both in 1645. In !554 John Knox had drawn up an
order of liturgy closely modelled on the Genevan pattern for the
use of the English congregation to which he was then ministering
at Frankfort. On his return to Scotland this form of liturgy was
adopted by an act of the general assembly in 1560 and became
the established form of worship in the Presbyterian church until
the year 1645, when the Directory of Public Worship took its
place. Herein regulations are laid down for the conduct of
public worship, for the reading of Scripture and for extempore
prayer before and after the sermon, and in the administration
of the sacrament of baptism and the Lord's Supper, for the
solemnization of marriage, visitation of the sick and burial of
the dead, for the observance of days of public fasting and public
thanksgiving, together with a form of ordination and a directory
for family worship. In all these cases, though the general terms
of the prayer are frequently indicated, the wording of it is left
to the discretion of the minister, with these exceptions: At
the act of baptism this formula must be used — " I baptize thee
in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghost "; and for the Lord's Supper these forms are suggested,
but with liberty to the minister to use " other the like, used by
Christ or his apostles upon this occasion " — " According to the
holy institution, command, and example of our blessed Saviour,
Jesus Christ, I take this bread, and having given thanks, break it,
and give it unto you. Take ye, eat ye; this is the body of Christ
which is broken for you; do this in remembrance of him."
And again " According to the institution, command and example
of our Lord Jesus Christ, I take this cup and give it unto you;
this cup is the New Testament in the blood of Christ, which is
shed for the remission of the sins of many; drink ye all of it."
There is also an unvarying form of words directed to be used
before the minister by the man to the woman, and by the woman
to the man in the case of the solemnization of matrimony. The
form of words on all other occasions, including ordination, is
left to the discretion of the officiating minister or of the
presbytery.
European Protestant Churches. The Calvinistic Churches. — Rather
more of the liturgical element in the shape of a set form of words
enters into the service of the French and German Calvinistic
Protestants. The Sunday morning service as drawn up by Calvin
was to open with a portion of Holy Scripture and the recitation of the
ten commandments. Afterwards the minister, inviting the people
to accompany him, proceeded to a confession of sins and supplication
for grace. Then one of the Psalms of David was sung. Then came
the sermon, prefaced by an extempore prayer and concluding with
the Lord's Prayer, creed and benediction. The communion service
began with an exhortation leading up to the apostles' creed; then
followed a long exhortation, after which the bread and wine were
distributed to the people, who advanced in reverence and order, while
a Psalm was being sung, or a suitable passage of Scripture was being
read. After all had communicated a set form of thanksgiving was
said by the minister. Then the Song of Simeon was sung by the
congregation, who were then dismissed with the blessing. This form
of service has been modified in various ways from time to time, but
it remains substantially the type of service in use among the reformed
Calvinistic churches of Germany, Switzerland and France.
The Lutheran Church. — Luther was far more conservative than
the rest of the Protestant reformers and his conservatism appeared
nowhere more than in the service-books which he drew up for the use
of the church which bears his name. In 1523 he published a treatise
Of the Order of the Service in the Congregation and in 1526 he
published the German Mass. Except that the vernacular was
substituted for the Latin language, the old framework and order
of the Roman missal were closely followed, beginning with the
Confiteor, Introit, Kyrie eleison, still always sung in Greek, Gloria
in excelsis, &c. The text of this and other Lutheran services is given
in Agende fur christliche Gemeinden des Lutherischen Bekenntnisses
(Nordlingen, 1853). At the same time Luther was tolerant and
expressed a hope that different portions of the Lutheran church
would from time to time make such changes or adaptations in the
order of service as might be found convenient. The Lutheran
churches of northern Europe have not been slow to avail themselves
of this advice and permission. Most of them have drawn up liturgies
for themselves, sometimes following very closely, sometimes differing
considerably from the original service composed by Luther himself.
In 1822, on the union of the Lutheran and Reformed (Calvinistic)
churches of Prussia, a new liturgy was published at Berlin. It is
used in its entirety in the chapel royal, but great liberty as to its use
was allowed to the parochical clergy, and considerable variations of
text appear in the more recent editions of this service-book.
The Church of the New Jerusalem (Swedenborgians) and the
Catholic Apostolic Church (Irvingites) and other Protestant bodies
have drawn up liturgies for themselves, but they are hardly of
sufficient historical importance to be described at length here.
The Old Catholics, lastly, published a Rituale in 1875 containing
the occasional offices for baptism, matrimony, burial, &c., and a form
for reception of Holy Communion, in the German language. This
latter is for use in the otherwise unaltered service of the mass,
corresponding in purpose to the order of Communion in English
published the 8th of March 1548 and in use till Whitsunday 1549.
(F. E. W.)
LITUUS, the cavalry trumpet of the Romans, said by Macro-
bius (Saturn, lib. vi.) to have resembled the crooked staff borne
by the Augurs. The lituus consisted of a cylindrical tube 4 or
5 ft. long, having a narrow bore, and terminating in a conical bell
joint turned up in such a manner as to give the instrument
the outline of the letter " J." Unlike the buccina, cornu and
tuba, the other military service instruments of the Romans,
the lituus has not been traced during the middle ages, the
medieval instrument most nearly resembling it being the
cromorne or tournebout, which, however, had lateral holes and
was played by means of a reed mouthpiece. A lituus found in
a Roman warrior's tomb at Cervetri (Etruria) in 1827 is preserved
in the Vatican. Victor Mahillon gives its length as i m. 60, and
its scale as in unison with that of the trumpet in G (Catalogue
descriptif, 1896, pp. 29-30). (K. S.)
LIUDPRAND (LIUTPRAND, LUITPRAND) (c. 922-972), Italian
historian and author, bishop of Cremona, was born towards the
beginning of the loth century, of a good Lombard family. In
931 he entered the service of King Hugo of Italy as page; he
afterwards rose to a high position at the court of Hugo's successor
Berengar, having become chancellor, and having been sent (949)
on an embassy to the Byzantine court. Falling into disgrace
with Berengar on his return, he attached himself to the emperor
Otto I., whom in 961 he accompanied into Italy, and by whom
in 962 he was made bishop of Cremona. He was frequently
employed in missions to the pope, and in 968 to Constantinople
to demand for the younger Otto (afterwards Otto II.) the hand
of Theophano, daughter of the emperor Nicephorus JPhocas.
His account of this embassy in the Relatio de Legatione Con-
stantinopolitana is perhaps the most graphic and lively piece of
writing which has come down to us from the loth century. The
detailed description of Constantinople and the Byzantine court
is a document of rare value — though highly coloured by his ill
reception and offended dignity. Whether he returned in 971
with the embassy to bring Theophano or not is uncertain.
Liudprand died in 972.
He wrote (i) Antapodoseos, seu rerum per Europam gestarum,
Libri VI, an historical narrative, relating to the events from 887
to 949, compiled with the object of avenging himself upon Berengar
and Willa his queen ; (2) Historia Ottonis, a work of greater imparti-
ality and merit, unfortunately covering only the years from 960 to
964; and (3) the Relatio de Legatione Constantinopolitana (968-969).
All are to be found in the Monum. Germ. Hist, of Pertz, and in the
Rer. /to/. Script, of Muratori; there is an edition by E. Diimmler
(1877), and a partial translation into German, with an introduction
by W. Wattenbach, is given in the second volume of the Geschichts-
schreiber der deutschen Vorzeit (1853). Compare Wattenbach,
Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter. Three other works,
entitled Adversaria, Chronicon, 606-960, and Opusculum de vitis
Romanorum pontificum, are usually, but wrongly, assigned to
Liudprand. An English translation of the embassy to Constan-
tinople is in Ernest Henderson's Select Documents of the Middle Ages
(Bonn series, 1896). A complete bibliography is in A. Potthast's
Bibl. Hist. Medii Aevi (Berlin, 1896).
LIVE OAK, a city and the county-seat of Suwannee county,
Florida, U.S.A., 81 m. by rail W. of Jacksonville. Pop. (1890)
687; (1900) 1650; (1905) 7200; (1910) 3450. Live Oak is served
LIVER
801
by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line, the Live Oak,
Perry & Gulf and the Florida railways. There are extensive
areas of pine lands in the vicinity, and large quantities of sea-
island cotton are produced in the county. Lumber and naval
stores are also important products. The first settlement on the
site of the city was made in 1865 by John Parshley, of Massa-
chusetts, who erected a large saw-mill here. Live Oak was
first incorporated as a town in 1874, and in 1903 was chartered
as a city.
LIVER (O. Eng. lifer; cf. cognate forms, Dutch lever, Ger.
Leber, Swed. lefver, &c.; the O. H. Ger. forms are libara, lipora,
&c.; the Teut. word has been connected with Gr. fjirap and Lat.
jecur), in anatomy, a large reddish-brown digestive gland situated
in the upper and right part of the abdominal cavity. When
hardened in situ its shape is that of a right-angled,
triangular prism showing five surfaces — superior,
anterior, inferior, posterior and right lateral which
represents the base of the prism. It weighs about
three pounds or one-fortieth of the body weight.
Although the liver is a fairly solid organ, it is
plastic, and moulds itself to even hollow neighbour-
ing viscera rather than they to it. The superior
surface is in contact with the diaphragm, but has
peritoneum between (see COELOM AND SEROUS
MEMBRANES). At its posterior margin the peri-
toneum of the great sac is reflected on to the
diaphragm to form the anterior layer of the
coronary ligament. Near the mid line of the body,
and at right angles to the last, another reflection,
the falciform ligament, runs forward, and the line of
attachment of this indicates the junction of the right
and left lobes of the liver. The anterior surface is
in contact with the diaphragm and the anterior
abdominal wall. The attachment of the falciform
ligament is continued down it. The posterior sur-
face is more complicated (see fig. i); starting from
the right and working toward the left, a large
triangular area, uncovered by peritoneum and in
direct contact with the diaphragm, is seen. This is
bounded on the left by the inferior vena cava,
which is sunk into a deep groove in the liver, and
into the upper part of this the hepatic veins open.
Just to the right of this and at the lower part of the
bare area is a triangular depression for the right supra-
renal body. To the left of the vena cava is the
Spigelian lobe, which lies in front of the bodies of
the tenth and eleventh thoracic vertebrae, the lesser
sac of peritoneum, diaphragm and thoracic aorta
intervening. To the left of this is the fissure for the
duclus venosus, and to the left of this again, the left
lobe, in which a broad shallow groove for the
oesophagus may usually be seen. Sometimes the left
lobe stretches as far as the left abdominal wall, but
more often it ends below the apex of the heart,
which is 35 in. to the left of the mid line of the
body. The relations of the lower surface can
only be understood if it is realized that it looks
backward and to the left as well as downward (see fig. i).
Again starting from the right side, two impressions are seen;
the anterior one is for the hepatic flexure of the colon, and the
posterior for the upper part of the right kidney. To the left
of the colic impression is a smaller one for the second part of the
duodenum. Next comes the gall bladder, a pear-shaped bag,
the fundus of which is in front and below, the neck behind and
above. From the neck passes the cystic duct, which is often
twisted into the form of an S. To the left of the gall bladder
is the quadrate lobe, which is in contact with the pylorus of the
stomach. To the left of this is the left lobe of the liver, separated
from the quadrate lobe by the umbilical fissure in which lies
the round ligament of the liver, the remains of the umbilical vein
of the foetus. Sometimes this fissure is partly turned into a
tunnel by a bridge of liver substance known as the pans hepatis.
xvi. 26
The under surface of the left lobe is concave for the interior
surface of the stomach (see ALIMENTARY CANAL: Stomach
Chamber), while a convexity, known as the tuber omentale, fits
into the lesser curvature of that organ. The posterior boundary
of the quadrate lobe is the transverse fissure, which is little more
than an inch long and more than half an inch wide. This
fissure represents the hilum of the liver, and contains the right
and left hepatic ducts and the right and left branches of the
hepatic artery and portal vein, together with nerves and lym-
phatics, the whole being enclosed in some condensed subperitoneal
tissue known as Glisson's capsule. Behind the transverse fissure
the lower end of the Spigelian lobe is seen as a knob called the
tuber papillare, and from the right of this a narrow bridge runs
forward and to the right to join the Spigelian lobe to the right
Vena cava in its fossa
Spigelian lobe
Fissure of ductus venosus
Omental tuberosity
Oesophageal groove
End of right suprarenal vein
Suprarenal impression
i
Right end of caudate lobe
Uncovered area of right lobe
Renal impression
Attachment of right
lateral ligament
Portal fissure
Umbilical fissure
Quad rate lobe
Portal vein
Gall bladder
Duodenal impression
Colic impression
From A. Birmingham Cunningham's Text-book of Anatomy.
FIG. I. — The Liver from below and behind, showing the whole of the visceral
surface and the posterior area of the parietal surface. The portal fissure has
been slightly opened up to show the vessels passing through it ; the other fissures
are represented in their natural condition — closed. In this liver, which was
hardened in situ, the impressions of the sacculations of the colon are distinctly
visible at the colic impression. The round ligament and the remains of the
ductus venosus are hidden in the depths of their fissures.
lobe and to shut off the transverse fissure from that for the vena
cava. This is the caudate lobe. The right surface of the liver
is covered with peritoneum and is in contact with the diaphragm,
outside which are the pleura and lower ribs. From its lower
margin the right lateral ligament is reflected on to the diaphragm.
A similar fold passes from the tip of the left lobe as the left
lateral ligament, and both these are the lateral margins of the
coronary ligament. Sometimes, especially in women, a tongue-
shaped projection downward of the right lobe is found, known
as Riedel's lobe; it is of clinical interest as it may be mistaken
for a tumour or floating kidney (see C. H. Leaf, Proc. Anal.
Soc., February 1899; Journ. Anat. and Phys. vol. 33, p. ix.).
The right and left hepatic ducts, while still in the transverse
fissure, unite into a single duct which joins the cystic duct from
the gall bladder at an acute angle. When these have united the
5
802
LIVER
duct is known as the common bile duct, and runs down to the
second part of the duodenum (see ALIMENTARY CANAL).
Minute Structure of the Liver. — The liver is made up of an enormous
number of lobules of a conical form (see fig. 3). If the portal vein is
followed from the transverse fissure, it will be seen to branch and re-
branch until minute twigs called interlobular veins (fig. 2, i) ramify
around the lobules. From these intralobular capillaries run toward
the centre of the lobule, forming a network among the polygonal
hepatic cells. On reaching the core of the conical lobule they are
collected into a central or intralobular vein (fig. 2, c) which unites
with other similar ones to form a sublobular vein (fig. 3, s). These
eventually reach the hepatic radicles, and so the blood is conducted
into the vena cava. In man
the lobules are not dis-
tinctly separated one from
the other, but in some
animals, e.g. the pig, each
one has a fibrous sheath
derived from Glisson's cap-
sule (fig. 3, ct.).
Embryology. — The liver
first appears as an ento-
dermal hollow longitudinal
outgrowth from the duo-
denum into the ventral
mesentery. The upper part
of this forms the future
liver, and grows up into
the septum transversum from
which the central part of
the diaphragm is formed
(seeDlAPHRAGM). Fromthe
cephalic part of this primary
diverticulum solid rods of
cells called the hepatic
cylinders grow out, and
FIG. 2. — Transverse section through
the hepatic lobules,
i, i, i, Interlobular veins ending in the
intralobular capillaries.
Central veins joined by the intra-
lobular capillaries. At a, a the
capillaries of one lobule com-
municate with those adjacent
c,c
to it.
these branch again and again until a cellular network is formed
surrounding and breaking up the umbilical and vitelline veins.
The liver cells, therefore, are entodermal, but the supporting
connective tissue mesodermal from the septum transversum.
The lower (caudal) part of the furrow-like outgrowth remains
hollow and forms the gall bladder. At first the liver is em-
bedded in the septum transversum, but later the diaphragm and
it are constricted off one from the other, and soon the liver becomes
very large and fills the greater part of the abdomen. At birth it is
proportionately much larger than in the adult, and forms one-
eighteenth instead of one-
fortieth of the body weight,
the right and left lobes being
nearly equal in size.
Comparative Anatomy. — In
the Acrania (Amphioxus) the
liver is probably represented
by a single ventral diver-
ticulum from the anterior
end of the intestine, which
has a hepatic portal circula-
tion and secretes digestive
fluid. In all the Craniata a
solid liver is developed. In
the adult lamprey among the
Cyclostomata the liver under-
FIG. 3. — Vertical section through two goes retrogression, and the
hepatic lobules of a pig. bile ducts and gall bladder
Central veins receiving the intra- disappear,
lobular capillaries.
Sublobular vein.
c, c,
s,
ct,
though they are
present in the larval form
(Ammocoetes). In fishes and
Interlobular connective tissue amphibians the organ consists
forming the capsules of the of right and left lobes,
lobules.
Interlobular veins.
gall-bladder is present. The
same description applies to the
reptiles, but a curious net-
work of cystic ducts is found
in snakes and to a less extent in crocodiles. In the Varanidae
(Monitors) the hepatic duct is also retiform (see F. E. Beddard,
Proc. Zoo/. Soc., 1888, p. 105). In birds two lobes are also present,
but in some of them, e.g. the pigeon, there is no gall-bladder.
In mammals Sir William Flower pointed out that a generalized
type of liver exists, from which that of any mammal may be derived
by suppression or fusion of lobes. The accompanying diagram of
Flower (fig. 4) represents an ideal mammalian liver. It will be seen
that the umbilical fissure (u) divides the organ into right and left
halves, as in the lower vertebrates, but that the ventral part of each
half is divided into a central and lateral lobe. Passing from right to
left there are therefore: right lateral (rl), right central (re), left
central (Ic), and left lateral (//) lobes. The gall-bladder (g), when it is
present, is always situated on the caudal surface or in the substance
of the right central lobe. The Spigelian (s) and caudate lobes (c)
belong to the right half of the liver, the latter being usually a leaf-
shaped lobe attached by its stalk to the Spigelian, and having its
blade flattened between the right lateral lobe and the right kidney.
The vena cava (tic) is always found to the right of the Spigelian lobe
and dorsal to the stalk of the caudate. In tracing the lobulation of
man's liver back to this generalized type, it is evident at once that his
quadrate lobe does not correspond to any one generalized lobe, but
is merely that part of the right central which lies between the gall
bladder and the umbilical fissure. From a careful study of human
variations (see A. Thomson, Journ. Anal, and Phys. vol. 33,
p. 546) compared with an Anthropoid liver, such as that of the
gorilla, depicted by W. H. L. Duckworth (Morphology and Anthro-
7*,
FIG. 4. — Diagrammatic Plan of the Inferior Surface of a Multi-
lobed Liver of a Mammal. The posterior or attached border is
uppermost.
u, Umbilical vein of the foetus, rlf, The right lateral fissure,
represented by the round cf, The cystic fissure,
ligament in the adult, lying II, The left lateral lobe,
in the umbilical fissure. Ic, The left central lobe.
dv, The ductus venosus. re, The right central lobe.
vc, The inferior vena cava. rl, The right lateral lobe.
p, The vena portae entering the s, The Spigelian lobe.
transverse fissure. c, The caudate lobe.
///, The left lateral fissure. g, The gall bladder.
pology, Cambridge, 1904, p. 98), it is fairly clear that the human liver
is formed, not by a suppression of any of the lobes of the generalized
type, but by a fusion of those lobes and obliteration of certain
fissures. This fusion is, probably correctly, attributed by Keith to
the effect of pressure following the assumption of the erect position
(Keith, Proc. Anat. Soc. of Gt. Britain, Journ. Anal, and Phys.
vol. 33, p. xii.). The accom-
panying diagram (fig. 5)
shows an abnormal human
liver in the Anatomical De-
partment of St Thomas's
Hospital which reproduces
the generalized type. In
its lobulation it is singu-
larly like, in many details,
that of the baboon (Papio
maimon) figured by G. Ruge
(Morph. Jahrb., Bd. 35, pJ
197); see F. G. Parsons, |
Proc. Anat. Soc., Feb. 1904,
Journ. Anat. and Phys. vol. 33,
p. xxiii. Georg Ruge " Die
ausseren Formverhaltnisse der
Leber bei den Primaten,"
(Morph. Jahrb^ Bd. 29 and
35) gives a critical study of . FIG. 5.— Human Liver showing a
the primate liver, and among reversion to the generalized mam-
other things suggests the re- mahan type,
cognition of the Spigelian and
caudate lobes as parts of a single lobe, for which he proposes the
name of lobus venae cavae. This doubtless would be an advantage
morphologically, though for human descriptive anatomy the present
nomenclature is not likely to be altered.
The gall-bladder is usually present in mammals, but is wanting in
the odd-toed ungulates (Perissodactyla) and Procavia (Hyrax). In
the giraffe it may be absent or present. The cetacea and a few
rodents are also without it. In the otter the same curious network
of bile ducts already recorded in the reptiles is seen (see P. H. Burne,
Proc. Anat. Soc., Journ. Anat. and Phys. vol. 33, p. xi.). (F. G. P.)
SURGERY OF LIVER AND GALL-BLADDER. — Exposed as it is
in the upper part of the abdomen, and being somewhat friable,
the human liver is often torn or ruptured by blows or kicks, and,
the large blood-vessels being thus laid open, fatal haemorrhage
LIVERMORE
803
Into the belly-cavity may take place. The individual becomes
faint, and the faintness keeps on increasing; and there are pain
and tenderness in the liver-region. The right thing to do is to
open the belly in the middle line, search for a wound in the liver
and treat it by deep sutures, or by plugging it with gauze.
Cirrhosis of the Liver. — As the result of chronic irritation of
the liver increased supplies of blood pass to it, and if the irritation
is unduly prolonged inflammation is the result. The commonest
causes of this chronic hepatitis are alcoholism and syphilis.
The new fibrous tissue which is developed throughout the liver,
as the result of the chronic inflammation, causes general enlarge-
ment of the liver with, perhaps, nausea, vomiting and jaundice.
Later the new fibrous tissue undergoes contraction and the liver
becomes smaller than natural. Blood then finds difficulty in
passing through it, and, as a result, dropsy occurs in the belly
(ascites). This may be relieved 'by tapping the cavity with a
small hollow needle (Southey's trocar), or by passing into it a
large sharp-pointed tube. This relieves the dropsy, but it does
not cure the condition on which the dropsy depends. A surgical
operation is sometimes undertaken with success for enabling the
engorged veins to empty themselves into the blood-stream in
a manner so as to avoid the liver-route.
Inflammation of the Liver (hepatitis) may also be caused by
an attack of micro-organisms which have reached it through
the veins coming from the large intestine, or through the main
arteries. There are, of course, as the result, pain and tenderness,
and there is often jaundice. The case should be treated by rest
in bed, fomentations, calomel and saline aperients. But when
the hepatitis is of septic origin, suppuration is likely to occur,
the result being an hepatic abscess.
Hepatic Abscess is especially common in persons from the East
who have recently undergone an attack of dysentery. In addition
to the local pain and tenderness, there is a high temperature
accompanied with shiverings or occasional rigors, the patient
becoming daily more thin and miserable. Sometimes the abscess
declares1 itself by a bulging at the surface, but if not an incision
should be made through the belly-wall over the most tender
spot, and a direct examination of the surface of the liver made.
A bulging having been found, that part of the liver which
apparently overlies the abscess should be stitched up to the
sides of the opening made in belly-wall, and should then be
explored by a hollow needle. Pus being found, the abscess
should be freely opened and drained. It is inadvisable to explore
for a suspected abscess with a hollow needle without first opening
the abdomen, as septic fluid might thus be enabled to leak out,
and infect the general peritoneal cavity. If an hepatic abscess
is injudiciously left to itself it may eventually discharge into the
chest, lungs or belly, or it may establish a communication with
a piece of intestine. The only safe way for an abscess to evacuate
itself is on to the surface of the body.
Hydatic Cysts are often met with in the liver. They are due
to a peculiar development of the eggs of the tape-worm of the
dog, which have been received into the alimentary canal with
infected water or uncooked vegetables, such as watercress. The
embryo of the taenia echinococcus finds its way from the stomach
or intestine into a vein passing to the liver, and, settling itself
in the liver, causes so much disturbance there that a capsule
of inflammatory material forms around it. Inside this wall
is the special covering of the embryo which shortly becomes
distended with clear hydatid fluid. The cyst should be treated
like a liver-abscess, by incision through the abdominal or thoracic
wall, by circumferential suturing and by exploration and
drainage.
Tumours of the Liver may be innocent or malignant. The
most important of the former is the gumma of tertiary syphilis;
this may steadily and completely disappear under the influence
of iodide of potassium. The commonest form of malignant
tumour is the result of the growth of cancerous elements which
have been brought to the liver by the veins coming up from a
primary focus of the large intestine. Active surgical treatment
of such a tumour is out of the question. Fortunately it is, as
a rule, painless.
The Call-bladder may be ruptured by external violence, and
if bile escapes from the rent in considerable quantities peritonitis
will be set up, whether the bile contains septic germs or not.
If, on opening the abdomen to find out what serious effects
some severe injury has caused, the gall-bladder be found torn,
the rent may be sewn up, or, if thought better, the gall-bladder
may be removed. The peritoneal surfaces in the region of the
liver should then be wiped clean, and the abdominal wound
closed, except for the passage through it of a gauze drain.
Biliary concretions, known as gall stones, are apt to form in
the gall-bladder. They are composed of crystals of bile-fat,
cholesterine. Sometimes in the course of a post-mortem ex-
amination a gall-bladder is found packed full of gall-stones
which during life had caused no inconvenience and had given rise
to no suspicion of their presence. In other cases gall-stones
set up irritation in the gall-bladder which runs on to inflamma-
tion, and the gall-bladder being infected by septic germs from
the intestine (bacilli coli) an abscess forms.
Abscess of the Gall-bladder gives rise to a painful, tender
swelling near the cartilage of the ninth rib of the right side.
If the abscess is allowed to take its course, adhesions may form
around it and it may burst into the intestine or on to the surface
of the abdomen, a biliary fistula remaining. Abscess in the
gall-bladder being suspected, an incision should be made down
to it, and, its covering having been stitched to the abdominal
wall, the gall-bladder should be opened and drained. The pres-
ence of concretions in the gall-bladder may not only lead to the
formation of abscess but also to invasion of the gall-bladder
by cancer.
Stones in the gall-bladder should be removed by operation,
as, if left, there is a great risk of their trying to escape with the
bile into the intestine and thus causing a blockage of the common
bile-duct, and perhaps a fatal leakage of bile into the peritoneum
through a perforating ulcer of the duct. If before opening the
gall-bladder the surface is stitched to the deepest part of the
abdominal wound, the biliary fistula left as the result of the
opening of the abscess will close in due course.
" Biliary colic " is the name given to the distressing symptoms
associated with the passage of a stone through the narrow bile-
duct. The individual is doubled up with acute pains which,
starting from the hepatic region, spread through the abdomen
and radiate to the right shoulder blade. Inasmuch as the stone
is blocking the duct, the bile is unable to flow into the intestine;
so, being absorbed by the blood-vessels, it gives rise to jaundice.
The distress is due to spasmodic muscular contraction, and it
comes on at intervals, each attack increasing the patient's
misery. He breaks out into profuse sweats and may vomit.
If the stone happily finds its way into the intestine the distress
suddenly ceases. In the meanwhile relief may be afforded by
fomentations, and by morphia or chloroform, but if no prospect
of the stone escaping into the intestine appears likely, the
surgeon will be called upon to remove it by an incision through
the gall-bladder, or the bile-duct, or through the intestine at
the spot where it is trying to make its escape. Sometimes
a gall-stone which has found its way into the intestine is large
enough to block the bowel and give rise to intestinal obstruction
which demands abdominal section.
A person who is of what used to be called a " biliary nature "
should live sparingly and take plenty of exercise. He should avoid
fat and rich food, butter, pastry and sauces, and should drink no
beer or wine — unless it be some very light French wine or Moselle.
He should keep his bowels regular, or even loose, taking every morning
a dose of sulphate of soda in a glass of hot water. A course at
Carlsbad, Vichy or Contrexeville, may be helpful. It is doubtful if
drugs have any direct influence upon gall-stones, such as sulphate of
soda, olive oil or oleate of soda. No reliance can be placed upon
massage in producing the onward passage of a gall-stone from the
gall-bladder towards the intestine. Indeed this treatment might be
not only distressing but harmful. (E. O.*)
LIVERMORE, MARY ASHTON [RICE] (1821-1905), American
reformer, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the igth of
December 1821. She studied at the female seminary at Charles-
town, Mass.; taught French and Latin there, taught in a
8 04
LIVERPOOL, EARLS OF— LIVERPOOL
plantation school in southern Virginia; and for three years
conducted a school of her own in Duxbury, Mass. Upon
returning from Virginia she had joined the abolitionists, and
she took an active part in the Washingtonian temperance
movement.1 In 1845 she married Daniel Parker Livermore
(1810-1899), a Universalist clergyman. In 1857 they removed
to Chicago, Illinois, where she assisted her husband in editing
the religious weekly, The New Covenant (1857-1869). During
the Civil War, as an associate member of the United States
Sanitary Commission,andasan agent of its North-western branch,
she organized many aid societies, contributed to the success
of the North-western Sanitary Fair in Chicago in 1863, and visited
army posts and hospitals. After the war she devoted herself
to the promotion of woman's suffrage and to temperance reform,
founding in Chicago in 1869 The Agitator, which in 1870 was
merged into the Woman's Journal (Boston), of which she was
an associate editor until 1872. She died in Melrose, Mass.
on the 23rd of May 1905. She had been president of
the Illinois, the Massachusetts and the American woman's
suffrage associations, the Massachusetts Woman's Christian
Temperance Union and the Woman's Congress, and a member
of many other societies. She lectured in the United States,
England and Scotland, contributed to magazines and wrote:
The Children's Army (1844), temperance stories; Thirty Years
Too Late (1848), a temperance story; A Mental Transformation
(1848); Pen Pictures (1863), short stories; What Shall We
Do With Our Daughters? and Other Lectures (1883); My Story
of the War (1888); and The Story of My Life (1897). With
Frances E. Willard, she edited A Woman of the Century: Bio-
graphical Sketches of Leading American Women (1893).
LIVERPOOL, EARLS OF. CHARLES JENKINSON, ist earl of
Liverpool (1729-1808), English statesman, eldest son of Colonel
Charles Jenkinson (d. 1750) and grandson of Sir Robert Jenkin-
son, Bart., of Walcot, Oxfordshire, was born at Winchester on
the 1 6th of May 1729. The family was descended from Anthony
Jenkinson (d. 1611), sea-captain, merchant and traveller, the
first Englishman to penetrate into Central Asia. Charles was
educated at Charterhouse school and University College, Oxford,
where he graduated M.A. in 1752. In 1761 he entered parlia-
ment as member for Cockermouth and was made under-secretary
of state by Lord Bute; he won the favour of George III., and
when Bute retired Jenkinson became the leader of the " king's
friends " in the House of Commons. In 1763 George Grenville
appointed him joint secretary to the treasury; in 1766, after a
short retirement, he became a lord of the admiralty and then a
lord of the treasury in the Graf ton administration; and from
1778 until the close of Lord North's ministry in 1782 he was
secretary-at-war. From 1786 to 1801 he was president of the
board of trade and chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and he
was popularly regarded as enjoying the confidence of the king to a
special degree. In 1772 Jenkinson became a privy councillor
and vice-treasurer of Ireland, and in 1775 he purchased the
lucrative sinecure of clerk of the pells in Ireland and became
master of the mint. In 1786 he was created Baron Hawkesbury,
and ten years later earl of Liverpool. He died in London on the
1 7th of December 1808. Liverpool was twice married: firstly
to Amelia (d. 1770), daughter of William Watts, governor of
Fort William, Bengal, and secondly to Catherine, daughter of
Sir Cecil Bisshoff, Bart., and widow of Sir Charles Cope, Bart.;
he had a son by each marriage. He wrote several political works,
but except his Treatise on the Coins of the Realm (1805) these are
without striking merits. They are, Dissertation on the establish-
ment of a national and constitutional force in England independent
of a standing army (1756); Discourse on the conduct of the govern-
ment of Great Britain respecting neutral nations (1758, new ed.,
!837); and Collection of Treaties between Great Britain and other
1 This movement was started in 1840 by habitues of a Baltimore
(Md.) tavern, who then founded the Washington Temperance
Society (named in honour of George Washington). The movement
spread rapidly in 1841-1843, but by the close of 1843 it had nearly
bpent its force. The members of the Society made a pledge not to
drink spirituous or malt liquors, wine or cider. Women organized
Martha Washington Societies as auxiliary organizations.
Powers 1648-1783 (1785). His Coins of the Realm was reprinted
by the Bank of England in 1880.
His son, ROBERT BANKS JENKINSON, 2nd earl (1770-1828), was
educated at Charterhouse and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he
had George Canning, afterwards his close political associate,
for a contemporary. In 1790 he entered parliament as member
for Appleby; he became master of the mint in 1799 and foreign
secretary in Addington's administration in 1801, when he
conducted the negotiations for the abortive treaty of Amiens.
On the accession of Pitt to power in 1804, he obtained the home
office, having in the previous year been elevated as Baron
Hawkesbury to the House of Lords, where he acted as leader
of the government. He declined the premiership on the death
of Pitt in 1806, and remained out of office until Portland became
prime minister in 1807, when he again became secretary of state
for home affairs. In 1808 he succeeded his father as earl of
Liverpool. In the ministry of Spencer Perceval (1809-1812) he
was secretary for war and the colonies. After the assassination
of Perceval in May 1812 he became prime minister, and retained
office till compelled in February 1827 to resign by the illness
(paralysis) which terminated his life on the 4th of December 1828.
The political career of the 2nd Lord Liverpool was of a negative
character so far as legislation was concerned; but he held office
in years of great danger and depression, during which he " kept
order among his colleagues, composed their quarrels, and oiled
the wheels to make it possible for the machinery of government
to work" (Spencer Walpole). The energy of Castlereagh and
Canning secured the success of the foreign policy of his cabinet,
but in his home policy he was always retrograde. The introduc-
tion of the bill of pains and penalties against Queen Caroline
greatly increased his unpopularity, originated by the severe
measures of repression employed to quell the general distress,
which had been created by the excessive taxation which followed
the Napoleonic wars. Lord Liverpool was destitute of wide
sympathies and of true political insight, and his resignation of
office was followed almost immediately by the complete and
permanent reversal of his domestic policy. He was twice
married but had no children, and he was succeeded by his half-
brother CHARLES CECIL COPE JENKINSON, 3rd earl (1784-1851),
who left three daughters. The baronetcy then passed to a cousin,
and the peerage became extinct. But in 1905 the earldom was
revived in the person of the 3rd earl's grandson, CECIL GEORGE
SAVILE FOLJAMBE (1846-1907), who had been a Liberal member
of parliament from 1880 to 1892, and in 1893 was created Baron
Hawkesbury. He was succeeded in 1907 by his son, Arthur
(b.i87o).
For the life of the 2nd earl see the anonymous Memoirs of the
Public Life and Administration of Liverpool (1827); C. D. Yonge,
Life and Administration of the 2nd Earl of_ Liverpool (1868); T. E.
Kebbel, History of Toryism (1886); and Sir S. Walpole, History of
England, vol. ii. (1890).
LIVERPOOL, a city, municipal, county and parliamentary
borough, and seaport of Lancashire, England, 201 m. N.W. of
London by rail, situated on the right bank of the estuary of the
Mersey, the centre of the city being about 3 m. from the open
sea. The form of the city is that of an irregular semicircle, having
the base line formed by the docks and quays extending about
9 m. along the east bank of the estuary, which here runs nearly
north and south, and varies in breadth from i to 2 m. On the
north the city is partly bounded by the borough of Bootle, along
the shore of which the line of docks is continued. The area of the
city is 16,619 acres exclusive of water area. The population at
the census of 1901 was 684,958; the estimated population in
1908 was 753,203; the birth-rate for 1907 was 31-7 and the
death-rate 18-3; in 1908 the rateable value was £4,679,520.
The city lies on a continuous slope varying in gradient, but
in some districts very steep. Exposed to the western sea breezes,
with a dry subsoil and excellent natural drainage, the site is
naturally healthy. The old borough, lying between the pool,
now completely obliterated, and the river, was a conglomeration
of narrow alleys without any regard to sanitary provisions; and
during the i6th and I7th centuries it was several times visited
by plague. When the town expanded beyond its original limits,
LIVERPOOL
805
and spread up the slopes beyond the pool, a better state of things
began to exist. The older parts of the town have at successive
periods been entirely taken down and renovated. The com-
mercial part of the city is remarkable for the number of palatial
piles of offices, built chiefly of stone, among which the banks and
insurance offices stand pre-eminent. The demand for cottages
about the beginning of the igth century led to the construction
of what are called " courts," being narrow cuts de sac, close
packed, with no through ventilation. This resulted in a high rate
of mortality, to contend with which enormous sums have been
expended in sanitary reforms of various kinds. The more modern
cottages and blocks of artisan dwellings have tended to reduce
the rate of mortality.
Parks. — The earliest public park, the Prince's Park, was laid
out in 1843 by private enterprise, and is. owned by trustees, but
the reversion has been acquired by the corporation. Sefton Park,
the most extensive, containing 269 acres, was opened in 1872.
A large portion of the land round the margin has been leased for
the erection of villas. Wavertree, Newsham, Sheil and Stanley
Parks have also been constructed at the public expense. Con-
nected with Wavertree Park are the botanic gardens. A palm
house in Sefton Park was opened in 1896 and
a conservatory in Stanley Park in 1900. Since
1882 several of the city churchyards and
burial grounds and many open spaces have
been laid out as gardens and recreation
grounds. A playground containing 108 acres
in Wavertree was presented to the city in
1895 by an anonymous donor, and in 1902 the
grounds of a private residence outside the city
boundaries containing 94 acres were acquired
and are now known as Calderstones Park. In
1906 about 100 acres of land in Roby, also
outside the boundaries, was presented to the
city. The total area of the parks and gardens
of the city, not including the two last named,
is 8815 acres. A boulevard about i m. in
length, planted with trees in the centre, leads
to the entrance of Prince's Park.
Public Buildings. — Scarcely any of the public
buildings date from an earlier period than the
igth century. One of the earliest, and in many
respects the most interesting, is the town-hall
in Castle Street. This was erected from the
designs of John Wood of Bath, and was opened
in 1754. The building has since undergone
considerable alterations and extensions, but
the main features remain. It is a rectangular
stone building in the Corinthian style, with an
advanced portico added to the original build-
ing in 1811, and crowned with a lofty dome
surmounted by a seated statue of Britannia,
added in 1802. The interior was destroyed
by fire in 1795, and was entirely remodelled in
tne restoration. In 1900 considerable altera-
tions in the internal structure were made, and
the council chamber extended so as to afford
accommodation for the enlarged council. It
contains a splendid suite of apartments, includ-
ing a ball-room approached by a noble stair-
case. The building is occupied by the mayor
as the municipal mansion house. A range of
municipal offices was erected in Dale Street
in 1860. The building is in the Palladian style,
with a dominating tower and square pyramidal
spire.
The crowning architectural feature of Liver-
pool is St George's Hall, completed in 1854.
The original intention was to erect a hall
suited for the triennial music festivals which
had been held in the town. About the same
time the corporation proposed to erect law-
courts for the assizes, which had been trans-
ferred to Liverpool and Manchester. In the
competitive designs, the first prize was gained
in both cases by Harvey Lonsdale Elmes.
He was employed to combine the two objects
in a new design, of which the present building
is the outcome. It is fortunate in its situation, occupying
the most central position in the town, and surrounded by
an area sufficiently extensive to exhibit its proportions, an
advantage which was accentuated in 1898 by the removal of
St John's church, which previously prevented an uninterrupted
view of the west side. The plan is simple. The centre is
occupied by the great hall, 169 ft. in length, and, with the
galleries, 87 ft. wide and 74 ft. high, covered with a soh'd vault
in masonry. Attached to each end, and opening therefrom,
8o6
LIVERPOOL
are the law-courts. A corridor runs round the hall and the
courts, communicating with the various accessory rooms.
Externally the east front is faced with a fine portico of sixteen
Corinthian columns about 60 ft. in height. An advanced portico
of similar columns fronts the south end crowned with a pediment
filled with sculpture. The style is Roman, but the refinement of
tb-; details is suggestive of the best period of Grecian art. The
great hall is finished with polished granite columns, marble
balustrades and pavements, polished brass doors with foliated
tracery. The fine organ was built by Messrs Willis of London,
from the specification of Dr Samuel Wesley. Elmes having
died in 1847 during the progress of the work, the building was
completed by C. R. Cockerell, R.A.
Next to the public buildings belonging to the city, the most
important is the exchange, forming three sides of a quadrangle
on the north side of the town-hall. The town-hall was originally
built to combine a mercantile exchange with municipal offices,
but the merchants preferred to meet in the open street adjoining.
This, with other circumstances, led to the erection of a new
exchange, a building of considerable merit, which was begun
in 1803 and opened in 1808. It had scarcely been in use for more
than fifty years when it was found that the wants of commerce
had outstripped the accommodation, and the structure was taken
down to make room for the present building.
The revenue buildings, begun in 1828 on the site of the original
Liverpool dock, formerly combined the customs, inland revenue,
post-office and dock board departments but are now only used
by the two first named. It is a heavy structure, with three
advanced porticoes in the Ilyssus Ionic style. Near by stands
the sailors' home, a large building in the Elizabethan style.
The Philharmonic Hall in Hope Street, with not much pretension
externally, is one of the finest music rooms in the kingdom;
it accommodates an audience of about 2500.
The group of buildings forming the county sessions house,
the free public library, museum, central technical school and
gallery of art are finely situated on the slope to the north of St
George's Hall. The library and gallery of art are separate build-
ings, connected by the circular reading-room in the middle. The
latter possesses some features in construction worthy of note,
having a circular floor too ft. in diameter without columns or
any intermediate support, and a lecture-room underneath,
amphitheatrical in form, with grades or benches hewn out of the
solid rock. In 1884 the county sessions house just mentioned,
adjoining the art gallery was opened for public business. In
1899 new post-office buildings in Victoria Street were completed.
In 1907 two important additions were made to the buildings
of Liverpool, the new offices of the dock board, built on the site
of a portion of the Old George's dock, and the new cotton
exchange in Oldhall street. The fine mass of buildings which
constitute the university and the Royal Infirmary, lying between
Brownlow Hill and Pembroke Place, both groups designed by
Alfred Waterhouse, was begun in 1885.
Liverpool cathedral, intended when completed to be the
largest in the country, from designs by G. F. Bodley and G.
Gilbert Scott, was begun in 1904, when the foundation stone
was laid by King Edward VII. The foundations were completed
in 1906 and the superstructure begun. The foundation of
the chapter-house was laid in that year by the duke of
Connaught, and work was then begun on the Lady chapel, the
vestries and the choir.
Railways. — There are three terminal passenger stations in Liver-
pool, the London & North Western at Lime Street, the Lancashire &
Yorkshire at Exchange and the combined station of the Midland,
Great Northern & Great Central at Central. By the Mersey tunnel
(opened in 1886) connexion is made with the Wirral railway, the
Great Central, the Great Western and the London & North Western,
on the Cheshire side of the river. The Liverpool electric overhead
railway running along the line of docks from Seaforth to Dingle was
opened in 1893, and in 1905 a junction was made with the Lancashire
and Yorkshire railway by which through passenger traffic between
Southport and the Dingle has been established. In 1895 the River-
side station at the Prince's dock was completed, giving direct access
from the landing stage to the London and North Western system.
Water Supply. — The original supply of water was from wells in the
sandstone rock, but in 1847 an act was passed, under which extensive
works were constructed at Rivington, about 25 m. distant, and a
much larger supply was obtained. The vast increase of population
led to further requirements, and in 1880 another act gave power to
impound the waters of the Vyrnwy, one of the affluents of the
Severn. These works were completed in 1892, a temporary supply
having been obtained a year earlier. The corporation had also,
however, obtained power to impound the waters of the Conwy and
Marchnant rivers, and to bring them into Lake Vyrnwy, the main
reservoir, by means of tunnels. This work was completed and
opened by the prince of Wales (George V.)in March 1910.
Tramways. — The corporation in 1896 purchased the property,
rights, powers and privileges of the Liverpool Electric Supply
Company, and in the following year the undertaking of the Liverpool
Tramway Company, which they formally took over in the autumn
of the same year. Since that date a large and extended system
of electric tramways has been laid down, which has led to a very
remarkable increase in the receipts and the number of passengers
carried.
Administration of Justice. — The city has quarter-sessions for
criminal cases, presided over by the recorder, and held eight times
in the year. At least two police courts sit daily, and more if required.
One is presided over by the stipendiary magistrate and the others by
the lay magistrates and the coroner. The court of passage is a very
ancient institution, possibly dating from the foundation of the
borough by King John, and intended for cases arising out of the
imports and exports passing through the town. Its jurisdiction, has
been confirmed and settled by parliament and it is competent to try
civil cases arising within the city to any amount. The mayor is
ex-officio the judge, but the presiding judge is an assessor appointed
by the crown and paid by the corporation. The court sits about five
times a year. There is a Liverpool district registry of the chancery
of the County Palatine of Lancaster which has concurrent juris-
diction with the high court (chancery division) within the hundred
of West Derby. The vice-chancellor holds sittings in Liverpool.
There is a Liverpool district registry of the high court of justice
with common law, chancery, probate and admiralty jurisdiction,
under two district registrars. The Liverpool county court has the
usual limited jurisdiction over a wide local area, together with
bankruptcy jurisdiction over the county court districts of St Helens,
Widnes, Ormskirk and Southport, and admiralty jurisdiction over the
same districts with the addition of Birkenhead, Chester, Runcorn
and Warrington. There are two judges attached to the court.
Ecclesiastical. — The see of Liverpool was created in 1880 under the
act of 1879, by the authority of the ecclesiastical commissioners, an
endowment fund of about £100,000 having been subscribed for the
purpose. The parish, which was separated from Walton-on-the-Hill
in 1699, contained two churches, St Nicholas, the ancient chapel,
and St Peter's, then built. There were two rectors, the living being
held in medieties. Of recent years changes have been sanctioned by
parliament. The living is now held by a single incumbent, and a
large number of the churches which have since been built have been
formed into parishes by the ecclesiastical commissioners. St Peter's
has been constituted the pro-cathedral, pending the erection of the
cathedral. Besides the two original parish churches, there are 103
others belonging to the establishment. The Roman Catholics form
a very numerous and powerful body in the city, and it is estimated
that from a third to a fourth of the entire population are Roman
Catholics. A large part of these are Irish settlers or their descend-
ants, but this district of Lancashire has always been a stronghold of
Roman Catholicism, many of the landed gentry belonging to old
Roman Catholic families.
Charities. — The earliest charitable foundation is the Blue Coat
hospital, established in 1708, for orphans and fatherless children born
within the borough. The original building, opened in 1718, is a
quaint and characteristic specimen of the architecture of the period.
It now maintains two hundred and fifty boys and one hundred girls.
In 1906 the school was removed to new buildings at Wayertree.
There is an orphan asylum, established in 1840, for boys, girls and
infants, and a seamen's orphan asylum, begun in 1869, for boys and
Eirls. The Roman Catholics have similar establishments. The
iverpool dispensaries founded in 1778 were among the pioneers of
medical charity. The Royal Infirmary (opened in 1749) had a
school of medicine attached, which has been very successful, and is
now merged in the university. The sailors' home, opened in 1852,
designed to provide board, lodging and medical attendance at a
moderate charge for the seamen frequenting the port, is one of
Liverpool's best-known charities. The David Lewis Workmen's
Hostel is an effort to solve the difficulty of providing accommodation
for unmarried men of the artizan class.
Literature, Art and Science. — The free library, museum and gallery
of arts, established and managed by the city council, was originated
in 1850. The first library building was erected by Sir William
Brown. The Derby museum, containing the collections of Edward,
the I ^th earl, was presented by his son. The Mayer museum of
being again defrayed by Sir Andrew Walker. An annual exhibition
of painting is held in the autumn and a permanent collection has been
formed, which was augmented in 1894 when the examples of early
LIVERPOOL
807
Italian art numbering altogether about 180 pictures, collected at the
beginning of the igth century by William Roscoe, were deposited in
the gallery. The Picton circular reading-room, and the rotunda
lecture-room were built by the corporation and opened in 1879.
'Alterations in the museum were completed in 1902 by which its size
was practically doubled. The literary and philosophical society was
established in 1812. The Royal Institution, established mainly
through the efforts of Roscoe in 1817, possessed a fine gallery of
early art in the Walker Art Gallery, and is the centre of the literary
institutions of the town.
Education. — Sunday schools were founded for poor children in
1784, as the result of a town's meeting. These were soon followed
by day-schools supplied by the various denominations. The first
were the Old Church schools in Moorfields (1789), the Unitarian
schools in Mount Pleasant (1790) and Manesty Lane (1792) and the
Wesleyan Brunswick school (1790). In 1826 the corporation founded
two elementary schools, one of which, the North Corporation school,
was erected in part substitution for the grammar school founded by
John Crosse, rector of St Nicholas Fleshshambles, London, a native
of Liverpool, in 1515, and carried on by the Corporation until 1815.
From this date onward the number rapidly increased until the
beginning of the School Board in 1870, and afterwards. Mention
should be made of the training ship " Indefatigable " moored in the
Mersey for the sons and orphans of sailors, and the reformatory
institution at Heswall, Co. Chester, which has recently replaced the
training ship " Akbar " formerly moored in the Mersey. Semi-
private schools were founded by public subscription — the Royal
Institution school (1819), the Liverpool Institute (1825) and the
Liverpool College (1840). The first has ceased to exist. The
Institute was a development of the Mechanics' Institute and was
managed by a council of subscribers. It was divided into a high
school and a commercial school. Under a scheme of the Board of
Education under the Charitable Trusts Act this school, together with
the Blackburne House high school for girls, became a public secondary
school and was handed over to the corporation in 1905. Liverpool
College was formerly divided into three schools, upper, middle and
lower, for different classes of the community. The middle and lower
schools passed into the control of the corporation in 1907. The
Sefton Park elementary school and the Pupil Teachers' College in
Clarence Street were transformed into municipal secondary schools
for boys and girls in 1907 .the corporation has also a secondary
school for girls at Aigburth. There are several schools maintained
by the Roman Catholics, two schools of the Girls' Public Day School
Company and a large number of private schools. A cadet ship, the
" Conway," for the training of boys intending to become officers in
the mercantile marine, is moored in the Mersey. There are two
training colleges for women, one undenominational, and the other
conducted by the sisters of Notre Dame for Roman Catholic women.
The central municipal technical school is in the Museum Buildings,
and there are three branch technical schools. There are also a
nautical college, a school of cookery and a school of art controlled
by the Education Committee.
Liverpool University, as University College, received its charter
of incorporation in 1881, and in 1884 was admitted as a college of the
Victoria University. In the same year the medical school of the
Royal Infirmary became part of the University College. In 1900
a supplemental charter extended the powers of self-government and
brought the college into closer relations with the authorities of the
city and with local institutions by providing for their fuller repre-
sentation on the court of governors. In 1903 the charter of incorpora-
tion of the university of Liverpool was received, thus constituting
it an independent university. The university is governed by the
king as visitor, by a chancellor, two pro-chancellors, a vice-chancellor
and a treasurer, by a court of over 300 members representing donors
and public bodies, a council, senate, faculties and convocation.
The fine group of buildings is situated on Brownlow Hill.
Trade and Commerce. — In 1800 the tonnage of ships entering the
port was 450,060; in 1908 it reached 17,111,814 tons. In 1800 4746
vessels entered, averaging 94 tons; in 1908 there were 25,739,
averaging 665 tons. The commerce of Liverpool extends to every
part of the world, but probably the intercourse with North America
stands pre-eminent, there being lines of steamers to New York,
Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore, Galveston, New Orleans and .the
Canadian ports. Cotton is the great staple import. Grain comes
next, American (North and South) and Australian wheat and oats
occupying a large proportion of the market. An enormous trade in
American provisions, including live cattle, is carried on. Tobacco
has always been a leading article of import into Liverpool, along
with the sugar and rum from the West Indies. Timber forms an
important part of the imports, the stacking yards extending for
miles along the northern docks. In regard to exports, Liverpool
possesses decided advantages ; lying so near the great manufacturing
districts of Lancashire and the West Riding of Yorkshire, this port is
the natural channel of transmission for their goods, although the
Manchester ship canal diverts a certain proportion of the traffic,
while coal and salt are also largely exported.
Manufactures. — The manufactures of Liverpool are not extensive.
Attempts have been repeatedly made to establish cotton mills in and
near the city, but have resulted in failure. Engineering works,
especially connected with marine navigation, have grown up on a
large scale. Shipbuilding, in the early part of the igth century, was
active and prosperous, but has practically ceased. During the latter
half of the i8th century and the beginning of the I9th, gottery and
china manufacture flourished in Liverpooj. John Sadler, a Liverpool
manufacturer, was the inventor of printing on pottery, and during
the early period of Josiah Wedgwood's career all his goods which re-
quired printing had to be sent to Liverpool. A large establishment,
called the Herculaneum Pottery, was founded in a suburb on the
bank of the Mersey, but the trade has long disappeared. Litherland,
the inventor of the lever watch, was a Liverpool manufacturer, and
Liverpool-made watches have always been held in high estimation.
There are several extensive sugar refineries and corn mills. The
confectionery trade has developed during recent years, several large
works having been built, induced by the prospect of obtaining cheap
sugar directly from the Liverpool quays. The cutting, blending and
preparing of crude tobacco have led to the erection of factories
employing some thousands of hands. There are also large mills for
oil-pressing and making cattle-cake.
Docks. — The docks of the port of Liverpool on both sides of
the Mersey are owned and managed by the same public trust,
the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board. On the Liverpool side
they extend along the margin of the estuary b\ m., of which i j m.
is in the borough of Bootle. The Birkenhead docks have not
such a frontage, but they extend a long way backward. The
water area of the Liverpool docks and basins is 418 acres, with
a lineal quayage of 27 m. The Birkenhead docks, including the
great float of 120 acres, contain a water area of 165 acres, with
a lineal quayage of 95 m. The system of enclosed docks was
begun by the corporation in 1709. They constituted from
the first a public trust, the corporation never having derived
any direct revenue from them, though the common council of
the borough were the trustees, and in the first instance formed
the committee of management. Gradually the payers of dock
rates on ships and goods acquired influence, and were introduced
into the governing body, and ultimately, by an act of 1857, the
corporation was superseded. The management is vested in the
Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, consisting of twenty-eight
members, four of whom are nominated 'by the Mersey Con-
servancy commissioners, who consist of the first lord of the
Admiralty, the chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster and the
president of the Board of Trade, and the rest elected by the
payers of rates on ships and goods, of whom a register is kept
and annually revised. The revenue is derived from tonnage
rates on ships, dock rates on goods, town dues on goods, with
various minor sources of income.
Down to 1843 the docks were confined to the Liverpool side
of the Mersey. Several attempts made to establish docks in
Cheshire had been frustrated by the Liverpool corporation,
who bought up the land and kept it in their own hands. In
1843, however, a scheme for docks in Birkenhead was carried
through which ultimately proved unsuccessful, and the enterprise
was acquired in 1855 by Liverpool. The Birkenhead docks were
for many years only partially used, but are now an important
centre for corn-milling, the importation of foreign cattle and
export trade to the East. In addition to the wet docks, there
are in Liverpool fourteen graving docks and three in Birkenhead,
besides a gridiron on the Liverpool side.
The first portion of the great landing stage, known as the
Georges' stage, was constructed in 1847, from the plans of Mr
(afterwards Sir) William Cubitt, F.R.S. This was 500 ft. long. In
1857 the Prince's stage, 1000 ft. long, was built to the north of the
Georges' stage and distant from it 500 ft. In 1874 the intervening
space was filled up and the Georges' stage reconstructed. The
fabric had just been completed, and was waiting to be inaugurated,
when on the 28th of July 1874 it was destroyed by fire. It was
again constructed with improvements. In 1896 it was farther
extended to the north, and its length is now 2478 ft. and its
breadth 80 ft. It is supported on floating pontoons about 200
in number, connected with the river wall by eight bridges, besides
a floating bridge for heavy traffic 550 ft. in length and 35 ft.
in width. The southern half is devoted to the traffic of the Mersey
ferries, of which there are seven — New Brighton, Egremont,
Seacombe, Birkenhead, Rock Ferry, New Ferry and Eastham.
The northern half is used by ocean-going steamers and their
tenders. The warehouses for storing produce form a prominent
feature in the commercial part of the city. Down to 1841
8o8
LIVERPOOL
these were entirely in private hands, distributed as chance
might direct, but in that year a determined effort was made
to construct docks with warehouses on the margin of the quays.
This met with considerable opposition from those interested,
and led to a municipal revolution, but the project was ultimately
carried out in the construction of the Albert dock and ware-
houses, which were opened by Prince Albert in 1845. For
general produce these warehouses are falling somewhat into
disuse, but grain warehouses have been constructed by the
dock board at Liverpool and Birkenhead, with machinery for
discharging, elevating, distributing, drying and delivering.
Warehouses for the storage of tobacco and wool have also
been built by the board. The Stanley tobacco warehouse is the
largest of its kind in the world, the area of its fourteen floors
being some 36 acres.
Dredging operations at the bar of the Queen's channel, in the
channel itself and at the landing stage enables the largest ocean
liners to enter the river and approach the stage at practically all
states of the tide. The dredging at the bar was begun as an experi-
ment in September 1890 by two of the board's ordinary hopper
barges of 500 tons capacity each fitted with centrifugal pumps. The
result was favourable, and larger vessels have been introduced.
Before dredging was begun the depth of water at dead low water of
spring tides on the bar was only n ft.; now there is about 28 ft.
under the same conditions. The space over which dredging has been
carried on at the bar measures about 7000 ft. by 1250 ft., the latter
being the average width of the buoyed cut or channel through the
bar. Dredging has also taken place on shoals and projections of
sand-banks in the main sea channels.
Municipality. — Under the Municipal Reform Act of 1835,
the boundaries of the original borough were extended by the
annexation of portions of the surrounding district, while further
additions were made in 1895, 1902 and 1905. The city is divided
into thirty-five wards with 103 councillors and 34 aldermen.
In 1893 the title of mayor was raised to that of lord mayor.
In 1885 the number of members of parliament was increased
to nine by the creation of six new wards. The corporation of
Liverpool has possessed from a very early period considerable
landed property, the first grant having been made by Thomas,
earl of Lancaster, in 1309.. This land was originally of value
only as a source of supply of turf for firing, but in modern times
its capacity as building land has been a fruitful source of profit
to the town. A large proportion of the southern district is held
in freehold by the corporation and leased to tenants for terms
of seventy-five years, renewable from time to time on a fixed
scale of fines. There was formerly another source of income now
cut off. The fee farm rents and town dues originally belonging
to the crown were purchased from the Molyneux family in 1672
on a long lease, and subsequently in 1777 converted into a
perpetuity. With the growth of the commerce of the port these
dues enormously increased, and became a cause of great com-
plaint by the shipping interest. In 1856 a bill was introduced
into parliament, and passed, by which the town dues were
transferred to the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board on payment
of £1,500,000, which was applied in part to the liquidation of the
bonded debt of the corporation, amounting to £1,150,000.
History.— During the Norse irruption of the 8th century
colonies of Norsemen settled on both sides of the Mersey, as is
indicated by some of the place-names. After the Conquest,
the site of Liverpool formed part of the fief (inter Ripam et
Mersham) granted by the Conqueror to Roger de Poictou, one
of the great family of Montgomery. Although Liverpool is
not named in Domesday it is believed to have been one of the
six berewicks dependent on the manor of West Derby therein
mentioned. After various forfeitures and regrants from the
crown, it was handed over by Henry II. to his falconer Warine.
In a deed executed by King John, then earl of Mortain, about
1191, confirming the grant of this with other manors to Henry
Fitzwarine, son of the former grantee, the name of Liverpool
first occurs. Probably its most plausible derivation is from the
Norse HlUhar-pollr, "the pool of the slopes," the pool or inlet
at the mouth of which the village grew up being surrounded
by gently rising slopes. Another possible derivation is from
the Prov. E. lever, the yellow flag or rush, A.S. laefer.
After the partial conquest of Ireland by Strongbow, earl of
Pembroke, under Henry II., the principal ports of communication
were Bristol for the south and Chester for the north. The gradual
silting up of the river Dee soon so obstructed the navigation as
to render Chester unsuitable. A quay was then constructed
at Shotwick, about 8 m. below Chester, with a castle to protect
it from the incursions of the neighbouring Welsh; but a better
site was sought and soon found. Into the tidal waters of the
Mersey a small stream, fed by a peat moss on the elevated land
to the eastward, ran from north-east to south-west, forming at
its mouth an open pool or sea lake, of which many existed on
both sides of the river. The triangular piece of land thus
separated formed a promontory of red sandstone rock, rising in
the centre about 50 ft. above the sea-level, sloping on three
sides to the water. The pool was admirably adapted as a harbour
for the vessels of that period, being well protected, and the tide
rising from 15 to 21 ft. King John repurchased the manor from
Henry Fitzwarine, giving him other lands in exchange. Here he
founded a borough, and by letters patent dated at Winchester,
28th of August 1207, invited his subjects to take up burgages.
From the patent rolls and the sheriff's accounts it appears
that considerable use was made of Liverpool in the I3th
century for shipping stores and reinforcements to Ireland
and Wales.
In 1229 a charter was granted by Henry III., authorizing the
formation of a merchants' gild, with hanse and other liberties
and free customs, with freedom from toll throughout the kingdom.
Charters were subsequently granted by successive monarchs
down to the reign of William and Mary, which last was the
governing charter to the date of the Municipal Reform Act
(1835). In 1880 when the diocese of Liverpool was created, the
borough was transformed into a city by royal charter.
The crown revenues from the burgage rents and the royal
customs were leased in fee-farm from time to time, sometimes
to the corporation, at other times to private persons. The
first lease was from Henry III., in 1229, at £10 per annum. In
the same year the borough, with all its appurtenances, was
bestowed with other lands on Ranulf, earl of Chester, from whom
it passed to his brother-in-law William de Ferrers, earl of Derby,
who seems to have built Liverpool castle between 1232 and
1237. His grandson, Robert de Ferrers, was implicated in the
rising of Simon de Montfort and his lands were confiscated in
1266 when Liverpool passed into the hands of Edmund, earl
of Lancaster. Ultimately Liverpool again became the property
of the crown, when Henry IV. inherited it from his father John
of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. In 1628 Charles I., in great straits
for means which were refused by parliament, offered for sale
about a thousand manors, among which Liverpool was included.
The portion containing Liverpool was purchased by certain
merchants of London, who, in 1635, reconveyed the crown
rights, including the fee-farm rent of £14, 6s. 8d., to Sir Richard
Molyneux, then recently created Viscount Molyneux of Mary-
borough, for the sum of £450. In 1672 all these rights and
interests were acquired by the corporation.
Apart from the national objects for which Liverpool was
founded, its trade developed slowly. From £10 per annum,
in the beginning of the i3th century, the crown revenues had
increased towards the end of the i4th century, to £38; but
then they underwent a decline. The black death passed over
Liverpool about 1360, and carried off a large part of the popula-
tion. The Wars of the Roses in the isth century unsettled the
north-western districts and retarded progress for at least a
century. The crown revenues diminished from £38 to less
than half that sum, and were finally leased at £14, 6s. 8d., at
which they continued until the sale by Charles I. It is, however,
not safe to conclude that the reduced fee-farm rent represents
an equivalent decline in prosperity; the privileges conferred
by the various leases differed widely and may account for much
of the apparent discrepancy.
Liverpool sent no representatives to Simon de Montfort's
parliament in 1264, but to the first royal parliament, summoned
in 1295, the borough sent two members, and again in 1307.
LIVERSEDGE— LIVERY COMPANIES
809
The writs of summons were then suspended for two centuries
and a half. In 1547 Liverpool resumed the privilege of returning
members. In 1588 the borough was represented by Francis
Bacon, the philosopher and statesman. During the Civil War
the town was fortified and garrisoned by the parliament. It
sustained three sieges, and in 1644 was escaladed and taken by
Prince Rupert with considerable slaughter.
The true rise of the commerce of Liverpool dates from the
Restoration. Down to that period its population had been
either stationary or retrogressive, probably never exceeding
about 1000. Its trade was chiefly with Ireland, France and
Spain, exporting fish and wool to the continent, and importing
wines, iron and other commodities. The rise of the manufactur-
ing industry of south Lancashire, and the opening of the American
and West Indian trade, gave the first impulse to the progress
which has since continued. By the end of the century the
population had increased to 5000. In 1699 the borough was
constituted a parish distinct from Walton, to which it had
previously appertained. In 1709, the small existing harbour
being found insufficient to accommodate the shipping, several
schemes were propounded for its enlargement, which resulted
in the construction of a wet dock closed with flood-gates im-
pounding the water, so as to keep the vessels floating during the
recess of the tide. This dock was the first of its kind. The
name of the engineer was Thomas Steers.
About this date the merchants of Liverpool entered upon
the slave trade, into which they were led by their connexion with
the West Indies. In 1709 a single vessel of 30 tons burden made
a venture from Liverpool and carried fifteen slaves across the
Atlantic. In 1730, encouraged by parliament, Liverpool went
heartily into the new trade. In 1751, fifty-three ships sailed
from Liverpool for Africa, of 5334 tons in the aggregate. The
ships sailed first to the west coast of Africa, where they shipped
the slaves, and thence to the West India Islands, where the slaves
were sold and the proceeds brought home in cargoes of sugar
and rum. In 1765 the number of Liverpool slavers had in-
creased to eighty-six, carrying 24,200 slaves. By the end of the
century five-sixths of the African trade centred in Liverpool.
Just before its abolition in 1807 the number of Liverpool ships
engaged in the traffic was 185, carrying 49,213 slaves in the
year.
Another branch of maritime enterprise which attracted the
attention of the merchants of Liverpool was privateering,
which, during the latter half of the i8th century, was a favourite
investment. After the outbreak of the Seven Years' War with
France and Spain, in 1756, the commerce of Liverpool suffered
severely, the French having overrun the narrow seas with
privateers, and the premiums for insurance against sea risks
rose to an amount almost prohibitive. The Liverpool merchants
took a lesson from the enemy, and armed and sent out their
ships as privateers. Some of the early expeditions proving
very successful, almost the whole community rushed into priva-
teering, with results of a very chequered character. When
the War of Independence broke out in 1775 American privateers
swarmed about the West India Islands, and crossing the Atlantic
intercepted British commerce in the narrow seas. The Liverpool
merchants again turned their attention to retaliation. Between
August 1778 and April 1779, 120 privateers were fitted out in
Liverpool, carrying 1986 guns and 8745 men.
See W. Enfield, Hist, of Liverpool (1773); J. Aikin, Forty Miles
round Manchester (1795); T. Troughton, Hist, of Liverpool (1810);
M. Gregson, Portfolio of Fragments relating to Hist, of Lancashire
(1817); H. Smithers, Liverpool, its Commerce, &c. (1825); R. Syers,
Hist, of Ever ton (1830); E. Baines, Hist, of County Palatine of
Lancaster, vol. iv. (1836); T. Baines, Hist, of Commerce and Town
of Liverpool (1852); R. Brooke, Liverpool during the last quarter of
i8th Century (1853); J. A. Picton, Memorials of Liverpool (2 vols.,
1873); Ramsay Muir and Edith M. Platt, A History of Municipal
Government in Liverpool (1906) ; Ramsay Muir, A History of Liver-
pool (1907). (W. F. I.)
LIVERSEDGE, an urban district in the Spen Valley parlia-
mentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England,
7 m. S.S.E. of Bradford, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire,
Great Nothern, and London & North Western railways. Pop.
(1901) 13,980. The industries are chiefly the manufacture
of woollen goods, the making of machinery, chemical manu-
factures and coal mining.
LIVERY, originally the provision of food, clothing, &c., to
household servants. The word is an adaptation of the Anglo-
French liwee, from livrer, to deliver (Late Lat. liberare, to set
free, to serve, to give freely), in the special sense of distributing.
In the sense of a fixed allowance of provender for horses, it sur-
vives now only in "livery-stable," i.e. an establishment where
horses and carriages are kept or let out for hire. From the
meaning of provision of food and clothing the word is applied to
a uniform worn by the retainers and servants of a household.
In the 1 5th century in England a badge, collar or other insignia,
the "livery," was worn by all those who pledged themselves
to support one of the great barons in return for his promise of
"maintenance," i.e. of protection against enemies; thus arose
the custom of " livery and maintenance," suppressed by
Henry VII. The members of the London city companies wore
a distinctive costume or " livery," whence the term " livery
companies." In law, the term "livery" means "delivery,"
the legal handing of property into the possession of another;
for " livery of seisin " see FEOFFMENT.
LIVERY COMPANIES, the name given to particular companies
or societies in the city of London. They belong to a class of
institutions which at one time were universal in Europe. In
most other countries they have disappeared; in England,
while their functions have wholly changed, the organization
remains. The origin of the city companies is to be found in the
craftgilds of the middle ages. The absence of a strong central
authority accounts for the tendency of confederation in the
beginning of modern societies. Artificial groups, formed in
imitation of the family, discharged the duties which the family
was no longer able, and the state was not yet able, to undertake.
The inhabitants of towns were forced into the societies known as
gild-merchants, which in course of time monopolized the muni-
cipal government, became exclusive, and so caused the growth
of similar societies among excluded citizens. The craftgilds
were such societies, composed of handicraftsmen, which entered
upon a struggle with the earlier gilds and finally defeated them.
The circumstances and results of the struggle were of much the
same character in England and on the continent. In London the
victory of the crafts is decisively marked by the ordinance of the
time of Edward II., which required every citizen to be a member
of some trade or mystery, and by another ordinance in 1375 which
transferred the right of election of corporate officers (including
members of parliament) from the ward-representatives to the
trading companies. Henceforward, and for many years, the
companies engrossed political and municipal power in the city of
London.
The trading fraternities assumed generally the character of
corporations in the reign of Edward III. Many of them had been
chartered before, but their privileges, hitherto exercised only on
sufferance and by payment of their terms, were now confirmed
by letters patent. Edward III. himself became a member of
the fraternity of Linen Armourers, or Merchant Taylors, and
other distinguished persons followed his example. From this
time they are called livery companies, " from now generally
assuming a distinctive dress or livery." The origin of the
Grocers' Company is thus described: "Twenty-two persons,
carrying on the business of pepperers in Soper's Lane, Cheapside,
agree to meet together, to a dinner, at the Abbot of Bury's, St
Mary Axe, and commit the particulars of their formation into a
trading society to writing. They elect after dinner two persons
of the company so assembled — Roger Osekyn and Lawrence de
Haliwell — as their first governors or wardens, appointing, at
the same time, in conformity with the pious custom of the
age, a priest or chaplain to celebrate divine offices for their
souls " (Heath's "Account of the Grocers' Company," quoted
in Herbert's Twelve Great Livery Companies, 1836, i. 43).
The religious observances and the common feasts were char-
acteristic features of those institutions. They were therefore not
merely trade unions in the current meaning of that phrase, but
8io
LIVERY COMPANIES
may rather be described as forms of industrial self-government,
the basi- of union being the membership of a common trade,
and the authority of the society extending to the general welfare,
spiritual and temporal, of its members. It must be remembered
that they flourished at a time when the separate interests of
master and servant had not yet been created; and, indeed,
when that fundamental division of interests arose, the companies
gradually lost their functions in the regulation of industry.
The fact that the craftsmen were a homogeneous order will
account for the wide authority claimed by their societies, and the
important public powers which were conceded to them. In
the regulation of trade they possessed extensive powers. They
required every one carrying on the trade to join the company.
In 1363, in answer to a remonstrance against the mischief caused
by " the merchants called grocers who engrossed all manner of
merchandize vendable, and who suddenly raised the prices of
such merchandize within the realm," it was enacted " that all
artificers and people of mysteries shall each choose his own
mystery ' before next Candlemas, and that, having so chosen it,
he shall henceforth use no other." L. Brentano (On Gilds) holds
that it is wrong to represent such regulations as monopolistic,
inasmuch as there was no question whatever of a monopoly in
that time nor until the degeneration of the craftgilds into limited
corporations of capitalists. In the regulation of trade the right
of search was an important instrument. The wardens of the
grocers are to "assayen weights, powders, confeccions, platers,
oyntments and all other things belonging to the same crafte."
The goldsmiths had the assay of metals, the fishmongers the
oversight of fish, the vintners of the tasting of wine, &c. The
companies enforced their regulations on their members by force.
Many of their ordinances looked to the domestic affairs and
private conduct of the members. The grocers ordain " that no
man of the fraternite take his neyghbor's house y1 is of the same
fraternite, or enhaunce the rent against the will of the foresaid
neyghbor." Perjury is to be punished by the wardens and society
with such correction as that other men of the fellowship may be
warned thereby. Members reduced to poverty by adventures
on the sea, increased price of goods, borrowing and pledging,
or any other misfortune, are to be assisted " out of the common
money, according to his situation, if he could not do without."
Following what appears to be the natural law of their being,
the companies gradually lost their industrial character. The
course of decay would seem to have been the following. The
capitalists gradually assumed the lead in the various societies,
the richer members engrossed the power and the companies
tended to become hereditary and exclusive. Persons might be
members who had nothing to do with the craft, and the rise of
great capitalists and the development of competition in trade
made the regulation of industry by means of companies no
longer possible. For an account of the " degeneration of craft-
gilds" a general reference may be made to Brentano, On Gilds
(1870), and C. Gross, The Gild Merchant (2 vols., 1890). The
usurpation of power on the part of the richer members was
not always effected without opposition. Brentano refers to a
pamphlet on the Clothworkers' Company, published in 1649,
which asserts that " the commonalty " in the old charters meant,
not the whole gild, but only the masters, wardens and assistants.
Herbert records a dispute in the Goldsmiths' Company in 1529.
The mode of electing officers, and the system of management
generally, was challenged by three members who called themselves
" artificers, poor men of the craft of goldsmiths." The company,
or rather, the wardens, the assistants and livery presented a
petition to the lord mayor, which was answered by the dis-
contented craftsmen. The dispute was carried into the court of
chancery and the star chamber. The artificers accused the com-
pany of subverting their grants, misappropriating the funds
1 Properly the .word should be spelled, as it was originally,
" raistery ;" it comes through the O. Fr. mestier, modern metier, from
Lat. ministerium, service, employment, and meant a trade or craft,
and hence the plays acted by craftsmen and members of gilds were
called " mystery plays " (see DRAMA). For the word meaning a
hidden or secret rite, with which this has so often been confused, see
MYSTERY.
and changing the constitution of the society, and they complain
of this being done by the usurpation of persons who "were but
merchant goldsmiths, and had but little knowledge in the science."
In 1531 the three complainants were expelled from the company,
and then the dispute seems to have ended. In the last stage of
the companies the members have ceased to have any connexion
with the trades, and in most cases their regulative functions have
disappeared. The one characteristic which has clung to them
throughout is that of owners of property and managers of
charitable trusts. The connexion between the companies and the
municipality is shortly as follows. The ordinance of Edward II.
required freemen of the city to be members of one or other
of the companies. By the ordinance of 49 Edw. III. (1375), the
trading companies were to nominate the members of common
council, and the persons so nominated alone were to attend
both at common councils and at elections. An ordinance in 7
Richard II. (1383) restored the elections of common councilmen
to the wards, but corporate officers and representatives in parlia-
ment were elected by a convention summoned by the lord mayor
from the nominees of the companies. An act of common council in
7 Edw. IV. (1467) appointed the election of mayor, sheriffs, &c.,
to be in the common council, together with the masters and
wardens of the companies. By 1 5 Edw. IV. masters and wardens
were ordered to associate with themselves the honest men of their
mysteries, and come in their best liveries to the elections; that
is to say, the franchise was restricted to the " liverymen " of
the companies. At this time the corporation exercised supreme
control over the companies, and the companies were still genuine
associations of the traders and householders of the city. The
delegation of the franchise to the liverymen was thus, in point of
fact, the selection of a superior class of householders to represent
the rest. When the corporation lost its control over the com-
panies, and the members of the companies ceased to be traders
and householders, the liverymen were no longer a representative
class, and some change in the system became necessary. The
Reform Acts of 1832 and 1867 reformed the representation in
several particulars. The liverymen of the companies, being
freemen of the city, have still, however, the exclusive power of
electing the lord mayor, sheriffs, chamberlain and other corporate
officers.
The contributions made by the companies to the public
purposes of the state and the city are interesting points in their
early history. Their wealth and their representative character
made them a most appropriate instrument for the enforcement of
irregular taxation. The loan of £21,263, 6s. 8d. to Henry VIII.
for his wars in Scotland, in 1544, is believed by Herbert to
be the first instance of a pecuniary grant to the crown, but the
practice rapidly gained ground. The confiscation of ecclesiastical
property at the time of the Reformation affected many of the
trusts of the companies; and they were compelled to make
returns of their property devoted to religious uses, and to pay
over the rents to the crown. In course of time the taxation of
the companies became " a regular source of supply to govern-
ment." The historians of the city have for the most part
described these as unjust and tyrannical exactions, but, looking
at the representative and municipal character of the companies,
and the purposes to which their contributions were applied,
we may regard them as a rough but not unfair mode of taxation.
The government, when money was wanted for public works,
informed the lord mayor, who apportioned the sums required
among the various societies, and issued precepts for its payment.
Contributions towards setting the poor to work, erecting the
Royal Exchange, cleansing the city ditch, discovering new
countries, furnishing military and naval armaments, for men,
arms and ammunition for the defence of the city, are among
what Herbert calls the sponging expedients of the government.
The crown occasionally interfered in a more unjustifiable manner
with the companies in the exercise of their patronage. The
Stuarts made strenuous efforts to get the control of the companies.
Terrified by the proceedings in the quo warranto case, most of
the companies surrendered their charters to the crown, but such
surrenders were annulled by the act of 2 William and Mary
LIVIA DRUSILLA— LIVINGSTON, E.
811
Fellowship Porters.
Needlemakers.
Feltmakers.
Painters.
Fishmongers.
Pattern Makers.
Fletchers.
Pewterers.
Founders.
Plaisterers.
Framework Knitters.
Playing Card
Fruiterers.
Makers.
Girdlers.
Plumbers.
Glass Sellers.
Poulters.
Glaziers.
Saddlers.
Glovers.
Salters.
Gold and Silver
Scriveners.
Wyre-drawers.
Shipwrights.
Goldsmiths.
Silkthrowsters.
Grocers.
Skinners.
Gunmakers.
Spectacle makers.
Haberdashers.
Stationers.
Homers.
Tallow Chandlers.
Innholders.
Tin Plate Workers.
Ironmongers.
Turners.
Joiners.
Tylers and Brick-
Leathersellers.
layers.
Loriners.
Upholders.
Masons.
Wax chandlers.
Mercers.
Weavers.
Merchant Taylors.
Wheelwrights.
Musicians.
Woolmen.
(1690) reserving the judgment in quo warranlo against the city.
The livery companies now in existence are the following:
Apothecaries.
Armourers and Bra-
siers.
Bakers.
Barbers.
Basket Makers.
Blacksmiths.
Bowyers.
Brewers.
Broderers.
Butchers.
Carmen.
Carpenters.
Clockmakers.
Clothworkers.
Coach and Coach-
harness Makers.
Cooks.
Coopers.
Cordwainers.
Curriers.
Cutlers.
Distillers.
Drapers.
Dyers.
Fanmakers.
Farriers.
The following are the twelve great companies in order of civic
precedence: Mercers, Grocers, Drapers, Fishmongers, Gold-
smiths, Skinners, Merchant Taylors, Haberdashers, Salters,
Ironmongers, Vintners, Cloth-workers. The " Irish Society "
was incorporated in the n James I. as "the governor and
assistants of the new plantation in Ulster, within the realm of
Ireland." The twelve companies contributed in equal portions
the sum of £60,000 for the new scheme, by which it was intended
to settle a Protestant colony in the lands forfeited by the Irish
rebels. The companies divided the settlement into twelve
nearly equal parts, assigning one to each, but the separate
estates are still held to be under the paramount jurisdiction
of the Irish Society. The charter of the society was revoked
by the court of star chamber in the reign of Charles I., but a
new one was granted by Charles II., under which the society
still acts.
Most of the companies administer charities of large value. Many
of them are governors of important schools, e.g. the Skinners have
the Tonbridge Grammar School; the Mercers, St Paul's School; the
Merchant Taylors, the school bearing their name, &c. The consti-
tution of the livery companies usually embraces (a) the court, which
includes the master and wardens, and is the executive and adminis-
trative body; (2) the livery or middle class, being the body from
which the court is recruited ; and (3) the general body of freemen,
from which the livery is recruited. Some companies admit women
as freemen. The freedom is obtained either by patrimony (by any
person over twenty-one years of age born in lawful wedlock after the
admission of his father to the freedom), by servitude (by being
bound as an apprentice to a freeman of the company) or by re-
demption. Admission to many of the companies is subject to the
payment of considerable fees. For example, in the Merchant Taylors
the fees are — upon taking up the freedom, by patrimony or servitude,
£j, 35. 4jL ; by redemption, £84; on admission to the livery, £80, 8s.;
on election to the court of assistants, £115, IDS. At one time the
position of the livery companies was a subject of much political
discussion. Two parties threatened to attack them — on one side
those who were anxious for extensive reforms in the municipal
organization of London; on the other, those who wished to carry
forward the process of inspection and revision of endowments, which
had already overtaken the universities, schools and other charities.
A Royal Commission was appointed in 1880 to inquire into all the
livery companies, into the circumstances and dates of their founda-
tion, the objects for which they were founded, and how far those
objects were being carried into effect. A very valuable Report and
Appendix (4 vols., 1884) was published, containing, inter alia, infor-
mation on the constitution and powers of the governing bodies,
the mode of admission of members of the companies, the mode
of appointment, duties and salaries and other emoluments of the
servants of the companies, the property of, or held in trust for, the
companies, its value, situation and description. The companies very
freely made returns to the commission, the only ones not doing so
being the Broderers, Bowyers, Distillers, Glovers, Tin-Plate Workers
and Weavers. The Commission estimated the annual income of
the companies to be from £750,000 to £800,000, about £200,000 of
that amount being trust income, the balance corporate income.
AUTHORITIES. — In addition to the Report referred to above the
following works may be consulted: H. T. Riley, Memorials oj
London and, London Life (1868); Chronicle of London from 1089 to
1483 (ed. by Sir N. H. Nicolas and E. Tyrrel, 1827); Munimenta
Gildhallae Londiniensis, in Rolls Series, ed. by H. T. Riley (4 vols.,
1859-1862); J. Toulmin Smith, English Gilds (published by Early
English Text Society), with essay by L. Brentano (1870); W.
Herbert, History of the Twelve Great Livery Companies (1837); C.
Gross, The Gild Merchant (2 vols., 1890); W. C. Hazlitt, The Livery
Companies of the City of London (1892), contains a precis of the
Royal Commission; P. H. Ditchfield, The City Companies of
London (1904) ; G. Unwin, The Gilds and Companies of London
(1908). (T. A. I.)
LIVIA DRUSILLA (c. 55 B.C.-A.D. 29), Roman empress, was
originally the wife of Tiberius Cla-udius Nero, by whom she
had two sons, Drusus and Tiberius (afterwards emperor). But
she attracted the attention of the future emperor Augustus,
who in 38 compelled her husband to divorce her and married
her himself, having first got rid of his own wife Scribonia. Her
two sons, at their dying father's request, were entrusted to the
guardianship of Augustus, to whom she bore no children. Livia
was suspected of committing various crimes to secure the throne
for Tiberius, whereas Augustus naturally favoured the claims
of his blood-relatives. The premature deaths of his nephew
Marcellus (whom he had at first fixed upon as his successor)
and of his grandsons Gaius and Lucius Caesar, the banishment
of his grandson Agrippa Postumus, and even his own death,
were attributed to her. But in any case Augustus's affection
for his wife appears to have suffered no diminution up to the
last; by his will he declared her and Tiberius (whom he had
adopted in A.D. 4) his heirs; Livia inherited a third of his property;
she was adopted into the" Julian gens, and henceforth assumed
the name of Julia Augusta. The senate also elected her chief
priestess of the college founded in honour of the deified Augustus.
She had now reached the summit of her ambition, and at first
acted as joint-ruler with Tiberius. Tiberius, however, soon
became tired of the maternal yoke; his retirement to Capreae
is said to have been caused by his desire to escape from her.
Livia continued to live quietly at Rome, in the full enjoyment
of authority, until her death at an advanced age. Tiberius
appears to have received the news with indifference, if not with
satisfaction; he absented himself from the funeral, and refused
to allow her apotheosis; her will was suppressed for a long time
and only carried out, and the legacies paid, by Caligula.
See Tacitus, Annals, i. v. ; Dio Cassius liii. 33, Iv. 14-22, Iviii. 2,
lix. 2; Suetonius, Tiberius, 50, 51; J. Aschbach, Livia, Gemahlin
des Kaisers Augustus (1864); V. Gardthausen, Augustus und seine
Zeit, i. 1018 foil., ii. 631 foil.
LIVINGSTON, EDWARD (1764-1836), American jurist and
statesman, was born in Clermont, Columbia county, New York,
on the 26th of May 1764. He was a great-grandson of Robert
Livingston, the first of the family to settle in America (see
LIVINGSTON, WILLIAM, below). He graduated at Princeton
in 1781, was admitted to the bar in 1785, and began to practise
law in New York City, rapidly rising to distinction. In 1795-
1801 he was a Republican representative in Congress, where
he was one of the leaders of the opposition to Jay's treaty,
introduced the resolution calling upon President Washington
for all papers relating to the treaty, and at the close of Washing-
ton's administration voted with Andrew Jackson and other
radicals against the address to the president. He opposed the
Alien and Sedition Laws, introduced legislation on behalf of
American seamen, and in 1800 attacked the president for per-
mitting the extradition by the British government of Jonathan
Robbins, who had committed murder on an English frigate,
and had then escaped to South Carolina and falsely claimed
to be an American citizen. In the debate on this question
Livingston was opposed by John Marshall. In 1801 Livingston
was appointed U.S. district-attorney for the state of New York,
and while retaining that position was in the same year appointed
mayor of New York City. When, in the summer of 1803, the
city was visited with yellow fever, Livingston displayed courage
and energy in his endeavours to prevent the spread of the
disease and relieve distress. He suffered a violent attack of
812
LIVINGSTON, R. R.
the fever, during which the people gave many proofs of their
attachment to him. On his recovery he found his private affairs
in some confusion, and he was at the same time deeply indebted
to the government for public funds which had been lost through
the mismanagement or dishonesty of a confidential clerk, and
for which he was responsible as district-attorney. He at once
surrendered all his property, resigned his two offices in 1803,
and removed early in 1804 to Louisiana. He soon acquired a
large law practice in New Orleans, and in 1826 repaid the govern-
ment in full, including the interest, which at that time amounted
to more than the original principal.
Almost immediately upon his arrival in Louisiana, where the
legal system had previously been based on Roman, French and
Spanish law, and where trial by jury and other peculiarities of
English common law were now first introduced, he was appointed
by the legislature to prepare a provisional code of judicial
procedure, which (in the form of an act passed in April 1805)
was continued in force from 1805 to 1825. In 1807, after con-
ducting a successful suit on behalf of a client's title to a part
of the batture or alluvial land near New Orleans, Livingston
attempted to improve part of this land (which he had received
as his fee) in the Batture, Ste Marie. Great popular excitement
was aroused against him; his workmen were mobbed; and
Governor Claiborne, when appealed to for protection, referred
the question to the Federal government. Livingston's case was
damaged by President Jefferson, who believed that Livingston
had favoured Burr in the presidential election of 1800, and that
he had afterwards been a party to Burr's schemes. Jefferson
made it impossible for Livingston to secure his title, and in 1812
published a pamphlet " for the use of counsel " in the case against
Livingston, to which Livingston published a crushing reply.
Livingston's final victory in the courts brought him little financial
profit because of the heavy expenses of the litigation. During
the war with England from 1812 to 1815 Livingston was active
in rousing the mixed population of New Orleans to resistance.
He used his influence to secure amnesty for Lafitte and his
followers upon their offer to fight for the city, and in 1814-1815
acted as adviser and volunteer aide-de-camp to General Jackson,
who was his personal friend. In 1821, by appointment of the
legislature, of which he had become a member in the preceding
year, Livingston began the preparation of a new code of criminal
law and procedure, afterwards known in Europe and America
as the " Livingston Code." It was prepared in both French and
English, as was required by the necessities of practice in Louisiana,
and actually consisted of four codes — crimes and punishments,
procedure, evidence in criminal cases, reform and prison
discipline. Though substantially completed in 1824, when it
was accidentally burned, and again in 1826, it was not printed
entire until 1833. It was never adopted by the state. It was at
once reprinted in England, France and Germany, attracting wide
praise by its remarkable simplicity and vigour, and especially by
reason of its philanthropic provisions in the code of reform and
prison discipline, which noticeably influenced the penal legisla-
tion of various countries. In referring to this code, Sir Henry
Maine spoke of Livingston as " the first legal genius of modern
times " (Cambridge Essays, 1856, p. 17). The spirit of Livingston's
code was remedial rather than vindictive; it provided for the
abolition of capital punishment and the making of penitentiary
labour not a punishment forced on the prisoner, but a matter
of his choice and a reward for good behaviour, bringing with it
better accommodations. His Code of Reform and Prison
Discipline was adopted by Guatemala. Livingston was the
leading member of a commission appointed to prepare a new
civil code,1 which for the most part the legislature adopted in
1825, and the most important chapters of which, including all
those on contract, were prepared by Livingston alone.
Livingston was again a representative in Congress during
1 Preliminary work in the preparation of a new civil code had been
done by James Brown and Moreau Lislet, who in 1808 reported a
" Digest of the Civil Laws now in force in the Territory of Orleans
with Alterations and Amendments adapted to the present Form of
Government."
1823-1829, a senator in 1820-1831, and for two years(:83i-i833)
secretary of state under President Jackson. In this last position
he was one of the most trusted advisers of the president, for
whom he prepared a number of state papers, the most important
being the famous anti-nullification proclamation of the loth of
December 1832. From 1833 to 1835 Livingston was minister
plenipotentiary to France, charged with procuring the fulfilment
by the French government of the treaty negotiated by W. C.
Rives in 1831, by which France had bound herself to pay an
indemnity of twenty-five millions of francs for French spoliations
of American shipping chiefly under the Berlin and Milan decrees,
and the United States in turn agreed to pay to France 1,500,000
francs in satisfaction of French claims. Livingston's negotia-
tions were conducted with excellent judgment, but the French
Chamber of Deputies refused to make an appropriation to pay
the first instalment due under the treaty in 1833, relations
between the two governments became strained, and Livingston
was finally instructed to close the legation and return to America.
He died on the 23rd of May 1836 at Montgomery Place, Dutchess
county, New York, an estate left him by his sister, to which he
had removed in 1831. Livingston was twice married. His first
wife, Mary McEvers, whom he married on the loth of April 1788,
died on the 1 3th of March 1801. In June 1805 he married Madame
Louise Moreau de Lassy (d. 1860), a widow nineteen years of age,
whose maiden name was Davezac de Castera, and who was a
refugee in New Orleans from the revolution in Santo Domingo.
She was a woman of extraordinary beauty and intellect, and is
said to have greatly influenced her husband's public career.
See C. H. Hunt, Life of Edward Livingston (New York, 1864);
Livingston's Works (2 vols., New York, 1873) ; and Louise Living-
ston Hunt, Memoir of Mrs Edward Livingston (New York, 1886).
LIVINGSTON, ROBERT R. (1746-1813), American statesman,
son of Robert R. Livingston (1718-1775: a justice of the New
York supreme court after 1763) and brother of Edward Living-
ston (see above), was born in New York City, on the 27th of
November 1746. He graduated at King's College, New York
(now Columbia University), in 1765, was admitted to the bar in
1773, and for a short time was a law partner of John Jay. In 1773
he became recorder of New York City, but soon identified
himself with the Whig or Patriot element there, and was forced
to give up this position in 1 775. He was a member of the second,
third and fourth Provincial Congressesof New York (1775-1777),
was a delegate from New York to the Continental Congress in
1775-1777 and again in 1770-1780, and was a member of the
committee which drafted the Declaration of Independence.
He was prevented from signing that document by his absence
at the time to attend a meeting of the fourth New York Provincial
Congress, which on the loth of July became the Convention of the
Representatives of the state of New York, and by which at
Kingston in 1777 the first state constitution was adopted,
Livingston having been a member of the committee that drafted
this instrument. He was the first chancellor of the state, from
1777 to February 1801, and is best known as " Chancellor "
Livingston. In this capacity he administered the oath of office
to Washington at his first inauguration to the presidency, in
New York, on the 3oth of April 1789. Previously, from October
1781 to June 1783, he had been the first secretary of foreign
affairs under the Confederation, and his European correspond-
ence, especially with Franklin, was of the utmost value in accom-
plishing peace with Great Britain. In 1 788 he had been a member
of the New York Convention, which ratified for that state the
Federal Constitution. He became an anti-Federalist and in
1798 unsuccessfully opposed John Jay in the New York guber-
natorial campaign. In 1801, having refused an appointment as
secretary of the navy, he became minister to France on President
Jefferson's appointment. He had refused this post when
Washington offered it to him in 1794. He arrived in France
in November 1801, and in 1803, in association with James
Monroe, effected on behalf of his government the purchase from
France of what was then known as " Louisiana," the credit for
this purchase being largely his (see LOUISIANA PURCHASE).
In 1804 Livingston withdrew from public life, and after a year
LIVINGSTON, W.— LIVINGSTONE, DAVID
813
of travel in Europe returned to New York, where he promoted
various improvements in agriculture. He did much to introduce
the use of gypsum as a fertilizer, and published an Essay on
Sheep (1809). He was long interested in the problem of steam
navigation; before he went to France he received from the state
of New York a monopoly of steam navigation on the waters
of the state and assisted in the experiments of his brother-in-law,
John Stevens; in Paris he met Robert Fulton, and with him
in 1802 made successful trials on the Seine of a paddle wheel
steamboat; in 1803 Livingston (jointly with Robert Fulton)
received a renewal of his monopoly in New York, and the first
successful steam-vessel, which operated on the Hudson in 1807,
was named after Livingston's home, Clermont (N.Y.). He
died at Clermont on the 26th of February 1813.
Livingston and George Clinton were chosen to represent
New York state in Statuary Hall, in the Capitol, at Washington,
D. C.;the statue of Livingstonis by E. D. Palmer.
See Frederick de Peyster, Biographical Sketch of Robert R. Living-
ston (New York, 1876); Robert K. Morton, " Robert R. Livingston:
Beginnings of American Diplomacy," in The John P. Branch
Historical Papers of Randolph- M aeon College, \. 299-324, and ii.
34-46; and J. B. Moore, " Robert R. Livingston and the Louis-
iana Purchase," in Columbia University Quarterly, v. 6 (1904), pp.
221-229.
LIVINGSTON, WILLIAM (1723-1790), American political
leader, was born at Albany, New York, probably on the 3oth of
November 1723. He was the son of Philip Livingston (1686-
1749), and grandson of Robert Livingston (1654-1725), who was
born at Ancrum, Scotland, emigrated to America about 1673,
and received grants (beginning in 1686) to " Livingston Manor "
(a tract of land on the Hudson, comprising the greater part of
what are now Dutchess and Columbia counties). This Robert
Livingston, founder of the American family, became in 1675
secretary of the important Board of Indian Commissioners; he
was a member of the New York Assembly 1111711-1715 and 1716-
1727 and its speaker in 1718-1725, and in 1701 made the pro-
posal that all the English colonies in America should be grouped
for administrative purposes " into three distinct governments."
William Livingston graduated at Yale College in 1741, studied
law in the city of New York, and was admitted to the bar in 1748.
He served in the New York legislature (1750-1760), but his
political influence was long exerted chiefly through pamphlets
and newspaper articles. The Livingston family then led the
Dissenters, who later became Whigs, and the De Lancey family
represented the Anglican Tory interests. Through the columns
of the Independent Reflector, which he established in 1752,
Livingston fought the attempt of the Anglican party to bring
the projected King's College (now Columbia University) under
the control of the Church of England. After the suspension
of the Reflector in 1753, he edited in the New York Mercury the
" Watch Tower " section (1754-1755), which became the recog-
nized organ of the Presbyterian faction. In opposition to the
efforts of the Anglicans to procure the establishment of an
American episcopate, he wrote an open Letter to the Right
Reverend Father in God, John Lord, Bishop of Llandaff (1768),
and edited and in large measure wrote the " American Whig "
columns in the New York Gazette (1768-1769). In 1772 he
removed to Elizabeth, New Jersey, where after 1773 he lived
on his estate known as " Liberty Hall." He represented New
Jersey in the first and second Continental Congresses (1774, 1775-
1776), but left Philadelphia in June 1776, probably to avoid
voting on the question of adopting the Declaration of Inde-
pendence, which he regarded as inexpedient. He was chosen
first governor of the state of New Jersey in 1776, and was
regularly re-elected until his death in 1790. Loyal to American
interests and devoted to General Washington, he was one of
the most useful of the state executives during the War of Inde-
pendence. While governor he was a frequent contributor to
the New Jersey Gazette, and in this way he greatly aided the
American cause during the war by his denunciation of the enemy
and appeals to the patriotism of his countrymen. He was a
delegate to the Federal Constitutional Convention of 1787,
and supported the New Jersey small-state plan. In 1754 he
joined with his brother, Philip Livingston, his brother-in-law,
William Alexander (" Lord Stirling ") and others in founding
what is now known as the Society Library of New York. With
the help of William Smith (1728-1793), the New York historian,
William Livingston prepared a digest of the laws of New York
for the period 1691-1756, which was published in two volumes
(1752 and 1762). He died at Elizabeth, New Jersey, on the 25th
of July 1790.
See Theodore Sedgwick, Jr., Life of William Livingston (New York,
1833); and E. B. Livingston, The Livingstons of Livingston Manor(igio).
His brother, PETER VAN BRUGH LIVINGSTON (1710-1792),
was a prominent merchant and a Whig political leader in New
York. He was one of the founders of the College of New Jersey
(now Princeton University), was a member of the New York
Council for some years before the War of Independence, a
member and president of the First Provincial Congress of New
York (1775), and a member of the Second Provincial Congress
(1775-1776).
Another brother, PHILIP LIVINGSTON (1716-1778), was also
prominent as a leader of the New York Whigs or Patriots. He
was a member of the New York Assembly in 1750-1769, a
delegate to the Stamp Act Congress of 1765, a member of the
Continental Congress from 1774 until his death and as such a
signer of the Declaration of Independence, and in 1777-1778
was a member of the first state senate.
William's son, (HENRY) BROCKHOLST LIVINGSTON (1757-
1823), was an officer in the American War of Independence, and
was an able lawyer and judge. From 1807 until his death he
was an associate justice of the United States Supreme Court,
and he wrote political pamphlets under the pen-name " Decius."
LIVINGSTONE, DAVID (1813-1873), Scottish missionary and
explorer in Africa, was born on the igth of March 1813, at the
village of Blantyre Works, in Lanarkshire, Scotland. David was
the second child of his parents, Neil Livingston (for so he spelled
his name, as did his son for many years) and Agnes Hunter.
His parents were typical examples of all that is best among the
humbler families of Scotland. At the age of ten years David
left the village school for the neighbouring cotton-mill, and by
strenuous efforts qualified himself at the age of twenty-three to
undertake a college curriculum. He attended for two sessions
the medical and the Greek classes in Anderson's College, Glas-
gow, and also a theological class. In September 1838 he went
up to London, and was accepted by the London Missionary
Society as a candidate. He took his medical degree in the
Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons in Glasgow in November
1840. Livingstone had set his heart on China, and it was a
great disappointment to him that the society finally decided
to send him to Africa. To an exterior in these early years some-
what heavy and uncouth, he united a manner which, by universal
testimony, was irresistibly winning, with a fund of genuine but
simple humour and fun that would break out on the most un-
likely occasions, and in after years enabled him to overcome
difficulties and mellow refractory chiefs when all other methods
failed.
Livingstone sailed from England on the 8th of December 1840.
From Algoa Bay he made direct for Kuruman, Bechuanaland,
the mission station, 700 m. north, established by Robert Moffat
twenty years before, and there he arrived on the 3ist of July
1841. The next two years Livingstone spent in travelling about
the country to the northwards, in search of a suitable outpost
for settlement. During these two years he became convinced
that the success of the white missionary in a field like Africa
was not to be reckoned by the tale of doubtful conversions he
could send home each year — that the proper work for such men
was that of pioneering, opening up and starting new ground,
leaving native agents to work it out in detail. The whole of
his subsequent career was a development of this idea. He
selected the valley of Mabotsa, on one of the sources of the
Limpopo river, 200 m. north-east of Kuruman, as his first station.
Shortly after his settlement here he was attacked by a lion
which crushed his left arm. The arm was imperfectly set, and
it was a source of trouble to him at times throughout his life,
8 14
LIVINGSTONE, DAVID
and was the means of identifying his body after his death. To
a house, mainly built by himself at Mabotsa, Livingstone in
1844 brought home his wife, Mary Moffat, the daughter of
Moffat of Kuruman. Here he laboured till 1846, when he
removed to Chonuane, 40 m. farther north, the chief place of
the Bakwain or Bakwena tribe under Sechele. In 1847 he again
removed to Kolobeng, about 40 m. westwards, the whole tribe
following their missionary. With the aid and in the company
of two English sportsmen, William C. Oswell and Mungo Murray,
he was able to undertake a journey to Lake Ngami, which had
never yet been seen by a white man. Crossing the Kalahari
Desert, of which Livingstone gave the first detailed account,
they reached the lake on the ist of August 1849. In April next
year he made an attempt to reach Sebituane, who lived 200 m.
beyond the lake, this time in company with his wife and children,
but again got no farther than the lake, as the children were
seized with fever. A year later, April 1851, Livingstone, again
accompanied by his family and Oswell, set out, this time with
the intention of settling among the Makololo for a period. At
last he succeeded, and reached the Chobe (Kwando), a southern
tributary of the Zambezi, and in the end of June reached the
Zambezi itself at the town of Sesheke. Leaving the Chobe
on the I3th of August the party reached Cape Town in April
1852. Livingstone may now be said to have completed the
first period of his career in Africa, the period in which the
work of the missionary had the greatest prominence. Hence-
forth he appears more in the character of an explorer, but it
must be remembered that he regarded himself to the last
as a pioneer missionary, whose work was to open up the
country to others.
Having seen his family off to England, Livingstone left Cape
Town on the 8th of June 1852, and turning north again reached
Linyante, the capital of the Makololo, on the Chobe, on the
23rd of May 1853, being cordially received by Sekeletu and
his people. His first object was to seek for some healthy high
land in which to plant a station. Ascending the Zambezi, he,
however, found no place free from the tsetse fly, and therefore
resolved to discover a route to the interior from either the west
or east coast. To accompany Livingstone twenty-seven men
were selected from the various tribes under Sekeletu, partly
with a view to open up a trade route between their own country
and the coast. The start was made from Linyante on the nth
of November 1853, and, by ascending the Liba, Lake Dilolo was
reached on the 2oth of February 1854. On the 4th of April
the Kwango was crossed, and on the 3ist of May the town of
Loanda was entered, Livingstone, however, being all but dead
from fever, semi-starvation and dysentery. From Loanda
Livingstone sent his astronomical observations to Sir Thomas
Maclear at the Cape, and an account of his journey to the Royal
Geographical Society, which in May 1855 awarded him its
patron's medal. Loanda was left on the 2oth of September
1854, but Livingstone lingered long about the Portuguese settle-
ments. Making a slight detour to the north to Kabango, the
party reached Lake Dilolo on the I3th of June 1855. Here
Livingstone made a careful study of the hydrography of the
country. He " now for the first time apprehended the true
form of the river systems and the continent," and the con-
clusions he came to have been essentially confirmed by sub-
sequent observations. The return journey from Lake Dilolo
was by the same route as that by which the party came, Linyante
being reached in the beginning of September.
For Livingstone's purposes the route to the west was un-
available, and he decided to follow the Zambezi to its mouth.
With a numerous following, he left Linyante on the 8th of
November 1855. A fortnight afterwards he discovered the
famous " Victoria " falls of the Zambezi. He had already
formed a true idea of the configuration of the continent as a
great hollow or basin-shaped plateau, surrounded by a ring of
mountains. Livingstone reached the Portuguese settlement
of Tete on the 2nd of March 1856, in a very emaciated condition.
Here he left his men and proceeded to Quilimane, where he
arrived on the 2oth of May, thus having completed in two years
and six months one of the most remarkable and fruitful journeys
on record. The results in geography and in natural science in
all its departments were abundant and accurate; his observa-
tions necessitated a reconstruction of the map of Central Africa.
When Livingstone began his work in Africa the map was virtu-
ally a blank from Kuruman to Timbuktu, and nothing but envy
or ignorance can throw any doubt on the originality of his
discoveries.
On the 1 2th of December he arrived in England, after an
absence of sixteen years, and met everywhere the welcome of
a hero. He told his story in his Missionary Travels and Researches
in South Africa (1857) with straightforward simplicity, and with
no effort after literary style, and no apparent consciousness that
he had done anything extraordinary. Its publication brought,
what he would have considered a competency had he felt himself
at liberty to settle down for life. In 1857 he severed his con-
nexion with the London Missionary Society, with whom, however,
he always remained on the best of terms, and in February 1858
he accepted the appointment of " Her Majesty's consul at.
Quilimane for the eastern coast and the independent districts in
the interior, and commander of an expedition for exploring
eastern and central Africa." The Zambezi expedition, of which
Livingstone thus became commander, sailed from Liverpool
in H.M.S. " Pearl " on the loth of March 1858, and reached the
mouth of the Zambezi on the i4th of May. The party, which
included Dr (afterwards Sir) John Kirk and Livingstone's
brother Charles, ascended the river from the Kongone mouth in
a steam launch, the " Ma-Robert "; reaching Tete on the
8th of September. The remainder of the year was devoted to
an examination of the river above Tete, and especially the
Kebrabasa rapids. Most of the year 1859 was spent in the
exploration of the river Shire and Lake Nyasa, which was
discovered in September; and during a great part of the year
1860 Livingstone was engaged in fulfilling his promise to take
such of the Makololo home as cared to go. In January of next
year arrived Bishop C. F. Mackenzie and a party of missionaries
sent out by the Universities Mission to establish a station on the
upper Shire.
After exploring the river Rovuma for 30 m. in his new vessel
the " Pioneer," Livingstone and the missionaries proceeded
up the Shire to Chibisa's; there they found the slave trade
rampant. On the i5th of July Livingstone, accompanied by
several native carriers, started to show the bishop the country.
Several bands of slaves whom they met were liberated, and after
seeing the missionary party settled in the highlands to the south
of Lake Chilwa (Shirwa) Livingstone spent from August to
November in exploring Lake Nyasa. While the boat sailed up
the west side of the lake to near the north end, the explorer
marched along the shore. He returned more resolved than ever
to do his utmost to rouse the civilized world to put down the
desolating slave-trade. On the 3oth of January 1862, at the
Zambezi mouth, Livingstone welcomed his wife and the ladies
of the mission, with whom were the sections of the " Lady
Nyassa," a river steamer which Livingstone had had built at
his own expense. When the mission ladies reached the mouth
of the Ruo tributary of the Shire, they were stunned to hear
of the death of the bishop and one of his companions. This
was a sad blow to Livingstone, seeming to have rendered
all his efforts to establish a mission futile. A still greater
loss to him was that of his wife at Shupanga, on the 27th of
April 1862.
The " Lady Nyassa " was taken to the Rovuma. Up this
river Livingstone managed to steam 156 m., but farther progress
was arrested by rocks. Returning to the Zambezi in the begin-
ning of 1863, he found that the desolation caused by the slave
trade was more horrible and widespread than ever. It was clear
that the Portuguese officials were themselves at the bottom of
the traffic. Kirk and Charles Livingstone being compelled to
return to England on account of their health, the doctor resolved
once more to visit the lake, and proceeded some distance up the
west side and then north-west as far as the watershed that
separates the Loangwa from the rivers that run into the lake.
LIVINGSTONE, DAVID
815
Meanwhile a letter was received from Earl Russell recalling the
expedition by the end of the year. In the end of April 1864
Livingstone reached Zanzibar in the " Lady Nyassa," and on
the 23rd of July Livingstone arrived in England. He was
naturally disappointed with the comparative failure of this
expedition. Still the geographical results, though not in extent
to be compared to those of his first and his final expeditions,
were of high importance, as were those in various departments
of science, and he had unknowingly laid the foundations of the
British protectorate of Nyasaland. Details will be found in his
Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi and its Tributaries,
published in 1865.
By Sir Roderick Murchison and his other staunch friends
Livingstone was as warmly welcomed as ever. When Murchison
proposed to him that he should go out again, although he seems
to have had a desire to spend the remainder of his days at home,
the prospect was too tempting to be rejected. He was appointed
British consul to Central Africa without a salary, and government
contributed only £500 to the expedition. The chief help came
from private friends. During the latter part of the expedition
government granted him £1000, but that, when he learned of it,
was devoted to his great undertaking. The Geographical
Society contributed £500. The two main objects of the expedi-
tion were the suppression ;of slavery by means of civilizing
influences, and the ascertainment of the watershed in the region
between Nyasa and Tanganyika. At first Livingstone thought
the Nile problem had been all but solved by Speke, Baker and
Burton, but the idea grew upon him that the Nile sources must
be sought farther south, and his last journey became in the end
a forlorn hope in search of the " fountains " of Herodotus.
Leaving England in the middle of August 1865, via Bombay,
Livingstone arrived at Zanzibar on the 28th of January 1866.
He was landed at the mouth of the Rovuma on the 2 2nd of March,
and started for the interior on the 4th of April. His company
consisted of thirteen sepoys, ten Johanna men, nine African boys
from Nasik school, Bombay, and four boys from the Shire region,
besides camels, buffaloes, mules and donkeys. This imposing
outfit soon melted away to four or five boys. Rounding the
south end of Lake Nyasa, Livingstone struck in a north-north-
west direction for the south end of Lake Tanganyika, over
country much of which had not previously been explored. The
Loangwa was crossed on the isth of December 1866. On
Christmas day Livingstone lost his four goats, a loss which he
felt very keenly, and the medicine chest was stolen in January
1867. Fever came upon him, and for a time was his almost
constant companion; this, with other serious ailments which
subsequently attacked him, and which he had no medicine to
counteract, told on even his iron frame. The Chambezi was
crossed on the 28th of January, and the south end of Tanganyika
reached on the 3ist of March. Here, much to his vexation, he
got into the company of Arab slave dealers (among them being
Tippoo-Tib) by whom his movements were hampered; but he
succeeded in reaching Lake Mweru (Nov. 1867). After visiting
Lake Mofwa and the Lualaba, which he believed was the upper
part of the Nile, he, on the i8th of July 1868, discovered Lake
Bangweulu. Proceeding up the west coast of Tanganyika, he
reached Ujiji on the i4th of March 1869, " a ruckle of bones."
Livingstone recrossed Tanganyika in July, and passed through
the country of the Manyema, but baffled partly by the natives,
partly by the slave hunters, and partly by his long illnesses it was
not till the 2pth of March 1871 that he succeeded in reaching
the Lualaba, at the town of Nyangwe, where he stayed four
months, vainly trying to get a canoe to take him across. It was
here that a party of Arab slavers, without warning or provoca-
tion, assembled one day when the market was busiest and
commenced shooting the women, hundreds being killed or
drowned in trying to escape. Livingstone had " the impression
that he was in hell," but was helpless, though his " first impulse
was to pistol the murderers." The account of this scene which
he sent home roused indignation in England to such a degree as
to lead to determined and to a considerable extent successful
efforts to get the sultan of Zanzibar to suppress the trade. In
sickened disgust the weary traveller made his way back to Ujiji,
which he reached on the i3th of October. Five days after his
arrival in Ujiji he was inspired with new life by the timely
arrival of H. M. Stanley, the richly laden almoner of Mr Gordon
Bennett, of the New York Herald. With Stanley Livingstone
explored the north end of Tanganyika, and proved conclusively
that the Rusizi runs into and not out of it. In the end of the year
the two started eastward for Unyamwezi, where Stanley provided
Livingstone with an ample supply of goods, and bade him farewell.
Stanley left on the isth of March 1872, and after Livingstone
had waited wearily in Unyamwezi for five months, a troop of
fifty-seven men and boys arrived, good and faithful fellows on
the whole, selected by Stanley himself. Thus attended, he
started on the isth of August for Lake Bangweulu, proceeding
along the east side of Tanganyika. His old enemy dysentery
soon found him out. In January 1873 the party got among the
endless spongy jungle on the east of Lake Bangweulu, Living-
stone's object being to go round by the south and away west to
find the " fountains." The doctor got worse and worse, and in
the middle of April he had unwillingly to submit to be carried
in a rude litter. On the 2gth of April Chitambo's village on the
Lulimala, in Ilala, on the south shore of the lake, was reached.
The last entry in the journal is on the 27th of April: " Knocked
up quite, and remain — recover — sent to buy milch goats. We
are on the banks of the Molilamo." On the 3Oth of April he with
difficulty wound up his watch, and early on the morning of the
ist of May the boys found " the great master," as they called
him, kneeling by the side of his bed, dead. His faithful men
preserved the body in the sun as well as they could, and, wrapping
it carefully up, carried it and all his papers, instruments and
other things across Africa to Zanzibar. It was borne to England
with all honour, and on the i8th of April 1874, was deposited
in Westminster Abbey. His faithfully kept journals during
these seven years' wanderings were published under the title of
the Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa, in 1874,
edited by his old friend the Rev. Horace Waller. In Old Chit-
ambo's the time and place of his death are commemorated by a
permanent monument, which replaced in 1902 the tree on which
his native followers had recorded the event.
In spite of his sufferings and the many compulsory delays,
Livingstone's discoveries during these last years were both
extensive and of prime importance as leading to a solution of
African hydrography. No single African explorer has ever done
so much for African geography as Livingstone during his thirty
years' work. His travels covered one-third of the continent,
extending from the Cape to near the equator, and from the
Atlantic to the Indian Ocean. Livingstone was no hurried
traveller; he did his journeying leisurely, carefully observing
and recording all that was worthy of note, with rare geographical
instinct and the eye of a trained scientific observer, studying
the ways of the people, eating their food, living in their huts,
and sympathizing with their joys and sorrows. In all the
countries through which he travelled his memory is cherished
by the native tribes who, almost without exception, treated
Livingstone as a superior being; his treatment of them was
always tender, gentle and gentlemanly. By the Arab slavers
whom he opposed he was also greatly admired, and was by them
styled " the very great doctor." " In the annals of exploration
of the Dark Continent," wrote Stanley many years after the
death of the missionary explorer, " we look in vain among other
nationalities for a name such as Livingstone's. He stands pre-
eminent above all; he unites in himself all the best qualities
of other explorers. . . . Britain . . . excelled herself even
when she produced the strong and perseverant Scotchman,
Livingstone." But the direct gains to geography and science
are perhaps not the greatest results of Livingstone's journeys.
His example and his death acted like an inspiration, filling
Africa with an army of explorers and missionaries, and raising
in Europe so powerful a feeling against the slave trade that
through him it may be considered as having received its death-
blow. Personally Livingstone was a pure and tender-hearted
man, full of humanity and sympathy, simple-minded as a child.
8i6
LIVINGSTONE MOUNTAINS— LIVONIA
The motto of his life was the advice he gave to some school
children in Scotland — " Fear God, and work hard."
See, besides his own narratives and W. G. Blaikie's Life (1880),
the publications of the London Missionary Society from 1840,
the Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society,
the despatches to the Foreign Office sent home by Livingstone
during his last two expeditions, and Stanley's Autobiography (1909)
and How I Found Livingstone (1872). (J. S. K.)
LIVINGSTONE MOUNTAINS, a band of highlands in German
East Africa, forming the eastern border of the rift-valley of
Lake Nyasa, at the northern end of the lake. In parts these
highlands, known also under their native name of Kinga, present
rather the character of a plateau than of a true mountain range,
but the latter name may be justified by the fact that they form
a comparatively narrow belt of country, which falls considerably
to the east as well as to the west. The northern end is well
marked in 8° 50' S. by an escarpment falling to the Ruaha valley,
which is regarded as a north-eastern branch of the main rift-
valley. Southwards the Livingstone range terminates in the
deep valley of the Ruhuhu in 10° 30' S., the first decided break
in the highlands that is reached from the north, on the east
coast of Nyasa. Geologically the range is formed on the side
of the lake by a zone of gneiss running in a series of ridges and
valleys generally parallel to its axis. The ridge nearest the lake
(which in Mount Jamimbi or Chamembe, 9° 41' S., rises to an
absolute height of 7870 ft., or 620x3 ft. above Nyasa) falls almost
sheer to the water, the same steep slope being continued beneath
the surface. Towards the south the range appears to have a
width of some 20 m. only, but northwards it widens out to about
40 m., though broken here by the depression, drained towards
the Ruaha, of Buanyi, on the south side of which is the highest
known summit of the range (9600 ft.). North and east of
Buanyi, as in the eastern half of the range generally, table-topped
mountains occur, composed above of horizontally bedded
quartzites, sandstones and conglomerates. The uplands are
generally clothed in rich grass, forest occurring principally in
the hollows, while the slopes towards the lake are covered with
poor scrub. Native settlements are scattered over the whole
range, and German mission stations have been established at
Bulongwa and Mtandala, a little north of the north end of
Nyasa. The climate is here healthy, and night frosts occur in
the cold season. European crops are raised with success. At
the foot of the mountains on Lake Nyasa are the ports of Wied-
hafen, at the mouth of the Ruhuhu, and Old Langenburg, at
the north-east corner of the lake. (E. HE.)
LIVIUS ANDRONlCUS (c. 284-2043.0. ), the founder of Roman
epic poetry and drama. His name, in which the Greek 'AvSpovLKos
is combined with the gentile name of one of the great Roman
houses, while indicative of his own position as a manumitted
slave, is also significant of the influences by which Roman
literature was fostered, viz. the culture of men who were
either Greeks or " semi-Graeci " by birth and education, and
the protection and favour bestowed upon them by the more
enlightened members of the Roman aristocracy. He is supposed
to have been a native of Tarentum, and to have been brought,
while still a boy, after the capture of that town in 272, as a
slave to Rome. He lived in the household of a member of the
gens Livia, probably M. Livius Salinator. He determined the
course which Roman literature followed for more than a century
after his time. The imitation of Greek comedy, tragedy and
epic poetry, which produced great results in the hands of Naevius,
Plautus, Ennius and their successors, received its first impulse
from him. To judge, however, from the insignificant remains
of his writings, and from the opinions of Cicero and Horace,
he can have had no pretension either to original genius or to
artistic accomplishment. His real claim to distinction was
that he was the first great schoolmaster of the Roman people.
We learn from Suetonius that, like Ennius after him, he obtained
his living by teaching Greek and Latin; and it was probably
as a school-book, rather than as a work of literary pretension,
that his translation of the Odyssey into Latin Saturnian
verse was executed. This work was still used in schools in the
time of Horace (Epp. ii. i., 69), and, although faultily executed,
satisfied a real want by introducing the Romans to a knowledge
of Greek. Such knowledge became essential to men in a high
position as a means of intercourse with Greeks, while Greek
literature stimulated the minds of leading Romans. Moreover,
southern Italy and Sicily afforded many opportunities for witness-
ing representations of Greek comedies and tragedies. The
Romans and Italians had an indigenous drama of their own,
known by the name of Satura, which prepared them for the
reception of the more regular Greek drama. The distinction
between this Salura and the plays of Euripides or Menander
was that it had no regular plot. This the Latin drama first
received from Livius Andronicus; but it did so at the cost of
its originality. In 240, the year after the end of the first Punic
War, he produced at the ludi Romani a translation of a Greek
play (it is uncertain whether a comedy or tragedy or both),
and this representation marks the beginning of Roman literature
(Livy vii. 2). Livius himself took part in his plays, and in
order to spare his voice he introduced the custom of having the
solos (cantica) sung by a boy, while he himself represented the
action of the song by dumb show. In his translation he discarded
the native Saturnian metre, and adopted the iambic, trochaic
and cretic metres, to which Latin more easily adapted itself
than either to the hexameter or to the lyrical measures of a
later time. He continued to produce plays for more than thirty
years after this time. The titles of his tragedies — Achilles,
Aegisthus, Equus Trojanus, Hermione, Tereus—axe all suggestive
of subjects which were treated by the later tragic poets of Rome.
In the year 207, when he must have been of a great age, he was
appointed to cpmpose a hymn of thanksgiving, sung by maidens,
for the victory of the Metaurus and an intercessory hymn to
the Aventine Juno. As a further tribute of national recognition
the " college " or " gild " of poets and actors was granted a
place of meeting in the temple of Minerva on the Aventine.
See fragments in L. Muller, Livi Andronici et Cn. Naevi Fabul-
arum Reliquiae (1885); also J. Wordsworth, Fragments and Speci-
mens of Early Latin (1874) ! Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, bk. iii. ch. 14.
LIVNO, a town of Bosnia, situated on the eastern side of the
fertile plain of Livno, at the foot of Mount Krug (6581 ft.).
Pop. about 5000. The Dalmatian border is 7 m. W. Livno
had a trade in grain, live-stock and silver filigree-work up to
1904, when a fire swept away more than 50x5 of the old Turkish
houses, together with the Roman citadel. Remains prove that
Livno occupies the site of a Roman settlement, the name of
which is uncertain. The Roman Catholic convent of Gurici
is 6 m. S.
LIVONIA, or LIVLAND (Russian, Liflandia) , one of the three
Baltic provinces of Russia, bounded W. by the Gulf of Riga,
N. by Esthonia, E. by the governments of St Petersburg, Pskov
and Vitebsk, and S. by Courland. A group of islands (mo
sq. m.) at the entrance of the Gulf of Riga, of which Oesel,
Mohn, Runo and Paternoster are the largest, belong to this
government. It covers an area of 18,160 sq. m., but of this the
part of Lake Peipus which belongs to it occupies 1090. Its
surface is diversified by several plateaus, those of Haanhof
and of the Livonian Aa having an average elevation of 400 to
700 ft., while several summits reach 800 to 1000 ft. or more.
The edges of the plateaus are gapped by deep valleys; the hilly
tract between the Dvina and its tributary the Livonian Aa has
received, from its picturesque narrow valleys, thick forests and
numerous lakes, the name of " Livonian Switzerland." The
plateau of Odenpah, drained by tributaries of the Embach
river, which flows for 93 m. from Lake Virz-yarvi into Lake
Peipus, occupies an area of 2830 sq. m., and has an average
elevation of 500 ft. More than a thousand lakes are scattered
over Livonia, of which that of Virz-yarvi, having a surface of
106 sq. m. (115 ft. above sea-level), is the largest. Marshes
and peat -bogs occupy one-tenth of the province. Of the numerous
rivers, the Dvina, which flows for 90 m. along its frontier, the
Pernau, Salis, Livonian Aa and Embach are navigable.
The Silurian formation which covers Esthonia, appears in
the northern part of Livonia, the remainder of the province
consisting of Devonian strata. The whole is overlaid with
LIVY
817
glacial deposits, sometimes 400 ft. thick. The typical bottom
moraine, with erratics from Finland, extends all over the country.
Glacial furrows, striae and elongated troughs are met with
everywhere, running mostly from north-west to south-east, as
well as asar or eskers, which have the same direction. Sand-dunes
cover large tracts on the shores of the Baltic. No traces of
marine deposits are found higher than 100 or 150 ft. above
the present sea-level. The soil is not very fertile. Forests cover
about two-fifths of the surface. The climate is rather severe.
The mean temperatures are 43° F. at Riga (winter 23°,
summer 63°) and 40° at Yuriev. The winds are very variable;
the average number of rainy and snowy days is 146 at Riga
(rainfall 24-1 in.). Fogs are not uncommon.
The population of Livonia, which was 621,600 in 1816, reached
1,000,876 in 1870, and 1,295,231 in 1897, of whom 43-4%
were Letts, 39-9% Ehsts, 7-6% Germans, 5-4% Russians,
2% Jews and 1-2% Poles. The estimated pop. in 1906 was
1,411,000. The Livs, who formerly extended east into the
government of Vitebsk, have nearly all passed away. Their
native language, of Finnish origin, is rapidly disappearing, their
present language being a Lettish patois. In 1846 a grammar
and dictionary of it were made with difficulty from the mouths of
old people. The Ehsts, who resemble the Finns of Tavastland,
have maintained their ethnic features, their customs, national
traditions, songs and poetry, and their harmonious language.
There is a marked revival of national feeling, favoured by
" Young Esthonia." The prevailing religion is the Lutheran
(79-8%); 14-3% belong to the Orthodox Greek Church;
of the Russians, however, a considerable proportion are
Raskolniks (Nonconformists); the Roman Catholics amount
to 2-3%, and the Jews to 2%. The Russian civil code was in-
troduced in the Baltic provinces in 1835, and the use of Russian,
instead of German, in official correspondence and in law courts
was ordered in 1867, but not generally brought into practice.
Nearly all the soil belongs to the nobility, the extent of the
peasants' estates being only 15% of the entire area of the govern-
ment. Serfdom was abolished in 1819, but the peasants remained
under the jurisdiction of their landlords. The class of peasant pro-
prietors being restricted to a small number of wealthy peasants, the
bulk have remained tenants at will; they are very miserable, and
about one-fourth of them are continually wandering in fearch of
work. From time to time the emigration takes the shape of a mass
movement, which the government stops by forcible measures. The
average size of the landed estates is 9500 to 11,000 acres, far above
the general average for Russia. Agriculture has reached a high
degree of perfection on the estates of the landlords. The principal
crops are rye, oats, barley, flax and potatoes, with some wheat, hemp
and buckwheat. Dairy-farming and gardening are on the increase.
Fishing in Lake Peipus gives occupation to nearly 100,000 persons,
and is also carried on in the Gulf of Riga and in the rivers. Woollen,
cloth, cotton and flax mills, steam flour and saw mills, distilleries
and breweries, machinery works, paper mills, furniture, tobacco,
soap, candle and hardware works are among the chief industrial
establishments. Livonia carries on a large export trade, especially
through Riga and Pernau, in petroleum, wool, oilcake, flax, linseed,
hemp, grain, timber and wooden wares; the Dvina is the chief
channel for this trade.
Education stands on a much higher level than elsewhere in Russia,
no less than 87 % of the children receiving regular instruction. The
higher educational institutions include Yuriev (Dorpat) University,
Riga polytechnic and a high school for the clergy.
The government is divided into nine districts, the chief towns of
which, with their populations in 1897, are: Riga, capital of the
government (282,943); Arensburg, in the island of Oesel (4621);
Yuriev or Dorpat (42,421); Fellin (7659); Pernau (12,856); Walk
(10,139); Wenden (6327); Werro (4154); and Wolmar (5124).
The capital of the government is Riga.
Coins of the time of Alexander the Great, found on the island
of Oesel, show that the coasts of the Baltic were at an early
period in commercial relation with the civilized world. The
chronicle of Nestor mentions as inhabitants of the Baltic coast
the Chudes, the Livs, the Narova, Letgola, Semigallians and
Kors. It was probably about the gth century that the Chudes
became tributary to the Varangian-Russian states. As they
reacquired their independence, Yaroslav I. undertook in 1030
a campaign against them, and founded Yuriev (Dorpat). The
Germans first penetrated into Livonia in the nth century,
and in 1158 several Liibeck and Visby merchants landed at the
mouth of the Dvina. In 1186 the emissaries of the archbishop of
Bremen began to preach Christianity among the Ehsts and Letts,
and in 1201 the bishop of Livonia established his residence at
Riga. In 1202 or 1204 Innocent III. recognized the order of
Brothers of the Sword, the residence of its grand master being
at Wenden; and the order, spreading the Christian religion
by the sword among the natives, carried on from that time a
series of uninterrupted wars against the Russian republics and
Lithuania, as well as a struggle against the archbishop of Riga,
Riga having become a centre for trade, intermediate between
the Hanseatic towns and those of Novgorod, Pskov and Polotsk.
The first active interference of Lithuania in the affairs of Livonia
took place immediately after the great outbreak of the peasants
on Oesel; Olgierd then devastated all southern Livonia. The
order, having purchased the Danish part of Esthonia, in 1347,
began a war against the bishop of Riga, as well as against
Lithuania, Poland and Russia. The wars against those powers
were terminated respectively in 1435, 1466 and 1483. About
the end of the isth century the master of the order, Plettenberg,
acquired a position of great importance, and in 1527 he was
recognized as a prince of the empire by Charles V. On the
other hand, the authority of the bishops of Riga was soon
completely destroyed (i 566). The war of the order with Ivan IV.
of Russia in 1558 led to a division of Livonia, its northern part,
Dorpat included, being taken by Russia, and the southern part
falling under the dominion of Poland. From that time (1561)
Livonia formed a subject of dispute between Poland and Russia,
the latter only formally abdicating its rights to the country in
1582. In 1621 it was the theatre of a war between Poland and
Sweden, and was conquered by the latter power, enjoying thus
for twenty-five years a milder rule. In 1654, and again at the
beginning of the i8th century, it became the theatre of war
between Poland, Russia and Sweden, and was finally conquered
by Russia. The official concession was confirmed by the treaty
of Nystad in 1721.
See E. Seraphim, Geschichte Liv-, Esth-, und Kurlands (2nd ed.,
Revel, 1897-1904) and Geschichte von Livland (Gotha, 1905, &c.).
(P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
LIVY [TiTUS LIVIUS] (59 B.C.-A.D. 17), Roman historian,
was born at Patavium (Padua). The ancient connexion between
his native city and Rome helped to turn his attention to the
study which became the work of his life. For Padua claimed,
like Rome, a Trojan origin, and Livy is careful to place its
founder Antenor side by side with Aeneas. A more real bond of
union was found in the dangers to which both had been exposed
from the assaults of the Celts (Livy x. 2), and Padua must have
been drawn to Rome as the conqueror of her hereditary foes.
Moreover, at the time of Livy's birth, Padua had long been in
possession of the full Roman franchise, and the historian's
family name may have been taken by one of his ancestors out
of compliment to the great Livian gens at Rome, whose con-
nexion with Cisalpine Gaul is well-established (Suet. Tib. 3),
and by one of whom his family may have been enfranchized.
Livy's easy independent life at Rome, and his aristocratic
leanings in politics seem to show that he was the son of well-born
and opulent parents; he was certainly well educated, being
widely read in Greek literature, and a student both of rhetoric
and philosophy. We have also evidence in his writings that he
had prepared himself for his great work by researches into the
history of his native town. His youth and early manhood,
spent perhaps chiefly at Padua, were cast in stormy times, and
the impression which they left upon his mind was ineffaceable.
In the Civil War his personal sympathies were with Pompey
and the republican party (Tac. Ann. iv. 34); but far more
lasting in its effects was his experience of the licence, anarchy
and confusion of these dark days. The rule of Augustus he seems
to have accepted as a necessity, but he could not, like Horace
and Virgil, welcome it as inaugurating a new and glorious era.
He writes of it with despondency as a degenerate and declining
age; and, instead of triumphant prophecies of world-wide rule,
such as we find in Horace, Livy contents himself with pointing out
the dangers which already threatened Rome, and exhorting his
8i8
LIVY
contemporaries to learn, in good time, the lessons which the past
history of the state had to teach.
It was probably about the time of the battle of Actium that
Livy established himself in Rome, and there he seems chiefly
to have resided until his retirement to Padua shortly before his
death. We have no evidence that he travelled much, though
he must have paid at least one visit to Campania (xxxviii. 56),
and he never, so far as we know, took any part in political life.
Nor, though he enjoyed the personal friendship and patronage
of Augustus (Tac. Ann. iv. 34) and stimulated the historical
zeal of the future emperor Claudius (Suet. Claud, xli.), can we
detect in him anything of the courtier. There is not in his history
a trace of that rather gross adulation in which even Virgil does
not disdain to indulge. His republican sympathies were freely
expressed, and as freely pardoned by Augustus. We must
imagine him devoted to the great task which he had set himself
to perform, with a mind free from all disturbing cares, and in the
enjoyment of all the facilities for study afforded by the Rome
of Augustus, with its liberal encouragement of letters, its newly-
founded libraries and its brilliant literary circles. As his work
went on, the fame which he had never coveted came to him in
ample measure. He is said to have declared in one volume of his
history that he had already won glory enough, and the younger
Pliny (Epist. ii. 3) relates that a Spaniard came all the way
from Gades merely to see him, and, this accomplished, at once
returned home satisfied. The accession of Tiberius (A.D. 14)
materially altered for the worse the prospects of literature in
Rome, and Livy retired to Padua, where he died. He had at
least one son (Quintil. x. i. 39), who also was possibly an author
(Pliny, Nat. Hist. i. 5. 6), and a daughter married to a certain
L. Magius, a rhetorician of no great merit (Seneca, Contrail, x.
29. 2). Nothing further is known of his personal history.
Analysis of the History. — For us the interest of Livy's life
centres in the work to which the greater part of it was devoted,
the history of Rome from its foundation down to the death
of Drusus (9 B.C.). Its proper title was Ab urbe condita libri
(also called historiae and annales). Various indications point
to the period from 27 to 20 B.C., as that during which the first
decade was written. In the first book (19. 3) the emperor is
called Augustus, a title which he assumed early in 27 B.C., and
in ix. 18 the omission of all reference to the restoration, in
20 B.C., of the standards taken at Carrhae seems to justify the
inference that the passage was written before that date. In
the epitome of book lix. there is a reference to a law of Augustus
which was passed in 18 B.C. The books dealing with the civil
wars must have been written during Augustus's lifetime, as
they were read by him (Tac. Ann. iv. 34), while there is some
evidence that the last part, from book cxxi. onwards, was
published after his death A.D. 14.
The work begins with the landing of Aeneas in Italy, and
closes with the death of Drusus, 9 B.C., though it is possible
that the author intended to continue it as far as the death of
Augustus. The division into decades is certainly not due to the
author himself, and is first heard of at the end of the 5th century;
on the other hand, the division into libri or volwmina seems to
be original. That the books were grouped and possibly pub-
lished in sets is rendered probable both by the prefaces which
introduce new divisions of the work (vi. i, xxi. i, xxxi. i) and
by the description in one MS. of books cix.-cxvi. as " bellorum
civilium libri octo." Such arrangement and publication in parts
were, moreover, common with ancient authors, and in the case
of a lengthy work almost a necessity.
Of the 142 libri composing the history, the first 15 carry
us down to the eve of the great struggle with Carthage, a period,
as Livy reckons it, of 488 years (xxxi. i); 15 more (xvi-xxx.)
cover the 63 years of the two great Punic wars. With the close
of book xlv. we reach the conquest of Macedonia in 167 B.C.
Book Iviii. described the tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus, 133 B.C.
In book Ixxxix. we have the dictatorship of Sulla (81 B.C.),
in ciii. Caesar's first consulship (59 B.C.), in cix.-cxvi. the civil
wars to the death of Caesar (44 B.C.), in cxxiv. the defeat of
Brutus and Cassius at Philippi, in cxxxiii. and cxxxiv. the battle
of Actium and the accession of Augustus. The remaining eight
books give the history of the first twenty years of Augustus's reign.
Of this vast work only a small portion has come down to
modern times; only thirty-five books are now extant (i.-x.,
xxi.-xlv.), and of these xli. and xliii. are incomplete. The lost
books seem to have disappeared between the 7th century and
the revival of letters in the isth — a fact sufficiently accounted
for by the difficulty of transmitting so voluminous a work in
times when printing was unknown, for the story that Pope
Gregory I. burnt all the copies of Livy he could lay his hands
on rests on no good evidence. Only one important fragment
has since been recovered — the portion of book xci. discovered
in the Vatican in 1772, and edited by Niebuhr in 1820. Very
much no doubt of the substance of the lost books has been
preserved both by such writers as Plutarch and Dio Cassius,
and by epitomizers like Florus and Eutropius. But our know-
ledge of their contents is chiefly derived from the so-called
periochae or epitomes, of which we have fortunately a nearly
complete series, the epitomes of books cxxxvi. and cxxxvii.
being the only ones missing.1 These epitomes have been ascribed
without sufficient reason to Florus (2nd century); but, though
they are probably of even later date, and are disappointingly
meagre, they may be taken as giving, so far as they go, a fairly
authentic description of the original. They have been expanded
with great ingenuity and learning by Freinsheim in Draken-
borch's edition of Livy.2 The Prodigia of Julius Obsequens
and the list of consuls in the Chronica of Cassiodorus are taken
directly from Livy, and to that extent reproduce the contents
of the lost books. It is probable that Obsequens, Cassiodorus
and the compiler of the epitomes did not use the original work
but an abridgment.
Historical Standpoint. — If we are to form a correct judgment
on the merits of Livy's history, we must, above all things, bear
in mind what his aim was in writing it, and this he has told us
himself in the celebrated preface. He set himself the task of
recording the history of the Roman people, " the first in the
world," from the beginning. The task was a great one, and
the fame to be won by it uncertain, yet it would be something
to have made the attempt, and the labour itself would bring a
welcome relief from the contemplation of present evils; for
his readers, too, this record will, he says, be full of instruction;
they are invited to note especially the moral lessons taught by
the story of Rome, to observe how Rome rose to greatness by
the simple virtues and unselfish devotion of her citizens, and how
on the decay of these qualities followed degeneracy and decline.
He does not, therefore, write, as Polybius wrote, for students
of history. With Polybius the greatness of Rome is a pheno-
menon to be critically studied and scientifically explained; the
rise of Rome forms an important chapter in universal history,
and must be dealt with, not as an isolated fact, but in connexion
with the general march of events in the civilized world. Still
less has Livy anything in common with the naive anxiety of
Dionysius of Halicarnassus to make it clear to his fellow Greeks
that the irresistible people who had mastered them was in origin,
in race and in language Hellenic like themselves.
Livy writes as a Roman, to raise a monument worthy of
the greatness of Rome, and to keep alive, for the guidance and
the warning of Romans, the recollection alike of the virtues
which had made Rome great and of the vices which had
threatened her with destruction. In so writing he was in close
agreement with the traditions of Roman literature, as well as
with the conception of the nature and objects of history current
in his time. To a large extent Roman literature grew out of
1 For the fragments of an epitome discovered at Oxyrhynchus see
J. S. Reid in Classical Review (July, 1904); E. Kornemann, Die neue
Livius-Epitome aus Oxyrhynchus, with text and commentary (Leipzig,
1904) ; C. H. Moore, " The Oxyrhynchus Epitome of Livy in relation
to Obsequens and Cassiodorus," in American Journal of Philology
(1904), 241.
2 The various rumours once current of complete copies of Livy in
Constantinople, Chios and elsewhere, are noticed by B. G. Niebuhr,
Lectures on the History of Rome from the first Punic War (ed. L.
Schmitz, 1844), i. 65.
LIVY
819
pride in Rome, for, though her earliest authors took the form
and often the language of their writings from Greece, it was
the greatness of Rome that inspired the best of them, and it
was from the annals of Rome that their themes were taken. And
this is naturally true in an especial sense of the Roman historians;
the long list of annalists begins at the moment when the great
struggle with Carthage had for the first time brought Rome
into direct connexion with the historic peoples of the ancient
world, and when Romans themselves awoke to the importance
of the part reserved for Rome to play in universal history. To
write the annals of Rome became at once a task worthy of the
best of her citizens. Though other forms of literature might
be thought unbecoming to the dignity of a free-born citizen,
this was never so with history. On the contrary, men of high
rank and tried statesmanship were on that very account thought
all the fitter to write the chronicles of the state they had served.
And history in Rome never lost either its social prestige or its
intimate and exclusive connexion with the fortunes of the
Roman people. It was well enough for Greeks to busy them-
selves with the manners, institutions and deeds of the " peoples
outside." The Roman historians, from Fabius Pictor to Tacitus,
cared for none of these things. This exclusive interest in Rome
was doubtless encouraged by the peculiar* characteristics of the
history of the state. The Roman annalist had not, like the
Greek, to deal with the varying fortunes and separate doings
of a number of petty communities, but with the continuous life
of a single city. Nor was his attention drawn from the main
lines of political history by the claims of art, literature and
philosophy, for just as the tie which bound Romans together
was that of citizenship, not of race or culture, so the history of
Rome is that of the state, of its political constitution, its wars
and conquests, its military and administrative system.
Livy's own circumstances were all such as to render these
views natural to him. He began to write at a time when, after
a century of disturbance, the mass of men had been contented
to purchase peace at the price of liberty. The present was at
least inglorious, the future doubtful, and many turned gladly
to the past for consolation. This retrospective tendency was
favourably regarded by the government. It was the policy of
Augustus to obliterate all traces of recent revolution, and to
connect the new imperial regime as closely as possible with
the ancient traditions and institutions of Rome and Italy. The
Aeneid of Virgil, the Fasti of Ovid, suited well with his own
restoration of the ancient temples, his revival of such ancient
ceremonies as the Ludi Saeculares, his efforts to check the un-
Roman luxury of the day, and his jealous regard for the purity
of the Roman stock. And, though we are nowhere told that
Livy undertook his history at the emperor's suggestion, it is
certain that Augustus read parts of it with pleasure, and even
honoured the writer with his assistance and friendship.
Livy was deeply penetrated with a sense of the greatness
of Rome. From first to last its majesty and high destiny are
present to his mind. Aeneas is led to Italy by the Fates that he
may be the founder of Rome. Romulus after his ascension
declares it to be the will of heaven that Rome should be mistress
of the world; and Hannibal marches into Italy, that he may
" set free the world " from Roman rule. But, if this ever-present
consciousness often gives dignity and elevation to his narrative,
it is also responsible for some of its defects. It leads him occasion-
ally into exaggerated language (e.g. xxii. 33,""nullius usquam
terrarum rei cura Romanos effugiebat "), or into such mis-
statements as his explanation of the course taken by the Romans
in renewing war with Carthage, that " it seemed more suitable
to the dignity of the Roman people." Often his jealousy for
the honour of Rome makes him unfair and one-sided. In all
her wars not only success but justice is with Rome. To the
same general attitude is also due the omission by Livy of all
that has no direct bearing on the fortunes of the Roman people.
"I have resolved," he says (xxxix. 48), "only to touch on
foreign affairs so far as they are bound up with those of Rome."
As the result, we get from Livy very defective accounts even
of the Italic peoples most closely connected with Rome. Of
the past history and the internal condition of the more distant
nations she encountered he tells us little or nothing, even when
he found such details carefully given by Polybius.
Scarcely less strong than his interest in Rome is his interest
in the moral lessons which her history seemed to him so well
qualified to teach. This didactic view of history was a prevalent
one in antiquity, and it was confirmed no doubt by those rhetorical
studies which in Rome as in Greece formed the chief part of
education, and which taught men to look on history as little
more than a storehouse of illustrations and themes for declama-
tion. But it suited also the practical bent of the Roman mind,
with its comparative indifference to abstract speculation or
purely scientific research. It is in the highest degree natural
that Livy should have sought for the secret of the rise of Rome,
not in any large historical causes, but in the moral qualities of
the people themselves, and that he should have looked upon
the contemplation of these as the best remedy for the vices of
his own degenerate days. He dwells with delight on the unselfish
patriotism of the old heroes of the republic. In those times
children obeyed their parents, the gods were still sincerely
worshipped, poverty was no disgrace, sceptical philosophies and
foreign fashions in religion and in daily life were unknown.
But this ethical interest is closely bound up with his Roman
sympathies. His moral ideal is no abstract one, and the virtues
he praises are those which in his view made up the truly Roman
type of character. The prominence thus given to the moral
aspects of the history tends to obscure in some degree the true
relations and real importance of the events narrated, but it
does so in Livy to a far less extent than in some other writers.
He is much too skilful an artist either to resolve his history
into a mere bundle of examples, or to overload it, as Tacitus
is sometimes inclined to do, with reflections and axioms. The
moral he wishes to enforce is usually either conveyed by the
story itself, with the aid perhaps of a single sentence of comment,
or put as a speech into the mouth of one of his characters (e.g.
xxiii. 49 ; the devotion of Decius, viii. 10, cf. vii. 40 ; and
the speech of Camillus, v. 54); and what h'ttle his narrative
thus loses in accuracy it gains in dignity and warmth of feeling.
In his portraits of the typical Romans of the old style, such as
Q. Fabius Maximus, in his descriptions of the unshaken firmness
and calm courage shown by the fathers of the state in the hour
of trial, Livy is at his best; and he is so largely in virtue of his
genuine appreciation of character as a powerful force in the
affairs of men.
This enthusiasm for Rome and for Roman virtues is, moreover,
saved from degenerating into gross partiality by the genuine
candour of Livy's mind and by his wide sympathies with every
thing great and good. Seneca (Suasoriae vi. 22) and Quintilian
(x. i. 101) bear witness to his impartiality. Thus, Hasdrubal's
devotion and valour at the battle on theMetaurus are described
in terms of eloquent praise; and even in Hannibal, the lifelong
enemy of Rome, he frankly recognizes the great qualities that
balanced his faults. Nor, though his sympathies are unmistakably
with the aristocratic party, does he scruple to censure the pride,
cruelty and selfishness which too often marked their conduct
(ii. 54; the speech of Canuleius, iv. 3; of Sextius and Licinius,
vi. 36); and, though he feels acutely that the times are out of
joint, and has apparently little hope of the future, he still believes
in justice and goodness. He is often righteously indignant,
but never satirical, and such a pessimism as that of Tacitus and
Juvenal is wholly foreign to his nature.
Though he studied and even wrote on philosophy (Seneca,
Ep. 100. 9), Lrvy is by no means a philosophic historian. We
learn indeed from incidental notices that he inclined to Stoicism
and disliked the Epicurean system. With the scepticism that
despised the gods (x. 40) and denied that they meddled with the
affairs of men (xliii. 13) he has no sympathy. The immortal gods
are everywhere the same; they govern the world (xxxvii. 45)
and reveal the future to men by signs and wonders (xliii. 13),
but only a debased superstition will look for their hand in
every petty incident, or abandon itself to an indiscriminate
belief in the portents and miracles in which popular credulity
820
LIVY
delights. The ancient state religion of Rome, with its temples,
priests and auguries, he not only reverences as an integral part
of the Roman constitution, with a sympathy which grows as
he studies it, but, like Varro, and in true Stoic fashion, he regards
it as a valuable instrument of government (i. 19. 21), indispens-
able in a well-ordered community. As distinctly Stoical is the
doctrine of a fate to which even the gods must yield (ix. 4),
which disposes the plans of men (i. 42) and blinds their minds
(v- 3?)) yet leaves their wills free (xxxvii. 45).
But we find no trace in Livy of any systematic application
of philosophy to the facts of history. He is as innocent of the
leading ideas which shaped the work of Polybius as he is of the
cheap theorizing which wearies us in the pages of Dionysius.
The events are graphically, if not always accurately, described;
but of the larger causes at work in producing them, of their
subtle action and reaction upon each other, and of the general
conditions amid which the history worked itself out, he takes
no thought at all. Nor has Livy much acquaintance with either
the theory or the practice of politics. He exhibits, it is true,
political sympathies and antipathies. He is on the whole for
the nobles and against the commons; and, though the unfavour-
able colours in which he paints the leaders of the latter are
possibly reflected from the authorities he followed, it is evident
that he despised and disliked the multitude. Of monarchy
he speaks with a genuine Roman hatred, and we know that in
the last days of the republic his sympathies were wholly with
those who strove in vain to save it. He betrays, too, an insight
into the evils which were destined finally to undermine the
imposing fabric of Roman empire. The decline of the free
population, the spread of slavery (vi. 12, vii. 25), the universal
craving for wealth (iii. 26), the employment of foreign mercenaries
(xxv. 33), the corruption of Roman race and Roman manners
by mixture with aliens (xxxix. 3), are all noticed in tones of
solemn warning. But his retired life had given him no wide
experience of men and things. It is not surprising, therefore,
to find that he fails altogether to present a clear and coherent
picture of the history and working of the Roman constitution,
or that his handling of intricate questions of policy is weak and
inadequate.
Sources. — If from the general aim and spirit of Livy's history
we pass to consider his method of workmanship, we are struck
at once by the very different measure of success attained by him
in the two great departments of an historian's labour. He is
a consummate artist, but an unskilled and often careless investi-
gator and critic. The materials which lay ready to his hand
may be roughly classed under two heads: (i) the original
evidence of monuments, inscriptions, &c., (2) the written tradition
as found in the works of previous authors. It is on the second
of these two kinds of evidence that Livy almost exclusively
relies. Yet that even for the very early times a certain amount of
original evidence still existed is proved by the use which was
made of it by Dionysius, who mentions at least three important
inscriptions, two dating from the regal period and one from the
first years of the republic (iv. 26, iv. 58, x. 32). We know from
Livy himself (iv. 20) that the breastplate dedicated by Aulus
Cornelius Cossus (428 B.C.) was to be seen in his own day in the
temple of Jupiter Feretrius, nor is there any reason to suppose
that the libri lintei, quoted by Licinius Macer, were not extant
when Livy wrote. For more recent times the materials were
plentiful, and a rich field of research lay open to the student
in the long series of laws, decrees of the senate, and official
registers, reaching back, as it probably did, at least to the
beginning of the 3rd century B.C. Nevertheless it seems certain
that Livy never realized the duty of consulting these relics of
the past, even in order to verify the statements of his authorities.
Many of them he never mentions; the others (e.g. the libri
lintei) he evidently describes at second hand. Antiquarian
studies were popular in his day, but the instances are very few
in which he has turned their results to account. There is no
sign that he had ever read Varro; and he never alludes to Verrius
Flaccus. The haziness and inaccuracy of his topography make
it clear that he did not attempt to familiarize himself with the
actual scenes of events even that took place in Italy. Not only
does he confuse Thermon, the capital of Aetolia, with Ther-
mopylae (xxxiii. 35), but his accounts of the Roman campaigns
against Volsci, Aequi and Samnites swarm with confusions
and difficulties; nor are even his descriptions of Hannibal's
movements free from an occasional vagueness which betrays
the absence of an exact knowledge of localities.
The consequence of this indifference to original research and
patient verification might have been less serious had the written
tradition on which Livy preferred to rely been more trustworthy.
But neither the materials out of which it was composed, nor the
manner in which it had been put together, were such as to make it
a safe guide. It was indeed represented by a long line of respectable
names. The majority of the Roman annalists were men of high
birth and education, with a long experience of affairs, and their
defects did not arise from seclusion of life or ignorance of letters.
It is rather in the conditions under which they wrote and in the
rules and traditions of their craft that the causes of their short-
comings must be sought.
It was not until the 6th century from the foundation of the city
that historical writing began in Rome. The father of Roman
history, Q. Fabius Pictor, a patrician and a senator, can
scarcely have published his annals before the close of the J
Second Punic War, but these annals covered the whole Aaaallsts-
period from the arrival of Evander in Italy down at least to the
battle by Lake Trasimene (217 B.C.). Out of what materials, then,
did he put together his account of the earlier history? Recent
criticism has succeeded in answering this question with some degree
of certainty. A careful examination of the fragments of Fabius (see
H. Peter, Historicorum Romanorum Relliquiae, Leipzig, 1870; and
C. W. Nitzsch, Rom. Annalistik, Berlin, 1873) reveals in the first
place a marked difference between the kingly period and that which
followed the establishment of the republic. The history of the
former stretches back into the regions of pure mythology. It is
little more than a collection of fables told with scarcely any attempt
at criticism, and with no more regard to chronological sequence than
was necessary to make the tale run smoothly or to fill up such gaps
as that between the flight of Aeneas from Troy and the supposed year
of the foundation of Rome. But from its very commencement the
history of the republic wears a different aspect. The mass of floating
tradition, which had come down from early days, with its tales of
border raids and forays, of valiant chiefs and deeds of patriotism, is
now rudely fitted into a framework of a wholly different kind. This
framework consists of short notices of important events, wars, pro-
digies, consecration of temples, &c., all recorded with extreme
brevity, precisely dated, and couched in a somewhat archaic style.
They were taken probably from one or more of the state registers,
such as the annals of the pontiffs, or those kept by the aediles in
the temple of Ceres. This bare official outline of the past history
of his city was by Fabius filled in from the rich store of tradition
that lay ready to his hand. The manner and spirit in which he
effected this combination were no doubt wholly uncritical. Usually
he seems to have transferred both annalistic notices and popular
traditions to his pages much in the shape in which he found them.
But he unquestionably gave undue prominence to the tales of the
prowess and glory of the Fabii, and probably also allowed his own
strong aristocratic sympathies to colour his version of the early
political controversies. This fault of partiality was, according to
Polybius, a conspicuous blot in Fabius s account of his own times,
which was, we are told, full and in the main accurate, and, like the
earlier portions, consisted of official annalistic notices, supple-
mented, however, not from tradition, but from his own experience
and from contemporary sources. But even here Polybius charges
him with favouring Rome at the expense of Carthage, and with the
undue exaltation of the great head of his house, Q. Fabius Cunctator.
Nevertheless the comparative fidelity with which Fabius seems
to have reproduced his materials might have made his annals the
starting point of a critical history. But unfortunately intelligent
criticism was exactly what they never received. It is true that in
some respects a decided advance upon Fabius was made by sub-
sequent annalists. M. Porcius Cato (234-149 B.C.) widened the scope
of Roman history so as to include that of the chief Italian cities, and
made the first serious attempt to settle the chronology. In his
history of the Punic wars Caelius Antipater (c. 130 B.C.) added
fresh material, drawn probably from the works of the Sicilian Greek
Silenus, while Licinius Macer (70 B.C.) distinguished himself by the
use he made of the ancient " linen books." No doubt, too, the later
annalists, at any rate from Caelius Antipater onwards, improved
upon Fabius in treatment and style. But in more essential points
we can discern no progress. One annalist after another quietly
adopted the established tradition, as it had been left by his prede-
cessors, without any serious alterations of its main outlines. Of
independent research and critical analysis we find no trace, and the
general agreement upon main facts is to be attributed simply to the
regularity with which each writer copied the one before him. But,
had the later annalists contented themselves with simply reproduc-
ing the earlier ones, we should at least have had the old tradition
before us in a simple and tolerably genuine form. As it was, while
LIVY
821
they slavishly clung to its substance, they succeeded, as a rule, in
destroying all traces of its original form and colouring. L. Calpurnius
Piso, tribune in 149 B.C. and consul in 133 B.C., prided himself on
reducing the old legends to the level of common sense, and im-
porting into them valuable moral lessons for his own generation.
By Caelius Antipater the methods of rhetoric were first applied to
history, a disastrous precedent enough. He inserted speeches, en-
livened his pages with chance tales, and aimed, as Cicero tells us, at
not merely narrating facts but also at beautifying them. His
successors carried still farther the practice of dressing up the rather
bald chronicles of earlier writers with all the ornaments of rhetoric.
The old traditions were altered, almost beyond the possibility of
recognition, by exaggerations, interpolations and additions. Fresh
incidents were inserted, new motives suggested and speeches com-
posed in order to infuse the required life and freshness into these dry
bones of history. At the same time the political bias of the writers,
and the political ideas of their day were allowed, in some cases
perhaps half unconsciously, to affect their representations of past
events. Annalists of the Gracchan age imported into the early
struggles of patricians and plebeians the economic controversies of
their own day, and painted the first tribunes in the colours of the two
Gracchi or of Saturninus. In the next generation they dexterously
forced the venerable records of the early republic to pronounce in
favour of the ascendancy of the senate, as established by Sulla. To
political bias was added family pride, for the gratification of which
the archives of the great houses, the funeral panegyrics, or the
imagination of the writer himself supplied an ample store of doubt-
ful material. Pedigrees were invented, imaginary consulships and
fictitious triumphs inserted, and family traditions and family
honours were formally incorporated with the history of the state.
Things were not much better even where the annalists were
dealing with recent or contemporary events. Here, indeed, their
materials were naturally fuller and more trustworthy, and less room
was left for fanciful decoration and capricious alteration of the
facts. But their methods are in the main unchanged. What they
found written they copied; the gaps they supplied, where personal
experience failed, by imagination. No better proof of this can be
given than a comparison of the annalist's version of history with
that of Polybius. In the fourth and fifth decades of Livy the
two appear side by side, and the contrast between them is striking.
Polybius, for instance, gives the number of the slain at Cynoscephalae
as 8000; the annalists raise it as high as 40,000 (Livy xxxiii. 10).
In another case (xxxii. 6) Valerius Antias, the chief of sinners in this
respect, inserts a decisive Roman victory over the Macedonians, in
which 12,000 of the latter were slain and 2200 taken prisoner, an
achievement recorded by no other authority.
Such was the written tradition on which Livy mainly relied. We
have next to examine the manner in which he used it, and here we
are met at the outset by the difficulty of determining with exactness
what authorities he is following at any one time; for of the import-
ance of full and accurate references he has no idea, and often for
chapters together he gives us no clue at all. More often still he
contents himself with such vague phrases as " they say," " the
story goes," " some think," or speaks in general terms of " ancient
writers " or " my authorities." Even where he mentions a writer
by name, it is frequently clear that the writer named is not the one
whose lead he is following at the moment, but that he is noticed
incidentally as differing from Livy's guide for the time being on
some point of detail (compare the references to Piso in the first
decade, i. 55, ii. 32, &c.). It is very rarely that Livy explicitly tells
us whom he has selected as his chief source (e.g. Fabius xxii. 7;
Polybius xxxiii. 10). By a careful analysis, however, of those
portions of his work which admit of a comparison with the text
of his acknowledged authorities (e.g fourth and fifth decades, see
H. Nissen, Untersuchungen, Berlin, 1863), and elsewhere by compar-
ing his version with the known fragments of the various annalists,
and with what we are told of their style and method of treatment, we
are able to form a general idea of his plan of procedure. As to the
first decade, it is generally agreed that in the first and second books,
at any rate, he follows such older and simpler writers as Fabius
Pictor and Calpurnius Piso (the only ones whom he there refers to
by name), to whom, so far as the first book is concerned, Niebuhr
(Lectures, p 33) would add the poet Ennius. With the close of the
second book or the opening of the third we come upon the first traces
of the use of later authors. Valerius Antias1 is first quoted in iii. 5,
and signs of his handiwork are visible here and there throughout the
rest of the decade (vii. 36, ix. 27, x. 3-5). In the fourth book the
principal authority is apparently Licinius Macer, and for the period
following the sack of Rome by the Gauls Q. Claudius Quadrigarius,
whose annals began at this point in the history. We have besides
a single reference (vii. 3) to the antiquarian Cincius, and two (iv. 23,
x 9) to Q. Aelius Tubero, one of the last in the list of annalists.
Passing to the third decade, we find ourselves at once confronted by
a question which has been long and fully discussed — the relation
between Livy and Polybius. Did Livy use Polybius at all, and, if so,
to what extent?
It is conceded on all hands that Livy in this decade makes con-
1 For Livy's debt to Valerius Antias, see A. A. Howard in Harvard
Studies in Classical Philology, xvii. (1906), pp. 161 sqq.
siderabje use of other authorities than Polybius (e.g. Fabius xxii.
7; Caelius Antipater xxi. 38, 46, 47, xxii. 31, &c.), that he only once
mentions Polybius (xxx. 45), and that, if he used him, he _ . . .
did so to a much less extent than in the fourth and fifth
decades, and in a very different manner. It is also agreed that we
can detect in Livy's account of the Hannibalic war two distinct
elements, derived originally, the one from a Roman, the other from
a non-Roman source. But from these generally accepted premises
two opposite conclusions have been drawn. On the one hand, it is
maintained (e.g. by Lachmann, C. Peter, H. Peter, Hist. Rom. Relliq.)
that those parts of Livy's narrative which point to a non-Roman
authority (e.g. Hannibal's movements prior to his invasion of Italy)
are taken by Livy directly from Polybius, with occasional reference
of course to other writers, and with the omission (as in the later
decades) of all matters uninteresting to Livy or his Roman readers,
and the addition of rhetorical touches and occasional comments. It
is urged that Livy, who in the fourth and fifth decades shows himself
so sensible of the great merits of Polybius, is not likely to have ignored
him in the third, and that his more limited use of him in the latter
case is fully accounted for by the closer connexion of the history with
Rome and Roman affairs, and the comparative excellence of the
available Roman authorities, and, lastly, that the points of agree-
ment with Polybius, not only in matter but in expression, can only
be explained on the theory that Livy is directly following the great
Greek historian. On the other hand, it is maintained (especially
by Schwegler, Nitzsch, and K. Bottcher) that the extent and nature
of Livy's agreement with Polybius in this part of his work point
rather to the use by both of a common original authority. It is
argued that Livy's mode of using his authorities is tolerably uniform,
and that his mode of using Polybius in particular is known with
certainty from the later decades. Consequently the theory that he
used Polybius in the third decade requires us to assume that in this
one instance he departed widely, and without sufficient reason, from
his usual course of procedure. Moreover, even in the passages where
the agreement with Polybius is most apparent, there are so many
discrepancies and divergencies in detail, and so many unaccountable
omissions and additions, as to render it inconceivable that he had the
text of Polybius before him. But all these are made intelligible if we
suppose Livy to have been here following directly or indirectly the
same original sources that were used by Polybius. The earliest of
these original sources was probably Silenus, with whom may possibly
be placed, for books xxi. xxii., Fabius Pictor. The latter Livy
certainly used directly for some parts of the decade. The former he
almost as certainly knew only at second hand, the intermediate
authority being probably Caelius Antipater. This writer, who con-
fined himself to a history of the Second PunicWar, in seven books, is
expressly referred to by Livy eleven times in the third decade; and
in other passages where his name is not mentioned Livy can be
shown to have followed him (e.g. xxii. 5, 49, 50, 51, xxiv. 9). In the
latter books of the decade his chief authority is possibly Valerius
Antias.
In the fourth and fifth decades the question of Livy's authorities
presents no great difficulties, and the conclusions arrived at by
Nissen in his masterly Untersuchungen have met with general
acceptance. These may be shortly stated as follows. In the
portions of the history which deal with Greece and the East,
Livy follows Polybius, and these portions are easily distinguishable
from the rest by their superior clearness, accuracy and fulness. On
the other hand, for the history of Italy and western Europe he
falls back on Roman annalists, especially, it seems, on Claudius
Quadrigarius and Valerius Antias — a most unfortunate choice —
and from them too he takes the annalistic mould into which his
matter is cast.
Livy's general method of using these authorities was certainly
not such as would be deemed satisfactory in a modern historian.
He is indeed free from the grosser faults of deliberate _... .
injustice and falsification, and he resists that temptation ' f*
to invent, to which " the minds of authors are only too
much inclined " (xxii. 7). Nor is he unconscious of the necessity for
some kind of criticism. He distinguishes between rumour and the
precise statements of recognized authorities (cf. xxi. 46, y. 21, vii. 6).
The latter he reproduced in the main faithfully, but with a certain
exercise of discretion. Where they disagreed, he calls attention to
the fact, occasionally pronouncing in favour of one version rather
than another (ii. 41, xxi. 46) though often on no adequate grounds, or
attempting to reconcile and explain discrepancies (vi. 12, 38). Where
he detects or suspects the insertion of fabulous matter he has no
scruple in saying so. Gross exaggerations, such as those in which
Valerius Antias indulged, he roundly denounces, and with equal
plainness of speech he condemns the family vanity which had so
constantly corrupted and distorted the truth. " I suppose," he says
(viii. 40), " that the record and memorial of these matters hath been
depraved and corrupted by these funeral orations of praises, . .
while every house and family draweth to it the honour and renown of
noble exploits, martial feats and dignities by any untruth and lie, so
it be colourable." The legendary character of the earliest traditions
he frankly admits. " Such things as are reported either before or at
the foundation of the city, more beautiful and set out with poets'
fables than grounded upon pure and faithful records, I mean neither
to aver nor disprove " (Praef.); and of the whole history previous
822
LIVY
to the sack of Rome by the Gauls (390 B.C.) he writes that it was
obscure " both in regard of exceeding antiquity, and also for that
in those days there were very few writings and monuments, the
only faithful safeguard and true remembrancers of deeds past ; and,
besides, whatsoever was registered in the commentaries of the priests
and in other public or private records, the same for the most part,
when the city was burned, perished withal." Further than this,
however, Livy's criticism does not go. Where his written authorities
are not palpably inconsistent with each other or with probability
he accepts and transcribes their record without any further inquiry,
nor does he ever attempt to get behind this record in order to discover
the original evidence on which it rested. His acceptance in any
particular case of the version given by an annalist by no means
implies that he has by careful inquiry satisfied himself of its truth.
At the most it only presupposes a comparison with other versions,
equally second-hand, but either less generally accepted or less in
harmony with his own views of the situation ; and in many cases the
reasons he gives for his preference of one account over another are
eminently unscientific. Livy's history, then, rests on no foundation
of original research or even of careful verification. It is a compila-
tion, and even as such it leaves much to be desired. For we cannot
credit Livy with having made such a preliminary survey of his
authorities as would enable him to determine their relations to each
other, and fuse their various narratives into a consistent whole.
It is clear, on the contrary, that his circle of authorities for any one
decade was a comparatively small one, that of these he selected one,
and transcribed him with the necessary embellishments and other
slight modifications until impelled by various reasons to drop him.
He then, without warning, takes up another, whom he follows in the
same way. The result is a curious mosaic, in which pieces of all
colours and dates are found side by side, and in which even the great
artistic skill displayed throughout fails to conceal the lack of internal
unity. Thus many of Livy's inconsistencies are due to his having
pieced together two versions, each of which gave a differently coloured
account of the same event. Mommsen (Rom. Forschungen, ii.) has
clearly shown that this is what has happened in his relation of the
legal proceedings against the elder Afncanus in book xxxviii. ; and
in the story of the first secession, as he tells it, the older version which
represented it as due to political and the later which explained it by
economical grievances are found side by side. Similarly a change
from one authority to another leads him not unfrequently to copy
from the latter statements inconsistent with those he took from the
former, to forget what he has previously said, or to treat as known
a fact which has not been mentioned before (cf. ii. I, xxxiv. 6,
and Weissenborn's Introduction, p. 37). In other cases where the
same event has been placed by different annalists in different years,
or where their versions of it varied, it reappears in Livy as two
events. Thus the four campaigns against the Volsci (ii. I7seq.)are,as
Schwegler (R.G. i. 13) rightly says, simply variations of one single
expedition. Other instances of such " doublettes " are the two
single combats described in xxiii. 46 and xxv. 18, and the two
battles at Baecula in Spain (xxyii. 18 and xxviii. 13). Without
doubt, too, much of the chronological confusion observable through-
out Livy is due to the fact that he follows now one now another
authority, heedless of their differences on this head. Thus he
vacillates between the Catonian and Varronian reckoning of the
years of the city, and between the chronologies of Polybius and the
Roman annalists.
To these defects in his method must be added the fact that he
does not always succeed even in accurately reproducing the authority
he is for the time following. In the case of Polybius, for instance, he
allows himself great freedom in omitting what strikes him as ir-
relevant, or tedious, or uninteresting to his Roman readers, a process
in which much valuable matter disappears. In other cases his desire
to give a vividness and point to what he doubtless considered the
rather bald and dry style of Polybius leads him into absurdities and
inaccuracies. Thus by the treaty with Antiochus (188 B.C.) it was
provided that the Greek communities of Asia Minor " shall settle
their mutual differences by arbitration," and so far Livy correctly
transcribes Polybius, but he adds with a rhetorical flourish, " or, if
both parties prefer it, by war " (xxxviii. 38). Elsewhere his blunders
are apparently due to haste, or ignorance or sheer carelessness;
thus, for instance, when Polybius speaks of the Aetolians assembling
at their capital Thermon, Livy (xxxiii. 35) not only substitutes
Thermopylae but gratuitously informs his readers that here the
Pylaean assemblies were held. Thanks partly to carelessness, partly
to mistranslation, he makes sad havoc (xxxv. 5 seq.) of Polybius's
account of the battle of Cynoscephalae. Finally, Livy cannot be
altogether acquitted on the charge of having here and there modified
Polybius in the interests of Rome.
Style. — Serious as these defects in Livy's method appear if viewed
in the light of modern criticism, it is probable that they were easily
pardoned, if indeed they were ever discovered, by his contempor-
aries. For it was on the artistic rather than on the critical side of
history that stress was almost universally laid in antiquity, and the
thing that above all others was expected from the historian was not
so much _a scientific investigation and accurate exposition of the
truth, as its skilful presentation in such a form as would charm and
interest the reader. Tried by this standard, Livy deservedly won
and held a place in the very first rank. Asinius Pollio sneered at his
Patavinity, and the emperor Caligula denounced him as verbose, but
with these exceptions the opinion of antiquity was unanimous in pro-
nouncing him a consummate literary workman. The classical purity
of his style, the eloquence of his speeches, the skill with which he
depicted the play of emotion, and his masterly portraiture of great
men, are all in turn warmly commended, and in our own day we
question if any ancient historian is either more readable or more
widely read. It is true that for us his artistic treatment of his-
tory is not without its drawbacks. The more trained historical
sense of modern times is continually shocked by the obvious untruth
of his colouring, especially in the earlier parts of his history, by the
palpable unreality of many of the speeches, and by the na'ivet6 with
which he omits everything, however important, which he thinks will
weary his readers. ""But in spite of all this we are forced to ac-
knowledge that, as a master of what we may perhaps call " narrative
history," he has no superior in antiquity; for, inferior as he is to
Thucydides, to Polybius, and even to Tacitus in philosophic power
and breadth of view, he is at least their equal in the skill with which
he tells his story. He is indeed the prince of chroniclers, and in this
respect not unworthy to be classed even with Herodotus (Qumtilian,
x. I. 101). Nor is anything more remarkable than the way in which
Livy's fine taste and sense of proportion, his true poetic feeling and
genuine enthusiasm, saved him from the besetting faults of the mode
of treatment which he adopted. The most superficial comparison
of his account of the earliest days of Rome with that given by
Dionysius shows from what depths of tediousness he was preserved
by these qualities. Instead of the wearisome prolixity and the mis-
placed pedantry which make the latter almost unreadable, we find
the old tales briefly and simply told. Their primitive beauty is not
marred by any attempt to force them into an historical mould, or
disguised beneath an accumulation of the insipid inventions of later
times. At the same time they are not treated as mere tales for
children, for Livy never forgets the dignity that belongs to them as
the prelude to the great epic of Rome, and as consecrated by the faith
of generations. Perhaps an even stronger proof of the skill which
enabled Livy to avoid dangers which were fatal to weaker men is to
be found in his speeches. We cannot indeed regard them.withthe
ancients, as the best part of his history, for the majority
of them are obviously unhistorical, and nearly all savour sPeec«es-
somewhat too much of the rhetorical schools to be perfectly agreeable
to modern taste. To appreciate them we must take them for what
they are, pieces of declamation, intended either to enliven the course
of the narrative, to place vividly before the reader the feelings and
aims of the chief actors, or more frequently still to enforce some
lesson which the author himself has at heart. The substance, no
doubt, of many of them Livy took from his authorities, but their form
is his own, and, in throwing into them all his own eloquence and
enthusiasm, he not only acted in conformity with the established
traditions of his art, but found a welcome outlet for feelings and ideas
which the fall of the republic had deprived of all other means of
expression. To us, therefore, they are valuable not only for their
eloquence, but still more as giving us our clearest insight into Livy's
own sentiments, his lofty sense of the greatness of Rome, his apprecia-
tion of Roman courage and firmness, and his reverence for the simple
virtues of older times. But, freely as Livy uses this privilege of
speechmaking, his correct taste keeps his rhetoric within reasonable
limits. With a very few exceptions the speeches are dignified in tone,
full of life and have at least a dramatic propriety, while of such
incongruous and laboured absurdities as the speech which Dionysius
puts into the mouth of Romulus, after the rape of the Sabine women,
there are no instances in Livy.
But, if our estimate of the merits of his speeches is moderated by
doubts as to his right to introduce them at all, no such scruples
interfere with our admiration for the skill with which he has drawn
the portraits of the great men who figure in his pages. We may indeed
doubt whether in all cases they are drawn with perfect accuracy and
impartiality, but of their life-like vigour and clearness there can be
no question. With Livy this portrait-painting was a labour of love.
" To all great men," says Seneca, " he gave their due ungrudgingly,"
but he is at his best in dealing with those who, like Q. Fabius
Maximus, " the Delayer," were in his eyes the most perfect types of
the true Roman.
The general effect of Livy's narrative is no doubt a little spoilt by
the awkward arrangement, adopted from his authorities, which
obliges him to group the events by years, and thus to disturb their
natural relations and continuity. As the result his history has the
appearance of being rather a series of brilliant pictures loosely strung
together than a coherent narrative. But it is impossible not to
admire the copious variety of thought and language, and the evenly
flowing style which carried him safely through the dreariest periods
of his history; and still more remarkable is the dramatic p_ower he
displays when some great crisis or thrilling episode stirs his blood,
such as the sack of Rome by the Gauls, the battle by the Metaurus
and the death of Hasdrubal.
In style and language Livy represents the best period of Latin prose
writing. He has passed far beyond the bald and meagre _diction of
the early chroniclers. In his hands Latin acquired a flexibility and a
richness of vocabulary unknown to it before. If he writes with less
finish and a less perfect rhythm than his favourite model Cicero,_he
excels him in the varied structure of his periods, and their adaptation
LIZARD
823
to the subject-matter. It is true that here and there the " creamy
richness " of his style becomes verbosity, and that he occasion-
ally draws too freely on his inexhaustible store of epithets,
metaphors and turns of speech; but these faults, which did not
escape the censure even of friendly critics like Quintilian, are com-
paratively rare in the extant parts of his work. From the tendency
to use a poetic diction in prose, which was so conspicuous a fault in
the writers of the silver age, Livy is not wholly free. In his earlier
books especially there are numerous phrases and sentences which
have an unmistakably poetic ring, recalling sometimes Ennius and
more often his contemporary Virgil. But in Livy this poetic element
is kept within bounds, and serves only to give warmth and vividness
to the narrative. Similarly, though the influence of rhetoric upon
his language, as well as upon his general treatment, is clearly per-
ceptible, he has not the perverted love of antithesis, paradox and
laboured word-painting which offends us in Tacitus; and, in spite
of the Venetian richness of his colouring, and the copious flow of his
words, he is on the whole wonderfully natural and simple.
These merits, not less than the high tone and easy grace of his
narrative and the eloquence of his speeches, gave Livy a hold on
Roman readers such as only Cicero and Virgil besides him ever ob-
tained. His history formed the groundwork of nearly all that was
afterwards written on the subject. Plutarch, writers on rhetoric like
the elder Seneca, moralists like Valerius Maximus, went to Livy for
their stock examples. Florus and Eutrppius abridged him ; Orosius
extracted from him his proofs of the sinful blindness of the pagan
world; and in every school Livy was firmly established as a text-
book for the Roman youth.
Text.— The received text of the extant thirty-five books of Livy is
taken from different sources, and no one of pur MSS. contains them
all. The MSS. of the first decade, some thirty in number, are with
one exception derived, more or less directly, from a single archetype,
viz., the recension made in the 4th century by the two Nicomachi,
Flavianus and Dexter, and by Victorianus. This is proved in the case
of the older MSS. by written subscriptions to that effect, and in the
case of the rest by internal evidence. Of all these descendants of the
Nicomachean recension, the oldest is the Codex Parisinus of the loth
century, and the best the Codex Mediceus or Florentinus of the nth.
An independent value attaches to the ancient palimpsest of Verona,
of which the first complete account was given by Mommsen in
Abhandl. der preussischen Akad. der Wissenschaften (1868). It
contains the third, fourth, fifth and fragments of the sixth book, and,
according to Mommsen, whose conclusions are accepted by Madvig
(Emend. Livianae, 2nd ed., 1877, p. 37), it is derived, not from the
Nicomachean recension, but from an older archetype common to both.
For the third decade our chief authority is the Codex Puteanus,
an uncial MS. of the 5th century, now at Paris. For the fourth we
have two leading MSS. — Codex Bambergensis, I Ith century, and the
slightly older Codex Moguntinus, now lost and only known through
the Mainz edition of 1518-1519. What remains of the fifth decade
depends on the 5th century Laurishamensis or Vindobonensis from
the monastery of Lorsch, edited at Basel in 1531.
A bibliography of the various editions of Livy, or of all that has
been written upon him, cannot be attempted here. The following
nay be consulted for purposes of reference; W. Engelmann, Scrip-
tores Latini (8th ed., by E. Preuss, 1882) ;j. E. B. Mayor, Biblio-
graphical Clue to Latin Literature (1875); Teuffel-Schwabe, History
of Roman Literature (Eng. trans.), 256, 257; M. Schanz, Geschichte
der romischen Litteratur, ii. I (2nd ed., 1899). The best editions of
the complete text are those of W. Weissenborn (1858-1862, contain-
ing an introductory essay on Livy's life and writings; new edition
by M. Muller, 1902), and J. N. Madvig and J. L. Ussing (1863-
1873). The only English translation of any merit is by Philemon
Holland (1600). (H. F. P.; X.)
LIZARD (Lat. lacerta1), a name originally referred only to
the small European species of four-legged reptiles, but now
applied to a Whole order (Lacertilia). which is represented by
numerous species in all temperate and tropical regions. Lizards
are reptiles which have a transverse external anal opening (instead
of a longitudinal slit as in Crocodilians and tortoises) and which
have the right and left halves of the mandibles connected by a
sutural symphysis. The majority are distinguished from snakes
by the possession of two pairs of limbs, of external ear-openings
and movable eyelids, but since in not a few of the burrowing,
snake-shaped lizards these characters give way entirely, it is
well-nigh impossible to find a diagnosis which should be absolutely
sufficient for the distinction between lizards and snakes. In
such doubtful cases a number of characters have to be resorted
to, and, while each of these may fail when taken singly, their
combination decides the question. It is certain that the snakes
have been evolved as a specialized branch from some Lacertilian
stock, and that both "orders" are intimately related, but it is
significant that it is only through the degraded members of the
1 For the etymology of this word, see CROCODILE.
lizards that recent representatives of the two great groups seem
to run into each other. Such critical characters are: —
Limbs .
Ear-opening
Eyelids
Tongue.
Teeth .
Mandibles .
Columella cranii
Lizards.
2 pairs, I or o.
Usually present.
Mostly movable.
Often not retractile.
Pleuro- or acrodont,
not anchylosed.
Mostly firmly united
suturally.
Mostly present.
Mostly with bony
arches across the
temporal region.
Osteoderms common.
Snakes,
vestigial
hind-
o or
limbs.
Always absent.
No movable lids.
Always bifid and re-
tractile into itself.
Acrodont, anchylosed.
Never with suture,
mostly ligamentous.
Absent.
No bony arches.
No osteoderms.
The lizards and snakes are the two dominant reptilian orders
which are still on the increase in species, though certainly not in
size. As a moderate estimate, the number of recent species
of lizards is about 1700. As a group they are cosmopolitan, their
northern limit approaching that of the permanently frozen
subsoil, while in the southern hemisphere the southern point of
Patagonia forms the farthest limit. As we approach the tropics,
the variety of forms and the number of individuals increase,
the most specialized and developed forms, and also the most
degraded, being found in the tropics. In the temperate regions
they hibernate. The majority live on broken ground, with or
without much vegetation; many are arboreal and many are true
desert animals, while a few are more or. less aquatic; one, the
leguan of the Galapagos, Amblyrhynchus, even enters the sea.
Some, like the majority of the geckos, are nocturnal. In
adaptation to these varied surroundings they exhibit great
variety in shape, size and structure. Most of these modifications
are restricted to the skin, limbs, tail or tongue. Most lizards
live on animal food, varying from tiny insects and worms to
lizards, snakes, birds and mammals, while others prefer a mixed
or an entirely vegetable diet. Accordingly, the teeth and the
whole digestive tract are modified. But swiftness, the apparatus
necessary for climbing, running and digging, the mechanism of
the tongue, the muscles of the jaws (hence modifications of the
cranial arches) stand also in correlation with the kind of food and
with the way in which it has to be procured. Generally the teeth
are conical or pointed, more rarely blunt, grooved or serrated.
They are inserted either on the inner side of the margin of the
jaws (plenrodonta) or on the edge of the bones (acrodonta) . The
tongue is generally beset with more or less scaly or velvety
papillae and has always a well-marked posterior margin, while
the anterior portion may or may not be more or less retractile
into the posterior part.
In many lizards the muscles of the segments of the tail are so
loosely connected and the vertebrae are so weak that the tail
easily breaks off. The severed part retains its muscular irrita-
bility for a short time, wriggling as if it were a living creature.
A lizard thus mutilated does not seem to be much affected, and
the lost part is slowly reproduced. This faculty is of advantage
to those lizards which lack other means of escape when pursued
by some other animal, which is satisfied with capturing the
detached member.
The motions of most lizards are executed with great but not
enduring rapidity. With the exception of the chameleon, all
drag their body over the ground, the limbs being wids apart,
turned outwards and relatively to the bulk of the body generally
weak. But the limbs show with regard to development great
variation, and an uninterrupted transition from the most perfect
condition of two pairs with five separate clawed toes to their
total disappearance; yet even limbless lizards retain bony
vestiges beneath the skin. The motions of these limbless lizards
are similar to those of snakes, which they resemble in their
elongate body.
The eggs are elliptical in shape, both poles being equal, and
are covered with a shell which may be thin and leathery or hard
and calcareous. The number of eggs laid is small in comparison
824
LIZARD
with other reptiles, rarely exceeding a score, and some like the
anolids and the geckos deposit only one or two. The parents
leave the eggs to hatch where they are deposited, in sand or in
mould. Many lizards, however, retain the eggs in the oviducts
until the embryo is fully developed; these species then bring
forth living young and are called ovo-viviparous by purists.
Some lizards possess a considerable amount of intelligence; they
play with each other, become very tame, and act deliberately
according to circumstances. As a rule the Iguanids and Varans
are as bright as the Agamas are dull. Many have the power of
changing colour, a faculty which they share only with various
frogs, toads and fishes. Lizards are not poisonous, with the
single exception of Heloderma.
The Lacertilia, or lizards in the wider sense, fall easily into three
natural groups: geckos (q.v.), chameleons (q.v.) and lizards.
I. Suborder, GECKONES. Pleurodont lizards with well-developed
limbs; without temporal bony arches; postthoracic ribs united
across the abdomen. Tongue, thick and broad, slightly nicked
anteriorly. With few exceptions they have amphicoelous vertebrae,
the parietal bones remain separate and they have no eyelids, with
very few exceptions.
1. Family, Geckonidae. — Amphicoelous; parietals separate;
clavicles dilated and with a perforation near the ventral end. Cosmo-
politan, although mainly tropical, with about 270 species (see
GECKO).
Nearly all geckos are nocturnal and the pupil contracts into a
vertical slit, except in a few diurnal kinds, e.g. Plielsuma of islands
in the Indian Ocean, and Lygodactylus of Africa. Aelurosaurus of
Borneo and Australia, and Ptenopus of South Africa, have upper
and lower movable eyelids. Whilst the skin is mostly soft on the
back, with little granular tubercles, scales (except on the belly) are
absent, but they are present in Homopholis, in Geckolepis of Mada-
gascar, and most fully developed in Teratoscincus scincus. This
peculiar little inhabitant of the steppes and desert regions of
Turkestan and Persia, by rubbing the imbricating scales upon each
other, produces a shrill cricket-like noise, whilst sitting at night in
front of its hole in the ground. Furthermore it is so thoroughly
adapted to running upon the desert sand that its digits are devoid of
adhesive lamellae. The same beautiful adaptation to the surround-
ings exists also in Ptenopus (with fringed toes) and Stenodactylus,
which are likewise deserticolous. Aeluronyx of Madagascar and
Seychelles has cat-like retractile claws. Naultinus elegans of New
Zealand is said to be viviparous; the others lay but one rather large
egg at a time. Many species have a feeble voice which resembles a
repeated click of the tongue, and their name " gecko " is supposed to
be an Indian imitation of the sound.
2. Family, Uroplatidae. — Amphicoelous; parietals separate; but
the nasal bones are fused together, and the clavicles are not dilated.
Genus Uroplates, with a few species, e.g. U . fimbrialus in Madagascar.
3. Family, Eublepharidae. — Precocious; parietals united; eye-
lids functional ; clavicles expanded as in the true geckos which they
resemble in other respects. The few genera and species are un-
doubtedly a heterogeneous assembly, as indicated by their very
scattered distribution, but they all agree in their decidedly handsome
colour pattern, bands of dark brown to maroon upon a light ground.
Eublepharis, with one species each in Panama, Mexico, Texas and
California; two in India. Coleonyx elegans in forests of Central
America and Mexico. P ' silodactylus in West Africa.
II. Suborder, CHAMAELEONTES. Acrodont, Old World lizards,
with laterally compressed body, prehensile tail and well developed
limbs with the digits arranged in opposing, grasping bundles of two
and three respectively. The chameleons (q.v.') have many structural
peculiarities.
_ III. Suborder, LACERTAE. Precocious vertebrae; ventral por-
tions of the clavicles not dilated ; parietal bones fused into one.
The general appearance is too misleading for the classification of
the Lacertae. E. D. Cope (Proc. Ac. Philad., 1864, pp. 224 ct seq.
and Proc. Amer. Ass. xix., 1871, p. 236, &c.) therefore relied upon
more fundamental characters, notably the presence or absence of
osteoderms, the formation of the skull, the teeth and the tongue.
G. A. Boulenger (Ann. Nat. Hist. 5, xiv., 1884, p. 1 17, &c.) has further
improved upon the then prevailing arrangements, and has elaborated
a classification which, used by himself in the three volumes of the
catalogue of lizards in the British Museum, is followed in the present
article with slight alterations in the order of treatment of the families.
In the following diagnoses of the families preference is given to such
characters as are most easily ascertained.
The 17 " families " fall into 4 or 5 main groups. Presumably the
presence of osteoderms and of complete cranial arches are more
archaic than their absence, just as we conclude that limbless forms
have been evolved from various groups possessed of fully developed
limbs. Zonuridae and Anguidae assume a central position, with
Agamidae and Iguanidae as two parallel families (not very different
from each other) of highest development, one in the Old World, the
other in America. Xenosaurus seems to be an offshoot intermediate
between the Iguanidae and the Anguidae; a degraded form of
latter is perhaps Aniella of California, whilst Heloderma and
Lanthanotus are also specialized and isolated offshoots. A second
group is formed by the few American Xantusiidae, the numerous
American Tejidae, and the burrowing, degraded American and
African Amphisbaenidae. A third group comprises the cosmopolitan
Scincidae, the African and Malagasy Gerrhosauridae which in various
features remind us of the Anguidae, and the African and Eurasian
Lacertidae which are the highest members of this group. Anely-
tropidae and perhaps also Dibamidae may be degraded Scincoids.
The Varanidae stand quite alone, in many respects the highest of all
lizards, with some, quite superficial, Crocodilian resemblances.
Lastly there are the few Pygopodidae of the Australian region, with
still quite obscure relationship.
Family i. Agamidae. — Acrodont; tongue broad and thick, not
protractile; no osteoderms. Old World.
The agamas have always two pairs of well-developed limbs.
The teeth are usually differentiated into incisors, canines and molars.
The skin is devoid of ossifications, but large and numerous cutaneous
spines are often present, especially on the head and on the tail.
The family, comprising some 200 species, with about 30 genera, shows
great diversity of form; the terrestrial members are mostly flat-
bodied, the arboreal more laterally compressed and often with a
very long tail. Most of them are insectivorous, but a few are almost
entirely vegetable feeders. They are an exclusively Old World
family ; they are most numerous in Australia (except New Zealand)
and the Indian and Malay countries; comparatively few live in
Africa (none in Madagascar) and in the countries from Asia Minor to
India.
The majority of the ground-agamas, and the most common
species of the plains, deserts or rocky districts of Africa and Asia,
belong to the genera Stellio and Agama. Their scales are mixed with
larger prominent spines, which in some species are particularly
developed on the tail, and disposed in whorls. Nearly all travellers
in the north of Africa mention the Hardhon of the Arabs (Agama
stellio), which is extremely common, and has drawn upon itself the
hatred of the Mahommedans by its habit of nodding its head, which
they interpret as a mockery of their own movements whilst en-
gaged in prayer. In some of the Grecian islands they are still
called korkordilos, just as they were in the time of Herodotus.
Uromastix is one of the largest of ground-agamas, and likewise found
in Africa and Asia. The body is uniformly covered with granular
scales, whilst the short, strong tail is armed with powerful spines
disposed in whorls. The Indian species (U. hardwicki) is mainly
herbivorous; the African U. acanthinurus and U. spinipes, the Dab
of the Arabs, take mixed food. Phrynocephalus is typical of the
steppes and deserts of Asia. Geratophora and Lyriocephalus scutatus,
the latter remarkable for its chameleon-like appearance, are
Ceylonese. Calotes, peculiar to Indian countries, comprises many
species, e.g. C. ophiomachus, generally known as the " bloodsucker
on account of the red colour on the head and neck displayed during
excitement. Draco (see DRAGON) is Indo-Malayan. Physignathus
is known from Australia to Cochin China.
Of the Australian agamas no other genus is so numerously repre-
sented and widely distributed as Grammatophora, the species of which
grow to a length of from 8 to 1 8 in. Their scales are generally rough
and spinous; but otherwise they possess no strikingly distinguishing
peculiarity, unless the loose skin of their throat, which is transversely
folded and capable of inflation, be regarded as such. On the other
hand, two other Australian agamoids have attained some celebrity by
their grotesque appearance, due to the extraordinary development
of their integuments. One (fig. l) is the frilled lizard (CUamy-
dosaurus kingi), which is restricted to Queensland and the north
coast, and grows to a length of 3 ft., including the long tapering tail.
It is provided with a frill-like fold of the skin round the neck, which,
when erected, resembles a broad collar. This lizard when startled
rises with the fore-legs off the ground and squats and runs on its
hind-legs. The other lizard is one which most appropriately has
been called Moloch horridus. It is covered with large and small
spine-bearing tubercules; the head is small and the tail short. It
is sluggish in its movements, and so harmless that its armature and
(to a casual observer) repulsive appearance are its sole means of
defence. It grows only to a length of 10 in., and is not uncommon in
the flats of South and West Australia.
Family 2. Iguanidae. — Pleurodont; tongue broad and thick, not
protractile; no osteoderms. America, Madagascar and Fiji Islands.
According to the very varied habits, their external appearance
varies within wide limits, there being amongst the 300 species, with
50 genera, arboreal, terrestrial, burrowing and semi-aquatic forms,
and even one semi-marine kind. All have well-developed limbs.
In their general structure the Iguanidae closely resemble the
Agamidae, from which they differ mainly by the pleurodont dentition.
Most of them are insectivorous. Some, especially Anolis and
Polychrus, can change colour to a remarkable extent. The family
ranges all through the neotropical region, inclusive of the Galapagos
and the Antilles, into the southern and western states of North
America. Remarkable cases of discontinuous distribution are
Chalarodon and Hoplodon in Madagascar, and Brachylophus fasciatus
in the Fiji Islands. Conolophus subcristatus and Amblyrhynchns
cristatus inhabit the Galapagos; the former feeds upon cactus and
LIZARD
825
leaves, the latter is semi-marine, diving for the algae which grow
below tide-marks. For Basiliscus see BASILISK; IGUANA is dealt
with under its own heading; allied is Metopoceros cornutus of Hayti.
Polychrus, the "chameleon," and Liolaemus are South American;
Ctenosaura of Central America and Mexico resembles the agampid
Uromastix. Corythophanes and Laemanclus, with only a few species,
are rare inhabitants of the tropical forests of Central America and
Mexico. Sauromalus, Crotaphytus, Callisaurus , Holbrookia, Uma,
Uta are typical Sonoran genera, some ranging from Oregon through
Mexico. Allied is Sceloporus, with about 34 species, the most
characteristic genus of Mexican lizards; only 4 species live in the
United States, and only 3 or 4 are found south of the Isthmus of
Tehuantepec and are restricted to Central America. The majority
are humivagpus, while others are truly arboreal, e.g. S. micrplepidotus,
a species which, moreover, has the greatest possible altitudinal range,
from the hot country of southern Oaxaca to the upper tree-line of
Citlaltepetl, about 13,500 ft. elevation; many species are viviparous.
Phrynosoma, with about a dozen species, the " horned toads " of
California to Texas, and through Mexico. Some of these comical-
looking little creatures are viviparous,, others deposit their eggs in
the ground. They are well concealed by the colour of their upper
parts, which in most cases agrees with the prevailing tone of their
surroundings, mostly arid, stony or sandy localities; the large spikes
FIG. I. — Frilled Lizard (Chlamydosaurus kingi).
on the head protect them from being swallowed by snakes. The
enlarged spiny scales scattered over the back look as if it were
sprinkled with the dried husks of seeds. They are entirely insectivor-
ous, bask on the broiling hot sand and then can run fast enough;
otherwise they are sluggish, dig themselves into the sand by a
peculiar shuffling motion of the fringed edges of their flattened bodies,
and when surprised they feign death. The statement, persistently
repeated (O. P. Hay, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. xv., 1892, pp. 375-378),
that some, e.g. P. blainvillei of California, have the power of squirting
a blood-red fluid from the corner of the eye, still requires renewed
investigation.
The smallest lizards of this family belong to the genus Anolis,
extremely numerous as regards species (more than 100) and indi-
viduals on bushes and trees of tropical America, and especially of the
West Indies. They offer many points of analogy to the humming
birds in their distribution, colours and even disposition. Hundreds
may be seen on a bright day, disporting themselves on trees and
fences, and entering houses. Like the iguanas, they (at least the
males) are provided with a large, expansible dewlap at the throat,
which is brilliantly coloured, and which they display on the slightest
provocation. This appendage is merely a fold of the skin, orna-
mental and sexual ; it has no cavity in its interior, and has no com-
munication with the mouth or with the respiratory organs; it is
supported by the posterior horns of the hyoid bone, and can be
erected and spread at the will of the animal. The presence of such
dewlaps in lizards is always a sign of an excitable temper. Many,
e.g A. carolinensis, the " chameleon," can change colour to an extra-
ordinary degree. They are much fed upon by birds and snakes, and
have a fragile tail, easily reproduced. They bring forth only one
large egg at a time, but probably breed several times during the
Family 3. Xenosauridae. — Pleurodont; solid teeth; anterior
part of tongue slightly emarginate and retractile, and covered with
flat papillae; no osteoderms. Mexico.
The only representative of this family is Xenosaurus grandis,
recorded from the mountains of Orizaba, Cordoba and Oaxaca. The
four-footed creature is less than I ft. in length; the body is de-
pressed, covered above with minute granules and tubercles; a
distinct fold of skin extends from the axilla to the groin, reminding of
the similar fold of some Anguidae, to which this singular genus seems
to be allied.
Family 4. Anguidae. — Pleurodont; teeth solid, sometimes
(Ophiosaurus) grooved ; anterior part of tongue emarginate and re-
tractile into the posterior portion ; osteoderms on the body, and
especially on the head where they are roofing over the temporal
fossa; entirely zoophagous and ovo- viviparous. America, Europe
and India.
Gerrhonotus, 8 species, in mountainous countries, from British
Columbia to Costa Rica ; like Diploglossus s. Celestus of Mexico, the
Antilles and Central America, with well-developed limbs, but with a
lateral fold. A nguis fragilis and two species of Ophiosaurus are the
only members of this family which are not American, and even the
third species of Ophiosaurus, O. ventralis, lives in the United States.
Ophiosaurus s. Pseudopus, the glass-snake, from Morocco and the
Balkan peninsula to Burma and Fokien; also in the U.S.A., with
the limbs reduced to a pair of tiny spikes near the vent, and a lateral
fold along the snake-like body. Anguis, with its sole species fragilis,
the slow-worm or blind-worm, is devoid of a lateral fold, and the
limbs are entirely absent. Europe, Algeria and western Asia.
Family 5. Helodermatidae, with Heloderma of Arizona and Mexico,
and Lanthanotus of Borneo. — The teeth of Heloderma are recurved,
with slightly swollen bases, loosely attached to the inner edge of the
jaws; each tooth is grooved, and those of the lower jaw are in close
vicinity of the series of labial glands which secrete a poison; the
only instance among lizards.1 Limbs well developed. Tongue re-
sembling that of the Anguidae. The skin of the upper surface is
granular, with many irregular bony tubercles which give it an ugly
warty look. H. horridum in Mexico, and H. suspectum, the gila
monster, in the hot and sandy lowlands of the Gila basin. The
animal, which reaches a length of more than 2 ft., is blackish-brown
and yellow or orange, and on the thick tail these " warning colours "
are arranged in alternate rings. Small animals are probably paralyzed
or killed by the bite, the poison being effective enough to produce
severe symptoms even in man. The Zapotecs, who call the creature
Talachini, and other tribes of Mexico have endowed it with fabulous
properties and fear it more than the most poisonous snakes.
Lanthanotus corneensis, of which only a few specimens are known,
is apparently closely allied to Heloderma, although the teeth are not
grooved, osteoderms are absent and probably also the poison glands.
Family 6. Aniellidae. — One genus, Aniella, with a few worm- or
snake-shaped species in California, which seem to be degraded forms
of Anguidae. The eyes and ears are concealed, the limbs are entirely
absent, body and tail covered with soft, imbricating scales. The
tongue is villose, smooth, bifid anteriorly. The few teeth are re-
curved, with swollen bases. The skull is much reduced. Total length
of A. pulchra up to 8 in.
Family 7. Zonuridae. — Pleurodont; tongue short, villose, scarcely
protractile, feebly nicked at the tip. With osteoderms at least upon
the skull, where they roof in the temporal region. Africa and
Madagascar.
Only 4 genera, with about 15 species. Zonurus of South Africa
and Madagascar has the whole head, neck, back and tail covered with
strong bony scales, the horny covering of which forms sharp spikes,
especially on the tail. They defend themselves by jerking head and
tail sidewards. Z. giganteus reaches 15 in. in length, and is, like the
other members of the family, zoophagous. The other genera live in
southern and in tropical Africa: Pseudocordylus, Platysaurus and
Chamaesaura ; the latter closely approaches the Anguidae by its
snake-shaped body, very long tail and much reduced limbs, which
in C. macrolepis are altogether absent.
Family 8. Xanlusiidae. — Pleurodont; tongue very short and
scaly; no osteoderms; supra temporal fossa roofed over by the
cranial bones; eyes devoid of movable lids; tympanum exposed;
femoral pores present ; limbs and tail well developed. American.
Xantusia ( so named after Xantus, a Hungarian collector), e.g.
X. vigilis and a few other species from the desert tracts of Nevada
and California to Lower California. Lepidophyma flavomaculatum,
Central America ; and Cricosaura lypica in Cuba.
Family 9. Tejidae. — Teeth solid, almost acrodont; tongue long
and narrow, deeply bifid, beset with papillae; no osteoderms; scales
of the back very small or quite granular; limbs sometimes reduced.
America.
This large, typically American family comprises more than 100
species which have been arranged in many genera. Some are entirely
arboreal, dwellers in forests, while others, like Cnemidophorus and
Ameiva, are strictly terrestrial, with great running powers; a few
dwell below the surface and are transformed into almost limbless
1 For anatomical detail and experiments, see R. W. Shufeldt,
P.Z.S. (1890), p. 178; G. A. Boulenger, ibid. (1891), p. 109, and
C. Stewart, ibid. (1891), p. 119.
826
LIZARD
worm-shaped creatures. The family is essentially neotropical. Of
its several dozen genera only two extend through and beyond
Central America: Ameiva into the eastern and western Hot-lands
of Mexico, Cnemidophorus (monographed by H. Gadow, Proc. Zool.
Soc., 1906, pp. 277-375) through Mexico into the United States, where
C. sexlineatus, the " swift," has spread over most of the Union.
Tupinambis teguixin, the " teju " of South America and the West
Indies, is the largest member of the family; it reaches a length of a
yard, most of which, however, belongs to the strong, whip-like tail.
Teguixin is taken from the Aztec teco-ixin, i.e. rock-lizard, the
vernacular name of Sceloporus torquatus which is one of the Iguanidae
misspelt and misapplied. The tejus frequent forests and plantations
and are carnivorous, eating anything they can overpower. They in
turn are much hunted for the sake of their delicate flesh. They
defend themselves not only with their powerful jaws and sharp claws,
but also with lashing strokes of the long tail. They also use this whip
for killing snakes which they are said to eat. Their long-oval, hard-
shelled eggs are deposited in the ground. They retire into self-dug
burrows. Cophias and Scolecosaurus have very much reduced limbs.
In the genus Tejus the teeth of the adult become molar-like; and in
Dracaena they are transformed into large, oval crushers, indicating
strictly herbivorous habits, while most members of the family live
upon animal food.
Family 10. Amphisbaenidae.—The body is covered with soft skin,
forming numerous rings with mere vestiges of scales. Worm-
shaped, without limbs, except Chirotes which has short, clawed fore-
limbs. Eyes and ears concealed. Tongue slightly elongated, covered
with scale-like papillae and- bifurcating. Tail extremely short.
Acrodont or pleurodont. America, Mediterranean countries, and
Africa with the exception of Madagascar.
Chirotes canaliculatus, and two other species; Pacific side of
Mexico and Lower California. With five, four or three claws on the
stout little digging fore-limbs. These pink, worm-like creatures live
in sandy, moist localities, burrowing little tunnels and never appear-
ing on the surface. Amphisbaena (q.v.). Rhineura of Florida, and
also known from the Oligocene of South Dakota; Lepidosternum of
South America; and Anops in America and Africa; Blanus cinereus,
Mediterranean countries. Trogonophis, Pachycalamus and Aga-
modon of Africa are all acrodont; the other genera are pleurodont.
In all about a dozen genera, with some 60, mostly tropical species.
Family n. Scincidae. — Pleurodont Tongue scaly, feebly nicked
in front. Osteoderms on the head and body. Limbs often reduced.
Cosmopolitan. The temporal region is covered over, as in the
Lacertidae and Anguidae, with strongly developed dermal ossifica-
tions. Similar osteoderms underlie the scales of the body and tail.
Femoral pores are absent.
All the skinks seem to be viviparous, and they prefer dry, sandy
ground, in which they burrow and move quickly about in search of
their animal food. This partly subterranean life is correlated with
the frequent reduction of the limbs which, in closely allied forms,
show every stage from fully developed, five-clawed limbs to complete
absence. Some have functional fore-limbs but mere vestiges of
hind-limbs; in others this condition is reversed. In some desertic-
olous kinds e.g. Ablepharus, the lower eyelid is transformed into a
transparent cover which is fused with the rim of the reduced upper
lid. The same applies to the limbless little Ophiopsiseps nasutus of
Australia. This large family contains about 400 species, with
numerous genera ; the greatest diversity in numbers and forms occurs
in the tropical parts of the Old World, especially in the Australian
region, inclusive of many of the Pacific islands. New Zealand has at
least 6 species of Lygosoma. America, notably South America, has
comparatively very few skinks.
The skink, which has given the name to the whole family, is a
small lizard (Scincus oflicinalis)ot6or8in. in length, common in arid
districts qf. North Africa and Syria. A peculiarly wedge-shaped
snout, and toes provided with strong fringes, enable this animal to
burrow rapidly in and under the sand of the desert. In former times
large quantities of it were imported in a dry state into Europe for
officinal purposes, the drug having the reputation of being efficacious
in diseases of the skin and lungs; and even now it may be found in
apothecaries' shops in the south of Europe, country people regarding
it as a powerful aphrodisiac for cattle.
Mabouia, with many species, in the whole of Africa, southern Asia
and in tropical America. M. (Euprepes) vittata, the " poisson de
sable " of Algeria, is semi-aquatic. Chalc'i-des i. Seps, of the Mediter-
ranean countries and south-western Asia, has a transparent disk on
the lower eyelid which is movable; limbs very short or reduced to
mere vestiges. Lygosoma circumtropical ; Eumeces, also with many
small species, in America, Africa and Asia. Cyclodus s. Tiliqua of
Australia, Tasmania and Malay Islands, has stout lateral teeth with
rounded-off crowns; C. gigas of the Moluccas and of New Guinea is
the largest member of the family, reaching a length of nearly 2 ft. ;
the limbs are well developed, as in Trachysaurus rugosus of Australia,
which is easily recognized by the large and rough scales and the
short, broad, stump-like tail.
Family 12. A nelylropidae.—An artificial assembly of a few de-
graded Scincoids. The worm-shaped body is devoid of osteoderms.
The tongue is short, covered with imbricating papillae and slightly
nicked anteriorly. Teeth pleurodont. Anelytropsis papillosus, of
which only three specimens are known, from the humus of forests
in the state of Vera Cruz. Eyes concealed. Typhlosaurus and
Feylinia in tropical Africa and Madagascar.
Family 13. Dibamidae. — Dibamus novae-Guineae of New Guinea,
the Moluccas, Celebes and the Nicobar Islands. Tongue arrow-
shaped, covered with curved papillae. The vermiform body is
covered with cycloid imbricating scales, devoid of osteoderms.
Limbs and even their arches are absent, excepting a pair of flaps
which represent the hind-limbs in the males.
Family 14. Gerrhosauridae. — Pleurodont. Tongue long, with
papillae, like that of the Lacertidae but only feebly nicked anteriorly.
Osteoderms on the head and body, roofing over the temporal region.
Femoral pores present, also mostly a lateral fold. Limbs sometimes
reduced to small stumps. Tail long and brittle. The few genera and
species of this family are restricted to Africa, south of the Sahara
and Madagascar.
Gerrhosaurus, with lateral fold and complete limbs; Tetradactylus
also with a fold, but with very variable limbs; Condylosaurus; all
in Africa. Zonosaurus and Tracheloptychus in Madagascar.
Family 15. Lacertidae. — Pleurodont. Tongue long and bifid, with
papillae or folds, with osteoderms on the head but not on the body.
Limbs always well developed. Palaearctic and palaeotropical with
the exception of Madagascar; not in the Australian region.
The Lacertidae or true lizards comprise about 20 genera, with some
I op species, most abundant in Africa; their northern limit coincides
fairly with that of the permanently frozen subsoil. They all are
terrestrial and zoophagous. The long, pointed tail is brittle.
Most of the European lizards with four well developed limbs belong
to the genus Lacerta. Only three species occur in Great Britain (see
fig. 2). The common lizard (Lacerta vivipara) frequents heaths and
banks in England and Scotland, and is locally met with also in
FIG. 2. — Heads of British Lizards, a, Lacerta vivipara;
b, L. agilis; c, L. viridis.
Ireland; it is viviparous. Much scarcer is the second species, the
sand-lizard (Lacerta agilis), which is confined to some localities in the
south of England, the New Forest and its vicinity ; it does not appear
to attain on English soil the same size as on the continent of
Europe where it abounds, growing sometimes to a length of 9 in.
Singularly, a snake (Coronella laevis), also common on the continent,
and feeding principally on this lizard, has followed it across the
British Channel, apparently existing in those localities only in which
the sand-lizard has settled. This lizard is oviparous. The males
differ by their brighter green ground colour from the females, which
are brown, spotted with black. The third British species, the green
lizard (Lacerta viridis), does not occur in England proper; it has
found a congenial home in the island of Guernsey, but is there much
less developed as regards size and beauty than on the continent.
This species is larger than the two preceding; it is green, with
minute blackish spots. In Germany and France one other species
only (Lacerta muralis) appears; but in the south of Europe the
species of Lacerta are much more numerous, the largest and finest,
being L. ocellata, which grows to a length of 18 or 20 in., and is
brilliantly green, ornamented with blue eye-like spots on the sides.
Even the small island-rocks of the Mediterranean, sometimes only a
few hundred yards in diameter, are occupied by peculiar races of
lizards, which have attracted much attention from the fact that they
have assumed under such isolated conditions a more or less dark,
almost black, coloration. L. muralis, with its numerous varieties,
has been monographed by G. A. Boulenger, Trans. Zool. Soc. xvii.
(1905), pp. 351-422, pi. 22-29.
Other genera are Psammodromus and Acanthodactylus in south-
western Europe and northern Africa. Cabrita in India, with trans-
parent lower eyelids. Ophiops, likewise with transparent but united
lids, from North Africa to India.
Family 16. Varanidae. — Pleurodont. Tongue very long, smooth
and bifid. Osteoderms absent. Limbs always well developed. Old
World.
This family contains only one genus, Varanus, with nearly 30
species, in Africa, Arabia and southern Asia, and Australia, but not
in Madagascar. The generic term is derived from the Arabic Ouaran,
which means lizard. Owing to a ridiculous muddle, this Arabic word
has been taken to mean " warning " lizard, hence the Latin Monitor,
one of the many synonyms of this genus, now often used as the
LIZARD POINT— LLANBERIS
827
vernacular. Many of the " monitors " are semi-aquatic, e.g. V.
niloticus, and these have a laterally compressed tail ; others inhabit
dry sandy districts, e.g. V. scincus, the ouaran el ard of North Africa ;
others prefer wooded localities. V. salvator is the largest species,
reaching a length of 7 ft. ; it ranges from Nepal and southern China
LLAMA, the Spanish modification of the Peruvian name of
the larger of the two domesticated members of the camel-
tribe indigenous to South America. The llama (Lama huanacus
glama) is a domesticated derivative of the wild guanaco, which
has been bred as a
beast of burden.
Chiefly found in
southern Peru, it
generally attains a
larger size than the
guanaco, and is
usually white or
spotted with brown
or black, and some-
times altogether
black. The following
account by Augustin
de Zarate was given
FIG. 3. — Monitor of the Nile (Varanus niloticus}.
to Cape York; a smaller species, common in New Guinea and
Australia, is V. gouldi. They all are predaceous, powerful creatures,
with a partiality for eggs. Their own eggs are laid in hollow trees, or
buried in the sand. The young are prettily spotted with white and
black ocelli, but the coloration of the adult is mostly very plain.
The following families are much degraded in conformity with their,
in most cases, subterranean life. They are of doubtful relationships
and contain each but a few species.
Family 17. Pygopodidae. — Pleurodont, snake-shaped, covered
with roundish, imbricating scales. Tail long and brittle. Fore-
limbs absent; hind-limbs transformed into a pair of scale-covered
flaps. Tongue slightly forked. Eyes functional but devoid of
movable lids. Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea.
Pygopus, e.g. P. lepidopus, about 2 ft. long, two-thirds belonging
to the tail, distributed over the whole of Australia.
Lialis burtoni, of similar size and distribution, has the hind-limbs
reduced to very small, narrow appendages. The members of this
family seem to lead a snake-like life, not subterranean, and some are
said to eat other lizards. L. jicari, from the Fly river, has a very
snake-like appearance, with a long, pointed snout like certain tree-
snakes, but with an easily visible ear-opening; their eyelids are
reduced to a ring which is composed of two or three rows of small
scales. (H. F. G.)
LIZARD POINT, or THE LIZARD, the southernmost point of
Great Britain, in Cornwall, England, in 49° 57' 30" N., 5° 12' W.
It is generally the first British land sighted.by ships bound up the
English Channel, and there are two lighthouses on it. The cliff
scenery is magnificent, and attracts many visitors. The coast
is fretted into several small bays, such as Housel and, most
famous of all, Kynance Cove; caves pierce the cliffs at many
points, and bold isolated rocks fringe the shore. The coloured
veining of the serpentine rock is a remarkable feature. The
Lion's Den is a chasm formed by the falling in of a sea-cave in
1847; the Stags is a dangerous reef stretching southward from
the point, and at Asparagus Island, Kynance Cove, is a natural
funnel in which the air is compressed by the waves and causes a
violent ejection of foam. The principal village is Lizard Town,
iOj m. from Helston, the nearest railway station.
LJUNGGREN, GUSTAF HiKAN JORDAN (1823-1905),
Swedish man of letters, was born at Lund on the 6th of March
1823. He was educated at Lund university, where he was
professor of German (1850-1859), of aesthetics (1859-1889) and
rector (1875-1885). He had been a member of the Swedish
Academy for twenty years at the time of his death in September
1905. His most important work, Svenska vitterhetens hdjder efter
Guslav III.'s dod (5 vols., Lund., 1873-1895), is a comprehensive
study of Swedish literature in the igth century. His other
works include: Framstallning af de jornamste estetiska systemerna
(an exposition of the principal system of aesthetics; 2 vols.,
1856-1860); Stienska dramat intill slutet af 17 arhundradet
(a history of the Swedish drama down to the end of the I7th
century, Lund, 1864); an edition (1864) of the Episllar of Bell-
man and Fredman, and a history of the Swedish Academy in the
year of its centenary (1886).
His scattered writings were collected as Smdrre Skrifter (3 vols.,
1872-1881).
m 1544:
"In places where
there is no snow, the
natives want water, and to supply this they fill the skins of sheep with
water and make other living sheep carry them, for, it must be re-
marked, these sheep of Peru are large enough to serve as beasts of
burden. They can carry about one hundred pounds or more, and the
Spaniards used to ride them, and they would go four or five leagues a
day. When they art weary they lie down upon the ground, andas there
are no means of making them get up, either by beating or assisting
them, the load must of necessity be taken off. When there is a
man on one of them, if the beast is tired and urged to go on, he
turns his head round, and discharges his saliva, which has an un-
Llama.
pleasant odour, into the rider's face. These animals are of great
use and profit to their masters, for their wool is very good and fine,
particularly that of the species called pacas, which have very long
fleeces; and the expense of their food is trifling, as a handful of
maize suffices them, and they can go four or five days without water.
Their flesh is as good as that of the fat sheep of Castile. There are
now public shambles for the sale of their flesh in all parts of Peru,
which was not the case when the Spaniards came first ; for when one
Indian had killed a sheep his neighbours came and took what they
wanted, and then another Indian killed a sheep in his turn."
The disagreeable habit of spitting is common to all the group.
In a wide sense the term " llama " is used to designate all
the South American Camelidae. (See TYLOPODA.)
LLANBERIS, a town of Carnarvonshire, N. Wales, 8^ m. E.
by S. of Carnarvon, by a branch of the London & North-
Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3015. It is finely situated in
a valley near the foot of Snowdon. The valley has two lakes,
Llyn Peris and Llyn Padarn, of over i m. and 2 m. long
828
LLANDAFF— LLANDOVERY
respectively, about J m. apart. From Padarn rises the Seint,
called Rothell in its upper part. Dolbadarn Castle is a circular
tower near the foot of Peris lake. Dolbadarn means the " Padarn
meadow." Several Welsh churches are dedicated to Padarn.
In the castle Owen Goch (Owen the Red) was imprisoned from
1 254 to 1 277, by the last Llewelyn, whose brother Dafydd held it
for some time against Edward I. During the time of Owen
Glendower (temp. Henry IV. and Henry V.), the castle often
changed hands. Near is Ceunantmawr waterfall. The Vaenol
slate quarries are here, and hence is the easiest ascent of Snowdon,
with a railway to the summit. From the road over the fine
Llanberis pass towards Capel Curig, a turn to the right leads
to Beddgelert, through Nant Gwynnant (" white " or " happy
valley," or " stream "), where Pembroke and leuan ap Robert
(for the Lancastrians) had many skirmishes in the time of Edward
IV. Gwynnant Lake is about i m. long by j m. broad, and
below it is the smaller Llyn Dinas.
LLANDAFF, a city of Glamorganshire, Wales, on the Taff Vale
railway, 149 m. from London. Pop. (1901) 5777. It is almost
entirely within the parliamentary borough of Cardiff. It is
nobly situated on the heights which slope towards the southern
bank of the Taff. Formerly the see of Llandaff was looked upon
as the oldest in the kingdom; but its origin is obscure, although
the first two bishops, St Dubricius and St Teilo, certainly
flourished during the latter half of the 6th century. By the
1 2th century, when Urban was bishop, the see had acquired
great wealth (as may be seen from the Book of Llandaff, a collec-
tion of its records and land-grants compiled probably by Geoffrey
of Monmouth), but after the reign of Henry VIII. Llandaff,
largely through the alienations of its bishops and the depreda-
tions of the canons, became impoverished, and its cathedral was
left for more than a century to decay. In the i8th century a
new church, in debased Italian style, was planted amid the ruins.
This was demolished and replaced (1844-1869) by the present
restored cathedral, due chiefly to the energy of Dean Williams.
The oldest remaining portion is the chancel arch, belonging
to the Norman cathedral built by Bishop Urban and opened in
1 1 20. Jasper Tudor, uncle of Henry VII., was the architect of
the north-west tower, portions of which remain. The cathedral
is also the parish church. The palace or castle built by Urban
was destroyed, according to tradition, by Owen Glendower in
1404, and only a gateway with flanking towers and some frag-
ments of wall remain. After this, Mathern near Chepstow
became the episcopal residence until about 1690, when it fell into
decay, leaving the diocese without a residence until Llandaff
Court was acquired during Bishop Ollivant's tenure of the see
1840-1882). For over 120 years the bishops had been non-
resident. The ancient stone cross on the green (restored in
1897) is said to mark the spot on which Archbishop Baldwin, and
his chaplain Giraldus Cambrensis, preached the Crusade in 1187.
Money bequeathed by Thomas Howell, a merchant, who died
in Spain in 1540, maintains an intermediate school for girls,
managed by the Drapers' Company, Howell's trustees. There is
an Anglican theological college, removed to Llandaff from
Aberdare in 1907. The city is almost joined to Cardiff, owing
to the expansion of that town.
Llandaff Court, already mentioned, was the ancient mansion
of the Mathew family, from which Henry Matthews, ist Viscount
Llandaff (b. 1826), was descended. Another branch of this
family formerly held the earldom of Llandaff in the Irish peerage.
Henry Matthews, a barrister and Conservative M.P., whose
father was a judge in Ceylon, was home secretary 1886-
1892, and was created viscount in 1895.
LLANDEILO GROUP, in geology, the middle subdivision of
the British Ordovician rocks. It was first described and named
by Sir. R. I. Murchison from the neighbourhood of Llandeilo in
Carmarthenshire. In the type area it consists of a series of
slaty rocks, shales, calcareous flagstones and sandstones; the
calcareous middle portion is sometimes termed the " Llandeilo
limestone "; and in the upper portion volcanic rocks are inter-
calated. A remarkable feature in the history of the Llandeilo
rocks in Britain, more especially in North Wales and Cumberland,
was the outbreak of volcanic action; vast piles of Llandeilo
lava and ashes form such hills as Caderldris, and the Arenigs
in Wales, and Helvellyn and Scafell in Westmorland and
Cumberland. The series is also found at Builth and in Pembroke-
shire. The average thickness in Wales is about 2000 ft. The
group is usually divided in this area into three sub-divisions.
In the Corndon district of Shropshire the Middleton Series
represents the Llandeilo group; it includes, in descending
order, the Rorrington black shales, the Meadowtown limestones
and flags, and the western grits and shales. In the Lake District
the great volcanic series of Borroivdale, green slates and porphyries,
8000 to 9000 ft. in thickness, lies on this horizon; and in the Cross
Fell area the Milburn beds of the Skiddaw slates (see ARENIG)
appear to be of the same age. In Scotland the Llandeilo group
is represented by the Glenkiln shales, black shales and yellowish
mudstones with radiolarian cherts and volcanic tuffs; by the
Barr Series, including the Benan conglomerates, Stinchar lime-
stone and Kirkland sandstones; and by the Glenapp con-
glomerates and Tappins mudstones and grits south of Stinchar.
Graptolitic shales, similar to those of southern Scotland, are
traceable into the north-east of Ireland.
The fossils of the Llandeilo group include numerous graptolites,
Coenograptus gracilis being taken as the zonal fossil of the upper
portion, Didymograptus Murchisoni of the lower. Other forms are
Climacograptus Scharenbergi and Diplograptus foliaceus. Many
trilobites are found in these rocks, e.g. Ogygia Buchi, Asaphus
tyrannus, Calymene cambrensis, Cheirurus Sedgwickii. Among the
brachiopods are Crania, Leptaena, Lingula, Strophomena; Cardiola
and Modiolopsis occur among the Pelecypods; Euomphalus, Bellero-
phon, Murchisonia among the Gasteropods; Conularia and Hyolithes
among the Pteropods; the Cephalopods are represented by Ortho-
ceras and Cyrtoceras. The green roofing slates and plumbago
(graphite) of the Lake District are obtained from this group of rocks,
(see ORDOVICIAH).
LLANDILO, or LLANDEILO FAWR, a market town and urban
district of Carmarthenshire, Wales, picturesquely situated above
the right bank of the river Towy. Pop. (1901) 1721. Llandilo
is a station on the Mid- Wales section of the London & North-
Western railway, and a terminus of the Llandilo-Llanelly branch
line of the Great Western. The large parish church of St Teilo
has a low embattled Perpendicular tower. Adjoining the town
is the beautiful park of Lord Dynevor, which contains the ruined
keep of Dinefawr Castle and the residence of the Rices (Lords
Dynevor), erected early in the I7th century but modernized
in 1858. Some of the loveliest scenery of South Wales lies within
reach of Llandilo, which stands nearly in the centre of the Vale
of Towy.
The name of Llandilo implies the town's early foundation by
St Teilo, the great Celtic missionary of the 6th century, the
friend of St David and reputed founder of the see of Llandaff.
The historical interest of the place centres in its proximity
to the castle of Dinefawr, now commonly called Dynevor,
which was originally erected by Rhodri Mawr or his son Cadell
about the year 876 on the steep wooded slopes overhanging the
Towy. From Prince CadelPs days to the death of the Lord Rhys,
last reigning prince of South Wales, in 1196, Dinefawr continued
to be the recognized abode of South Welsh royalty. The castle
ruins remain in the possession of the Rices, Lords Dynevor,
heirs and descendants of Prince Cadell. At one period residence
and park became known as New-town, a name now obsolete.
Some personal relics of the celebrated Sir Rhys ap Thomas, K.G.
(1451-1527), are preserved in the modern house. Dinefawr
Castle and its estates were granted away by Henry VIII. on the
execution for high treason of Sir Rhys's grandson, Rhys ap
Griffith, but were restored to the family under Queen 'Mary.
LLANDOVERY (Llan-ym-ddy/ri) , a market town and ancient
municipal borough of Carmarthenshire, Wales, situated amid
hills near the left bank of the Towy. Pop. (1901) 1809. Llan-
dovery is a station on the Mid-Wales section of the London &
North Western railway. The old-fashioned town lies in the
parish of Llandingat, and contains the two churches of Llandingat
and Llanfair-ar-y-bryn. The slight remains of the castle stand
on a hillock above the river Bran. The public school was
founded here by Sir Thomas Phillips in 1847. ,
LLANDOVERY GROUP— LLANELLY
829
The place probably owes its Celtic name of Llan-ym-ddyffri
(the church amid the waters) to the proximity of Llandingat
church to the streams of the Towy, Bran and Gwydderig.
On account of its commanding position at the head of the
fertile vale of Towy, Llandovery was a strategic site of some
importance in the middle ages. The castle erected here by the
Normans early in the i2th century frequently changed owners
during the course of the Anglo-Welsh wars before 1282. In 1485
the borough of Llandovery, or Llanymtheverye, was incorporated
by a charter from Richard III., and this king's privileges were
subsequently confirmed by Henry VIII. in 1521, and by Elizabeth
in 1590, the Tudor queen's original charter being still extant
and in the possession of the corporation, which is officially
styled " the bailiff and burgesses of the borough of Llanym-
theverye, otherwise Llandovery." The bailiff likewise holds
the office of recorder, but has neither duties nor emoluments.
In the 1 7th century the vicarage of Llandingat was held by the
celebrated Welsh poet and preacher, Rhys Prichard, commonly
called " the vicar of Llandovery " (d. 1644). In the middle of
the igth century William Rees of Tonn published at Llandovery
many important works dealing with early Welsh history and
archaeology.
LLANDOVERY GROUP, in geology, the lowest division of
the Silurian (Upper Silurian)in Britain. C. Lapworth in 1879
proposed the name Valentian (from the ancient north British
province of Valentia) for this group. It includes in the type
area the Tarannon Shales 1000-1500 ft., Upper Llandovery
and May Hill Sandstone 800 ft., Lower Llandovery, 600-1500 ft.
The Lower Llandovery rocks consist of conglomerates, sandstones
and slaty beds. At Llandovery they rest unconformably upon
Ordovician rocks (Bala), but in many other places no unconformity is
traceable. These rocks occur with a narrow crop in Pembrokeshire,
which curves round through LlandoVery, and in the Rhyader district
they attain a considerable thickness. Northwards they thin out
towards Bala Lake. They occur also in Cardiganshire and Car-
marthenshire in many places where they have not been clearly
separated from the associated Ordovician rocks.
There is a change in the fauna on leaving the Ordovician and
entering the Llandovery. Among the graptolites the Diplograptidae
begin to be replaced by the Monograptidae. Characteristic graptolite
zones, in descending order, are: — Monograptus gregarius, Diplo-
graptusvesiculosus, D. acuminatus. Common trilobitesare : — Acidaspis,
Encrinurus, Phacops, Proetus; among the brachiopods are Orthis
elegantula, O. testudinaria, Meristella crassa and Pentamerus (Strick-
landinia) lens (Pentamerus is so characteristic that the Llandovery
rocks are frequently described as the " Pentamerus beds").
The Upper Llandovery, including the May Hill Sandstone of May
Hill, Gloucestershire, is an arenaceous series generally conglomeratic
at the base, with local lenticular developments of shelly limestone
(Norbury, Hollies and Pentamerus limestones). It occurs with a
narrow outcrop in Carmarthenshire at the base of the Silurian, dis-
appearing beneath the Old Red Sandstone westward to reappear in
Pembrokeshire; north-eastward the outcrop extends to the Long-
mynd, which the conglomerate wraps round. As it is followed
along the crop it is found to rest unconformably upon the Lower
Llandovery, Caradoc, Llandeilo, Cambrian and pre-Cambrian rocks.
The fossils include the trilobites Phacops caudata, Encrinurus
punctatus, Calymene Blumenbachii; the brachiopods Pentamerus
oblongus, Orthis calligramma, A try pa reticularis; the corals Favo-
sites, Lindostroemia, &c. ; and the zonal graptolites Rastrites maximus
and Monograptus spinigerus and others (Monograptus Sedgwicki,
M. Clingani, M. proteus, Diplograplus Hughesii).
The Tarannon shales, grey and blue slates, designated by A.
Sedgwick the " paste rock," is traceable from Conway into Car-
marthenshire; in Cardiganshire, besides the slaty fades, gritty beds
make their appearance; and in the neighbourhood of Builth soft
dark shales. The group is poor in fossils with the exception of
graptolites; of these Cyrtograptus grayae and Monograptus exiguus
are zonal forms. The Tarannon group is represented by the Rhyader
Pale Shales in Radnorshire; by the Browgill beds, with Mono-
graptus crispus and M. turriculatus, in the Lake district; in the
Moffat Silurian belt in south Scotland by a thick development,
including the Hawick rocks and Ardwell beds, and the Queensberry
group or Gala (Grieston shales, Buckholm grits and Abbotsford
flags) ; in the Girvan area, by the Drumyork flags, Bargany group
and Penkill group; and in Ireland by the Treveshilly shales of
Strangford Lough, and the shales of Salterstown, Co. Louth.
The Upper and Lower Llandovery rocks are represented in de-
scending order by the Pale shales, Graptolite shales, Grey slates and
Corwen grit of Merionethshire and Denbighshire. In the Rhyader
district the Caban group (Gafalt beds, shales and grits and Caban
conglomerate), and the Gwastaden group (Gigrin mudstones, Ddol
shales, Dyffryn flags, Cerig Gwynion grits) lie on this horizon; at
Builth also there is a series of grits and shales. In the Lake district
the lower part of the Stockdale shales (Skelgill beds) is of Llandovery
age. In south Scotland in the central and southern belt of Silurian
rocks, which extends across the country from Luce Bay to St Abb's
Head, the Birkhill shales, a highly crumpled series of graptolitic beds,
represent the Llandovery horizon. In the Girvan area to the north
their place is taken by the Camregan, Shaugh Hill and Mullock Hill
groups. In Ireland the Llandovery rocks are represented by the
Anascaul slates of the Dingle promontory, by the Owenduff and
Gowlaun grits, Co. Galway, by the Upper Pomeroy beds, by the
Uggool and Ballaghaderin beds, Co. Mayo, and by rocks of this age in
Coalpit Bay and Slieve Felim Mountains.
Economic deposits in Llandovery rocks include slate pencils
(Teesdale), building stone, flag-stone, road metal and lime. Lead ore
occurs in Wales. (See SILURIAN.) (J. A. H.)
LLANDRINDOD, or LLANDRINDOD WELLS, a market town,
urban district and health-resort of Radnorshire, Wales, situated
in a lofty and exposed district near the river Ithon, a tributary
of the Wye. Pop. (1901) 1827. Llandrindod is a station on the
Mid-Wales section of the London & North-Western railway.
The town annually receives thousands of visitors, and lies within
easy reach of the beautiful Wye Valley and the wild district
of Radnor Forest. The saline, sulphur and chalybeate springs
of Llandrindod have long been famous. According to a treatise
published by a German physician, Dr Wessel Linden, in 1754, the
saline springs at Ffynon-llwyn-y-gog ("the well in the cuckoos'
grove ") in the present parish of Llandrindod had acquired
more than a local reputation as early as the year 1696. In the
1 8th century both saline and sulphur springs were largely patron-
ized by numbers of visitors, and about 1749 a Mr Grosvenor
built a hydropathic establishment near the old church, on a site
now covered by a farm-house known as Llandrindod Hall.
LLANDUDNO, a seaside resort in the Arfon parliamentary
division of Carnarvonshire, North Wales, in a detached portion
of the county east of the Conwy, on a strip of sandy soil terminat-
ing in the massive limestone of Great Orme's Head. Pop. of
urban district (1901) 9279. The town is reached by the London
& North-Western railway, and lies 227m. N.W. of London. A
village in 1850, Llandudno is to-day one of the most flourishing
watering-places in North Wales. Sheltered by the Great Orme
on the N.W. and by the Little Orme on the E., it faces a wide
bay of the Irish Sea, and is backed by low sandhills. A Marine
Drive encircles the Great Orme. The Little Orme has caverns
and abounds in sea birds and rare plants. Close to the town
are the Gloddaeth woods, open to visitors. On the Great Orme
are old circular buildings, an ancient fortress, a " rocking-stone "
(cryd Tudno) and the 7th-century church of St Tudno, restored
in 1885. Druidical and other British antiquities are numerous in
the district. At Deganwy, or Digahwy, 2 m. from Llandudno, is
a castle, Dinas Gonwy (Conwy fort), known to English historians
as Gannoc, dating from the nth or (according to the Welsh)
earlier than the 9th century.
LLANELLY, a market town, urban district, and seaport
of Carmarthenshire, Wales, situated on the north shore of the
broad estuary of the river Loughor (Llwchwr), known as Burry
river, which forms an inlet of Carmarthen Bay. Pop. (1901)
25,617. Llanelly is a station on the South Wales section of the
Great Western railway. The town is wholly of modern appear-
ance. The mother-church of St Elliw, or Elli (whence the town
derives its name) has been practically rebuilt (1906), but it
retains its 13th-century tower and other ancient features of the
original fabric. Its situation on a broad estuary and its central
position with regard to a neighbourhood rich in coal, iron and
limestone, have combined to make Llanelly one of the many
important industrial towns of South Wales. Anthracite and
steam-coal from the collieries of the coast and along the Loughor
Valley are exported from the extensive docks; and there are
also large works for the smelting of copper and the manufacture
of tin plates.
Llanelly, though an ancient parish and a borough by pre-
scription under a portreeve and burgesses in the old lordship of
Kidwelly, remained insignificant until the industrial develop-
ment in South Wales during the ioth century. In 1810 the
combined population of Llanelly, with its four subsidiary hamlets
83o
LLANES— LLANTWIT MAJOR
of Berwick, Glyn, Hencoed and Westowe, only amounted to
2972; in 1840 the inhabitants of the borough hamlet alone
had risen to 4173. Llanelly is now the most populous town in
Wales outside the confines of Glamorganshire. In 1832 Llanelly
was added as a contributory borough to the Carmarthen parlia-
mentary district.
LLANES, a seaport of northern Spain, in the province of
Oviedo, on the river Carrocedo and the Bay of Biscay. Pop.
(1900) 18,684. The streets are mostly narrow and irregular,
and contain some curious old houses. The principal buildings
are a fine Gothic church and an old Augustinian monastery,
which has been converted into a school and meteorological
station. In summer the fine climate, scenery and sea-bathing
attract many visitors. Llanes is a second-class port for light-
draught vessels; but the entrance is narrow, and rather difficult
in rough weather. The trade is chiefly in agricultural produce,
timber, butter and fish.
LLANGOLLEN, a picturesque market-town and summer
resort of Denbighshire, N. Wales, in the Dee (Dyfrdwy) valley, on
a branch of the Great Western Railway, 9 m. S.W. of Wrexham,
2025 m. from London by rail. Pop. of urban district (1901)
3303. The Dee is here crossed by a 14th-century bridge of four
arches, " one of the seven wonders of Wales," built by John
Trevor, afterwards bishop of St Asaph (Llanelwy). The Anglican
church of St Collen, Norman and Early English, has a monument
in the churchyard to the " Ladies of Llangollen," Lady Eleanor
Butler and Hon. Sarah Ponsonby, of Plas Newydd, (1778 to 1829
and 1831 respectively). The house is now a museum. Castell
Dinas Bran (the castle of the town of Bran; the mountain
stream below is also called Bran), the ruins of a fortress on a high
conical hill about i m. from the town, is supposedly British, of
unknown date. " An old ruynous thinge," as the Elizabethan
poet Churchyard calls it even in the i6th century, it was in-
habited, apparently, about 1390, by Myfanwy Fechan of the
Tudor Trevor family and beloved by the bard Howel ab Einion
Llygliw, whose ode to her is still extant. Valle Crucis Abbey
(Llan Egwest) is a Cistercian ruin at the foot of Bronfawr hill,
some 2 m. N.W. of Llangollen, founded about 1200 by Madoc ab
Gruffydd Maelor, lord of Dinas Bran and grandson of Owen
Gwynedd, prince of Wales. Llan Egwest, dissolved in 1535,
was given by James I. to Lord Edward Wootton. In the meadow
adjoining, still called Llwyn y Groes (" grove of the cross "), is
" Eliseg's Pillar." Eliseg was father of Brochmael, prince of
Powys, and his grandson, Concen or Congen, appears to have
erected the pillar, which is now broken, with an illegible in-
scription; the modern inscription dates only from 1779. At
Llangollen are linen and woollen manufactures, and near are
collieries, lime and iron works. Brewing, malting and slate-
quarrying are also carried on. Within the parish, an aqueduct
carries the Ellesmere canal across the Dee.
LLANQUIHUE (pron. lan-ke-wa), a province of southern
Chile bordering on the northern shores of the Gulf and Straits
of Chacao, and extending from the Pacific to the Argentine
frontier. The province of Valdivia lies N. and is separated from
it in part by the Bueno river. Pop. (1895) 78,315. Area
45»SIS SQ- m- It is a region of forests, rivers and lakes, and the
greater part is mountainous. The rainfall is excessive, the
average at Puerto Montt being 104 in. a year, and the temperature
is singularly uniform, the average for the summer being 583°,
of the whiter 475°, and of the year 53° F. There are several large
lakes in the eastern part of the province — Puyehue, on the
northern frontier, Rupanco, Llanquihue and Todos los Santos.
Lake Llanquihue is the largest body of fresh water in Chile,
having an extreme length from N. to S., or from Octai to Varas,
of about 33 m., and extreme breadth of nearly the same. There
is a regular steamship service on the lake between Octai and
Varas, and its western shores are well settled. The volcanoes
of Calbucc and Osorno rise from near its eastern shores, the
latter to a height of 7382 ft. The outlet of the lake is through
Maullin river, the lower course of which is navigable. The other
large rivers of the province are the Bueno, which receives the
waters of Lakes Puyehue and Rupanco, and the Puelo, which has
its rise in a lake of the same name in the Argentine territory of
Chubut. A short tortuous river of this vicinity, called the
Petrohue, affords an outlet for the picturesque lake of Todos los
Santos, and enters the Reloncavi Inlet near the Puelo. The
southern coast of the province is indented by a number of inlets
and bays affording good fishing, but the mouths of the rivers
flowing into the Pacific are more or less obstructed by- sand-bars.
Apart from the lumber industry, which is the most important,
the productions of Llanquihue include wheat, barley, potatoes
and cattle. The white population is composed in great part of
Germans, who have turned large areas of forest lands in the
northern districts into productive wheat fields. The capital is
Puerto Montt, on a nearly land-locked bay called the Reloncavi,
designed to be the southern terminus of the longitudinal railway
from Tacna, a distance of 2152 m. An important town in the
northern part of the province is Osorno, on the Rahue river,
which is chiefly inhabited by Germans. It exports wheat and
other farm produce, leather, lumber and beer.
LLANTRISANT, a small town and a contributory parlia-
mentary borough of Glamorganshire, Wales, picturesquely
situated with a southern aspect, commanding a fine view of the
vale of Glamorgan, in a pass on the mountain range which
separates that vale from the valley of the Taff. The population
of the parish in 1901 was 10,091 and of the contributory borough
2057. A branch of the Taff Vale railway running from Ponty-
pridd to Cowbridge and Aberthaw has a station, Cross Inn,
5 m. below the town, while nearly 2 m. farther south it passes
(near the village of Pontyclun) through Llantrisant station on
the Great Western railway main line, which is 1561 m. by rail
from London and n m. N.W. from Cardiff. The castle, which
according to G. T. Clark was " second only to Cardiff in military
importance," dates from the reign of Henry III. or Edward I.
Of the original building nothing remains, and of a later building
only a tall and slender fragment. It was the head of the lordship
of Miskin, a great part of which was in the hands of native owners,
until the last of them, Howel ap Meredith, was expelled by
Richard de Clare (1229-1262). Since then it has always been in
the hands of the lord of Glamorgan. It was in the near neigh-
bourhood of the town that Edward II. was captured in 1327.
In 1426 the then lord of Glamorgan, Richard, 5th earl of Warwick,
granted to the residents a charter confirming grants made by
his predecessors in 1346, 1397 and 1424. The corporation was
abolished in 1883, and its property (including 284 acres of common
land) is administered by a town trust under a scheme of the
charity commissioners. The " freemen " of the borough, how-
ever, still hold a court leet in the town-hall. The market formerly
held here has been discontinued, but there are four annual fairs.
The church was dedicated to three saints (Illtyd, Gwyno and
Tyfodwg), whence the name Llantrisant. Originally a Norman
building, most of the present fabric belongs to the I5th century.
There are numerous chapels. Welsh is still the predominant
language. Oliver Cromwell's forbears were natives of this
parish, as also was Sir Leoline Jenkins, secretary of state
under Charles II. There are tinplate works at Pontyclun and
numerous collieries in the district.
LLANTWIT MAJOR (Welsh Llan-Illtyd-Fawr) , a small market
town in the southern parliamentary division of Glamorganshire,
South Wales, about i m. from the Bristol Channel, with a
station on the Barry railway, 5 m. S. of Cowbridge. Pop. (1901)
1113. About i m. N.N.W. of the town there were discovered in
1888 the remains of a large Roman villa within a square enclosure
of about 8 acres, which has been identified as part of the site of
a Roman settlement mentioned in Welsh writings as Caer Wrgan.
The building seemed to have been the scene of a massacre,
possibly the work of Irish pirates in the sth century, as some
forty-three human skeletons and the remains of three horses
were found within its enclosure. Etymological reasoning have
led some to suggest that the Roman station of Bovium was at
Boverton, i m. E. of the town, but it is more likely to have been
at Ewenny (2 m. S.E. of Bridgend) or perhaps at Cowbridge.
On the sea coast are two camps, one known as Castle Ditches,
commanding the entrance to the creek of Colhugh, once the port
LLANWRTYD WELLS— LLORENTE
831
of Llantwit. In the time of Henry I. a small colony of Flemings
settled in the district. The town and church derive their name
from St Illtyd or Iltutus, styled the " knight," a native of
Brittany and a great-nephew of Germanus of Auxerre. Having
come under the influence of St Cadoc, abbot of Llancarvan,
6 m. E.N.E. of Llantwit, Illtyd established at the latter place,
about A.D. 520, a monastic college which became famous as a
seat of learning. He attracted a number of scholars to him,
especially from Brittany, including Samson, archbishop of Dol,
Maglorius (Samson's successor) and Paul de Leon, while his
Welsh students included David, the patron saint of Wales,
Gildas the historian, Paulinus and Teilo. The college continued
to flourish for several centuries, sending forth a large number
of missionaries until, early in the i2th century, its revenues
were appropriated to the abbey of Tewkesbury by Fitzhamon,
the first Norman lord of Glamorgan, A school seems, however,
to have lingered on in the place until it lost all its emoluments
in the reign of Henry VIII. The present church of St Illtyd is
the result of a sequence of churches which have sprung from a
pre-Norman edifice, almost entirely rebuilt and greatly extended
in the i3th century and again partially rebuilt late in the i4th
century. It consists of an " eastern " church which (according
to Professor Freeman) belonged probably to the monks, and is
the only part now used for worship, a western one used as a
parochial church before the dissolution, but now disused, and
still farther west of this a chantry with sacristan's house, now in
ruins. The western church consists of the nave of a once cruci-
form building, while in continuation of it was built the eastern
church, consisting of chancel, nave (of great height and width
but very short), aisles and an embattled western tower built
over the junction of the two naves. A partial restoration was
made in 1888, and a careful and more complete one in 1900-1905.
In the church and churchyard are preserved some early monu-
mental remains of the British church, dating from the gth
century, and some possibly from an earlier date. They include
two cross-shafts and one cross with inscriptions in debased Latin
(one being to the memory of St Illtyd) and two cylindrical pillars,
most of them being decorated with interlaced work. There are
some good specimens of domestic architecture of the i;th century.
The town is situated in a fertile district and the inhabitants
depend almost entirely on agriculture. Its weekly market is
mainly resorted to for its stock sales. St Donats castle, 2 m.
to the west, was for nearly seven centuries the home of the
Stradling family.
As to the Roman remains, see the Athenaeum for October 20 (1888),
and the Antiquary for August (1892). As to the church, see the
Archaeologia Cambrensis, 3rd ser. iv. 31 (an article by Professor
Freeman), 5th ser., v. 409 and xvii. 129, and 6th sen, iii. 56; A. C.
Fryer, Llantwit-Major: a Fifth Century University (1893).
(D. LL. T.)
LLANWRTYD WELLS, an urban district of Breconshire,
squth Wales, with a station on the central Wales section of the
London & North Western railway, 231 m. from London. It
is situated in the midst of wild mountain scenery on the river
Irfon, a right-bank tributary of the Wye. The place is chiefly
noted for its sulphur and chalybeate springs, the former being
the strongest of the kind in Wales. The medicinal properties
of the sulphur water were discovered, or perhaps rediscovered,
in 1732 by a famous Welsh writer, the Rev. Theophilus Evans,
then vicar of Llangammarch (to which living Llanwrtyd was a
chapelry till 1871). Saline water is obtained daily in the season
from Builth Wells. The Irfon is celebrated as a trout-stream.
Out of "the civil parish, which has an area of 10,785 acres and
had in 1901 a population of 854, there was formed in 1907 the
urban district, comprising 1611 acres, and with an estimated
population at the date of formation of 812. Welsh is the pre-
dominant language of the district.
Four miles lower down the Irfon valley, at the junction of
the Cammarch and Irfon, and with a station on the London
& North Western railway, is the village of Llangammarch,
noted for its barium springs. The ancient parish of Llangam-
march consists of the townships of Penbuallt and Treflis, the
wells being in the former, which comprises 11,152 acres and had
in 1901 a population of only 433. John Penry, the Puritan
martyr, was born at Cefn-brith in this parish. Charles Wesley's
wife, Sarah Gwynne, was of Garth, an old residence just outside
the parish.
LLEWELYN, the name of two Welsh princes.
LLEWELYN I., AB IORWERTH (d. 1240), prince of North Wales,
was born after the expulsion of his father, lorwerth, from the
principality. In 1194, while still a youth, Llewelyn recovered
the paternal inheritance. In 1201 he was the greatest prince in
Wales. At first he was a friend of King John, whose illegitimate
daughter, Joanna, he took to wife (1201); but the alliance soon
fell through, and in 1211 John reduced Llewelyn to submission.
In the next year Llewelyn recovered all his losses in North Wales.
In 1215 he took Shrewsbury. His rising had been encouraged
by the pope, by France, and by the English barons. His rights
were secured by special clauses in Magna Carta. But he never
desisted from his wars with the Marchers of South Wales, and
in the early years' of Henry III. he was several times attacked
by English armies. In 1239 he was struck with paralysis and
retired from the active work of government in favour of his son
David. He retired into a Cistercian monastery.
See the lists of English chronicles for the reigns of John and
Henry III.; also the Welsh chronicle Brut y Tywysogion (ed.
Rolls Series); O. M. Edwards, History of Wales (1901); T. F. Tout
in the Political History of England, iii. (1905).
LLEWELYN II., AB GRUFFYDD (d. 1282), prince of North
Wales, succeeded his uncle David in 1246, but was compelled
by Henry III. to confine himself to Snowdon and Anglesey.
In 1254 Henry granted Prince Edward the royal lands in Wales.
The steady encroachment of royal officers on Llewelyn's land
began immediately, and in 1256 Llewelyn declared war. The
Barons' War engaged all the forces of England, and he was able
to make himself lord of south and north Wales. Llewelyn also
assisted the barons. By the treaty of Shrewsbury (1265) he
was recognized as overlord of Wales; and in return Simon de
Montfort was supplied with Welsh troops for his last campaign.
Llewelyn refused to do homage to Edward I., who therefore
attacked him in 1276. He was besieged in the Snowdon mountains
till hunger made him surrender, and conclude the humiliating
treaty of Conway (1277). He was released, but in 1282 he
revolted again, and was killed in a skirmish with the Mortimers,
near Builth in central Wales.
See C. Bemont, Simon de Montfort (Paris, 1884) ; T. F. Tout in the
Political History of England, iii. (1905) ; J. E. Morris in The
Welsh Wars of Edward I. (1901).
LLORENTE, JUAN ANTONIO (1756-1823), Spanish historian,
was born on the 3oth of March 1756 at Rincon de Soto in Aragon.
He studied at the university of Saragossa, and, having been
ordained priest, became vicar-general to the bishop of Calahorra
in 1782. In 1785 he became commissary of the Holy Office
at Logrono, and in 1789 its general secretary at Madrid. In
the crisis of 1808 Llorente identified himself with the Bona-
partists, and was engaged for a few years in superintending the
execution of the decree for the suppression of the monastic orders,
and in examining the archives of the Inquisition. On the return
of King Ferdinand VII. to Spain in 1814 he withdrew to France,
where he published his great work, Hisloria critica de la in-
quisition de Espana (Paris, 1815-1817). Translated into English,
French, German, Dutch and Italian, it attracted much attention
in Europe, and involved its author in considerable persecution,
which, on the publication of his Portraits politiques des popes
in 1822, culminated in a peremptory order to quit France.
He died at Madrid on the 5th of February 1823. Both the
personal character and the literary accuracy of Llorente have
been assailed, but although he was not an exact historian there
is no doubt that he made an honest use of documents relating
to the Inquisition which are no longer extant.
The English translation of the Historia (London, 1826) is abridged.
Llorente also wrote Memorial para la historia de la revolucion
espanola (Paris, 1814-1816), translated into French (Paris, 1815-
1819); Noticias historical sobre las Ires provincias va congadas
(Madrid, 1806-1808); an autobiography, Noticia biografica (Paris,
1818), and other works.
832
LLOYD, E.— LLOYD GEORGE
LLOYD, EDWARD (1845- ), English tenor vocalist,
was born in London on the 7th of March 1845, his father, Richard
Lloyd, being vicar choralist at Westminster Abbey. From
1852 to 1860 he sang in the abbey choir, and was thoroughly
trained in music, eventually becoming solo tenor at the Chapel
Royal. He began singing at concerts in 1867, and in 1871
appeared at the Gloucester Musical Festival. His fine evenly-
produced voice and pure style at once brought him into notice,
and he gradually took the place of Sims Reeves as the leading
English tenor of the day, his singing of classical music, and
especially of Handel, being particularly admired. At the
Handel Festivals after 1888 he was the principal tenor, and even
in the vast auditorium at the Crystal Palace he triumphed over
acoustic difficulties. In 1888, 1890 and 1892 he paid successful
visits to the United States; but by degrees he appeared less
frequently in public, and in 1900 he formally retired from the
platform.
LLOYD, WILLIAM (1627-1717), English divine, successively
bishop of St Asaph, of Lichfield and Coventry, and of Worcester,
was born at Tilehurst, Berkshire, in 162 7, and was educated at
Oriel and Jesus Colleges, Oxford. He graduated M.A. in 1646.
In 1663 he was prebendary of Ripon, in 1667 prebendary of
Salisbury, in 1668 archdeacon of Merioneth, in 1672 dean of
Bangor and prebendary of St Paul's, London, in 1680 bishop of
St Asaph, in 1689 lord-almoner, in 1692 bishop of Lichfield and
Coventry, and in 1699 bishop of Worcester. Lloyd was an
indefatigable opponent of the Roman Catholic tendencies of
James II., and was one of the seven bishops who for refusing to
have the Declaration of Indulgence read in his diocese was charged
with publishing a seditious libel against the king and acquitted
(1688). He engaged Gilbert Burnet to write The History of the
Reformation of the Church of England and provided him with
much material. He was a good scholar and a keen student
of biblical apocalyptic literature and himself " prophesied "
to Queen Anne, Robert Harley, earl of Oxford, William Whiston,
and John Evelyn the diarist. Lloyd was a stanch supporter
of the revolution. His chief publication was An Historical
Account of Church Government as it was in Great Britain and
Ireland when they first received the Christian Religion (London,
1684, reprinted Oxford, 1842). He died at Hartlebury castle
on the 3oth of August 1717.
LLOYD, WILLIAM WATKISS (1813-1893), English man of
letters, was born at Homerton, Middlesex, on the nth of March
1813. He received his early education at Newcastle-under-
Lyme grammar school, and at the age of fifteen entered a family
business in London, with which he was connected for thirty-
five years. He devoted his leisure to the study of art, architecture,
archaeology, Shakespeare, classical and modern languages and
literature. He died in London on the 22nd of December 1893.
The work by which he is best known is The Age of Pericles
(1875), characterized by soundness of scholarship, great learning,
and a thorough appreciation of the period with which it deals,
but rendered unattractive by a difficult and at times obscure
style. He wrote also: Xanthian Marbles (1845); Critical
Essays upon Shakespeare's Plays (1875); Christianity in the
Cartoons [of Raphael] (1865), which excited considerable attention
from the manner in which theological questions were discussed;
The History of Sicily to the Athenian War (1872); Panics and
their Panaceas (1869); an edition of Much Ado about Nothing,
" now first published in fully recovered metrical form " (1884;
the author held that all the plays were originally written in
blank verse). A number of manuscripts still remain unpublished,
the most important of which have been bequeathed to the
British Museum, amongst them being: A Further History of
Greece; The Century of Michael Angela; The Neo-Platonists.
See Memoir by Sophia Beale prefixed to Lloyd's (posthumously
published) Elijah Fenton: his Poetry and Friends (1894), containing
a list of published and unpublished works.
LLOYD GEORGE, DAVID (1863- ), British statesman,
was born at Manchester on the i7th of January 1863. His
father, William George, a Welshman of yeoman stock, had left
Pembrokeshire for London at an early age and became a school
teacher there, and afterwards in Liverpool and Haverfordwest,
and then headmaster of an elementary school at Pwllheli, Car-
narvonshire, where he married the daughter of David Lloyd, a
neighbouring Baptist minister. Soon afterwards William George
became headmaster of an elementary school in Manchester,
but after the birth of his eldest son David his health failed, and
he gave up his post and took a small farm near Haverfordwest.
Two years later he died, leaving his widow in poor circumstances;
a second child, another son, was posthumously born. Mrs
George's brother, Richard Lloyd, a shoemaker at Llanystumdwy,
and pastor of the Campbellite Baptists there, now became her
chief support; it was from him that young David obtained his
earliest views of practical and political life, and also the means
of starting, at the age of fourteen, on the career of a solicitor.
Having passed his law preliminary, he was articled to a firm
in Portmadoc, and in 1884 obtained his final qualifications.
In 1888 he married Margaret, daughter of Richard Owen of
Criccieth. From the first he managed to combine his solicitor's
work with politics, becoming secretary of the South Carnarvon-
shire Anti-tithe League; and his local reputation was made
by a successful fight, carried to the High Court, in defence of
the right of Nonconformists to burial in the parish churchyard.
In the first county council elections for Carnarvonshire he played
a strenuous part on the Radical side, and was chosen an alder-
man; and in 1890, at a by-election for Carnarvon Boroughs,
he was returned to parliament by a majority of 18 over a strong
Conservative opponent. He held his seat successfully at the
contests in 1892, 1895 and 1900, his reputation as a champion
of Welsh nationalism, Welsh nonconformity and extreme Radical-
ism becoming thoroughly established both in parliament and
in the country. In the House of Commons he was one of the most
prominent guerrilla fighters, conspicuous for his audacity and
pungency of utterance, and his capacity for obstruction while
the Conservatives were in office. During the South African
crisis of 1899-1902 he was specially vehement in opposition
to Mr Chamberlain, and took the " pro-Boer " side so bitterly
that he was mobbed in Birmingham during the 1900 election
when he attempted to address a meeting at the Town Hall.
But he was again returned for Carnarvon Boroughs; and in
the ensuing parliament he came still more to the front by his
resistance to the Education Act of 1902.
As the leader of the Welsh party, and one of the most dashing
parliamentarians on the Radical side, his appointment to office
when Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman became premier at the end
of 1905 was generally expected; but his elevation direct to the
cabinet as president of the Board of Trade was somewhat of a
surprise. The responsibilities of administration have, however,
often converted a political free-lance into a steady-going official,
and the Unionist press did its best to encourage such a tendency
by continual praise of the departmental action of the new
minister. His settlement of the railway dispute in 1906 was
universally applauded; and the bills he introduced and passed
for reorganizing the port of London, dealing with Merchant
Shipping, and enforcing the working in England of patents
granted there, and so increasing the employment of British
labour, were greeted with satisfaction by the tariff-reformers,
who congratulated themselves that a Radical free-trader should
thus throw over the policy of laisser faire. The president of the
Board of Trade was the chief success of the ministry, and when
Mr Asquith became premier in 1908 and promoted Mr Lloyd
George to the chancellorship of the exchequer, the appointment
was well received even in the City of London. For that year
the budget was already settled, and it was introduced by Mr
Asquith himself, the ex-chancellor; but Mr Lloyd George
earned golden opinions, both at the Treasury and in parliament,
by his industry and his handling of the Finance Bill, especially
important for its inclusion of Old Age Pensions, in the later
stages.
It was not till the time came nearer for the introduction of
the budget for 1909-1910 that opinion in financial circles showed
the change which was afterwards to become so marked. A con-
siderable deficit, of about £16,000,000, was in prospect, and the
LLOYD'S
833
chancellor of the exchequer aroused misgivings by alluding in
a speech to the difficulty he had in deciding what " hen roost "
to " rob." The government had been losing ground in the
country, and Mr Lloyd George and Mr Winston Churchill were
conspicuously in alliance in advocating the use of the budget
for introducing drastic reforms in regard to licensing and land,
which the resistance of the House of Lords prevented the Radical
party from effecting by ordinary legislation. The well-established
doctrine that the Hoirfe of Lords could not amend, though it
might reject, a money-bill, coupled with the fact that it never
had gone so far as to reject a budget, was relied on by the ex-
tremists as dictating the obvious party tactics; and before the
year 1909 opened, the possibility of the Lords being driven to
compel a dissolution by standing on their extreme rights as
regards the financial provision for the year was already can-
vassed in political circles, though- it was hardly credited that
the government would precipitate a constitutional crisis of such
magnitude. When Mr Lloyd George, on the 29th of April,
introduced his budget, its revolutionary character, however,
created widespread dismay in the City and among the propertied
classes. In a very lengthy speech, which had to be interrupted
for half an hour while he recovered his voice, he ended by
describing it as a " war budget " against poverty, which he
hoped, in the result, would become " as remote to the people
of this country as the wolves which once infested its forests."
Some of the original proposals, which were much criticized, were
subsequently dropped, including the permanent diversion of
the Old Sinking Fund to a National Development Fund (created
by a separate bill), and a tax on " ungotten minerals," for
which was substituted a tax on mineral rights. But the main
features of the budget were adhered to, and eventually passed
the House of Commons on the 4th of November, in spite of the
persistent opposition of the scanty Unionist minority. Apart
from certain non-contentious provisions, such as a tax on motor-
cars, the main features of the measure were large increases in
the spirit and tobacco duties, license duties, estate, legacy and
succession duties, and income tax, and an elaborate and novel
system of duties on land-values (" increment duty," " reversion
duty," " undeveloped land duty "), depending on the setting
up of arrangements for valuation of a highly complicated kind.
The discussions on the budget entirely monopolized public
attention for the year, and while the measure was defended by
Mr Lloyd George in parliament with much suavity, and by Mr
Asquith, Sir Edward Grey and Mr Haldane outside the House
of Commons with tact and moderation, the feelings of its op-
ponents were exasperated by a series of inflammatory public
speeches at Limehouse and elsewhere from the chancellor of the
exchequer, who took these opportunities to rouse the passions
of the working-classes against the landed classes and the peers.
When the Finance Bill went up to the House of Lords, Lord
Lansdowne gave notice that on the second reading he would
move " that this House is not justified in giving its consent
to this bill until it has been submitted to the judgment of the
country," and on the last day of November this motion was
carried by an overwhelming majority of peers. The government
passed a solemn resolution of protest in the House of Commons
and appealed to the country; and the general election of
January 1910 took place amid unexampled excitement. The
Unionists gained a hundred seats over their previous numbers,
but the constitutional issue undoubtedly helped the government
to win a victory, depending indeed solely on the votes of the
Labour members and Irish Nationalists, which a year before
had seemed improbable.
Events had now made Mr Lloyd George and his financial
policy the centre of the Liberal party programme; but party
tactics for the moment prevented the ministry, who remained
in office, from simply sending the budget up again to the Lords
and allowing them to pass it. There was no majority in the
Commons for the budget as such, since the Irish Nationalists
only supported it as an engine for destroying the veto of the Lords
and thus preparing the way for Irish Home Rule. Instead,
therefore, of proceeding with the budget, the government
xvi. 27
allowed the financial year to end without one, and brought
forward resolutions for curtailing the powers of the Lords, on
which, if rejected by them, anothertappeal could be made to the
people (see PARLIAMENT). Hardly, however, had the battle,
been arrayed when the King's death in May upset all calcula-
tions. An immediate continuance of hostih'ties between the
two Houses was impossible. A truce was called, and a confer-
ence arranged between four leaders from each side — Mr Lloyd
George being one — to consider whether compromise on the
constitutional question was not feasible. The budget for
1909-10 went quietly through, and before the August adjourn-
ment the chancellor introduced his budget for 1910-11, dis-
cussion being postponed till the autumn. It imposed no new
taxation, and left matters precisely as they were. (H. CH.)
LLOYD'S, an association of merchants, shipowners, under-
writers, and ship and insurance brokers, having its headquarters
in a suite of rooms in the north-east corner of the Royal Exchange,
London. Originally a mere gathering of merchants for business
or gossip in a coffee-house kept by one Edward Lloyd in Tower
Street, London, the earliest notice of which occurs in the London
Gazette of the i8th of February 1688, this institution has gradually
become one of the greatest organizations in the world in con-
nexion with commerce. The establishment existed in Tower
Street up to 1692, in which year it was removed by the proprietor
to Lombard Street, in the centre of that portion of the city
most frequented by merchants of the highest class. Shortly after
this event Mr Lloyd established a weekly newspaper furnishing
commercial and shipping news, in those days an undertaking
of no small difficulty. This paper took the name of Lloyd's
News, and, though its life was not long, it was the precursor of the
now ubiquitous Lloyd's List, the oldest existing paper, the
London Gazette excepted. In Lombard Street the business
transacted at Lloyd's coffee-house steadily grew, but it does not
appear that throughout the greater part of the i8th century the
merchants and underwriters frequenting the rooms were bound
together by any rules, or acted under any organization. By
and by, however, the increase of marine insurance business made
a change of system and improved accommodation necessary,
and after finding a temporary resting-place in Pope's Head Alley,
the underwriters and brokers settled in the Royal Exchange in
March 1774. One of the first improvements in the mode of effect-
ing marine insurance was the introduction of a printed form of
policy. Hitherto various forms had been in use; and, to avoid
numerous disputes the committee of Lloyd's proposed a general
form, which was adopted by the members on the 1 2th of January
1779, and remains in use, with a few slight alterations, to this day.
The two most important events in the history of Lloyd's during
the igth century were the reorganization of the association in
1811, and the passing of an act in 1871 granting to Lloyd's all
the rights and privileges of a corporation sanctioned by parlia-
ment. According to this act of incorporation, the three main
objects for which the society exists are — first, the carrying out of
the business of marine insurance; secondly, the protection of
the interests of the members of the association; and thirdly,
the collection, publication and diffusion of intelligence and
information with respect to shipping. In the promotion of the
last-named object an intelligence department has been developed
which for wideness of range and efficient working has no parallel
among private enterprises. By Lloyd's Signal Station Act 1888,
powers were conferred on Lloyd's to establish signal stations
with telegraphic communications, and by the Derelict Vessels
(Report) Act 1896, masters of British ships are required to give
notice to Lloyd's agents of derelict vessels, which information
is published by Lloyd's.
The rooms at Lloyd's are available only to subscribers and
members. The former pay an annual subscription of five guineas
without entrance fee, but have no voice in the management of
the institution. The latter consist of non-underwriting members,
who pay an entrance fee of twelve guineas, and of underwriting
members who pay a fee of £100. Underwriting members
are also required to deposit securities to the value of £5000 to
£10,000, according to circumstances, as a guarantee for their
LLWYD— LOANDA
engagements. The management of the establishment is delegated
by the members to certain of their number selected as a " com-
mittee for managing the affairs of Lloyd's." With this body lies
the appointment of all the officials and agents of the institution,
the daily routine of duty being entrusted to a secretary and a
large staff of clerks and other assistants. The mode employed
in effecting an insurance at Lloyd's is simple. The business is
done entirely by brokers, who write upon a slip of paper the
name of the ship and shipmaster, the nature of the voyage, the
subject to be insured, and the amount at which it is valued.
If the risk is accepted, each underwriter subscribes his name
and the amount he agrees to take or underwrite, the insurance
being effected as soon as the total value is made up.
See F. Martin, History of Lloyd's and of Marine Insurance in
Great Britain (1876).
LLWYD, EDWARD (1660-1709), British naturalist and
antiquary, was born in Cardiganshire in 1660. He was educated
at Jesus College, Oxford, but did not graduate; he received the
degree of M.A. however in 1701. In 1690, after serving for six
years as assistant, he succeeded R. Plot as keeper of the Ashmolean
museum, a position which he retained until 1709. In 1699 he
published Lithophylacii Britannici Ichnographia, in which he
described and figured various fossils, personally collected or
received from his friends, and these were arranged in cabinets in
the museum. They were obtained from many parts of England,
but mostly from the neighbourhood of Oxford. A second edition
was prepared by Llwyd, but not published until 1760. He issued
in 1707 the first volume of Archaeologia Britannica (afterwards
discontinued). He was elected F.R.S. in 1708. He died at
Oxford on the 3oth of June 1709.
LOACH. The fish known as loaches (CoUtinae) form a very
distinct subfamily of the Cyprinidae, and are even regarded
by some authors as constituting a family. Characters: Barbels,
three to six pairs; pharyngeal teeth in one row, in moderate
number; anterior part of the air-bladder divided into a right
and left chamber, separated by a constriction, and enclosed in a
bony capsule, the posterior part free or absent. They are more
or less elongate in form, often eel-shaped, and naked or covered
with minute scales. Most of the species are small, the largest
known measuring 12 (the European Misgurnus fossilis), 13 (the
Chinese Bolia iiariegata), or 14 in. (the Central Asian Nemachilus
siluroides). They mostly live in small streams and ponds, and
many are mountain forms. They are almost entirely confined
to Europe and Asia, but one species (Nemachilus abyssinicus]
has recently been discovered in Abyssinia. About 120 species
are known, mostly from Central and South-Eastern Asia. Only
two species occur in Great Britain: the common Nemachilus
barbalulus and the rarer and more local Cobilis taenia. The latter
extends across Europe and Asia to Japan. Many of these fishes
delight in the mud at the bottom of ponds, in which they move
like eels. In some cases the branchial respiration appears to be
insufficient, and the intestinal tract acts as an accessory breathing
organ. The air-bladder may be so reduced as to lose its hydro-
static function and become subservient to a sensory organ, its
outer exposed surface being connected with the skin by a meatus
between the bands of muscle, and conveying the thermo-
barometrical impressions to the auditory nerves. Loaches are
known in some parts of Germany as " Wetterfisch."
LOAD; LODE. The O.E. Idd, from which both these words
are derived, meant "way," "journey," "conveyance," and
is cognate with Ger. Leite. The Teutonic root is also seen
in the O. Teut. laidjan, Ger. leiten, from which comes " to lead."
The meanings of the word have been influenced by a sup-
posed connexion with " lade," O.E. hladan, a word common
to many old branches of Teutonic languages in the sense
of " to place," but used in English principally of the placing
of cargo in a ship, hence " bill of lading," and of emptying
liquor or fluid out of one vessel into another; it is from the
word in this sense that is derived " ladle," a large spoon or cup-
like pan with a long handle. The two words, though etymo-
logically one, have been differentiated in meaning, the influence
of the connexion with " lade " being more marked in " load "
than in " lode," a vein of metal ore, in which the original mean-
ing of " way " is clearly marked. A " load " was originally a
" carriage," and its Latin equivalent in the Promptorium Parvul-
orum is tiectura. From that it passed to that which is laid on an
animal or vehicle, and so, as an amount usually carried, the
word was used of a specific quantity of anything, a unit of weight,
varying with the locality and the commodity. A " load " of
wheat = 40 bushels, of hay = 36 trusses. Other meanings of
" load " are: in electricity, the power whfch an engine or dynamo
has to furnish ; and in engineering, the weight to be supported by
a structure, the " permanent load " being the weight of the
structure itself, the " external load " that of anything which
may be placed upon it.
LOAF, properly the mass of bread made at one baking, hence
the smaller portions into which the bread is divided for retailing.
These are of uniform size (see BAKING) and are named according
to shape ("tin loaf," "cottage loaf," &c.), weight ("quartern
loaf," &c.), or quality of flour (" brown loaf," &c.). " Loaf,"
O.E. ftldf, is a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger.
Laib, or Leib, Dan. lev, Goth, hlaifs; similar words with the
same meaning are found in Russian, Finnish and Lettish, but
these may have been. adapted from Teutonic. The ultimate
origin is unknown, and it is uncertain whether " bread " (q.v.)
or " loaf " is the earlier in usage. The O.E. hldf is seen in
" Lammas " and in " lord," i.e. hlaford for hlafweard, the loaf-
keeper, or " bread- warder "; cf. the O.E. word for a household
servant hldf-ceia, loaf-eater. The Late Lat. companio, one who
shares, panis, bread, Eng. " companion," was probably an
adaptation of the Goth, gahlaiba, O.H. Ger. gileipo, messmate,
comrade. The word " loaf " is also used in sugar manufacture,
and is applied to sugar shaped in a mass like a cone, a " sugar-
loaf," and to the small knobs into which refined sugar is cut, or
" loaf-sugar."
The etymology of the verb " to joaf," i.e. to idle, lounge about,
and the substantive " loafer," an idler, a lazy vagabond, has been
much discussed. R. H. Dana (Two Years before the Mast, 1840) called
the word " a newly invented Yankee word." J. R. Lowell (Biglow
Papers, 2nd series, Introd.) explains it as German in origin, and
connects it with laufen, to run, and states that the dialectical form
lofen is used in the sense of " saunter up and down." This explana-
tion has been generally accepted. The Ntw English Dictionary
rejects it, however, and states that laufen is not used in this sense,
but points out that the German Landldufer, the English obsolete word
" landlouper," or " landloper," one who wanders about the country,
a vagrant or vagabond, has a resemblance in meaning. J. S. Farmer
and W. E. Henley's Dictionary of Slang and its Analogues gives as
French synonyms of " loafer," chevalier de la loupe and loupeur. _,
LOAM (O.E. Idm; the word appears in Dut. leem and Ger.
Lehm; the ultimate origin is the root lai-, meaning " to be
sticky," which is seen in the cognate " lime," Lat. limus, mud,
clay), a fertile soil composed of a mixture of sand, clay, and
decomposed vegetable matter, the quantity of sand being
sufficient to prevent the clay massing together. The word is
also used of a mixture of sand, clay and straw, used for making
casting-moulds and bricks, and for plastering walls, &c. (see
SOIL).
LOAN (adapted from the Scandinavian form of a word common
to Teutonic languages, cf. Swed. Ian, Icel. Ian, Dut. leen; the O.E.
lain appears in " lend," the ultimate source is seen in the root
of Gr. Xetireif and Lat. linquere, to leave), that which is lent; a
sum of money or something of value lent for a specific or in-
definite period when it or its equivalent is to be repaid or returned,
usually at a specified rate of interest (see USURY and MONEY-
LENDING). For public loans see FINANCE, NATIONAL DEBT,
and the various sections on finance under the names of the
various countries.
LOANDA (Sao Paulo de Loanda), a seaport of West Africa,
capital of the Portuguese province of Angola, situated in 8° 48' S.,
13° 7' E., on a bay between the rivers Bango and Kwanza. The
bay, protected from the surf by a long narrow island of sand, is
backed by a low sandy cliff which at its southern end sweeps out
with a sharp curve and terminates in a bold point crowned by
Fort San Miguel. The depth of water at the entrance to the bay
is 20 fathoms or more. The bay has silted up considerably, but
LOANGO— LOBANOV-ROSTOVSKI
835
there is a good anchorage about i| m. from the shore in 7 to 14
fathoms, besides cranage accommodation and a floating dock.
Vessels discharge into lighters, and are rarely delayed on account
of the weather. A part of the town lies on the foreshore, but the
more important buildings — the government offices, the governor's
residence, the palace of the bishop of Angola, and the hospital —
are situated on higher ground. Most of the European houses are
large stone buildings of one storey with red tile roofs. Loanda
possesses a meteorological observatory, public garden, tramways,
gas-works, statues to Salvador Correia de Sa, who wrested
Angola from the Dutch, and to Pedro Alexandrine, a former
governor, and is the starting-point of the railway to Ambaca
and Malanje.
Loanda was founded in 1576, and except between 1640 and
1648, when it was occupied by the Dutch, has always been in
Portuguese possession. It was for over two centuries the chief
centre of the slave trade between Portuguese West Africa and
Brazil. During that time the traffic of the port was of no small
account, and after a period of great depression consequent on
the suppression of that trade, more legitimate commerce was
developed. There is a regular service of steamers between the
port and Lisbon, Liverpool and Hamburg. The town has some
15,000 inhabitants, including a larger European population than
any other place on the west coast of Africa. It is connected by
submarine cables with Europe and South Africa. Fully half the
imports and export trade of Angola (q.v.) passes through Loanda.
LOANGO, a region on the west coast of Africa, extending from
the mouth of the Congo river in 6° S. northwards through about
two degrees. At one time included in the " kingdom of Congo "
(see ANGOLA, History), Loango became independent about the
close of the i6th century, and was still of considerable importance
in the middle of the i8th century. Buali, the capital, was
situated on the banks of a small river not far from the port of
Loango, where were several European " factories." The country
afterwards became divided into a large number of petty states,
while Portugal and France exercised an intermittent sovereignty
over the coast. Here the slave trade was longer maintained
than anywhere else on the West African seaboard; since its
extirpation, palm oil and india-rubber have been the main objects
of commerce. The Loango coast is now divided between French
Congo and the Portuguese district of Kabinda (see those articles).
The natives, mainly members of the Ba-Kongo group of Bantu
negroes, and often called Ba-Fiot, are in general well-built,
strongly dolichocephalous and very thick of skull, the skin of
various shades of warm brown with the faintest suggestion of
purple. Baldness is unknown, and many of the men wear
beards. Physical deformity is extremely rare. In religious
beliefs and in the use of fetishes they resemble the negroes of
Upper Guinea.
LOBACHEVSKIY, NICOLAS IVANOVICH (1793-1856),
Russian mathematician, was born at Makariev, Nizhniy-
Novgorod, on the 2nd of November (N.S.) 1793. His father
died about 1800, and his mother, who was left in poor circum-
stances, removed to Kazan with her three sons. In 1807
Nicolas, the second boy, entered as a student in the University
of Kazan, then recently established. Five years later, having
completed the curriculum, he began to take part in the teaching,
becoming assistant professor in 1814 and extraordinary professor
two years afterwards. In 1823 he succeeded to the ordinary
professorship of mathematics, and retained the chair until about
1846, when he seems to have fallen into official disfavour. At
that time his connexion with the university to which he had
devoted his life practically came to an end, except that in
1855, at the celebration of his jubilee, he brought it as a last
tribute his Pangeometrie, in which he summarized the results
of his geometrical studies. This work was translated into
German by H. Liebmann in 1902. He died at Kazan on the
24th of February (N.S.) 1856. Lobachevskiy was one of the
first thinkers to apply a critical treatment to the fundamental
axioms of geometry, and he thus became a pioneer of the modern
geometries which deal with space other than as treated by
Euclid. His first contribution to nonTEuclidian geometry is
believed to have been given in a lecture at Kazan in 1826, but
the subject is treated in many of his subsequent memoirs, among
which may be mentioned the Geometrische Unlersuchungen zur
Theorie derParallellinien (Berlin, 1840, and a new edition in 1887),
and the Pangeom&rie already referred to, which in the sub-
title is described as a precis of geometry founded on a general
and rigorous theory of parallels. (See GEOMETRY, § Non-
Euclidean, and GEOMETRY, § Axioms of.) In addition to his
geometrical studies, he made various contributions to other
branches of mathematical science, among them being an elaborate
treatise on algebra (Kazan, 1834). Besides being a geometer of
power and originality, Lobachevskiy was an excellent man of
business. Under his administration the University of Kazan
prospered as it had never done before; and he not only organized
the teaching staff to a high degree of efficiency, but arranged
and enriched its library, furnished instruments for its observatory,
collected specimens for its museums and provided it with proper
buildings. In order to be able to supervise the erection of the
last, he studied architecture, with such effect, it is said, that
he was able to carry out the plans at a cost considerably below
the original estimates.
See F. Engel, N. I. Lobatchewsky (Leipzig, 1899).
LOBANOV-ROETOVSKI, ALEXIS BORISOVICH, PRINCE
(1824-1896), Russian statesman, was born on the 3oth of
December 1824, and educated, like Prince Gorchakov and so
many other eminent Russians, at the lyceum of Tsarskoe Selo.
At the age of twenty he entered the diplomatic service, and
became minister at Constantinople in 1859. In 1863 a regrettable
incident in his private life made him retire temporarily from
the public service, but four years later he re-entered it and
served for ten years as adlatus to the minister of the interior.
At the close of the Russo-Turkish war in 1878 he was selected
by the emperor to fill the post of ambassador at Constantinople,
and for more than a year he carried out with great ability the
policy of his government, which aimed at re-establishing tran-
quillity in the Eastern Question, after the disturbances produced
by the reckless action of his predecessor, Count Ignatiev. In
1879 he was transferred to London, and in 1882 to Vienna;
and in March 1895 he was appointed minister of foreign affairs
in succession to M. de Giers. In this position he displayed
much of the caution of his predecessor, but adopted a more
energetic policy in European affairs generally and especially
in the Balkan Peninsula. At the time of his appointment
the attitude of the Russian government towards the Slav
nationalities had been for several years one of extreme reserve,
and he had seemed as ambassador to sympathize with this
attitude. But as soon as he became minister of foreign affairs,
Russian influence in the Balkan Peninsula suddenly revived.
Servia received financial assistance; a large consignment of
arms was sent openly from St Petersburg to the prince of Monte-
negro; Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria became ostensibly re-
conciled with the Russian emperor, and his son Boris was
received into the Eastern Orthodox Church ; the Russian embassy
at Constantinople tried to bring about a reconciliation between
the Bulgarian exarch and the oecumenical patriarch; Bulgarians
and Servians professed, at the bidding of Russia, to lay aside
their mutual hostility. All this seemed to foreshadow the
creation of a Balkan confederation hostile to Turkey, and the
sultan had reason to feel alarmed. In reality Prince Lobanov
was merely trying to establish a strong Russian hegemony among
these nationalities, and he had not the slightest intention of
provoking a new crisis in the Eastern Question so long as the
general European situation did not afford Russia a convenient
opportunity for solving it in her own interest without serious
intervention from other powers. Meanwhile he considered
that the integrity and independence of the Ottoman empire
must be maintained so far as these other powers were concerned.
Accordingly, when Lord Salisbury proposed energetic action
to protect the Armenians, the cabinet of St Petersburg suddenly
assumed the r&le of protector of the sultan and vetoed the
proposal. At the same time efforts were made to weaken the
Triple Alliance, the principal instrument employed being the
836
LOBAU— LOBECK
entente with France, which Prince Lobanov helped to convert
into a formal alliance between the two powers. In the Far
East he was not less active, and became the protector of China
in the same sense as he had shown himself the protector
of Turkey. Japan was compelled to give up her conquests
on the Chinese mainland, so as not to interfere with the future
action of Russia in Manchuria, and the financial and other
schemes for increasing Russian influence in that part of the
world were vigorously supported. All this activity, though
combined with a haughty tone towards foreign governments
and diplomatists, did not produce much general apprehension,
probably because there was a widespread conviction that he
desired to maintain peace, and that his great ability and strength
of character would enable him to control the dangerous forces
which he boldly set in motion. However this may be, before
he had time to mature his schemes, and when he had been the
director of Russian policy for only eighteen months, he died
suddenly of heart disease when travelling with the emperor
on the 3<Dth of August 1896. Personally Prince Lobanov was a
grand seigneur of the Russian type, proud of being descended
from the independent princes of Rostov, and at the same time an
amiable man of wide culture, deeply versed in Russian history
and genealogy, and perhaps the first authority of his time in
all that related to the reign of the emperor Paul. (D. M. W.)
LOBAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on
the Lobau water, 12 m. S.E. of the town of Bautzen, on the
Dresden- Gorlitz railway. Pop. (1905) 10,683. There is a spa,
Konig Albert-Bad, largely frequented during the summer season.
The town has agricultural implement, pianoforte, sugar, machine-
building and button works, and trade in grain, yarn, linen and
stockings. Other industries are spinning, weaving, dyeing,
bleaching and brewing.
Lobau is first mentioned as a town in 1221; it received civic
rights early in the i4th century and, in 1346, became one of
the six allied towns of Lusatia. It suffered severely during the
Hussite war and was deprived of its rights in 1547.
See Bergmann, Gesckichte der Oberlausitzer Sechsstadt Lobau
(Bischofswerda, 1896); and Kretschmer, Die Stadt Lobau (Chem-
nitz, 1904).
LOBBY, a corridor or passage, also any apartment serving
as an ante-room, waiting room or entrance hall in a building.
The Med. Lat. lobia, laubia or lobium, from which the word was
directly adapted, was used in the sense of a cloister, gallery or
covered place for walking attached to a house, as defined by Du
Cange (Gloss. Med. et Inf. Lat., s.v. Lobia), purlieus operta ad
spatiandum idonea, aedibus adjuncta. The French form of lobia
was loge, cf. Ital. loggia, and this gave the Eng. " lodge," which is
thus a doublet of " lobby." The ultimate derivation is given
under LODGE. Other familiar uses of the term "lobby" are
its application (i) to the entrance hall of a parliament house, and
(2) to the two corridors known as " division-lobbies," into which
the members of the House of Commons and other legislative
bodies pass on a division, their votes being recorded according
to which "lobby," "aye" or "no," they enter. The entrance
lobby to a legislative building is open to the public, and thus is
a convenient place for interviews between members and their
constituents or with representatives of public bodies, associations
and interests, and the press. The influence and pressure thus
brought to bear upon members of legislative bodies has given rise
to the use of "to lobby," "lobbying," "lobbyist," &c., with this
special significance. The practice, though not unknown in the
British parliament, is most prevalent in the United States of
America, where the use of the term first arose (see below).
LOBBYING, in America, a general term used to designate the
efforts of persons who are not members of a legislative body to
influence the course of legislation. In addition to the large
number of American private bills which are constantly being
introduced in Congress and the various state legislatures, there
are many general measures, such as proposed changes in the tariff
or in the railway or banking laws, which seriously affect special
interests. The people who are most intimately concerned natur-
ally have a right to appear before the legislature or its repre-
sentative, the committee in charge of the bill, and present their
side of the case. Lobbying in this sense is legitimate, and may
almost be regarded as a necessity. Unfortunately, however,
all lobbying is not of this innocent character. The great in-
dustrial corporations, insurance companies, and railway and
traction monopolies which have developed in comparatively
recent years are constantly in need of legislative favours; they
are also compelled to protect themselves against legislation which
is unreasonably severe, and against what are known in the slang
of politics as strikes or hold-ups.1 In order that these objects
may be accomplished there are kept at Washington and at the
various state capitals paid agents whose influence is so well
recognized that they are popularly called " the third house."
Methods of the most reprehensible kind have often been employed
by them.
Attempts have been made to remedy the evil by constitutional
prohibition, by statute law and by the action of the governor
of the state supported by public opinion. Improper lobbying has
been declared a felony in California, Georgia, Utah, Tennessee,
Oregon, Montana and Arizona, and the constitutions of practi-
cally all of the states impose restrictions upon the enactment of
special and private legislation. The Massachusetts anti-lobbying
act of 1890, which has served as a model for the legislation of
Maryland (1900), Wisconsin (1905) and a few of the other states,
is based upon the publicity principle. Counsel and other legisla-
tive agents must register with the sergeant-at-arms giving the
names and addresses of their employers and the date, term and
character of their employment. In 1907 alone laws regulating
lobbying were passed in nine states — Alabama, Connecticut,
Florida, Idaho, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota
and Texas.
See James Bryce, American Commonwealth (New York, ed. 1889),
i. 673-678; Paul S. Reinsch, American Legislatures and Legislative
Methods (New York, 1907), chaps, viii., ix. ; Margaret A. Schaffner,
" Lobbying," in Wisconsin Comparative Legislation Bulletins, No. 2;
and G. M. Gregory, The Corrupt Use of Money in Politics and Laws
for its Prevention (Madison, Wis., 1893).
LOBE, any round projecting part, specifically the lower part
of the external ear, one of the parts into which the liver is divided,
also one of several parts of the brain, divided by marked fissures
(see LIVER and BRAIN). The Greek Xo/36s,from which "lobe " is
derived, was applied to the lobe of the ear and of the liver, and to
the pod of a leguminous plant.
LOBECK, CHRISTIAN AUGUST (1781-1860), German classical
scholar, was born at Naumburg on the sth of June 1781. After
having studied at Jena and Leipzig, he settled at Wittenberg in
1802 as privat-docent, and in 1810 was appointed to a professor-
ship in the university. Four years later, he accepted the chair
of rhetoric and ancient literature at Konigsberg, which he
occupied till within two years of his death (25th of August
1860). His literary activities were devoted to the history of
Greek religion and to the Greek language and literature. His
greatest work, Aglaophamus (1829), is still valuable to students.
In this he maintains, against the views put forward by G. F.
Creuzer in his Symbolik (1810-1823), that the religion of the
Greek mysteries (especially those of Eleusis) did not essentially
differ from the national religion; that it was not esoteric;
that the priests as such neither taught nor possessed any higher
knowledge of God; that the Oriental elements were a later
importation. His edition of the Ajax of Sophocles (1809) had
gained him the reputation of a sound scholar and critic; his
Phrynichus (1820) and Paralipomena grammalicae graecae
(1837) exhibit the widest acquaintance with Greek literature.
He had little sympathy with comparative philology, holding that
it needed a lifetime to acquire a thorough knowledge of a single
language.
See the article by L. Friedlander in Allgemeine deutsche Biographic;
C. Bursian's Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland
(1883); Lehrs, Populare Aufsdtze aus dem Altertum (2nd ed.,
Leipzig, 1875); Ludwich, Ausgewahlte Briefe von and an Chr. Aug.
Lobeck und K. Lehrs (1894); also J. E. Sandys, History of
Classical Scholarship, i. (1908), 103.
1 Bills introduced for purposes of blackmail.
LOBEIRA— LOBO, F. R.
837
LOBEIRA, JOAO (c. 1233-1285), a Portuguese troubadour
of the time of King Alphonso III., who is supposed to have been
the first to reduce into prose the story of Amadis de Gaula (q.v.).
D. Carolina Michaelis de VasconceUos, in her masterly edition of
the Cancioneiro de Ajuda (Halle, 1904, vol. i. pp. 523-524), gives
some biographical notes on Joao Lobeira, who is represented in
the Colocci Brancuti Canzoniere (Halle, 1880) by five poems
(Nos. 230-235). In number 230, Joao Lobeira uses the same
ritournelk that Oriana sings in Amadis de Gaula, and this has
led to his being generally considered by modern supporters of
the Portuguese case to have been the author of the romance,
in preference to Vasco de Lobeira, to whom the prose original
was formerly ascribed. The folklorist A. Thomas Pires (in his
Vasco de Lobeira, Elvas, 1905), following the old tradition,
would identify the novelist with a man of that name who
flourished in Elvas at the close of the i4th and beginning of the
1 5th century, but the documents he publishes contain no reference
to this Lobeira being a man of letters.
LOBELIA, the typical genus of the tribe Lobelieae, of the order
Campanulaceae, named after Matthias de Lobe], a native of Lille,
botanist and physician to James I. It numbers about two
hundred species, natives of nearly all the temperate and warmer
regions of the world, excepting central and eastern Europe as
well as western Asia. They are annual or perennial herbs or
under-shrubs, rarely shrubby; remarkable arborescent forms
are the tree-lobelias found at high elevations on the mountains of
tropical Africa. Two species are British, L. Dorlmanna (named
by Linnaeus after Dortmann, a Dutch druggist), which occurs
in gravelly mountain lakes ; and L. wens, which is only found
on heaths, &c., in Dorset and Cornwall. The genus is distin-
guished from Campanula by the irregular corona and completely
united anthers, and by the excessive acridity of the milky juice.
The species earliest described and figured appears to be L.
cardinalis, under the name Trachelium americanum sive cardinalis
planta, " the rich crimson cardinal's flower "; Parkinson
(Paradisus, 1629, p. 357) says, " it groweth neere the riuer of
Canada, where the French plantation in America is seated."
It is a native of the eastern United States. This and several
other species are in cultivation as ornamental garden plants,
e.g. the dwarf blue L. Erinus, from the Cape, which, with its
numerous varieties, forms a familiar bedding plant. L. splendens
and L. fulgens, growing from i to 2 ft. high, from Mexico, have
scarlet flowers; L. Tupa, a Chilean perennial 6 to 8 ft. high, has
reddish or scarlet flowers; L. tenuior with blue flowers is a recent
acquisition to the greenhouse section, while L. amaena, from
North America, as well as L. syphililica and its hybrids, from
Virginia, have also blue flowers. The last-named was introduced
in 1665. The hybrids raised by crossing cardinalis, fulgens,
splendens and syphilitica, constitute a fine group of fairly hardy
and showy garden plants. Queen Victoria is a well-known
variety, but there are now many others.
The Lobelia is familiar in gardens under two very different forms,
that of the dwarf-tufted plants used for summer .bedding, and
that of the tall showy perennials. Of the former the best type is L.
Erinus, growing from 4 to 6 in. high, with many slender stems,
bearing through a long period a profusion of small but bright blue
two-lipped flowers. The variety speciosa offers the best strain of the
dwarf lobelias; but the varieties are being constantly superseded by
new sorts. A good variety will reproduce itself sufficiently true from
seed for ordinary flower borders, but to secure exact uniformity it is
necessary to propagate from cuttings.
The herbaceous lobelias, of which L. fulgens may be taken as the
type, may be called hardy except in so far as they suffer from damp
in winter; they throw up a series of short rosette-like suckers round
the base of the old flowering stem, and these sometimes, despite all
the care taken of them, rot off during winter. The roots should
either be taken up in autumn, and planted closely side by side in
boxes of dry earth or ashes, these being set for the time they are
dormant either in a cold frame or in any airy place in the green-
house; or they may be left in the ground, in which case a brick or
two should be put beside the plants, some coal ashes being first placed
round them, and slates to protect the plants being laid over the bricks,
one end resting on the earth beyond. About February they should
be placed in a warm pit, and after a few days shaken out and the
suckers parted, and potted singly into small pots of light rich earth.
After being kept in the forcing pit until well established, they
should be moved to a more airy greenhouse pLt, and eventually to a
cold frame preparatory to planting out. In the more favoured parts
of the United Kingdom it is unnecessary to go to this trouble, as the
plants are perfectly hardy ; even in the suburbs of London they live
'for several years without protection except in very severe winters.
They should have a loamy soil, well enriched with manure; and
require copious waterings when they start into free growth. They
may be raised from seeds, which, being very fine, require to be sown
carefully ; but they do not flower usually till the second year unless
they are sown very early in heat.
The species Lobelia inflata, the " Indian tobacco " of North
America, is used in medicine, the entire herb, dried and in flower,
being employed. The species derives its specific name from its
characteristic inflated capsules. It is somewhat irritant to the
nostrils, and is possessed of a burning, acrid taste. The chief con-
stituent is a volatile liquid alkaloid (cf. nicotine) named lobeline,
which occurs to the extent of about 30%. This is a very pungent
body, with a tobacco-like odour. It occurs in combination with
lobelic acid and forms solid crystalline salts. The single prepara-
tion of this plant in the British Pharmacopeia is the Tinctura
Lobeliae Rthereae, composed of five parts of spirits of ether to one of
lobelia. The dose is 5 to 15 minims. The ether is employed in order
to add to the efficacy of the drug in asthma, but a simple alcoholic
tincture would be really preferable.
Lobelia has certain pharmacological resemblances to tobacco. It
has no action upon the unbroken skin, but may be absorbed by it
under suitable conditions. Taken internally in small doses, e.g.
5 minims of the tincture, it stimulates the peristaltic movements
of the coecum and colon. In large doses it is a powerful gastro-
intestinal irritant, closely resembling tobacco, and causing giddiness,
headache, nausea, vomiting, purging and extreme prostration, with
clammy sweats and faltering rapid pulse. Its action on the circula-
tion is very decided. The cardiac terminals of the vagus nerves are
paralysed, the pulse being thus accelerated by loss of the normal
inhibitory influence, and the blood-vessels being relaxed owing to
paresis of the vasomotor centre. The blood-pressure thus falls very
markedly. The respiratory centre is similarly depressed, death en-
suing from this action. Lobelia is thus a typical respiratory poison.
In less than toxic doses the motor terminals of the vagi in the bronchi
and bronchioles are paralysed, thus causing relaxation of the
bronchial muscles. It is doubtful whether lobelia affects the cere-
brum directly. It is excreted by the kidneys and the skin, both of
which it stimulates in its passage. In general terms the drug may
be said to stimulate non-striped muscular fibres in small, and paralyse
them in toxic doses.
Five minims of the tincture may be usefully prescribed to be
taken night and morning in chronic constipation due to inertia of the
lower part of the alimentary canal. In spasmodic (neurotic) asthma,
and also in bronchitis accompanied by asthmatic spasm of the
bronchioles, the tincture may be given in comparatively large
doses (e.g. one drachm) every fifteen minutes until nausea is pro-
duced. Thereafter, whether successful or not in relieving the spasm,
the administration of the drug must be stopped.
LOBENSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Reuss, on the Lemnitz, situated in a pleasant and fertile country,
25 m. N.W. from Hof by railway. Pop. (1905) 2990. The town,
grouped round a rock, upon which stand the ruins of the old
castle, is exceedingly picturesque. It contains a spacious parish
church, a palace, until 1824 the residence of the princes of
Reuss-Lobenstein-Elersdorf, and a hydropathic establishment.
The manufactures include dyeing, brewing and cigar-making.
See Zedler and Schott, Fuhrer durch Lobenstein und Vmgebung
(2nd ed., Lobenstein, 1903).
LOBO, FRANCISCO RODRIGUES (?i575-?i627), Portuguese
bucolic writer, a lineal descendant in the family of letters of
Bernardim Ribeiro and Christovam Falcao. All we know of
his life is that he was born of rich and noble parents at Leiria,
and lived at ease in its picturesque neighbourhood, reading
philosophy and poetry and writing of shepherds and shepherdesses
by the rivers Liz and Lena. He studied at the university of
Coimbra and took the degree of licentiate about 1600. He visited
Lisbon from time to time, and tradition has it that he died by
drowning on his way thither as he was descending the Tagus
from Santarem. Though his first book, a little volume of verses
(Romances) published in 1596, and his last, a rhymed welcome
to King Philip III., published in 1623, are written in Spanish,
he composed his eclogues and prose pastorals entirely in Portu-
guese, and thereby did a rare service to his country at a time
when, owing to the Spanish domination, Castilian was the
language preferred by polite society and by men of letters.
His Primavera, a book that may be compared to the Diana of
Jorge de Montem&r (Montemayor), appeared in 1601, its second
part, the Pastor Peregrine, in 1608, and its third, the Desenganado,
838
LOBO, J.— LOCAL GOVERNMENT
in 1614. The dullness of these lengthy collections of episodes
without plan, thread or ideas, is relieved by charming and
ingenious pastoral songs named serranilhas. His eclogues in*
endecasyllables are an echo of those of Camoens, but like his other
verses they are inferior to his redondilhas, which show the tradi-
tional fount of his inspiration. In his Corle na Aldeia (1619),
a man of letters, a young nobleman, a student and an old man
of easy means, beguile the winter evenings at Cintra by a series of
philosophic and literary discussions in dialogue which may still
be read with pleasure. Lobo is also the author of an insipid epic
in twenty cantos in otlava rima on the Constable D. Nuno
Alvares Pereira, the hero of the war of independence against
Spain at the end of the I4th century. The characteristics of
his prose style are harmony, purity and elegance, and he ranks
as one of Portugal's leading writers. A disciple of the Italian
school, his verses are yet free from imitations of classical models,
his descriptions of natural scenery are unsurpassed in the Portu-
guese language, and generally his writings strike a true note and
show a sincerity that was rare at the time. Their popularity
may be seen by the fact that the Primavera went through seven
editions in the lyth century and nine in all, a large number for
so limited a market as that of Portugal, while six editions exist
of the Pastor Peregrino and four of the epic poem. An edition of
his collected works was published in one volume in Lisbon in
1723, and another in four volumes, but less complete, appeared
there in 1774.
See Costa e Silva, Ensaio biographico critico, v. 5-112, for a
critical examination of Lobo's writings; also Bouterwek's History
of Portuguese Literature. (E. PR.)
LOBO, JERONIMO (1593-1678), Jesuit missionary, was born
in Lisbon, and entered the Order of Jesus at the age of sixteen.
In 1621 he was ordered as a missionary to India, and in 1622
he arrived at Goa. With the intention of proceeding to Abyssinia,
whose Negus (emperor) Segued had been converted to Roman
Catholicism by Pedro Paez, he left India in 1624. He disembarked
on the coast of Mombasa, and attempted to reach his destination
through the Galla country, but was forced to return. In 1625
he set out again, accompanied by Mendez, the patriarch of
Ethiopia, and eight missionaries. The party landed on the
coast of the Red Sea, and Lobo settled in Abyssinia as super-
intendent of the missions in Tigre. He remained there until
death deprived the Catholics of their protector, the emperor
Segued. Forced by persecution to leave the kingdom, in 1634
Lobo and his companions fell into the hands of the Turks at
Massawa, who sent him to India to procure a ransom for his
imprisoned fellow-missionaries. In this he was successful,
but could not induce the Portuguese viceroy to send an armament
against Abyssinia. Intent upon accomplishing this cherished
project, he embarked for Portugal, and after he had been ship-
wrecked on the coast of Natal, and captured by pirates, arrived
at Lisbon. Neither at this city, however, nor at Madrid and
Rome, was any countenance given to Lobo's plan. He accordingly
returned to India in 1640, and was elected rector, and afterwards
provincial, of the Jesuits at Goa. After some years he returned
to his native city, and died there on the 2gth of January 1678.
Lobo wrote an account of his travels in Portuguese, which appears
never to have been printed, but is deposited in the monastery of St
Roque, Lisbon. Balthazar Telles made large use of the information
therein in his Historia geral da Ethiopia a Alta (Cqimbra, 1660), often
erroneously attributed to Lobo (see Machado's Bibliotheca Lusitana).
" Lobo's own narrative was translated from a MS. copy into French in
1 728 by the Abbe Joachim le Grand, under the title of Voyage historique
d'Abissinie. In 1669 a translation by Sir Peter Wyche of several
passages from a MS. account of Lobo's travels was published by the .
Royal Society (translated in M. Thevenot's Relation des voyages in
1673). An English abridgment of Le Grand's edition by Dr Johnson
was published in 1735 (reprinted 1789). In a Memoire justificatif en
rehabilitation des peres Pierre Paez el Jerome Lobo, Dr C. T. Beke
maintains against Bruce the accuracy of Lobo's statements as to the
source of the Abai branch of the Nile. See A. de Backer, Biblio-
theque de la Compagnie de Jesus (ed. C. Sommervogel, iv., 1893).
LOBSTER (O.E. lopustre, lopystre, a corruption of Lat. locusta,
lobster or other marine shell-fish; also a locust), an edible
crustacean found on the coasts of the North Atlantic and Medi-
terranean. The name is sometimes loosely applied to any
of the larger Crustacea of the order Macrura, especially to such
as are used for food.
The true lobsters, forming the family Homaridae, are dis-
tinguished from the other Macrura by having the first three
pairs of legs terminating in chelae or pincers. The first pair are
large and massive and are composed of six segments, while
the remaining legs are each composed of seven segments.
The sternum of the last thoracic somite is immovably united
with the preceding. This last character, together with some
peculiarities of the branchial system, distinguish the lobsters
from the freshwater crayfishes. The common lobster (Homarus
gammarus or vulgaris) is found on the European coasts from
Norway to the Mediterranean. The American lobster (Homarus
americanus), which should perhaps be ranked as a variety
rather than as a distinct species, is found on the Atlantic coast
of North America from Labrador to Cape Hatteras. A third
species, found at the Cape of Good Hope, is of small size and of
no economic importance.
Both in Europe and in America the lobster is the object of
an important fishery. It lives in shallow water, in rocky places,
and is usually captured in traps known as lobster-pots, or creels,
made of wickerwork or of hoops covered with netting, and having
funnel-shaped openings permitting entrance but preventing
escape. These traps are baited with pieces of fish, preferably
stale, and are sunk on ground frequented by lobsters, the place
of each being marked by a buoy. In Europe the lobsters are
generally sent to market in the fresh state, but in America,
especially in the northern New England states and in the
maritime provinces of Canada, the canning of lobsters is an
important industry. The European lobster rarely reaches 10
pounds in weight, though individuals of 14 pounds have been
found, and in America there are authentic records of lobsters
weighing 20 to 23 pounds.
The effects of over-fishing have become apparent, especially
in America, rather in the reduced average size of the lobsters
caught than in any diminution of the total yield. The imposition
of a close time to protect the spawning lobsters has been often
tried, but as the female carries the spawn attached to her body
for nearly twelve months after spawning it is impossible to give
any effective protection by this means. The prohibition of the
capture of females carrying spawn, or, as it is termed," in berry,"
is difficult to enforce. A minimum size, below which it is illegal
to sell lobsters, is fixed by law in most lobster-fishing districts,
but the value of the protection so given has also been questioned.
The Norway lobster (Nephrops norvegicus) is found, like the
common lobster, from Norway to the Mediterranean. It is a
smaller species, with long and slender claws and is of an orange
colour, often beautifully marked with red and blue. It is found
in deeper water and is generally captured by trawling. It is
a curious and unexplained fact that nearly all the individuals
so captured are males. It is less esteemed for food than the
common species. In London it is sold under the name of " Dublin
prawn."
The rock lobster, spiny lobster, or sea-crawfish (Palinurus
vulgaris) belongs to the family Palinuridae, distinguished from
the Homaridae by the fact that the first legs are not provided
with chelae or pincers, and that all the legs possess only six
segments. The antennae are very long and thick. It is found
on the southern and western coasts of the British Islands and
extends to the Mediterranean. It is highly esteemed for the
table, especially in France, where it goes by the name of Langouste.
Other species of the same family are used for food in various
parts of the world, especially on the Pacific coast of North
America and in Australia and New Zealand.
In Melbourne and Sydney the name of " Murray lobster " is
given to a large species of crayfish (Astacopsis spinifer, formerly
known as Astacus, or Potamobius serratus) which is much used
for food. (W. T. CA.)
LOCAL GOVERNMENT, a phrase specially adopted in English
usage for the decentralized or deconcentrated administration,
within a state or national and central government, of local
affairs by local authorities. It is restricted not only in respect
LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOARD— LOCH, BARON
839
of area but also in respect of the character and extent of the
duties assigned to them. It is not to be confused with local
self-government in the wider sense in which the words are
sometimes employed, e.g. for the granting by the crown of self-
government to a colony; the expression, in a general way, may
mean this, but " local government " as technically used in
England refers more narrowly to the system of county or
municipal administration, and English usage transfers it to
denote the similar institutions in other countries. The growth
and persistence of this kind of subordinate government is due
practically to the need of relieving the central authority in the
state, and to experience of the failure of a completely centralized
bureaucracy. The degree to which local government is adopted
varies considerably in different countries, and those which are
the best examples of it in modern times — the United Kingdom,
the United States, France and Germany — differ very much in
their local institutions, partly through historical, partly through
temperamental, causes. A certain shifting of ideas from time
to time, as to what is local and what is central, is inevitable,
and the same view is not possible in countries of different con-
figuration, history or political system. The history and present
state of the local government in the various countries are dealt
with in the separate articles on them (ENGLAND, GERMANY, &c.),
in the sections dealing with government and administration,
or political institutions.
The best recent comparative study of local government is Percy
Ashley's Local and Central Government (Murray, 1906), an admirable
account of the evolution and working of the systems in England,
France, Prussia and United States. Other important works, in
addition to general works on constitutional law, are J. A. Fairlie's
Municipal Administration, Shaw's Municipal Government in Conti-
nental Europe, Redlich and Hirst's Local Government in England,
Mr and Mrs Sidney Webb's elaborate historical inquiry into English
local government (1906), and for Germany, Bornhak's Geschichte des
preussischen Verwaltungsrechts.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOARD, a department of the adminis-
tration of the United Kingdom, constituted in 1871. It is the
successor of the General Board of Health, established in 1848
pursuant to the Public Health Act of that year. The General
Board of Health continued in existence until 1854, when it was
reconstituted. Its existence under its new constitution was
originally limited to one year, but was extended from year to
year until 1858, when it was allowed to expire, its powers under
the various acts for the prevention of diseases being transferred
to the privy council, while those which related to the control of
local authorities passed to the secretary of state for the home
department, to whose department the staff of officers and clerks
belonging to the board was transferred. This state of affairs
continued until 1871, when the Local Government Board was
created by the Local Government Board Act 1871. It consists
of the lord president of the council, the five principal secretaries
of state, the lord privy seal, the chancellor of the exchequer
and a president appointed by the sovereign. The board itself
seldom meets, and the duties of the department are discharged
by the president assisted by a parliamentary and a permanent
secretary and a permanent staff. The president and one of the
secretaries usually have seats in parliament, and the president is
generally a member of the cabinet. The salary of the president,
formerly £2000, was raised in 1910 to £5000 a year. The board
has all the powers of the secretary of state under the Public
Health Act 1848, and the numerous subsequent acts relating to
sanitary matters and the government of sanitary districts;
together with all the powers and duties of the privy council
under the acts relating to the prevention of epidemic disease
and to vaccination. The powers and duties of the board have
been largely added to by legislation since its creation; it may be
said that the board exercises a general supervision over the
numerous authorities to whom local government has been
entrusted (see ENGLAND: Local Government). A committee
presided over by Lord Jersey in 1904 inquired into the constitution
and duties of the board, but made no recommendation as to any
change therein. It recommended, however, an increase in the
salaries of the president and of the parliamentary and permanent
secretaries.
LOCARNO (Ger. Luggarus), a small town of Italian appearance
in the Swiss canton of Tessin or Ticino, of which till 1881 it was
one of the three capitals (the others being Bellinzona, q.ii., and
Lugano, q.v.). It is built at the north or Swiss end of the Lago
Maggiore, not far from the point at which the Maggia enters that
lake, and is by rail 14 m. S.W. of Bellinzona. Its height above
the sea-level is only 682 ft., so that it is said to be the lowest
spot in Switzerland. In 1900 its population was 3603, mainly
Italian-speaking and Romanists. It was taken from the Milanese
in 1512 by the Swiss who ruled it till 1798, when it became part
of the canton of Lugano in the Helvetic Republic, and in 1803
part of that of Tessin or Ticino, then first erected. In 1555 a
number of Protestant inhabitants were expelled for religious
reasons, and going to Zurich founded the silk industry there.
Above Locarno is the romantically situated sanctuary of the
Madonna del Sasso (now rendered easily accessible by a funicular
railway) that commands a glorious view over the lake and the
surrounding country. (W. A. B. C.)
LOCH, HENRY BROUGHAM LOCH, IST BARON (1827-1900),
British colonial administrator, son of James Loch, M.P., of
Dry law, Midlothian, was born on the 23rd of May 1827. He
entered the navy, but at the end of two years quitted it for the
East India Company's military service, and in 1842 obtained a
commission in the Bengal Light Cavalry. In the Sikh war in
1845 he was given an appointment on the staff of Sir Hugh
Gough, and served throughout the Sutlej campaign. In 1852
he became second in command of Skinner's Horse. At the
outbreak of the Crimean war in 1854, Loch severed his connexion
with India, and obtained leave to raise a body of irregular
Bulgarian cavalry, which he commanded throughout the war.
In 1857 he was appointed attache to Lord Elgin's mission to the
East, was present at the taking of Canton, and in 1858 brought
home the treaty of Yedo. In April 1860 he again accompanied
Lord Elgin to China, as secretary of the new embassy sent to
secure the execution by China of her treaty engagements. The
embassy was backed up by an allied Anglo-French force. With
Harry S. Parkes he negotiated the surrender of the Taku forts.
During the advance on Peking Loch was chosen with Parkes to
complete the preliminary negotiations for peace at Tungchow.
They were accompanied by a small party of officers and Sikhs.
It having been discovered that the Chinese were planning a
treacherous attack on the British force, Loch rode back and
warned the outposts. He then returned to Parkes and his
party under a flag of truce hoping to secure their safety. They
were all, however, made prisoners and taken to Peking, where
the majority died from torture or disease. Parkes and Loch,
after enduring irons and all the horrors of a Chinese prison, were
afterwards more leniently treated. After three weeks' time the
negotiations for their release were successful, but they had only
been liberated ten minutes when orders were received from the
Chinese emperor, then a fugitive in Mongolia, for their immediate
execution. Loch never entirely recovered his health after this
experience in a Chinese dungeon. Returning home he was made
C.B., and for a while was private secretary to Sir George Grey,
then at the Home Office. In 1863 he was appointed lieutenant-
governor of the Isle of Man. During his governorship the House
of Keys was transformed into an elective assembly, 'the first line
of railway was opened, and the influx of tourists began to bring
fresh prosperity to the island. In 1882 Loch, who had become
K.C.B. in 1880, accepted a commissionership of woods and
forests, and two years later was made governor of Victoria, where
he won the esteem of all classes. In June 1889 he succeeded Sir
Hercules Robinson as governor of Cape Colony and high com-
missioner of South Africa.
As high commissioner his duties called for the exercise of great
judgment and firmness. The Boers were at the same time
striving to frustrate Cecil Rhodes's schemes of northern expan-
sion and planning to occupy Mashonaland, to secure control of
Swaziland and Zululand and to acquire the adjacent lands up
to the ocean. Loch firmly supported Rhodes, and, by informing
President Kruger that troops would be sent to prevent any
invasion of territory under British protection, he effectually
840
LOCHABER— LOCHMABEN
crushed the " Banyailand trek " across the Limpopo (1890-91).
Loch, however, with the approval of the imperial government,
concluded in July- August 1890 a convention with President
Kruger respecting Swaziland, by which, while the Boers withdrew
all claims to territory north of the Transvaal, they were granted
an outlet to the sea at Kosi Bay on condition that the republic
entered the South African Customs Union. This convention was
concluded after negotiations conducted with President Kruger
by J. H. Hofmeyr on behalf of the high commissioner, and was
made at a time when the British and Bond parties in Cape
Colony were working in harmony. The Transvaal did not,
however, fulfil the necessary condition, and in view of the
increasingly hostile attitude of the Pretoria administration to
Great Britain Loch became a strong advocate of the annexation
by Britain of the territory east of Swaziland, through which the
Boer railway to the sea would have passed. He at length induced
the British government to adopt his view and on the isth of
March 1895 it was announced that these territories (Amatonga-
land, &c.), would be annexed by Britain, an announcement
received by Mr Kruger " with the greatest astonishment and
regret." Meantime Loch had been forced to intervene in another
matter. When the commandeering difficulty of 1894 had roused
the Uitlanders in the Transvaal to a dangerous pitch of excite-
ment, he travelled to Pretoria to use his personal influence with
President Kruger, and obtained the withdrawal of the obnoxious
commandeering regulations. In the following year he entered a
strong protest against the new Transvaal franchise law. Mean-
while, however, the general situation in South Africa was assuming
year by year a more threatening aspect. Cecil Rhodes, then
prime minister of Cape Colony, was strongly in favour of a more
energetic policy than was supported by the Imperial government,
and at the end of March 1895 the high commissioner, finding
himself, it is believed, out of touch with his ministers, returned
home a few months before the expiry of his term of office. In
the same year he was raised to the peerage. When the Anglo-
Boer war broke out in 1899 Loch took a leading part in
raising and equipping a body of mounted men, named after
him " Loch's Horse." He died in London on the 2oth of
June 1900, and was succeeded as and baron by his son Edward
(b. 1873).
LOCHABER, a district of southern Inverness-shire, Scotland,
bounded W. by Loch Linnhe, the river and loch Lochy, N. by
the Corryarrick range and adjoining hills, N.E. and E. by the
district of Badenoch, S.E. by the district of Rannoch and S. by
the river and loch Leven. It measures 32 m. from N.E. to S.W.
and 25 m. from E. to W., and is remarkable for wild and romantic
scenery, Ben Nevis being the chief mountain. The district has
given its name to a celebrated type of axe, consisting of a long
shaft with a blade like a scythe and a large hook behind it, which,
according to Sir Walter Scott, was introduced into the Highlands
and Ireland from Scandinavia. It was the weapon of the old City
Guard of Edinburgh. The pathetic song of " Lochaber no more "
was written by Allan Ramsay.
LOCHES, a town in France, capital of an arrondissement in
the department of Indre-et-Loire, 29 m. S.E. of Tours by rail,
on the left bank of the Indre. Pop. (1906) 3751. The town, one
of the most picturesque in central France, lies at the foot of the
rocky eminence on which stands the castle of the Anjou family,
surrounded by an outer wall i| m. in circumference, and con-
sisting of the old collegiate church of St Ours, the royal lodge
and the donjon. The church of St Ours dates from the roth to
the 1 2th centuries; among its distinguishing features are the
huge stone pyramids surmounting the nave and the beautiful
carving of the west door. The royal lodge, built by Charles VII.
and used as the subprefecture, contains the tomb of Agnes Sorel
and the oratory of Anne of Brittany. The donjon includes,
besides the ruined keep (i2th century), the Martelet, celebrated
as the prison of Lodovico Sforza, duke of Milan, who died there
in 1508, and the Tour Ronde, built by Louis XI. and containing
the famous iron cages in which state prisoners, including —
according to a story now discredited — their inventor Cardinal
Balue, were confined. Loches has an h6tel-de-ville and several
houses of the Renaissance period. It has a tribunal of first
instance, a communal college and a training college. Liqueur-
distilling and tanning are carried on together with trade in farm-
produce, wine, wood and live-stock.
On the right bank of the Loire, opposite the town and practi-
cally its suburb, is the village of Beaulieu-les-Loches, once the
seat of a barony. Besides the parish chvrch of St Laurent, a
beautiful specimen of 12th-century architecture, it contains the
remains of the great abbey church of the Holy Sepulchre
founded in the nth century by Fulk Nerra, count of Anjou, who
is buried in the chancel. This chancel, which with one of the
older transepts now constitutes the church, dates from the i sth
century. The Romanesque nave is in ruins, but of the two
towers one survives intact; it is square, crowned with an
octagonal steeple of stone, and is one of the finest extant monu-
ments of Romanesque architecture.
Loches (the Roman Leucae) grew up round a monastery
founded about 500 by St Ours and belonged to the counts of
Anjou from 886 till 1205. In the latter year it was seized from
King John of England by Philip Augustus, and from the middle
of the I3th century till after the time of Charles IX. the castle
was a residence of the kings of France.
LOCHGELLY, a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, 7^ m.
N.E. of Dunfermline by the North British railway. Pop. .(1901)
5472. The town is modern and owes its prosperity to the iron-
works and collieries in its immediate vicinity. Loch Gelly, from
which the town takes its name, situated % m. S. E., measures \ m.
in length by f m. in breadth, contains some trout and pike, and
has on its west banks Lochgelly House, a seat of the earl of Minto.
The Romans are said to have had a station at Loch Ore in the
parish of Ballingry, 2j m. N. by W., which was drained about
the end of the i8th century and then cultivated. To the N.E.
rises the hill of Benarty (1131 ft.). Hallyards, about 2 m.
S.E. of Lochgelly, is a ruined house that once belonged to Sir
William Kirkaldy of Grange, who held Edinburgh Castle for
Queen Mary. Here James V. was received after his defeat at
Solway Moss in 1542, and here a few Jacobites used to meet
in 1715.
LOCHGILPHEAD, a municipal and police burgh of Argyll-
shire, Scotland, at the head of Loch Gilp, a small arm on the
western side of Loch Fyne. Pop. (1901) 1313. The herring-
fishery is the chief industry, but there is some weaving of woollens
and, in summer, a considerable 'influx of visitors. AEDRISHAIG
(pop. 1285), a seaport on the west of the mouth of Loch Gilp, is
the east terminus of the Crinan Canal. It is the place of tranship-
ment from the large Glasgow passenger steamers to the small
craft built for the navigation of the canal. It is an important
harbour in connexion with the Loch Fyne herring-fishery, and
there is also a distillery. During the summer there is a coach
service to Ford at the lower end of Loch Awe.
LOCHMABEN, a royal and police burgh of Dumfriesshire,
Scotland, 8 m. N.E. of Dumfries, with a station on the Caledonian
railway company's branch from Dumfries to Locherbie. Pop.
(1901) 1328. It is delightfully situated, there being eight lakes
in the immediate neighbourhood, while the river Annan, and the
Waters of Ae, Kinnel and Dryfe are in the vicinity. The town
hall is a handsome edifice with clock tower. At the south end of
Castle Loch, the chief lake, stand the ruins, a mere shell, of
Lochmaben Castle, dating from the i3th century, where local
tradition declares that Robert Bruce was born — an honour which
is also claimed, however, for Turnberry Castle on the coast of
Ayrshire. In the parish church is a bell said to have been pre-
sented to King Robert by the pope after reconciliation with him.
A statue of the king stands in front of the town hall. Whether
it were his birthplace or not, the associations of Bruce with
Lochmaben were intimate. He exempted his followers in the
district from feudal service and their descendants — the " kindly
tenants of Lochmaben " — were confirmed in their tenure by the
court of session in 1824. The Castle Loch is the only fresh water
in Scotland, and possibly in the British Isles, where the vendace
(coregonus vandcsius) occurs. This fish, which is believed to be
growing scarcer, is alleged on doubtful authority to have been
LOCK, M.— LOCK
841
introduced by Queen Mary. It is captured by the sweep-net in
August, and is esteemed as a delicacy. The lakes adjoining the
town afford the inhabitants exceptional advantages for the game
of curling. There was once a team of Lochmaben Curlers entirely
composed of shoemakers (souters) who held their own against
all comers, and their prowess added the phrase " to souter "
to the vocabulary of the sport, the word indicating a match in
which the winners scored " game " to their opponents' " love."
Lochmaben unites with Annan, Dumfries, Kirkcudbright and
Sanquhar (the Dumfries burghs) in returning one member to
parliament.
LOCK, MATTHIAS, English iSth-century furniture designer
and cabinet-maker. The dates of his birth and death are unknown ;
but he was a disciple of Chippendale, and subsequently of the
Adams, and was possibly in partnership with Henry Copeland
(q.v.). During the greater part of 'his life he belonged to that
flamboyant school which derived its inspiration from Louis XV.
models; but when he fell under the influence of Robert Adam
he absorbed his manner so completely that it is often difficult
to distinguish between them, just as it is sometimes easy to
confound Lock's work with the weaker efforts of Chippendale.
Thus from being extravagantly rococo he progressed to a simple
ordered classicism. His published designs are not equal to his
original drawings, many of which are preserved in the Victoria
and Albert Museum, South Kensington, while the pieces them-
selves are often bolder and more solid than is suggested by the
author's representations of them. He was a clever craftsman
and holds a distinct place among the minor furniture designers
of the second half of the i8th century.
Among his works, some of which were issued in conjunction
with Copeland, are : A New Drawing Book of Ornaments (n. d.) ; A
New Book of Ornaments (1768); A New Book of Pier Frames,
Ovals, Girandoles, Tables, &c. (1769); and A New Book of Foliage
(1769).
LOCK (from the O. Eng. loc.; the word appears, in different
forms, in many Teutonic languages, but with such various
meanings as " hole," Ger. Loch, " lid," Swed. lock, &c.;
probably the original was a root meaning " to enclose "), a
fastening, particularly one which consists of a bolt held in a
certain position by one or more movable parts which require
to be placed in definite positions by the aid of a key or of a secret
arrangement of letters, figures or signs, before the bolt can be
moved. It is with such fastenings that the present article
chiefly deals.
The word is also used, in the original sense of an enclosure or barrier,
for a length of water in a river or canal, or at the entrance of a dock,
enclosed at both ends by gates, the " lock-gates," and fitted with
sluices, to enable vessels to be raised from a lower to a higher level
or vice versa (see CANAL and DOCK). In guns and rifles the lock is the
mechanism which effects the firing of the charge; it thus appears in
the names of old types of weapons, such as wheel-lock, match-lock,
flint-lock (see ARMS AND ARMOUR, § Firearms; also GUN and
RIFLE). Lock (Ger. Locke) in the sense of a curl or tuft of hair,
the separate groups in which the hair naturally grows, may be, in
ultimate origin, connected with the root of the main word. Lock-
jaw is the popular name of the disease known as tetanus (q.v.).
The name " Lock Hospital " is frequently used in English for a
hospital for patients suffering from venereal diseases. According to
the New English Dictionary there was in Southwark asearly as 1453
a leper-hospital, known as the Lock Lazar House, which later was
used for the treatment of venereal diseases. The name appears to
have become used in the present sense as early as the end of the 1 7th
century. Lock hospitals were established in London in 1745-1747
and in Dublin in 1754-1755.
The forms in which locks are manufactured, such as padlock,
rim-lock, mortise-lock, one-sided or two-sided, &c., are necessarily
extremely numerous; and the variations in the details of con-
struction of any one of these forms are still more numerous,
so that it is impossible to do morei here than describe the main
types which have been or are in common use. Probably the
earliest locks were of Chinese origin. Specimens of these still
extant are quite as secure as any locks manufactured in Europe
up to the 1 8th century, but it is impossible to ascertain the date
of their manufacture. With the exception, in all probability,
of these Chinese examples, the earliest lock of which the con-
struction is known is the Egyptian, which was used four thousand
years ago. In fig. i, aa is the body of the lock, bb the bolt and
cc the key. The three pins p, p, p drop into three holes in the
bolt when it is pushed in, and so hold it fast; and they are
raised again by
putting in the key
through the large
hole in the bolt and
raising it a little, so
that the pins in the
key push the locking
pins up out of the
way of the bolt. It
was evidently to
locks and keys of FIG. i.
this nature that the
prophet alluded: "And the key of the house of David will I
lay upon his shoulder " (Isaiah xxii. 22), the word mufta/i used
in this passage being the common word for key to this day.
In the i8th century the European lock was nothing better
than a mere bolt, held in its place, either shut or open, by a
spring b (fig. 2), which pressed it down, and so held it at either
one end or the other of the convex notch aa; and the only
impediment to opening it was the wards which the key had to
pass before it could turn in the keyhole. But it was always
possible to find the shape of the wards by merely putting in a
blank key covered with wax, and pressing it against them;
FIG. 2.
FIG. 3.
and when this had been done it was unnecessary to cut out the
key into the complicated form of the wards (such as fig. 3),
because no part of that key does any work except the edge be
farthest from the pipe a; and so a key of the form fig. 4 would
do just as well. Thus a small collection of skeleton keys, as
they are called, of a few different patterns, was all the stock in
trade that a lock-picker required.
The common single-tumbler lock (fig. 5) requires two opera-
tions instead of one to open it. The tumbler at turns on a pivot
at I, and has a square pin at a, which drops into a notch in the
bolt bb, when it is either quite open or quite shut,'and the tumbler
FIG. 4.
FIG. 5
must be lifted by the key before the bolt can be moved again.
The tumbler offered little resistance to picking, as the height to
which it might be lifted was not limited and the bolt would operate
provided only that this height was sufficient; the improvement
which formed the foundation of the modern key lock was the
substitution of what is known as the " lever " for the tumbler,
the difference being that the lever must be lifted to exactly the
right height to allow the bolt to pass. This improvement,
together with the obvious one of using more than one
lever, was introduced in 1778 by Robert Barren, and locks.
is illustrated in figs. 6 and 7. Unless the square pin
a (fig. 6) is lifted by the key to the proper height and no higher,
the bolt cannot move. Fig. 8 illustrates the key of such a lock
with four levers, the different distances between the centre of the
key barrel and the edge of the bit being adapted to lift the levers
to the respective heights required. This lock differs from the
842
LOCK
modern lever lock only in the fact that Barren made his gating
in the bolt and carried stumps on his levers, instead of having
the main stump riveted into the bolt and the gatings in the levers
as is the modern practice.
A lock operating on exactly the same principle but entirely
different in construction (fig. 9) was invented by Joseph Bramah
FIG. 6.
FIG. 7.
in 1784. It consists of an outer barrel aaaa, within which is a
revolving barrel, cccc, held in place by a steel disk, dd, and pro-
vided with a pin b fixed eccentrically for operating the bolt;
the barrel is prevented from turning by sheet metal sliders ss,
which slide axially in radial grooves in the barrel and project
into slots cut into the steel disk which is fastened to the case of the
lock. Each slider has a gating cut in its outer edge sufficiently
deep to allow it to embrace the inwardly
projecting steel plate and turn on it with
the barrel. The key is of tubular form
having slots cut in its end, each of a
depth corresponding to the position of
the gating in one of the sliders; so that,
on inserting the key, each slider is pushed
in — against a spring — exactly far enough
to bring its slot opposite the steel disk;
FIG. 8.
in this position the barrel carrying the sliders is turned by the
key and actuates the bolt.
Up to 1851 it was generally believed that well-made lever
locks of all types were practically unpickable, but at this time
Alfred Charles Hobbs — an American — demonstrated, by picking
the locks of Barren, Chubb, Bramah and others, that this belief
was a fallacy. The method of Hobbs became widely known
as the " tickling " or " tentative " method. In the modern
FIG. 9.
lever lock the bolt carries a projecting piece — the " main stump "
— which, when the levers are all raised to the proper height,
enters the slots — " gatings " — in their faces. If, when the levers
are not in this position, pressure is applied to the bolt, the
main stump will press against the face of the levers; but owing
to inaccuracies of workmanship and other causes the pressure
will not be equal on all the levers. If now, the pressure on the
bolt being maintained, each lever in turn is carefully raised a
little, one will be found on which the pressure of the stump
is greatest; this one is lifted till it becomes easy and then care-
fully lowered till it is sustained by the pressure of the stump
in a new position. Another lever now bears the greatest pressure,
and this in its turn is similarly treated. By this gradual or
" tentative " process the levers will in time all be raised to the
correct height and the bolt will slip back without, if sufficient
care has been exercised, any of the levers having been raised
above its correct position. Although this method of picking
only be.came generally known in 1851, it is evident that it was
not novel, since in 1817 one of Bramah's workmen, named
Russell, invented the use of false notches or gatings, which were
slots similar to the true gating but of small depth cut in the face
of the levers. Similar false gatings were used in Anthony
Radford Strutt's lock in 1819. The only possible object of these
gatings — two of which are shown in each of the sliders of Bramah's
lock — was to prevent the tentative method of picking. They
are, however, not efficient for their purpose although they render
the operation more difficult and tedious.
The best-known locks up to 1 85 1 were those of Jeremiah Chubb,
their popularity being due to their superior workmanship and
probably still more to their title " detector." His lock, patented
in 1818, contained a device intended to frustrate attempts at
picking, and further to detect if such an attempt had been made.
This device, at any rate as far as detecting was concerned, had
been anticipated by the patent of Thomas Ruxton in 1816.
Since the device only comes into operation when any lever is
raised too high, it is not effective against a skilful application
of the tentative method. The original form of this lock is shown
in fig. 10, when the lever DT, which turns on a pin in the middle,
FIG. 10.
is acted upon at its end T by a spring S, which will evidently
allow some play to the lever on either side of the corner X;
but the moment it is pushed past that point the spring will
carry it farther in the same direction, like what is called in
clock-work a jumper. In its proper position that end always
remains above the turning-point; but, if any one of the tumblers
is raised too high, the other end D of the detector, which reaches
over all the levers, is lifted so far that the end T is sent down
below the corner, and the tooth T then falls into a notch in the
bolt, and so prevents it from being drawn back, even though all
the levers are raised properly by the right key. It thus at once
becomes obvious that somebody has been trying to pick the lock.
The way to open it, then, is to turn the key the other way, as if
to overlock the bolt; a short piece of gating near the end of
the levers allows the bolt to advance just far enough to push
the tooth of the detector up again by means of its inclination
there, and then the lock can be opened as usual. To render the
mechanism of locks more inaccessible for picking purposes, two
devices, the " curtain " and the " barrel," were in use; these
devices were simply the one a disk and the other a cylinder
carrying a keyhole which revolved with the key and so closed
the fixed keyhole in the case.
It is to Hobbs himself that we are indebted for the invention of the
movable stump, since called the safety lever, the only device intro-
duced rendering the tentative method of picking inoperative. This
invention was incorporated in the " protector " locks of Hobbs, Hart
& Co. ; it consists in the employment of a movable main stump
which is not riveted into the bolt as usual, but is set on the end b of a
bent lever abc (fig. 11) which lies in a hollow of the bolt A behind it,
turning on a pivot in the bolt itself, and kept steady by a small
friction-spring e. The stump comes through a hole in the bolt large
enough to let it have a little play ; and the long end a of the lever
stands just above the edge of a square pin d, which is fixed in the
back plate of the lock. When the lock is locked, if the bolt be pushed
LOCK
843
FIG. 11.
back, no sensible pressure on the levers is produced, but only just
enough to turn this protector lever, as Hobbs called it, on its pivot c,
and so bring down its end a in front of the square pin, and then the
bolt can no more be pushed back than when held by Chubb s detector
The protector is set free again by merely pushing the bolt torward
with the key, without reference to the
levers. However, the protector could
be prevented from acting by a method
used by the inventor himself for another
purpose, viz., by pushing a piece of
watch-spring through the keyhole, and
IF up behind the bolt, so as to reach the
protector at a, and keep it up while the
bolt was pushed back, or, again, by
pushing up the watch-spring between
any two of the levers, and holding
the end 6 of the protector with it, so as to press the stump against
the levers. Both these devices, however, are prevented now by
letting in a feather FF in a groove between the bolt and the back
of the lock, which no watch-spring Can pass, and also bringing a
piece of the feather forward through the front gating of the levers
just under the stump. In this form the lock is safe against any
mode of picking known. A lock possessing valuable features was
invented in 1852 by Sir Edmund Beckett — afterwards Lord Gnm-
thorpe — but did not come into general use for commercial reasons.
All the locks containing many levers so far described have a
common defect in that the levers are moved in one direction by the
key and in the other by springs. But it not infrequently happens
that dirt or grease gets between the levers and causes two or more
to stick together, in which case one of them is lifted too high and the
bolt is prevented from operating. To overcome this difficulty locks,
especially those intended for safes, have been made so that alternate
levers move in opposite directions, the key having two bits on
opposite sides. This construction entails that the key enter the body
of the levers instead of passing below them, an arrangement that had
previously been in use to reduce the space into which gunpowder
could be packed through the keyhole.
The key locks chiefly used in English safes have been the ordinary
lever lock with 6-8 or 10 levers, Chubb's " detector,' Hobbs s
„ .. " protector " or variants of these. In the Yale lock, which
' reverts in some degree to the idea of the ancient Egyptian
lock, America has produced one key lock which has come into almost
universal use in that country and is certainly worthy of note. The
key of this lock, shown full size at ka in fig. 12, is remarkably small,
being stamped from a
piece of flat steel and
weighing only a small
fraction of an ounce. The
barrel abc has to turn, as
in the Bramah lock, in
order to move the bolt,
which is not shown in the
figure. That may be done
either as in Bramah locks
or by a tongue or bit
attached to the end ab ol
the barrel as in several
other locks. The barrel
is prevented from being
turned, except by the
proper key, thus. The
(apparently) five plugs with spiral springs over them in fig. 12
are really all divided at the cross line be, being all now lifted to the
proper height by the key. Consequently the barrel abc can turn
round, as there is no plug either projecting from it or projecting into
it. But when the key is out, all the plugs are pushed down by the
springs, and so the upper ones descend into the barrel and hold it
fast. And again, if any of the steps of a false key are too high, some
of the lower plugs will be pushed up beyond the barrel into the holes
above them, and so the barrel cannot turn. The bevelled end of the
key near a enables it to be pushed in under the plugs, though with
some friction and resistance.
It is frequently convenient to have a number of different locks sc
arranged that, whilst each has its own individual key, yet one specia
or " master " key will operate any of the series. In warded locks this
is done by " differing " the wards of the individual locks so that each
key will only pass its own lock, and then filing away the bit of an
extra key so that it will pass all the wards; the objection to this
method is that any of the individual keys can easily be filed away
and so form a master key. A better method, which meets this
objection, consists in making all the levers except one — or if need be
two — of each lock alike and cutting another gating or widening the
gating in the differing levers, so as to pass the master key which has
one — or two — special steps.
The growth of safe deposits has called for special locks so
that when a box changes tenants the Outgoing tenant's key
shall be useless. In some cases the lock has been taken off am
another substituted, but this is a clumsy, makeshift now rare!)
employed, and has been superseded by the use of changeable
tey locks.
The first of these, invented by Robert Newell in 1841, was intro-
duced into Great Britain from America by Hobbs in 1851. A simpler
orm the construction of which is clearly shown by fig. 13, was
jrought out by Hobbs, Hart & Co. The bolt of this lock, instead of
the ordinary main stump, carries a set of sliders, PPS, one corre-
sponding to each lever and each carrying a projection S correspond-
ng to a portion of the main stump. It will be seen that if any key
FIG. 12.
FIG. 13.
having steps of certain lengths is inserted when the lock is unlocked
and the bolt B thrown thereby, each slider will be raised to a height
corresponding to that to which its lever is raised by the key, and the
two fixed teeth CC will engage two of the teeth in the front of each
slider, so that they will be held in place ready to enter the lever
gatings when the same key is inserted.
A changeable key lock introduced by the Chatwood Safe Co. has no
gatings in the levers, whose fronts are cut with teeth gearing into
similar teeth cut in a set of disks carrying the gatings. The disks are
mounted on a stud which can be moved by a key from the back of the
lock in such a way that while the main stump is in the gatings—
keeping the disks in position — the disks are carried forward out of
gear with the levers; the key can then be removed and another
FIG. 14.
having steps of suitable length inserted and turned so as to raise the
levers, the disks being then brought back into gear.
Both the above locks require that the key steps should have certain
definite lengths corresponding to the teeth, but a later lock re-
sembling to some extent that brought out by Hobbs, Hart & Co. has
been introduced by the Chatwood Co., in which it is sufficient after
unlocking the lock to file any of the key steps and so alter the pattern
of the key in any way. In this lock, which is illustrated in fig. 14,
unlike all those that have been described, the levers are not pivoted
but slide upon guide stumps; the main stump is divided as in Hobbs
Hart's lock, the various pieces being clamped together by a screw to
form a solid stump. The sliders composing the main stump are not
provided with teeth, the changing being effected as follows: when
844
LOCKE, JOHN
the bolt is partly shot by the correct key, the screw which binds the
sliders together as it comes opposite an opening in the back of the
case is loosened, the key is removed and altered — or a fresh key
substituted — and is inserted so as to lift the levers to their correct
height and expose the clamping screw at the back, which is then
tightened. This lock is now
commonly used for safe deposits,
combined with a small lever lock
of which the custodian carries the
key, and which either blocks the
bolt of the main lock or covers
the keyhole.
p. In connexion with changeable
key locks requiring key steps of
definite lengths, much ingenuity has been displayed in designing
keys with movable bits or steps, as fig. 15, which are useful chiefly as
duplicates, being built up to match the key from time to time in use,
and then deposited in some bank or other secure place to be used in
case of emergency.
From the very earliest times secret devices, either to hide
keyholes or to take the place of locks proper, have been in use;
these are to-day only seriously represented by " com-
'tion locks, bination " locks which, whilst following the same
general principles as key locks, differ entirely in
construction. Locks in which the arranging of the internal
parts in their proper positions was secured by the manipulation
of external parts marked with letters or numbers were
common in China in very early times, but their history is un-
fortunately lost. This form of lock has been developed to a very
high degree of perfection and is, for safes, in almost universal
use to-day in America.
The American lock consists of a series of disks mounted upon one
spindle, only one, however — the bolt disk — being fixed thereto, and
provided each with a gating into which a stump connected with the
bolt can drop when all the gatings lie upon a given line parallel to the
axis of the spindle. Each disk is provided with a driving pin so
arranged that it can impinge on and drive a similar pin in its next
neighbour; the gating in the bolt disk and the portion of the stump
which enters it are so formed that the disk can draw the bolt back.
The spindle is provided on the outside with a knob and graduated
disk — usually with 100 divisions— surrounded by an annulus on
which a fixed position is denoted. Each disk, including the bolt disk,
is provided with a pin projecting from its surface in such a way that
the pin of one disk comes into contact with that of the next disk and
drives it round. If, then, the bolt disk being at the back, there are
three letter disks and the spindle is rotated to the left, the bolt disk
will in the course of one revolution pick up letter disk No. I —
counting from the bolt disk — in the second revolution it will pick
up No. 2, and in the third No. 3, the revolution being continued for
part of a turn till the number corresponding to the correct position of
No. 3 is reached. The revolution of the spindle is now reversed.
The bolt disk leaves No. I in the first revolution and picks it up again,
and the second revolution picks up No. 2. The motion is continued
for part of a revolution til! No. 2 is brought to the correct position
(No. 3 obviously not being disturbed) and is then reversed. No. I
is again left behind and picked up in the first revolution to the left,
the motion being continued till the correct position of No. i is
reached, when, on reversal, the gating in the bolt disk comes into the
correct position, the stump falls and a continuance of the motion to
the right draws back the bolt. A lock constructed in this way would
be of little utility, as the combination would have to be determined
once for all by the maker. The difficulty is got over by making the
letter disks in two parts, the inner part carrying the driving pin and
the outer the eating ; these two parts are locked together by small
cams or other devices which come into such a position that they can
be released with the help of a square key when the lock is unlocked.
The combination is set by altering the position of the inner disks
with the driving pins in relation to the outer part carrying the
gatings which are meanwhile held steady by the square key.
One advantage of the combination lock is that there is no key
to be lost or stolen, but the means adopted by burglars, especially
in America, are such that even this is not a perfect
protection, cases having occurred in which a person
has been compelled to disclose the combination. With
key locks the keyhole through the safe door forms a distinct
point of danger, and with combination locks the spindle passing
through the door may be attacked by explosives. To obviate
these two risks time locks were introduced in America and have
been used in Europe. Essentially the time lock consists of a
high-class chronometer or watch movement, little liable to get
out of order, driving a disk provided with a gating such that the
bolt can only enter the gating during certain hours; as a rule
Time
two, three or four chronometers are used, any one of which can
release the lock.
The Yale time lock contains two chronometer movements which
revolve two dial plates studded with twenty-four pins to represent
the twenty-four hours of the day. These pins, when pushed in, form
a track on which run rollers supporting the lever which secures the
bolt or locking agency, but when they are drawn out the track is
broken, the rollers fall down and the bolt is released. By pulling
out the day pins, say from 9 till 4, the door is automatically prepared
for opening between these hours, and at 4 it again of itself locks up.
For keeping the repository closed over Sundays and holidays, a
subsidiary segment or track is brought into play by which a period
of twenty-four hours is added to the locked interval. Careful pro-
vision is made against the eventuality of running down or accidental
stoppage of the clock motion, by which the rightful owner might be
as seriously incommoded as the burglar. In the Yale lock, just before
the chronometers run out, a trigger is released which depresses the
lever by which the bolt is held in position. (A. B. CH.)
LOCKE, JOHN (1632-1704), English philosopher, was born at
Wrington, 10 m. W. of Belluton, in Somersetshire, on the 2pth
of August 1632, six years after the death of Bacon, and three
months before the birth of Spinoza. His father was a small'
landowner and attorney at Pensford, near the northern boundary
of the county, to which neighbourhood the family had migrated
from Dorsetshire early in that century. The elder Locke, a
strict but genial Puritan, by whom the son was carefully educated
at home, was engaged in the military service of the parliamentary
party. " From the time that I knew anything," Locke wrote
in 1660, " I found myself in a storm, which has continued to this
time." For fourteen years his education, more or less interrupted,
went on in the rural home at Belluton, on his father's little
estate, half a mile from Pensford, and 6 m. from Bristol. In
1646 he entered Westminster School and remained there for six
years. Westminster was uncongenial to him. Its memories
perhaps encouraged the bias against public schools which after-
wards disturbed his philosophic calm in his Thoughts on Educa-
tion. In 1652 he entered Christ Church, Oxford, then under
John Owen, the Puritan dean and vice-chancellor of the uni-
versity. Christ Church was Locke's occasional home for thirty
years. For some years after he entered, Oxford was ruled by
the Independents, who, largely through Owen, unlike the
Presbyterians, were among the first in England to advocate
genuine religious toleration. But Locke's hereditary sympathy
with the Puritans was gradually lessened by the intolerance of
the Presbyterians and the fanaticism of the Independents. He
had found in his youth, he says, that " what was called general
freedom was general bondage, and that the popular assertors
of liberty were the greatest engrossers of it too, and not unfitly
called its keepers." And the influence of the liberal divines of
the Church of England afterwards showed itself in his spiritual
development.
Under Owen scholastic studies were maintained with a form-
ality and dogmatism unsuited to Locke's free inquisitive temper.
The aversion to them which he expressed showed thus early
an innate disposition to rebel against empty verbal reasoning.
He was not, according to his own account of himself to Lady
Masham, a hard student at first. He sought the company of
pleasant and witty men, and thus gained knowledge of life.
He took the ordinary bachelor's degree in 1656, and the master's
in 1658. In December 1660 he was serving as tutor of Christ
Church, lecturing in Greek, rhetoric and philosophy.
At Oxford Locke was nevertheless within reach of liberal
intellectual influence tending to promote self-education and
strong individuality. The metaphysical works of Descartes
had appeared a few years before he went to Oxford, and the
Human Nature and Leviathan of Hobbes during his under-
graduate years. It does not seem that Locke read extensively,
but he was attracted by Descartes. The first books, he told
Lady Masham, which gave him a relish for philosophy, were
those of this philosopher, although he very often differed from
him. At the Restoration potent influences were drawing Oxford
and England into experimental inquiries. Experiment in physics
became the fashion. The Royal Society was then founded,
and we find Locke experimenting in chemistry in 1663, also in
meteorology, in which he was particularly interested all his life.
LOCKE, JOHN
845
The restraints of a professional career were not suited to Locke.
There is a surmise that early in his Oxford career he contemplated
taking orders in the Church of England. His religious disposition
attracted him to theology. Revulsion from the dogmatic temper
of the Presbyterians, and the unreasoning enthusiasm of the
Independents favoured sympathy afterwards with Cambridge
Platonists and other liberal Anglican churchmen. Whichcote
was his favourite preacher, and close intimacy with the Cudworth
family cheered his later years. But, though he has a place
among lay theologians, dread of ecclesiastical impediment to free
inquiry, added to strong inclination for scientific investigation,
made him look to medicine as his profession, and before 1666
we find him practising as a physician in Oxford. -Nevertheless,
although known among his friends as " Doctor Locke," he never
graduated in medicine. His health was uncertain, for he suffered
through life from chronic consumption and asthma. A fortunate
event soon withdrew him from the medical profession.
Locke early showed an inclination to politics, as well as to
theology and medicine. As early as 1665 he diverged for a short
time from medical pursuits at Oxford, and was engaged as
secretary to Sir Walter Vane on his mission to the Elector of
Brandenburg. Soon after his return in 1666 the incident occurred
which determined his career. Lord Ashley, afterwards first earl
of Shaftesbury, had come to Oxford for his health. Locke was
introduced to him by his physician, Dr Thomas. This was the
beginning of a lasting friendship, sustained by common sym-
pathy with liberty — civil, religious and philosophical. In 1667
Locke moved from Christ Church to Exeter House, Lord
Ashley's London residence, to become his confidential secretary.
Although he retained his studentship at Christ Church, and
occasionally visited Oxford, as well as his patrimony at Belluton,
he found a home and shared fortune with Shaftesbury for fifteen
years.
Locke's commonplace books throw welcome light on the
history of his mind in early life. A paper on the " Roman
Commonwealth" which belongs to this period, expresses con-
victions about religious liberty and the relations of religion to
the state that were modified and deepened afterwards; objec-
tions to the sacerdotal conception of Christianity appear in
another article; short work is made of ecclesiastical claims
to infallibility in the interpretation of Scripture in a third; a
scheme of utilitarian ethics, wider than that of Hobbes, is
suggested in a fourth. The most significant of those early
revelations is the Essay concerning Toleration (1666), which
anticipates conclusions more fully argued nearly thirty years
later.
The Shaftesbury connexion must have helped to save Locke
from those idols of the " Den " to which professional life and
narrow experience is exposed. It brought him into contact
with public men, the springs of political action and the duties
of high office. The place he held as Shaftesbury's adviser is
indeed the outstanding circumstance in his middle life. Exeter
House afforded every opportunity for society. He became
intimate among others with the illustrious Sydenham; he joined
the Royal Society and served on its council. The foundation
of the monumental work of his life was laid when he was at Exeter
House. He was led to it in this way. It was his habit to en-
courage informal reunions of his intimates, to discuss debatable
questions in science and theology. One of these, in the winter
of 1670, is historically memorable. " Five or six friends," he
says, met in his rooms and were discussing " principles of morality
and religion. They found themselves quickly at a stand by the
difficulties that arose on every side." Locke proposed some
criticism of the necessary " limits of human understanding "
as likely to open a way out of their difficulties. He undertook
to attempt this, and fancied that what he had to say might find
sufficient space on " one sheet of paper." What was thus " begun
by chance, was continued by entreaty, written by incoherent
parcels, and after long intervals of neglect resumed again as
humour and occasions permitted." At the end of nearly twenty
years the issue was given to the world as Locke's now famous
Essay Concerning Human Understanding:
The fall of Shaftesbury in 1675 enabled Locke to escape from
English politics. He found a retreat in France, where he could
unite calm reflection upon the legitimate operations of " human
understanding " with attention to his health. He spent three
years partly at Montpellier and partly in Paris. His journals
and commonplace books in these years show the Essay in pre-
paration. At Paris he met men of science and letters — Peter
Guenellon, the well-known Amsterdam physician; Ole Romer,
the Danish astronomer; Thoynard, the critic; Melchisedech
Thevenot, the traveller; Henri Justel, the jurist; and Francois
Bernier, the expositor of Gassendi. But there is no mention of
Malebranche, whose Recherche de la virile had appeared three
years before, nor of Arnauld, the illustrious rival of Malebranche.
Locke returned to London in 1679. Reaction against the
court party had restored Shaftesbury to power. Locke resumed
his old confidential relations, now at Thanet House in Aldersgate.
A period of often interrupted leisure for study followed. It was
a time of plots and counterplots, when England seemed on the
brink of another civil war. In the end Shaftesbury was com-
mitted to the Tower, tried and acquitted. More insurrectionary
plots followed in the summer of 1682, after which, suspected at
home, the versatile statesman escaped to Holland, and died at
Amsterdam in January 1683. In these two years Locke was
much at Oxford and in Somerset, for the later movements of
Shaftesbury did not commend themselves to him. Yet the
government had their eyes upon him. " John Locke lives a very
cunning unintelligible life here," Prideaux reported from Oxford
in 1682. " I may confidently affirm," wrote John Fell, the dean
of Christ Church, to Lord Sunderland, " there is not any one in
the college who has heard him speak a word against, or so much
as censuring, the government; and, although very frequently,
both in public and private, discourses have been purposely in-
troduced to the disparagement of his master, the earl of Shaftes-
bury, he could never be provoked to take any notice, or discover
in word or look the least concern; so that I believe there is not
in the world such a master of taciturnity and passion." Un-
published correspondence with his Somerset friend, Edward
Clarke of Chipley, describes Locke's life in those troubled years.
It also reveals the opening of his intimate intercourse with the
Cudworth family, who were friends of the Clarkes, and connected
by birth with Somerset. The letters allude to toleration in
the state and comprehension in the church, while they show
an indifference to theological dogma hardly consistent with an
exclusive connexion with any sect.
In his fifty-second year, in the gloomy autumn of 1683, Locke
retired to Holland, then the asylum of eminent persons who were
elsewhere denied liberty of thought. Descartes and Spinoza had
speculated there; it had been the home of Erasmus and Grotius;
it was now the refuge of Bayle. Locke spent more than five years
there; but his (unpublished) letters show that exile sat heavily
upon him. Amsterdam was his first Dutch home, where he lived
in the house of Dr Keen, under the assumed name of Dr Van
der Linden. For a time he was in danger of arrest at the instance
of the English government. After months of concealment he
escaped ; but he was deprived of his studentship at Christ Church
by order of the king, and Oxford was thus closed against him.
Holland introduced him to new friends. The chief of these was
Limborch, the successor of Episcopius as Remonstrant professor
of theology, lucid, learned and tolerant, the friend of Cudworth,
Whichcote and More. By Limborch he was introduced to Le
Clerc, the youthful representative of letters and philosophy in
Limborch's college, who had escaped from Geneva and Calvinism
to the milder atmosphere of Holland and the Remonstrants.
The Bibliotheque universelle of Le Clerc was then the chief organ
in Europe of men of letters. Locke contributed several articles.
It was his first appearance as an author, although he was now
fifty-four years of age. This tardiness in authorship is a signifi-
cant fact in his life, in harmony with his tempered wisdom.
In the next fourteen years the world received through his
books the thoughts which had been gradually forming, and were
taking final shape while he was in Holland. The Essay was
finished there, and a French epitome appeared in 1688 in Le
846
LOCKE, JOHN
Clerc's journal, the forecast of the larger work. Locke was then
at Rotterdam, where he lived for a year in the house of a Quaker
friend, Benjamin Furley, or Furly, a wealthy merchant and
lover of books. At Rotterdam he was a confidant of political
exiles, including Burnet and the famous earl of Peterborough,
and he became known to William, prince of Orange. William
landed in England in November 1688; Locke followed in
February 1689, in the ship which carried the princess Mary.
After his return to England in 1689 Locke emerged through
authorship into European fame. Within a month after he
reached London he had declined an offer of the embassy to
Brandenburg, and accepted the modest office of commissioner of
appeals. The two following years, during which he lived at
Dorset Court in London, were memorable for the publication of
his two chief works on social polity, and of the epoch-making
book on modern philosophy which reveals the main principles
of his life. The earliest of these to appear was his defence of
religious liberty, in the Epislola de Tolerantia, addressed to
Limborch, published at Gouda in the spring of 1689, and trans-
lated into English in autumn by William Popple, a Unitarian
merchant in London. Two Treatises on Government, in defence
of the right of ultimate sovereignty in the people, followed a
few months later. The famous Essay concerning Human Under-
standing saw the light in the spring of 1690. He received £30
for the copyright, nearly the same as Kant got in 1781 for his
Kritik der reinen Vernunft. In the Essay Locke was the critic
of the empirical data of human experience: Kant, as the critic
of the intellectual and moral presuppositions of experience,
supplied the complement to the incomplete and ambiguous
answer to its own leading question that was given in Locke's
Essay. The Essay was the first book in which its author's name
appeared, for the Epislola de Tolerantia and the Treatises on
Government were anonymous.
Locke's asthma was aggravated by the air of London; and the
course of public affairs disappointed him, for the settlement at
the Revolution fell short of his ideal. In spring, 1691, he took
up his residence in the manor house of Otes in Essex, the country
seat of Sir Francis Masham, between Ongar and Harlow. Lady
Masham was the accomplished daughter of Ralph Cudworth,
and was his friend before he went to Holland. She told Le Clerc
that after Locke's return from exile, " by some considerably long
visits, he had made trial of the air of Otes, which is some 20 m.
from London, and he thought that none would be so suitable
for him. His company," she adds, " could not but be very
desirable for us, and he had all the assurances we could give him
of being always welcome; but, to make him easy in living with
us, it was necessary he should do so on his own terms, which
Sir Francis at last assenting to, he then believed himself at home
with us, and resolved, if it pleased God, here to end his days as
he did." At Otes he enjoyed for fourteen years as much domestic
peace and literary leisure as was consistent with broken health,
and sometimes anxious visits to London on public affairs, in
which he was still an active adviser. Otes was in every way his
home. In his letters and otherwise we have pleasant pictures of
its inmates and domestic life and the occasional visits of his
friends, among others Lord Peterborough, Lord Shaftesbury of
the Characteristics, Sir Isaac Newton, William Molyneux and
Anthony Collins.
.At Otes he was busy with his pen. The Letter on Toleration
involved him in controversy. An Answer by Jonas Proast of
Queen's College, Oxford, had drawn forth in 1690 a Second
Letter. A rejoinder in 1691 was followed by Locke's elaborate
Third Letter on Toleration in the summer of the following year.
In 1691 currency and finance were much in his thoughts, and in
the following year he addressed an important letter to Sir John
Somers on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and
Raising the Value of Money. When he was in Holland he had
written letters to his friend Clarke of Chipley about the education
of his children. These letters formed the substance of the little
volume entitled Thoughts on Education (1693), which still holds
its place among classics in that department. Nor were the
" principles of revealed religion " forgotten. The subtle theo-
logical controversies of the I7th century made him anxious
to show how simple after all fundamental Christianity is. In
the Reasonableness of Christianity as delivered in the Scriptures
(anonymous, 1695), Locke sought to separate the divine essence
of Christ's religion from later accretions of dogma, and from
reasonings due to oversight of the necessary limits of human
thought. This intended Eirenicon involved him in controversies
that lasted for years. Angry polemics assailed the book. A
certain John Edwards was conspicuous. Locke's Vindication,
followed by a Second Vindication in 1697, added fuel to this fire.
Above all, the great Essay was assailed and often misinterpreted
by philosophers and divines. Notes of opposition had been
heard almost as soon as it appeared. John Norris, the meta-
physical rector of Bemerton and English disciple of Malebranche,
criticized it in 1690. Locke took no notice at the time, but his
second winter at Otes was partly employed in An Examination
of Malebranche' s Opinion of Seeing all Things in God, and in
Remarks upon some of Mr N orris's Books, tracts which throw
light upon his own ambiguous theory of perception through the
senses. These were published after his death. A second edition
of the Essay, with a chapter added on " Personal Identity,"
and numerous alterations in the chapter on " Power," appeared
in 1694. The third, which was only a reprint, was published
in 1695. Wynne's well-known abridgment helped to make the
book known in Oxford, and his friend William Molyneux intro-
duced it in Dublin. In 1695 a revival of controversy about the
currency diverted Locke's attention. Events in that year
occasioned his Observations on Silver Money and Further Con-
siderations on Raising the Value of Money.
In 1696 Locke was induced to accept a commissionership on
the Board of Trade. This required frequent visits to London.
Meantime the Essay on Human Understanding and the Reason-
ableness of Christianity were becoming more involved in a wordy
warfare between dogmatists and latitudinarians, trinitarians
and Unitarians. The controversy with Edwards was followed
by a more memorable one with Stillingfleet, bishop of Worcester.
John Toland, in his Christianity not Mysterious, had exaggerated
doctrines in the Essay, and then adopted them as his own.
In the autumn of 1696, Stillingfleet, an argumentative ecclesiastic
more than a religious philosopher, in his Vindication of the
Doctrine of the Trinity, charged Locke with disallowing mystery
in human knowledge, especially in his account of the metaphysical
idea of " substance. " Locke replied in January 1697. Stilling-
fleet's rejoinder appeared in May, followed by a Second Letter
from Locke in August, to which the bishop* replied in the following
year. Locke's Third Letter, in which the ramifications of this
controversy are pursued with a copious expenditure of acute
reasoning and polished irony, was delayed till 1699, in which
year Stillingfleet died. Other critics of the Essay entered the
lists. One of the ablest was John Sergeant, a priest of the Roman
Church, in Solid Philosophy Asserted Against the Fancies of the
Ideisls (1697). He was followed by Thomas Burnet and Dean
Sherlock. Henry Lee, rector of Tichmarch, criticized the Essay,
chapter by chapter in a folio volume entitled Anti-Scepticism
(1702); John Broughton dealt another blow in his Psychologia
(1703); and John Norris returned to the attack, in his Theory
of the Ideal or Intelligible World (i 701-1 704). On the other hand
Locke was defended with vigour by Samuel Bolde, a Dorsetshire
clergyman. The Essay itself was meanwhile spreading over
Europe, impelled by the name of its author as the chief philosophi-
cal defender of civil and religious liberty. The fourth edition
(the last while Locke was alive) appeared in 1700, with important
additional chapters on " Association of Ideas " and " En-
thusiasm." What was originally meant to form another chapter
was withheld. It appeared among Locke's posthumous writings
as The Conduct of the Understanding, one of the most character-
istic of his works. The French translation of the Essay by
Pierre Coste, Locke's amanuensis at Otes, was issued almost
simultaneously with the fourth edition. The Latin version by
Richard Burridge of Dublin followed a year after, reprinted in
due time at Amsterdam and at Leipzig.
In 1 700 Locke resigned his commission at the Board of Trade,
LOCKE, JOHN
847
and devoted himself to Biblical studies and religious meditation.
The Gospels had been carefully studied when he was preparing
his Reasonableness of Christianity. He now turned to the Epistles
of St Paul, and applied the spirit of the Essay and the ordinary
rules of critical interpretation to a literature which he venerated
as infallible, like the pious Puritans who surrounded his youth.
The work was ready when he died, and was published two
years after. A tract on Miracles, written in 1702, also appeared
posthumously. Fresh adverse criticism of the Essay was re-
ported to him in his last year, and the book was formally cqn-
demned by the authorities at Oxford. " I take what has been
done rather as a recommendation of the book," he wrote to his
young friend Anthony Collins, " and when you and I next meet
we shall be merry on the subject." One attack only moved him.
In 1 704 his adversary, Jonas Proast, revived their old controversy.
Locke in consequence began a Fourth Letter on Toleration.
A few pages, ending in an unfinished paragraph, exhausted his
remaining strength; but the theme which had employed him
at Oxford more than forty years before, and had been a ruling
idea throughout the long interval, was still dominant in the
last days of his life.
All the summer of 1704 he continued to decline, tenderly
nursed by Lady Masham and her step-daughter Esther. On the
28th of October he died, according to his last recorded words,
" in perfect charity with all men, and in sincere communion
with the whole church of Christ, by whatever names Christ's
followers call themselves." His grave is on the south side of the
parish church of High Laver, in which he often worshipped,
near the tombs of the Mashams, and of Damaris, the widow of
Cudworth. At the distance of i m. are the garden and park
where the manor house of Otes once stood.
Locke's writings have made his intellectual and moral features
familiar. The reasonableness of taking probability as our guide
in life was in the essence of his philosophy. The desire to see
for himself what is true in the light of reasonable evidence, and
that others should do the same, was his ruling passion, if the
term can be applied to one so calm and judicial. " I can no more
know anything by another man's understanding," he would say,
" than I can see by another man's eyes." This repugnance to
believe blindly what rested on arbitrary authority, as dis-
tinguished from what was seen to be sustained by self-evident
reason, or by demonstration, or by good probable evidence,
runs through his life. He is typically English in his reverence
for facts, whether facts of sense or of living consciousness, in his
aversion from abstract speculation and verbal reasoning, in
his suspicion of mysticism, in his calm reasonableness, and in his
ready submission to truth, even when truth was incapable of
being fully reduced to system by man. The delight he took
in exercising reason in regard to everything he did was what
his friend Pierre Coste remarked in Locke's daily life at Otes.
" He went about the most trifling things always with some good
reason. Above all things he loved order; and he had got the way
of observing it in everything with wonderful exactness. As he
always kept the useful in his eye in all his disquisitions, he
esteemed the employments of men only in proportion to the
good they were capable of producing; for which cause he had
no great value for the critics who waste their lives in composing
words and phrases in coming to the choice of a various reading,
in a passage that has after all nothing important in it. He cared
yet less for those professed disputants, who, being taken up with
the desire of coming off with victory, justify themselves behind
the ambiguity of a word, to give their adversaries the more
trouble. And whenever he had to deal with this sort of folks,
if he did not beforehand take a strong resolution of keeping his
temper, he quickly fell into a passion; for he was naturally
choleric, but his anger never lasted long. If he retained any
resentment it was against himself, for having given way to so
ridiculous a passion; which, as he used to say, " may do a great
deal of harm, but never yet did anyone the least good." Large,
" round-about " common sense, intellectual strength directed
by a virtuous purpose, not subtle or daring speculation sustained
by an idealizing faculty, in which he was deficient, is what we
find in Locke. Defect in speculative imagination appears when
he encounters the vast and complex final problem of the universe
in its organic unity.
Locke is apt to be forgotten now, because in his own generation
he so well discharged the intellectual mission of initiating
criticism of human knowledge, and of diffusing the spirit of free
inquiry and universal toleration which has since profoundly
affected the civilized world. He has not bequeathed an imposing
system, hardly even a striking discovery in metaphysics, but he
is a signal example in the Anglo-Saxon world of the love of
attainable truth for the sake of truth and goodness. " If Locke
made few discoveries, Socrates made none." But both are
memorable in the record of human progress.
In the inscription on his tomb, prepared by himself, Locke
refers to his books as a true representation of what he was. They
are concerned with Social Economy, Christianity, Education and
Philosophy, besides Miscellaneous writings.
I. SOCIAL ECONOMY. — (i) Epistolade Tolerantia (1689, translated
into English in the same year). (2) Two Treatises on Government (1690)
(the Patriarcha of Filmer, to which the First Treatise was a reply,
appeared in 1680). (3) A Second Letter concerning Toleration (1690).
(4) Some Considerations on the Consequence of Lowering the Rate of
Interest and Raising the Value of Money (1691). (5) A Third Letter for
Toleration (1692). (6) Short Observations on a printed paper entitled,
" For encouraging the Coining of Silver Money in England, and after
for Keeping it here " (1695). (7) Further Considerations concerning
Raising the Value of Money (1695) (occasioned by a Report containing
an " Essay for the Amendment of Silver Coins," published that year
by William Lowndes, secretary for the Treasury). (8) A Fourth
Letter for Toleration (1706, posthumous).
II. CHRISTIANITY. — (i) The Reasonableness of Christianity as
delivered in the Scriptures (1695). (2) A Vindication of the Reasonable-
ness of Christianity from Mr Edwards's Reflections (1695). (3) A
Second Vindication of the Reasonableness of Christianity (1697).
(4) A Paraphrase and Notes on the Epistles of St Paul to the Galatians,
First and Second Corinthians, Romans and Ephesians. To which is
prefixed an Essay for the understanding of St Paul's Epistles by con-
sulting St Paul himself (1705-1707, posthumous). (5) A Discourse of
Miracles (1716, posthumous).
III. EDUCATION. — (i) Some Thoughts concerning Education (1693).
(2) The Conduct of the Understanding (1706, posthumous). (3) Some
Thoughts concerning Reading and Study for a Gentleman (1706,
posthumous). (4) Instructions for the Conduct of a Young Gentleman
(1706, posthumous). (5) Of Study (written in France in Locke's
journal, and published in L. King's Life of Locke in 1830).
IV. PHILOSOPHY. — (i) An Essay concerning Human Understand-
ing, in four books (1690). (2) A Letter to the Bishop of Worcester
concerning some passages relating to Mr Locke's Essay of Human
Understanding in a late Discourse of his Lordship's in Vindication
of the Trinity (1697). (3) Mr Locke's Reply to the Bishop of Worcester's
Answer to his Letter (1697). (4) Mr Locke's Reply to the Bishop of
Worcester's Answer to his Second Letter (1699). (5) An Examination
of Father Malebranche's Opinion of Seeing all Things in God (1706,
posthumous). (6) Remarks upon Some of Mr Nprris's Books, wherein
he asserts Father Malebranche's Opinion of Seeing all Things in God
(1720, posthumous).
MISCELLANEOUS. — (i) A New Method of a Common Place Book
(1686). This was Locke's first article in the Bibliotheque of Le Clerc;
his other contributions to it are uncertain, except the Epitome of
the Essay, in 1688). (2) The Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina
(prepared in 1673 when Locke was Lord Shaftesbury's secretary at
Exeter House, remarkable for recognition of the principle of tolera-
tion, published in 1706, in the posthumous collection). (3) Memoirs
relating to the Life of Anthony, First Earl of Shaftesbury (1706).
(4) Elements of Natural Philosophy (1706). (5) Observations upon the
Growth and Culture of Vines and Olives (1706). (6) Rules of a Society
which met once a Week, for their improvement in Useful Knowledge,
and for the Promotion of Truth and Christian Charity (1706). (7) A
Letter from a Person of Quality to his Friend in the Country, published
in 1875 (included by Des Maizeaux in his Collection of Several Pieces
of Mr John Locke's, 1 720) , and soon afterwards burned by the common
hangman by orders from the House of Lords, was disavowed by
Locke himself. It may have been dictated by Shaftesbury. There
are also miscellaneous writings of Locke first published in the
biographies of Lord King (1830) and of Mr Fox Bourne (1876).
Letters from Locke to Thoynard, Limborch, Le Clerc, Guenellon,
Molyneux, Collins, Sir Isaac Newton, the first and the third Lord
Shaftesbury, Lords Peterborough and Pembroke, Clarke of Chipley
and others are preserved, many of them unpublished, most of them
in the keeping of Lord Lovelace at Horseley Towers, and of Mr
Sanford at Nynehcad in Somerset, or in the British Museum. They
express the gracious courtesy and playful humour which were natural
to him, and his varied interests in human life.
I. Social Economy. — It has been truly said that all Locke's writings,
even the Essay on Human Understanding itself, were occasional, and
" intended directly to counteract the enemies of reason and freedom
LOCKE, JOHN
in his own age." This appears in his works on social polity, written
at a time when the principles of democracy and toleration were
struggling with divine right of kings, and when " the popular assertors
of public liberty were the greatest engrossers of it too." " The
state " with Locke was the deliberate outcome of free contract rather
than a natural growth or organism. That the people, in the exercise
of their sovereignty, have the right to govern themselves in the way
they judge to be for the common good; and that civil government,
whatever form it assumes, has no right to interfere with religious
beliefs that are not inconsistent with civil society, is at the founda-
tion of his political philosophy. He rested this sovereignty on
virtual mutual contract on the part of the people themselves to be
so governed. But the terms of the contract might be modified by
the sovereign people themselves, from time to time, in accommoda-
tion to changing circumstances. He saw that things in this world
were in a constant flux, so that no society could remain long in the
same state, and that " the grossest absurdities " must be the issue
of "following custom when reason has left the custom." He was
always disposed to liberal ecclesiastical concessions for the sake of
peace, and he recommended harmonious co-operation with the civil
magistrate in all matters of worship and government that were not
expressly determined by Scripture.
The attack on Sir Robert Filmer in Locke's First Treatise on
Government was an anachronism. The democratic principle argued
for in the Second Treatise, while in advance of the practice
he social Qf jjis age> was in parts anticipated by Aquinas and Bodin,
contrac . ag wgjj as ^y Qrojjus ancj Hooker. Its guiding principle
is, that civil rulers hold their power not absolutely but conditionally,
government being essentially a moral trust, forfeited if the conditions
are not fulfilled by the trustees. This presupposes an original and
necessary law of nature or reason, as insisted on by Hooker. But
it points to the constitution of civil society in the abstract rather
than to the actual origin of government as a matter of fact and past
history. There is no historical proof that power was formally en-
trusted to rulers by the conscious and deliberate action of the ruled.
Indeed Locke seems to allow that the consent was at first tacit, and
by anterior law of nature conditional on the beneficial purpose of the
trust being realized. His Treatises on Government were meant to
vindicate the Convention parliament and the English revolution,
as well as to refute the ideas of absolute monarchy held by Hobbes and
Filmer. They are classics in the library of English constitutional
law and polity.
Locke's philosophical defence of religious liberty in the four
Letters of Toleration is the most far-reaching of his contributions to
social polity. He had a more modest estimate of human
Religious resources for forming true judgments in religion, and a
less pronounced opinion of the immorality of religious
error, than either the Catholic or the Puritan. The
toleration which he spent his life in arguing for involved a change
from the authoritative and absolute to the relative point of view, as
regards man's means of knowledge and belief. It was a protest
against those who in theology " peremptorily require demonstration
and demand certainty where probability only is to be had." The
practice of universal toleration amidst increasing religious differences
was an application of the conception of human understanding which
governs his Essay. Once a paradox it is now commonplace, and the
superabundant argument in the Letters on Toleration fatigues the
modern reader. The change is due more to Locke himself than to
anyone else. Free thought and liberty of conscience had indeed been
pleaded for, on various grounds, in the century in which he lived.
Chillingworth, Jeremy Taylor, Glanvill and other philosophical
thinkers in the Church of England urged toleration in the state, in
conjunction with wide comprehension in the church, on the ground
of our necessary intellectual limitation and inability to reach demon-
stration in theological debates. Puritans like Owen and Goodwin,
whose idea of ecclesiastical comprehension was dogmatic and narrow,
were ready to accept sectarian variety, because it was their duty to
allow many religions in the nation, but only one form of theology
within their own sect. The existence of separate nationalities, on
the other hand, was the justification of national churches according
to the latitudinarian churchmen with whom Locke associated: a
national church comprehensive in creed, and thus co-extensive with
the nation was their ideal. Locke went far to unite in a higher
principle elements in the broad Anglican and the Puritan theories,
while he recognized the individual liberty of thought which dis-
tinguishes the national church of England. A constant sense of the
limits of human understanding was at the bottom of his arguments
for tolerance. He had no objection to a national establishment of
religion, provided that it was comprehensive enough, and was really
the nation organized to promote goodness; not to protect the meta-
physical subtleties of sectarian theologians. The recall of the
national religion to the simplicity of the gospels would, he hoped,
make toleration of nonconformists unnecessary, as few would then
remain. To the atheist alone Locke refuses full toleration, on the
ground that social obligation can have no hold over him, for " the
taking away of God dissolves all." He argued, too, against full
toleration of the Church of Rome in England, on the ground of its
unnational allegiance to a foreign sovereign. The unfitness of
persecution as a means of propagating truth is copiously insisted on
by Locke. Persecution can only transform a man into a hypocrite;
Tolera-
tion.
belief is legitimately formed only by discernment of sufficient
evidence; apart from evidence, a man has no right to control the
understanding ; he cannot determine arbitrarily what his neighbours
must believe. Thus Locke's pleas for religious toleration resolve at
last into his philosophical view of the foundation and limits of
human knowledge.
II. The Reasonableness of Christianity. — The principles that
governed Locke's social polity largely determined his attitude to
Christianity. His " latitudinarianism " was the result of extra-
ordinary reverence for truth, and a perception that knowledge may
be sufficient for the purposes of human life while it falls infinitely
short of speculative completeness. He never loses sight of essential
reasonableness as the only ground on which Christian faith can
ultimately rest. But Locke accepted Holy Scripture as infallible
with the reverence of a Puritan. " It has God for its author, salva-
tion for its end, and truth without any mixture of error for its
matter." Yet he did not, like many Puritans, mean Scripture as
interpreted by himself or by his sect. And faith in its infallibility
was combined in Locke with deep distrust in " enthusiasm." This
predisposed him to regard physical miracles as the solid criterion for
distinguishing reasonable religious conviction from " inclinations,
fancies and strong assurances.' Assent in religion as in everything
else he could justify only on the ground of its harmony with reason;
professed " illumination without search, and certainty without
proof " was to him a sign of absence of the divine spirit in the pro-
fessor. Confidence that we are right, he would say, is in itself no
proof that we are right : when God asks assent to the truth of a
proposition in religion, he either shows us its intrinsic rationality by
ordinary means, or he offers miraculous proof of the reality of which
we need reasonable evidence. But we must know what we mean by
miracle. Reasonableness, in short, must always at last be our guide.
His own faith in Christianity rested on its moral excellence when it is
received in its primitive simplicity, combined with the miracles
which accompanied its original promulgation. But " even for those
books which have the attestation of miracles to confirm their being
from God, the miracles," he says, " are to be judged by the doctrine,
and not the doctrine by the miracles." Miracles alone cannot
vindicate the divinity of immoral doctrine. Locke's Reasonable-
ness of Christianity was an attempt to recall religion from the
crude speculations of theological sects, destructive of peace among
Christians, to its original simplicity; but this is apt to conceal its
transcendent mystery. Those who practically acknowledge the
supremacy of Jesus as Messiah accept all that is essential to the
Christianity of Locke. His own Christian belief, sincere and earnest,
was more the outcome of the common sense which, largely through
him, moulded the prudential theology of England in the i8th
century, than of the nobler elements present in More, Cudworth and
other religious thinkers of the preceding age, or afterwards in Law
and Berkeley, Coleridge and Schleiermacher.
III. Education. — Locke has his place among classic writers on the
theory and art of Education. His contribution may be taken as
either an introduction to or an application of the Essay on Human
Understanding. In the Thoughts on Education imaginative sentiment
is never allowed to weigh against utility ; information is subordinate
to the formation of useful character; the part which habit plays in
individuals is always kept in view; the dependence of intelligence
and character, which it is the purpose of education to improve, upon
health of body is steadily inculcated; to make children happy in
undergoing education is a favourite precept; accumulating facts
without exercising thought, and without accustoming the youthful
mind to look for evidence, is always referred to as a cardinal vice.
Wisdom more than much learning is what he requires in the teacher.
In instruction he gives the first place to " that which may direct us
to heaven," and the second to " the study of prudence, or discreet
conduct, and management of ourselves in the several occurrences of
our lives, which most assists our quiet prosperous passage through
this present life." The infinity of real existence, in contrast with the
necessary finitude of human understanding and experience, is always
in his thoughts. This " dispropprtionateness " between the human
mind and the universe of reality imposes deliberation in the selection
of studies, and disregard for those which lie ouf of the way of a wise
man. Knowledge of what other men have thought is perhaps of too
little account with Locke. " It is an idle and useless thing to make
it one's business to study what have been other men's sentiments in
matters where only reason is to be judge. " In his Conduct of the
Understanding the pupil is invited to occupy the point at which " a
full view of all that relates to a question " is to be had, and at which
alone a rational discernment of truth is possible. The uneducated
mass of mankind, he complains, either " seldom reason at all," or
" put passion in the place of reason," or " for want of large, sound,
round-about sense " they direct their minds only to one part of the
evidence, "converse with one sort of men, read but one sort of books,
and will not come in the hearing of but one sort of notions, and so
carve out to themselves a little Goshen in the intellectual world,
where light shines, and, as they conclude, day blesses them; but the
rest of the vast expansion they give up to night and darkness,
and avoid coming near it." Hasty judgment, bias, absence of an
a priori " indifference " to what the evidence may_ in the end require
us to conclude, undue regard for authority, excessive love for custom
and antiquity, indolence and sceptical despair are among the states
LOCKE, JOHN
849
of mind marked by him as most apt to interfere with the formation
of beliefs in harmony with the Universal Reason that is active in the
universe.
IV. Philosophy. — The Essay Concerning Human Understanding
embodies Locke's philosophy. It was the first attempt on a great
scale, and in the Baconian spirit, to estimate critically the certainty
and the adequacy of human knowledge, when confronted with God
and the universe.
The " Introduction " to the Essay is the keynote to the whole.
The ill-fortune of men in their past endeavours to comprehend
themselves and their environment is attributed in a great measure
to their disposition to extend their inquiries into matters beyond the
reach of human understanding. To inquire with critical care into
" the original, certainty and extent of human knowledge, together with
the grounds and degrees of belief, opinion and assent," is accordingly
Locke's design in this Essay. Excluding from his enquiry " the phy-
sical consideration of the mind," he sought to make a faithful report,
based on an introspective study of consciousness, as to how far a
human understanding of the universe can reach. Although his
report might show that our knowledge at its highest must be far
short of a " universal or perfect comprehension of whatsoever is,"
it might still be " sufficient " for us, because " suited to our individual
state." The " light of reason," the " candle of the Lord," that is set
up in us may be found to shine bright enough for all our purposes.
If human understanding cannot fully solve the infinite problem of the
universe, man may at least see that at no stage of his finite experi-
ence is he necessarily the sport of chance, and that he can practically
secure his own wellbeing.
The last book of the Essay, which treats of Knowledge and Pro-
bability, is concerned more directly than the three preceding ones
with Locke's professed design. It has been suggested that Locke
may have begun with this book. It contains few references to the
foregoing parts of the Essay, and it might have appeared separately
without being much less intelligible than it is. The other books,
concerned chiefly with ideas and words, are more abstract, and may
have opened gradually on his mind as he studied more closely the
subject treated in the fourth book. For Locke saw that the ultimate
questions about our knowledge and its extent presuppose questions
about ideas. Without ideas knowledge is impossible. " Idea " is
thus a leading term in the Essay. It is used in a way peculiar to
himself — " the term which, I think, stands best for whatsoever is the
object of the understanding when a man thinks " or " whatever it is
which the mind can be employed about." But ideas themselves are,
he reminds us, " neither true nor false, being nothing but bare
appearances," phenomena as we might call them. Truth and false-
hood belong only to assertions or denials concerning ideas, that is, to
our interpretations of our ideas according to their mutual relations.
That none of our ideas are " innate " is the argument contained in
the first book. This means that the human mind, before any
Innate ideas are present to it, is a tabula rasa: it needs the
ideas quickening of ideas to become intellectually alive. The
inward purpose of this famous argument is apt to be over-
looked. It has been criticized as if it was a speculative controversy
between empiricism and intellectualism. For this Locke himself is
partly to blame. It is not easy to determine the antagonist he had
in view. Lord Herbert is referred to as a defender of innateness.
Locke was perhaps too little read in the literature of philosophy to
do full justice to those more subtle thinkers who, from Plato down-
wards, have recognized the need for categories of the understanding
and presuppositions of reason in the constitution of knowledge.
" Innate, " Lord Shaftesbury says, " is a word Mr Locke poorly plays
on." For the real question is not about the time when ideas entered
the mind, but " whether the constitution of man be such that, being
adult and grown up, the ideas of order and administration of a God
will not infallibly and necessarily spring up in him." This Locke
himself sometimes seems to allow. " That there are certain pro-
positions," we find him saying, " which, though the soul from the
beginning, or when a man is born, does not know, yet, by assistance
from the outward senses, and the help of some previous cultivation,
it may afterwards come certainly to know the truth of, is no more
than what I have affirmed in my first book " (" Epistle to Reader,"
in second edition). And much of our knowledge, as he shows in the
fourth book, is rational insight, immediate or else demonstrable, and
thus intellectually necessary in its constitution.
What Locke really objects to is, that any of our supposed know-
ledge should claim immunity from free criticism. He argues in the
first book against the innateness of our knowledge of God and of
morality; yet in the fourth book he finds that the existence of God
is demonstrable, being supported by causal necessity, without which
there can be no knowledge; and he also maintains that morality is
as demonstrable as pure mathematics. The positions are not in-
consistent. The demonstrable rational necessity, instead of being
innate, or conscious from our birth, may lie latent or subconscious
in the individual mind; but for all that, when we gradually become
more awake intellectually, such truths are seen to " carry their own
evidence along with them." Even in the first book he appeals to the
common reason, which he calls " common sense." " He would be
thought void of common sense who asked, on the one side, or, on the
other, went to give a reason, why ' it is impossible for the same thing
to be and not to be.' It carries its own light and evidence with it,
and needs no other proof : he that understands the terms assents to
it for its own sake, or else nothing else will ever be able to prevail
with him to do it " (bk. i. chap. 3, § 4).
The truth is that neither Locke, on the one hand, nor the intel-
lectualists of the I7th century, on the other, expressed their meaning
with enough of precision; if they had, Locke's argument would
probably have taken a form less open to the charge of mere empiri-
cism. Locke believed that in attacking " innate principles " he was
pleading for universal reasonableness instead of blind reliance on
authority, and was thus, as he says, not " pulling up the foundations
of knowledge," but " laying those foundations surer." When men
heard that there were propositions that could not be doubted, it was
a short and easy way to assume that what are only arbitrary pre-
judices are " innate " certainties, and therefore must be accepted
unconditionally. This " eased the lazy from the pains of search,
stopped the inquiry of the doubtful, concerning all that was once
styled innate. It was no small advantage to those who affected to
be masters and teachers to make this the principle of principles —
that principles must not be questioned." The assumption that they
were " innate " was enough " to take men off the use of their own
reason and judgment, and to put them upon believing and taking
upon trust without further examination. . . . Nor is it a small power
it gives one man over another to have the authority to make a man
swallow that for an innate principle which may serve his purpose who
teacheth them " (bk. i. chap. 4, § 24).
The second book proposes a hypothesis regarding the genesis
of our ideas and closes after an elaborate endeavour to verify it.
The hypothesis is, that all human ideas, even the most com-
plex and abstract and sublime, ultimately depend upon rf*"
" experience." Otherwise, what we take to be ideas are
only empty words. Here the important point is what human
" experience " involves. Locke says that our " ideas " all come,
either from the five senses or from reflective consciousness; and he
proposes to show that even those concerned with the Infinite depend
at last on one or other of these two sources: our " complex ideas ' are
all made up of " simple ideas," either from without or from within.
The " verification " of this hypothesis, offered in the thirteenth and
following chapters of the second book, goes to show in detail that
even those ideas which are " most abstruse," how remote soever they
may seem from original data of outward sense, or of inner conscious-
ness, " are only such as the understanding frames to itself by re-
peating and joining together simple ideas tnat it had at first, either
from perceiving objects of sense, or from reflection upon its own
operations."
To prove this, our thoughts of space, time, infinity, power, sub-
stance, personal identity, causality, and others which "seem most
remote from the supposed original " are examined in a " plain
historical method," and shown to depend either on (a) perception of
things external, through the five senses, or on (6) reflection upon
operations of the mind within. Reflection, " though it be not sense,
as having nothing to do with external objects," is yet, he says, " very
like it, and might properly enough be called internal sense." But
the suggestion that " sense " might designate both the springs of
experience is misleading, when we find in the sequel how much Locke
tacitly credits " reflection " with. The ambiguity of his language
makes opposite interpretations of this cardinal part of the Essay
possible; the best we can do is to compare one part with another,
and in doubtful cases to give him the benefit of the doubt.
Although the second book is a sort of inventory of our ideas, as
distinguished from the certainty and boundaries of our knowledge,
Locke even here makes the assumption that the " simple ideas " of
the five senses are practically qualities of things which exist without
us, and that the mental " operations " discovered by " reflection " are
those of a person continuously existing. He thus relieves himself
of the difficulty of having at the outset to explain how the immediate
data of outward sense and reflection are accepted as " qualities "
of things and persons. He takes this as a fact.
Such, according to Locke, are the only simple ideas which can
appear even in the sublimest human speculations. But the mind,
in becoming gradually stored with its " simple ideas " is able to
elaborate them in numberless modes and relations; although it is not
in the power of the most exalted wit or enlarged understanding to
invent or frame any new simple idea, not taken in in one or the other
of these two ways. All that man can imagine about the universe or
about God is necessarily confined to them. For proof of this Locke
would have any one try to fancy a taste which had never affected his
palate, or to frame the idea of a scent he had never felt, or an opera-
tion of mind, divine or human, foreign to all human consciousness.
The contrast and correlation of these two data of experience is
suggested in the chapter on the " qualities of matter " in which we
are introduced to a noteworthy vein of speculation
(bk. ii. chap. 8). This chapter, on " things and their v"a" '"
qualities," looks like an interpolation in an analysis of '
mere " ideas." Locke here treats simple ideas of the five senses
as qualities of outward things. And the sense data are, he
finds, partly (a) revelations of external things themselves in their
mathematical relations, and partly (6) sensations, boundless in
variety, which are somehow awakened in us through contact and
collision with things relatively to their mathematical relations.
Locke calls the former sort "primary, original or essential qualities
850
LOCKE, JOHN
of matter," and the others " secondary or derived qualities." The
primary, which are quantities rather than qualities, are inseparable
from matter, and virtually identical with the ideas we have of them.
On the other hand, there is nothing perceived in the mathematical
relations of bodies which in the least resembles their secondary
qualities. If there were no sentient beings in existence, the secondary
qualities would cease to exist, " except perhaps as unknown modes
of the primary, or, if not, as something still more obscure." On the
other hand, " solidity, extension, figure and motion would," he
assumes, " be really in the world as they are, whether there were any
sensible being to perceive them or not."
Thus far the outcome of what Locke teaches about matter is, that
it is Something capable of being expressed in terms of mathematical
„ quantity, and also in terms of our own sensations. A
further step was to suggest the ultimate dependence of the
secondary qualities of bodies upon " the bulk, figures, number,
situation and motions of the solid parts of which the bodies consist,"
these mathematical or primary qualities " existing as we think of
them whether or not they are perceived." This Locke proposes in a
hesitating way. For we, " not knowing what particular size, figure
and texture of parts they are on which depend, and from which result,
those qualities which make our complex idea, for example, of gold, it
is impossible we should know what other qualities result from, or
are incompatible with, the same constitution of the insensible parts
of gold; and so consequently must always coexist with that com-
plex idea we have of it, or else are inconsistent with it."
Some of the most remarkable chapters in the second book concern
what may be called " crucial instances " in verification of its funda-
mental hypothesis of the dependence of human knowledge upon the
simple ideas presented in our dual experience (bk. ii. ch. 13-28).
They carry us towards the ultimate mysteries which attract medi-
tative minds. The hypothesis, that even our most profound and
sublime speculations are all limited to data of the senses and of
reflection, is crucially tested by the " modes " and " substances " and
" relations " under which, in various degrees of complexity, we
somehow find ourselves obliged to conceive those simple phenomena.
Such are modes of quantity in space, and time and number, under
which Locke reports that we find ourselves mentally impelled towards
immensity, eternity and the innumerable^— in a word, towards
Infinity which seems to transcend quantity; then there is the
complex thought of Substance, to which we find ourselves mysteri-
ously impelled, when the simple phenomena of the senses come to be
regarded as qualities of " something "; again there is the obscure
idea of the identity of persons, notwithstanding their constant
changes of state ; and there is, above all, the inevitable tendency we
somehow have to refund a change into what we call its " Cause,"
with the associated idea of active power. Locke begins with our
complex ideas of Space, Succession or Time, and Number.
Space, he says, appears when we use our senses of sight and
touch; succession he finds "suggested" by all the changing
phenomena of sense, and by " what passes in our minds " ;
mmenslty numDer js "suggested by every object of our senses, and
every thought of our minds, by everything that either doth
exist or can be imagined." The modifications of which
these are susceptible he reports to be "inexhaustible and
truly infinite, extension alone affording a boundless field
to the mathematicians." But the mystery latent in our ideas of
space and time is, that " something in the mind " irresistibly hinders
us from allowing the possibility of any limit to either. We find our-
selves, when we try, compelled to lose our positive ideas of finite
spaces in the negative idea of Immensity or Boundlessness, and our
positive ideas of finite times in the negative thought of Endlessness.
We have never seen, and we cannot imagine, an object whose extent
is boundless. Yet we find when we reflect that something forces us
to think that space and time must be unlimited. Thus Locke seems
by implication to acknowledge something added by the mind to the
original "simple ideas" of extension and succession; though he
finds that what is added is not positively conceivable. When we
reflect on immensity and eternity, we find them negations of all
that is imaginable; and that whether we try infinite addition or
infinite subdivision. He accepts this fact; he does not inquire why
mind finds itself obliged to add without limit and to divide without
limit. He simply reports that immensity and eternity are inevitable
negative ideas, and also that every endeavour to realize them in
positive images must be an attempt to represent as quantity what is
beyond quantity. After all our additions we are as far from the
infinite idea as we were at the beginning.
Locke is too faithful to facts to overlook the ultimate mysteries
in human experience. This is further illustrated in his acknowledg-
ment of the inconceivable that is at the root of our idea of
* f"' Substance. He tries to phenomenalize it, and thus resolve
ana per- .^ :— *^ _: i_ u . i ^ i__ c. i_ *.i__i ;*. A i__
lessoess
;inti In-
finity.
soaallty.
it into simple ideas; but he finds that it cannot be
phenomenalized, and yet that we cannot dispense with
it. An unsubstantiated succession of phenomena, without a centre of
unity to which they are referable as quajities, is unintelligible: we
cannot have a language of adjectives without nouns. Locke had
some apprehension of this transcendent intellectual obligation.
According to his report," the mind " always obliges us to suppose
Something beyond positive phenomena to which the phenomena
must be attributed; but he was perplexed by this "confused
negative" idea. So for him the word substance means "only an
uncertain supposition of we know not what." If one were to ask him
what the substance is in which this colour and that taste or smell
inhere, " he would find himself in a difficulty like that of the Indian,
who, after saying that the world rested on an elephant, and the
elephant on a broad-backed tortoise, could only suppose the tortoise
to rest on ' Something, I know not what.' " The attempt to conceive
it is like the attempt positively to conceive immensity or eternity:
we are involved in an endless, ultimately incomprehensible, regress.
We fail when we try either positively to phenomenalize substance
or to dispense with the superphenomenal abstraction. Our only
positive idea is of an aggregate of phenomena. And it is only thus,
he says, that we can approach a positive conception of God, namely
by " enlarging indefinitely some of the simple ideas we received from
reflection." Why man must remain in this mental predicament,
Locke did not inquire. He only reported the fact. He likewise
struggled bravely to be faithful to fact in his report of the state in
which we find ourselves when we try to conceive continued personal
identity. The paradoxes in which he here gets involved illustrate
this (bk. ii. ch. 27).
Locke's thoughts about Causality and Active Power are especially
noteworthy, for he rests our knowledge of God and of the external
universe on those ultimate ideas. The intellectual demand „
for " the cause " of an event is what we find we cannot help aus
having; yet it is a demand for what in the end the mind cannot fully
grasp. Locke is content to trace the idea of " cause and effect,"
as far as mere natural science goes, to our "constant observation"
that " qualities and finite substances begin to exist, and receive their
existence from other beings which produce them." We find that
this connexion is what gives intelligibility to ceaseless and what
seemed chaotic changes, converting them into the divinely con-
catenated system which we call the universe." Locke seems hardly
to realize all that is implied in scientific prevision or expectation of
change. Anything, as far as " constant observation " tells us, might
a priori have been the natural cause of anything; and no finite
number of " observed " sequences, per se, can guarantee universality
and necessity. The idea of power, or active causation, on the other
hand, " is got," he acknowledges, not through the senses, but
" through our consciousness of our own voluntary agency, and there-
fore through reflection " (bk. ii. ch. 21). In bodies we observe
no active agency, only a sustained natural order in the succession
of passive sensuous phenomena. The true source of change in the
material world must be analogous to what we are conscious of when
we exert volition. Locke here unconsciously approaches the spiritual
view of active power in the physical universe afterwards taken by
Berkeley, forming the constructive principle of his philosophy.
Locke's book about Ideas leads naturally to his Third Book which
is concerned with Words, or the sensible signs of ideas. Here he
analyses " abstract ideas," and instructively illustrates
the confusion apt to be produced in them by the inevitable
imperfection of words. He unfolds the relations between
verbal signs and the several sorts of ideas; words being the means
for enabling us to treat ideas as typical, abstract and general.
" Some parts of this third book," concerning Words, Locke tells his
friend Molyneux, " though the thoughts were easy and clear enough,
yet cost me more pains to express than all the rest of my Essay.
And therefore I should not much wonder, if there be in some places
of it obscurity and doubtfulness."
The Fourth Book, about Knowledge proper and Probability,
closes the Essay. Knowledge, he says, is perception of relations
among ideas; it is expressed in our affirmations and .
negations; and real knowledge is discernment of the T
relations of ideas to what is real. In the foregoing part
of the Essay he had dealt with " ideas " and " simple
apprehension," here he is concerned with intuitive " judgment "
and demonstrative " reasoning," also with judgments and reasonings
about matters of fact. At the end of this patient search among our
ideas, he supposes the reader apt to complain that he has been "all
this while only building a castle in the air," and to ask what the
purpose of all this stir is, if we are not thereby carried beyond mere
ideas. " If it be true that knowledge lies' only in the agreement or
disagreement of ideas, the visions of an enthusiast and the reasonings
of a sober man will be equally certain. It is no matter how things
themselves are " (bk. iv. 4). This gives the keynote to the fourth
book. It does not, however, carry him into a critical analysis of the
rational constitution of knowledge, like Kant. Hume had not yet
shown the sceptical objections against conclusions which Locke
accepted without criticism. The subtle agnostic, who doubted
reason because reason could not be supported in the end by empirical
evidence, was less in his view than persons blindly resting on
authority or prejudice. Total scepticism he would probably have
regarded as unworthy of the serious attention of a wise man.
" Where we perceive the agreement or disagreement of any of our
ideas there is certain knowledge; and wherever we are sure these
ideas agree with the reality of things, there is certain real knowledge "
(bk. iv. ch. 4).
Locke's report about human knowledge and its narrow extent
forms the first thirteen chapters of the fourth book. The remainder
of the book is concerned for the most part with the probabilities
on which human life practically turns, as he and Butler are fond of
LOCKE, JOHN
851
reminding us. As regards kinds of knowledge, he finds that " all
knowledge we are capable of " must be assertion or denial of some
one of three sorts of relation among our ideas themselves,
Four sorts or ejse of reiations between our ideas and reality that
tkaow- ex;sts independently of us and our ideas. Accordingly,
* knowledge is concerned either with (a) relations of
identity and difference among ideas, as when we say that
" blue is not yellow "; or (i) with mathematical relations, as that
" two triangles upon equal bases between two parallels must be
equal " ; or (c) in assertions that one quality does or does not coexist
with another in the same substance, as that " iron is susceptible of
magnetical impressions, or that ice is not hot "; or (d) with onto-
logical reality, independent of our perceptions, as that " God
exists " or " I exist " or " the universe exists." The first sort is
analytical; mathematical and ethical knowledge represents the
second; physical science forms the third; real knowledge of self,
God and the world constitutes the fourth.
Locke found important differences in the way in which knowledge
of any sort is reached. In some instances the known relation is self-
evident, as when we judge intuitively that a circle cannot
'"tuition ke a triangle| or that three must be more than two. In
other cases the known relation is perceived to be intellectu-
monstra- a||y necessary through the medium of premisses, as in a
mathematical demonstration. All that is strictly know-
ledge is reached in these two ways. But there is a third sort, namely
sense-perception, which hardly deserves the name. For " our per-
ceptions of the particular existence of finite beings without us ' go
beyond mere probability, yet they are not purely rational. There is
nothing self-contradictory in the supposition that our perceptions of
things external are illusions, although we are somehow unable to
doubt them. We find ourselves inevitably " conscious of a different
sort of perception," when we actually see the sun by day and when
we only imagine the sun at night.
Locke next inquired to what extent knowledge — in the way either
of intuitive certainty, demonstrative certainty, or sense perception —
is possible, in regard to each of the four (already mentioned) sorts of
knowable relation. There is only one of the four in which our
knowledge is coextensive with our ideas. It is that of " identity and
diversity " : we cannot be conscious at all without distinguishing,
and every affirmation necessarily implies negation. The second sort
of knowable relation is sometimes intuitively and sometimes demon-
strably discernible. Morality, Locke thinks, as well as mathematical
quantity, is capable of being demonstrated. " Where there is no
property there is no injustice," is an example of a proposition "as
certain as any demonstration in Euclid." Only we are more apt to
be biassed, and thus to leave reason in abeyance, in dealing with
questions of morality than in dealing with problems in mathematics.
Turning from abstract mathematical and moral relations to
concrete relations of coexistence and succession among phenomena —
the third sort of knowable relation — Locke finds the light of pure
reason disappear; although these relations form " the greatest and
most important part of what we desire to know." Of these, including
as they do all inductive science, he reports that demonstrable know-
ledge " is very short, if indeed we have any at all "; and are not
thrown wholly on presumptions of probability, or else left in ignor-
ance. Man cannot attain perfect and infallible science of bodies.
For natural science depends, he thinks, on knowledge of the relations
between their secondary qualities on the one hand, and the mathe-
matical qualities of their atoms on the other, or else " on something
yet more remote from our comprehension." Now, as perception of
these atoms and their relations is beyond us, we must be satisfied
with inductive presumptions, for which " experimental verification "
affords, after all, only conclusions that wider experience may prove
to be inadequate. But this moral venture Locke accepts as " suffi-
cient for our purposes."
Our knowledge under Locke's fourth category of relations— real
existence — includes (a) intuitive perceptions of our own existence;
P 1 It- ^ demonstrable certainty of the existence of God ; and
(c) actual perception of the existence of surrounding things,
as long as, but only as long as the things are present to
sense. " If I doubt all other things, that very doubt makes me
perceive my own existence, and will not suffer me to doubt of that "
(iv. 9. 3). Faith in the existence of God is virtually with Locke
an expression of faith in the principle of active causality in its
ultimate universality. Each person knows that he now exists, and
is convinced that he had a beginning; with not less intuitive certainty
he knows that " nothing can no more produce any real being than it
can be equal to two right angles." His final conclusion is that there
must be eternally " a most powerful and most knowing Being, in
which, as the origin of all, must be contained all the perfections that
can ever after exist," and out of which can come only what it has
already in itself; so that as the cause of my mind, it must be Mind.
There is thus causal necessity for Eternal Mind, or what we call
" God." This is cautiously qualified thus in a letter to Anthony
Collins, written by Locke a few months before he died: " Though I
call the thinking faculty in me ' mind,' yet I cannot, because of that
name, equal it in anything to that infinite and incomprehensible
Being, which, for want of right and distinct conceptions, is called
' Mind ' also." But the immanence of God.in the things and persons
that compose the universal order, with what this implies, is a con-
ra 'on e
ception foreign to Locke, whose habitual conception was of an
extra-mundane deity, the dominant conception in the 1 8th century.
Turning from our knowledge of Spirit to our knowledge of Matter,
nearly all that one can affirm or deny about " things external is,"
according to Locke, not knowledge but venture or pre- jtnoB,;e(/-e
sumptive trust. We have, strictly speaking, no "know- 0/t/,e
ledge" of real beings beyond our own self-conscious exist- externaj
ence, the existence of God, and the existence of objects worilji
of sense as long as they are actually present to sense.
" When I see an external object at a distance, a man for instance,
I cannot but be satisfied of his existence while I am looking at him.
(Locke might have added that when one only ' sees a man ' it is
merely his visible qualities that are perceived ; his other qualities
are as little ' actual present sensations ' as if he were out of the range
of sense.) But when the man leaves me alone, I cannot be certain
that he still exists." " There is no necessary connexion between his
existence a minute since (when he was present to any sense of sight)
and his existence now (when he is absent from all my senses) ; by a
thousand ways he may have ceased to be. I have not that certainty
of his continued existence which we call knowledge; though the
great likelihood of it puts it past doubt. But this is but probability
and not knowledge " (chap. II, § 9). Accordingly, purely rational
science of external Nature is, according to Locke, impossible. All
our " interpretations of nature " are inadequate; only reasonable
probabilities, not final rational certainties. This boundless region
affords at the best probabilities, ultimately grounded on moral faith,
all beyond lies within the veil. Such is Locke's "plain, matter-of-
fact " account of the knowledge of the Real that is open to man.
We learn little from Locke as to the rationale of the probabilities
on which man thus depends when he deals with the past,
the distant or the future. The concluding chapters of the *
fourth book contain wise advice to those whose lives are
passed in an ever-changing environment, for avoiding
the frequent risk of error in their conclusions, with or
without the help of syllogism, the office of which, as a means of
discovery, is here critically considered.
Investigation of the foundation of inductive inference was re-
sumed by Hume where Locke left it. With a still humbler view of
human reason than Locke's, Hume proposed as " a subject , ocjte aoi,
worthy of curiosity," to inquire into " the nature of that Hum
evidence which assures us of any real existence and matter
of fact, beyond the present testimony of our senses and the
records of our memory; a part of philosophy that has been little
cultivated either by the ancients or the moderns." Hume argues
that custom is a sufficient practical explanation of this gradual en-
largement of our objective experience, and that no deeper explanation
is open to man. All beyond each present transitory " impression "
and the stores of memory is therefore reached blindly, through
custom or habitual association. Associative tendency, individual or
inherited, has since been the favourite constructive factor of human
experience in Empirical Philosophy. This factor is not prominent
in Locke's Essay. A short chapter on " association of ideas " was
added to the second book in the fourth edition. And the tendency! to
associate is there presented, not as the fundamental factor of human
knowledge, but as a chief cause of human error.
Kant's critical analysis of pure reason is more foreign to Locke than
the attempts of i8th- and 19th-century associationists and evolution-
ists to explain experience and science. Kant's aim was to iocjte and
show the necessary rational constitution of experience. Kaat
Locke's design was less profound. It was his distinction to
present to the modern world, in his own " historical plain method,"
perhaps the largest assortment ever made by any individual of facts
characteristic of human understanding. Criticism of the presupposi-
tions implied in those facts — by Kant and his successors, and in
Britain more unpretentiously by Reid, all under the stimulus of Hume's
sceptical criticism — has employed philosophers since the author of the
Essay on Human Understanding collected materials that raised deeper
philosophical problems than he tried to solve. Locke's mission was
to initiate modern criticism of the foundation and limits of our
knowledge. Hume negatively, and the German and Scottish
schools constructively, continued what it was Locke's glory to have
begun.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The Essay concerning Human Understanding has
passed through more editions than any classic in modern philosophical
literature. Before the middle of the l8th century it had reached
thirteen, and it has now passed through some forty editions, besides
being translated into Latin, French, Dutch, German and modern
Greek. There are also several abridgments. In addition to those
criticisms which appeared when Locke was alive, among the most
important are [Leibnitz's Nouveaux Essais sur I'entendement humain
— written about 1700 and published in 1765, in which each chapter
of the Essay of Locke is examined in a corresponding chapter by
Leibnitz; Cousin's " Ecole sensualiste: systeme de Locke," in his
Histoire de la philosophie au XVIII' siecle (1829) ; and the criticisms
in T. H. Green's Introduction to the Philosophical Works of Hume
(1874). The Essay, with Prolegomena, biographical, critical and
historical, edited by Professor Campbell Fraser and published by the
Oxford Clarendon Press in 1894, is the only annotated edition, unless
the Nouveaux Essais of Leibnitz may be reduced to this category.
The Letters on Toleration, Thoughts on Education and The
852
LOCKE, M.— LOCKHART, G.,
Reasonableness of Christianity have also gone through many editions,
and been translated into different languages.
The first collected edition of Locke's Works was in 1714, in three
folio volumes. The best is that by Bishop Law, in four quartos (1777).
The one most commonly known is in ten volumes (1812). .
The floge of Jean le Clerc (Bibliotheque choisie, 1705) has been the
basis of the memoirs of Locke prefixed to the successive editions of
his Works, or contained in biographical dictionaries. In 1829 a Life
of Locke (2nd ed. in two volumes, with considerable additions, 1830),
was produced by Peter, 7th Baron King, a descendant of Locke's
cousin, Anne Locke. This adds a good deal to what was previously
known, as Lord King was able to draw from the mass of correspond-
ence, journals and commonplace books of Locke in his possession.
In the same year Dr Thomas Foster published some interesting
letters from Locke to Benjamin Furly. The most copious account
of the life is contained in the two volumes by H. R. Fox-Bourne
(1876), the results of laborious research among the Shaftesbury
Papers, Locke MSS. in the British Museum, the Public Record
Office, the Lambeth, Christ Church and Bodleian libraries, and in the
Remonstrants' library at Amsterdam. Monographs on Locke by
T. H. Fowler in 1880, in " English Men of Letters," and by Fraser,
in 1890, in Blackwood's " Philosophical Classics " may be mentioned ;
also addresses by Sir F. Pollock and Fraser at the bicentenary com-
memoration by the British Academy of Locke's death, published in
the Proceedings of the Academy (1904). See also C. Bastide, John
Locke; ses theories politiques et leur influence en Angleterre (Paris,
1907) ; H. Ollion, La Philosophic generale de J. L. (1909). (A. C. F.)
LOCKE, MATTHEW (c. 1630-1677), English musician, perhaps
the earliest English writer for the stage, was born at Exeter,
where he became a chorister in the cathedral. His music,
written with Christopher Gibbons (son of Orlando Gibbons),
for Shirley's masque Cupid and Death, was performed in London
in 1653. He wrote some music for Davenant's Siege of Rhodes
in 1656; and in 1661 was appointed composer in ordinary to
Charles II. During the following years he wrote a number of
anthems for the Chapel Royal, and excited some criticism on
the score of novelty, to which he replied with considerable
heat (Modern Church Music; pre-accused, censured and
obstructed in its Performance before His Majesty, April ist, 1666,
&•<;.; copies in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, and the
Royal College of Music). A good deal of music for the theatre
followed, the most important being for Davenant's productions
of The Tempest (1667) and of Macbeth (1672), but some doubt
as to this latter has arisen, Purcell, Eccles or Leveridge, being
also credited with it. He also composed various songs and
instrumental pieces, and published some curious works on musical
theory. He died in August 1677, an elegy being written by Purcell.
LOCKERBIE, a municipal and police burgh of Dumfriesshire,
Scotland, in the district of Annandale, 14^ m. E.N.E. of Dumfries
by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 2358. It has long been
famous for its cattle and sheep sales, but more particularly
for the great August lamb fair, the largest in Scotland, at which
as many as 126,000 lambs have been sold. The town hall and
Easton institute are in the Scottish Baronial style. The police
station is partly accommodated in an ancient square tower,
once the stronghold of the Johnstones, for a long period the
ruling family under whose protection the town gradually grew
up. At Dryfe Sands, about 2 m. to the W., a bloody encounter
took place in 1593 between the Johnstones and Maxwells.
The Maxwells were pursued into Lockerbie and almost exter-
minated; hence "Lockerbie Lick" became a proverbial
expression, signifying an overwhelming defeat.
LOCKER-LAMPSON, FREDERICK (1821-1895), English man
of letters, was born, on the 29th of May 1821, at Greenwich
Hospital. His father, who was Civil Commissioner of the
Hospital, was Edward Hawke Locker, youngest son of that
Captain William Locker who gave Nelson the memorable
advice " to lay a Frenchman close, and beat him." His mother,
Eleanor Mary Elizabeth Boucher, was a daughter of the Rev.
Jonathan Boucher, vicar of Epsom and friend of George Washing-
ton. After a desultory education, Frederick Locker began life
in a colonial broker's office. Soon deserting this uncongenial
calling, he obtained a clerkship in Somerset House, whence he
was transferred to Lord Haddington's private office at the
Admiralty. Here he became deputy-reader and precis writer.
In 1850 he married Lady Charlotte Bruce, daughter of the Lord
Elgin who brought the famous marbles to England, and sister
of Lady Augusta Stanley. After his marriage he left the Civil
Service, in consequence of ill-health. In 1857 he published
London Lyrics, a slender volume of 90 pages, which, with sub-
sequent extensions, constitutes his poetical legacy. Lyra
Elegantiarum (1867), an anthology of light and familiar verse,
and Patchwork (1879), a book of extracts, were his only other
publications. In 1872 Lady Charlotte Locker died. Two years
later Locker married Miss Hannah Jane Lampson, the only
daughter of Sir Curtis Miranda Lampson, Bart., of Rowfant,
Sussex, and in 1885 took his wife's surname. At Rowfant he
died on the 3oth of May 1895. Chronic ill-health debarred
Locker from any active part in life, but it did not prevent his
delighting a wide circle of friends by -his gifts as a host and
raconteur, and from accumulating many treasures as a connoisseur.
His books are catalogued in the volume called the Rowfant
Library (1886), to which an appendix (1900) was added, after
his death, under the superintendence of his eldest son. As a
poet, Locker belongs to the choir who deal with the gay rather
than the grave in verse — with the polished and witty rather
than the lofty or emotional. His good taste kept him as far
from the broadly comic on the one side as his kind heart saved
him from the purely cynical on the other. To something of
Prior, of Praed and of Hood he added qualities of his own which
lent his work distinction — a distinction in no wise diminished
by his unwearied endeavour after directness and simplicity.
A posthumous volume of Memoirs, entitled My Confidences (1896),
and edited by his son-in-law, Mr Augustine Birrell, gives an interest-
ing idea of his personality and a too modest estimate of his gifts as
a poet. (A. D.)
LOCKHART, GEORGE (1673-1731), of Carnwath, Scottish
writer and politician, was a member of a Lanarkshire family
tracing descent from Sir Simon Locard (the name being originally
territorial, de Loch Ard), who is said to have accompanied Sir
James Douglas on his expedition to the East with the heart
of Bruce, which relic, according to Froissart, Locard brought
home from Spain when Douglas fell in battle against the Moors,
and buried in Melrose Abbey; this incident was the origin of
the " man's heart within a fetterlock " borne on the Lockhart
shield, which in turn perhaps led to the altered spelling of
the surname. George Lockhart's grandfather was Sir James
Lockhart of Lee (d. 1674), a lord of the court of session with the
title of Lord Lee, who commanded a regiment at the battle of
Preston. Lord Lee's eldest son, Sir William Lockhart of Lee
(1621-1675), after fighting on the king's side in the Civil War,
attached himself to Oliver Cromwell, whose niece he married,
and by whom he was appointed commissioner for the administra-
tion of justice in Scotland in 1652, and English ambassador
at the French court in 1656, where he greatly distinguished
himself by his successful diplomacy. Lord Lee's second son,
Sir George Lockhart (c. 1630-1689), was lord-advocate in
Cromwell's time, and was celebrated for his persuasive eloquence;
in 1674, when he was disbarred for alleged disrespect to the court
of session in advising an appeal to parliament, fifty barristers
showed their sympathy for him by withdrawing^ from practice.
Lockhart was readmitted in 1676, and became the leading
advocate in political trials, in which he usually appeared for the
defence. He was appointed lord-president of the court of session
in 1685; and was shot in the streets of Edinburgh on the 3ist
of March 1689 by John Chiesley, against whom the lord-president
had adjudicated a cause. Sir George Lockhart purchased the
extensive estates of the earls of Carnwath in Lanarkshire, which
were inherited by his eldest son, George, whose mother was
Philadelphia, daughter of Lord Wharton.
George Lockhart, who was member for the city of Edinburgh
in the Scottish parliament, was appointed a commissioner for
arranging the union with England in 1705. After the union
he continued to represent Edinburgh, and later the Wigton
burghs. His sympathies were with the Jacobites, whom he
kept informed of all the negotiations for the union; in 1713
he took part in an abortive movement aiming at the repeal of
the union. He was deeply implicated in the rising of 1715, the
preparations for which he assisted at Carnwath and at Dryden,
LOCKHART, J. G.
853
his Edinburgh residence. He was imprisoned in Edinburgh
castle, but probably, through the favour of the duke of Argyll,
he was released without being brought to trial; but his brother
Philip was taken prisoner at the battle of Preston and condemned
to be shot, the sentence being executed on the 2nd of December
1715. After his liberation Lockhart became a secret agent of
the Pretender; but his correspondence with the prince fell into
the hands of the government in 1727, compelling him to go
into concealment at Durham until he was able to escape abroad.
Argyll's influence was again exerted in Lockhart's behalf, and
in 1728 he was permitted to return to Scotland, where he lived
in retirement till his death in a duel on the I7th of December
1731. Lockhart was the author of Memoirs of the A fairs of
Scotland, dealing with the reign of Queen Anne till the union
with England, first published in 1714. These Memoirs, together
with Lockhart's correspondence with the Pretender, and one or
two papers of minor importance, were published in two volumes
in 1817, forming the well-known " Lockhart Papers," which are
a valuable authority for the history of the Jacobites.
Lockhart married Eupheme Montgomerie, daughter of
Alexander, gth earl of Eglinton, by whom he had a large family.
His grandson James, who assumed his mother's name of Wishart
in addition to that of Lockhart, was in the Austrian service
during the Seven Years' War, and was created a baron and count
of the Holy Roman Empire. He succeeded to the estates of Lee
as well as of Carnwath, both of which properties passed, on the
death of his son Charles without issue in 1802, to his nephew
Alexander, who was created a baronet in 1806.
See The Lockhart Papers (2 vols., London, 1817); Andrew Lang,
History of Scotland (4 vols., London, 1900). For the story of Sir
Simon Lockhart's adventures with the heart of the Bruce, see Sir
Walter Scott's The Talisman. (R. J. M.)
LOCKHART, JOHN GIBSON (1794-1854), Scottish writer and
editor, was born on the i4th of July 1794 in the manse of Cam-
busnethan in Lanarkshire, where his father, Dr John Lockhart,
transferred in 1796 to Glasgow, was minister. His mother,
who was the daughter of the Rev. John Gibson, of Edinburgh,
was a woman of considerable intellectual gifts. He was sent
to the Glasgow high school, where he showed himself clever
rather than industrious. He fell into ill-health, and had to be
removed from school before he was twelve; but on his recovery
he was sent at this early age to Glasgow University, and displayed
so much precocious learning, especially in Greek, that he was
offered a Snell exhibition at Oxford. He was not fourteen when
he entered Balliol College, where he acquired a great store of
knowledge outside the regular curriculum. He read French,
Italian, German and Spanish, was interested in classical and
British antiquities, and became versed in heraldic and genea-
logical lore. In 1813 he took a first class in classics in the final
schools. For two years after leaving Oxford he lived chiefly in
Glasgow before settling to the study of Scottish law in Edinburgh,
where he was called to the bar in 1816. A tour on the continent
in 1817, when he visited Goethe at Weimar, was made possible
by the kindness of the publisher Blackwood, who advanced
money for a promised translation of SchlegePs Lectures on the
History of Literature, which was not published until 1838.
Edinburgh was then the stronghold of the Whig party, whose
organ was the Edinburgh Review, and it was not till 1817 that
the Scottish Tories found a means of expression in Blackwood" s
Magazine. After a somewhat hum-drum opening, Blackwood
suddenly electrified the Edinburgh world by an outburst of
brilliant criticism. John Wilson (Christopher North) and
Lockhart had joined its staff in 1817. Lockhart no doubt took
his share in the caustic and aggressive articles which marked the
early years of Blackwood; but his biographer, Mr Andrew Lang,
brings evidence to show that he was not responsible for the
virulent articles on Coleridge and on " The Cockney School of
Poetry," that is on Leigh Hunt, Keats and their friends. He
has been persistently accused of the later Blackwood article
(August 1818) on Keats, but he showed at any rate a real apprecia-
tion of Coleridge and Wordsworth. He contributed to Black-
wood many spirited translations of Spanish ballads, which in
1823 were published separately. In 1818 the brilliant and
handsome young man attracted the notice of Sir Walter Scott,
and the acquaintance soon ripened into an intimacy which
resulted in a marriage between Lockhart and Scott's eldest
daughter Sophia, in April r82o. Five years of domestic happiness
followed, with winters spent in Edinburgh and summers at a
cottage at Chiefswood, near Abbotsford, where Lockhart's two
eldest children, John Hugh and Charlotte, were born; a second
son, Walter, was born later at Brighton. In 1820 John Scott,
the editor of the London Magazine, wrote a series of articles
attacking the conduct of Blackwood's Magazine, and making
Lockhart chiefly responsible for its extravagances. A corre-
spondence followed, in which a meeting between Lockhart and
John Scott was proposed, with Jonathan Henry Christie and
Horace Smith as seconds. A series of delays and complicated
negotiations resulted early in 1821 in a duel between Christie
and John Scott, in which Scott was killed. This unhappy affair,
which has been the subject of much misrepresentation, is fully
discussed in Mr Lang's book on Lockhart.
Between 1818 and 1825 Lockhart worked indefatigably. In
1819 Peter's Letters to his Kinsfolk appeared, and in 1822 he
edited Peter Motteux's edition of Don Quixote, to which he
prefixed a life of Cervantes. Four novels followed: Valerius
in 182 r, Some Passages in the Life of Adam Blair, Minister of
Gospel at Cross Meikle in 1822, Reginald Dalton in 1823 and
Matthew Wald in 1824. But his strength did not lie in novel
writing, although the vigorous quality of Adam Blair has been
recognized by modern critics. In 1825 Lockhart accepted the
editorship of the Quarterly Review, which had been in the hands
of Sir John Taylor Coleridge since Gifford's resignation in 1824.
He had now established his literary position, and, as the next
heir to his unmarried half-brother's property in Scotland, Milton
Lockhart, he was sufficiently independent, though he had aban-
doned the legal profession. In London he had great social
success, and was recognized as a brilliant editor. He contributed
largely to the Quarterly Renew himself, his biographical articles
being especially admirable. He showed the old railing spirit
in an amusing but violent article in the Quarterly on Tennyson's
Poems of 1833, in which he failed to discover the mark of genius.
He continued to write for Blackwood; he produced for Constable's
Miscellany in 1828 what remains the most charming of the bio-
graphies of Burns; and he undertook the superintendence of
the series called " Murray's Family Library," which he opened
in 1829 with a History of Napoleon. But his chief work was the
Life of Sir Walter Scott (7 vols., 1837-1838; 2nd ed., 10 vols.,
1839). There were not wanting those in Scotland who taxed
Lockhart with ungenerous exposure of his subject, but to most
healthy minds the impression conveyed by the biography was,
and is, quite the opposite. Carlyle did justice to many of its
excellencies in a criticism contributed to the London and West-
minster Review (1837). Lockhart's account of the transactions
between Scott and the Ballantynes and Constable caused great
outcr>r; and in the discussion that followed he showed unfor-
tunate bitterness by his pamphlet, " The Ballantyne Humbug
handled." The Life of Scott has been called, after Boswell's
Johnson, the most admirable biography in the English language.
The proceeds, which were considerable, Lockhart resigned for
the benefit of Scott's creditors.
The close of Lockhart's life was saddened by family bereave-
ment, resulting in his own breakdown in health and spirits.
His eldest boy (the suffering " Hugh Littlejohn " of Scott's
Tales of a Grandfather) died in 1831; Scott himself in 1832;
Mrs Lockhart in 1837; and the surviving son, Walter Lockhart,
in 1852. Resigning the editorship of the Quarterly Review in
1853, he spent the next winter in Rome, but returned to England
without recovering his health; and being taken to Abbotsford
by his daughter Charlotte, who had become Mrs James Robert
Hope-Scott, he died there on the 2Sth of November 1854. He
was buried in Dryburgh Abbey, near Sir Walter Scott.
Lockhart's Life (2 vols., London and New York, 1897) was written
by Andrew Lang. A. W. Pollard's edition of the Life of Scott (1900)
is the best.
LOCKHART, SIR W. S. A.— LOCKROY
LOCKHART, SIR WILLIAM STEPHEN ALEXANDER (1841-
1900), British general, was born in Scotland on the 2nd of
September 1841, his father being a Lanarkshire clergyman.
He entered the Indian army in 1858, in the Bengal native infantry.
He served in the Indian Mutiny, the Bhutan campaign (1864-66),
the Abyssinian expedition (1867-68; mentioned in despatches),
the Hazara Black Mountain expedition (1868-69; mentioned in
despatches). From 1869 to 1879 he acted as deputy-assistant
and assistant quartermaster-general in Bengal. In 1877 he was
military attache with the Dutch army in Acheen. He served
in the Afghan War of 1878-80, was mentioned in despatches
and made a C.B., and from 1880 to 1885 was D.Q.G. in the
intelligence branch at headquarters. He commanded a brigade
in the Third Burmese War (1886-87), and was made K.C.B., C.S.I.,
and received the thanks of the government. An attack of fever
brought him to England, where he was employed as assistant
military secretary for Indian affairs; but in 1890 he returned
to India to take command of the Punjab frontier force, and for
five years was engaged in various expeditions against the hill
tribes. After the Waziristan campaign in 1894-95 he was made
K.C.S.I. He became full general in 1896, and in 1897 he was
given the command against the Afridis and Mohmands, and
conducted the difficult Tirah campaign with great skill. He
was made G.C.B., and in 1898 became commander-in-chief in
India. He died on the i8th of March 1900. Sir William Lockhart
was not only a first-rate soldier, but also had a great gift for
dealing with the native tribesmen. Among the latter he had the
sobriquet of Amir Sahib, on account of their respect and affection
for him.
LOCK HAVEN, a city and the county-seat of Clinton county,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the west branch of the Susquehanna
river, near the mouth of Bald Eagle Creek, about 70 m. N.N.W.
of Harrisburg. Pop. (1900) 7210 (618 foreign-born and 122
negroes); (1910) 7772. It is served by branches of the Pennsyl-
vania and the New York Central & Hudson River railways and
by electric interurban railways. The city is pleasantly situated
in an agricultural region, and there are large deposits of cement
and of fire-brick clay in the vicinity. Lock Haven is the seat of
the Central State Normal School (opened 1877), and has a public
library and a hospital. There are various manufactures. The
municipality owns and operates the water-works. The locality
was settled in 1769. A town was founded in 1833, the Penn-
sylvania Canal (no longer in use here) was completed to this
point in 1834, and the name of the place was suggested by two
canal locks and the harbour, or haven, for rafts in the river.
Lock Haven was made the county-seat immediately after the
erection of Clinton county in 1839, was incorporated as a borough
in 1840, and first chartered as a city in 1870.
LOCKPORT, a city of Will county, Illinois, U.S.A., on the
Des Plaines river and the Illinois & Michigan Canal, and the
terminus of the Chicago Sanitary District Drainage Canal, about
33 m. S.W.of Chicago and 4 m. N.N.E. of Joliet. Pop. (1900)
2659 (552 being foreign-born and 130 negroes); (1910) 2555.
Lockport is served by the Chicago & Alton, and the Atchison,
Topeka & Santa Fe railways, and by the Chicago & Joliet Electric
railway. It is in a picturesque farming country, and there are
good limestone quarries in the valley of the Des Plaines river.
It has manufactures and a considerable trade, especially in grain.
A settlement was made here about 1827; in 1837 the site was
chosen as headquarters for the Illinois & Michigan Canal and a
village was laid out; it was incorporated in 1853, and was
chartered as a city in 1904. In 1892 work was begun on the
Chicago Drainage Canal, whose controlling works are here and
whose plant, developing 40,000 h. p. from the 40 ft. fall between
Joliet and Lockport, supplies Lockport with cheap power and has
made it a manufacturing rather than a commercial city.
LOCKPORT, a city and the county-seat of Niagara county,
New York, U.S.A., on the Erie Canal, 26 m. by rail N. by E. of
Buffalo and 56 m. W. of Rochester. Pop. (1900) 16,581, of
whom 2036 were foreign-born and 160 were negroes; (1910
census) 17,970. It is served by the New York Central &
Hudson River and the Erie railways, by the International railway
(electric interurban), and by the Erie Canal. The city owes its
name to the five double locks of the canal, which here falls 66 ft.
(over a continuation of the Niagara escarpment locally known
as " Mountain Ridge ") from the level of Lake Erie to that of
the Genesee river. In 1909 a scheme was on foot to replace these
five locks by a huge lift lock and to construct a large harbour
immediately W. of the city. The surplus water from Tonawanda
Creek, long claimed both by the Canal and by the Lockport
manufacturers, after supplying the canal furnishes water-power,
and electric power is derived from Niagara. The factory
products, mostly paper and wood-pulp, flour and cereal foods,
and foundry and machine-shop products, were valued in 1905
at $5,807,980. Lockport lies in a rich farming and fruit (especi-
ally apple and pear) country, containing extensive sandstone and
Niagara limestone quarries, and is a shipping point for the fruits
and grains and the limestone and sandstone of the surrounding
country. Many buildings in the business part of the city are
heated by the Holly distributing system, which pipes steam
from a central station or plant, and originated in Lockport.
The city owns and operates the water-works, long operated under
the Holly system, which, as well as the Holly distributing
system, was devised by Birdsill Holly, a civil engineer of Lock-
port. In 1909 a new system was virtually completed, water
being taken from the Niagara river at Tonawanda and pumped
thence to a stand-pipe in Lockport.
The site, that of the most easterly village in New York state
held by the Neutral Nation of Indians, was part of the tract
bought by the Holland Company in 1792-1793. Subsequently
most of the land on which the city stands was bought from the
Holland Company by Esek Brown, the proprietor of a local
tavern, and fourteen others, but there were few settlers until
after 1820. In 1822 the place was made the county-seat, and in
1823 it was much enlarged by the settlement here of workmen
on the Erie Canal, and was the headquarters for a time of the
canal contractors. It was incorporated as a village in 1829, was
reached by the Erie railway in 1852, and in 1865 was chartered
as a city.
LOCKROY, EDOUARD (1838- ), French politician, son
of Joseph Philippe Simon (1803-1891), an actor and dramatist
who took the name of Lockroy, was born in Paris on the i8th
of July 1838. He had begun by studying art, but in 1860 en-
listed as a volunteer under Garibaldi. The next three years
were spent in Syria as secretary to Ernest Renan, and on his
return to Paris he embarked in militant journalism against the
second empire in the Figaro, the Diable A quatre, and eventually
in the Rappel, with which his name was thenceforward intimately
connected. He commanded a battalion during the siege of
Paris, and in February 1871 was elected deputy to the National
Assembly where he sat on the extreme left and protested against
the preliminaries of peace. In March he signed the proclamation
• for the election of the Commune, and resigned his seat as deputy.
Arrested at Vanves he remained a prisoner at Versailles and
Chartres until June when he was released without being tried. He
was more than once imprisoned for violent articles in the press,
and in 1872 for a duel with Paul de Cassagnac. He was returned
to the Chamber in 1873 as Radical deputy for Bouches-du-
Rhone in 1876, 1877 and 1881 for Aix, and in 1881 he was also
elected in the nth arrondissement of Paris. He elected to
sit for Paris, and was repeatedly re-elected. During the elections
of 1893 he was shot at by a cab-driver poet named Moore, but
was not seriously injured. For the first ten years of his parlia-
mentary life he voted consistently with the extreme left, but
then adopted a more opportunist policy, and gave his unreserved
support to the Brisson ministry of 1885. In the new Freycinet
cabinet formed in January he held the portfolio of commerce
and industry, which he retained in the Goblet ministry of 1886-
1887. In 1885 he had been returned at the head of the poll for
Paris, and his inclusion in the Freycinet ministry was taken
to indicate a prospect of reconciliation between Parisian Radi-
calism and official Republicanism. During his tenure of the
portfolio of commerce and industry he made the preliminary
arrangements for the Exposition of 1889, and in a witty letter
LOCKWOOD, SIR F.— LOCOMOTOR ATAXIA
855
he defended the erection of the Tour Eiffel against artistic Paris.
After the Panama and Boulangist scandals he became one of the
leading politicians of the Radical party. He was vice-president
of the Chamber in 1894 and in 1895, when he became minister
of marine under Leon Bourgeois. His drastic measures of reform
alarmed moderate politicians, but he had the confidence of the
country, and held the same portfolio under Henri Brisson (1898)
and Charles Dupuy (1898-1899). He gave his support to the
Waldeck-Rousseau Administration, but actively criticized the
marine policy of Camille Pelletan in the Combes ministry of
1902-1905, during which period he was again vice-president
of the Chamber. M. Lockroy was a persistent and successful
advocate of a strong naval policy, in defence of which he pub-
lished La Marine de Guerre (1890), Six mois rue Royale (1897) , La
Defense navale (1900), Du Weser d la Vistula (1901), Les Marines
fran$aise et allemande (1904), Le Programme naval (1906). His
other works include M. de Moltke et la guerre future (1891) and
Journal d'une bourgeoise pendant la Revolution (1881) derived
from the letters of his great-grandmother. M. Lockroy married
in 1877 Madame Charles Hugo, the daughter-in-law of the
poet.
LOCKWOOD, SIR FRANK (1846-1897), English lawyer, was
born at Doncaster. His grandfather and great-grandfather
were mayors of Doncaster, and the former for some years filled
the office of judge on the racecourse. He was educated at a
private school, at Manchester grammar school, and Caius College,
Cambridge. Called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1872, he
joined the old midland circuit, afterwards going to the north-
eastern, making in his first year 120 guineas and in the next
265 guineas. From that time he had a career of uninterrupted
success. In 1882 he was made a queen's counsel, in 1884 he was
made recorder of Sheffield, and in 1894 he became solicitor-
general in Lord Rosebery's ministry, and was knighted, having
first entered parliament as Liberal member for York in 1885,
after two unsuccessful attempts, the one at King's Lynn in 1880,
the other at York in 1883. He was solicitor-general for less
than a year. In 1896 Lord Chief Justice Coleridge, Mr Montague
Crackanthorpe and Sir Frank Lockwood went to the United
States to attend, as specially invited representatives of the
English bar, the nineteenth meeting of the American Bar Associa-
tion. On this trip Sir Frank Lockwood sustained the reputa-
tion which he enjoyed in England as a humorous after-dinner
speaker, and helped to strengthen the bond of friendship which
unites the bench and bar of the United States with the bench
and bar of England. He died in London on the i8th of December
1897. Lockwood had considerable talent for drawing, inherited
from his father, which he employed, chiefly for the amusement
of himself and his friends, in the making of admirable caricatures
in pen and ink, and of sketches of humorous incidents, real or
imaginary, relating to the topic nearest at hand. An exhibition
of them was held soon after his death.
See Augustine Birrell's biography of Lockwood and The Frank
Lockwood Sketch-Book (1898).
LOCKWOOD, WILTON (1861- ), American artist, was
born at Wilton, Connecticut, on the i2th of September 1861.
He was a pupil and an assistant of John La Farge, and also
studied in Paris, becoming a well-known portrait and flower
painter. He became a member of the Society of American
Artists (1898), and of the Copley Society, Boston, and an associate
of the National Academy of Design, New York.
LOCKYER, SIR JOSEPH NORMAN (1836- ), English
astronomer, was born at Rugby on the I7th of May 1836. After
completing his education on the Continent of Europe, he obtained
a clerkship in the War Office in 1857. His leisure was devoted to
the study of astronomy, and he was appointed in 1870 secretary
to the duke of Devonshire's royal commission on science. In
1875 he was transferred to the Science and Art Department at
South Kensington, and on the foundation of the Royal College
of Science he became director of the solar physics observatory and
professor of astronomical physics. Eight British government
expeditions for observing total solar eclipses were conducted
by him between 1870 and 1905. On the 26th of October 1868
he communicated to the Paris Academy of Sciences, almost
simultaneously with Dr P. J. C. Janssen, a spectroscopic method
for observing the solar prominences in daylight, and the names
of both astronomers appear on a medal which was struck by the
French government in 1872 to commemorate the discovery.
Lockyer was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1869, and
received the Rumford medal in 1874. He initiated in 1866
the spectroscopic observation of sunspots; applied Doppler's
principle in 1869 to determine the radial velocities of the chromo-
spheric gases; and successfully investigated the chemistry of the
sun from 1872 onward. Besides numerous contributions to the
Proceedings of the Royal and the Royal Astronomical Societies,
he published several books, both explanatory and speculative.
The Chemistry of the Sun (1887) is an elaborate treatise on solar
spectroscopy based on the hypothesis of elemental dissociation
through the intensity of solar heat. The Meteoritic Hypothesis
(1890) propounds a comprehensive scheme of cosmical evolution,
which has evoked more dissent than approval, while the Sun's
Place in Nature (1897) lays down the lines of a classification
of the stars, depending upon their supposed temperature-rela-
tions. Among Lockyer's other works are — The Dawn of
Astronomy (1894), to which Stonehenge and other British Stone
Monuments astronomically considered (1906) may be considered
a sequel; Recent and coming Eclipses (1897); and Inorganic
Evolution (1900). He was created K.C.B. in 1897, and acted as
president of the British Association in 1903-1904. His fifth son,
WILLIAM JAMES STEWART LOCKYER (b. 1868), devoted himself to
solar research, and became chief assistant in the Solar Physics
Observatory, South Kensington.
LOCLE, LE, a town in the Swiss canton of Neuchatel, 24 m.
by rail N. of Neuchatel, and 5 m. S.W. of La Chaux de Fonds.
It is built (3035 ft. above the sea-level) on the Bied stream in a
valley of the Jura, and is about i m. from the French frontier.
In 1681 Daniel Jean Richard introduced watch-making here,
which soon drove out all other industries. In 1900 the popula-
tion was 12,559, mainly Protestants and French-speaking. The
church tower dates from 1521, but the old town was destroyed
by fire in 1833. The valley in which the town is situated used to
be subject to inundations, but in 1805 a tunnel was constructed
by means of which the surplus waters of the Bied are carried into
the Doubs. About i m. W. of the town the Bied plunged into a
deep chasm, on the steep rock face of which were formerly the
subterranean mills of the Col des Roches, situated one above
another; but the stream is now diverted by the above-mentioned
tunnel, while another serves the railway line from Le Locle to
Morteau in France (8 m.). (W. A. B. C.)
LOCMARIAQUER, a village of western France, on the W.
shore of the Gulf of Morbihan, in the department of Morbihan,
8j m. S. of Auray by road. Pop. (1906) 756. Locmariaquer
has a small port, and oyster culture is carried on close to it.
Roman remains are to be seen, but the place owes its celebrity
to the megalithic monuments in the vicinity, some of which are
among the largest extant. The menhir of Men-er-H'roeck
(Fairy stone), which was broken into four pieces by lightning in
the 1 8th century, previously measured about 67 ft. in height,
and from 9 to 13 ft. in thickness.
LOCOMOTOR ATAXIA (Gr. d, priv., and TO.&, order;
synonyms, Tabes dorsalis, posterior spinal sclerosis}, a progressive
degeneration of the nervous system, involving the posterior
columns of the spinal cord with other structures, and causing
muscular incoordination and disorder of gait and station.
The essential symptoms of the disease— stamping gait, and sway-
ing with the eyes shut, the occurrence of blindness and of small
fixed pupils — were recognized by Romberg (1851), but it was the
clinical genius of Duchenne and his masterly description of the
symptoms which led to its acceptance as a definite disease (1858),
and he named it locomotor ataxia after its most striking symptom.
In 1869 Argyll Robertson discovered that the eye-pupil is in-
active to light but acts upon accommodation in the great majority
of cases. This most important sign is named the " Argyll
Robertson pupil." With an ever-increasing knowledge of the
widespread character of this disease and its manifold variations
856
LOCO-WEEDS— LOCRI
in the complex of symptoms, the tendency among neurologists
is to revert to the term employed by Romberg — tabes dorsalis.
" Locomotor ataxia," although it expresses a very character-
istic feature of the disease, has this objection: it is a symptom
which does not occur in the first (preataxic) stage of the disease ;
indeed a great number of years may elapse before ataxy comes
on, and sometimes the patient, after suffering a very long time
from the disease, may die from some intercurrent complication,
having never been ataxic.
It is generally recognized by neurologists that persons who are
not the subjects of acquired or hereditary syphilis do not suffer
from this disease; and the average time of onset after infection
is ten years (see NEUROPATHOLOGY). There are three stages:
(i) The preataxic, (2) the ataxic, (3) the bed-ridden paralytic.
The duration of the first stage may be from one or two years, up to
twenty years or even longer. In this stage various symptoms
may arise. The patient usually complains of shooting, lightning-
like pains in the legs, which he may attribute to rheumatism.
If a physician examines him he will almost certainly find the
knee-jerks absent and Argyll Robertson pupils present; prob-
ably on inquiry he will ascertain that the patient has had some
difficulty in starting urination, or that he is unable to retain his
water or to empty his bladder completely. In other cases,
temporary or permanent paralysis of one or more muscles of the
eyeball (which causes squint and double vision), a failure of sight
ending in blindness, attacks of vomiting (or gastric crises),
painless spontaneous fractures of bones and dislocations of
joints, failing sexual power and impotence, may lead the patient
to consult a physician, when this disease will be diagnosed,
although the patient may not as yet have had locomotor ataxy.
All cases, however, if they live long enough, pass into the second
ataxic stage. The sufferer complains now of difficulty of walking
in the dark; he sways with his eyes shut and feels as if he would
fall (Romberg's symptom); he has the sensation of walking on
wool, numbness and formication of the skin, and many sensory
disturbances in the form of partial or complete loss of sensibility
to pain, touch and temperature. These disturbances affect
especially the feet and legs, and around the trunk at the level
of the fourth to the seventh ribs, giving rise to a " girdle sensa-
tion." There may be a numbed feeling on the inner side of the
arm, and muscular incoordination may affect the upper limb
as well as the lower, although there is no wasting or any electrical
change. The ataxic gait is very characteristic, owing to the loss
of reflex tonus in the muscles, and the absence of guiding sensa-
tions from all the deep structures of the limbs, muscles, joints,
bones, tendons and ligaments, as well as from the skin of the
soles of the feet; therefore the sufferer has to be guided by vision
as to where and how to place his feet. This necessitates the
bending forward of the body, extension of the knees and broaden-
ing of the basis of support; he generally uses a walking stick
or even two, and he jerks the leg forward as if he were on wires,
bringing the sole of the foot down on the ground with a wide
stamping action. If the arm be affected, he is unable to touch
the tip of his nose with the eyes shut. Sooner or later he
passes into the third bed-ridden stage, with muscles wasted
and their tonus so much lost that he is in a perfectly helpless
condition.
The complications which may arise in this disease are inter-
current affections due to septic conditions of the bladder, bed-
sores, pneumonia, vascular and heart affections. About 10%
of the cases, at least, develop general paralysis of the insane.
This is not surprising seeing that it is due to the same cause,
and the etiology of the two diseases is such as to lead many
neurologists to consider them one and the same disease affecting
different parts of the nervous system. Tabes dorsalis occurs
with much greater frequency in men than in women (see
NEUROPATHOLOGY) .
The avoidance of all stress- of the nervous system, whether
physical, emotional or intellectual, is indicated, and a simple
regular life, without stimulants or indulgence of the sexual
passion, is the best means of delaying the progress of the disease.
Great attention should be paid to micturition, so as to avoid
retention and infection of the bladder. Drugs, even anti-
syphilitic remedies, appear to have but little influence upon the
course of the disease.
LOCO-WEEDS, or CRAZY-WEEDS, leguminous plants, chiefly
species of Astragalus and Lupinus, which produce a disease in
cattle known as " loco-disease." The name is apparently taken
from the Spanish loco, mad. The disease affects the nervous
system of the animals eating the plants, and is accompanied by
exhaustion and wasting.
LOCRI, a people of ancient Greece, inhabiting two distinct
districts, one extending from the north-east of Parnassus to
the northern half of the Euboean channel, between Boeotia
and Malis, the other south-west of Parnassus, on the north
shore of the Corinthian Gulf, between Phocis and Aetolia.
The former were divided into the northern Locri Epicnemidii,
situated on the spurs of Mount Cnemis, and the southern Locri
Opuntii, so named from their chief town Opus (q.v.) : and the
name Opuntia is often applied to the whole of this easterly
district. Homer mentions only these eastern Locrians: their
national hero in the Trojan War is Ajax Oileus, who often
appears afterwards on Locrian coins. From Hesiod's time on-
wards, the Opuntians were thought by some to be of " Lelegian "
origin (see LELEGES), but they were Hellenized early (though
matriarchal customs survived among them) — , and Deucalion,
the father of Hellen himself, is described as the first king of Opus.
The westerly Locri " in Ozolae " on the Corinthian Gulf, a rude
and barbarous people, make no appearance in Greek history till
the Peloponnesian War. It was believed that they had separated
from the eastern Locrians four generations before the Trojan
War; yet Homer has no hint of their existence. Probably
the Locrians were once a single people, extending from sea
to sea, till subsequent immigrations forced them apart into two
separate districts. The Locrian dialect of Greek is little known,
but resembles that of Elis: it has or for ad; uses a; and has
o« in dat. plur. 3rd decl. A colony of Locrians (whether from
Opus or Ozolae was disputed in antiquity) settled, about the
end of the 8th century B.C., at the south-west extremity of Italy.
They are often called Locri Epizephyrii from Cape Zephyrion
15 m. S. of the city. Their founder's name was Euanthes.
Their social organization resembled that of the Opuntian Locri,
and like them they venerated Ajax Oileus and Persephone.
Aristotle (ap. Polyb. xii. 5 sqq.) records a tradition that these
Western Locrians were base-born, like the Parthenians of
Tarentum; but this was disputed by his contemporary Timaeus.
See LOCRI (town) below. (J. L. M.)
LOCRI, an ancient city of Magna Graecia, Italy. The original
settlers took possession of the Zephyrian promontory (Capo
Bruzzano some 12 m. N. of Capo Spartivento), and though after
three or four years they transplanted themselves to a site 12 m.
farther north, still near the coast, 2 m. S. of Gerace Marina
below the modern Gerace, they still retained the name of Locri
Epizephyrii (Ao/cpoi 01 fm£€(j>vpioi) , which served to distinguish
them from the Ozolian and Opuntian Locri of Greece itself
(see preceding article). The foundation of Locri goes back to
about 683 B.C. It was the first of all Greek communities to have
a written code of laws given by Zaleucus in 664 B.C. From
Locri were founded the colonies of Meisma and Heiponium
(Hipponium). It succeeded in repelling the attacks of Croton
(battle on the river Sagras, perhaps sometime in the 6th century),
and found in Syracuse a support against Rhegium: it was
thus an active adversary or Athenian aggrandisement in the
west. Pindar extolls its uprightness and love of the heroic
muse of beauty, of wisdom, and of war, in the loth and nth
Olympian Odes. Stesichorus (q.v.) was indeed of Locrian origin.
But it owed its greatest external prosperity to the fact that
Dionysius I. of Syracuse selected his wife from Locri: its territory
was then increased, and the circuit of its walls was doubled, but
it lost its freedom. In 356 B.C. it was ruled by Dionysius II.
From the battle of Heraclea to the year 205 (when it was captured
by P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus Maior, and placed under the
control of his legate Q. Pleminius), Locri was continually changing
its allegiance between Rome and her enemies; but it remained
LOCSE— LOCUST
857
an ally, and was only obliged like other Greek coast towns to
furnish ships. In later Roman times it is often mentioned, but
was apparently of no great importance. It is mentioned in-
cidentally until the 6th century A.D., but was destroyed by the
Saracens in 915.
Excavations in 1880-1890 led to the discovery of an Ionic
temple (the Doric style being usual in Magna Graecia) at the
north-west angle of the town — originally a cella with two naves,
a closed pronaos on the E. and an adytum at the back (W.),
later converted into a hexastyle peripheral temple with 34
painted terra-cotta columns. This was then destroyed about
400 B.C. and a new temple built on the ruins, heptastyle perip-
teral, with no intermediate columns in the cella and opistho-
domos, and with 44 columns in all. The figures from the pediment
of the twin Dioscuri, who according to the legend assisted
Locri against Crotona, are in the Naples museum(see R. Koldewey
and O. Puchstein, Griechische Tempel in Unterilalien und
Sicilien, Berlin, 1899, pp. i sqq.). Subsequent excavations in
1890-1891 were of the greatest importance, but the results
remained unpublished up to 1908. From a short account by
P. Orsi inAttidel Congresso Storico, vol. v. (Archeologia) Rome,
1904, p. 201, we learn that the exploration of the environs of
the temple led to the discovery of a large number of archaic
terra-cottas, and of some large trenches, covered with tiles,
containing some 14,000 scyphoi arranged in rows. The plan of
the city was also traced; the walls, the length of which was
nearly 5 m., consisted of three parts — the fortified castles
(0poi>pta) with large towers, on three different hills, the city
proper, and the lower town — the latter enclosed by long walls
running down to the sea. In the Roman period the city was
restricted to the plain near the sea. Since these excavations,
a certain amount of unauthorized work has gone on, and some
of the remains have been destroyed. In the course of these
excavations some prehistoric objects have been discovered,
which confirm the accounts of Thucydides and Polybius that the
Greek settlers found the Siculi here before them. (T. As.)
LOCSE (Ger. Leutschau), the capital of the county of
Szepes, in Hungary, 230 m. N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop.
(1900) 6845, mostly Germans and Slovaks. The county of
Szepes is the highest part of Hungary, and its north-western
portion is occupied by the Tatra Mountains. Locse lies in an
elevated position surrounded by mountains, and is one of the
oldest towns of Hungary. The church of St James is a Gothic
structure of the i3th century, with richly carved altar, several
monuments, and a celebrated organ erected in 1623, and long
reputed the largest in Hungary. The old town-hall, restored
in 1894, contains a Protestant upper gymnasium, founded in
1544, and one of the oldest printing establishments in Hungary,
founded in 1585. Bee-keeping and the raising of garden produce
are the chief industries.
Founded by Saxon colonists in 1245, Locse had by the early
part of the i6th century attained a position of great relative
importance. In 1599 a fire destroyed the greater part of the
town, and during the i7th century it suffered repeatedly at the
hands of the Transylvanian princes and leaders.
LOCUS (Lat. for " place "; in Gr. Ttnros), a geometrical term,
the invention of the notion of which is attributed to Plato. It
occurs in such statements as these : the locus of the points which
are at the same distance from a fixed point, or of a point which
moves so as to be always at the same distance from a fixed point,
is a circle; conversely a circle is the locus of the points at the
same distance from a fixed point, or of a point moving so as to
be always at the same distance from a fixed point; and so in
general a curve of any given kind is the locus of the points which
satisfy, or of a point moving so as always to satisfy, a given
condition. The theory of loci is thus identical with that of
curves (see CuifvE and GEOMETRY: § Analytical). The notion
of a locus applies also to solid geometry. Here the locus of the
points satisfying a single (or onefold) condition is a surface;
the locus of the points satisfying two conditions (or a twofold
condition) is a curve in space, which is in general a twisted curve
or curve of double curvature.
LOCUST.1 In its general acceptation this term is applied only
to certain insects of the order Orthoptera, family Acridiidae.
The family Locustidae is now viewed zoologically in a sense that
does not admit of the species best known as " locusts " being
included therein. The idea of a very destructive insect is univer-
sally associated with the term; therefore many orthopterous
species that cannot be considered true locusts have been so-
called; in North America it has even embraced certain Hemip-
tera-Homoptera, belonging to the Cicadidae, and in some parts
of England cockchafers are so designated. In a more narrow
definition the attribute of migration is associated with the
destructive propensities, and it therefore becomes necessary that
a true locust should be a migratory species of the family Acri-
diidae. Moreover, the term has yet a slightly different significa-
tion as viewed from the Old or New World. In Europe by a
locust is meant an insect of large size, the smaller allied species
being ordinarily known as " grasshoppers," hence the " Rocky
Mountain locust " of North America is to Eastern ideas rather
a grasshopper than a locust.
In Europe, and a greater part of the Old World, the best
known migratory locust is that which is scientifically termed
Pachytylus cinerascens with which an allied species P. migratorius
has been often confounded. Another locust found in Europe
and neighbouring districts is Caloptenus italicus, and still another,
Acridium peregrinum, has once or twice occurred in Europe,
though its home (even in a migratory sense) is more properly
Africa and Asia. These practically include all the locusts of the
Old World, though a migratory species of South Africa known
as Pachytylus pardalinus (presumed to be distinct from P.
migratorius) should be mentioned. The Rocky Mountain locust
of North America is Caloptenus spretus, and in that continent
there occurs an Acridium (A. americanum) so closely allied to
A . peregrinum as to be scarcely distinct therefrom, though there
it does not manifest migratory tendencies. In the West Indies
and Central America A. peregrinum is also reported to occur.
The females excavate holes in the earth in which the eggs are
deposited in a long cylindrical mass enveloped in a glutinous
secretion. The young larvae hatch and immediately commence
their destructive career. As these insects are " hemimetabolic "
there is no quiescent stage; they go on increasing rapidly in size,
and as they approach the perfect state the rudiments of the wings
begin to appear. Even in this stage their locomotive powers
are extensive and their voracity great. Once winged and perfect
these powers become infinitely more disastrous, redoubled by
the development of the migratory instinct. The laws regulating
this instinct are not perfectly understood. Food and tempera-
ture have a great deal to do with it, and there is a tendency for
the flights to take a particular direction, varied by the physical
circumstances of the breeding districts. So likewise each species
has its area of constant location, and its area of extraordinary
migration. Perhaps the most feasible of the suggestions as to
the causes of the migratory impulse is that locusts naturally
breed in dry sandy districts in which food is scarce, and are
impelled to wander to procure the necessaries of life; but against
this it has been argued that swarms bred in a highly productive
district in which they have temporarily settled will seek the
barren home of their ancestors. Another ingenious suggestion
is that migration is intimately connected with a dry condition
of the atmosphere, urging them to move on until compelled
to stop for food or procreative purposes. Swarms travel con-
siderable distances, though probably generally fewer than 1000
m., though sometimes very much more. As a rule the progress
is only gradual, and this adds vastly to the devastating effects.
When an extensive swarm temporarily settles in a district, all
vegetation rapidly disappears, and then hunger urges it on
another stage. The large Old World species, although un-
doubtedly phytophagous, when compelled by hunger sometimes
attack at least dry animal substances, and even cannibalism
has been asserted as an outcome of the failure of all other kinds
of food. The length of a single flight must depend upon
1 The Lat. locusta was first applied to a lobster or other marine
shell-fish and then, from its resemblance, to the insect.
858
LOCUST
circumstances. From peculiarities in the examples of Acridium
peregrinum taken in England in 1869, it has been asserted that
they must have come direct by sea from the west coast of Africa;
and what is probably the same species has been seen in the
Atlantic at least 1 200 m. from land, in swarms completely covering
the ship; thus, in certain cases flight must be sustained for several
days and nights together. The height at which swarms fly,
when their horizontal course is not liable to be altered by moun-
tains, has been very variously estimated at from 40 to 200 ft.,
or even in a particular case to 500 ft. The extent of swarms and
the number of individuals' in a swarm cannot be accurately
ascertained. They come sometimes in such numbers as to com-
pletely obscure the sun, when the noise made by the rustling
of the wings is deafening. Nevertheless some idea on this point
may be formed from the ascertained fact that in Cyprus in 1881,
at the close of the season, 1,600,000,000 egg-cases, each containing
a considerable number of eggs, had been destroyed; the estimated
weight exceeding 1300 tons. Yet two years later, it is believed
that not fewer than 5,076,000,000 egg-cases were again deposited
in the island.
In Europe the best known and ordinarily most destructive species
is Pachytylus cinerascens, and it is to it that most of the numerous
records of devastations in Europe mainly refer, but it is probably not
less destructive in many parts of Africa and Asia. That the arid
steppes of central Asia are the home of this insect appears probable ;
still much on this point is enveloped in uncertainty. In any case the
area of permanent distribution is enormous, and that of occasional
distribution is still greater. The former area extends from the
parallel of 40° N. in Portugal, rising to 48° in France and Switzerland,
and passing into Russia at 55°, thence continuing across the middle
of Siberia, north of China to Japan; thence south to the Fiji Islands,
to New Zealand and North Australia; thence again to Mauritius
FIG. i. — Pachytylus migratorius. This and the other figures are
all natural size.
and over all Africa to Madeira. The southern distribution is un-
certain and obscure. Taking exceptional distribution, it is well
known that it occasionally appears in the British Isles, and has in
them apparently been noticed as far north as Edinburgh ; so also
does it occasionally appear in Scandinavia, and it has probably been
seen up to 63° N. in Finland. Looking at this vast area, it is easy to
conceive that an element of uncertainty must always exist with
regard to the exact determination of the species, and in Europe
especially is this the case, because there exists a distinct species,
known as P. migratorius, the migratory area of which appears to be
confined to Turkestan and eastern Europe.
P. cinerascens is certainly the most common of the " locusts "
occasionally found in the British Isles, and E. de Selys-Longchamps
is of opinion that it breeds regularly in Belgium, whereas the true
P. migratorius is only accidental in that country.
A South African species allied to the preceding and provisionally
identified as Pachytylus salcicollis is noteworthy from the manifesta-
FIG. 2. — Acridium peregrinum.
tion of the migratory instinct in immature wingless individuals.
The families of young, after destroying the vegetation of a district,
unite in a vast army and move away in search of fresh pastures,
devastating the country as they go and proceeding of necessity on
foot, hence they are known to the Dutch as " voetgangers." Travel-
ling northwards towards the centre of the continent, the home of
their parents before migration, they are diverted from their course
by no obstacles. Upon reaching a river or stream they search the
bank for a likely spot to cross, then fearlessly cast themselves upon
the water where they form floating islands of insects, most of which
usually succeed in gaining the opposite bank, though many perish
in the attempt.
Acridium peregrinum (fig. 2) can scarcely be considered even an
accidental visitor to Europe; yet it has been seen in the south of
Spain, and in many examples spread over a large part of England
in the year 1869. It is a larger insect than P. migratorius. There is
every reason to believe that it is the most destructive locust through-
out Africa and in India and other parts of tropical Asia, and its
ravages are as great as those of P. migratorius. Presumably it is the
species occasionally noticed in a vast swarm in the Atlantic, very far
from land, and presumably also it occurs in the West Indies and some
parts of Central America. In the Argentine Republic a (possibly)
distinct species (A. paranense) is the migratory locust.
Caloptenus italicus (fig. 3) is a smaller insect, with a less extended
area of migration; the destruction occasioned in the districts to
which it is limited is often scarce less than that of its more terrible
allies. It is essentially a species of the Mediterranean district, and
especially of the European side of that sea, yet it is also found in
North Africa, and appears to extend far into southern Russia.
Caloptenus spretus (fig. 4) is the " Rocky Mountain locust " or
" hateful grasshopper " of the North American continent. Though
a comparatively small insect, not so large as some of the grass-
hoppers of English fields, its destructiveness has procured for it
great notoriety. By early travellers and settlers the species was not
recognized as distinct from some of its non-migratory congeners.
But in 1877, Congress appointed a United States Entomological Com-
mission to investigate the subject. The report of the commissioners
(C. V Riley , A. S. Packard and C. Thomas) deals with the whole subject
of locusts both in America and the Old World. C. spretus has its home
or permanent area in the arid plains of the central region east of the
Rocky Mountains, extending slightly into the southern portion of
Canada; outside this is a wide fringe to which the term sub-per-
manent is applied, and this is again bounded by the limits of only
occasional distribution, the whole occupying a large portion of the
North American continent ; but it is not known to have crossed the
LOCUST-TREE—LODGE, E.
859
Rocky Mountains westward, or to have extended into the eastern
states.
As to remedial or preventive measures tending to check the ravages
of locusts, little unfortunately can be said; but anything that will
apply to one species may be used with practically all. Something
can be done (as is now done in Cyprus) by offering a price for all the
egg-tubes collected, which is the most direct manner of attacking
them. Some little can be done by destroying the larvae while in an
FIG. 3. — Caloptenus italicus.
unwinged condition, and by digging trenches in the line of march into
which they can fall and be drowned or otherwise put an end to.
Little can be done with the winged hordes; starvation, the outcome
of their own work, probably here does much. In South Africa some
success has attended the spraying of the swarms with arsenic. It
has been shown that with all migratory locusts the breeding-places,
or true homes, are comparatively barren districts (mostly elevated
plateaus) ; hence the progress of colonization, and the conversion of
those heretofore barren plains into areas of fertility, may (and prob-
ably will) gradually lessen the evil._
Locusts have many enemies besides man. Many birds greedily
devour them, and it has many times been remarked that migratory
swarms of the insects were closely followed by myriads of birds.
FIG. 4. — Rocky Mountain Locust (Caloptenus spretus). (After Riley.)
a, a, a, Female in different posi- d, e show the earth partially re-
tions, ovipositing. moved, to illustrate an egg-
b, Egg-pod extracted from mass already in place, and
ground, with the end broken one being placed,
open. [ground. /, shows where such a mass has
r, A few eggs lying loose on the been covered up.
Predatory insects of other orders also attack them, especially when
they are in the unwinged condition. Moreover, they have still more
deadly insect foes as parasites. Some attack the fully developed
winged insect. But the greater part attack the eggs. To such belong
certain beetles, chiefly of the family Cantharidae, and especially
certain two-winged flies of the family Bombyliidae. These latter,
both in the Old and New World, must prevent vast quantities of eggs
from producing larvae.
The larger Old World species form articles of food with certain
semi-civilized and savage races, by whom they are considered as
delicacies, or as part of ordinary diet, according to the race and the
method of preparation. . (R. M'L.; R. I. P.)
LOCUST-TREE, or CAROB-TREE (Ceratonia siliqua), a member
of the tribe Cassieae of the order Leguminosae, the sole species
of its genus, and widely diffused spontaneously and by cultiva-
tion from Spain to the eastern Mediterranean regions. The
name of the genus is derived from the often curved pod (Gr.
Kf.pa.Ttov, a little horn). The flowers have no petals and are
polygamous or dioecious (male, female and hermaphrodite
flowers occur). The seed-pod is compressed, often curved, in-
dehiscent and coriaceous, but with sweet pulpy divisions between
the seeds, which, as in other genera of the Cassieae, are albumin-
ous. The pods are eaten by men and animals, and in Sicily a
spirit and a syrup are made from them. These husks being often
used for swine are called swine's bread, and are probably referred
to in the parable of the Prodigal Son. It is also called St John's
bread, from a misunderstanding of Matt. iii. 4. The carob-tree
was regarded by Sprengel as the tree with which Moses sweetened
the bitter waters of Marah (Exod. xv. 25), as the kharrub,
according to Avicenna (p. 205), has the property of sweetening
salt and bitter waters. Gerard (Herball, p. 1241) cultivated it
in 1597, it having been introduced in 1570.
LODEVE, a town of southern France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment of the department of Herault, 36 m. W.N.W. of Mont-
pellier by rail. Pop. (1906), 6142. It is situated in the southern
Cevennes at the foot of steep hills in a small valley where the
Soulondres joins the Lergue, a tributary of the Herault. Two
bridges over the Lergue connect the town with the faubourg
of Carmes on the left bank of the river, and two others over the
Soulondres lead to the extensive ruins of the chateau de Montbrun
(i3th century). The old fortified cathedral of St Fulcran, founded
by him in 950, dates in its present condition from the I3th, I4th
and 1 6th centuries; the cloister, dating from the isth and i?th
centuries, is in ruins. In the picturesque environs of the town
stands the well-preserved monastery of St Michel de Grammont,
dating from the i2th century and now used as farm buildings.
In the neighbourhood are three fine dolmens. The manufacture
of woollens for army clothing is the chief industry. Wool is
imported in large quantities from the neighbouring departments,
and from Morocco; the exports are cloth to Italy and the
Levant, wine, brandy and wood. The town has tribunals of
first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators,
a chamber of arts and manufactures, and a communal college.
Lodeve (Luteva) existed before the invasion of the Romans,
who for some time called it Forum Neronis. The inhabitants
were converted to Christianity by St Flour, first bishop of the
city, about 323. After passing successively into the hands
of the Visigoths, the Franks, the Ostrogoths, the Arabs and
the Carolingians, it became in the 9th century a separate count-
ship, and afterwards the domain of its bishops. During the
religious wars it suffered much, especially in 1573, when it was
sacked. It ceased to be an episcopal see at the Revolution.
LODGE, EDMUND (1756-1839), English writer on heraldry,
was born in London on the I3th of June 1756, son of Edmund
Lodge, rector of Carshalton, Surrey. He held a cornet's com-
mission in the army, which he resigned in 1773. In 1782 he
became Bluemantle pursuivant-at-arms in the College of Arms.
He subsequently became Lancaster herald, Norroy king-at-arms,
Clarencieux king-at-arms, and, in 1832, knight of the order of
the Guelphs of Hanover. He died in London on the i6th of
January 1839. He wrote Illustrations of British History, Bio-
graphy and Manners in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI.,
Mary, Elizabeth and James I .... (3 vols., 1791), consisting
of selections from the MSS. of the Howard, Talbot and Cecil
families preserved at the College of Arms; Life of Sir Julius
Caesar . . . (2nd ed., 1827). He contributed the literary matter
to Portraits of Illustrious Personages of Great Britain (1814, &c.),
an elaborate work of which a popular edition is included In
Bohn's " Illustrated Library." His most important work on
heraldry was The Genealogy of the existing British Peerage . . .
(1832; enlarged edition, 1859). In The Annual Peerage and
Baronetage (1827-1829), reissued after 1832 as Peerage of the
British Empire, and generally .known as Lodge's Peerage, his
share did not go beyond the title-page.
86o
LODGE, H. C.— LODGE, T.
LODGE, HENRY CABOT (1850- ), American political
leader and author, was born in Boston. Massachusetts, on the
1 2th of May 1850. He graduated at Harvard College in 1871
and at the Harvard Law School in 1875; was admitted to the
Suffolk (Massachusetts) bar in 1876; and in 1876-1879 was
instructor in American history at Harvard. He was a member
of the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1880-1881,
and of the National House of Representatives in 1887-1893;
succeeded Henry L. Dawes as United States Senator from
Massachusetts in 1893; and in 1899 and in 1905 was re-elected
to the Senate, where he became one of the most prominent of
the Republican leaders, and an influential supporter of President
Roosevelt. He was a member of the Alaskan Boundary Com-
mission of 1903, and of the United States Immigration Commis-
sion of 1907. In the National Republican Convention of 1896
his influence did much to secure the adoption of the gold standard
" plank " of the party's platform. He was the permanent
chairman of the National Republican Convention of 1900, and
of that of 1908. In 1874-1876 he edited the North American
Review with Henry Adams; and in 1870-1882, with John T.
Morse, Jr., he edited the International Review. In 1884-1890 he
was an overseer of Harvard College. His doctoral thesis at
Harvard was published with essays by Henry Adams, J. L.
Laughlin and Ernest Young, under the title Essays on Anglo-
Saxon Land Law (1876). He wrote: Life and Letters of George
Cabot (1877); Alexander Hamilton (1882), Daniel Webster (1883)
and George Washington (2 vols., 1889), in the " American States-
men " series; A Short History of the English Colonies in America
(1881); Studies in History (1884); Boston (1891), in the " His-
toric Towns" series; Historical and Political Essays (1892);
with Theodore Roosevelt, Hero Tales from American History
(1895); Certain Accepted Heroes (1897); The Story of the
American Revolution (2 vols., 1898); The War with Spain
(1899); A Fighting Frigate (1902); A Frontier Town (1906);
and, with J. W. Garner, A History of the United Slates (4 vols.,
1906). He edited The Works of Alexander Hamilton (9 vols.,
1885-1886) and The Federalist (1891).
His son, GEORGE CABOT LODGE (1873-1909), also became
known as an author, with The Song of the Wave (1898), Poems,
1899-1902 (1902), The Great Adventure (1905), Cain: a Drama
(1904), Herakles (1908) and other verse.
LODGE, SIR OLIVER JOSEPH (1851- ), English physicist,
was born at Penkhull, Staffordshire, on the I2th of June 1851,
and was educated at Newport (Salop) gramrnar school. He was
intended for a business career, but being attracted to science he
entered University College, London, in 1872, graduating D.Sc. at
London University in 1877. In 1875 he was appointed reader in
natural philosophy at Bedford College for Women, and in 1879 he
became assistant professor of applied mathematics at University
College, London. Two years later he was called to the chair of
physics in University College, Liverpool, where he remained till
in 1900 he was chosen first principal of the new Birmingham
University. He was knighted in 1902. His original work in-
cludes investigations on lightning, the seat of the electromotive
force in the voltaic cell, the phenomena of electrolysis and the
speed of the ion, electromagnetic waves and wireless telegraphy,
the motion of the aether near the earth, and the application of
electricity to the dispersal of fog and smoke. He presided over
the mathematical and physical section of the British Association
in 1891, and served as president of the Physical Society in 1899-
1900 and of the Society for Psychical Research in 1901-1904.
In addition to numerous scientific memoirs he wrote, among other
works, Lightning Conductors and Lightning Guards, Signalling
without Wires, Modern Views of Electricity, Electrons and The
Ether of Space, together with various books and papers of a irleta-
physical and theological character.
LODGE, THOMAS (c. 1558-1625), English dramatist and
miscellaneous writer, was born about 1558 at West Ham. He
was the second son of Sir Thomas Lodge, who was lord mayor of
London in 1562-1563. He was educated at Merchant Taylors'
School and Trinity College, Oxford; taking his B.A. degree in
1577 and that of M.A. in 1581. In 1578 he entered Lincoln's
Inn, where, as in the other Inns of Court, a love of letters and a
crop of debts and difficulties were alike wont to spring up in a
kindly soil. Lodge, apparently in disregard of the wishes of his
family, speedily showed his inclination towards the looser ways
of life and the lighter aspects of literature. When the penitent
Stephen Gosson had (in 1579) published his Schoole of Abuse,
Lodge took up the glove in his Defence of Poetry, Music and
Stage Plays (1579 or 1580; reprinted for the Shakespeare
Society, 1853), which shows a certain restraint, though neither
deficient in force of invective nor backward in display of erudi-
tion. The pamphlet was prohibited, but appears to have been
circulated privately. It was answered by Gosson in his Playes
Confuted in Five Actions; and Lodge retorted with his Alarum
Against Usurers (1584, reprinted ib.) — a " tract for the times "
which no doubt was in some measure indebted to the author's
personal experience. In the same year he produced the first
tale written by him on his own account in prose and verse, The
Delectable History of Forbonius and Prisceria, both published and
reprinted with the Alarum. From 1587 onwards he seems to
have made a series of attempts as a playwright, though most of
those attributed to him are mainly conjectural. That he ever
became an actor is improbable in itself, and Collier's conclusion
to that effect rested on the two assumptions that the " Lodge "
of Henslowe's M.S. was a player and that his name was Thomas,
neither of which is supported by the text (see C. M. Ingleby,
Was Thomas Lodge an Actor? 1868). Having, in the spirit of his
age , " tried the waves " with Captain Clarke in his expedition
to Terceira and the Canaries, Lodge in 1591 made a voyage with
Thomas Cavendish to Brazil and the Straits of Magellan, return-
ing home by 1593. During the Canaries expedition, to beguile
the tedium of his voyage, he composed his prose tale of Rosalynde,
Euphues Golden Legacie, which, printed in 1590, afterwards
furnished the story of Shakespeare's As You Like It. The novel,
which in its turn owes some, though no very considerable, debt
to the medieval Tale of Gamelyn (unwarrantably appended to the
fragmentary Cookes Tale in certain MSS. of Chaucer's works),
is written in the euphuistic manner, but decidedly attractive
both by its plot and by the situations arising from it. It has
been frequently reprinted. Before starting on his second
expedition he had published an historical romance, The History
of Robert, Second Duke of Normandy, surnamed Robert the Divell;
and he left behind him for publication Calharos, Diogenes in his
Singularity, a discourse on the immorality of Athens (London).
Both appeared in 1591. Another romance in the manner of
Lyly, Euphues Shadow, the Battaile of the Sences (1592), appeared
while Lodge was still on his travels. His second historical
romance, the Life and Death of William Longbeard (1593), was
more successful than the first. Lodge also brought back with
him from the new world A Margarile of America (published 1596),
a romance of the same description interspersed with many lyrics.
Already in 1 589 Lodge had given to the world a volume of poems
bearing the title of the chief among them, Scillaes Metamorphosis,
Enterlaced with the Unfortunate Love of Glaucus, more briefly
known as Glaucus and Scilla (reprinted with preface by S. W.
Singer in 1819). To this tale Shakespeare was possibly indebted
for the idea of Venus and Adonis. Some readers would perhaps
be prepared to give up this and much else of Lodge's sugared
verse, fine though much of it is in quality, largely borrowed from
other writers, French and Italian in particular, in exchange for
the lost Sailor's Kalendar, in which he must in one way or another
have recounted his sea adventures. If Lodge, as has been
supposed, was the Alcon in Colin Clout's come Home Again, it
may have been the influence of Spenser which led to the com-
position of Phillis, a volume of sonnets, in which the voice of
nature seems only now and then to become audible, published
with the narrative poem, The Complaynte of Elstred, in 1593.
A Fig for Momus, on the strength of which he has been called
the earliest English satirist, and which contains eclogues addressed
to Daniel and others, an epistle addressed to Drayton, and other
pieces, appeared in 1595. Lodge's ascertained dramatic work
is small in quantity. In conjunction with Greene he, probably
in 1590, produced in a popular vein the odd but far from feeble
LODGE— LODI
861
play of A Looking Glasse for London and England (printed in
1594). He had already written The Wounds of Civile War.
Lively set forth in the Tragedies of Marius and Scilla (produced
perhaps as early as 1587, and published in 1594), a good second-
rate piece in the half-chronicle fashion of its age. Mr F. G.
Fleay thinks there were grounds for assigning to Lodge Mucedorus
and Amadine, played by the Queen's Men about 1588, a share
with Robert Greene in George a Greene, the Pinner of Wakefield,
and in Shakespeare's 2nd part of Henry VI. ; he also regards him
as at least part-author of The True Chronicle of King Leir and
his three Daughters (1594); and The Troublesome Raigne of John,
King of England (c. 1588); in the case of two other plays he
allowed the assignation to Lodge to be purely conjectural.
That Lodge is the " Young Juvenal " of Greene's Groatsworth
of Wit is no longer a generally accepted hypothesis. In the
latter part of his life — possibly about- 1 596, when he published
his Wits Miserie and the World's Madnesse, which is dated from
Low Leyton in Essex, and the religious tract Prosopopeia (if,
as seems probable, it was his), in which he repents him of his
" lewd lines " of other days — he became a Catholic and engaged
in the practice of medicine, for which Wood says he qualified
himself by a degree at Avignon in 1600. Two years afterwards
he received the degree of M.D. from Oxford University. His
works henceforth have a sober cast, comprising translations of
Josephus (1602), of Seneca (1614), a Learned Summary of Du
Bartas's Divine Sepmainc (1625 and 1637), besides a Treatise
of the Plague (1603), and a popular manual, which remained
unpublished, on Domestic Medicine. Early in 1606 he seems
to have left England, to escape the persecution then directed
against the Catholics; and a letter from him dated 1610 thanks
the English ambassador in Paris for enabling him to return in
safety. He was abroad on urgent private affairs of one kind and
another in 1616. From this time to his death in 1625 nothing
further concerning him remains to be noted.
Lodge's works, with the exception of his translations, have been
reprinted for the Hunterian Club with an introductory essay by Mr
Edmund Gosse. This preface was reprinted in Mr Gosse's Seven-
teenth Century Studies (1883). Of Rosalynde there are numerous
modern editions. See also J. J. Jusserand, English Novel in the
Time of Shakespeare (Eng. trans., 1890); F. G. Fleay, Biographical
Chronicle of the English Drama (vol. ii., 1891). (A. W. W.)
LODGE, a dwelling-place, small and usually temporary, a hut,
booth or tent. The word was in M. Eng. logge, from Fr. loge,
arbour, in modern French a hut; also box in a theatre; the
French word, like the Italian loggia, came from the Med. Lat.
laubia or lobia, the sheltered promenade in a cloister, from which
English " lobby " is derived. The Latin is of Teutonic origin
from the word which survives in the Mod. Ger. Laube, an arbour,
but which earlier was used for any hut, booth, &c. The word is
probably ultimately from the root which appears in " leaf,"
meaning a rough shelter of foliage or boughs. The word is
especially used of a house built either in a forest or away from
habitation, where people stay for the purpose of sport, as a
" hunting lodge," " shooting lodge," &c. The most frequent
use of the word is of a small building, usually placed at the
entrance to an estate or park and inhabited by a dependant
of the owner. In the same sense the word means the room or
box inhabited by the porter of a college, factory or public institu-
tion. Among Freemasons and other societies the " lodge " is
the name given to the meeting-place of the members of the branch
or district, and is applied to the members' collectively as " a
meeting of the lodge." The governing body of the Freemasons
presided over by the grand master is called the " Grand Lodge."
At the university of Cambridge the house where the head of a
college lives is called the " lodge." Formerly the word was used
of the den or lair of an animal, but is now only applied to that
of the beaver and the otter. It is also applied to the tent of a
North American Indian, a wigwam or tepee, and to the number of
inhabitants of such a tent. In mining the term is used of a
subterraneous reservoir made at the bottom of the pit, or at
different levels in the shaft for the purpose of draining the mine.
It is used also of a room or landing-place next to the shaft, for
discharging ore, &c.
LODGER AND LODGINGS. The term " lodger " (Fr. loger,
to lodge) is used in English law in several slightly different
senses. It is applied (i.) most frequently and properly to a person
who takes furnished rooms in a house, the landlord also residing
on the premises, and supplying him with attendance; (ii.)
sometimes to a person, who takes unfurnished rooms in a house
finding his own attendance; (iii.) to a boarder in a boarding-house
(q.v.). It is with (i.) and (ii.) alone that this article is concerned.
Where furnished apartments are let for immediate use, the
law implies an undertaking on the part of the landlord that they
are fit for habitation, and, if this condition is broken, the tenant
may refuse to occupy the premises or to pay any rent. But
there is no implied contract that the apartments shall continue
fit for habitation; and the rule has no application in the case of
unfurnished lodgings. In the absence of express agreement
to the contrary, a lodger has a right to the use of everything
necessary to the enjoyment of the premises, such as the door bell
and knocker and the skylight of a staircase. Whether the rent
of apartments can be distrained for by the immediate landlord
where he resides on the premises and supplies attendance is a
question the answer to which is involved in some uncertainty.
The weight of authority seems to support the negative view
(see Foa, Landlord and Tenant, 3rd ed. p. 434). To make good
a right to distrain it is necessary to show that the terms of the
letting create a tenancy or exclusive occupation and not a mere
licence. Where the owner, although residing on the premises,
does not supply attendance, the question depends on whether
there is a. real tenancy, giving the lodger an exclusive right of
occupation as against the owner. The ordinary test is whether
the lodger has the control of the outer door. But the whole
circumstances of each case have to be taken account of. A lodger
is rateable to the poor-rate where he is in exclusive occupation
of the apartments let to him, and the landlord does not retain
the control and dominion of the whole structure. As to distress
on a lodger's goods for rent due by an immediate to a superior
landlord, see RENT. As to the termination of short tenancies,
as of apartments, see LANDLORD AND TENANT. The landlord
has no lien on the goods of the lodger for rent or charges. Over-
crowding lodging-houses may be dealt with as a nuisance under
the Public Health Acts 1875 and 1891 and the Housing of the
Working Classes Acts. As to the lodger franchise, see REGISTRA-
TION OF VOTERS. It has been held in England that keepers of
lodging-houses do not come within the category of those persons
(see CARRIER; INNKEEPER) who hold themselves out to the public
generally as trustworthy in certain employments; but that they
are under an obligation to take reasonable care for the safety of
their lodgers' goods; see Scarborough v. Cosgrove, 1905, 2 K.B.
803. As to Scots Law see Bell's Prin. s. 236 (4).
In the United States, the English doctrine of an implied
warranty of fitness for habitation on a letting of furnished
apartments has only met with partial acceptance; it was
repudiated , e.g. in the District of Columbia, but has been accepted
in Massachusetts. In the French Code Civil, there are some
special rules with regard to furnished apartments. The letting
is reputed to be made for a year, a month or a day, according as
the rent is so much per year, per month or per day; if that test
is inapplicable, the letting is deemed to be made according to the
custom of the p'ace (art. 1758). There are similar provisions in
the Civil Codes of Belgium (art. 1758), Holland (art. 1622) and
Spain (Civil Code, art. 1581).
See also the articles, BOARDING HOUSE, and FLAT; and the
bibliographies to FLAT and LANDLORD AND TENANT. (A. W. R.)
LODI, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the
province of Milan, 205 m. by rail S.E. of that city, on a hill
above the right bank of the Adda, 230 ft. above sea-level. Pop.
(IQOI) 19,970 (town), 26,827 (commune). The site of the city is
an eminence rising very gradually from the Lombard plain, and
the surrounding country is one of the richest dairy districts in
Italy. The cathedral (1158), with a Gothic facade and a 16th-
century lateral tower, has a restored interior. The church of the
Incoronata was erected by Battaggio (1488) in the Bramantesquc
style. It is an elegant octagonal domed structure, and is
862
LODZ— LOFFT
decorated with frescoes by the Piazza family, natives of the
town, and four large altar-pieces by Calisto Piazza, (died after
1561). There is a fine organ of 1507. The 13th-century Gothic
church of San Francesco, restored in 1889, with 14th-century
paintings, is also noticeable. The Palazzo Modegnani has a fine
gateway in the style of Bramante, and the hospital a cloistered
quadrangle. In the Via Pompeia is an early Renaissance house
with fine decorations in marble and terra-cotta. Besides an
extensive trade in cheese (Lodi producing more Parmesan
than Parma itself) and other dairy produce, there are manu-
factures of linen, silk, majolica and chemicals.
The ancient Laus Pompeia lay 3! m. W. of the present city,
and the site is still occupied by a considerable village, Lodi
Vecchio, with the old cathedral of S. Bassiano, now a brick
building, which contains isth-century frescoes. It was the
point where the roads from Mediolanum to Placentia and
Cremona diverged, and there was also a road to Ticinum turning
off from the former, but it is hardly mentioned by classical
writers. It appears to have been a municipium. No ruins
exist above ground, but various antiquities have been found here.
From which Pompeius, whether Cn. Pompeius Strabo, who
gave citizenship to the Transpadani, or his son, the more famous
Pompey, it took its name is not certain. In the middle ages Lodi
was second to Milan among the cities of northern Italy. A
dispute with the archbishop of Milan about the investiture of the
bishop of Lodi (1024) proved the beginning of a protracted feud
between the two cities. In mi the Milanese laid the whole
place in ruins and forbade their rivals to restore what they had
destroyed, and in 1158, when in spite of this prohibition a fairly
flourishing settlement had again been formed, they repeated
their work in a more thorough manner. A number of the
Lodigians had settled on Colle Eghezzone; and their village,
the Borgo d'Isella, on the site of a temple of Hercules, soon
grew up under the patronage of Frederick Barbarossa into a
new city of Lodi (1162). At first subservient to the emperor,
Lodi was before long compelled to enter the Lombard League,
and in 1198 it formed alliance offensive and defensive with
Milan. The strife between the Sommariva or aristocratic party
and the Overgnaghi or democratic party was so severe that the
city divided into two distinct communes. The Overgnaghi,
expelled in 1236, were restored by Frederick II. who took the
city after three months' siege. Lodi was actively concerned in
the rest of the Guelph and Ghibelline struggle. In 1416 its ruler,
Giovanni Vignati, was treacherously taken prisoner by Filippo
Maria Visconti, and after that time it became dependent on
Milan. The duke of Brunswick captured it in 1625 in the
interests of Spain; and it was occupied by the French (1701),
by the Austrians (1706), by the king of Sardinia (1733), by the
Austrians (1736), by the Spaniards (1745), and again by the
Austrians (1746). On the loth of May 1796 was fought the battle
of Lodi between the Austrians and Napoleon, which made the
latter master of Lombardy.
LODZ (L6dz; more correctly Lodzid), a town of Russian Poland,
in the government of Piotrk6w, 82 m. by rail S.W. of Warsaw.
It is situated on the Lodz plateau, which at the beginning of
the igth century was covered with impenetrable forests. Now
it is the centre of a group of industrial towns — Zgerz, Lgczyca,
Pabianice, Konstantinov and Aleksandrov. Chiefly owing to a
considerable immigration of German capitalists and workers,
Lodz has grown with American-like rapidity. It consists
principally of one main street, 7 m. long, and is a sort of Polish
Manchester, manufacturing cottons, woollens and mixed
stuffs, with chemicals, beer, machinery and silk, One of the
very few educational institutions is a professional industrial
school. The population, which was only 50,000 in 1872, reached
351,370 in 1900; the Poles numbering about 37%, Germans
40% and Jews 22 J%.
LOESS (Ger. Loss), in geology, a variety of loam. Typical
loess is a soft, porous rock, pale yellowish or buff in colour;
one characteristic property is its capacity to retain vertical,
or even over-hanging, walls in the banks of streams. These
vertical walls have been well described by von Richthofen
(Fiihrer fur Forschungsreisende, Berlin, 1886) in China, where
they stand in some places 500 ft. high and contain innumerable
cave dwellings; ancient roads too have worn their way vertically
downwards deep into the deposit, forming trench-like ways.
This character in the loess of the Mississippi region gave rise
to the name " Bluff formation." A coarse columnar structure
is often exhibited on the vertical weathered faces of the rock.
Another characteristic is the presence throughout the rock of
small capillary tubules, which appear to have been occupied
by rootlets; these are often lined with calcite. Typical loess
is usually calcareous; some geologists regard this as an essential
property, and when the rock has become decalcified, as it fre-
quently is on the surface by weathering, they call it " loess-
loam " (losslehm). In the lower portions of a loess deposit the
calcium carbonate tends to form concretions, which on account
of their mimetic forms have received such names as losskindchen,
losspuppen, poupees du loess, " loess dolls." In deposits of this
nature in South America these concretionary masses form
distinct beds. Bedding is absent from typical loess. The
mineral composition of loess varies somewhat in different
regions, but the particles are always small; they consist of
angular grains of quartz, fine particles of hydrated silicates
of alumina, mica scales and undecomposed fragments of felspar,
hornblende and other rock-forming silicates.
In Europe and America loess deposits are associated with the
margins of the great ice sheets of the glacial period ; thus in Europe
they stretch irregularly through the centre eastwards from the north-
west of France, and are not found north of the 57th parallel. In
both regions loess deposits are found within and upon glacial deposits.
For this reason the loess is very commonly assigned to the Pleistocene
period ; but some of the loess deposits of northern Europe have been
m process of formation intermittently from the Miocene period
onward, and in South America the great loess formations known as
the Pampean or Patagonian belong to the Eocene, Oligocene and
Pleistocene periods. Most geologists are agreed that the loess is an
aeolian or wind-borne rock, formed most probably during periods of
tundra or steppe conditions. The capillary tubules are supposed
to have been caused by the roots of grass and herbage which kept
growing upon the surface even while the deposit was slowly increasing.
Others contend that loess is of the nature of alluvial loam ; this may
be true of certain deposits classed as loess, but it cannot be true of
most of the typical loess formations, for they lie upon older rocks
quite independently of altitude, from near sea level up to 5000 ft. in
Europe and to 11,500 ft. in China; they are often developed on one
side of a mountain range and not upon the other, and in a series of
approximately oarallel valleys the loess is frequently found lying
upon one side and that the same in each case, facts pointing to the
agency of prevalent winds.
The thickness of loess deposits is usually not more than 33 ft., but
in China it reaches 1000 ft. or more; it also attains a great thickness
in South America. Numerous proboscidian and other mammalian
fossils have been found in the loess of Europe; the tapir, mastodon
and giant sloths occur in South America, but the most common
fossils are small land shells and such amphibious pond forms as
Succinea. Certain loess deposits in Turkestan have been attributed
to rain-wash, this is the so-called " lake-loess " (see-loss); according
to Tukowski the difference between sub-aerial and lake loess is that
the former is porous, dry and pervious, while the latter is laminated,
plastic and impervious. Two types of loess have been recognized in
Russia, the Hill- or Terrace-loess and the Low-level-loess, a product
of the weathering of underlying rocks. In South Germany the
following order has been recognized: (l) an upper unbedded, non-
calcareous loess, (2) the gehangloss, mixed with subsoil rocks, and
(3) the sand or thai-loss, with some gravel. The effect of vegetation
on the upper layers of loess is to produce soils of great fertility, such
as the black earth (Tschernozom) of southern Russia, the dark
Bordeloss of the Magdeburg district, and the black " cotton soil "
(regur) of the Deccan.
LOFFT, CAPEL (1751-1824), English miscellaneous writer,
was born in London on the I4th of November 1751. He was
educated at Eton, and Peterhouse, Cambridge, which he left
to become a member of Lincoln's Inn. He was called to the bar
in 1775, and left by his father's and uncle's deaths with a hand-
some property and the family estates. He was a prolific writer
on a variety of topics, and a vigorous contentious advocate
of parliamentary and other reforms, and carried on a voluminous
correspondence with all the literary men of his time. He
became the patron of Robert Bloomfield, the author of The
Farmer's Boy, and secured for him the very successful publica-
tion of that work. Byron, in a note to his English Bards and
LOFOTEN AND VESTERAALEN— LOFTUS
863
Scotch Reviewers, ridiculed Lofft as " the Maecenas of shoe-
makers and preface- writer general to distressed versemen;
a kind of gratis accoucheur to those who wish to be delivered of
rhyme, but do not know how to bring forth." He died at
Montcalieri, near Turin, on the 26th of May 1824.
His fourth son Capel Lofft, the younger (1806-1873), also a
writer on various topics, inherited his father's liberal ideas and
principles, and carried them in youth to greater extremes. In his
old age he abandoned these theories, which had brought him into
the company of some of the leading political agitators of the
day. He died in America, where he had a Virginia estate.
LOFOTEN AND VESTERAALEN, a large and picturesque
group of islands lying N.E. and S.W. off the N.W. coast of
Norway, between 67° 30' and 69° 20' N., and between 12° and
16° 35' E. forming part of the ami (county) of Nordland. The
extreme length of the group from Andenaes, at the north of
Ando, to Rost, is about 150 m.; the aggregate area about
1560 sq. m. It is separated from the mainland by the Vestfjord,
Tjaeldsund and Vaagsfjord, and is divided into two sections
by the Raftsund between Hindo and Ost-Vaago. To the W.
and S. of the Raftsund lie the Lofoten Islands proper, of
which the most important are Ost-Vaago, Gimso, Vest-Vaago,
Flakstado, Moskenaeso, Mosken, Varo and Rost; E. and N.
of the Raftsund are the islands of Vesteraalen, the chief being
Hindo, Ulvo, Lango, Skogso and Ando. The islands, which
are all of granite or metamorphic gneiss, are precipitous and
lofty. The highest points and finest scenery are found on Ost-
Vaago, in the neighbourhood of the narrow, cliff-bound Raftsund
and Troldfjord. The principal peaks are Higrafstind (3811 ft.),
Gjeitgaljartind (3555), Rulten (3483), the Noldtinder (3467),
Svartsundtind (3506). The long line of jagged and fantastic
peaks seen from the Vestfjord forms one of the most striking
prospects on the Norwegian coast, but still finer is the panorama
from the Digermuler (1150 ft.), embracing the islands, the Vest-
fjord, and the mountains of the mainland. The channels which
separate the islands are narrow and tortuous, and generally of
great depth; they are remarkable for the strength of their
tidal currents, particularly the Raftsund and the famous
Maelstrom or Moskenstrom between Moskenaes and Mosken.
The violent tempests which sweep over the Vestfjord, which
is exposed to the S.W., are graphically described in Jonas Lie's
Den Fremsynte (1870) and in H. Schultze's Udvalgte Skrifter
(1883), as the Maelstrom is imaginatively by Edgar Allan Poe.
Though situated wholly within the Arctic circle, the climate of
the Lofoten and Vesteraalen group is not rigorous when com-
pared with that of the rest of Norway. The isothermal line
which marks a mean January temperature of 32° F. runs south
from the Lofotens, passing a little to the east of Bergen onward
to Gothenburg and Copenhagen. The prevailing winds are from
the S. and W., the mean temperature for the year is 38-5° F.,
and the annual rainfall is 43-34 in. In summer the hills
have only patches of snow, the snow limit being about 3000
ft. The natural pasture produced in favourable localities permits
the rearing of cattle to some extent; but the growth of cereals
(chiefly barley, which here matures in ninety days) is insignificant.
The islands yield no wood. The characteristic industry, and an
important source of the national wealth, is the cod fishery
carried on along the east coast of the Lofotens in the Vestfjord
in spring. This employs about 40,000 men during the season
from all parts of Norway, the population being then about
doubled, and the surplus accommodated in temporary huts.
The average yield is valued at about £35,000. The fish are taken
in nets let down during the night, or on lines upwards of a mile
in length, or on ordinary hand-lines. The fishermen are paid
in cash, and large sums of money are sent to the islands by the
Norwegian banks each February. Great loss of life is frequent
during the sudden local storms. The fish, which is dried during
early summer, is exported to Spain (where it is known as bacalao),
Holland, Great Britain, Belgium, &c. Industries arising out of
the fishery are the manufacture of cod-liver oil and of artificial
manure. The summer cod fisheries and the lobster fishery are
also valuable. The herring is taken in large quantities off the
west coasts of Vesteraalen, but is a somewhat capricious visitant.
The islands contain no towns properly so called, but Kabelvaag
on Ost-Vaago and Svolvaer on a few rocky islets off that island
are considerable centres of trade and (in the fishing season) of
population; Lodingen also, at the head of the Vestfjord on
Hindo, is much frequented as a port of call. A church existed
at Vaagen (Kabelvaag) in the iath century, and here Hans
Egede, the missionary of Greenland, was pastor. There are
factories for fish guano at Henningvaer (Ost-Vaago), Kabelvaag,
Svolvaer, Lodingen, and at Bretesnas on Store Molla. Regular
means of communication are afforded by the steamers which
trade between Hamburg or Christiania and Hammerfest, and
also by local vessels; less accessible spots can be visited by
small boats, in the management of which the natives are adepts.
There are some roads on Hindo, Lango, and Ando. The largest
island in the group, and indeed in Norway, is Hindo, with an
area of 860 sq. m. The south-eastern portion of it belongs to
the ami of Tromso. In the island of Ando there is a bed of coal
at the mouth of Ramsaa.
LOFT (connected with " lift," i.e. raised in the air; O. Eng.
lyft; cf. Ger. Luft; the French term is grenier and Ger. Boden),
the term given in architecture to an upper room in the roof,
sometimes called " cockloft "; when applied over stabling
it is known as a hay-loft; the gallery over a chancel screen,
carrying a cross, is called a rood-loft (see ROOD). The term is
also given to a gallery provided in the choir-aisle of a cathedral
or church, and used as a watching-loft at night.
LOFTUS, ADAM (c. 1533-1605), archbishop of Armagh and
Dublin, and lord chancellor 9f Ireland, the son of a Yorkshire
gentleman, was educated at Cambridge. He accompanied the
earl of Sussex to Ireland as his chaplain in 1560, and three
years later was consecrated archbishop of Armagh by Hugh
Curwen, archbishop of Dublin. In 1565 Queen Elizabeth, to
supplement the meagre income derivable from the archiepiscopal
see owing to the disturbed state of the country, appointed
Loftus temporarily to the deanery of St Patrick's; and in the
same year he became president of the new commission for
ecclesiastical causes. In 1567 he was translated to the arch-
bishopric of Dublin, where the queen looked to him to carry
out reforms in the Church. On several occasions he temporarily
executed the functions of lord keeper, and in August 1581 he
was appointed lord chancellor of Ireland. Loftus was constantly
occupied in attempts to improve his financial position by obtain-
ing additional preferment. He had been obliged to resign the
deanery of St Patrick's in 1567, and twenty years later he
quarrelled violently with Sir John Perrot, the lord deputy,
over the proposal to appropriate the revenues of the cathedral
to the foundation of a university. Loftus, however, favoured
the project of founding a university in Dublin, though on lines
different from Perrot's proposal, and it was largely through his
influence that the corporation of Dublin granted the lands of
the priory of All Hallows as a beginning of the endowment of
Trinity College, of which he was named first provost in the
charter creating the foundation in 1591. Loftus, who had an
important share in the administration of Ireland under successive
lords deputy, and whose zeal and efficiency were commended
by James I. on his accession, died in Dublin on the 5th of April
1605. By his wife, Jane Purdon, he had twenty children.
His brother Robert was father of ADAM LOFTUS (c. 1568-1643),
who became lord chancellor of Ireland in 1619, and in 1622 was
created Viscount Loftus of Ely, King's county, in the peerage
of Ireland. Lord Loftus came into violent conflict with the lord
deputy, Viscount Falkland, in 1624; and at a later date his
quarrel with Strafford was still more fierce. One of the articles
in Strafford's impeachment was based on his dealings with
Loftus. The title, which became extinct on the death of his
grandson, the 3rd viscount, in 1725 (when the family estate
of Monasterevan, re-named Moore Abbey, passed to his daughter's
son Henry, 4th earl of Drogheda), was re-granted in 1756 to
his cousin Nicholas Loftus, a lineal descendant of the archbishop.
It again became extinct more than once afterwards, but was on
each occasion revived in favour of a descendant through the
864
LOG
female line; and it is now held by the marquis of Ely in con-
junction with other family titles.
See Richard Mant, History of the Church of Ireland (2 vols., London,
1840); J. R. O'Flanagan, Lives of the Lord Chancellors of Ireland
(2 vols., London, 1870); John D'Alton, Memoirs of the Archbishops,
of Dublin (Dublin, 1838); Henry Cotton, Fasti Ecclesiae Hibernicae
(5 vols., Dublin, 1848-1878); William Monck Mason, History and
Antiquities of the College and Cathedral Church of St Patrick, near
Dublin (Dublin, 1819); G. E. C., Complete Peerage vol. iii.. sub.
" Ely " (London, 1890).
LOG(a word of uncertain etymological origin, possibly onomato-
poeic; the New English Dictionary rejects the derivation from
Norwegian lag, a fallen tree), a large piece of generally unhewn,
wood. The word is also used in various figurative senses, and
more particularly for the " nautical log," an apparatus for
ascertaining the speed of ships. Its employment in this sense
depends on the fact that a piece of wood attached to a line was
thrown overboard to lie like a log in a fixed position, motionless,
the vessel's speed being calculated by observing what length
of line ran out in a given time (" common log "); and the word
has been retained for the modern " patent " or " continuous "
log, though it works in an entirely different manner.
The origin of the " common log " is obscure, but the beginnings
of the " continuous log " may be traced back to the i6th century.
By an invention probably due to Humfray Cole and published
in 1578 by William Bourne in his Inventions and Devices, it was
proposed to register a ship's speed by means of a " little small
close boat," with a wheel, or wheels, and an axle-tree to turn
clockwork in the little boat, with dials and pointers indicating
fathoms, leagues, scores of leagues and hundreds of leagues.
About 1668 Dr R. Hooke showed some members of the Royal
Society an instrument for the same purpose, depending on a vane
or fly which rotated as the vessel progressed (Birch, History
of the Royal Society, iv. 231), and Sir Isaac Newton in
1715 reported unfavourably on the "marine surveyor" of
Henry de Saumarez, which also depended on a rotator. Conradus
Mel in his Antiquarius Sacer (1719) described a " pantometron
nauticum " which he claimed would show without calculation
the distance sailed by the ship; and J. Smeaton in 1754 published
improvements on the apparatus of Saumarez. William Foxon
of Deptford in 1772, James Guerimand of Middlesex in 1776
(by his " marine perambulator "), and R. H. Gower in 1772,
practically demonstrated the registration of a vessel's speed
by mechanical means. Viscount de Vaux in 1807 made use of
water-pressure, as did the Rev. E. L. Berthon in 1849, and C.
E. Kelway invented an electrical log in 1876.
Common L.og. — To ascertain the ship's speed by the common
log four articles are necessary — a log-ship or log-chip, log-reel,
log-line and log-glass. The log-ship (fig. i) is a wooden quadrant
^ in. thick, with a radius of 5 or 6 in.,
the circumference of which is weighted
with lead to keep it upright and retard
its passage through the water. Two
holes are made near its lower angles.
One end of a short piece of thin
line is passed through one of these
holes, and knotted; the other end
has spliced to it a hard bone peg
which is inserted in the other hole. The holes are so placed
that the log-ship will hang square from the span thus
formed. The log-line is secured to this span and consists of two
parts. The portion nearest the log-ship is known as the " stray
line "; its length varies from 10 to 20 fathoms, but should be
sufficient to ensure that the log-ship shall be outside the dis-
turbing element of the ship's wake. The point where it joins
the other part is marked by a piece of bunting, and the line
from this point towards its other end is marked at known intervals
with " knots," which consist of pieces of cord worked in between
its strands. A mean degree of the meridian being assumed to
be 69-09 statute miles of 5280 ft., the nautical mile (fa degree)
is taken as 6080 ft., which is a sufficiently close approximation
for practical purposes, and the distances between the knots
are made to bear the same relation to 6080 ft. as 28 seconds to
FIG. i.
an hour (3600 seconds) ; that is, they are placed at intervals
of 47 ft. 3 in. The end of the first interval of this length (counting
from the piece of bunting) is marked by a bit of leather, the
second by a cord with two knots, the third by one with three knots,
and so on; the middle of each of these lengths (half-knot) is
also marked by a cord with one knot. It follows that, if, say,
five knots of the line run out in 28 seconds, the ship has gone
5X471 ft. in that time, or is moving at the rate of 5X6080 ft.
( = five nautical miles) an hour; hence the common use of knot
as equivalent to a nautical mile. In the log-glass the time is
measured by running sand, which, however, is apt to be affected
by the humidity of the atmosphere. Sometimes a 3O-second
glass is used instead of a 28-second one, and the intervals between
the knots on the log-line are then made 50 ft. 7 in. instead of
47 ft. 3 in. For speeds over six knots a i4-second glass is
employed, and the speed indicated by the log-line is doubled.
The log-line, after being well soaked, stretched and marked with
knots, is wound uniformly on the log-reel, to which its inner end is
securely fastened. To " heave the log," a man holds the log-reel
over his head (at high speeds the man and portable reel are super-
seded by a fixed reel and a winch fitted with a brake), and the officer
places the peg in the log-ship, which he then throws clear and to
windward of the ship, allowing the line to run freely out. When the
bunting at the end of the stray line passes his hand, he calls to his
assistant to turn the glass, and allows the line to pay out freely.
When all the sand has run through, the assistant calls " Stop! " when
the log-line is quickly nipped, the knots counted, and the inter-
mediate portion estimated. The strain on the log-ship when the
log-line is nipped, causes the peg to be withdrawn from it, and the
log-ship is readily hauled in. In normal circumstances the log is hove
every hour. In a steam vessel running at high speed on an ocean
route, with engines working smoothly and uniformly, a careful officer
with correct line and glass can obtain very accurate results with the
common log.
Ground Log. — In the deltas of shoal rivers, with a strong tide
or current and no land visible, a 5 Ib lead is substituted for the
log-ship; the lead rests on the bottom, and the speed is obtained
in a manner similar to that previously described. Such a
" ground-log " indicates the actual speed over the ground, and
in addition, when the log-line is being hauled in, it will show the
real course the ship is making over the ground.
Patent Log. — The screw or rotatory log of Edward Massey,
invented in 1802, came into general use in 1836 and continued
until 1861. The re-
gistering wheel-work
was contained in a ' . ^____^^
shallow rectangular ' — »-"^ ~\^
box (fig. 2), with a FlG 2
float plate on its
upper side, carrying three indicating dials, recording respectively
fractions, units and tens of miles (up to a hundred). The
rotator was connected to the log by a rope 6 ft. in length, actuat-
ing a universal joint on the first spindle of the register; it
consisted of an air-tight thin metal tube with a coned fore-end,
carrying flat metal vanes set at an angle. Alexander Bain in
1846 suggested enclosing the wheelwork in the rotator. In
Thomas Walker's harpoon or frictionless log, introduced in 1861,
the wheelwork was enclosed in a cylindrical case of the same
diameter as the body of the rotator or fan, and the latter was
brought close up to the
register, forming a com-
pact machine and avoid-
ing the use of the 6-ft.
line. Two years later a
heart-shaped float plate
FIG. 3. — The Al Harpoon Ship Log.
was attached to the case, and the log called the Ai Harpoon
ship log (fig. 3). The log should be washed in fresh water
when practicable, to prevent oxidization of the wheels,
and be lubricated with suitable oil through a hole in the
case.
These logs were towed from the ship, but with quick passages
and well surveyed coasts, the need arose for a patent log which
could be readily consulted from the deck, and from which the
distance run under varying speeds could be quickly ascertained.
To meet this requirement, Walker in 1878 introduced the Cherub
LOG
865
log (fig. 4), a taffrail one, which, however, is not as a rule used for
speeds over 18 knots. Owing to the increased friction produced
by a rotator making approximately 900 revolutions per mile,
towed at the end of a line varying from 40 fathoms for a i2-knot
FlG. 4. — The Cherub Log.
speed to 60 fathoms for 20 knots, the pull of the line and rotator
is borne by coned rollers, having their outlines tapering to a
common point in their rotation, thus giving a broad rolling
surface. Strong worms and wheels are substituted for the light
clockwork. In fig. 4 the shoe H is secured to the taffrail, and the
rotator in the water is hooked to the eye of the spindle M by the
hook D. The case A contains the registering wheel work and a
sounding bell. The half
gimbal B pivoting in the
socket of the base C
allows the register to
receive the strain in the
direct line. The bearings
and rollers are lubricated
FIG. 5. — Neptune Pattern for securing
Rotator.
with castor oil every twelve hours through holes in the sliding
case E, and can be examined by unscrewing the case E and
the eye M. When not in use, the register is removed from the
shoe by lifting a small screw button near C. The tow line is
usually plaited, and to avoid a knot close to the rotator, the
latter is secured to the former by a knot inside an egg-shaped
shell (fig. 5, Neptune pattern).
Walker's Neptune log (fig. 6) is used for vessels of high speed.
Case A contains the wheelwork, and case E the spindle and steel ball
FIG. 7. — Dial-plate of Neptune Log.
FIG. 6. — Walker's Neptune Log.
bearings; in each case are openings, closed by sliding tubes, for
examination and lubrication. In fig. 6 the cases A and E are shown
open. Fig. 7 shows the dial plate. In fig. 8 the ball bearings are
shown unscrewed from the body of the log, with eye, cap and spindle.
They consist of two rows of balls rolling in two pairs of V races or
grooves. The outer pair receive the strain of the rotator, and the
inner are for adjustment and to prevent lateral movement. The
balls and races are enclosed in a skeleton cage (fig. 9) unscrewing from
the cap F (fig. 6) for cleaning or renewal; the adjustment of the
bearings is made by screwing up the cage cap 6, locked by a special
washer and the two screws a, a (figs. 8, 9). If the outer races become
worn, the complete cage and bearings are reversed; the strain of
the line is then transferred to what had previously been the inner
with practically unworn balls and races. It is for this purpose that
the skeleton cage is screwed internally at both ends, fitting a screwed
ring inside the cap F (fig. 6). To enable the indications of the log
xvi. 28
register on the taffrail to be recorded in the chart room or any other
part of the vessel as desired, a chart room electric register has been
introduced. By means of an electric installation between the log
register aft and the electric register in the chart room, every tenth of
a mile indicated by the former is recorded by the latter.
Walker's Rocket log (fig. 10) is a taffrail one, with
bearings of
hardened steel,
and is intended
to be slung or
secured to the
taffrail by a line ;
the gimbal pat-
tern has a fitting
for the deck. In i
taffrail logs, the!
movement of!
, the line owing!
to its length 1
becomes spas-
modic and jerky,
increasing the
vibration and
friction; to ob-
viate this a
governor or fly-wheel is
introduced, the hook of
the tow line K (fig. n)
and the eye of the register
M being attached to the
governor. Fig. n repre-
sents the arrangement
fitted to the Neptune log;
with the Cherub log, a
small piece of line is in-
troduced between the
governor and the eye of
the register. The two principal American taffrail logs are the Negus
and Bliss (Messrs Norie and Wilson). The former bears a general
resemblance to the Cherub log, but the dial plate is horizontal and
the faces turn upwards. The main shaft bearings are in two sets
and composed of steel balls running in steel cones and cups; the
governor is an iron rod about 1 6 in. long, with I in. balls at the
extremities. The Bliss resembles the Rocket
log in shape, and is secured to the taffrail
by a rope or slung. A governor is not em-
ployed. The blades of the rotator are ad-
justable, being fitted into its tube or body
by slits and holes and then soldered. The
outer ends of the blades are slit (fig. 12) to
form two tongues, and with the wrench (fig.
12) the angle of the pitch can be altered.
All patent logs have errors, the amounts
of which should be ascertained by
shore observations when passing a
well surveyed coast in tideless
waters on a calm day. Constant
use, increased friction (more
especially at high speeds), and
damage to the rotator will alter
an ascertained log error; head
or following seas, strong winds,
currents and tidal streams also
affect the correctness.
A Log Book is a marine or sea
journal, containing, in the British navy, the speed,
course, leeway, direction and force of the wind, state of
the weather, and barometric and thermometric observa-
tions. Under the heading " Remarks " are noted (for
fe vessels with sail power) making, shorten-
ing and trimming sails; and (for all
ships) employment of crew, times of
passing prominent landmarks, altering
of course, and any subject of interest and
FlG. 9.— Ball Bear-
ings of Neptune Log
in Skeleton Case. FIG. 10. — Rocket Log.
importance. The deck log book, kept by the officers of the
watch, is copied into the ship's log book by the navigating
5
FlG. 8. — Ball Bearings
of Neptune Log.
866
LOGAN, J.— LOGAN, J. A.
officer, and the latter is an official journal. In steam
vessels a rough and fair engine room register are kept,
FlG. II. — Neptune Log fitted with Governor.
giving information with regard to the engines and boilers.
In the British mercantile marine all ships (except those
employed exclusively in
trading between ports on
the coasts of Scotland)
are compelled to keep an
official log book in a form
approved by the Board
of Trade. A mate's log
FIG. i2.-Bhss Log. book and engme room
register are not compulsory, but are usually kept. (J.W. D.)
LOGAN, JOHN (c. 1725-1780), also known as TAHGAHJUTE,
American Indian chief, a Cayuga by birth, was the son of Shikel-
lamy, a white man who had been captured when a child by the
Indians, had been reared among them, and had become chief of the
Indians living on the Shamokin Creek in what is now Northumber-
land county, Pennsylvania. The name Logan was given to the
son in honour of James Logan (1674-1751), secretary of William
Penn and a steadfast fiiend of the Indians. John Logan lived
for some time near Reedsville, Penn., and removed to the
banks of the Ohio river about 1770. He was not technically
a chief, but acquired great influence among the Shawnees, into
which tribe he married. He was on good terms with the whites
until April 1774, when, friction having arisen between the
Indians and the whites, a band of marauders, led by one Great-
house, attacked and murdered several Indians, including, it
appears, Logan's sister and possibly one or more other relatives.
Believing that Captain Michael Cresap was responsible for this
murder, Logan sent him a declaration of hostilities, the result
of which was the bloody conflict known as Lord Dunmore's War.
Logan refused to join the Shawnee chief, Cornstalk, in meeting
Governor Dunmore in a peace council after the battle of Point
Pleasant, but sent him a message which has become famous as
an example of Indian eloquence. The message seems to have
been given by Logan to Colonel John Gibson, by whom it was
delivered to Lord Dunmore. Thomas Jefferson first called
general attention to it in his Notes on Virginia (1787), where he
quoted it and added: " I may challenge the whole orations of
Demosthenes and Cicero, and of any more eminent orator, if
Europe has furnished more eminent, to produce a single passage
superior to it." Logan became a victim of drink, and in 1780
was killed near Lake Erie by his nephew whom he had attacked.
There is a monument to him in Fair Hill Cemetery, near Auburn,
New York.
Brantz Mayer's Tahgahjute, or Logan the Indian and Captain
Michael Cresap (Baltimore, 1851, 2nd ed., Albany, 1867) defends
Captain Cresap against Jefferson's charges, and also questions the
authenticity of Logan's message, about which there has been con-
siderable controversy, though its actual wording seems to be that of
Gibson rather than of Logan.
LOGAN, JOHN (1748-1788), Scottish poet, was born at Soutra,
Midlothian, in 1748. His father, George Logan, was a farmer
and a member of the Burgher sect of the Secession church. John
Logan was sent to Musselburgh grammar school, and in 1762
to the university of Edinburgh. In 1768-1769 he was tutor to
John, afterwards Sir John, Sinclair, at Ulbster, Caithness, and
in 1770, having left the Secession church, he was licensed as a
preacher by the presbytery of Haddington. In 1771 he was
presented to the charge of South Leith, but was not ordained till
two years later. On the death of Michael Bruce (q.v.) he obtained
that poet's MSS. with a view to publication. In 1 770 he published
Poems on Several Occasions, by Michael Bruce with a preface, in
which, after eulogizing Bruce, who had been a fellow student of
his, he remarked that " to make up a miscellany some poems
wrote by different authors are inserted, all of them originals,
and none of them destitute of merit. The reader of taste will
easily distinguish them fiom those of Mr Bruce, without their
being particularized by any mark." Logan was an active
member of the committee of the General Assembly of the Church
of Scotland which worked from 1775 to 1781 at revising the
Translations and Paraphrases " for public worship, in which
many of his hymns are printed. In 1779-1781 he delivered a
course of lectures on the philosophy of history at St Mary's
Chapel, Edinbuigh. An analysis of these lectures, Elements of
the Philosophy of History (1781), bears striking resemblance to
A View of Ancient History (1787), printed as the work of Dr W.
Rutherford, but thought by Logan's friends to be his. In 1781
he published his own Poems, including the " Ode to the Cuckoo "
and some other poems which had appeared in his volume of
Michael Bruce's poems, and also his own contributions to the
Paraphrases. His other publications were An Essay on the
Manners and Governments of Asia (1782), Runnamede, a tragedy
(1783), and A Review of the Principal Charges against Warren
Hastings (1788). His connexion with the theatre gave offence
to his congiegation at South Leith; he was intemperate in his
habits, and there was some local scandal attached to his name.
He resigned his charge in 1786, retaining part of his stipend, and
proceeded to London, where he became a writer for the English
Review. He died on the 28th of December 1788. Two posthum-
ous volumes of sermons appeared in 1790 and 1791. They were
very popular, and were reprinted in 1810. His Poetical Works
were printed in Dr Robert Anderson's British Poets (vol. xi.,
1795), with a life of the author. They were reprinted in similar
collections, and separately in 1805.
Logan was accused of having appropriated in his Poems
(1781) verses written by Michael Bruce. The statements of
John Birrell and David Pearson on behalf of Bruce were included
in Dr Anderson's Life of Logan. The charge of plagiarism has
been revived from time to time, notably by Dr W. Mackelvie
(1837) and Mr James Mackenzie (1905). The whole controversy
has been marked by strong partisanship. The chief points
against Logan are the suppression of the major portion of Bruce's
MSS. and some proved cases of plagiarism in his sermons and
hymns. Even in the beautiful " Braes of Yarrow " one of the
verses is borrowed direct from an old border ballad. The
traditional evidence in favour of Bruce's authorship of the
" Ode to the Cuckoo" can hardly be set aside, but Dr Robertson
of Dalmeny, who was Logan's literary executor, stated that he
had gone over the MSS. procured at Kinnesswood with Logan.
Logan's authorship of the poems in dispute is defended by David
Laing, Ode to the Cuckoo with remarks on its authorship, in a letter to
J. C. Shairp, LL.D. (1873) ; by John Small in the British and Foreign
Evangelical Review (July, 1877, April and October, 1879); and by
R. Small in two papers (ibid., 1878). See also BRUCE, MICHAEL.
LOGAN, JOHN ALEXANDER (1826-1886), American soldier
and political leader, was born in what is now Murphysborough,
Jackson county, Illinois, on the pth of February 1826. He had
no schooling until he was fourteen; he then studied for three
years in Shiloh College, served in the Mexican War as a lieutenant
of volunteers, studied law in the office of an uncle, graduated
from the Law Department of Louisville University in 1851, and
practised law with success. He entered politics as a Douglas
Democrat, was elected county clerk in 1849, served in the
State House of Representatives in 1853-1854 and in 1857, and
for a time, during the interval, was prosecuting attorney of the
Third Judicial District of Illinois. In 1858 and 1860 he^was
elected as a Democrat to the National House of Representatives.
Though unattached and unenlisted, he fought at Bull Run, and
LOGAN, SIR W. E.— LOGAR
867
then returned to Washington, resigned his seat, and entered
the Union army as colonel of the 3151 Illinois Volunteers, which
he organized. He was regarded as one of the ablest officers
who entered the army from civil life. In Grant's campaigns
terminating in the capture of Vicksburg, which city Logan's
division was the first to enter and of which he was military
governor, he rose to the rank of major-general of volunteers;
in November 1863 he succeeded Sherman in command of the
XV. Army Corps; and after the death of McPherson he was in
command of the Army of the Tennessee at the battle of Atlanta.
When the war closed, Logan rgsumed his political career as a
Republican, and was a member of the National House of Repre-
sentatives from 1867 to 1871, and of the United States Senate
from 1871 until 1877 and again from 1879 until his death,
which took place at Washington, B.C., on the 26th of December
1886. He was always a violent partisan, and was identified
with the radical wing of the Republican party. In 1868 he
was one of the managers in the impeachment of President
Johnson. His war record and his great personal following,
especially in the Grand Army of the Republic, contributed to
his nomination for Vice-President in 1884 on the ticket with
James G. Elaine, but he was not elected. His impetuous
oratory, popular on the platform, was less adapted to the halls
of legislation. He was commander-in-chief of the Grand Army
of the Republic from 1868 to 1871, and in this position success-
fully urged the observance of Memorial or Decoration Day,
an idea which probably originated with him. He was the author
of The Great Conspiracy: Its Origin and History (1886), a
partisan account of the Civil War, and of The Volunteer Soldier
of America (1887). There is a fine statue of him by St Gaudens
in Chicago.
The best biography is that by George F. Dawson, The Life and
Services of Gen. John A. Logan, as Soldier and Statesman (Chicago and
New York, 1887).
LOGAN, SIR WILLIAM EDMOND (1798-1875), British
geologist, was born in Montreal on the zoth of April 1798, of
Scottish parents. He was educated partly in Montreal, and
subsequently at the High School and university of Edinburgh,
where Robert Jameson did much to excite his interest in geology.
He was in a business house in London from 1817 to 1830. In
1831 he settled in Swansea to take charge of a colliery and some
copper-smelting works, and here his interest in geology found
abundant scope. He collected a great amount of information
respecting the South Wales coal-field; and his data, which
he had depicted on the i-in. ordnance survey map, were
generously placed at the disposal of the geological survey under
Sir H. T. de la Beche and fully utilized. In 1840 Logan brought
before the Geological Society of London his celebrated paper
" On the character of the beds of clay lying immediately below
the coal-seams of South Wales, and on the occurrence of coal-
boulders in the Pennant Grit of that district." He then pointed
out that each coal-seam rests on an under-clay with rootlets
of Stigmaria, and he expressed his opinion that the under-clay
was the old soil in which grew the plants from which the coal
was formed. To confirm this observation he visited America
in 1841 and examined the coal-fields of Pennsylvania and Nova
Scotia, where he found the under-clay almost invariably present
beneath the seams of coal. In 1842 he was appointed to take
charge of the newly established geological survey in Canada,
and he continued as director until 1869. During the earlier
years of the survey he had many difficulties to surmount and
privations to undergo, but the work was carried on with great
tact and energy, and he spared no pains to make his reports
trustworthy. He described the Laurentian rocks of the
Laurentian mountains in Canada and of the Adirondacks in
the state of New York, pointing out that they comprised an
immense series of crystalline rocks, gneiss, mica-schist, quartzite
and limestone, more than 30,000 ft. in thickness. The series
was rightly recognized as representing the oldest type of rocks
on the globe, but it is now known to be a complex of highly
altered sedimentary and intrusive rocks; and the supposed
oldest known fossil, the Eozoon described by Sir J. W. Dawson,
is now regarded as a mineral structure. Logan was elected
F.R.S. in 1851, and in 1856 was knighted. In the same year he
was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of
London for his researches on the coal-strata, and for his excellent
geological map of Canada. After his retirement in 1869, he
returned to England, and eventually settled in South Wales.
He died at Castle Malgwyn in Pembrokeshire, on the 22nd of
June 1875.
See the Life, by B. J. Harrington (1883). (H. B. Wo.)
LOGAN, a city and the county-seat of Cache county, Utah,
U.S.A., on the Logan river, about 70 m. N. of Salt Lake City.
Pop. (1900) 5451 (1440 foreign-born); (1910) 7522. It is served
by the Oregon Short Line railroad. It lies at the mouth of Logan
Canon, about 4500 ft. above the sea, and commands magnificent
views of the Wasatch Mountains and the fertile Cache Valley.
At Logan is a temple of the Latter-Day Saints (or Mormons),
built in 1883, and the city is the seat of the Agricultural College
of Utah, of Brigham Young College, and of New Jersey Academy
(1878), erected by the women of the Synod of New Jersey and
managed by the Woman's Board of Home Missions of the
Presbyterian Church. The Agricultural College was founded
in 1888 and opened in 1890; an agricultural experiment station
is connected with it and the institution comprises schools of
agriculture, domesti; science and arts, commerce, mechanic
arts and general science. Six experiment stations in different
parts of the state and a central experimental farm near St George,
Washington county, were in 1908 under the direction of the
experiment station in Logan. Brigham Young College was
endowed by Brigham Young in 1877 and was opened in 1878;
it offers courses in the arts, theology, civil engineering, music,
physical culture, domestic science, nurse training and manual
training. Logan has various manufactures, and is the trade
centre for a fertile farming region. The municipality owns and
operates its water works and its electric lighting plant. Logan
was settled in 1859 and first incorporated in 1866.
LOGANSPORT, a city and the county-seat of Cass county,
Indiana, U.S.A., on the Wabash river, at the mouth of the Eel
river, about 67 m. N. by W. of Indianapolis and 117 m. S. by
E. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) 16,204, of whom 1432 were foreign-
'born, (1910 census) 19,050. It is served by six divisions
of the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, two divisions
of the Vandalia (Pennsylvania Lines), and the Wabash railways,
and by electric interurban lines. The city is the seat of the
Northern Indiana Hospital for the Insane (1888), and has a
public library, and a hospital (conducted by the Sisters of St
Joseph). Among the principal buildings are the court house,
a Masonic temple, an Odd Fellows' temple, and buildings of
the Order of Elks, of the Knights of Pythias, and of the fraternal
order of Eagles. Situated in the centre of a rich agricultural
region, Logansport is one of the most important grain and produce
markets in the state. The Wabash and the Eel rivers provide
good water power, and the city has various manufactures,
besides the railway repair shops of the Vandalia and of the
Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways. The value
of the city's factory product increased from $2,100,394 in io°o
to $2,955,921 in 1905, or 40-7%. Limestone, for use in the
manufacture of iron, is quarried in the vicinity. The city owns
and operates the water works and the electric-lighting plant.
Logansport was platted in 1828, was probably named in honour
of a Shawnee chief, Captain Logan (d. 1812), became the county-
seat of Cass county in 1829, and was chartered as a city in
1838.
LOGAR, a river and valley of Afghanistan. The Logar river
drains a wide tract of country, rising in the southern slopes of the
Sanglakh range and receiving affluents from the Kharwar hills,
N.E. of Ghazni. It joins the Kabul river a few miles below the
city of Kabul. The Logar valley, which is watered by its southern
affluents, is rich and beautiful, about 40 m. long by 12 wide,
and highly irrigated throughout. Lying in the vicinity of the
capital, the district contributes largely to its food-supply. The
valley was traversed in 1879 by a brigade under Sir F. (afterwards
i Lord) Roberts.
868
LOGARITHM
LOGARITHM (from Gr. Myos, word, ratio, and
number), in mathematics, a word invented by John. Napier to
denote a particular class of function discovered by him, and
which may be defined as follows: if a, x, m are any three
quantities satisfying the equation ax = m, then a is called the base,
and x is said to be the logarithm of m to the base a. This relation
between x,a,m, may be expressed also by the equation x = loga m.
Properties. — The principal properties of logarithms are given
by the equations
log,, (mn) = logo m +log0 n, loga(m/n) = loga m — logo n,
logo m' = r logo m, logo ^ m = (i/r) logo m,
which may be readily deduced from the definition of a logarithm.
It follows from these equations that the logarithm of the product
of any number of quantities is equal to the sum of the logarithms
of the quantities, that the logarithm of the quotient of two
quantities is equal to the logarithm of the numerator diminished
by the logarithm of the denominator, that the logarithm of the
rth power of a quantity is equal to r times the logarithm of the
quantity, and that the logarithm of the rth root of a quantity
is equal to (i/r)th of the logarithm of the quantity.
Logarithms were originally invented for the sake of abbreviat-
ing arithmetical calculations, as by their means the operations
of multiplication and division may be replaced by those of
addition and subtraction, and the operations of raising to powers
and extraction of roots by those of multiplication and division.
For the purpose of thus simplifying the operations of arith-
metic, the base is taken to be 10, and use is made of tables of
logarithms in which the values of x, the logarithm, corre-
sponding to values of m, the number, are tabulated. The
logarithm is also a function of frequent occurrence in analysis,
being regarded as a known and recognized function like sin x or
tan x; but in mathematical investigations the base generally
employed is not 10, but a certain quantity usually denoted by the
letter e, of value 2-71828 18284 ....
Thus in arithmetical calculations if the base is not expressed
it is understood to be 10, so that log m denotes logio m; but in
analytical formulae it is understood to be e.
The logarithms to base 10 of the first twelve numbers to 7
places of decimals are
log i =0-0000000 log 5=0-6989700 log 9=0-9542425
log 2=0-3010300 log 6=0-7781513 log IO=I'OOOOOOO
log 3=0-4771213 log 7=0-8450980 log 11 = 1-0413927
log 4 = O-6O2O6OO log 8=0-9030900 log 12 = 1-0791812
The meaning of these results is that
1=10°,
IO=I01,
2 = IO°-3°10300, 3 = i
II = I01-0413927, I2 = l
The integral part of a logarithm is called the index or char-
acteristic, and the fractional part the mantissa. When the base
is 10, the logarithms of all numbers in which the digits are the
same, no matter where the decimal point may be, have the same
mantissa; thus, for example,
log 2-5613 = 0-4084604, log 25-613 = 1-4084604, log 2561300 =
6-4084604, &c.
In the case of fractional numbers (i.e. numbers in which the
integral part is o) the mantissa is still kept positive, so that,
for example,
log -25613=7-4084604, log -0025613=3^4084604, &c.
the minus sign being usually written over the characteristic,
and not before it, to indicate that the characteristic only, and
not the whole expression, is negative; thus
1-4084604 stands for— 1+ -4084604.
The fact that when the base is 10 the mantissa of the logarithm
is independent of the position of the decimal point in the number
affords the chief reason for the choice of 10 as base. The ex-
planation of this property of the base 10 is evident, for a change
in the position of the decimal points amounts to multiplication
or division by some power of 10, and this corresponds to the
addition or subtraction of some integer in the case of the
logarithm, the mantissa therefore remaining intact. It should
be mentioned that in most tables of trigonometrical functions,
the number 10 is added to all the logarithms in the table in order
to avoid the use of negative characteristics, so that the char-
acteristic 9 denotes in reality i, 8 denotes 2, 10 denotes o, &c.
Logarithms thus increased are frequently referred to for the sake
of distinction as tabular logarithms, so that the tabular logarithm
= the true logarithm + 10.
In tables of logarithms of numbers to base 10 the mantissa
only is in general tabulated, as the characteristic of the logarithm
of a number can always be written down at sight, the rule being
that, if the number is greater ^ian unity, the characteristic is
less by unity than the number of digits in the integral portion of
it, and that if the number is less than unity the characteristic
is negative, and is greater by unity than the number of ciphers
between the decimal point and the first significant figure.
It follows very simply from the definition of a logarithm that
log«6 Xlogia = i, log& m = logo w X (i/logai).
The second of these relations is an important one, as it shows
that from a table of logarithms to base a, the corresponding
table of logarithms to base b may be deduced by multiplying all
the logarithms in the former by the constant multiplier i/logoft,
which is called the modulus of the system whose base is b with
respect to the system whose base is a.
The two systems of logarithms for which extensive tables
have been calculated are the Napierian, or hyperbolic, or natural
system, of which the base is e, and the Briggian, or decimal, or
common system, of which the base is 10; and we see that the
logarithms in the latter system may be deduced from those in the
former by multiplication by the constant multiplier i/logeio,
which is called the modulus of the common system of logarithms.
The numerical value of this modulus is 0-43429 44819 03251
82765 11289 • • •> and the value of its reciprocal, log" 10 (by
multiplication by which Briggian logarithms may be converted
into Napierian logarithms) is 2-30258 50929 94045 68401
79914 ....
The quantity denoted by e is the series,
I 1.2 1.2.3 I-2-3-4
the numerical value of which is,
2-71828 18284 59045 23536 02874 • • •
The logarithmic Function. — The mathematical function log * or
log. x is one of the small group of transcendental functions, con-
sisting only of the circular functions (direct and inverse) sin x, cos x,
&c., arc sin x or sin—1 *,&c., log x and e1 which are universally treated
in analysis as known functions. The notation log x is generally
employed in English and American works, but on the continent of
Europe writers usually denote the function by Ix or Ig x. The
logarithmic function is most naturally introduced into analysis by
the equation •
C'dt
log* = I T>
This equation defines log * for positive values of x; if x£o the
formula ceases to have any meaning. Thus log x is the integral
function of l/x, and it can be shown that log x is a genuinely new
transcendent, not expressible in finite terms by means of functions
such as algebraical or circular functions. A connexion with the
circular functions, however, appears later when the definition of
log x is extended to complex values of x.
A relation which is of historical interest connects the logarithmic
function with the quadrature of the hyperbola, for, by considering
the equation of the hyperbola in the form xy = const., it is evident
that the area included between the arc of a hyperbola, its nearest
asymptote, and two ordinates drawn parallel to the other asymptote
from points on the first asymptote distant a and b from their point
of intersection, is proportional to log b/a.
The following fundamental properties of log x are readily deducible
from the definition
(i.) log xy = \og rJc+log y.
(ii.) Limit of (** — l)/fr = log x, when h is indefinitely diminished.
Either of these properties might be taken as itself the definition of
log x.
There is no series for log x proceeding either by ascending or
descending powers of x, but there is an expansion for log (i +*), viz.
log (l+*)=*-4*2 + **'-i*4+
the series, however, is convergent for real values of x only when x lies
between +1 and — I. Other formulae which are deducible from this
LOGARITHM
869
equation are given in the portion of this article relating to the calcu-
lation of logarithms.
The function log x as x increases from o towards °o steadily in-
creases from — » towards +°o. It has the important property that
it tends to infinity with x, but more slowly than any power of x, i.e.
that *-"• log x tends to zero as x tends to oo for every positive value
of m however small.
The exponential function, exp x, may be defined as the inverse of
the logarithm : thus x = exp y if y = log x. It is positive for all values
of y and increases steadily from o toward °o as y increases from -oo
towards +00. As y tends towards » , exp y tends towards oo
more rapidly than any power of y.
The exponential function possesses the properties
(i.) exp (*+?)= exp x X exp y.
(iii.) exp x = i+x+x1/2 ! + *3/3 ! + . . .
From (i.) and (ii.) it may be deduced that
expx = (i+i + i/2 ! +1/3 ! + ...)*,
where the right-hand side denotes the positive ath power of the
number 1 + 1+1/2 ! +1/3 ! + . . . usually denoted by e. It is custom-
ary, therefore, to denote the exponential function by e1, and the
result
is known as the exponential theorem.
The definitions of the logarithmic and exponential functions may
be extended to complex values of x. Thus if x = *+«;,
log * = I -r
Ji l
where the path of integration in the plane of the complex variable /
is any curve which does not pass through the origin ; but now log x
is not a uniform function, that is to say, if x describes a closed curve
it does not follow that log x also describes a closed curve: in fact
we have
log (l+ti?) =logV (£2+7,2)+t(a+2»7r),
where o is the numerically least angle whose cosine and sine are
£/V (S'+iJ2) and Tj/V (£2+irO, and n denotes any integer. Thus even
when the argument is real log x has an infinite number of values; for
putting TJ = O and taking Jj positive, in which case a = o, we obtain for
log £ the infinite system of values log £+2niri. It follows from this
property of the function that we cannot have for log x a series which
shall be convergent for all values of x, as is the case with sin x and
cos x, for such a series could only represent a uniform function, and in
fact the equation
IrKrfl -4-Y^ — y— ay2 I 1Y3 1 y4 I
lUg^l n^~/ — "* 2** 1^ 3-~ — 4* 1^ • • •
is true only when the analytical modulus of * is less than unity.
The exponential function, which may still be defined as the inverse
of the logarithmic function, is, on the other hand, a uniform function
of *, and its fundamental properties may be stated in the same form
as for real values of x. Also
exp (Jj+Jij) =e£(cos ?j+t sin rj).
An alternative method of developing the theory of the exponential
function is to start from the definition
exp *= i +x+x*/2 ! +*3/3 !+...,
the series on the right-hand being convergent for all values of x and
therefore defining an analytical function of x which is uniform and
regular all over the plane.
Invention and Early History of Logarithms. — The invention of
logarithms has been accorded to John Napier, baron of Merchiston
in Scotland, with a unanimity which is rare with regard to
important scientific discoveries: in fact, with the exception 01
the tables of Justus Byrgius, which will be referred to further on,
there seems to have been no other mathematician of the time
whose mind had conceived the principle on which logarithms
depend, and no partial anticipations of the discovery are met
' with in previous writers.
The first announcement of the invention was made in Napier's
Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio . . . (Edinburgh,
1614). The work is a small quarto containing fifty-seven pages
of explanatory matter and a table of ninety pages (see NAPIER,
JOHN). The nature of logarithms is explained by reference to
the motion of points in a straight line, and the principle upon
which they are based is that of the correspondence of a geo-
metrical and an arithmetical series of numbers. The table gives
the logarithms of sines for every minute of seven figures; it is
arranged semi-quadrantally, so that the differentiae, which are
the differences of the two logarithms in the same line, are the
logarithms of the tangents. Napier's logarithms are not the
logarithms now termed Napierian or hyperbolic, that is to say,
logarithms to the base e where 6=2-7182818 . . .; the relation
between N (a sine) and L its logarithm, as defined in the Canonis
Descriplio, being N= io7e~L/I°7, so that (ignoring the factors io7;
the effect of which is to render sines and logarithms integral to
7 figures), the base is e~l. Napier's logarithms decrease as the
sines increase. If I denotes the logarithm to base e (that is, the
so-called " Napierian " or hyperbolic logarithm) and L denotes,
as above, " Napier's " logarithm, the connexion between / and
L is expressed by
L = io7 log, io7 - io7/ or e1 = io7e-L/io'
Napier's work (which will henceforth in this article be referred
to as the Descriptio) immediately on its appearance in 1614
attracted the attention of perhaps the two most eminent English
mathematicians then living — Edward Wright and Henry Briggs.
The former translated the work into English; the latter was
concerned with Napier in the change of the logarithms from those
originally invented to decimal or common logarithms, and it is
to him that the original calculation of the logarithmic tables now
in use is mainly due. Both Napier and Wright died soon after
the publication of the Descriplio, the date of Wright's death
being 1615 and that of Napier 1617, but Briggs lived until 1631.
Edward Wright, who was a fellow of Caius College, Cambridge,
occupies a conspicuous place in the history of navigation. In
1599 he published Certaine errors in Navigation detected and
corrected, and he was the author of other works; to him also is
chiefly due the invention of the method known as Mercator's
sailing. He at once saw the value of logarithms as an aid to
navigation, and lost no time in preparing a translation, which
he submitted to Napier himself. The preface to Wright's
edition consists of a translation of the preface to the Descriptio,
together with the addition of the following sentences written by
Napier himself: " But now some of our countreymen in this
Island well affected to these studies, and the more publique
good, procured a most learned Mathematician to translate the
same into our vulgar English tongue, who after he had finished it,
sent the Coppy of it to me, to bee seene and considered on by
myselfe. I having most willingly and gladly done the same, finde
it to bee most exact and precisely conformable to my minde and
the originall. Therefore it may please you who are inclined to
these studies, to receive it from jne and the Translator, with
as much good will as we recommend it unto you." There is a
short " preface to the reader " by Briggs, and a description of a
triangular diagram invented by Wright for finding the propor-
tional parts. The table is printed to one figure less than in the
Descriptio. Edward Wright died, as has been mentioned, in
1615, and his son, Samuel Wright, in the preface states that his
father " gave much commendation of this work (and often in my
hearing) as of very great use to mariners "; and with respect to
the translation he says that " shortly after he had it returned
out of Scotland, it pleased God to call him away afore he could
publish it." The translation was published in 1616. It was also
reissued with a new title-page in 1618.
Henry Briggs, then professor of geometry at Gresham College,
London, and afterwards Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford,
welcomed the Descriplio with enthusiasm. In a letter to Arch-
bishop Usher, dated Gresham House, March io, 1615, he wrote;
" Napper, lord of Markinston, hath set my head and hands a
work with his new and admirable logarithms. I hope to see him
this summer, if it please God, for I never saw book which pleased
me better, or made me more wonder.1 I purpose to discourse
with him concerning eclipses, for what is there which we may not
hope for at his hands," and he also states " that he was wholly
taken up and employed about the noble invention of logarithms
lately discovered." Briggs accordingly visited Napier in 1615,
and stayed with him a whole month.2 He brought with him some
1 Dr Thomas Smith thus describes the ardour with which Briggs
studied the Descriptio: " Hunc in deliciis habuit, in sinu, in manibus,
in pectpre gestavit, oculisque avidissimis, et mente attendssima,
iterum iterumque perlegit, ..." Vitae quorundam eruditissimorum et
illustrium virorum (London, 1707).
2 William Lilly's account of the meeting of Napier and Briggs at
Merchiston is quoted in the article NAPIER.
8yo
LOGARITHM
calculations he had made, and suggested to Napier the advantages
that would result from the choice of 10 as a base, an improvement
which he had explained in his lectures at Gresham College, and
on which he had written to Napier. Napier said that he had
already thought of the change, and pointed out a further im-
provement, viz., that the characteristics of numbers greater
than unity should be positive and not negative, as suggested by
Briggs. In .1616 Briggs again visited Napier and showed him the
work he had accomplished, and, he says, he would gladly have
paid him a third visit in 1617 had Napier's life been spared.
Briggs's Logarithmorum chilias prima, which contains the first
published table of decimal or common logarithms, is only a
small octavo tract of sixteen pages, and gives the logarithms
of numbers from unity to 1000 to 14 places of decimals. It was
published, probably privately, in 1617, after Napier's death,1 and
there is no author's name, place or date. The date of publication
is, however, fixed as 1617 by a letter from Sir Henry Bourchier
to Usher, dated December 6, 1617, containing the passage—
" Our kind friend, Mr Briggs, hath lately published a supplement
to the most excellent tables of logarithms, which I presume he
has sent to you." Briggs's tract of 1617 is extremely rare, and
has generally been ignored or incorrectly described. Hutton
erroneously states that it contains the logarithms to 8 places,
and his account has been followed by most writers. There is a
copy in the British Museum.
Briggs continued to labour assiduously at the calculation of
logarithms, and in 1624 published his Arithmetica logarithmica,
a folio work containing the logarithms of the numbers from i
to 20,000, and from 90,000 to 100,000 (and in some copies to
101,000) to 14 places of decimals. The table occupies 300 pages,
and there is an introduction of 88 pages relating to the mode of
calculation, and the applications of logarithms.
There was thus left a gap between 20,000 and 90,000, which
was filled up by Adrian Vlacq (or Ulaccus), who published at
Gouda, in Holland, in 1628, a table containing the logarithms
of the numbers from unity to 100,000 to 10 places of decimals.
Having calculated 70,000 logarithms and copied only 30,000,
Vlacq would have been quite entitled to have called his a new
work. He designates it, however, only a second edition of
Briggs's Arithmetica logarithmica, the title running Arithmetica
logarithmica sive Logarithmorum Chiliades centum, . . . editio
secunda aucta per Adrianum Vlacq, Goudanum. This table of
Vlacq's was published, with an English explanation prefixed,
at London in 1631 under the title Logarithmicall Arithmetike . . .
London, printed by George Miller, 1631. There are also copies
with the title-page and introduction in French and in Dutch
(Gouda, 1628).
Briggs had himself been engaged in filling up the gap, and in
a letter to John Pell, written after the publication of Vlacq's
work, and dated October 25, 1628, he says: —
" My desire was to have those chiliades that are wantinge betwixt
20 and 90 calculated and printed, and I had done them all almost by
my selfe, and by some frendes whom my rules had sufficiently in-
formed, and by agreement the busines was conveniently parted
amongst us; but I am eased of that charge and care by one Adrian
Vlacque, an Hollander, who hathe done all the whole hundred
chiliades and printed them in Latin, Dutche and Frenche, 1000
bookes in these 3 languages, and hathe sould them almost all. But
he hathe cutt off 4 of my figures throughout; and hathe left out my
dedication, and to the reader, and two chapters the 12 and 13, in the
rest he hath not varied from me at all."
The original calculation of the logarithms of numbers from
unity to 101,000 was thus performed by Briggs and Vlacq between
1615 and 1628. Vlacq's table is that from which all the hundreds
of tables of logarithms that have subsequently appeared have
been derived. It contains of course many errors, which were
gradually discovered and corrected in the course of the next
two hundred and fifty years.
The first calculation or publication of Briggian or common
logarithms of trigonometrical functions was made in 1620 by
Edmund Gunter, who was Briggs's colleague as professor of
1 It was certainly published after Napier's death, as Briggs
mentions his " librum posthumum." This liber posthumus was the
Construct™ referred to later in this article.
astronomy in Gresham College. The title of Gunter's book,
which is very scarce, is Canon triangulorum, and it contains
logarithmic sines and tangents for every minute of the quadrant
to 7 places of decimals.
The next publication was due to Vlacq, who appended to his
logarithms of numbers in the Arithmetica logarithmica of 1628
a table giving log sines, tangents and secants for every minute
of the quadrant to 10 places; there were obtained by calculating
the logarithms of the natural sines, &c. given in the Thesaurus
mathematicus of Pitiscus (1613).
During the last years of his life Briggs devoted himself to the
calculation of logarithmic sines, &c. and at the time of his death
in 1631 he had all but completed a logarithmic canon to every
hundredth of a degree. This work was published by Vlacq at
his own expense at Gouda in 1633, under the title Trigonometria
Britannica. It contains log sines (to 14 places) and tangents (to
10 places) , besides natural sines, tangents and secants, at intervals
of a hundredth of a degree. In the same year Vlacq published
at Gouda his Trigonometria artificialis, giving log sines and
tangents to every 10 seconds of the quadrant to 10 places.
This work also contains Ae logarithms of numbers from unity
to 20,000 taken from the Arithmetica logarithmica of 1628.
Briggs appreciated clearly the advantages of a centesimal division
of the quadrant, and by dividing the degree into hundredth parts
instead of into minutes, made a step towards a reformation in
this respect, and but for the appearance of Vlacq's work the
decimal division of the degree might have become recognized,
as is now the case with the corresponding division of the second.
The calculation of the logarithms not only of numbers but also
of the trigonometrical functions is therefore due to Briggs and
Vlacq; and the results contained in their four fundamental
works — Arithmetica logarithmica (Briggs), 1624; Arithmetica,
logarithmica (Vlacq), 1628; Trigonometria Britannica (Briggs),
J633J Trigonometria artificialis (Vlacq), 1633 — have not been
superseded by any subsequent calculations.
In the preceding paragraphs an account has been given of the
actual announcement of the invention of logarithms and of the
calculation of the tables. It now remains to refer in more detail
to the invention itself and to examine the claims of Napier and
Briggs to the capital improvement involved in the change from
Napier's original logarithms to logarithms to the base 10.
The Descriptio contained only an explanation of the use of
the logarithms without any . account of the manner in which
the canon was constructed. In an " Admonitio " on the seventh
page Napier states that, although in that place the mode of con-
struction should be explained, he proceeds at once to the use
of the logarithms, " ut praelibatis prius usu, et rei utilitate,
caetera aut magis placeant posthac edenda, aut minus saltern
displiceant silentio sepulta." He awaits therefore the judgment
and censure of the learned " priusquam caetera in lucem temere
prolata lividorum detrectationi exponantur " ; and in an
" Admonitio " on the last page of the book he states that he
will publish the mode of construction of the canon " si huius
inventi usum cruditis gratum fore intellexero." Napier, however,
did not live to keep this promise. In 1617 he published a small
work entitled Rabdologia relating to mechanical methods of
performing multiplications and divisions, and in the same year
he died.
The proposed work was published in 1619 by Robert Napier,
his second son by his second marriage, under the title Mirifici
logarithmorum canonis constructio. ... It consists of two
pages of preface followed by sixty-seven pages of text. In the
preface Robert Napier says that he has been assured from un-
doubted authority that the new invention is much thought of
by the ablest mathematicians, and that nothing would delight
them more than the publication of the mode of construction
of the canon. He therefore issues the work to satisfy their
desires, although, he states, it is manifest that it would have
seen the light in a far more perfect state if his father could
have put the finishing touches to it; and he mentions that,
in the opinion of the best judges, his father possessed, among
other most excellent gifts, in the highest degree the power of
LOGARITHM
871
explaining the most difficult matters by a certain and easy method
in the fewest possible words.
It is important to notice that in the Construct™ logarithms
are called artificial numbers; and Robert Napier states that the
work was composed several years (aliquot annos) before Napier
had invented the name logarithm. The Constructio therefore
may have been written a good many years previous to the
publication of the Descriplio in 1614.
Passing now to the invention of common or decimal logarithms,
that is, to the transition from the logarithms originally invented
by Napier to logarithms to the base 10, the first allusion to a
change of system occurs in the " Admonitio " on the last page
of the Descriptio (1614), the concluding paragraph of which is
" Verum si huius inventi usum eruditis gratum fore intellexero,
dabo fortasse brevi (Deo aspirante) rationem ac methodum aut
hunc canonem emendandi, aut emendatiorem de novo condendi,
ut ita plurium Logistarum diligentia.limatior tandem et accuratior,
quam unius opera fieri potuit, in lucem prodeat. Nihil in ortu
perfectum." In some copies, however, this " Admonitio " is
absent. In Wright's translation of 1616 Napier has added the
sentence — " But because the addition and subtraction of these
former numbers may seeme somewhat painfull, I intend (if it
shall please God) in a second Edition, to set out such Logarithmes
as shall make those numbers above written to fall upon decimal
numbers, such as 100,000,000, 200,000,000, 300,000,000, &c.,
which are easie to be added or abated to or from any other
number " (p. 19); and in the dedication of the Rabdologia (1617)
he wrote " Quorum quidem Logarithmorum speciem aliam multo
praestantiorem nunc etiam invenimus, & creandi methodum,
una cum eorum usu (si Deus longiorem vitae & valetudinis
usuram concesserit) evulgare statuimus; ipsam autem novi
canonis supputationem, ob infirmam corporis nostri valetudinem,
viris in hoc studii genere versatis relinquimus: imprimis vero
doctissimo viro D. Henrico Briggio Londini publico Geometriae
Professor!, et amico mihi longe charissimo."
Briggs in the short preface to his Logarithmorum chilias
(1617) states that the reason why his logarithms are different
from those introduced by Napier " sperandum, ejus librum
posthumum, abunde nobis propediem satisfacturum." The
"liber posthumus " was the Construct™ (1619), in the preface
to which Robert Napier states that he has added an appendix
relating to another and more excellent species of logarithms, re-
ferred to by the inventor himself in the Rabdologia, and in which,
the logarithm of unity is o. He also mentions that he has
published some remarks upon the propositions in spherical
trigonometry and upon the new species of logarithms by Henry
Briggs, "qui novi hujus Canonis supputandi laborem gravissimum,
pro singulari amicitia quae illi cum Patre meo L. M. intercessit,
animo libentissimo in se suscepit; creandi methodo, et usuum
explanatione Inventori relictis. Nunc autem ipso ex hac vita
evocato, totius negotii onus doctissimi Briggii humeris incumbere,
et Sparta haec ornanda illi sorte quadam obtigisse videtur."
In the address prefixed to the Arithmetica logarithmica (1625)
Briggs bids the reader not to be surprised that these logarithms
are different from those published in the Descriptio : —
" Ego enim, cum meis auditoribus Londini, publice in Collegio
Greshamensi horum doctrinam explicarem; animadvert! multo
futurum commodius, si Logarithmus sinus totius servaretur o (ut in
Canone mirifico), Logarithmus autem partis decimae ejusdem sinus
totius, nempe sinus 5 graduum, 44, m. 21, s., esset 10000000000.
atque ea de re scrips! statim ad ipsum authorem, et quamprimum
per anni tempus, et vacationem a publico docendi munere licuit,
profectus sum Edinburgum; ubi humanissime ab eo acceptus haesi
per integrum mensem. Cum autem inter nos de horum mutatione
sermo haberetur; ille se idem dudum sensisse, et cupivisse dicebat:
veruntamen istos, quos jam paraverat edendos curasse, donee alios,
si per negotia et valetudinem liceret, magis commodos confecisset.
Islam autem mutationem ita faciendam censebat, ut o esset Log-
arithmus unitatis, et 10000000000 sinus totius: quod ego longe
commodissimum esse non potui non agnoscere. Coepi igitur, ejus
hortatu, rejectis illis quos antei paraveram, de horum calculo serio
cogitare; et sequent! aestate iterum profectus Edinburgum, horum
quos hie exhibeo praecipuos, ill! ostendi, idem etiam tertia aestate
hbentissime facturus, si Deus ilium nobis tamdiu superstitem esse
voluisset."
There is also a reference to the change of the logarithms on the
title-page of the work.
These extracts contain all the original statements made by
Napier, Robert Napier and Briggs which have reference to the
origin of decimal logarithms. It will be seen that they are all
in perfect agreement. Briggs pointed out in his lectures at
Gresham College that it would be more convenient that o should
stand for the logarithm of the whole sine as in the Descriptio,
but that the logarithm of the tenth part of the whole sine should
be 10,000,000,000. He wrote also to Napier at once; and as
soon as he could he went to Edinburgh to visit him, where, as
he was most hospitably received by him, he remained for a
whole month. When they conversed about the change of system,
Napier said that he had perceived and desired the same thing,
but that he had published the tables which he had already pre-
pared, so that they might be used until he could construct others
more convenient. But he considered that the change ought
to be so made that o should be the logarithm of unity and
10,000,000,000 that of the whole sine, which Briggs could not
but admit was by far the most convenient of all. Rejecting
therefore, those which he had prepared already, Briggs began,
at Napier's advice, to consider seriously the question of the
calculation of new tables. In the following summer he went
to Edinburgh and showed Napier the principal portion of the
logarithms which he published in 1624. These probably included
the logarithms of the first chiliad which he published in 1617.
It has been thought necessary to give in detail the facts relating
to the conversion of the logarithms, as unfortunately Charles
Hutton in his history of logarithms, which was prefixed to the
early editions of his Mathematical Tables, and was also published
as one of his Mathematical Tracts, has charged Napier with want
of candour in not telling the world of Briggs's share in the change
of system, and he expresses the suspicion that " Napier was
desirous that the world should ascribe to him alone the merit
of this very useful improvement of the logarithms." According
to Hutton's view, the words, " it is to be hoped that his posthumous
work "... which occur in the preface to the Chilias, were a
modest hint that the share Briggs had had in changing the
logarithms should be mentioned, and that, as no attention was
paid to it, he himself gave the account which appears in the
Arithmetica of 1624. There seems, however, no ground whatever
for supposing that Briggs meant to express anything beyond his
hope that the reason for the alteration would be explained in
the posthumous work; and in his own account, written seven
years after Napier's death and five years after the appearance
of the work itself, he shows no injured feeling whatever, but
even goes out of his way to explain that he abandoned his own
proposed alteration in favour of Napier's, and, rejecting the
tables he had already constructed, began to consider the calcula-
tion of new ones. The facts, as stated by Napier and Briggs,
are in complete accordance, and the friendship existing between
them was perfect and unbroken to the last. Briggs assisted
Robert Napier in the editing of the " posthumous work," the
Conslructio, and in the account he gives of the alteration of the
logarithms in the Arithmetica of 1624 he seems to have been
more anxious that justice should be done to Napier than to him-
self; while on the other hand Napier received Briggs most
hospitably and refers to him as " amico mihi longe charissimo."
Hutton's suggestions are all the more to be regretted as they
occur as a history which is the result of a good deal of investiga-
tion and which for years was referred to as an authority by many
writers. His prejudice against Napier naturally produced
retaliation, and Mark Napier in defending his ancestor has fallen
into the opposite extreme of attempting to reduce Briggs to
the level of a mere computer. In connexion with this contro-
versy it should be noticed that the " Admonitio " on the last page
of the Descriptio, containing the reference to the new logarithms,
does not occur in ah1 the copies. It is printed on the back of
the last page of the table itself, and so cannot have been torn
out from the copies that are without it. As there could have
been no reason for omitting it after it had once appeared, we
may assume that the copies which do not have it are those which
872
LOGARITHM
were first issued. It is probable, therefore, that Briggs's copy
contained no reference to the change, and it is even possible
that the " Admonitio " may have been added after Briggs had
communicated with Napier. As special attention has not been
drawn to the fact that some copies have the " Admonitio "
and some have not, different writers have assumed that Briggs
did or did not know of the promise contained in the " Admonitio "
according as it was present or absent in the copies they had
themselves referred to, and this has given rise to some confusion.
It may also be remarked that the date frequently assigned to
Briggs's first visit to Napier is 1616, and not 1615 as stated above,
the reason being that Napier was generally supposed to have
died in 1618 until Mark Napier showed that the true date was
1617. When the Descriptio was published Briggs was fifty-
seven years of age, and the remaining seventeen years of his
life were devoted with steady enthusiasm to extend the utility
of Napier's great invention.
The only other mathematician besides Napier who grasped
the idea on which the use of logarithm depends and applied it
to the construction of a table is Justus Byrgius (Jobst Biirgi),
whose work Arithmetische und geometnsche Progress-Tabulen
. . . was published at Prague in 1620, six years after the publica-
tion of the Descriptio of Napier. This table distinctly involves
the principle of logarithms and may be described as a modified
table of antilogarithms. It consists of two series of numbers,
the one being an arithmetical and the other a geometrical
progression: thus
o, 1,0000 oooo
10, 1,0001 oooo
20, 1,0002 oooi
990, 1,0099 4967
In the arithmetical column the numbers increase by 10, in the
geometrical column each number is derived from its predecessor
by multiplication by i-oooi. Thus the number lox in the arith-
metical column corresponds to io8 (i-oooi)1 in the geometrical
column; the intermediate numbers being obtained by interpola-
tion. If we divide the numbers in the geometrical column
by io8 the correspondence is between io* and (i-oooi)1, and
the table then becomes one of antilogarithms, the base being
(i-oooi)1/10, viz. for example (i-oooi)TV"° = 1-00994967. The
table extends to 230270 in the arithmetical column, and it is
shown that 230270-022 corresponds to 9-9999 9999 or 109 in
the geometrical column; this last result showing that
(i-oooi)23027-°22= io. The first contemporary mention of Byrgius's
table occurs on page n of the " Praecepta " prefixed to Kepler's
Tabulae Radolphinae (1627); his words are: "apices logistici
J. Byrgio multis annis ante editionem Neperianam viam prae-
iverent ad hos ipsissimos logarithmos. Etsi homo cunctator
et secretorum suorum custos foetum in partu destituit, non ad
usus publicos educavit." Another reference to Byrgius occurs
• in a work by Benjamin Bramer, the brother-in-law and pupil
of Byrgius, who, writing in 1630, says that the latter constructed
his table twenty years ago or more.1
As regards priority of publication, Napier has the advantage
by six years, and even fully accepting Bramer's statement,
there are grounds for believing that Napier's work dates from
a still earlier period.
The power of io, which occurs as a factor in the tables of both
Napier and Byrgius, was rendered necessary by the fact that
the decimal point was not yet in use. Omitting this factor in
1 Frisch's Kepleri opera omnia, ii. 834. Frisch thinks Bramer
possibly relied on Kepler's statement quoted in the text (" Quibus
forte confisus Kepleri verbis Benj. Bramer . . . "). See also vol. vii.
p. 298.
The claims of Byrgius are discussed in Kastner's Geschichte der
Mathematik, ii. 375, and iii. 14; Montucla's Histoire des mathe-
matiques, ii. io; Delambre's Histoire de I' astronomic moderne,
i. 560; de Morgan's article on "Tables" in the English
Cyclopaedia ; Mark Napier's Memoirs of John Napier of Merchiston
(1834), p. 392, and Cantor's Geschichte der Mathematik, ii. (1892),
662. See also Gieswald, Justus Byrg als Mathematiker und dessen
Einleitung in seine Logarithmen (Danzig, 1856).
the case of both tables, the connexion between N a number and
L its " logarithm " is
N = (e-1)1- (Napier), L = (i -oooi)iV< (Byrgius),
viz. Napier gives logarithms to base e"1, Byrgius gives anti-
logarithms to base (i-oooi)1^.
There is indirect evidence that Napier was occupied with
logarithms as early as 1594, for in a letter to P. Criigerus
from Kepler, dated September 9, 1624 (Frisch's Kepler, vi. 47),
there occurs the sentence: " Nihil autem supra Neperianam
rationem esse puto: etsi quidem Scot us quidam literis ad
Tychonem 1594 scriptis jam spem fecit Canonis illius Mirifici."
It is here distinctly stated that some Scotsman in the year 1594,
in a letter to Tycho Brahe, gave him some hope of the logarithms;
and as Kepler joined Tycho after his expulsion from the island
of Huen, and had been so closely associated with him in his
work, he would be likely to be correct in any assertion of this
kind. In connexion with Kepler's statement the following story,
told by Anthony Wood in the Athenae Oxonienses, is of some
importance: —
" It must be now known, that one Dr Craig, a Scotchman . . .
coming out of Denmark into his own country, called upon Joh.
Neper, Baron of Mercheston, near Edinburgh, and told him, among
other discourses, of a new invention in Denmark (by Longomontanus,
as 'tis said), to save the tedious multiplication and division in astro-
nomical calculations. Neper being solicitous to know farther of him
concerning this matter, he could give no other account of it than that
it was by proportional numbers. Which hint Neper taking, he
desired him at his return to call upon him again. Craig, after some
weeks had passed , did so, and Neper then showed him a rude draught
of what he called Canon mirabilis logarithmprum. Which draught,
with some alterations, he printing in 1614, it came forthwith into
the hands of our author Briggs, and into those of Will. Oughtred,
from whom the relation of this matter came."
This story, though obviously untrue in some respects, gives
valuable information by connecting Dr Craig with Napier and
Longomontanus, who was Tycho Brahe's assistant. Dr Craig
was John Craig, the third son of Thomas Craig, who was one of the
colleagues of Sir Archibald Napier, John Napier's father, in the
office of justice-depute. Between John Craig and John Napier a
friendship sprang up which may have been due to their common
taste for mathematics. There are extant three letters from
Dr John Craig to Tycho Brahe, which show that he was on the
most friendly terms with him. In the first letter, of which the
date is not given, Craig says that Sir William Stuart has safely
delivered to him, " about the beginning of last winter," the book
which he sent him. Now Mark Napier found in the library of
the university of Edinburgh a mathematical work bearing a
sentence in Latin which he translates, " To Doctor John Craig
of Edinburgh, in Scotland, a most illustrious man, highly gifted
with various and excellent learning, professor of medicine, and
exceedingly skilled in the mathematics, Tycho Brahe hath sent
this gift, and with his own hand written this at Uraniburg,
2d November 1588." As Sir William Stuart was sent to
Denmark to arrange the preliminaries of King James's marriage,
and returned td Edinburgh on the isth of November 1588, it
would seem probable that this was the volume referred to by Craig.
It appears from Craig's letter, to which we may therefore assign
the date 1589, that, five years before, he had made an attempt to
reach Uranienburg, but had been baffled by the storms and rocks
of Norway, and that ever since then he had been longing to visit
Tycho. Now John Craig was physician to the king, and in 1590
James VI. spent some days at Uranienburg, before returning
to Scotland from his matrimonial expedition. It seems not
unlikely therefore that Craig may have accompanied the king
in his visit to Uranienburg.2 In any case it is certain that
Craig was a friend and correspondent of Tycho's, and it is probable
that he was the " Scotus quidam."
We may infer therefore that as early as 1594 Napier had
communicated to some one, probably John Craig, his hope of
being able to effect a simplification in the processes of arithmetic.
Everything tends to show that the invention of logarithms
1 See Mark Napier's Memoirs of John Napier of Merchiston (1834),
p. 362.
LOGARITHM
873
was the result of many years of labour and thought,1 undertaken
with this special object, and it would seem that Napier had seen
some prospect of success nearly twenty years before the publica-
tion of the Descriptio. It is very evident that no mere hint
with regard to the use of proportional numbers could have been
of any service to him, but it is possible that the news brought
by Craig of the difficulties placed in the progress of astronomy
by the labour of the calculations may have stimulated him to
persevere in his efforts.
The " new invention in Denmark " to which Anthony Wood
refers as having given the hint to Napier was probably the method
of calculation called prosthaphaeresis (often written in Greek
letters irpoa6a.(t>aipt<ns), which had its origin in the solution of
spherical triangles.2 The method consists in the use of the
formula
sin a sin 6 = J jcos(o-i)-cos(o+6)j,
by means of which the multiplication of two sines is reduced to
the addition or subtraction of two tabular results taken from
a table of sines; and, as such products occur in the solution of
spherical triangles, the method affords the solution of spherical
triangles in certain cases by addition and subtraction only.
It seems to be due to Wittich of Breslau, who was assistant for
a short time to Tycho Brahe; and it was used by them in their
calculations in 1582. Wittich in 1584 made known at Cassel
the calculation of one case by this prosthaphaeresis; and
Justus Byrgius proved it in such a manner that from his proof
the extension to the solution of all triangles could be deduced.3
Clavius generalized the method in his treatise De aslrolabio (1503),
lib. i. lemma liii. The lemma is enunciated as follows:—
" Quaestiones omnes, quae per sinus, tangentes, atque secantes
absolvi solent, per solam prosthaphaeresim, id est, per solam ad-
clitipnem, subtractionem, sine laboriosa numerorum multiplicatione
divisioneque expedire."
Clavius then refers to a work of Raymarus Ursus Dithmarsus
as containing an account of a particular case. The work is
probably the Fundamentum astronomicum (1588). Longomon-
tanus, in his Astronomia Danica (1622), gives an account of
the method, stating that it is not to be found in the writings
of the Arabs or Regiomontanus. As Longomontanus is men-
tioned in Anthony Wood's anecdote, and as Wittich as well as
Longomontanus were assistants of Tycho, we may infer that
Wittich's prosthaphaeresis is the method referred to by Wood.
It is evident that Wittich's prosthaphaeresis coujd not be
a good method of practically effecting multiplications unless the
quantities to be multiplied were sines, on account of the labour
of the interpolations. It satisfies the condition, however, equally
with logarithms, of enabling multiplication to be performed
by the aid of a table of single entry; and, analytically considered,
it is not so different in principle from the logarithmic method.
In fact, if we put *y=$(X-r-Y), X being a function of * only
and Y a function of y only, we can show that we must have
X = Ae"x, y = ^e"; and if we put *y=</>(X+Y)-<£(X-Y),
the solutions are $(X+Y) = l(x+y)*, and z = sin X, y=sin Y,
<£(X+Y) = -3 cos (X+Y). The former solution gives a method
known as that of quarter-squares; the latter gives the method
of prosthaphaeresis.
An account has now been given of Napier's invention and
its publication, the transition to decimal logarithms, the calcula-
tion of the tables by Briggs, Vlacq and Gunter, as well as of
the claims of Byrgius and the method of prosthaphaeresis. To
complete the early history of logarithms it is necessary to return
1 In the Rabdologia (1617) he speaks of the canon of logarithms
as " a me longo tempore elaboratum."
2 A careful examination of the history of the method is given by
Scheibel in his Einleitung zur mathematischen Bucherkenntniss,
Stuck vii. (Breslau, 1775), pp. 13-20; and there is also an account in
Kastner's Geschichte der Mathematik, i. 566-569 (1796); in Montucla's
Histoire des mathematiques , i. 583-585 and 617-619; and in Kliigel's
Worterbuch (1808), article " Prosthaphaeresis."
3 Besides his connexion with logarithms and improvements in the
method of prosthaphaeresis, Byrgius has a share in the invention
of decimal fractions. See Cantor, Geschichte, ii. 567. Cantor
attributes to him (in the use of his prosthaphaeresis) the first intro-
duction of a subsidiary angle into trigonometry (vol. ii. 590).
to Napier's Descriptio in order to describe its reception on the
continent, and to mention the other logarithmic tables which were
published while Briggs was occupied with his calculations.
John Kepler, who has been already quoted in connexion with
Craig's visit to Tycho Brahe, received the invention of logarithms
almost as enthusiastically as Briggs. His first mention of the
subject occurs in a letter to Schikhart dated the nth of March
1618, in which he writes — " Extitit Scotus Baro, cujus nomen
mihi excidit, qui praeclari quid praestitit, necessitate omni
multiplicationum et divisionum in meras additiones et sub-
tractiones commutata, nee sinibus utitur; at tamen opus est
ipsi tangentium canone: et varietas, crebritas, difficultasque
additionum subtractionumque alicubi laborem multiplicand!
et dividend! superat." This erroneous estimate was formed
when he had seen the Descriptio but had not read it; and his
opinion was very different when he became acquainted with the
nature of logarithms. The dedication of his Ephemeris for 1620
consists of a letter to JSTapier dated the 28th of July 1619, and he
there congratulates him warmly on his invention and on the
benefit he has conferred upon astronomy generally and upon
Kepler's own Rudolphine tables. He says that, although
Napier's book had been published five years, he first saw it at
Prague two years before; he was then unable to read it, but last
year he had met with a little work by Benjamin Ursinus 4 con-
taining the substance of the method, and he at once recognized
the importance of what had been effected. He then explains
how he verified the canon, and so found that there were no
essential errors in it, although there were a few inaccuracies
near the beginning of the quadrant, and he proceeds, " Haec
te obiter scire volui, ut quibus tu methodis incesseris, quas non
dubito et plurimas et ingeniosissimas tibi in promptu esse, eas
publici juris fieri, mihi saltern (puto et caeteris) scires fore gratis-
simum; eoque percepto, tua promissa folio 57, in debitum
cecidisse intelligeres." This letter was written two years after
Napier's death (of which Kepler was unaware), and in the same
year as that in which the Construct™ was published. In the
same year (1620) Napier's Descriptio (1614) and Conslructio
(1619) were reprinted by Bartholomew Vincent at Lyons and
issued together.6
Napier calculated no logarithms of numbers, and, as already
stated, the logarithms invented by him were not to base A,
The first logarithms to the base e were published by John Speidell
in his New Logarithmes (London, 1619), which contains hyper-
bolic log sines, tangents and secants for every minute of the
quadrant to 5 places of decimals.
In 1624 Benjamin Ursinus published at Cologne a canon of
logarithms exactly similar to Napier's in the Descriptio of 1614,
only much enlarged. The interval of the arguments is 10",
and the results are given to 8 places; in Napier's canon the
interval is i', and the number of places is 7. The logarithms are
strictly Napierian, and the arrangement is identical with that
in the canon of 1614. This is the largest Napierian canon that
has ever been published.
In the same year (1624) Kepler published at Marburg a table
of Napierian logarithms of sines with certain additional columns
to facilitate special calculations.
The first publication of Briggian logarithms on the continent
is due to Wingate, who published at Paris in 1625 his Arith-
metique logarithmetique, containing seven-figure logarithms of
4 The title of this work is — Benjaminis Ursini . . . cursus mathe-
matici practici volumen primum continent illustr. & generosi Dn.
Dn. Johannis Neperi Baronis Merchistonij &c. Scoti trigonometriam
logarithmicam usibus discentium accommodatam , . . Coloniae , . .
CID 13 C XIX, At the end, Napier's table is reprinted, but to two
figures less. This work forms the earliest publication of logarithms
on the continent.
6 The title is Logarithmorum canonis descriptio, seu arithmeli-
carum supputationum mirabilis abbreviatio. Ejusque usus in
utraque trigonometria ut etiam in omni logistica mathematical,
amplissimi, facillimi & expeditissimi explicatio. Authore ac in-
ventore loanne Nepero, Barone Merchistonii, &c. Scoto. Lugduni . . .
It will be seen that this title is different from that of Napier's work
of 1614; many writers have, however, erroneously given it as the
title of the latter.
LOGARITHM
numbers up to 1000, and log sines and tangents from Gunter's
Canon (1620). In the following year, 1626, Denis Henrion
published at Paris a Traictt des Logarithmes, containing Briggs's
logarithms of numbers up to 20,001 to 10 places, and Gunter's
log sines and tangents to 7 places for every minute. In the same
year de Decker also published at Gouda a work entitled Nieuwe
Telkonst, inhoudende de Logarithmi voor de Ghetallen beginnende
van i tot 10,000, which contained logarithms of numbers up to
10,000 to 10 places, taken from Briggs's Arithmetica of 1624, and
Gunter's log sines and tangents to 7 places for every minute.1
Vlacq rendered assistance in the publication of this work, and
the privilege is made out to him.
The invention of logarithms and the calculation of the earlier
tables form a very striking episode in the history of exact science,
and, with the exception of the Principia of Newton, there is
no mathematical work published in the country which has pro-
duced such important consequences, or to which so much interest
attaches as to Napier's Descriptio. The. calculation of tables
of the natural trigonometrical functions may be said to have
formed the work of the last half of the i6th century, and the great
canon of natural sines for every 10 seconds to 15 places which
had been calculated by Rheticus was published by Pitiscus only
in 1613, the year before that in which the Descriptio appeared.
In the construction of the natural trigonometrical tables Great
Britain had taken no part, and it is remarkable that the discovery
of the principles and the formation of the tables that were to
revolutionize or supersede all the methods of calculation then
in use should have been so rapidly effected and developed in a
country in which so little attention had been previously devoted
to such questions.
For more detailed information relating to Napier, Briggs and
Vlacq, and the invention of logarithms, the reader is referred to the
life of Briggs in Ward's Lives of the Professors of Gresham College
(London, 1740); Thomas Smiths Vitae quoriindam eruditissimorum
et illustrium virorum (Vita Henrici Briggii) (London, 1707); Mark
Napier's Memoirs of John Napier already referred to, and the same
author's Naperi libri qui supersunt (1839); Hutton's History; de
Morgan's article already referred to; Delambre's Histoire de I' Astro-
nomic moderne; the report on mathematical tables in the Report of
the British Association for 1873; and the Philosophical Magazine for
October and December 1872 and May 1873. It may be remarked
that the date usually assigned to Briggs's first visit to Napier is 1616
and not 1615 as stated above, the reason being that Napier was
generally supposed to have died in 1618; but it was shown by Mark
Napier that the true date is 1617.
In the years 1791-1807 Francis Maseres published at London,
in six volumes quarto " Scriptores Logarithmic!, or a collection
of several curious tracts on the nature and construction of
logarithms, mentioned in Dr Hutton's historical introduction
to his new edition of Sherwin's mathematical tables . . .,"
which contains reprints of Napier's Descriptio of 1614, Kepler's
writings on logarithms (1624-1625), &c. In 1889 a translation
of Napier's Constructio of 1619 was published by Walter Rae
Macdonald. Some valuable notes are added by the translator,
in one of which he shows the accuracy of the method employed
by Napier in his calculations, and explains the origin of a small
error which occurs in Napier's table. Appended to the Catalogue
is a full and careful bibliography of all Napier's writings, with
mention of the public libraries, British and foreign, which possess
copies of each. A facsimile reproduction of Bartholomew
Vincent's Lyons edition (1620) of the Constructio was issued in
1895 by A. Hermann at Paris (this imprint occurs on page 62
after the word " Finis ").
It now remains to notice briefly a few of the more important
events in the history of logarithmic tables subsequent to the
original calculations.
Common or Briggian Logarithms of Numbers. — Nathaniel Roe's
Tabulae logarithmicae (1633) was the first complete seven-figure
1 In describing the contents of the works referred to, the language
and notation of the present day have been adopted, so that for
example a table to radius 10,000,000 is described as a table to 7
places, and so on. Also, although logarithms have been spoken of as
to the base e, &c., it is to be noticed that neither Napier nor Briggs,
nor any of their successors till long afterwards, had any idea of con-
necting logarithms with exponents.
table that was published. It contains seven-figure logarithms of
numbers from I to 100,000, with characteristics unseparated from the
mantissae, and was formed from Vlacq's table (1628) by leaving out
the last three figures. All the figures of the number are given at the
head of the columns, except the last two, which run down the
extreme columns — I to 50 on the left-hand side, and 50 to 100 on the
right-hand side. The first four figures of the logarithms are printed
at the top of the columns. There is thus an advance half way towards
the arrangement now universal in seven-figure tables. The final step
was made by John Newton in his Trigononometria Britannica (1658),
a work which is also noticeable as being the only extensive eight-
figure table that until recently had been published; it contains
logarithms of sines, &c., as well as logarithms of numbers.
In 1705 appeared the original edition of Sherwin's tables, the
first of the series of ordinary seven-figure tables of logarithms of
numbers and trigonometrical functions such as are in general use
now. The work went through several editions during the l8th
century, and was at length superseded in 1785 by Hutton's tables,
which continued in successive editions to maintain their position
for a century.
In 1717 Abraham Sharp published in his Geometry Improv'd the
Briggian logarithms of numbers from I to lop, and of primes from
100 to lioo, to 61 places; these were copied into the later editions
of Sherwin and other works.
In 1742 a seven-figure table was published in quarto form by
Gardiner, which is celebrated on account of its accuracy and of the
elegance of the printing. A French edition, which closely resembles
the original, was published at Avignon in 1770.
In 1783 appeared at Paris the first edition of Francois Callet's
tables, which correspond to those of Hutton in England. These
tables, which form perhaps the most complete and practically useful
collection of logarithms for the general computer that has been
published, passed through many editions.
In 1794 Vega published his Thesaurus logarithmorum completus,
a folio volume containing a reprint of the logarithms of numbers
from Vlacq's Arithmetica logarithmica of 1628, and Trigonometria
artificialis of 1633. The logarithms of numbers are arranged as in
an ordinary seven-figure table. In addition to the logarithms
reprinted from the Trigonometria, there are given logarithms for
every second of the first two degrees, which were the result of an
original calculation. Vega devoted great attention to the detection
and correction of the errors in Vlacq's work of 1628. Vega's Thesaurus
has been reproduced photographically by the Italian government.
Vega also published in 1797, in 2 vols. 8vo, a collection oflogarithmic
and trigonometrical tables which has passed through many editions,
a very useful o.ne volume stereotype edition having been published in
1840 by Hiilsse. The tables in this work may be regarded as to some
extent supplementary to those in Callet.
If we consider only the logarithms of numbers, the main line of
descent from the original calculation of Briggs and Vlacq is Roe,
John Newton, Sherwin, Gardiner; there are then two branches,
viz. Hutton founded on Sherwin and Callet on Gardiner, and the
editions of Vega form a separate offshoot from the original tables.
Among the most useful and accessible of modern ordinary seven-
figure tables of logarithms of numbers and trigonometrical functions
may be mentioned those of Bremiker, Schron and Bruhns. For
logarithms of numbers only perhaps Babbage's table is the most
convenient.2
In 1871 Edward Sang published a seven-figure table of logarithms
of numbers from 20,000 to 200,000, the logarithms between 100,000
and 200,000 being the result of a new calculation. By beginning the
table at 20,000 instead of at 10,000 the differences are halved in
magnitude, while the number of them in a page is quartered. In this
table multiples of the differences, instead of proportional parts, are
given.8 John Thomson of Greenock (1782-1855) made an inde-
pendent calculation of logarithms of numbers up to 120,000 to 12
places of decimals, 'and his table has been used to verify the errata
already found in Vlacq and Briggs by Lefort (see Monthly Not. R.A.S.
vol. 34, p. 447). A table of ten-figure logarithms of numbers up to
100,009 was calculated by W. W. Duffield and published in the
Report of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey for 1805-1896 as Appendix
12, pp. 395-722. The results were compared with Vega's Thesaurus
(1794) before publication.
Common or Briggian Logarithms of Trigonometrical Functions. —
The next great advance on the Trigonometria artificialis took place
more than a century and a half afterwards, when Michael Taylor
published in 1792 his seven-decimal table of log sines and tangents
to every second of the quadrant; it was calculated by interpolation
from the Trigonometria to 10 places and then contracted to 7. On
account of the great size of this table, and for other reasons, it never
1 The smallest number of entries which are necessary in a table of
logarithms in order that the intermediate logarithms may be calcul-
able by proportional parts has been investigated by J. E. A. Steggall
in the Proc. Edin. Math. Soc., 1892, 10, p. 35. This number is 1700
in the case of a seven-figure table extending to 100,000.
3 Accounts of Sang's calculations are given in the Trans. Roy. Sec.
Edin., 1872, 26, p. 521, and in subsequent papers in the Proceedings
of the same society.
LOGARITHM
875
came into very general use, Bagay's Nouvelles tables astronomiques
(1829), which also contains log sines and tangents to every second,
being preferred ; this latter work, which for many years was difficult
to procure, has been reprinted with the original title-page and date
unchanged. The only other logarithmic canon to every second that
has been published forms the second volume of Shortrede's Logar-
ithmic Tables (1849). In 1784 the French government decided that
new tables of sines, tangents, &c., and their logarithms, should be
calculated in relation to the centesimal division of the quadrant.
Prony was charged with the direction of the work, and was expressly
required " non seulement a composer des tables qui ne laissassent ricn
a desirer quant a 1'exactitude, mais a en faire le monument de calcul
le plus vaste et le plus imposant qui eflt jamais 4t6 execut6 ou m§me
con^u." Those engaged upon the work were divided into three
sections: the first consisted of five or six mathematicians, including
Legendre, who were engaged in the purely analytical work, or the
calculation of the fundamental numbers; the second section con-
sisted of seven or eight calculators possessing some mathematical
knowledge; and the third comprised seventy or eighty ordinary
computers. The work, which was performed wholly in duplicate,
and independently by two divisions of computers, occupied two years.
As a consequence of the double calculation, there are two manuscripts,
one deposited at the Observatory, and the other in the library of the
Institute, at Paris. Each of the two manuscripts consists essentially
of seventeen large folio volumes, the contents being as follows : —
Logarithms of numbers up to 200,000 . . .8 vols.
Natural sines . . . . . . I ,,
Logarithms of the ratios of arcs to sines from o«-ooooo
to o«-osooo, and log sines throughout the quadrant 4 „
Logarithms of the ratios of arcs to tangents from
o'-ooooo to o«-O5OOO, and log tangents throughout
the quadrant . . . . . . 4 „
The trigonometrical results are given for every hundred-thousandth
of the quadrant (10" centesimal or 3"-24 sexagesimal). The tables
were all calculated to 14 places, with the intention that only 12
should be published, but the twelfth figure is not to be relied upon.
The tables have never been published, and are generally known as the
Tables du Cadastre, or, in England, as the great French manuscript
tables.
A very full account of these tables, with an explanation of the
methods of calculation, formulae employed, &c., was published by
Lcfort in vol. iv. of the Annales de I' observatoire de Paris. The print-
ing of the table of natural sines was once begun, and Lefort states
that he has seen six copies, all incomplete, although including the
last page. Babbage compared his table with the Tables du Cadastre,
and Lefort has given in his paper just referred to most important
lists of errors in Vlacq's and Briggs's logarithms of numbers which
were obtained by comparing the manuscript tables with those con-
tained in the Arithmetica logarithmica of 1624 and of 1628.
As the Tables du Cadastre remained unpublished, other tables
appeared in which the quadrant was divided centesimally, the most
important of these being Robert and Ideler's Nouvelles tables trigo-
nometriques (1799), and Bordaand Delambre's Tables trigonometriques
decimates (1800-1801), both of which are seven-figure tables. The
latter work, which was much used, being difficult to procure, and
greater accuracy being required, the French government in 1891
published an eight-figure centesimal table, for every ten seconds,
derived from the Tables du Cadastre.
Decimal or Briggian Antilogarithms. — In the ordinary tables of
logarithms the natural numbers are all integers, while the logarithms
tabulated are incommensurable. In an antilogarithmic table, the
logarithms are exact quantities such as -ooooi, -00002, &c., and the
numbers are incommensurable. The earliest and largest table of
this kind that has been constructed is Dodson's Antilogarithmic canon
(1742), which gives the numbers to II places, corresponding to the
logarithms from -ooooi to -99999 at intervals of -ooooi. Antilogar-
ithmic tables are few in number, the only other extensive tables of
the same kind that have been published occurring in Shortrede's
Logarithmic tables already referred to, and in Filipowski's Table oj
antilogarithms (1849). Both are similar to Dodson's tables, from
which they were derived, but they only give numbers to 7 places.
Hyperbolic or Napierian logarithms (i.e. to base e). — The most
elaborate table of hyperbolic logarithms that exists is due to Wolfram,
a Dutch lieutenant of artillery. His table gives the logarithms of all
numbers up to 2200, and of primes (and also of a great many com-
posite numbers) from 2200 to 10,009, to 4& decimal places. The table
appeared in Schulze's Neue und erweiterte Sammlung logarithmischer
Tafeln (1778), and was reprinted in Vega's Thesaurus (1794), already
referred to. Six logarithms omitted in Schulze's work, and which
Wolfram had been prevented from computing by a serious illness,
were published subsequently, and the table as given by Vega is
complete. The largest hyperbolic table as regards range was
published by Zacharias Dase at Vienna in 1850 under the title Tafel
der naturlichen Logarithmen der Zahlen.
Hyperbolic antilogarithms are simple exponentials, i.e. the hyper-
bolic antilogarithm of x is e*>. Such tables can scarcely be said to
come under the head of logarithmic tables. See TABLES, MATHE-
MATICAL: Exponential Functions.
Logistic or Proportional Logarithms. — The old name for what are
now called ratios or fractions are logistic numbers, so that a table of
log (a]x) where x is the argument and a a constant is called a table ol
logistic or proportional logarithms; and since log (a/x) =log a — log x
it is clear that the tabular results differ from those given in an ordin-
ary table of logarithms only by the subtraction of a constant and a
change of sign. The first table of this kind appeared in Kepler's
work of 1624 which has been already referred to. The object of a
table of log (a/x) is to facilitate the working out of proportions in
which the third term is a constant quantity a. In most collections
of tables of logarithms, and especially those intended for use in
connexion with navigation, there occurs a small table of logistic
logarithms in which a=36oo"( = i° or I*), the table giving log 3600 —
log x, and x being expressed in minutes and seconds. It is also
common to find tables in which o = io8oo"( = 3° or 3*), and x is ex-
pressed in degrees (or hours), minutes and seconds. Such tables are
generally given to 4 or 5 places. The usual practice in books seems
to be to call logarithms logistic when a is 3600", and proportional
when a has any other value.
Addition and Subtraction, or Gaussian Logarithms. — Gaussian
logarithms are intended to facilitate the finding of the logarithms of
the sum and difference of two numbers whose logarithms are known,
the numbers themselves being unknown; and on this account they
are frequently called addition and subtraction logarithms. The
object of the table is in fact to give log (a ±6) by only one entry when
log a and log 6 are given. The utility of such logarithms was first
pointed out by Leonelli ina book entitled Supplement logarithmique,
printed at Bordeaux in the year XI. (1802/3); he calculated a
table to 14 places, but only a sjDecimen of it which appeared in the
Supplement was printed. The first table that was actually published
is due to Gauss, and was printed in Zach's Monatliche Carres pondenz,
xxvi. 498 (1812). Corresponding to the argument log x it gives
the values of log (i -far1) and log (I -\-x).
Dual Logarithms. — This term was used by Oliver Byrne in a series
of works published between 1860 and 1870. Dual numbers and
logarithms depend upon the expression of a number as a product of
I -I, l-oi, i-ooi ... or of -9, -99, -999 ....
In _ the preceding resumt only those publications have been
mentioned which are of historic importance or interest.1 For fuller
details with respect to some of these works, for an account of tables
published in the latter part of the igth century, and for those which
would now be used in actual calculation, reference should be made
to the article TABLES, MATHEMATICAL.
Calculation of Logarithms. — The name logarithm is derived from
the words \6yuv ApifytAs, the number of the ratios, and the way of
regarding a logarithm which justifies the name may be explained as
follows. Suppose that the ratio of 10, or any other particular number,
to I is compounded of a very great number of equal ratios, as, for
example, 1,000,000, then it can be shown that the ratio of 2 to I is
very nearly equal to a ratio compounded of 301,030 of these small
ratios, or ratiunculae, that the ratio of 3 to I is very nearly equal
to a ratio compounded of 477,121 of them, and so on. The small
ratio, or ratiuncula, is in fact that of the millionth root of 10 to unity,
and if we denote it by the ratio of a to I , then the ratio of 2 to I will
be nearly the same as that of a301*30 to I, and so on; or, in other
words, if a denotes the millionth root of 10, then 2 will be nearly
equal to a301'030, 3 will be nearly equal to a477'121, and so on.
Napier's original work, the Descriptio Canonis of 1614, contained,
not logarithms of numbers, but logarithms of sines, and the relations
between the sines and the logarithms were explained by the motions
of points in lines, in a manner not unlike that afterwards employed
by Newton in the method of fluxions. An account of the processes
by which Napier constructed his table was given in the Constructio
Canonis of 1619. These methods apply, however, specially to
Napier's own kind of logarithms, and are different from those actually
used by Briggs in the construction of the tables in the Arithmetica
Logarithmica, although some of the latter are the same in principle
as the processes described in an appendix to the Constructio.
The processes used by Briggs are explained by him in the preface
to the Arithmetica Logarithmica (1624). His method of finding the
logarithms of the small primes, which consists in taking a great
number of continued geometric means between unity and the given
primes, may be described as follows. He first formed the table of
numbers and their logarithms: —
Numbers.
10
3-162277
1-778279
I-33352I
1-154781
Logarithms,
i
o-5
0-25
0-125
0-0625
each quantity in the left-hand column being the square root of the one
above it, and each quantity in the right-hand column being the half
1 In vol. xv. (1875) °f the Verhandelingen of the Amsterdam
Academy of Sciences, Bierens de Haan has given a list of 553 tables
of logarithms. A previous paper of the same kind, containing notices
of some of the tables, was published by him in the Verslagen en
Mededeelingen of the same academy (Afd. Natuurkunde) deel. iv.
(1862), p. 15.
876
LOGARITHM
of the one above it. To construct this table Briggs, using about
thirty places of decimals, extracted the square root of 10 fifty-four
times, and thus found that the logarithm of i-ooooo ooooo ooooo
12781 91493 20032 35 was o-ooooo ooooo ooooo 05551 11512 31257
82702, and that for numbers of this form (i.e. for numbers beginning
with I followed by fifteen ciphers, and then by seventeen or a less
number of significant figures) the logarithms were proportional to
these significant figures. He then by means of a simple proportion
deduced that log (i-ooooo ooooo ooooo i) =0-00000 ooooo ooooo
04342 94481 90325 1804, so that, a quantity I-ooooo ooooo ooooo *
(where x consists of not more than seventeen figures) having been
obtained by repeated extraction of the square root of a given number,
the logarithm of i-ooooo ooooo ooooo x could then be found by
multiplying x by -ooooo ooooo ooooo 04342
To find the logarithm of 2, Briggs raised it to the tenth power, viz.
1024, and extracted the square root of 1-024 forty-seven times, the
result being I -ooooo ooooo ooooo 16851 60570 53949 77. Multiplying
the significant figures by 4342 ... he obtained the logarithm of this
quantity, viz. o-ooooo ooooo ooooo 07318 55936 90623 9336, which
multiplied by 247 gave 0-01029 99566 39811 95265 277444, tne
logarithm of 1-024, true to 17 or 1 8 places. Adding the character-
istic 3, and dividing by 10, he found (since 2 is the tenth root of 1024)
log 2 = -30102 99956 63981 195. Briggs calculated in a similar
manner log 6, and thence deduced log 3.
It will be observed that in the first process the value of the modulus
is in fact calculated from the formula.
10* — i '
A =
B =
E= V(C£>)
F= V (DE)
7=V (FH) =
"log, 10'
the value of h being I/264, and in the second process Iogio2 is in effect
calculated from the formula.
logic 2 =
Briggs also gave methods of forming the mean proportionals or
square roots by differences; and the general method of constructing
logarithmic tables by means of differences is due to him.
The following calculation of log 5 is given as an example of the
application of a method of mean proportionals. The process consists
in taking the geometric mean of numbers above and below 5, the
object being to at length arrive at 5-000000. To every geometric
mean in the column of numbers there corresponds the arithmetical
mean in the column of logarithms. The numbers are denoted by
A, B, C, &c., in order to indicate their mode of formation.
Numbers. Logarithms,
i-oooooo o-ooooooo
10-000000 i-ooooooo
3-162277 0-5000000
5-623413 0-7500000
4-216964 0-6250000
4-869674 0-6875000
5-232991 0-7187500
5-048065 0-7031250
4-958069 0-6953125
5-002865 0-6992187
4-980416 0-6972656
4-991627 0-6982421
4-997242 0-6987304
5-000052 0-6989745
4-998647 0-6988525
4-999350 0-6989135
4-999701 0-6989440
4-999876 0-6989592
4-999963 0-6989668
5-000008 0-6989707
4-999984 0-6989687
4.999997 0-6989697
5-000003 0-6989702
5-000000 0-6989700
Great attention was devoted to the methods of calculating
logarithms during the I7th and l8th centuries. The earlier methods
proposed were, like those of Briggs, purely arithmetical, and for a
long time logarithms were regarded from the point of view indicated
by their name, that is to say, as depending on the theory of com-
pounded ratios. The introduction of infinite series into mathematics
effected a great change in the modes of calculation and the treatment
of the subject. Besides Napier and Briggs, special reference should
be made to Kepler (Chilias, 1624) and Mercator (Logarithmotechnia,
1668), whose methods were arithmetical, and to Newton, Gregory,
Halley and Cotes, who employed series. A full and valuable account
of these methods is given in Hutton's " Construction of Logarithms,"
which occurs in the introduction to the early editions of his Mathe-
matical Tables, and also forms tract 21 of his Mathematical Tracts
(vol. i., 1812). Many of the early works on logarithms were re-
printed in the Scriptores logarithmici of Baron Maseres already
referred to.
In the following account only those formulae and methods
K= V
HI)
L= V
IK)
M= V
KL)
N= V
KM)
o= v
KN)
P=V
NO)
<?= V
R= V
OP)
OQ)
5=V
OR)
T= V
OS)
V= V
OT)
W= V
TV)
x=v
WV)
K=V
VX)
z=v
XY)
will be referred to which would now be used in the calculation of
logarithms.
Since
log, ( i +*) = x - J*2 + \x* - J*4 +&c. ,
we have, by changing the sign of x,
log. (I-*); -- x-ix2-ix3-i*4-&c.;
whence
and, therefore, replacing x by ^ , \
IOK E=<>
S'q -
in which the series is always convergent, so that the formula affords
a method of deducing the logarithm of one number from that of
another.
As particular cases we have, by putting 2 = 1,
and by putting q =
log«(p + l) -log.p = 2
the former of these equations gives a convergent series for log,£, and
the latter a very convergent series by means of which the logarithm
of any number may be deduced from the logarithm of the preceding
number.
From the formula for \og,(p/q) we may deduce the following very
convergent series for log, 2, log, 3 and log, 5, viz. : —
log.2 = 2(7P +5Q +3R),
log,3=2(HP+8Q +5R),
log.5 = 2(16P+12Q+7R),
where
+&C.
R =
5+&C.
The following still more convenient formulae for the calculation
of log,2, log,3, &c. were given by J. Couch Adams in the Proc. Roy.
Soc., 1878, 27, p. 91. If
10 I, 1 \ 25 /, 4
81
126
1
50
then
log 2=70— 2b+3c, log 3 = iia-3&+5c, log 5 = 160-46 +jc,
and
log 7 = K39o-io6+i7c-(i) or=i9a
and we have the equation of condition,
By means of these formulae Adams calculated the values of log, 2,
log,3, log.5, and log«7 to 276 places of decimals, and deduced the
value of log.io and its reciprocal M, the modulus of the Briggian
system of logarithms. The value of the modulus found by Adams is
Mo = 0-43429' 44819 03251 82765 11289
18916 60508 22943 97OO5 80366
65661 14453 78316 58646 49208
87077 47292 24949 33843 17483
18706 10674 47663 03733 64167
92871 58963 90656 92210 64662
81226
93370
77384
65860
43543
25
which is true certainly to 272, and probably to 273, places (Proc. Roy.
Soc., 1886, 42, p. 22, where also the values of the other logarithms
are given).
If the logarithms are to be Briggian all the series in the
preceding formulae must be multiplied by M, the modulus; thus,
58521
86965
90514
85135
43573
27086
88266
28443
56148
17253
56867
88331
48666
21234
83562
03295
16360
76864
87653
21868
and so on.
As has been stated, Abraham Sharp's table contains 6i-decimal
LOGAU
877
Briggian logarithms of primes up to noo, so that the logarithms
of all composite numbers whose greatest prime factor does not ex-
ceed this number may be found by simple addition; and Wolfram's
table gives 48-decimal hyperbolic logarithms of primes up to 10,009.
By means of these tables and of a factor table we may very readily
obtain the Briggian logarithm of a number to 61 or a less number
of places or of its hyperbolic logarithm to 48 or a less number of
places in the following manner. Suppose the hyperbolic logarithm
of the prime number 43,867 required. Multiplying by 50, we have
50X43,867=2,193,350, and on looking in Burckhardt's Table des
diviseurs for a number near to this which shall have no prime factor
greater than 10,009, it appears that
2, 193,349 = 23 X 47 X 2029 ;
thus
43,867 = 6*5(23X47X2029 + 1),
and therefore
log. 43,867 = log. 23+ log, 47+log.'2029 -log, 50
___ 1_ 1 • 1 „
+2,193,349 2 (2,193,349)' + 3 (2,193,34.9)' '
The first term of the series in the second line is
o-ooooo 04559 23795 073i9 6286;
dividing this by 2X2,193,349 we obtain
o-ooooo ooooo 00103 93325 3457,
and the third term is
o-ooooo ooooo ooooo 00003 IS9°i
so that the series =
o-ooooo 04559 23691 13997 4419;
whence, taking out the logarithms from Wolfram's table,
log, 43,867 = 10-68891 76079 60568 10191 3661.
The principle of the method is to multiply the given prime (sup-
posed to consist of 4, 5 or 6 figures) by such a factor that the product
may be a number within the range of the factor tables, and such that,
when it is increased by I or 2, the prime factors may all be within the
range of the logarithmic tables. The logarithm is then obtained by
use of the formula
in which of course the object is to render d/x as small as possible.
If the logarithm required is Briggian, the value of the series is to
be multiplied by M.
If the number is incommensurable or consists of more than seven
figures, we can take the first seven figures of it (or multiply and
divide the result by any factor, and take the first seven figures of
the result) and proceed as before. An application to the hyperbolic
logarithm of v is given by Burckhardt in the introduction to his
Table des diviseurs for the second million.
The best general method of calculating logarithms consists, in its
simplest form, in resolving the number whose logarithm is required
into factors of the form I— -lrn, where n is one of the nine digits,
and making use of subsidiary tables of logarithms of factors of this
form. For example, suppose the logarithm of 543839 required to
twelve places. Dividing by lo6 and by 5 the number becomes
1-087678, and resolving this number into factors of the form I— -I'n
we find that
543839 = io"X5(i — is8)(i— I<6)(i--I86)(i— i«3)(i— 1'3)
X(i— i»5)(i— i'7)(i— il°9)(i — i"3)(i— i122),
where I— 1*8 denotes I— 08, i— iV> denotes I— 0006, &c., and so
on. All that is required therefore in order to obtain the logarithm
of any number is a table of logarithms, to the required number of
places, of -n, -gn, -9971, -999», &c., for n = I, 2, 3, . . . 9.
The resolution of a number into factors of the above form is easily
performed. Taking, for example, the number 1-087678, the object is
to destroy the significant figure 8 in the second place of decimals;
this is effected by multiplying the number by I — 08, that is, by
subtracting from the number eight times itself advanced two places,
and we thus obtain 1-00066376. To destroy the first 6 multiply
by 1—0006 giving 1-000063361744, and multiplying successively
by 1—00006 and 1—000003, we obtain 1-000000357932, and it is
clear that these last six significant figures represent without any
further work the remaining factors required. In the corresponding
antilogarithmic process the number is expressed as a product of
factors of the form i + -in#.
This method of calculating logarithms by the resolution of numbers
into factors of the form I— -irn is generally known as Weddle's
method, having been published by him in The Mathematician for
November 1845, and the corresponding method for antilogarithms
by means of factors of the form l+(-l)rn is known by the name of
Hearn, who published it in the same journal for 1847. In 1846 Peter
Gray constructed a new table to 12 places, in which the factors were
of the form I— (-oi)r«, so that n had the values I, 2, ... 99; and
subsequently he constructed a similar table for factors of the form
I +(-oi)rre. He also devised a method of applying a table of Ream's
form (i.e. of factors of the form l+-i'n) to the construction of
logarithms, and calculated a table of logarithms of factors of the form
i +(-ooi)rn to 24 places. This was published in 1876 under the title
Tables for the formation of logarithms and antilogarithms to twenty -four
or any less number of places, and contains the most complete and
useful application of the method, with many improvements in points
of detail. Taking as an example the calculation of the Briggian
logarithm of the number 43,867, whose hyperbolic logarithm has
been calculated above, we multiply it by 3, giving 131,601, and find
by Gray's process that the factors of 1-31601 are
(1) 1-316 (5) i-(ooi)4oo2
(2) 1-000007 (6) i-(ooi)56o2
(3) i-(ooi)2598 (7) i-(ooi)«4i2
(4) i-(ooi)378o (8) i-(ooi)'34o
Taking the logarithms from Gray's tables we obtain the required
logarithm by addition as follows : —
522
878 745
280
337
562
704
972=colog3
119
255 889
277
936
685
553
913 = log
(i)
3 040
050
733
157
610
239 = log
(2)
259
708
022
525
453
597= log
(3)
338
749
695
752
424 = log
(4)
868
588
964 = log
(5)
261
445
278= log
(6)
178
929 = log
(7)
1 48= log
(8)
4-642 137 934 655 780 757 288 464
In Shortrede's Tables there are tables of logarithms and factors of
the form l=(-oi)''» to 16 places and of the form l±(-l)rn to 25
places; and in his Tables de Logarithmes a 27 Decimates (Paris, 1867)
Fedor Thoman gives tables of logarithms of-jactors of the form
I ±-irn. In the Messenger of Mathematics, vol. in. pp. 66-92, 1873,
Henry Wace gave a simple and clear account of both the logarithmic
and antilogarithmic processes, with tables of both Briggian and
hyperbolic logarithms of factors of the form I = -lrn to 20 places.
Although the method is usually known by the names of Weddle
and Hearn, it is really, in its essential features, due to Briggs, who
gave in the Arithmetica logarithmica of 1624 a table of the logarithms
of l+-rn up to r=9 to 15 places of decimals. It was first formally
proposed as an independent method, with great improvements, by
Robert Flower in The Radix, a new way of making Logarithms, which
was published in 1771 ; and Leonelli, in his Supplement logarithmique
(1802-1803), already noticed, referred to Flower and reproduced
some of his tables. A complete bibliography of this method has been
given by A. J. Ellis in a paper "on the potential radix as a means of
calculating logarithms,' printed in the Proceedings of the Royal
Society, vol. xxxi., 1881, pp. 401-407, and vol. xxxii., 1881, pp. 377-
379. Reference should also be made to Hoppe's Tafeln zur dreissig-
stelligen logarithmischen Rechnung (Leipzig, 1876), which give in a
somewhat modified form a table of the hyperbolic logarithm of
l+-irn.
The preceding methods are only appropriate for the calculation of
isolated logarithms. If a complete table had to be reconstructed, or
calculated to more places, it would undoubtedly be most convenient
to employ the method of differences. A full account of this method
as applied to the calculation of the Tables du Cadastre is given by
Lefort in vol. iv. of the Annales de V Observatoire de Paris.
(J. W. L. G.)
LOGAU, FRIEDRICH, FREIHERR VON (1604-1655), German
epigrammatist, was born at Brockut, near Nimptsch, in Silesia,
in June 1604. He was educated at the gymnasium of Briegand
subsequently studied law. He then entered the service of the
duke of Brieg. In 1644 he was made " ducal councillor." He
died at Liegnitz on the 24th of July 1655. Logau's epigrams,
which appeared in two collections under the pseudonym " Salo-
mon von Golaw " (an anagram of his real name) in 1638 (Erstes
Hundert Teutscher Reimenspruche) and 1654 (Deutscher Sinnge-
dichte drei Tausend), show a marvellous range and variety of
expression. He had suffered bitterly under the adverse condi-
tions of the time; but his satire is not merely the outcome of
personal feeling. In the turbulent age of the Thirty Years' War
he was one of the few men who preserved intact his intellectual
integrity and judged his contemporaries fairly. He satirized
with unsparing hand the court life, the useless bloodshed of the
war, the lack of national pride in the German people, and their
slavish imitation of the French in customs, dress and speech.
He belonged to the Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft under the name
Der Verkleinernde, and regarded himself as a follower of Martin
Opitz; but he did not allow such ties to influence his inde-
pendence or originality.
Logau's Sinngedichte were edited in 1759 by G. E. Lessing and
K. W. Ramler, who first drew attention to their merits ; a second
878
LOGIA
edition appeared in 1791. A critical edition was published by G.
Eitner in 1872, who also edited a selection of Logau's epigrams for
the Deutsche Dichter des XVII. Jahrhunderts (vol. iii., 1870); there
is also a selection by H. Oesterley in Kiirschner's Deutsche National-
literatur, vol. xxviii. (1885). See H. Denker, Beitrdge zur literarischen
Wiirdigung Logans (1889); W. Heuschkel, Untersuchungen tiber
Ramlers und Lessings Bearbeitung Logauscher Sinngedichte (1901).
LOGIA, a title used to describe a collection of the sayings of
Jesus Christ (Xorta 'IijtroD) and therefore generally applied to the
" Sayings of Jesus " discovered in Egypt by B. P. Grenfell and
A. S. Hunt. There is some question as to whether the term is
rightly used for this purpose. It does not occur in the Papyri
in this sense. Each " saying " is introduced by the phrase
" Jesus says " (Xe7«) and the collection is described in the intro-
ductory words of the 1903 series as Xo-yoi not as Xcryia. Some
justification for the employment of the term is found in early
Christian literature. Several writers speak of the Acxyia TOV Kvpiov
OTTO. KvpiaKa Aayia, i.e. oracles of (or concerning) the Lord. Poly-
carp, for instance, speaks of " those who pervert the oracles of
the Lord " (Philipp. 7), and Papias, as Eusebius tells us, wrote
a work with the title " Expositions of the Oracles of the Lord."
The expression has been variously interpreted. It need mean no
more (Lightfoot, Essays on Supernatural Religion, 172 seq.) than
narratives of (or concerning) the Lord; on the other hand, the
phrase is capable of a much more definite meaning, and there are
many scholars who hold that it refers to a document which
contained a collection of the sayings of Jesus. Some such
document, we know, must lie at the base of our Synoptic Gospels,
and it is quite possible that it may have been known to and used
by Papias. It is only on this assumption that the use of the term
Logia in the sense described above can be justified.
" The Sayings," to which the term Logia is generally applied,
consist of (a) a papyrus leaf containing seven or eight sayings of
Jesus discovered in 1897, (b) a second leaf containing five more
sayings discovered in 1903, (c) two fragments of unknown
Gospels, the former published in 1903, the latter in 1907. All
these were found amongst the great mass of papyri acquired by
the Egyptian Exploration Fund from the ruins of Oxyrhynchus,
one of the chief early Christian centres in Egypt, situated some
1 20 m. S. of Cairo.
The eight " sayings " discovered in 1897 are as follows: —
1. ... Kai Tore 5ia/3Aei^is lK&a\fiv TO Kap<£os TO tv T£ 6</>0aA/z£ TOV
at>t\<t>ov aov.
2. Ae7« 'iTjtroOs (av MV cTjffTeforijTe rl>v nbau-ov oil fiff tvpriTf rf/v (SaalXeiav
TOV deav" Kai &av M^ aa@@aTlai]T6 TO aafifiaTov OVK ofaade TOV Trarepa.
3. Ai-yei 'iTjaoDj t[a\niv iv tuau TOV KO-TMOU Kai iv aapxl GHJ&TIV a&rots,
Kai ivpov iravTai ujBiiovras Kai ov'oiva. tvpov oiM/SivTa tv a&rois, Kai Trove? 17
\l/vxn Mou **l TOIS viols T£IV avBpuirtav, on Ttxj>\oi tiau> Ty Kapota avrS>[v\
K\ai\ of/ 0\e[irovaiv]
4. [Illegible : possibly joins on to 3] [T\JIV TTTaxtiav.
5- [Ae7]« ['hjaoOs oir]ov kav Siaiv [/3, OVK\ f[iai]v &0toi' Kai [o]?rou e[ls]
taTiv MOVOS, [Xe]"/w, £70* eifii HIT' aur[oC]' e""yei[p]o»' TOV \idov KaKei tvpfiatis
tie, a\iyov TO £v\ov Kay& e«t ei/zi.
6. fikytl 'iTJffoCj OVK iaTlV OfKTOS TpO^lJTTJS tV Tp TTaTpioi a.Vr[o]v, OVol
laTpds iroiei Sepaireias els TOVS yiVwjKovras aiiTov.
7- Ae*yet 'Irjffovs 7r6Xtsot Kodo^LrjufVTj kit' aKpov [ojpous inj/r)\ov Kai taTypiy u.kvi}
ovre irt[a]tiv ovvaTai ovre Kpu[/3]ij>'ai.
8. At-yei 'iTjcrous azotes [ejls TO \v ifriov aov TO [5e eYepoc o-uvexXeuras].
Letters in brackets are missing in the original: letters which are
dotted beneath are doubtful.
1. ". . .and then shall thou see clearly to cast out the mote that is
in thy brother's eye." .
2. " Jesus saith, Except ye fast to the world, ye shall in no wise
find the kingdom of God; and except ye make the sabbath a real
sabbath, ye shall not see the Father."
3. " Jesus saith, I stood in the midst of the world and in the
flesh was I seen of them, and I found all men drunken, and none
found I athirst among them, and my soul grieveth over the sons of
men, because they are blind in their heart, and see not. ..."
4. ". . .poverty. . ."
5. " Jesus saith, Wherever there are two, they are not without
God, and wherever there is one alone, I say, I am with him. Raise
the stone and there thou shalt find me, cleave the wood and there
am I."
6. " Jesus saith, A prophet is not acceptable in his own country,
neither doth a physician work cures upon them that know him."
7. " Jesus saith, A city built upon the top of a high hill and
stablished can neither fall nor be hid."
8. " Jesus saith, Thou hearest with one ear [but the other ear
hast thou closed]."
The " sayings " of 1903 were prefaced by the following intro-
ductory statement : —
oi Totoi ol \6yoi oi [ . . . ous eXAX^ffe^ 'Ii7(o"ou)s 6 %wv K[vptos ? . . . «
Kai flirtv [avrols ' vas otrrts av TUV Xo-yuc TOVT[UV aKovay BavaTov ov
yfVfftjTat.
" These are the (wonderful?) words which Jesus the living (Lord)
spake to ... and Thomas and he said unto (them) every one that
hearkens to these words shall never taste of death."
The " sayings " themselves are as follows: —
(l) [Xeyet 'Iij((roO)s ' /t^ ira.vaa.a6w 6 £TJ[T£>I>. . .
ews la> tvpy Kai orav eiipj [0ojU|87)0)7<reT<u
ot «XKO»T« qua.* [els TTJV /3atrtXeitu' a
17 /SaaiXeia £j> obpa[v$ &TTW;
Ta TTtTtiva TOV ovp[avov Kai T£JV djjplajv 6
TI VTT& TT\V yi)V t(JT[lV TJ tlti T^S JTJS Kai
ol IxQfas TTJS Oa\a[(r<77)s ovrot ol C\KOV-
Tfs Ujuas Kai 17 8aa[t\eia T&V obpavC-iv
tvrds bn&v [t]aTi [Kai OCTTIS av tavrov
yvq TavTrfv tvp-f}[crtL , . .
iavrovs yv&ireffOt [Kai tldfoere ort viol
?ffT€ ujueTs ToO Trarpis TOV T[ . . .
yv&a (€<r)Qe ^aurotjs kv[. . .
Kai £ et$ €crri T^Trrof
(3) t [ X*7«i *l77(<rou)$
O^K dTTOKJ'ijtret fi»^[pa)7ros . . .
pcov eTTtpwT^crai ?ra[ . . .
pOJV TTfpi TOU TO7TOU T7J[s . . .
ffcre OTI TroXXoi 2<ro^Tat Trfpairoi effYarot Kai
* 2 vnr irn " } \
fftV.
(4) Xc7«t 'I7j((ro0)s" [Trav rA )u») ^irpoff-
6tv T^S Si/'ecos aoy «ai [TO KeKpvfjtptvov
airo ffov airoKO\v<}>(0)r)<TeT[ai trot. 06 "yap ^<r-
Tiy KpVTTTOV 6 06 ^awfpOC Tt^^iTCTat
/cat TcBaiJ.ij.kvQV o o[f)K iytpOTjatTat.
(5) U£l eTdfouffii' afrrov o[l ftaOijTal a^roO «ai
[XtJ7oi;(riv ' TTOJS n;(JTc6[<ro/xcc «at TTCOS . . .
. . . ] /xeda cat 7raif [ . . .
. «]ai Ti 7rapaT7;pT7(r[op,tv. . .
• ]" I Xc7ct '^(ffoDjs • [...
. . . JeiTai p.i) iroctT[€ . . .
. ]ijs AXr^etas d^t . . .
. . . Jr A[ir]o«Kp[u , . .
. . .pa] Kapt[6s] kaTLV [ . . .
1. " Jesus saith, Let not him who seeks . . . cease until he finds
and when he finds he shall be astonished ; astonished he shall reach
the kingdom and having reached the kingdom he shall rest."
2. " Jesus saith (ye ask? who are those) that draw us (to the
kingdom if) the kingdom is in Heaven? . . . the fowls of the air
and all beasts that are under the earth or upon the earth and the
fishes of the sea (these are they which draw) you and the kingdom
of Heaven is within you and whosoever shall know himself shall
find it. (Strive therefore?) to know yourselves and ye shall be aware
that ye are the sons of the (Almighty?) Father; (and?) ye shall
know that ye are in (the city of God?) and ye are (the city?)."
3. " Jesus saith, A man shall not hesitate ... to ask concerning
his place (in the kingdom. Ye shall know) that many that are first
shall be last and the last first and (they shall have eternal life?)."
4. " Jesus saith, Everything that is not before thy face and that
which is hidden from thee shall be revealed to thee. For there is
nothing hidden which shall not be made manifest nor buried which
shall not be raised."
5. " His disciples question him and say, How shall we fast and how
shall we (pray?) . . . and what (commandment) shall we keep . . .
Jesus saith ... do not ... of truth . . . blessed is he . . . "
The fragment of a lost Gospel which was discovered in 1903
contained originally about fifty lines, but many of them have
perished and others are undecipherable. The translation, as
far as it can be made out, is as follows: —
1-7. " (Take no thought) from morning until even nor from evening
until morning either for your food what ye shall eat or for your rai-
ment what ye shall put on. 7-13. Ye are far better than the lilies
which grow but spin not. Having one garment what do ye (lack)? . . .
13-15. Who could add to your stature? 15-16. He himself will give
you your garment. 17-23. His disciples say unto him, When wilt
thou be manifest unto us and when shall we see thee? He saith,
When ye shall be stripped and not be ashamed . . . 41-46. He
LOGIC
879
said, The key of knowledge ye hid: ye entered not in yourselves,
and to them that were entering in, ye opened not."
The second Gospel fragment discovered in 1907 " consists of
a single vellum leaf, practically complete except at one of the
lower corners and here most of the lacunae admit of a satisfactory
solution." The translation is as follows: — 4
. . . before he does wrong makes all manner of subtle excuse.
But give heed lest ye also suffer the same things as they: for the evil
doers among men receive their reward not among the living only,
but also await punishment and much torment. And he took them
and brought them into the very place of purification and was walking
in the temple. And a certain Pharisee, a chief priest, whose name
was Levi, met them and said to the Saviour, Who gave thee leave to
walk in this place of purification, and to see these holy vessels when
thou hast not washed nor yet have thy disciples bathed their feet?
But defiled thou hast walked in this temple, which is a pure place,
wherein no other man walks except he has washed himself and
changed his garments neither does he venture to see these holy
vessels. And the Saviour straightway stood still with his disciples
and answered him, Art thou then, being here in the temple, clean?
He saith unto him, I am clean; for I washed in the pool of David
and having descended by one staircase, I ascended by another and I
put on white and clean garments, and then I came and looked upon
these holy vessels. The Saviour answered and said unto him, Woe
ye blind, who see not. Thou hast washed in these running waters
wherein dogs and swine have been cast night and day and hast
cleansed and wiped the outside skin which also the harlots andjflute-
girls anoint and wash and wipe and beautify for the lust of men; but
within they are full of scorpions and all wickedness. But I and my
disciples who thou sayest have not bathed have been dipped in the
waters of eternal life which come from . . . . But woe unto thee. . . .
These documents have naturally excited considerable interest
and raised many questions. The papyri of the " sayings " date
from the 3rd century and most scholars agree that the " sayings "
themselves go back to the 2nd. The year A.D.I40 is generally
assigned as the terminus ad quern. The problem as- to their
origin has been keenly discussed. There are two main types of
theory, (i) Some suppose that they are excerpts from an
uncanonical Gospel. (2) Others think that they represent an
independent and original, collection of sayings. The first theory
has assumed three main forms, (a) Harnack maintains that they
were taken from the Gospel according to the Egyptians. This
theory, however, is based upon a hypothetical reconstruction
of the Gospel in question which has found very few supporters.
(b) Others have advocated the Gospel of the Hebrews as the
source of the " sayings," on the ground of the resemblance
between the first "saying" of the 1903 series and a well-authenti-
cated fragment of that Gospel. The resemblance, however, is
not sufficiently clear to support the conclusion, (c) A third view
supposes that they are extracts from the Gospel of Thomas — an
apocryphal Gospel dealing with the boyhood of Jesus. Beyond
the allusion to Thomas in the introductory paragraph to the 1903
series, there seems to be no tangible evidence in support of this
view. The second theory, which maintains that the papyri
represent an independent collection of " sayings," seems to be
the opinion which has found greatest favour. It has won the
support of W. Sanday, H. B. Swete, Rendel Harris, W. Lock,
Heinrici, &c. There is a considerable diversity of judgment,
however, with regard to the value of the collection, (a) Some
scholars maintain that the collection goes back to the ist century
and represents one of the earliest attempts to construct an
account of the teaching of Jesus. They are therefore disposed
to admit to a greater or less extent and with widely varying
degrees of confidence the presence of genuine elements in the new
matter, (b) Sanday and many others regard the sayings as
originating early in the 2nd century and think that, though not
" directly dependent on the Canonical Gospels," they have
" their origin under conditions of thought which these Gospels
had created." The " sayings " must be regarded as expansions
of the true tradition, and little value is therefore to be attached
to the new material.
With the knowledge at our disposal, it is impossible to reach an
assured conclusion between these two views. The real problem,
to which at present no solution has been found, is to account for
the new material in the "sayings." There seems to be no motive
sufficient to explain the additions that have been made to the
text of the Gospels. It cannot be proved that the expansions have
been made in the interests of any sect or heresy. Unless new
discoveries provide the clue, or some reasonable explanation can
otherwise be found, there seems to be no reason why we should
not regard the " sayings " as containing material which ought
to be taken into account in the critical study of the teaching of
Jesus.
The 1903 Gospel fragment is so mutilated in many of its parts
that it is difficult to decide upon its character and value. It
appears to be earlier than 150, and to be taken from a Gospel
which followed more or less closely the version of the teaching of
Jesus given by Matthew and Luke. The phrase " when ye shall
be stripped and not be ashamed " contains an idea which has
some affinity with two passages found respectively in the Gospel
according to the Egyptians and the so-called Second Epistle of
Clement. The resemblance, however, is not sufficiently close to
warrant the deduction that either the Gospel of the Egyptians
or the Gospel from which the citation in 2 Clement is taken (if
these two are distinct) is the source from which our fragment is
derived.
The second Gospel fragment (1907) seems to be of later origin
than the documents already mentioned. Grenfell and Hunt
date the Gospel, from which it is an excerpt, about 200. There
is considerable difficulty with regard to some of the details.
The statement that an ordinary Jew was required to wash and
change his clothes before visiting the inner court of the temple
is quite unsupported by any other evidence. Nothing is known
about " the place of purification " (ayvevrripiov) nor " the pool
of David " (Xiyuir; TOV AavtiS). Nor does the statement that
"the sacred vessels" were visible from the place where Jesus
was standing seem at all probable. Grenfell and Hunt conclude
therefore — "So great indeed are the divergences between this
account and the extant and no doubt well-informed authorities
with regard to the topography and ritual of the Temple that it is
hardly possible to avoid the conclusion that much of the local
colour is due to the imagination of the author who was aiming
chiefly at dramatic effect and was not really well acquainted with
the Temple. But if the inaccuracy of the fragment in this
important respect is admitted the historical character of the
whole episode breaks down and it is probably to be regarded as an
apocryphal elaboration of Matt. xv. 1-20 and Mark vii. 1-23."
See the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, part i. (1897), part iv. (1904), part v.
(1908). (H. T. A.)
LOGIC (\o-yucri, sc. rtxvri, the art of reasoning), the name
given to one of the four main departments of philosophy, though
its sphere is very variously delimited. The present article is
divided into I. The Problems of Logic, II. History.
I. The Problems of Logic.
Introduction. — Logic is the science of the processes of inference.
What, then, is inference ? It is that mental operation which
proceeds by combining two premises so as to cause a consequent
conclusion. Some suppose that we may infer from one premise
by a so-called " immediate inference." But one premise can
only reproduce itself in another form, e.g. all men are some
animals; therefore some animals are men. It requires the com-
bination of at least two premises to infer a conclusion different
from both. There are as many kinds of inference as there are
different ways of combining premises, and in the main three
types: —
1. Analogical Inference, from particular to particular: e.g.
border- war between Thebes and Phocis is evil; border-war
between Thebes and Athens is similar to that between Thebes
and Phocis; therefore, border- war between Thebes and Athens
is evil.
2. Inductive Inference, from particular to universal: e.g.
border- war between Thebes and Phocis is evil; all border-war
is like that between Thebes and Phocis; therefore, all border-
war is evil.
3. Deductive or Syllogistic Inference, from universal to particu-
lar, e.g. all border-war is evil; border- war between Thebes and
Athens is border- war; therefore border- war between Thebes
and Athens is evil.
88o
LOGIC
[PROBLEMS
In each of these kinds of inference there are three mental
judgments capable of being expressed as above in three linguistic
propositions; and the two first are the premises which are
combined, while the third is the conclusion which is consequent
on their combination. Each proposition consists of two terms,
the subject and its predicate, united by the copula. Each in-
ference contains three terms. In syllogistic inference the subject
of the conclusion is the minor term, and its predicate the major
term, while between these two extremes the term common to
the two premises is the middle term, and the premise containing
the middle and major terms is the major premise, the premise
containing the middle and minor terms the minor premise.
Thus in the example of syllogism given above, " border-war
between Thebes and Athens " is the minor term, " evil " the
major term, and " border-war " the middle term. Using S for
minor, P for major and M for middle, and preserving these signs
for corresponding terms in analogical and inductive inferences,
we obtain the following formula of the three inferences: —
Analogical.
S'isP
S2 is similar to S1
• . S2 is P.
Inductive.
SisP
Every M is similar
to S
. ' . Every M is P.
Deductive or Syllogistic.
Every M is P
SisM
.'.Sis P.
The love of unity has often made logicians attempt to resolve
these three processes into one. But each process has a pecu-
liarity of its own; they are similar, not the same. Analogical
and inductive inference alike begin with a particular premise
containing one or more instances; but the former adds a par-
ticular premise to draw a particular conclusion, the latter requires
a universal premise to draw a universal conclusion. A citizen
of Athens, who had known the evils of the border-war between
Thebes and Phocis, would readily perceive the analogy of a
similar war between Thebes and Athens, and conclude analog-
ously that it would be evil; but he would have to generalize
the similarity of all border-wars in order to draw the inductive
conclusion that all alike are evil. Induction and deduction differ
still more, and are in fact opposed, as one makes a particular
premise the evidence of a universal conclusion, the other makes
a universal premise evidence of a particular conclusion. Yet
they are alike in requiring the generalization of the universal
and the belief that there are classes which are whole numbers
of similars. On this point both differ from inference by analogy,
which proceeds entirely from particular premises to a particular
conclusion. Hence we may redivide inference into particular
inference by analogy and universal inference by induction and
deduction. Universal inference is what we call reasoning;
and its two species are very closely connected, because universal
conclusions of induction become universal premises of deduction.
Indeed, we often induce in order to deduce, ascending from par-
ticular to universal and descending from universal to particular
in one act as it were; so that we may proceed either directly
from particular to particular by analogical inference, or indirectly
from particular through universal to particular by an inductive-
deductive inference which might be called " perduction." On
the whole, then, analogical, inductive and deductive inferences
are not the same but three similar and closely connected processes.
The three processes of inference, though different from one
another, rest on a common principle of similarity of which each
is a different application. Analogical inference requires that one
particular is similar to another, induction that a whole number
or class is similar to its particular instances, deduction that each
particular is similar to the whole number or class. Not that these
inferences require us to believe, or assume, or premise or
formulate this principle either in general, or in its applied forms:
the premises are all that any inference needs the mind to assume.
The principle of similarity is used, not assumed by the inferring
mind, which in accordance with the similarity of things and the
parity of inference spontaneously concludes in the form
that similars are similarly determined (" similia similibus
convenire ")• In applying this principle of similarity, each of
the three processes in its own way has to premise both that
something is somehow determined and that something is similar,
and by combining these premises to conclude that this is similarly
determined to that. Thus the very principle of inference by
similarity requires it to be a combination of premises in order to
draw a conclusion.
The three processes, as different applications of the principle
of similarity, consisting of different combinations of premises,
cause different degrees of cogency in their several conclusions.
Analogy hardly requires as much evidence as induction. Men
speculate about the analogy between Mars and the earth, and
infer that it is inhabited, without troubling about all the planets.
Induction has to consider more instances, and the similarity
of a whole number or class. Even so, however, it starts from
a particular premise which only contains many instances, and
leaves room to doubt the universality of its conclusions. But
deduction, starting from a premise about all the members of a
class, compels a conclusion about every and each of necessity.
One border-war may be similar to another, and the whole
number may be similar, without being similarly evil; but if all
alike are evil, each is evil of necessity. Deduction or syllogism
is superior to analogy and induction in combining premises so as
to involve or contain the conclusion. For this reason it has been
elevated by some logicians above all other inferences, and for
this very same reason attacked by others as no inference at all.
The truth is that, though the premises contain the conclusion,
neither premise alone contains it, and a man who knows both
but does not combine them does not draw the conclusion; it is
the synthesis of the two premises which at once contains the
conclusion and advances our knowledge; and as syllogism
consists, not indeed in the discovery, but essentially in the
synthesis of two premises, it is an inference and an advance
on each premise and on both taken separately. As again the
synthesis contains or involves the conclusion, syllogism has
the advantage of compelling assent to the consequences of the
premises. Inference in general is a combination of premises to
cause a conclusion; deduction is such a combination as to
compel a conclusion involved in the combination, and following
from the premises of necessity.
Nevertheless, deduction or syllogism is not independent of
the other processes of inference. It is not the primary inference
of its own premises, but constantly converts analogical and
inductive conclusions into its particular and universal premises.
Of itself it causes a necessity of consequence, but only a
hypothetical necessity; if these premises are true, then this con-
clusion necessarily follows. To eliminate this " if " ultimately
requires other inferences before deduction. Especially, induction
to universals is the warrant and measure of deduction from uni-
versals. So far as it is inductively true that all border-war is
evil, it is deductively true that a given border-war is therefore
evil. Now, as an inductive combination of premises does not
necessarily involve the inductive conclusion, induction normally
leads, not to a necessary, but to a probable conclusion; and
whenever its probable conclusions become deductive premises,
the deduction only involves a probable conclusion. Can we
then infer any certainty at all ? In order to answer this question
we must remember that there are many degrees of probability,
and that induction, and therefore deduction, draw conclusions
more or less probable, and rise to the point at which probability
becomes moral certainty, or that high degree of probability
which is sufficient to guide our lives, and even condemn murderers
to death. But can we rise still higher and infer real necessity ?
This is a difficult question, which has received many answers.
Some noologists suppose a mental power of forming necessary
principles of deduction a priori; but fail to show how we can
apply principles of mind to things beyond mind. Some empiricists,
on the other hand, suppose that induction only infers probable
conclusions which are premises of probable deductions; but
they give up all exact science. Between these extremes there is
room for a third theory, empirical yet providing a knowledge
of the really necessary. In some cases of induction concerned
with objects capable of abstraction and simplification, we have
a power of identification, by which, not a priori but in the act
of inducing a conclusion, we apprehend that the things signified
PROBLEMS]
LOGIC
by its subject and predicate are one and the same thing which
cannot exist apart from itself. Thus by combined induction
and identification we apprehend that one and one are the same
as two, that there is no difference between a triangle and a
three-sided rectilineal figure, that a whole must be greater than
its part by being the whole, that inter-resisting bodies necessarily
force one another apart, otherwise they would not be inter-
resisting but occupy the same place at the same moment.
Necessary principles, discovered by this process of induction
and identification, become premises of deductive demonstration
to conclusions which are not only necessary consequents on the
premises, but also equally necessary in reality. Induction thus
is the source of deduction, of its truth, of its probability, of its
moral certainty; and induction, combined with identification,
is the origin of the necessary principles of demonstration or
deduction to necessary conclusions.
Analogical inference in its turn is as closely allied with induc-
tion. Like induction, it starts from a particular premise, contain-
ing one or more examples or instances; but, as it is easier to
infer a particular than a universal conclusion, it supplies particular
conclusions which in their turn become further particular
premises of induction. Its second premise is indeed merely a
particular apprehension that one particular is similar to another,
whereas the second premise of induction is a universal apprehen-
sion that a whole number of particulars is similar to those from
which the inference starts; but at bottom these two apprehen-
sions of similarity are so alike as to suggest that the universal
premise of induction has arisen as a generalized analogy. It
seems likely that man has arrived at the apprehension of a whole
individual, e.g. a whole animal including all its parts, and thence
has inferred by analogy a whole number, or class, e.g. of animals
including all individual animals; and accordingly that the
particular analogy of one individual to another has given rise
to the general analogy of every to each individual in a class,
or whole number of individuals, contained in the second premise
of induction. In this case, analogical inference has led to
induction, as induction to deduction. Further, analogical
inference from particular to particular suggests ' inductive-
deductive inference from particular through universal to
particular.
Newton, according to Dr Pemberton, thought in 1666 that
the moon moves so like a falling body that it has a similar
centripetal force to the earth, 20 years before he demonstrated
this conclusion from the laws of motion in the Principia. In
fact, analogical, inductive and deductive inferences, though
different processes of combining premises to cause different
conclusions, are so similar and related, so united in principle
and interdependent, so consolidated into a system of inference,
that they cannot be completely investigated apart, but together
constitute a single subject of science. This science of inference
in general is logic.
Logic, however, did not begin as a science of all inference.
Rather it began as a science of reasoning (Xiryos), of syllogism
(<ruXXo7i0-^6s), of deductive inference. Aristotle was its founder.
He was anticipated of course by many generations of spontaneous
thinking (logica naturalis). Many of the higher animals infer
by analogy: otherwise we cannot explain their thinking. Man
so infers at first: otherwise we cannot explain the actions of
young children, who before they begin to speak give no evidence
of universal thinking. It is likely that man began with particular
inference and with particular language; and that, gradually
generalizing thought and language, he learnt at last to think
and say " all," to infer universally, to induce and deduce, to
reason, in short, and raise himself above other animals. In
ancient times, and especially in Egypt, Babylon and Greece,
he went on to develop reason into science or the systematic
investigation of definite subjects, e.g. arithmetic of number,
geometry of magnitude, astronomy of stars, politics of govern-
ment, ethics of goods. In Greece he became more and more
reflective and conscious of himself, of his body and soul, his
manners and morals, his mental operations and especially his
reason. One of the characteristics of Greek philosophers is
their growing tendency, in investigating any subject, to turn
round and ask themselves what should be the method of investiga-
tion. In this way the Presocratics and Sophists, and still more
Socrates and Plato, threw out hints on sense and reason, on
inferential processes and scientific methods which may be called
anticipations of logic. But Aristotle was the first to conceive
of reasoning itself as a definite subject of a special science,
which he called analytics or analytic science, specially designed to
analyse syllogism and especially demonstrative syllogism, or
science, and to be in fact a science of sciences. He was therefore
the founder of the science of logic.
Among the Aristotelian treatises we have the following, which
together constitute this new science of reasoning: —
1. The Categories, or names signifying things which can become
predicates ;
2. The De Interpretation, or the enumeration of conceptions and
their combinations by (i) nouns and verbs (names), (2) enunciations
(propositions) ;
3. The Prior Analytics, on syllogism;
4. The Posterior Analytics, on demonstrative syllogism, or science;
5. The Topics, on dialectical syllogism; or argument;
6. The Sophistical Elenchi, on sophistical or contentious syllogism,
or sophistical fallacies.
So far as we know, Aristotle had no one name for all these in-
vestigations. " Analytics " is only applied to the Prior and Posterior
Analytics, and " logical," which he opposed to " analytical," only
suits the Topics and at most the Sophistical Elenchi; secondly,
while he analyzed syllogism into premises, major and minor, and
premises into terms, subject and predicate, he attempted no division
of the whole science; thirdly, he attempted no order and arrange-
ment of the treatises into a system of logic, but only of the Analytics,
Topics and Sophistical Elenchi into a system of syllogisms. Never-
theless, when his followers had arranged the treatises into the
Organon, as they called it to express that it is an instrument of
science, then there gradually emerged a system of syllogistic logic,
arranged in the triple division — terms, propositions and syllogisms
— which has survived to this day as technical logic, and has been the
foundation of all other logics, even of those which aim at its de-
struction.
The main problem which Aristotle set before him was the
analysis of syllogism, which he defined as " reasoning in which
certain things having been posited something different from
them of necessity follows by their being those things " (Prior
Analytics, i. i). What then did he mean by reasoning, or rather
by the Greek word Xiryos of which " reasoning " is an approxi-
mate rendering? It was meant (cf. Post. An. i. 10) to be both
internal, in the soul (6 ecr<o Acryos, kv rfj ^Xti), and external, in
language (6 e£u> Xiryos): hence after Aristotle the Stoics
distinguished Airyos evdiadfros and :rpo<£optK6s. It meant, then,
both reason and discourse of reason (cf. Shakespeare, Hamlet,
i. 2). On its mental side, as reason it meant combination of
thoughts. On its linguistic side, as discourse it was used for any
combination of names to form a phrase, such as the definition
" rational animal," or a book, such as the Iliad. It had also the
mathematical meaning of ratio; and in its use for definition it
is sometimes transferred to essence as the object of definition,
and has a mixed meaning, which may be expressed by " account."
In all its uses, however, the common meaning is combination.
When Aristotle called syllogism XOYOS, he meant that it is a
combination of premises involving a conclusion of necessity.
Moreover, he tended to confine the term \6yos to syllogistic
inference. Not that he omitted other inferences (moreis) .
On the contrary, to him (cf. Prior Analytics, ii. 24) we owe the
triple distinction into inference from particular to particular
(if-apadtLyiia., example, or what we call " analogy "), inference
from particular to universal (orcryoryi?, induction), and inference
from universal to particular (cruAXcrytcr/xos, syllogism, or deduc-
tion). But he thought that inferences other than syllogism are
imperfect; that analogical inference is rhetorical induction; and
that induction, through the necessary preliminary of syllogism
and the sole process of ascent from sense, memory and experience
to the principles of science, is itself neither reasoning nor science.
To be perfect he thought that all inference must be reduced to
syllogism of the first figure, which he regarded as the specially
scientific inference. Accordingly, the syllogism appeared to him
to be the rational process (;U«TO \6yov), and the demonstrative
syllogism from inductively discovered principles to be science
882
LOGIC
[PROBLEMS
. Hence, without his saying it in so many words
Aristotle's logic perforce became a logic of deductive reasoning
or syllogism. As it happened this deductive tendency helpe
the development of logic. The obscurer premises of analogy a
induction, together with the paucity of experience and the back
ward state of physical science in Aristotle's time would hav
baffled even his analytical genius. On the other hand, th
demonstrations of mathematical sciences of his time, and the
logical forms of deduction evinced in Plato's dialogues, providec
him with admirable examples of deduction, which is also th
inference most capable of analysis. Aristotle's analysis of thi.
syllogism showed man how to advance by combining his
thoughts in trains of deductive reasoning. Nevertheless, the
wider question remained for logic: what is the nature of all in-
ference, and the special form of each of its three main processes"
As then the reasoning of the syllogism was the main problem o
Aristotle's logic, what was his analysis of it? In distinguishing
inner and outer reason, or reasoning and discourse, he added thai
it is not to outer reason but to inner reason in the soul that demon-
stration and syllogism are directed (Post. An. i. 10). One woulc
expect, then, an analysis of mental reasoning into mental judgments
(Kpiatis) as premises and conclusion. In point of fact, he analysec
it into premises, but then analysed a premise into terms, which he
divided into subject and predicate, with the addition of the copula
" is " or " is not." This analysis, regarded as a whole and as it is
applied in the Analytics and in the other logical treatises, was
evidently intended as a linguistic analysis. So in the Categories
he first divided things said (rA. \ey6neva) into uncombined anc
combined, or names and propositions, and then divided the former
into categories ; and in the De interpretatione he expressly excluded
mental conceptions and their combinations, and confined himseli
to nouns and verbs and enunciations, or, as we should say, to names
and propositions. Aristotle apparently intended, or at all events
has given logicians in general the impression, that he intended to
analyse syllogism into propositions as premises, and premise into
names as terms. His logic therefore exhibits the curious paradox
of being an analysis of mental reasoning into linguistic elements.
The explanation is that outer speech is more obvious than inner
thought, and that grammar and poetic criticism, rhetoric and
dialectic preceded logic, and that out of those arts of language arose
the science of reasoning. The sophist Protagoras fiad distinguished
various kinds of sentences, and Plato had divided the sentence
into noun and verb, signifying a thing and the action of a thing.
Rhetoricians had enumerated various means of persuasion, some of
which are logical forms, e.g. probability and sign, example and
enthymeme. Among the dialecticians, Socrates had used inductive
arguments to obtain definitions as data of deductive arguments
against his opponents, and Plato had insisted on the processes of
ascending to and descending from an unconditional principle by the
power of giving and receiving argument. All these points about
speech, eloquence and argument between man and man were ab-
sorbed into Aristotle's theory of reasoning, and in particular the
grammar of the sentence consisting of noun and verb caused the
logic of the proposition consisting of subject and predicate. At the
same time, Aristotle was well aware that the science of reasoning is
no art of language and must take up a different position towards
speech as the expression of thought. In the Categories he classified
names, not, however, as a grammarian by their structure, but
as a logician by their signification. In the De interpretatione,
having distinguished the enunciation, or proposition, from other
sentences as that in which there is truth or falsity, he relegated the
rest to rhetoric or poetry, and founded the logic of the proposi-
tion, in which, however, he retained the grammatical analysis into
noun and verb. In the Analytics he took the final step of originating
the logical analysis of the proposition as premise into subject and
predicate as terms mediated by the copula, and analysed the
syllogism into these elements. Thus did he become the founder
of the logical but linguistic analysis of reasoning as discourse ( & ttw
\6yos) into propositions and terms. Nevertheless, the deeper ques-
tion remained, what is the logical but mental analysis of reasoning
itself (6 taw X67os) into its mental premises and conclusion?
Aristotle thus was the founder of logic as a science. But he
laid too much stress on reasoning as syllogism or deduction,
and on deductive science; and he laid too much stress on the
linguistic analysis of rational discourse into proposition and terms.
These two defects remain ingrained in technical logic to this day.
But in the course of the development of the science, logicians
have endeavoured to correct those defects, and have diverged
into two schools. Some have devoted themselves to induction
from sense and experience and widened logic till it has become
a general science of inference and scientific method. Others
have devoted themselves to the mental analysis of reasoning,
and have narrowed logic into a science of conception, judgment
and reasoning. The former belong to the school of empirical
logic, the latter to the school of conceptual and formal logic.
Both have started from points which Aristotle indicated without
developing them. But we shall find that his true descendants
are the empirical logicians.
Aristotle was the first of the empiricists. He consistently
maintained that sense is knowledge of particulars and the
origin of scientific knowledge of universals. In his view, sense
is a congenital form of judgment (Si^ajuis avn<t>VTOs KpiriKri,
Post. An. ii. 19); a sensation of each of the five senses is always
true of its proper object; without sense there is no science;
sense is the origin of induction, which is the origin of deduction
and science. The Analytics end (Post. An. ii. 19) with a detailed
system of empiricism, according to which sense is the primary
knowledge of particulars, memory is the retention of a sensation,
experience is the sum of many memories, induction infers
universals, and intelligence is the true apprehension of the uni-
versal principles of science, which is rational, deductive,
demonstrative, from empirical principles.
This empirical groundwork of Aristotle's logic was accepted by
the Epicureans, who enunciated most distinctly the fundamental
doctrine that all sensations are true of their immediate objects,
and falsity begins with subsequent opinions, or what the moderns
call " interpretation." Beneath deductive logic, in the logic of
Aristotle and the canonic of the Epicureans, there already lay the
basis of empirical logic: sensory experience is the origin of all
inference and science. It remained for Francis Bacon to develop
these beginnings into a new logic of induction. He did not indeed
accept the infallibility of sense or of any other operation unaided. He
thought, rather, that every operation becomes infallible by method.
Following Aristotle in this order — sense, memory, intellect — he
resolved the whole process of induction into three ministrations: —
1. The ministration to sense, aided by observation and experiment.
2. The ministration to memory, aided by registering and arranging
the data, of observation and experiment in tables of instances of
agreement, difference and concomitant variations.
3. The ministration to intellect or reason, aided by the negative
elimination by means of contradictory instances of whatever in the
instances is not always present, absent and varying with the given
subject investigated, and finally by the positive inference that
whatever in the instances is always present, absent and varying
with the subject is its essential cause.
Bacon, like Aristotle, was anticipated in this or that point ; but,
as Aristotle was the first to construct a system of deduction in the
syllogism and its three figures, so Bacon was the first to construct
a system of induction in three ministrations, in which the requisites
of induction, hitherto recognized only in sporadic hints, were com-
bined for the first time in one logic of induction. Bacon taught
men to labour in inferring from particular to universal, to lay as
much stress on induction as on deduction, and to think and speak
of inductive reasoning, inductive science, inductive logic. More-
over, while Aristotle had the merit of discerning the triplicity of
inference, to Bacon we owe the merit of distinguishing the three
processes without reduction : —
1. Inference from particular to particular by Experientia
Literata, in piano;
2. Inference from particular to universal by Inductio, ascendcndo;
3. Inference from universal to particular by Syllogism, descen-
dendo.
In short, the comprehensive genius of Bacon widened logic into
a general science of inference.
On the other hand, as Aristotle over-emphasized deduction so
Bacon over-emphasized induction by contending that it is the
only process of discovering universals (axiomata), which deduction
only applies to particulars. J. S. Mill in his Logic pointed out this
lefect, and without departing from Baconian principles remedied it
jy quoting scientific examples, in which deduction, starting from
nductife principles, applies more general to less general universals,
e.g. when the more general law of gravitation is shown to include
:he less general laws of planetary gravitation. Mill's logic has the
jreat merit of copiously exemplifying the principles of the variety
of method according to subject-matter. It teaches us that scientific
method is sometimes induction, sometimes deduction, and some-
:imes the consilience of both, either by the inductive verification of
jrevious deductions, or by the deductive explanation of previous
nductions.
It is also most interesting to notice that Aristotle saw further
han Bacon in this direction. The founder of logic anticipated the
atest logic of science, when he recognized, not only the deduction
if mathematics, but also the experience of facts followed by de-
luctive explanations of their causes in physics.
The consilience of empirical and deductive processes was an
Aristotelian discovery, elaborated by Mill against Bacon. On
PROBLEMS]
LOGIC
883
the whole, however, Aristotle, Bacon and Mill, purged from
their errors, form one empirical school, gradually growing by
adapting itself to the advance of science; a school in which
Aristotle was most influenced by Greek deductive Mathematics,
Bacon by the rise of empirical physics at the Renaissance, and
Mill by the Newtonian combination of empirical facts and
mathematical principles in the Principia. From studying this
succession of empirical logicians, we cannot doubt that sense,
memory and experience are the real origin of inference, analogical,
inductive and deductive. The deepest problem of logic is the
relation of sense and inference. But we must first consider the
mental analysis of inference, and this brings us to conceptual and
formal logic.
Aristotle's logic has often been called formal logic; it was
really a technical logic of syllogism analysed into linguistic
elements, and of science rested on an empirical basis. At the
same time his psychology, though maintaining his empiricism,
contained some seeds of conceptual logic, and indirectly of
formal logic. Intellectual development, which according to
the logic of the Analytics consists of sense, memory, experience,
induction and intellect, according to the psychology of the
De Anima consists of sense, imagination and intellect, and one
division of intellect is into conception of the undivided and
combination of conceptions as one (De An. iii. 6). The De
Inlerprelatione opens with a reference to this psychological
distinction, implying that names represent conceptions, pro-
positions represent combinations of conceptions. But the same
passage relegates conceptions an<? their combinations to the
De Anima, and confines the De Interpretatione to names and
propositions in conformity with the linguistic analysis which
pervades the logical treatises of Aristotle, who neither brought
his psychological distinction between conceptions and their com-
binations into his logic, nor advanced the combinations of con-
ceptions as a definition of judgment (/cptcris), nor employed
the mental distinction between conceptions and judgments as an
analysis of inference, or reasoning, or syllogism: he was no con-
ceptual logician. The history of logic shows that the linguistic
distinction between terms and propositions was the sole analysis
of reasoning in the logical treatises of Aristotle; that the mental
distinction between conceptions (evvoLai) and judgments (a Jtco^ara
in a wide sense) was imported into logic by the Stoics; and that
this mental distinction became the logical analysis of reasoning
under the authority of St Thomas Aquinas. In his commentary
on the De Interprelalione, St Thomas, after citing from the
De Anima Aristotle's "duplex operatic intellectus," said,
" Additur autem et tertia operatic, scilicet ratiocinandi," and
concluded that, since logic is a rational science (rationalis scientia) ,
its consideration must be directed to all these operations of
reason. Hence arose conceptual logic; according to which
conception is a simple apprehension of an idea without belief
in being or not being, e.g. the idea of man or of running; judg-
ment is a combination of conceptions, adding being or not being,
e.g. man is running or not running; and reasoning is a com-
bination of judgments: conversely, there is a mental analysis
of reasoning into judgments, and judgment into conceptions,
beneath the linguistic analysis of rational discourse into pro-
positions, and propositions into terms. Logic, according to this
new school, which has by our time become an old school, has to
co-ordinate these three operations, direct them, and, beginning
• with conceptions, combine conceptions into judgments, and
judgments into inference, which thus becomes a complex com-
bination of conceptions, or, in modern parlance, an extension
of our ideas. Conceptual logicians were, indeed, from the first
aware that sense supplies the data, and that judgment and
therefore inference contains belief that things are or are not.
But they held, and still hold that sensation and conception are
alike mere apprehensions, and that the belief that things are or
are not arises somehow after sensation and conception in judg-
ment, from which it passes into inference. At first, they were
more sanguine of extracting from these unpromising beginnings
some knowledge of things beyond ideas. But at length many
of them became formal logicians, who held that logic is the
investigation of formal thinking, or consistent conception,
judgment and reasoning; that it shows how we infer formal
truths of consistency without material truth of signifying things;
that, as the science of the form or process, it must entirely
abstract from the matter, or objects, of thought; and that it
does not tell us how we infer from experience. Thus has logic
drifted further and further from the real and empirical logic of
Aristotle the founder and Bacon the reformer of the science.
The great merit of conceptual logic was the demand for a
mental analysis of mental reasoning, and the direct analysis of
reasoning into judgments which are the sole premises and con-
clusions of reasoning and of all mental inferences. Aristotle
had fallen into the paradox of resolving a mental act into verbal
elements. The Schoolmen, however, gradually came to realize
that the result to their logic was to make it a sermocionalis
scientia, and to their metaphysics the danger of nominalism. St
Thomas made a great advance by making logic throughout a
rationalis scientia; and logicians are now agreed that reasoning
consists of judgments, discourse of propositions. This dis-
tinction is, moreover, vital to the whole logic of inference,
because we always think all the judgments of which our inference
consists, but seldom state all the propositions by which it is
expressed. We omit propositions, curtail them, and even
express a judgment by a single term, e.g. " Good ! " " Fire ! ".
Hence the linguistic expression is not a true measure of inference;
and to say that an inference consists of two propositions causing
a third is not strictly true. But to say that it is two judgments
causing a third is always true, and the very essence of inference,
because we must think the two to conclude the third in " the
sessions of sweet silent thought." Inference, in short, consists of
actual judgments capable of being expressed in propositions.
Inference always consists of judgments. But judgment does not
always consist of conceptions. It is not a combination of con-
ceptions ; it does not arise from conceptions, nor even at first require
conception. Sense is the origin of judgment. One who feels pained
or pleased, who feels hot or cold or resisting in touch, who tastes
the flavoured, who smells the odorous, who hears the sounding,
who sees the coloured, or is conscious, already believes that some-
thing sensible exists before conception, before inference, and before
language; and his belief is true of the immediate object of sense,
the sensible thing, e.g. the hot felt in touch. But a belief in the
existence of something is a judgment and a categorical judgment
of existence. t Sense, then, outer and inner, or sensation and con-
sciousness, is the origin of sensory judgments which are true cate-
gorical beliefs in the existence of sensible things; and primary
judgments are such true categorical sensory beliefs that things
exist, and neither require conception nor are combinations of con-
ceptions. Again, since sense is the origin of memory and experience,
memorial and experiential judgments are categorical and existential
judgments, which so far as they report sensory judgments are
always true. Finally, since sense, memory and experience are the
origin of inference, primary inference is categorical and existential,
starting from sensory, memorial and experiential judgments as
premises, and proceeding to inferential judgments as conclusions,
which are categorical and existential, and are true, so far as they
depend on sense, memory and experience.
Sense, then, is the origin of judgment; and the consequence is
that primary judgments are true, categorical and existential
judgments of sense, and primary inferences are inferences from
categorical and existential premises- to categorical and existential
conclusions, which are true so far as they arise from outer and
inner sense, and proceed to things similar to sensible things. All
other 'judgments and inferences about existing things, or ideas, or
names, whether categorical or hypothetical, are afterthoughts,
partly true and partly false.
Sense, then, because it involves a true belief in existence is fitted
to be the origin of judgment. Conception on the other hand is the
simple apprehension of an idea, particular or universal, but without
belief that anything is or is not, and therefore is unfitted to beget
judgment. Nor could a combination of conceptions make a difference
so fundamental as that between conceiving and believing. The
most that it could do would be to cause an ideal judgment, e.g. that
the idea of a centaur is the idea of a man-horse ; and even here some
further origin is needed for the addition of the copula " is."
So far from being a cause, conception is not even a condition of
all judgments; a sensation of hot is sufficient evidence that hot
is not that idea, but involves a judgment that there previously
existed the hot now represented by the idea, which is about the
sensible thing beyond the conceived idea; and the cause of this
884
LOGIC
[PROBLEMS
memorial judgment is past sense and present memory. So sense,
memory and experience, the sum of sense and memory, though
requiring conception, are the causes of the experiential judgment
that there exist and have existed many similar, sensible things, and
these sensory, memorial and experiential judgments about the
existence of past and present sensible things beyond conceived
ideas become the particular premises of primary inference. Starting
from them, inference is enabled to draw conclusions which are
inferential judgments about the existence of things similar to
sensible things beyond conceived ideas. In rising, however, from
particular to universal inference, induction, as we have seen, adds
to its particular premise, S is P, a universal premise, every M is
similar to S, in order to infer the universal conclusion, every M is P.
This universal premise requires a universal conception of a class or
whole number of similar particulars, as a condition. But the
premise is not that conception; it is a belief that there is a whole
number of particulars similar to those already experienced. The
generalization of a class is not, as the conceptual logic assumes, the
abstraction of a general idea, but an inference from the analogy
of a whole individual thing, e.g. a whole man, to a whole number
of similar individuals, e.g. the whole of men. The general idea of all
men or the combination that the idea of all men is similar to the
idea of particular men would not be enough ; the universal premise
that all men in fact are similar to those who have died is required
to induce the universal conclusion that all men in fact die. Universal
inference thus requires particular and universal conceptions as its
condition; but, so far as it arises from sense, memory, experience,
and involves generalization, it consists of judgments which do not
consist of conceptions, but are beliefs in things existing beyond
conception. Inference then, so far as it starts from categorical and
existential premises, causes conclusions, or inferential judgments,
which require conceptions, but are categorical and existential judg-
ments beyond conception. Moreover, as it becomes more de-
ductive, and causes conclusions further from sensory experience,
these inferential judgments become causes of inferential conceptions.
For example, from the evidence of molar changes due to the
obvious parts of bodies, science first comes to believe in molecular
changes due to imperceptible particles, and then tries to conceive
the ideas of particles, molecules, atoms, electrons. The conceptual
logic supposes that conception always precedes judgment; but the
truth is that sensory judgment begins and inferential judgment
ends by preceding conception. The supposed triple order — con-
ception, judgment, reasoning — is defective and false. The real
order is sensation and sensory judgment, conception, memory and
memorial judgment, experience and experiential judgment, inference,
inferential judgment, inferential conception. This is not all:
inferential conceptions are inadequate, and finally fail. They are
often symbolical; that is, we conceive one thing only by another
like it, e.g. atoms by minute bodies not nearly small enough. Often
the symbol is not like. What idea can the physicist form of intra-
spatial ether ? What believer in God pretends to conceive Him as
He really is ? We believe many things that we cannot conceive ; as
Mill said, the inconceivable is not the incredible; and the point of
science is not what we can conceive but what we should believe on
evidence. Conception is the weakest, judgment the strongest power
of man's mind. Sense before conception is the original cause of
judgment; and inference from sense enables judgment to continue
after conception ceases. Finally, as there is judgment without
conception, so there is conception without judgment. We often say
" I understand, but do not decide." But this suspension of judg-
ment is a highly refined act, unfitted to the beginning of thought.
Conception begins as a condition of memory, and after a long
continuous process of inference ends in mere ideation. The con-
ceptual logic has made the mistake of making ideation a stage in
thought prior to judgment.
It was natural enough that the originators of conceptual logic,
seeing that judgments can be expressed by propositions, and con-
ceptions by terms, should fall into the error of supposing that, as
propositions consist of terms, so judgments consist of conceptions,
and that there is a triple mental order — conception, judgment,
reasoning — parallel to the triple linguistic order — term, proposition'
discourse. They overlooked the fact that man thinks long before
he speaks, makes judgments which he does not express at all, or
expresses them by interjections, names and phrases, before he uses
regular propositions, and that he does not begin by conceiving and
naming, and then proceed to believing and proposing. Feeling and
sensation, involving believing or judging. Come before conception
and language. As conceptions are not always present in judgment,
as they are only occasional conditions, and as they are unfitted to
cause beliefs or judgments, and especially judgments of existence,
and as judgments both precede conceptions in sense and continue
after them in inference, it follows that conceptions are not the
constituents of judgment, and judgment is not a combination of
conceptions. Is there then any analysis of judgment ? Paradoxical
as it may sound, the truth seems to be that primary judgment,
beginning as it does with the simplest feeling and sensation, is not
a combination of two mental elements into one, but is a division
of one sensible thing into the thing itself and its existence and the
belief that it is determined as existing, e.g. that hot exists cold
exists, the pained exists, the pleased exists. Such a judgment has
a cause, namely sense, but no mental elements. Afterwards come
judgments of complex sense, e.g. that the existing hot is burning or
becoming more or less hot, &c. Thus there is a combination of
sensations causing the judgment; but the judgment is still a division
of the sensible thing into itself and its being, and a belief that it is
so determined. Afterwards follow judgments arising from more
complex causes, e.g. memory, experience, inference. But however
complicated these mental causes, there still remain these points
common to all judgment: — (i) The mental causes of judgment are
sense, memory, experience and inference; while conception is a
condition of some judgments. (2) A judgment is not a combination
either of its causes or of its conditions, e.g. it is not a combination
of sensations any more than of ideas. (3) A judgment is a unitary
mental act, dividing not itself but its object into the object itself
and itself as determined, and signifying that it is so determined.
(4) A primary judgment is a judgment that a sensible thing is
determined as existing; but later judgments are concerned with
either existing things, or with ideas, or with words, and signify that
they are determined in all sorts of ways. (5) When a judgment is
expressed by a proposition, the proposition expresses the results of
the division by two terms, subject and predicate, and by the copula
that what is signified by the subject is what is signified by the
predicate; and the proposition is a combination of the two terms;
e.g. border war is evil. (6) A complex judgment is a combination
of two judgments, and may be copulative, e.g. you and I are men,
or hypothetical, or disjunctive, &c.
Empirical logic, the logic of Aristotle and Bacon, is on the
right way. It is the business of the logician to find the causes
of the judgments which form the premises and the conclusions
of inference, reasoning and science. What knowledge do we get
by sense, memory and experience, the first mental causes of
judgment? What is judgment, and what its various kinds?
What is inference, how does it proceed by combining judgments
as premises to cause judgments as conclusions, and what are
its various kinds? How does inference draw conclusions more
or less probable up to moral certainty? How does it by the aid
of identification convert probable into necessary conclusions,
which become necessary principles of demonstration? How is
categorical succeeded by conditional inference? What is
scientific method as a system of inferences about definite sub-
jects? How does inference become the source of error and
fallacy? How does the whole process from sense to inference
discover the real truth of judgments, which are true so far as
they signify things known by sense, memory, experience and
inference? These are the fundamental questions of the science
of inference. Conceptual logic, on the other hand, is false from
the start. It is not the first business of logic to direct us how
to form conceptions signified by terms, because sense is a prior
cause of judgment and inference. It is not the second business of
logic to direct us how out of conceptions to form judgments
signified by propositions, because the real causes of judgments
are sense, memory, experience and inference. It is, however,
the main business of logic to direct us how out of judgments to
form inferences signified by discourse; and this is the one point
which conceptual logic has contributed to the science of inference.
But why spoil the further mental analysis of inference by sup-
posing that conceptions are constituents of judgment and
therefore of inference, which thus becomes merely a complex
combination of conceptions, an extension of ideas? The mistake
has been to convert three operations of mind into three pro-
cesses in a fixed order — conception, judgment, inference. Con-
ception and judgment are decisions: inference alone is a process,
from decisions to decision, from judgments to judgment. Sense,
not conception, is the origin of judgment. Inference is the.
process which from judgments about sensible things proceeds to
judgments about things similar to sensible things. Though
some conceptions are its conditions and some judgments its
causes, inference itself in its conclusions causes many more
judgments and conceptions. Finally, inference is an extension,
not of ideas, but of beliefs, at first about existing things, after-
wards about ideas, and even about words; about anything
in short about which we think, in what is too fancifully called
" the universe of discourse."
Formal logic has arisen out of the narrowness of conceptual
logic. The science of inference no doubt has to deal primarily
with formal truth or the consistency of premises and conclusion.
But as all truth, real as well as formal, is consistent, formal rules
MODERN LOGIC]
LOGIC
885
of consistency become real rules of truth, when the premise^
are true and the consistent conclusion is therefore true. The
science of inference again rightly emphasizes the formal thinking
of the syllogism in which the combination of premises involves
the conclusion. But the combinations of premises in analogical
and inductive inference, although the combination does not
involve the conclusion, yet causes us to infer it, and in so similar
a way that the science of inference is not complete without
investigating all the combinations which characterize different
kinds of inference. The question of logic is how we infer in fact,
as well as perfectly; and we cannot understand inference unless
we consider inferences of probability of all kinds. Moreover,
the study of analogical and inductive inference is necessary to
that of the syllogism itself, because they discover the premises
of syllogism. The formal thinking of syllogism alone is merely
necessary consequence; but when its premises are necessary
principles, its conclusions are not only necessary consequents
but also necessary truths. Hence the manner in which induction
aided by identification discovers necessary principles must be
studied by the logician in order to decide when the syllogism
can really arrive at necessary conclusions. Again, the science
of inference has for its subject the form, or processes, of thought,
but not its matter or objects. But it does not follow that it can
investigate the former without the latter. Formal logicians say
that, if they had to consider the matter, they must either con-
sider all things, which would be impossible, or select some,
which would be arbitrary. But there is an intermediate alter-
native, which is neither impossible nor arbitrary; namely, to
consider the general distinctions and principles of all things;
and without this general consideration of the matter the logician
cannot know the form of thought, which consists in drawing
inferences about things on these general principles. Lastly, the
science of inference is not indeed the science of sensation,
memory and experience, but at the same time it is the science
of using those mental operations as data of inference; and, if
logic does not show how analogical and inductive inferences
directly, and deductive inferences indirectly, arise from experi-
ence, it becomes a science of mere thinking without knowledge.
Logic is related to all the sciences, because it considers the
common inferences and varying methods used in investigating
different subjects. But it is most closely related to the sciences
of metaphysics and psychology, which form with it a triad of
sciences. Metaphysics is the science of being in general, and
therefore of the things which become objects apprehended by
our minds. Psychology is the science of mind in general, and
therefore of the mental operations, of which inference is one.
Logic is the science of the processes of inference. These three
sciences, of the objects of mind, of the operations of mind,
of the processes used in the inferences of mind, are differently,
but closely related, so that they are constantly con-
fused. The real point is their interdependence, which is so
intimate that one sign of great philosophy is a consistent
metaphysics, psychology and logic. If the world of things
is known to be partly material and partly mental, then the
mind must have powers of sense and inference enabling it to
know these things, and there must be processes of inference
carrying us from and beyond the sensible to the insensible world
of matter and mind. If the whole world of things is matter,
operations and processes of mind are themselves material. If
the whole world of things is mind, operations and processes of
mind have only to recognize their like all the world over. It is
clear then that a man's metaphysics and psychology must colour
his logic. It is accordingly necessary to the logician to know
beforehand the general distinctions and principles of things in
metaphysics, and the mental operations of sense, conception,
memory and experience in psychology, so as to discover the
processes of inference from experience about things in logic.
The interdependence of this triad of sciences has sometimes
led to their confusion. Hegel, having identified being with
thought, merged metaphysics in logic. But he divided logic
into objective and subjective, and thus practically confessed
that there is one science of the objects and another of the pro-
cesses of thought. Psychologists, seeing that inference is a
mental operation, often extemporize a theory of inference to
the neglect of logic. But we have a double consciousness of
inference. We are conscious of it as one operation among
many, and of its omnipresence, so to speak, to all the rest.
But we are also conscious of the processes of the operation of
inference. To a certain extent this second consciousness
applies to other operations: for example, we are conscious of
the process of association by which various mental causes recall
ideas in the imagination. But how little does the psychologist
know about the association of ideas, compared with what the
logician has discovered about the processes of inference! The
fact is that our primary consciousness of all mental operations
is hardly equal to our secondary consciousness of the processes
of the one operation of inference from premises to conclusions
permeating long trains and pervading whole sciences. This elabor-
ate consciousness of inferential process is the justification of
logic as a distinct science, and is the first step in its method.
But it is not the whole method of logic, which also and rightly
considers the mental process necessary to language, without
substituting linguistic for mental distinctions.
Nor are consciousness and linguistic analysis all the instruments
of the logician. Logic has to consider the things we know, the
minds by which we know them from sense, memory and ex-
perience to inference, and the sciences which systematize and
extend our knowledge of things; and having considered these
facts, the logician must make such a science of inference as will
explain the power and- the poverty of human knowledge.
GENERAL TENDENCIES or MODERN LOGIC
There are several grounds for hope in the logic of our day.
In the first place, it tends to take up an intermediate position
between the extremes of Kant and Hegel. It does not, with the
former, regard logic as purely formal in the sense of abstracting
thought from being, nor does it follow the latter in amalgamating
metaphysics with logic by identifying being with thought.
Secondly, it does not content itself with the mere formulae of
thinking, but pushes forward to theories of method, knowledge
and science; and it is a hopeful sign to find this epistemological
spirit, to which England was accustomed by Mill, animating
German logicians such as Lotze, Diihring, Schuppe, Sigwart
and Wundt. Thirdly, there is a determination to reveal the
psychological basis of logical processes, and not merely to
describe them as they are in adult reasoning, but to explain
also how they arise from simpler mental operations and primarily
from sense. This attempt is connected with the psychological
turn given to recent philosophy by Wundt and others, and is
dangerous only so far as psychology itself is hypothetical.
Unfortunately, however, these merits are usually connected
with a less admirable characteristic — contempt for tradition.
Writing his preface to his second edition in 1888, Sigwart says:
" Important works have appeared by Lotze, Schuppe, Wundt
and Bradley, to name only the most eminent; and all start
from the conception which has guided this attempt. That is,
logic is grounded by them, not upon an effete tradition but upon
a new investigation of thought as it actually is in its psychological
foundations, in its significance for knowledge, and its actual
operation in scientific methods." How strangel The spirit
of every one of the three reforms above enumerated is an uncon-
scious return to Aristotle's Organon. Aristotle's was a logic
which steered, as Trendelenburg has shown, between Kantian
formalism and Hegelian metaphysics; it was a logic which in the
Analytics investigated the syllogism as a means to understanding
knowledge and science: it was a logic which, starting from
the psychological foundations of sense, memory and experience,
built up the logical structure of induction and deduction on the
profoundly Aristotelian principle that " there is no process
from universals without induction, and none by induction
without sense." Wundt's comprehensive view that logic
looks backwards to psychology and forward to epistemology
was hundreds of years ago one of the many discoveries of
Aristotle.
886
LOGIC
JUDGMENT
JUDGMENT
i. Judgment and Conception. — The emphasis now laid on
judgment, the recovery from Hume's confusion of beliefs with
ideas and the association of ideas, and the distinction of the
mental act of judging from its verbal expression in a proposition,
are all healthy signs in recent logic. The most fundamental
question, before proceeding to the investigation of inference,
is not what we say but what we think in making the judgments
which, whether we express them in propositions or not, are
both the premises and the conclusion of inference; and, as this
question has been diligently studied of late, but has been
variously answered, it will be well to give a list of the more
important theories of judgment as follows: —
a. It expresses a relation between the content of two ideas, not
a relation of these ideas (Lotze).
b. It is consciousness concerning the objective validity of a
subjective combination of ideas, i.e. whether between the corre-
sponding objective elements an analogous combination exists
(Ueberweg).
c. It is the synthesis of ideas into unity and consciousness of
their objective validity, not in the sense of agreement with external
reality but in the sense of the logical necessity of their synthesis
(Sigwart).
a. It is the analysis of an aggregate idea (Gesammtvorstellung)
into subject and predicate; based on a previous association of
ideas, on relating and comparing, and on the apperceptive synthesis
of an aggregate idea in consequence; but itself consisting in an
apperceptive analysis of that aggregate idea; and requiring will
in the form of apperception or attention (Wundt).
e. It requires an idea, because every object is conceived as well
as recognized or denied; but it is itself an assertion of actual fact,
every perception counts for a judgment, and every categorical is
changeable into an existential judgment without change of sense
(Brentano, who derives his theory from Mill except that he denies
the necessity of a combination of ideas, and reduces a categorical
to an existential judgment).
/. It is a decision of the validity of an idea requiring will (Berg-
mann, following Brentano).
g. Judgment (Urtheil) expresses that two ideas belong together:
" by-judgment " (Beurtheilung) is the reaction of will expressing
the validity or invalidity of the combination of ideas (Windelband,
following Bergmann, but distinguishing the decision of validity
from the judgment).
h. Judgment is consciousness of the identity or difference and
of the causal relations of the given; naming the actual combinations
of the data, but also requiring a priori categories of the understanding,
the notions of identity, difference and causality, as principles of
thought or laws, to combine the plurality of the given into a unity
(Schuppe).
i. Judgment is the act which refers an ideal content recognized
as such to a reality beyond the act, predicating an idea of a reality,
a what of a that; so that the subject is reality and the predicate
the meaning of an idea, while the judgment refers the idea to reality
by an identity of content (Bradley and Bosanquet).
k. Judgment is an assertion of reality, requiring comparison and
ideas which render it directly expressible in words (Hobhouse,
mainly following Bradley).
These theories are of varying value in proportion to their
proximity to Aristotle's point that predication is about things,
and to Mill's point that judgments and propositions are about
things, not about ideas. The essence of judgment is belief
that something is (or is not) determined, either as existing
(e.g. " I am," " A centaur is not ") or as something in particular
(e.g. " I am a man," "I am not a monkey"). Neither Mill,
however, nor any of the later logicians whose theories we have
quoted, has been able quite to detach judgment from conception;
they all suppose that an idea, or ideas, is a condition of all
judgment. But judgment starts from sensation (Empfindung)
and feeling (Gefii/il), and not from idea (Vorstellung). When
I feel pleased or pained, or when I use my senses to perceive a
pressure, a temperature, a flavour, an odour, a colour, a sound,
or when I am conscious of feeling and perceiving, I cannot
resist the belief that something sensible is present; and this
belief that something exists is already a judgment, a judgment
of existence, and, so far as it is limited to sense without inference,
a true judgment. It is a matter of words whether or not we
should call this sensory belief a judgment; but it is no matter
of choice to the logician, who regards all the constituents of
inference as judgments; for the fundamental constituents
^re sensory beliefs, which are therefore judgments in the logical
sense. Sense is the evidence of inference; directly of analogical
and inductive, directly or indirectly of deductive, inference;
and therefore, if logic refuses to include sensory beliefs among
judgments, it will omit the fundamental constituents of inference,
inference will no longer consist of judgments but of sensory
beliefs plus judgments, and the second part of logic, the logic
of judgment, the purpose of which is to investigate the con-
stituents of inference, will be like Hamlet without the prince
of Denmark. If, on the other hand, all the constituents of
inference are judgments, there are judgments of sense; and
the evidence of the senses means that a judgment of sense is
true, while a judgment of inference is true so far as it is directly
or indirectly concluded from judgments of sense. Now a sensory
judgment, e.g. that a sensible pressure is existing, is explained
by none of the foregoing theories, because it requires nothing
but sensation and belief. It requires no will, but is usually
involuntary, for the stimulus forces one's attention, which is
not always voluntary; not all judgment then requires will, as
Wundt supposes. It requires no reference to reality beyond
the sensible pressure, because it is merely a belief that this
exists without inference of the external stimulus or any inference
at all: not all judgment then requires the reference of subjective
to objective supposed by Ueberweg, or the consciousness of
logical necessity supposed by Sigwart. It requires in addition
to the belief that something exists, no consideration as to whether
the belief itself be true, because a man who feels pressure believes
in the thing without further question about the belief: not all
judgment then requires a decision of validity, as Bergmann
supposes. It requires nothing beyond the sensation and belief
in the given existence of the given pressure: not all judgment
then requires categories of understanding, or notions of identity,
difference and causality, or even of existence, such as Schuppe
supposes. It requires no comparison in order to express it in
words, for a judgment need not be expressed, and a sensory
judgment of pressure is an irresistible belief that a real pressure
exists, without waiting for words, or for a comparison which
is wanted not to make a sensation a judgment, but to turn a
judgment into language: not all judgment then requires com-
parison with a view to its expression, as supposed by Hobhouse.
Lastly, all the authors of the above-quoted theories err in
supposing that all judgment requires conception; for even
Mill thinks a combination of ideas necessary, and Brentano,
who comes still nearer to the nature of sensory judgment when
he says, " Every perception counts for a judgment," yet thinks
that an idea is necessary at the same time in order to understand
the thing judged. In reality, the sensation and the belief are
sufficient; when I feel a sensible pressure, I cannot help believing
in its reality, and therefore judging that it is real, without any
lertium quid — an idea of pressure, or of existence or of pressure
existing — intervening between the sensation and the belief.
Only after sensation has ceased does an idea, or representation
of what is not presented, become necessary as a substitute for
a sensation and as a condition not of the first judgment that there
is, but of a second judgment that there was, something sensible.
Otherwise there would be no judgment of sensible fact, for the
first sensation would not give it, and the idea following the
sensation would be still farther off. The sensory judgment
then, which is nothing but a belief that at the moment of sense
something sensible exists, is a proof that not all judgment
requires conception, or synthesis or analysis of ideas, or decision
about the content, or about the validity, of ideas, or reference
of an ideal content to reality, as commonly, though variously,
supposed in the logic of our day.
Not, however, that all judgment is sensory: after the first
judgments of sense follow judgments of memory, and memory
requires ideas. Yet memory is not mere conception, as Aristotle,
and Mill after him, have perceived. To remember, we must
have a present idea; but we must also have a belief that the
thing, of which the idea is a representation, was (or was not)
determined; and this belief is the memorial judgment. Origin-
ally such judgments arise from sensory judgments followed by
JUDGMENT]
LOGIC
887
ideas, and are judgments of memory after sense that something
sensible existed, e.g. pressure existed: afterwards come judg-
ments of memory after inference, e.g. Caesar was murdered.
Finally, most judgments are inferential. These are conclusions
which primarily are inferred from sensory and memorial judg-
ments; and so far as inference starts from sense of something
sensible in the present, and from memory after sense of something
sensible in the past, and concludes similar things, inferential
judgments are indirect beliefs in being and in existence beyond
ideas. When from the sensible pressures between the parts
of my mouth, which I feel and remember and judge that they
exist and have existed, I infer another similar pressure (e.g. of
the food which presses and is pressed by my mouth in eating),
the inferential judgment with which I conclude is a belief that
the latter exists as well as the former (e.g. the pressure of food
without as well as the sensible pressures within). Inference,
no doubt, is closely involved with conception. So far as it
depends on memory, an inferential judgment presupposes
memorial ideas in its data; and so far as it infers universal
classes and laws, it produces general ideas. But even so the
part played by conception is quite subordinate to that of belief.
In the first place, the remembered datum, from which an infer-
ence of pressure starts, is not the conceived idea, but the belief
that the sensible pressure existed. Secondly, the conclusion
in which it ends is not the general idea of a class, but the belief
that a class, represented by a general idea, exists, and is (or is
not) otherwise determined (e.g. that things pressing and pressed
exist and move). Two things are certain about inferential
judgment: one, that when inference is based on sense and
memory, inferential judgment starts from a combination of
sensory and memorial judgment, both of which are beliefs that
things exist; the other, that in consequence inferential judgment
is a belief that smiliar things exist. There are thus three primary
judgments: judgments of sense, of memory after sense, and of
inference from sense. All these are beliefs in being and existence,
and this existential belief is first in sense, and afterwards trans-
ferred to memory and inference. Moreover, it is transferred in
the same irresistible way : frequently we cannot help either
feeling pressure, or remembering it, or inferring it; and as there
are involuntary sensation and attention, so there are involuntary
memory and inference. Again, in a primary judgment existence
need not be expressed; but if expressed, it may be expressed
either by the predicate, e.g. " I exist," or by the subject, e.g.
" I who exist think." There are indeed differences between
primary judgments, in that the sensory is a belief in present,
the memorial in past, and the inferential in present, past and
future existence. But these differences in detail do not alter
the main point that all these are beliefs in the existing, in the
real as opposed to the ideal, in actual things which are not ideas.
In short, a primary judgment is a- belief in something existing
apart from our idea of it; and not because we have an idea of it,
or by comparing an idea with, or referring an idea to, reality;
but because we have a sensation of it, or a memory of it or an
inference of it. Sensation, not conception, is the origin of
judgment.
2. Different Significations of Being in different Kinds of
Judgment. — As Aristotle remarked both in the De Interpretation
and in the Sophislici Elenchi, " not-being is thinkable " does
not mean " not-being exists." In the latter treatise he added
that it is a fallacia a dicto secundum quid ad dictum simpliciter
to argue from the former to the latter; " for," as he says,
" it is not the same thing to be something and to exist absolutely."
Without realizing their debt to tradition, Herbart, Mill and
recently Sigwart, have repeated Aristotle's separation of the
copula from the verb of existence, as if it were a modern discovery
that " is " is not the same as " exists." It may be added that
they do not quite realize what the copula exactly signifies:
it does not signify existence, but it does signify a fact, namely,
that something is (or is not) determined, either absolutely in a
categorical judgment, or conditionally in a conditional judgment.
Now we have seen that all primary judgments signify more
than this fact; they are also beliefs in the existence of the thing
signified by the subject. But, in the first place, primary judg-
ments signify this existence never by the copula, but sometimes
by the predicate, and sometimes by the subject; and, secondly,
it does not follow that all judgments whatever signify existence.
Besides inference of existence there is inference of non-existence,
of things inconsistent with the objects of primary judgments.
Hence secondary judgments, which no longer contain a belief
that the thing exists, e.g. the judgment, " not-being is thinkable,"
cited by Aristotle; the judgment, " A square circle is impossible,"
cited by Herbart; the judgment, " A centaur is a fiction of the
poets," cited by Mill. These secondary judgments of non-
existence are partly like and partly unlike primary judgments
of existence. They resemble them in that they are beliefs in
being signified by the copula. They are beliefs in things of a sort ;
for, after all, ideas and names are things; their objects, even
though non-existent, are at all events things conceivable or
nameable; and therefore we are able to make judgments that
things, non-existent but conceivable or nameable, are (or are not)
determined in a particular manner. Thus the judgment about
a centaur is the belief, " A conceivable centaur is a fiction of the
poets," and the judgment about a square circle is the belief,
" A so-called square circle is an impossibility." But, though
beliefs that things of some sort are (or are not) determined,
these secondary judgments fall short of primary judgments of
existence. Whereas in a primary judgment there is a further
belief, signified by subject or predicate, that the thing is an
existing thing in the sense of being a real thing (e.g. a man),
different from the idea of it as well as from the name for it;
in a secondary judgment there is no further belief that the thing
has any existence beyond the idea (e.g. a centaur), or even
beyond the name (e.g. a square circle) : though the idea or name
exists, there is no belief that anything represented by idea or
name exists. Starting, then, from this fundamental distinction
between judgments of existence and judgments of non-existence,
we may hope to steer our way between two extreme views
which emanate from two important thinkers, each of whom has
produced a flourishing school of psychological logic.
On the one hand, early in the igth century Herbart started
the view that a categorical judgment is never a judgment of
existence, but always hypothetical; on the other hand, in the
latter part of the century Brentano started the view that all
categorical judgments are existential. The truth lies between
these contraries. The view of Herbart and his school is con-
tradicted by our primary judgments of and from sense, in which
we cannot help believing existence; and it gives an inadequate
account even of our secondary judgments in which we no longer
indeed believe existence, but do frequently believe that a non-
existent thing is (or is not) somehow determined unconditionally.
It is true, as Herbart says, that the judgment, " A square circle
is an impossibility," does not contain the belief, " A square
circle is existent " ; but when he goes on to argue that it means,
" If a square circle is thought, the conception of impossibility
must be added in thought," he falls into a non-sequitur. To be
categorical, a judgment does not require a belief in existence,
but only that something, existent or not, is (or is not) determined;
and there are two quite different attitudes of mind even to a
non-existent thing, such as a square circle, namely, unconditional
and conditional belief. The judgment, " A non-existent but
so-called square circle is an impossibility," is an unconditional,
or categorical judgment of non-existence, quite different from
any hypothetical judgment, which depends on the conditions
" if it is thought," or " if it exists," or any other " if." On the
other hand, the view of Brentano and his school is contradicted
by these very categorical judgments of non-existence; and while
it applies only to categorical judgments of existence, it does
so inadequately. To begin with the latter objection, Brentano
proposed to change the four Aristotelian forms of judgment,
A, E, I, O, into the following existential forms: —
A. "There is not an immortal man."
E. "There is not a live stone."
I. "There is a sick man."
O. "There is an unlearned man."
888
LOGIC
[JUDGMENT
This reconstruction, which merges subject and predicate in one
expression, in order to combine it with the verb of existence,
is repeated in similar proposals of recent English logicians.
Venn, in his Symbolic Logic, proposes the four forms, xy = o,
xy=o, xy>o, xy>o (where y means " not-y "), but only as
alternative to the ordinary forms. Bradley says that " ' S-P
is real' attributes S-P, directly or indirectly, to the ultimate
reality," and agrees with Brentano that " ' is ' never stands for
anything but ' exists ' "; while Bosanquet, who follows Bradley,
goes so far as to define a categorical judgment as " that which
affirms the existence of its subject, or, in other words, asserts
a fact." Now it is true that our primary judgments do contain
a belief in existence; but they do not all contain it in the same
way, but are beliefs sometimes that something is determined as
existing, and sometimes that something existing is particularly
determined. Brentano's forms do not express such a judgment
of existence, as " All existing men are mortal ": nor does
Bradley's form, " Reality includes S-P." Metaphysically, all
realities are parts of one ultimate reality; but logically, even
philosophers think more often only of finite realities, existing
men, dogs, horses, &c.; and children know that their parents
exist long before they apprehend ultimate reality. The normal
form, then, of a judgment of existence is either " S is a real P,"
or " A real S is P." Hence the reconstruction of all categorical
judgments by merging subject and predicate, either on Brentano's
or on Bradley's plan, is a misrepresentation even of normal
categorical judgments of existence. Secondly, it is much more
a misrepresentation of categorical judgments of non-existence.
No existential form suits a judgment such as " A centaur is a
fiction," when we do not believe that there is a centaur, or that
reality includes a centaur. As Mill pointed out, it cannot be
implied that a centaur exists, since the very thing asserted is
that the thing has no real existence. In a correspondence with
Mill, Brentano rejoined that the centaur exists in imagination;
Bradley says, " inside our heads." According to one, then,
the judgment becomes "There is an imaginary centaur";
according to the other " Reality includes an imaginary centaur."
The rejoinder, however, though partly true, is not to the point.
The idea of the centaur does exist in our imagination, and inside
our heads, and the name of it in our mouths. But the point is
that the centaur conceived and named does not exist beyond the
idea of it and the name for it; it is not, like a man, a real thing
which is neither the idea of it nor the name for it. No amount of
subtlety will remove the difference between a categorical judg-
ment of existence, e.g. " An existing man is mortal," and a
categorical judgment of non-existence, e.g. " A conceivable
centaur is a fiction," because in the former we believe and mean
that the thing exists beyond the idea, and in the latter we do
not. If, contrary to usage, we choose to call the latter a judg-
ment of existence, there is no use in quarrelling about words;
but we must insist that new terms must in that case be invented
to express so fundamental a difference as that between judg-
ments about real men and judgments about ideal centaurs.
So long, however, as we use words in the natural sense, and call
the former judgments of existence, and the latter judgments of
non-existence, then " is " will not be, as Bradley supposes, the
same as " exists," for we use " is " in both judgments, but
" exists " only in the first kind. Bosanquet's definition of a
categorical judgment contains a similar confusion. To assert
a fact and to affirm the existence of a subject are not, as he
makes out, the same thing: a judgment often asserts a fact and
denies existence in the same breath, e.g. " Jupiter is non-
existent." Here, as usual in logic, tradition is better than innova-
tion. All categorical judgment is an unconditional belief in the
fact, signified by the copula, that a thing of some sort is (or is
not) determined; but some categorical judgments are also
beliefs that the thing is an existing thing, signified either by the
subject or by the predicate, while others are not beliefs that the
thing exists at all, but are only beliefs in something conceivable,
or nameable, or in something or other, without particularizing
what. Judgment then always signifies being, but not always
existence.
3. Particular and Universal Judgments. — Aristotle, by dis-
tinguishing affirmative and negative, particular and universal,
made the fourfold classification of judgments, A, E, I and O,
the foundation both of opposition and of inference. With regard
to inference, he remarked that a universal judgment means by
" all," not every individual we know, but every individual
absolutely, so that, when it becomes a major premise, we know
therein every individual universally, not individually, and often
do not know a given individual individually until we add a
minor premise in a syllogism. Whereas, then, a particular
judgment is a belief that some, a universal judgment is a belief
that all, the individuals of a kind or total of similar individuals,
are similarly determined, whether they are known or unknown
individuals. Now, as we have already seen, what is signified by
the subject may be existing or not, and in either case a judgment
remains categorical so long as it is a belief without conditions.
Thus, "Some existing men are poets," "All existing men are
mortal," " Some conceivable centaurs are human in their fore-
quarters," " All conceivable centaurs are equine in their hind-
quarters," are all categorical judgments, while the two first
are also categorical judgments of existence. Nevertheless these
obvious applications of Aristotelian traditions have been recently
challenged, especially by Sigwart, who holds in his Logic (sees.
27, 36) that, while a particular is a categorical judgment of
existence, a universal is hypothetical, on the ground that it
does not refer to a definite number of individuals, or to in-
dividuals at all, but rather to general ideas, and that the appro-
priate form of " all M is P " is " if anything is M it is P." This
view, which has influenced not only German but also English
logicians, such as Venn, Bradley and Bosanquet, destroys the
fabric of inference, and reduces scientific laws to mere hypotheses.
In reality, however, particular and universal judgments are too
closely connected to have such different imports. In opposition,
a categorical particular is the contradictory of a universal,
which is also categorical, not hypothetical, e.g., "not all M is P"
is the contradictory of " all M is P," not of " if anything is M it is
P." In inference, a particular is an example of a universal which
in its turn may become a particular example of a higher universal.
For instance, in the history of mechanics it was first inferred
from some that all terrestrial bodies gravitate, and then from
these as some that all ponderable bodies, terrestrial and celestial,
gravitate. How absurd to suppose that here we pass from a
particular categorical to a universal hypothetical, and then treat
this very conclusion as a particular categorical to pass to a higher
universal hypothetical ! Sigwart, indeed, is deceived both about
particulars and universals. On the one hand, some particulars
are not judgments of existence, e.g. " some imaginary deities
are goddesses "; on the other hand, some universals are not
judgments of non-existence, e.g. " every existing man is mortal."
Neither kind is always a judgment of existence, but each is some-
times the one and sometimes the other. In no case is a universal
hypothetical, unless we think it under a condition; for in a
universal judgment about the non-existing, e.g. about all con-
ceivable centaurs, we do not think, " If anything is a centaur,"
because we do not believe that there are any; and in a universal
judgment about the existent, e.g. about all existing men, we do
not think, " If anything is a man," because we believe that there
is a whole class of men existing at different times and places.
The cause of Sigwart's error is his misconception of " all." So
far as he follows Aristotle in saying that " all " does not mean
a definite number of individuals he is right; but when he says
that we mean no individuals at all he deserts Aristotle and goes
wrong. By " all " we mean every individual whatever of a kind;
and when from the experience of sense and memory we start
with particular judgments of existence, and infer universal
judgments of existence and scientific laws, we further mean those
existing individuals which we have experienced, and every
individual whatever of the kind which exists. We mean neither
a definite number of individuals, nor yet an infinite number, but
an incalculable number, whether experienced or inferred to
exist. We do not mean existing here and now, nor yet out of
time and place, but at any time and place (semper et ubique) —
JUDGMENT]
LOGIC
past, present and future being treated as simply existing, by
what logicians used to call suppositio naturalis. We mean then
by " all existing " every similar individual whatever, whenever,
and wherever existing. Hence Sigwart is right in saying that
" All bodies are extended " means " Whatever is a body is
extended," but wrong in identifying this form with " If anything
is a body it is extended." " Whatever " is not " if anything."
For the same reason it is erroneous to confuse "all existing"
with a general idea. Nor does the use of abstract ideas and
terms make any difference. When Bosanquet says that in
" Heat is a mode of motion " there is no reference to individual
objects, but " a pure hypothetical form which absolutely
neglects the existence of objects," he falls far short of expressing
the nature of this scientific judgment, for in his Theory of Heat
Clerk Maxwell describes it as " believing heat as it exists in a
hot body to be in the form of kinetic energy." As Bacon would
say, it is a belief that all individual bodies qua hot are individually
but similarly moving in their particles. When, again, Bradley
and Bosanquet speak of the universal as if it always meant one
ideal content referred to reality, they forget that in universal
judgments of existence, such as "All men existing are mortal,"
we believe that every individually existing man dies his own
death individually, though similarly to other men; and that we
are thinking neither of ideas nor of reality; but of all existent
individual men being individually but similarly determined. A
universal is indeed one whole; but it is one whole of many
similars, which are not the same with one another. This is
indeed the very essence of distribution, that a universal is
predicable, not singly or collectively, but severally and similarly of
each and every individual of a kind, or total of similar individuals.
So also the essence of a universal judgment is that every in-
dividual of the kind is severally but similarly determined.
Finally, a universal judgment is often existential; but whether
it is so or not it remains categorical, so long as it introduces no
hypothetical antecedent about the existence of the thing signified
by the subject. It is true that even in universal judgments of
existence there is often a hypothetical element; for example,
" All men are mortal " contains a doubt whether every man
whatever, whenever and wherever existing, must die. But this
is only a doubt whether all the things signified by the subject are
similarly determined as signified by the predicate, and not a
doubt whether there are such things at all. Hence the hypo-
thetical element is not a hypothetical antecedent " If anything
is a man," but an uncertain conclusion that " All existing men
are mortal." In other words, a categorical universal is often
problematic, but a problematic is not the same as a hypothetical
judgment.
4. The Judgment and the Proposition. — Judgment in general
is the mental act of believing that something is (or is not) deter-
mined. A proposition is the consequent verbal expression of
such a belief, and consists in asserting that the thing as signified
by the subject is (or is not) determined as signified by the predi-
cate. But the expression is not necessary. Sensation irre-
sistibly produces a judgment of existence without needing
language. Children think long before they speak; and indeed,
as mere vocal sounds are not speech, and as the apprehension that
a word signifies a thing is a judgment, judgment is originally not
an effect, but a cause of significant language. At any rate, even
when we have learnt to speak, we do not express all we think, as
we may see not only from the fewness of words known to a child,
but also from our own adult consciousness. The principle of
thought is to judge enough to conclude. The principle of
language is to speak only so far as to understand and be under-
stood. Hence speech is only a curtailed expression of thought.
Sometimes we express a whole judgment by one word, e.g.
" Fire! " or by a phrase, e.g. " What a fire! " and only usually
by a proposition. But even the normal proposition in the syllo-
gistic form tertii adjacentis, with subject, predicate and copula,
is seldom a complete expression of the judgment. The consequence
is that the proposition, being different from a judgment arising
after a judgment, and remaining an imperfect copy of judgment,
is only a superficial evidence of its real nature. Fortunately,
we have more profound evidences, and at least three evidences in
all: the linguistic expression of belief in the proposition; the
consciousness of what we mentally believe; and the analysis of
reasoning, which shows what we must believe, and have believed,
as data for inference. In these ways we find that a judgment
is both different from, and more than, a proposition. But recent
logicians, although they perceive the difference, nevertheless tend
to make the proposition the) measure of the judgment. This
makes them omit sensory judgments, and count only those
which require ideas, and even general ideas expressed in general
terms. Sigwart, for example, gives as instances of our most
elementary judgments, " This is Socrates," " This is snow "-
beliefs in things existing beyond ourselves which require consider-
able inferences from many previous judgments of sense and
memory. Worse still, logicians seem unable to keep the judgment
apart from the proposition. Herbart says that the judgment
" A is B " does not contain the usually added thought that A is,
because there is no statement of A's existence; as if the state-
ment mattered to the thought. So Sigwart, in order to reduce
universals to hypotheticals, while admitting that existence is
usually thought, argues that it is not stated in the universal
judgment; so also Bosanquet. But in the judgment the point
is not what we state, but what we think; and so long as the
existence of A is added in thought, the judgment in question
must contain the thought that A exists as well as that A is B,
and therefore is a judgment that something is determined both
as existing and in a particular manner. The statement only
affects the proposition; and whenever we believe the existence
of the thing, the belief in existence is part of the judgment
thought, whether it is part of the proposition stated or not.
Here Sir William Hamilton did a real service to logic in pointing
out that " Logic postulates to be allowed to state explicitly in
language all that is implicitly contained in the thought." Not that
men should or can carry this logical postulate out in ordinary life;
but it is necessary in the logical analysis of judgments, and yet
logicians neglect it. This is why they confuse the categorical and
the universal with the hypothetical. Taking the carelessly ex-
pressed propositions of ordinary life, they do not perceive that
similar judgments are often differently expressed, e.g. " I, being a
man, am mortal," and " If I am a man, I am mortal "; and con-
versely, that different judgments are often similarly expressed.
In ordinary life we may say, " All men are mortal," " All centaurs
are figments," " All square circles are impossibilities," " All candi-
dates arriving five minutes late are fined " (the last proposition
being an example of the identification of categorical with hypothe-
tical in Keynes's Formal Logic). But of these universal propositions
the first imperfectly expresses a categorical belief in existing things,
the second in thinkable things, and the third in nameable things,
while the fourth is a slipshod categorical expression of the hypo-
thetical belief, " If any candidates arrive late they are fined." The
four judgments are different, and therefore logically the propositions
fully expressing them are also different. The judgment, then, is
the measure of the proposition, not the proposition the measure of
the judgment. On the other hand, we may go too far in the opposite
direction, as Hamilton did in proposing the universal quantification
of the predicate. If the quantity of the predicate were always
thought, it ought logically to be always stated. But we only some-
times think it. Usually we leave the predicate indefinite, because,
as long as the thing in question is (or is not) determined, it does
not matter about other things, and it is vain for us to try to think
all things at once. It is remarkable that in Barbara, and therefore
in many scientific deductions, to think the quantity of the predicate
is not to the point either in the premises or in the conclusion; so
that to quantify the propositions, as Hamilton proposes, would
be to express more than a rational man thinks and judges. In
judgments, and therefore in propositions, indefinite predicates
are the rule, quantified predicates the exception. Consequently,
A E I O are the normal propositions with indefinite predicates;
whereas propositions with quantified predicates are only occasional
forms, which we should use whenever we require to think the
quantity of the predicate, e.g. (i) in conversion, when we must think
that all men are some animals, in order to judge that some animals
are men; (2) in syllogisms of the 3rd figure, when the predicate
of the minor premise must be particularly quantified in thought
in order to become the particularly quantified subject of the con-
clusion; (3) in identical propositions including definitions, where
we must think both that I + I are 2 and 2 are I + I. But the
normal judgment, and therefore the normal proposition, do not
require the quantity of the predicate. It follows also that the
normal judgment is not an equation. The symbol of equality ( = )
is not the same as the copula (is); it means " is equal to," where
" equal to " is part of the predicate, leaving " is " as the copula.
890
LOGIC
[INFERENCE
Now, in all judgment we think " is," but in few judgments predicate
"equal to." In quantitative judgments we may think x = y, or,
as Boole proposes, x=vy = -y, or, as Jevons proposes, x=xy, or, as
Venn proposes, x which is not y=o; and equational symbolic logic
is useful whenever we think in this quantitative way. But it is a
byway of thought. In most judgments all we believe is that x is
(or is not) y, that a thing is (or is not) determined, and that the
thing signified by the subject is a thing signified by the predicate,
but not that it is the only thing, or equal to everything signified
by the predicate. The symbolic logic, which confuses is " with
" is equal to," having introduced a particular kind of predicate
into the copula, falls into the mistake of reducing all predication
to the one category of the quantitative; whereas it is more often
in the substantial, e.g. " I am a man," not " I am equal to a man,"
or in the qualitative, e.g. " I am white," not " I am equal to white,"
or in the relative, e.g. " I am born in sin," not " I am equal to born
in sin." Predication, as Aristotle saw, is as various as the categories
of being. Finally, the great difficulty of the logic of judgment is
to find the mental act behind the linguistic expression, to ascribe
to it exactly what is thought, neither more nor less, and to apply
the judgment thought to the logical proposition, without expecting
to find it in ordinary propositions. Beneath Hamilton's postulate
there is a deeper principle of logic — A rational being thinks only to
the point, and speaks only to understand and be understood.
INFERENCE
The nature and analysis of inference have been so fully treated
in the Introduction that here we may content ourselves with
some points of detail.
i. False Views of Syllogism arising from False Views of Judg-
ment.— The false views of judgment, which we have been examin-
ing, have led to false views of inference. On the one hand,
having reduced categorical judgments to an existential form,
Brentano proposes to reform the syllogism, with the results that
it must contain four terms, of which two are opposed and two
appear twice; that, when it is negative, both premises are nega-
tive; and that, when it is affirmative, one premise, at least, is
negative. In order to infer the universal affirmative that every
professor is mortal because he is a man, Brentano's existential
syllogism would run as follows: —
There is not a not-mortal man.
There is not a not-human professor.
. ' .There is not a not-mortal professor.
On the other hand, if on the plan of Sigwart categorical universals
were reducible to hypotheticals, the same inference would be a
pure hypothetical syllogism, thus: —
If anything is a man it is mortal.
If anything is a professor it is a man.
. ' . If anything is a professor it is mortal.
But both these unnatural forms, which are certainly not analyses
of any conscious process of categorical reasoning, break down at
once, because they cannot explain those moods in the third figure,
e.g. Darapti, which reason from universal premises to a particular
conclusion. Thus, in order to infer that some wise men are good
from the example of professors, Brentano's syllogism would be
the following non-sequitur: —
There is not a not-good professor.
There is not a not-wise professor.
There is a wise good (non-sequitur).
So Sigwart 's syllogism would b^e the following non-sequitur: —
If anything is a professor, it is good.
If anything is a professor, it is wise.
Something wise is good (non-sequitur).
But as by the admission of both logicians these reconstructions of
Darapti are illogical, it follows that their respective reductions of
categorical universals to existentials and hypotheticals are false,
because they do not explain an actual inference. Sigwart does
not indeed shrink from this and greater absurdities; he reduces
the first figure to the modus ponens and the second to the modus
tollens of the hypothetical syllogism, and then, finding no place for
the third figure, denies that it can infer necessity; whereas it
really infers the necessary consequence of particular conclusions.
But the crowning absurdity is that, if all universals were hypo-
thetical, Barbara in the first figure would become a purely
hypothetical syllogism — a consequence which seems innocent
enough until we remember that all universal affirmative conclu-
sions in all sciences would with their premises dissolve into mere
hypothesis. No logic can be sound which leads to the following
analysis: —
If anything is a body it is extended.
If anything is a planet it is a body.
. ' . If anything is a planet it is extended.
Sigwart, indeed, has missed the essential difference between the
categorical and the hypothetical construction of syllogisms. In a
categorical syllogism of the first figure, the major premise,
" Every M whatever is P," is a universal, which we believe on
account of previous evidence without any condition about the
thing signified by the subject M, which we simply believe some-
times to be existent (e.g. " Every man existent "), and sometimes
not (e.g., "Every centaur conceivable"); and the minor
premise, " S is M," establishes no part of the major, but adds the
evidence of a particular not thought of in the major at all But
in a hypothetical syllogism of the ordinary mixed type, the first
or hypothetical premise is a conditional belief, e.g. " If any-
thing is M it is P," containing a hypothetical antecedent, " If
anything is M," which is sometimes a hypothesis of exist-
ence (e.g. " If anything is an angel "), and sometimes a hypo-
thesis of fact (e.g. " If an existing man is wise ") ; and
the second premise or assumption, " Something is M," estab-
lishes part of the first, namely, the hypothetical antecedent,
whether as regards existence (e.g. " Something is an angel "),
or as regards fact (e.g. " This existing man is wise ").
These very different relations of premises are obliterated by
Sigwart's false reduction of categorical universals to hypo-
theticals. But even Sigwart's errors are outdone by Lotze, who
not only reduces " Every M is P " so " If S is M, S is P," but
proceeds to reduce this hypothetical to the disjunctive, " If S is
M, S is P1 or P2 or P3," and finds fault with the Aristotelian syllo-
gism because it contents itself with inferring " S is P " without
showing what P. Now there are occasions when we want to
reason in this disjunctive manner, to consider whether S is P1 or
P2 or P3, and to conclude that " S is a particular P "; but ordin-
arily all we want to know is that " S is P "; e.g. in arithmetic,
that 2 + 2 are 4, not any particular 4, and in life that all our con-
temporaries must die, without enumerating all their particular
sorts of deaths. Lotze's mistake is the same as that of Hamilton
about the quantification of the predicate, and that of those
symbolists who held that reasoning ought always to exhaust
all alternatives by equations. It is the mistake of exaggerating
exceptional into normal forms of thought, and ignoring the
principle that a rational being thinks only to the point.
2. Quasi-syllogisms. — Besides reconstructions of the syllogistic
fabric, we find in recent logic attempts to extend the figures of
the syllogism beyond the syllogistic rules. An old error that we
may have a valid syllogism from merely negative premises (ex
omnibus negalivis), long ago answered by Alexander and Boethius,
is now revived by Lotze, Jevons and Bradley, who do not per-
ceive that the supposed second negative is really an affirmative
containing a " not " which can only be carried through the
syllogism by separating it from the copula and attaching it to
one of the extremes, thus: —
The just are not unhappy (negative).
The just are not-recognized (affirmative).
. ' .Some not-recognized are not unhappy (negative).
Here the minor being the infinite term " not-recognized " in the
conclusion, must be the same term also in the minor premise.
Schuppe, however, who is a fertile creator of quasi-syllogisms,
has managed to invent some examples from two negative
premises of a different kind: —
(i)
No M is P.
S is not M.
. ' . Neither S nor M
is P.
(2)
No M is P.
S is not M.
. ' . S may be P.
(3)
No P is M.
S is not M.
.S may be P.
But (i) concludes with a mere repetition, (2) and (3) with a
contingent " may be," which, as Aristotle says, also " may not
be," and therefore nihil certo colligitur. The same answer
INFERENCE]
LOGIC
891
applies to Schuppe's supposed syllogisms from two particula
premises : —
(.2)
Some M is P.
Some M is S.
.'. Some S may be P.
Some M is P.
Some S is M.
.'.Some S may be P.
The only difference between these and the previous example
(2) and (3) is that, while those break the rule against two negativ
premises, these break that against undistributed middle. Equall)
fallacious are two other attempts of Schuppe to produce syllo
gisms from invalid moods: —
(i) ist Fig. (2) 2nd Fig.
All M is P. P is M.
No S is M. S is M.
.'. S may be P. .'. S is partially identical with P
In the first the fallacy is the indifferent contingency of the con
elusion caused by the non-sequitur from a negative premise to
an affirmative conclusion; while the second is either a mere
repetition of the premises if the conclusion means "S is like
P in being M," or, if it means " S is P," a non-sequitur on
account of the undistributed middle. It must not be though
that this trifling with logical rules has no effect. The last
supposed syllogism, namely, that having two affirmative
premises and entailing an undistributed middle in the seconc
figure, is accepted by Wundt under the title "Inference by
Comparison" (Vergleichungsschluss), and is supposed by him to
be useful for abstraction and subsidiary to induction, and by
Bosanquet to be useful for analogy. Wundt, for example
proposes the following premises: —
Gold is a shining, fusible, ductile, simple body.
Metals are shining, fusible, ductile, simple bodies.
But to say from these premises, " God and metal are similar in
what is signified by the middle term," is a mere repetition of the
premises; to say, further, that "Gold may be a metal" is
non-sequitur, because, the middle being undistributed, the logical
conclusion is the contingent "Gold may or may not be a metal,"
which leaves the question quite open, and therefore there is no
syllogism. Wundt, who is again followed by Bosanquet, also
supposes another syllogism in the third figure, under the title of
"Inference by Connexion" (Verbindungsschluss), to be useful
for induction. He proposes, for example, the following pre-
mises:—
Gold, silver, copper, lead, are fusible.
Gold, silver, copper, lead, are metals.
Here there is no syllogistic fallacy in the premises; but the
question is what syllogistic conclusion can be drawn, and there
is only one which follows without an illicit process of the minor,
namely, " Some metals are fusible." The moment we stir a step
further with Wundt in the direction of a more general conclusion
(ein allgemeinerer Satz), we cannot infer from the premises the
conclusion desired by Wundt, "Metals and fusible are con-
nected "; nor can we infer "All metals are fusible," nor
"Metals are fusible," nor "Metals may be fusible," nor "All
metals may be fusible," nor any assertory conclusion, determinate
or indeterminate, but the indifferent contingent, "All metals
may or may not be fusible," which leaves the question un-
decided, so that there is no syllogism. We do not mean that in
Wundt's supposed " inferences of relation by comparison and
connexion" the premises are of no further use; but those of the
first kind are of no syllogistic use in the second figure, and those
of the second kind of no syllogistic use beyond particular con-
clusions in the third figure. What they really are in the inferences
proposed by Wundt is not premises for syllogism, but data for
induction parading as syllogism. We must pass the same
sentence on Lotze's attempt to extend the second figure of the
syllogism for inductive purposes, thus: —
SisM.
Qis M.
Ris M.
.'.Every 2, which is common to S, Q, R, is M.
We could not have a more flagrant abuse of the rule Ne esto plus
minusque in conclusione quant in praemissis. As we see from
Lotze's own defence, the conclusion cannot be drawn without
another premise or premises to the effect that "S, Q, R, are 2,
and 2 is the one real subject of M." But how is all this to be got
into the second figure? Again, Wundt and B. Erdmann propose
new moods of syllogism with convertible premises, containing
definitions and equations. Wundt's Logic has the following
forms: —
(i) 1st Fig (2) 2nd Fig. (3) 3rd Fig.
Only M is P. x = y. y = x.
No S is M. z = y. y = z'
.'.No Sis P. :.x=z. .:x=z.
Now, there is no doubt that, especially in mathematical equations,
universal conclusions are obtainable from convertible premises
expressed in these ways. But the question is how the premises
must be thought, and they must be thought in the converse way
to produce a logical conclusion. Thus, we must think in (i)
' All P is M " to avoid illicit process of the major, in (2) "All
yisg" to avoid undistributed middle, in (3) "All x is y" to
avoid illicit process of the minor. Indeed, it is the very essence
of a convertible judgment to think it in both orders, and especi-
ally to think it in the order necessary to an inference from it.
Accordingly, however expressed, the syllogisms quoted above
are, as thought, ordinary syllogisms, (i) being Camestres in the
second figure, (2) and (3) Barbara in the first figure. Aristotle,
indeed, was as well aware as German logicians of the force of
convertible premises; but he was also aware that they require
no special syllogisms, and made it a point that, in a syllogism
from a definition, the definition is the middle, and the definitum
the major in a convertible major premise of Barbara in the first
figure, e.g.: —
The interposition of an opaque body is (essentially) deprivation
of light.
The moon suffers the interposition of the opaque earth.
'.The moon suffers deprivation of light.
It is the same with all the recent attempts to extend the
syllogism beyond its rules, which are not liable to exceptions,
because they follow from the nature of syllogistic inference from
universal to particular. To give the name of syllogism to
inferences which infringe the general rules against undistributed
middle, illicit process, two negative premises, non-sequitur
:rom negative to affirmative, and the introduction of what
is not in the premises into the conclusion, and which conse-
quently infringe the special rules against affirmative conclusions
n the second figure, and against universal conclusions in the
third figure, is to open the door to fallacy, and at best to confuse
the syllogism with other kinds of inference, without enabling
us to understand any one kind.
3. Analytic and Synthetic Deduction. — Alexander the Com-
mentator defined synthesis as a progress from principles to
consequences, analysis as a regress from consequences to
>rinciples; and Latin logicians preserved the same distinction
>etween the progressus a principiis ad principiatd, and the
egressus a principiatis ad principia. No distinction is more
rital in the logic of inference in general and of scientific inference
n particular; and yet none has been so little understood, because,
hough analysis is the more usual order of discovery, synthesis
s that of instruction, and therefore, by becoming more familiar,
ends to replace and obscure the previous analysis. The distinc-
ion, however, did not escape Aristotle, who saw that a progressive
yllogism can be reversed thus: —
2. Regression.
I. Progression. / \ , ,
All P is M.
All S is P.
.'.All SisM.
All M is P.
All S is M.
.'.All Sis P.
All S is P.
All M is S.
.'.All M is P.
'roceeding from one order to the other, by converting one
f the premises, and substituting the conclusion as premise
or the other premise, so as to deduce the latter as conclusion,
s what he calls circular inference; and he remarked that the
rocess is fallacious unless it contains propositions which are
onvertible, as in mathematical equations. Further, he perceived
hat the difference between the progressive and regressive orders
xtends from mathematics to physics, and that there are two
inds of syllogism: one progressing a priori from real ground
LOGIC
[INFERENCE
to consequent fact (6roO diori av\\oyi.o'nbs), and the other
regressing a posteriori from consequent fact to real ground
(6 roO OTI <ruXXo7iovu6s) . For example, as he says, the sphericity
of the moon is the real ground of the fact of its light waxing;
but we can deduce either from the other, as follows: —
I. Progression.
What is spherical waxes.
The moon is spherical.
.The moon waxes.
2. Regression.
What waxes is spherical.
The moon waxes.
• . The moon is spherical.
These two kinds of syllogism are synthesis and analysis in the
ancient sense. Deduction is analysis when it is regressive from
consequence to real ground, as when we start from the proposition
that the angles of a triangle are equal to two right angles and
deduce analytically that therefore (i) they are equal to equal
angles made by a straight line standing on another straight
line, and (2) such equal angles are two right angles. Deduction
is synthesis when it is progressive from real ground to consequence,
as when we start from these cwo results of analysis as principles
and deduce synthetically the proposition that therefore the
angles of a triangle are equal to two right angles, in the order
familiar to the student of Euclid. But the full value of the
ancient theory of these processes cannot be appreciated until
we recognize that as Aristotle planned them Newton used them.
Much of the Principia consists of synthetical deductions from
definitions and axioms. But the discovery of the centripetal
force of the planets to the sun is an analytic deduction from
the facts of their motion discovered by Kepler to their real
ground, and is so stated by Newton in the first regressive order
of Aristotle — P-M, S-P, S-M. Newton did indeed first show
synthetically what kind of motions by mechanical laws have
their ground in a centripetal force varying inversely as the
square of the distance (all P is M); but his next step was, not
to deduce synthetically the planetary motions, but to make a
new start from the planetary motions as facts established by
Kepler's laws and as examples of the kind of motions in question
(all S is P); and then, by combining these two premises, one
mechanical and the other astronomical, he analytically deduced
that these facts of planetary motion have their ground in a
centripetal force varying inversely as the squares of the distances
of the planets from the sun (all S is M). (See Principia I. prop.
2; 4 coroll. 6; III. Phaenomena, 4-5; prop. 2.) What Newton
did, in short, was to prove by analysis that the planets, revolving
by Kepler's astronomical laws round the sun, have motions
such as by mechanical laws are consequences of a centripetal
force to the sun. This done, as the major is convertible, the
analytic order — P-M, S-P, S-M — was easily inverted into the
synthetic order — M-P, S-M, S-P; and in this progressive order
the deduction as now taught begins with the centripetal force
of the sun as real ground, and deduces the facts of planetary
motion as consequences. Thereupon the Newtonian analysis
which preceded this synthesis, became forgotten; until at last
Mill in his Logic, neglecting the Principia, had the temerity
to distort Newton's discovery, which was really a pure example
of analytic deduction, into a mere hypothetical deduction; as
if the author of the saying " Hypotheses non fingo " started
from the hypothesis of a centripetal force to the sun, and thence
deductively explained the facts of planetary motion, which
reciprocally verified the hypothesis. This gross misrepresenta-
tion has made hypothesis a kind of logical fashion. Worse still,
Jevons proceeded to confuse analytic deduction from consequence
to ground with hypothetical deduction from ground to conse-
guence under the common term "inverse deduction." Wundt
attempts, but in vain, to make a compromise between the old
and the new. He re-defines analysis in the very opposite way
to the ancients; whereas they defined it as a regressive process
from consequence to ground, according to Wundt it is a pro-
gressive process of taking for granted a proposition and deducing
a consequence, which being true verifies the proposition. He
then divides it into two species: one categorical, the other
hypothetical. By the categorical he means the ancient analysis
from a given proposition to more general propositions. By the
hypothetical he means the new-fangled analysis from a given
proposition to more particular propositions, i.e. from a hypothesis
to consequent facts. But his account of the first is imperfect,
because in ancient analysis the more general propositions,
with which it concludes, are not mere consequences, but the real
grounds of the given proposition; while his addition of the
second reduces the nature of analysis to the utmost confusion,
because hypothetical deduction is progressive from hypothesis
to consequent facts whereas analysis is regressive from
consequent facts to real ground. There is indeed a sense
in which all inference is from ground to consequence, because
it is from logical ground (principium cognoscendi) to logical
consequence. But in the sense in which deductive analysis
is opposed to deductive synthesis, analysis is deduction from
real consequence as logical ground principialum as principium)
cognoscendi) to real ground (principium essendi), e.g. from the
consequential facts of planetary motion to their real ground,
i.e. centripetal force to the sun. Hence Sigwart is undoubtedly
right in distinguishing analysis from hypothetical deduction, for
which he proposes the name "reduction." We have only
further to add that many scientific discoveries about sound, heat,
light, colour and so forth, which it is the fashion to represent
as hypotheses to explain facts, are really analytical deductions
from the facts to their real grounds in accordance with mechanical
laws. Recent logic does scant justice to scientific analysis.
4. Induction. — As induction is the process from particulars
to universals, it might have been thought that it would always
have been opposed to syllogism, in which one of the rules is
against using particular premises to draw universal conclusions.
Yet such is the passion for one type that from Aristotle's time
till now constant attempts have been made to reduce induction
to syllogism. Aristotle himself invented an inductive syllogism
in which the major (P) is to be referred to the middle (M) by
means of the minor (S), thus: —
A, B, C magnets (S) attract iron (P).
A, B, C magnets (S) are all magnets whatever (M).
.'. All magnets whatever (M) attract iron (P).
As the second premise is supposed to be convertible, he reduced
the inductive to a deductive syllogism as follows: —
Every S is P. Every S is P.
Every S is M (convertibly). Every M is S.
.'. Every M is P. .'. Every M is P.
In the reduced form the inductive syllogism was described by
Aldrich as "Syllogismus in Barbara cujus minor (i.e. every
M is S) reticelur." Whately, on the other hand, proposed an
inductive syllogism with the major suppressed, that is, instead
of the minor premise above, he supposed a major premise,
" Whatever belongs to A, B, C magnets belongs to all." Mill
thereupon supposed a still more general premise, an assumption
of the uniformity of nature. Since Mill's time, however, the
logic of induction tends to revert towards syllogisms more like
that of Aristotle. Jevons supposed induction to be inverse
deduction, distinguished from direct deduction as analysis from
synthesis, e.g. as division from multiplication; but he really
meant that it is a deduction from a hypothesis of the law of a
cause to particular effects which, being true, verify the hypothesis.
Sigwart declares himself in agreement with Jevons; except that,
being aware of the difference between hypothetical deduction and
mathematical analysis, and seeing that, whereas analysis (e.g. in
division) leads to certain conclusions, hypothetical deduction
is not certain of the hypothesis, he arrives at the more definite
view that induction is not analysis proper but hypothetical
deduction, or " reduction," as he proposes to call it. Reduction
he defines as " the framing of possible premises for given pro-
positions, or the construction of a syllogism when the conclusion
and one premise is given." On this view induction becomes a
reduction in the form: all M is P (hypothesis), S is M (given),
. ' . S is P (given). The views of Jevons and Sigwart are in
agreement in two main points. According to both, induction,
instead of inferring from A, B, C magnets the conclusion " There-
fore all magnets attract iron," infers from the hypothesis,
" Let every magnet attract iron," to A, B, C magnets, whose
given attraction verifies the hypothesis. According to both,
INFERENCE]
LOGIC
893
again, the hypothesis of a law with which the process starts
contains more than is present in the particular data: according
to Jevons, it is the hypothesis of a law of a cause from which
induction deduces particular effects; and according to Sigwart,
it is a hypothesis of the ground from which the particular data
necessarily follow according to universal laws. Lastly, Wundt's
view is an interesting piece of eclecticism, for he supposes that
induction begins in the form of Aristotle's inductive syllogism,
S-P, S-M, M-P, and becomes an inductive method in the form
of Jevons's inverse deduction, or hypothetical deduction, or
analysis, M-P, S-M, S-P. In detail, he supposes that, while
an " inference by comparison," which he erroneously calls an
affirmative syllogism in the second figure, is preliminary to
induction, a second " inference by connexion," which he
erroneously calls a syllogism in the, third figure with an indeter-
minate conclusion, is the inductive syllogism itself. This is like
Aristotle's inductive syllogism in the arrangement of terms;
but, while on the one hand Aristotle did not, like Wundt, confuse
it with the third figure, on the other hand Wundt does not, like
Aristotle, suppose it to be practicable to get inductive data so
wide as the convertible premise, " All S is M, and all M is S,"
which would at once establish the conclusion, " All M is P."
Wundt's point is that the conclusion of the inductive syllogism
is neither so much as all, nor so little as some, but rather the
indeterminate "M and P are connected." The question there-
fore arises, how we are to discover "AllMisP," and this question
Wundt answers by adding an inductive method, which involves
inverting the inductive syllogism in the style of Aristotle into a
deductive syllogism from a hypothesis in the style of Jevons,
thus:—
(i)
Sis P.
SisM.
M and P are connected.
(2)
Every M is P.
SisM.
. • . S is P.
He agrees with Jevons in calling this second syllogism analytical
deduction, and with Jevons and Sigwart in calling it hypothetical
deduction. It is, in fact, a common point of Jevons, Sigwart and
Wundt that the universal is not really a conclusion inferred from
given particulars, but a hypothetical major premise from which
given particulars are inferred, and that this major contains
presuppositions of causation not contained in the particulars.
It is noticeable that Wundt quotes Newton's discovery of
the centripetal force of the planets to the sun as an instance of
this supposed hypothetical, analytic, inductive method; as if
Newton's analysis were a hypothesis of the centripetal force to the
sun, a deduction of the given facts of planetary motion, and a
verification of the hypothesis by the given facts, and as if such a
process of hypothetical deduction could be identical with either
analysis or induction. The abuse of this instance of Newtonian
analysis betrays the whole origin of the current confusion of
induction with deduction. One confusion has led to another.
Mill confused Newton's analytical deduction with hypothetical
deduction; and thereupon Jevons confused induction with both.
The result is that both Sigwart and Wundt transform the in-
ductive process of adducing particular examples to induce a
universal law into a deductive process of presupposing a universal
law as a ground to deduce particular consequences. But we
can easily extricate ourselves from these confusions by comparing
induction with different kinds of deduction. The point about
induction is that it starts from experience, and that, though in
most classes we can experience only some particulars individually,
yet we infer all. Hence induction cannot be reduced to Aristotle's
inductive syllogism, because experience cannot give the con-
vertible premise, " Every S is M, and every M is S " ; that "All
A, B, C are magnets" is, but that "All magnets are A, B, C"
is not, a fact of experience. For the same reason induction
cannot be reduced to analytical deduction of the second kind in
the form, S-P, M-S, . ' . M-P; because, though both end in
a universal conclusion, the limits of experience prevent induction
from such inference as: —
Every experienced magnet attracts iron.
Every magnet whatever is every experienced magnet.
. ' . Every magnet whatever attracts iron.
Still less can induction be reduced to analytical deduction of the
first kind in the form — P-M, S-P, . ' . S-M, of which Newton
has left so conspicuous an example in his Principia. As the
example shows, that analytic process starts from the scientific
knowledge of a universal and convertible law (every M is P, and
every P is M), e.g. a mechanical law of all centripetal force, and
ends in a particular application, e.g. this centripetal force of
planets to the sun. But induction cannot start from a known
law. Hence it is that Jevons, followed by Sigwart and Wundt,
reduces it to deduction from a hypothesis in the form "Let every
M be P, S is M, . ' . S is P." There is a superficial resemblance
between induction and this hypothetical deduction. Both in a
way use given particulars as evidence. But in induction the
given particulars are the evidence by which we discover the
universal, e.g. particular magnets attracing iron are the origin
of an inference that all do; in hypothetical deduction, the
universal is the evidence by which we explain the given parti-
culars, as when we suppose undulating aether to explain the
facts of heat and light. In the former process, the given parti-
culars are the data from which we infer the universal; in the
latter, they are only the consequent facts by which we verify it.
Or rather, there are two uses of induction: inductive discovery
before deduction, and inductive verification after deduction.
But neither use of induction is the same as the deduction itself:
the former precedes, the latter follows it. Lastly, the theory of
Mill, though frequently adopted, e.g. by B. Erdmann, need not
detain us long. Most inductions are made without any assump-
tion of the uniformity of nature; for, whether it is itself induced,
or a priori or postulated, this like every assumption is a judg-
ment, and most men are incapable of judgment on so universal
a scale, when they are quite capable of induction. The fact is
that the uniformity of nature stands to induction as the axioms
of syllogism do to syllogism; they are not premises, but con-
ditions of inference, which ordinary men use spontaneously,
as was pointed out in Physical Realism, and afterwards in Venn's
Empirical Logic. The axiom of contradiction is not a major
premise of a judgment: the dictum de omni et nullo is not a
major premise of a syllogism: the principle of uniformity is not
a major premise of an induction. Induction, in fact, is no species
of deduction; they are opposite processes, as Aristotle regarded
them except in the one passage where he was reducing the former
to the latter, and as Bacon always regarded them. But it is
easy to confuse them by mistaking examples of deduction for
inductions. Thus Whewell mistook Kepler's inference that
Mars moves in an ellipse for an induction, though it required the
combination of Tycho's and Kepler's observations, as a minor,
with the laws of conic sections discovered by the Greeks, as a
major, premise. Jevons, in his Principles of Science, constantly
makes the same sort of mistake. For example, the inference
from the similarity between solar spectra and the spectra of
various gases on the earth to the existence of similar gases in the
sun, is called by him an induction; but it really is an analytical
deduction from effect to cause, thus: —
Such and such spectra are effects of various gases.
Solar spectra are such spectra.
. ' . Solar spectra are effects of those gases.
In the same way, to infer a machine from hearing the regular
tick of a clock, to infer a player from finding a pack of cards
arranged in suits, to infer a human origin of stone implements,
and all such inferences from patent effects to latent causes,
though they appear to Jevons to be typical inductions, are really
deductions which, besides the minor premise stating the par-
ticular effects, require a major premise discovered by a previous
induction and stating the general kind of effects of a general
kind of cause. B. Erdmann, again, has invented an induction
from particular predicates to a totality of predicates which he
calls " erganzende Induction, " giving as an example, " This
body has the colour, extensibility and specific gravity of mag-
nesium; therefore it is magnesium." But this inference contains
the tacit major, " What has a given colour, &c., is magnesium,"
and is a syllogism of recognition. A deduction is often like an
induction, in inferring from particulars; the difference is that
8 94
LOGIC
[INFERENCE
deduction combines a law in the major with the particulars in
the minor premise, and infers syllogistically that the particulars
of the minor have the predicate of the major premise, whereas
induction uses the particulars simply as instances to generalize
a law. An infallible sign of an induction is that the subject and
predicate of the universal conclusion are merely those of the
particular instances generalized; e.g. " These magnets attract
iron, .-. all do."
This brings us to another source of error. As we have seen,
Jevons, Sigwart and Wundt all think that induction contains a
belief in causation, in a cause, or ground, which is not present in
the particular facts of experience, but is contributed by a hypo-
thesis added as a major premise to the particulars in order to
explain them by the cause or ground. Not so; when an in-
duction is causal, the particular instances are already beliefs in
particular causes, e.g. " My right hand is exerting pressure
reciprocally with my left," " A, B, C magnets attract iron ";
and the problem is to generalize these causes, not to introduce
them. Induction is not introduction. It would make no differ-
ence to the form of induction, if, as Kant thought, the notion of
causality is a priori; for even Kant thought that it is already
contained in experience. But whether Kant be right or wrong,
Wundt and his school are decidedly wrong in supposing " supple-
mentary notions which are not contained in experience itself,
but are gained by a process of logical treatment of this experi-
ence "; as if our behalf in causality could be neither a posteriori
nor a priori, but beyond experience wake up in a hypothetical
major premise of induction. Really, we first experience that
particular causes- have particular effects; then induce that
causes similar to those have effects similar to these; finally,
deduce that when a particular cause of the kind occurs it has a
particular effect of the kind by synthetic deduction, and that
when a particular effect of the kind occurs it has a particular
cause of the kind by analytic deduction with a convertible
premise, as when Newton from planetary motions, like terrestrial
motions, analytically deduced a centripetal force to the sun like
centripetal forces to the earth. Moreover, causal induction is
itself both synthetic and analytic: according as experiment
combines elements into a compound, or resolves a compound into
elements, it is the origin of a synthetic or an analytic generaliza-
tion. Not, however, that all induction is causal; but where it
is not, there is still less reason for making it a deduction from
hypothesis. When from the fact that the many crows in our
experience are black, we induce the probability that all crows
whatever are black, the belief in the particulars is quite inde-
pendent of this universal. How then can this universal be called,
as Sigwart, for example, calls it, the ground from which these
particulars follow? I do not believe that the crows I have seen
are black because all crows are black, but vice versa. Sigwart
simply inverts the order of our knowledge. In all induction, as
Aristotle said, the particulars are the evidence, or ground of our
knowledge (principium cognoscendi) , of the universal. In causal
induction, the particulars further contain the cause, or ground
of the being {principium essendf), of the effect, as well as the
ground of our inducing the law. In all induction the universal
is the conclusion, in none a major premise, and in none the
ground of either the being or the knowing of the particulars.
Induction is generalization. It is not syllogism in the form of
Aristotle's • or Wundt's inductive syllogism, because, though
starting only from some particulars, it concludes with a universal;
it is not syllogism in the form called inverse deduction by Jevons,
reduction by Sigwart, inductive method by Wundt, because it
often uses particular facts of causation to infer universal laws
of causation; it is not syllogism in the form of Mill's syllogism
from a belief in uniformity of nature, because few men have
believed in uniformity, but all have induced from particulars
to universals. Bacon alone was right in altogether opposing
induction to syllogism, and in finding inductive rules for the
inductive process from particular instances of presence, absence
in similar circumstances, and comparison.
5. Inference in General. — There are, as we have seen (ad init.),
three types — syllogism, induction and analogy. Different as
they are, the three kinds have something in common: first,
they are all processes from similar to similar; secondly, they all
consist in combining two judgments so as to cause a third,
whether expressed in so many propositions or not; thirdly, as a
judgment is a belief in being, they all proceed from premises
which are beliefs in being to a conclusion which is a belief in being.
Nevertheless, simple as this account appears, it i? opposed in
every point to recent logic. In the first place,' the point of
Bradley's logic is that " similarity is not a principle which works.
What operates is identity, and that identity is a universal."
This view makes inference easy: induction is all over before it
begins; for, according to Bradley, " every one of the instances
is already a universal proposition; and it is not a particular
fact or phenomenon at all," so that the moment you observe
that this magnet attracts iron, you ipso facto know that every
magnet does so, and all that remains for deduction is to identify
a second magnet as the same with the first, and conclude that it
attracts iron. In dealing with Bradley's works we feel inclined
to repeat what Aristotle says of the discourses of Socrates: they
all exhibit excellence, cleverness, novelty and inquiry, but their
truth is a difficult matter; and the Socratic paradox that virtue
is knowledge is not more difficult than the Bradleian paradox that
as two different things are the same, inference is identification.
The basis of Bradley's logic is the fallacious dialectic of Hegel's
metaphysics, founded on the supposition that two things, which
are different, but have something in common, are the same.
For example, according to Hegel, being and not-being are both
indeterminate and therefore the same. " If," says Bradley,
" A and B, for instance, both have lungs or gills, they are so far
the same." The answer to Hegel is that being and not-being
are at most similarly indete'rminate, and to Bradley that each
animal has its own different lungs, whereby they are only similar.
If they were the same, then in descending, two things, one of
which has healthy and the other diseased lungs, would be the
same; and in ascending, two things, one of which has lungs and
the other has not, but both of which have life, e.g. plants and
animals, would be so far the same. There would be no limit to
identity either downwards or upwards; so that a man would be
the same as a man-of-war, and all things would be the same
thing, and not different parts of one universe. But a thing
which has healthy lungs and a thing which has diseased lungs are
only similar individuals numerically different. Each individual
thing is the same only with itself, although related to other things;
and each individual of a class has its own individual, though
similar, attributes. The consequence of this true metaphysics
to logic is twofold: on the one hand, one singular or particular
judgment, e.g. " this magnet attracts iron," is not another, e.g.
" that magnet attracts iron," and neither is universal; on the
other hand, a universal judgment, e.g. " every magnet attracts
iron," means, distributively, that each individual magnet exerts
its individual attraction, though it is similar to other magnets
exerting similar attractions. A universal is not " one identical
point," but one distributive whole. Hence in a syllogism, a
middle term, e.g. magnets, is " absolutely the same," not in the
sense of " one identical point " making each individual the same
as any other, as Bradley supposes, but only in the sense of one
whole class, or total of many similar individuals, e.g. magnets,
each of which is separately though similarly a magnet, not magnet
in general. Hence also induction is a real process, because,
when we know that this individual magnet attracts iron, we are
very far from knowing that all alike do so similarly; and the
question of inductive logic, how we get from some similars to all
similars, remains, as before, a difficulty, but not to be solved by
the fallacy that inference is identification.
Secondly, a subordinate point in Bradley's logic is that there
are inferences which are not syllogisms; and this is true. But
when he goes on to propose, as a complete independent inference,
" A is to the right of B,B is to the right of C, therefore A is to
the right of C," he confuses two different operations. When A,
B and C are objects of sense, their relative positions are matters,
not of inference, but of observation; when they are not, there is
an inference, but a syllogistic inference with a major premise.
INFERENCE]
LOGIC
895
induced from previous observations, " whenever of three things
the first is to the right of the second, and the second to the right
of the third, the first is to the right of the third." To reply
that this universal judgment is not expressed, or that its expres-
sion is cumbrous, is no answer, because, whether expressed or
not, it is required for the thought. As Aristotle puts it, the
syllogism is directed " not to the outer, but to the inner dis-
course," or as we should say, not to the expression but to the
thought, not to the proposition but to the judgment, and to the
inference not verbally but mentally. Bradley seems to suppose
that the major premise of a syllogism must be explicit, or else
is nothing at all. But it is often thought without being expressed,
and to judge the syllogism by its mere explicit expression is to
commit an ignoratio elenchi; for it has been known all along that
we express less than we think, and the very purpose of syllogistic
logic is to analyse the whole thought 'necessary to the conclusion.
In this syllogistic analysis two points must always be considered:
one, that we usually use premises in thought which we do
not express; and the other, that we sometimes use them
unconsciously, and therefore infer and reason unconsciously,
in the manner excellently described by Zeller in his Vortrage,
iii. pp. 249-255. Inference is a deeper thinking process from
judgments to judgment, which only occasionally and partially
emerges in the linguistic process from propositions to proposition.
We may now then reassert two points about inference against
Bradley 's logic: the first, that it is a process from similar to
similar, and not a process of identification, because two different
things are not at all the same thing; the second, that it is the
mental process from judgments to judgment rather than the
linguistic process from propositions to proposition, because,
besides the judgments expressed in propositions, it requires
judgments which are not always expressed, and are sometimes
even unconscious.
Our third point is that, as a process of judgments, inference
is a process of concluding from two beliefs in being to another
belief in being, and not an ideal construction, because a judgment
does not always require ideas, but is always a belief about things,
existing or not. This point is challenged by all the many ideal
theories of judgment already quoted. If, for example, judgment
were an analysis of an aggregate idea as Wundt supposes, it
would certainly be true with him to conclude that " as judgment
is an immediate, inference is a mediate, reference of the members
of an aggregate of ideas to one another." But really a judgment
is a belief that something, existing, or thinkable, or nameable
or what not, is (or is not) determined; and inference is a process
from and to such beliefs in being. Hence the fallacy of those
who, like Bosanquet, or like Paulsen in his Einleitung in die
Philosophic, represent the realistic theory of inference as if it
meant that knowledge starts from ideas and then infers that ideas
are copies of things, and who then object, rightly enough, that
we could not in that case compare the copy with the original,
but only be able to infer from idea to idea. But there is another
realism which holds that inference is a process neither from
ideas to ideas, nor from ideas to things, but from beliefs to
beliefs, from judgments about things in the premises to judgments
about similar things in the conclusion. Logical inference never
goes through the impossible process of premising nothing but
ideas, and concluding that ideas are copies of things. Moreover,
as we have shown, our primary judgments of sense are beliefs
founded on sensations without requiring ideas, and are beliefs,
not merely that something is determined, but that it is deter-
mined as existing; and, accordingly, our primary inferences
from these sensory judgments of existence are inferences that
other things beyond sense are similarly determined as existing.
First press your lips together and then press a pen between
them: you will not be conscious of perceiving any ideas: you
will be conscious first of perceiving one existing lip exerting
pressure reciprocally with the other existing lip; then, on putting
the pen between your lips, of perceiving each lip similarly exerting
pressure, but not with the other; and consequently of inferring
that each existing lip is exerting pressure reciprocally with another
existing body, the pen. Inference then, though it is accompanied
by ideas, is not an ideal construction, nor a process from idea to
idea, nor a process from idea to thing, but a process from direct
to indirect beliefs in things, and originally in existing things.
Logic cannot, it is true, decide what these things are, nor what
the senses know about them, without appealing to metaphysics
and psychology. But, as the science of inference, it can make
sure that inference, on the one hand, starts from sensory judg-
ments about sensible things and logically proceeds to inferential
judgments about similar things beyond sense, and, on the other
hand, cannot logically go beyond the similar. These are the
limits within which logical inference works, because its nature
essentially consists in proceeding from two judgments to another
about similar things, existing or not.
6. Truth. — Finally, though sensory judgment is always true
of its sensible object, inferential judgments are not always true,
but are true so far as they are logically inferred, however in-
directly, from sense; and knowledge consists of sense, memory
after sense and logical inference from sense, which, we must
remember, is not merely the outer sense of our five senses, but
also the inner sense of ourselves as conscious thinking persons.
We come then at last to the old question — What is truth?
Truth proper, as Aristotle said in the Metaphysics, is in the mind:
it is not being, but one's signification of being. Its requisites are
that there are things to be known and powers of knowing things.
It is an attribute of judgments and derivatively of propositions.
That judgment is true which apprehends a thing as it is capable
of being known to be; and that proposition is true which so
asserts the thing to be. Or, to combine truth in thought and in
speech, the true is what signifies a thing as it is capable of being
known. Secondarily, the thing itself is ambiguously said to be
true in the sense of being signified as it is. For example, as I
am weary and am conscious of being weary, my judgment and
proposition that I am weary are true because they signify what
I am and know myself to be by direct consciousness; and my
being weary is ambiguously said to be true because it is so
signified. But it will be said that Kant has proved that real
truth, in the sense of the " agreement of knowledge with the
object," is unattainable, because we could compare knowledge
with the object only by knowing both. Sigwart, indeed, adopting
Kant's argument, concludes that we must be satisfied with con-
sistency among the thoughts which presuppose an existent;
this, too, is the reason why he thinks that induction is reduction,
on the theory that we can show the necessary consequence of the
given particular, but that truth of fact is unattainable. But
Kant's criticism and Sigwart's corollary only derive plausibility
from a false definition of truth. Truth is not the agreement of
knowledge with an object beyond itself, and therefore ex hypothesi
unknowable, but the agreement of our judgments with the objects
of our knowledge. A judgment is true whenever it is a belief
that a thing is determined as it is known to be by sense, or by
memory after sense, or by inference from sense, however indirect
the inference may be, and even when in the form of inference
of non-existence it extends consequently from primary to
secondary judgments. Thus the judgments " this sensible
pressure exists," " that sensible pressure existed," " other
similar pressures exist," " a conceivable centaur does not exist
but is a figment," are all equally true, because they are in
accordance with one or other of these kinds of knowledge.
Consequently, as knowledge is attainable by sense, memory and
inference, truth is also attainable, because, though we cannot test
what we know by something else, we can test what we judge and
assert by what we know. Not that all inference is knowledge,
but it is sometimes. The aim of logic in general is to find the laws
of all inference, which, so far as it obeys those laws, is always
consistent, but is true or false according to its data as well as its
consistency; and the aim of the special logic of knowledge is to
find the laws of direct and indirect inferences from sense, because
as sense produces sensory judgments which are always true of the
sensible things actually perceived, inference from sense produces
inferential judgments which, so far as they are consequent on
sensory judgments, are always true of things similar to sensible
things, by the very consistency of inference, or, as we say, by
896
LOGIC
[HISTORY
parity of reasoning. We return then to the old view of Aristotle,
that truth is believing in being; that sense is true of its immediate
objects, and reasbning from sense true of its mediate objects;
and that logic is the science of reasoning with a view to truth, or
Logica est ars ratiocinatidi, ut discernalur verum a falso. All we
aspire to add is that, in order to attain to real truth, we must
proceed gradually from sense, memory and experience through
analogical particular inference, to inductive and deductive
universal inference or reasoning. Logic is the science of all
inference, beginning from sense and ending in reason.
In conclusion, the logic of the last quarter of the igth century
may be said to be animated by a spirit of inquiry, marred by
a love of paradox and a corresponding hatred of tradition. But
we have found, on the whole, that logical tradition rises superior
to logical innovation. There are two old logics which still remain
indispensable, Aristotle's Organon and Bacon's Novum Organum.
If, and only if, the study of deductive logic begins with Aristotle,
and the study of inductive logic with Aristotle and Bacon, it will
be profitable to add the works of the following recent German
and English authors: —
AUTHORITIES. — J. Bergmann, Reine Logik (Berlin, 1879); Die
Grundprobleme der Logik (2nd ed., Berlin, 1895); B. Bosanquet,
Logic (Oxford, 1888); The Essentials of Logic (London, 1895);
F. H. Bradley, The Principles of Logic (London, 1883); F. Brentano,
Psychologic vom empirischen Standpunkte (Vienna, 1874); R. F.
Clarke, Logic (London, 1889) ; W. L. Davidson, The Logic of De-
finition (London, 1885) ; E. Duhring, Logik und Wissenschafts-
theorie (Leipzig, 1878); B. Erdmann, Logik (Halle, 1892); T.
Fowler, Bacon's Novum Organum, edited, with introduction, notes,
&c. (2nd ed., Oxford, 1889); T. H. Green, Lectures on Logic, in
Works, vol. iii. (London, 1886); J. G. Hibben, Inductive Logic
(Edinburgh and London, 1896); F. Hillebrand, Die neuen Theonen
der kategorischen Schliisse (Vienna, 1891) ; L. T. Hobhouse, The Theory
of Knowledge (London, 1896); H. Hughes, The Theory of Inference
(London, 1894); E. Husserl, Logische Untersuchungen (Halle, 1891,
1901); W. Jerusalem, Die Urtheilsf unction (Vienna and Leipzig,
1895); W. Stanley Jevpns, The Principles of Science (3rd ed.,
London, 1879); Studies in Deductive Logic (London, 1880); H. W. B.
Joseph, Introduction to Logic (1906) ; E. E. Constance Jones,
Elements of Logic (Edinburgh, 1890); G. H. Joyce, Principles of
Logic (1908); J. N. Keynes, Studies and Exercises in Formal Logic
(2nd ed., London, 1887) ; F. A. Lange, Logische Studien (2nd ed.,
Leipzig, 1894) ; T. Lipps, Grundzuge der Logik (Hamburg and Leipzig,
1893); R. H. Lotze, Logik (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1881, English transla-
tion edited by B. Bosanquet, Oxford, 1884) ; Grundzuge der Logik
(Diktate) (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1891, English translation by G. T. Ladd,
Boston, 1887) ; Werner Luthe, Beitrdge zur Logik (Berlin, 1872, 1877) ;
Members of Johns Hopkins University, Studies in Logic (edited by
C. S. Peirce, Boston, 1883) ; J. B. Meyer, Ueberweg's System der Logik,
fiinfte vermehrte Auflage (Bonn, 1882); Max Miiller, Science of
Thought (London, 1887); Carveth Read, On the Theory of Logic
(London, 1878); Logic, Deductive and Inductive (2nd ed., London,
1901) ; E. Schroder, Vorlesungen uber die Algebra der Logik (Leipzig,
1890, 1891, 1895); W. Schuppe, Erkenntnistheoretische Logik (Bonn,
1878); Grundriss der Erkenntnistheorie und Logik (Berlin, 1894); R.
Shute, A Discourse on Truth (London, 1877); Alfred Sidgwick,
Fallacies (London, 1883); The Use of Words in Reasoning (London,
1901) ; C. Sigwart, Logik (2nd ed., Freiburg-i.-Br. and Leipzig, 1889-
1893, English translation by Helen Dendy, London, 1895); K.
Uphues, Grundlehren der Logik (Breslau, 1883); J. Veitch, Institutes
of Logic (Edinburgh and London, 1885); J. Venn, Symbolic Logic
(and ed., London, 1894); The Principles of Empirical or Inductive
Logic (London, 1889) ; J. Volkelt, Erfahren und Denken (Hamburg
and Leipzig, 1886); T. Welton, A Manual of Logic (London, 1891,
1896); W. Windelband, Praludien (Freiburg-i.-Br., 1884); W.
Wundt, Logik (2nd ed., Stuttgart, 1893-1895). Text-books are not
comprised in this list. (T. CA.)
II. HISTORY
Logic cannot dispense with the light afforded by its history so
long as counter-solutions of the same fundamental problems
continue to hold the field. A critical review of some of the chief
types of logical theory, with a view to determine development,
needs no further justification.
Logic arose, at least for the Western world, in the golden age
of Greek speculation which culminated in Plato and Aristotle.
There is an Indian logic, it is true, but its priority is more than
disputable. In any case no influence upon Gr;ek thought
can be shown. The movement which ends in the logic of Aris-
totle is demonstrably self-contained. When we have shaken
ourselves free of the prejudice that all stars are first seen in the
East, Oriental attempts at analysis of the structure of thought
may be treated as negligible.
It is with Aristotle that the bookish tradition begins to dominate
the evolution of logic. The technical perfection of the analysis
which he offers is, granted the circle of presuppositions within
which it works, so decisive, that what precedes, even Plato's
logic, is not unnaturally regarded as merely preliminary and
subsidiary to it. What follows is inevitably, whether directly or
indirectly, by sympathy or by antagonism, affected by the
Aristotelian tradition.
A. GREEK LOGIC
i. Before Aristotle
Logic needs as its presuppositions that thought should dis-
tinguish itself from things and from sense, that the problem of
validity should be seen to be raised in the field of
thought itself, and that analysis of the structure of physical
thought should be recognized as the one way of solution.
Thought is somewhat late in coming to self-conscious-
ness. Implied in every contrast of principle and fact, of rule and
application, involved as we see after the event, most decisively
when we react correctly upon a world incorrectly perceived,
thought is yet not reflected on in the common experience. Its
so-called natural logic is only the potentiality of logic. The
same thing is true of the first stage of Greek philosophy. In
seeking for a single material principle underlying the multiplicity
of phenomena, the first nature-philosophers, Thales and the rest,
did indeed raise the problem of the one and the many, the
endeavour to answer which must at last lead to logic. But it is
only from a point of view won by later speculation that it can
be said that they sought to determine the predicates of the single
subject-reality, or to establish the permanent subject of varied
and varying predicates.1 The direction of their inquiry is per-
sistently outward. They hope to explain the opposed appearance
and reality wholly within the world of things, and irrespective
of the thought that thinks things. Their universal is still a
material one. The level of thought on which they move is still
clearly pre-logical. It is an advance on this when Heraclitus 2
opposes to the eyes and ears which are bad witnesses " for such
as understand not their language " a common something which
we would do well to follow; or again when in the incom-
mensurability of the diagonal and side of a square the Pytha-
goreans stumbled upon what was clearly neither thing nor image
of sense, but yet was endowed with meaning, and henceforth
were increasingly at home with symbol and formula. So far,
however, it might well be that thought, contradistinguished
from sense with its illusions, was itself infallible. A further step,
then, was necessary, and it was taken at any rate by the Eleatics,
when they opposed their thought to the thought of others, as
the way of truth in contrast to the way of opinion. If Eleatic
thought stands over against Pythagorean thought as what is
valid or grounded against what is ungrounded or invalid, we
are embarked upon dialectic, or the debate in which thought is
countered by thought. Claims to a favourable verdict must now
be substantiated in this field and in this field alone. It was Zeno,
the controversialist of the Eleatic school, who was regarded in
after times as the " discoverer " of dialectic.3
Zeno's amazing skill in argumentation and his paradoxical con-
clusions, particular and general, inaugurate a new era. " The
philosophical mind," says Walter Pater,4 " will perhaps never be
quite in health, quite sane or natural again." The give and take of
thought had by a swift transformation of values come by something
more than its own. Zeno's paradoxes, notably, for example, the
puzzle of Achilles and the Tortoise, are still capable of amusing the
modern world. In his own age they found him imitators. And
there follows the sophistic movement.
1 Cf. Heidel, " The Logic of the Pre-Socratic Philosophy," in
Dewey's Studies in Logical Theory (Chicago, 1903).
1 Heraclitus, Fragmm. 107 (Diels, Fragmente der Vorsokratiker)
and 2, on which see Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy, p. 153 note
(ed. 2).
3 e.g. Diog. Laert. ix. 25, from the lost Sophistes of Aristotle.
4 Plato and Platonism, p. 24.
GREEK BEFORE ARISTOTLE]
LOGIC
897
The
Sophists.
The sophists have other claims to consideration than their service
to the development of logic. In the history of the origins of logic
the sophistic age is simply the age of the free play of
thought in which men were aware that in a sense anything
can be debated and not yet aware of the sense in which
all things cannot be so. It is the age of discussion used as a universal
solvent, before it has been brought to book by a deliberate unfolding
of the principles of the structure of thought determining and limiting
the movement of thought itself. The sophists furthered the transi-
tion from dialectic to logic in two ways. In the first place they
made it possible. Incessant questioning leads to answers. Hair-
splitting, even when mischievous in intent, leads to distinctions of
value. Paradoxical insistence on the accidents of speech-forms
and thought-forms leads in the end to perception of the essentials.
Secondly they made it necessary. The spirit of debate run riot
evokes a counter-spirit to order and control it. The result is a self-
limiting dialectic. This higher dialectic is a logic. It is no accident
that the first of the philosophical sophists, Gorgias, on the one
hand, is Eleatic in his affinities, and on the other raises in the charac-
teristic formula of his intellectual nihilism1 issues which are as
much logical and epistemological as ontological. The meaning of
the copula and the relation of thoughts to the objects of which
they are the thoughts are as much involved as the nature of being.
It is equally no accident that the name of Protagoras is to be con-
nected, in Plato's view at least, with the rival school of Heraclitcans.
The problems raised by the relativism of Protagoras are no less
fundamentally problems of the nature of knowledge and of the
structure of thought. The Theaetetus indeed, in which Plato essays
to deal with them, is in the broad sense of the word logical, the
first distinctively logical treatise that has come down to us. Other
sophists, of course, with more practical interests, or of humbler
attainments, were content to move on a lower plane of philosophical
speculation. As presented to us, for example, in Plato's surely not
altogether hostile caricature in the Euthydemus, they mark the
intellectual preparation for, and the moral need for, the advance
of the next generation.
Among the pioneers of the sophistic age Socrates stands apart.
He has no other instrument than the dialectic of his compeers, and
he is as far off as the rest from a criticism of the instrument,
Socrates, but he uses it differently and with a difference of aim.
He construes the give and take of the debate-game with extreme
rigour. The rhetorical element must be exorcised. The set harangue
of teacher to pupil, in which steps in argument are slurred and the
semblance of co-inquiry is rendered nugatory, must be eliminated.
The interlocutors must in truth render an account under the stimulus
of organized heckling from their equals or superiors in debating
ability. And the aim is heuristic, though often enough the search
ends in no overt positive conclusion. Something can be found and
something is found. Common names are fitted for use by the would-
be users being first delivered from abortive conceptions, and there-
upon enabled to bring to the birth living and organic notions.
Aristotle would assign to Socrates the elaboration of two logical
functions: — general definition and inductive method.2 Rightly,
if we add that he gives no theory of either, and that his practical
use of the latter depends- for its value on selection.3 It is rather
in virtue of his general faith in the possibility of construction, which
he still does not undertake, arid because of his consequent insistence
on the elucidation of general concepts, which in common' with some
of his contemporaries, he may have thought of as endued with a
certain objectivity, that he induces the controversies of what are
called the Socratic schools as to the nature of predication. These
result in the formulation of a new dialectic or logic by Plato. Mani-
festly Socrates' use of certain forms of argumentation, like their
abuse by the sophists, tended to evoke their logical analysis. The
use and abuse, confronted one with the other, could not but evoke it.
The one in the many, the formula which lies at the base of the
possibility of predication, is involved in the Socratic doctrine of
general concepts or ideas. The nihilism of Gorgias from the Eleatic
point of view of bare identity, and the speechlessness of Cratylus
from the Heraclitean ground of absolute difference, are alike dis-
owned. But the one in the many, the identity in difference, is so
far only postulated, not established. When the personality of
Socrates is removed, the difficulty as to the nature of the Socratic
universal, developed in the medium of the individual processes of
individual minds, carries disciples of diverse general sympathies,
united only through the practical inspiration of the master's life,
towards the identity-formula or the difference-formula of other
teachers. The paradox of predication, that it seems to deny
identity, or to deny difference, becomes a pons asinorum. Know-
ledge involves synthesis or nexus. Yet from the points of view
alike of an absolute pluralism, of a flux, and of a formula of bare
identity— and a fortiori with any blending • of these principles
sufficiently within the bounds of plausibility to find an exponent —
all knowledge, because all predication of unity, in difference, must
be held to be impossible. Plato's problem was to find a way of
1 Nothing is. If anything is, it cannot be known. If anything
is known it cannot be communicated.
1 Metaphys. it. 10786 28 sqq.
» Cf. Arist. Top. 9. i. I ad fin.
xvi. 29
Plato.
escape from this impasse, and among his Socratic contemporaries
he seems to have singled out Antisthenes' as most in need of re-
futation. Antisthenes, starting with the doctrine of
identity without difference, recognizes as the only ex- thenes
pression proper to anything its own peculiar sign, its
name. This extreme of nominalism for which predication is im-
possible is, however, compromised by two concessions. A thing can
be described as like something else. And a compound can have a
X67os or account given of it by the (literally) adequate enumeration
of the names of its simple elements or irpwTa.6 This analytical t\6fot
he offers as his substitute for knowledge.6 The simple elements still
remain, sensed and named but not known. The expressions of them
are simply the speech-signs for them. The account of the compound
simply sets itself taken piecemeal as equivalent to itself taken as
aggregate. The subject-predicate relation fails really to arise.
Euclides' found no difficulty in fixing Antisthenes' mode of illus-
trating his simple elements by comparison, and therewith perhaps
the " induction " of Socrates, with the dilemma; so far as the
example is dissimilar, the comparison is invalid; so far as it is
similar, it is useless. It is better to say what the thing is. Between
Euclides and Antisthenes the Socratic induction and universal
definition were alike discredited from the point of view of the Eleatic
logic. It is with the other point of doctrine that Plato comes to
grips, that which allows of a certainty or knowledge consisting in
an analysis of a compound into simple elements themselves not
known. The syllable or combination is, he shows, not known by
resolution of it into letters or elements themselves not known. An
aggregate analysed into its mechanical parts is as much and as
little known as they. A whole which is more than its parts is from
Antisthenes' point of view inconceivable. Propositions analytical
of a combination in the sense alleged do not give knowledge. Yet
knowledge is possible. The development of a positive theory of
predication has become quite crucial.
Plato's logic supplies a theory of universals in the doctrine
of ideas. Upon this it bases a theory of predication, which,
however, is compatible with more than one reading of
the metaphysical import of the ideas. And it sets
forth a dialectic with a twofold movement, towards differentia-
tion and integration severally, which amounts to a formulation
of inference. The more fully analysed movement, that which
proceeds downward from less determinate to more determinate
universals, is named Division. Its associations, accordingly,
are to the modern ear almost inevitably those of a doctrine
of classification only. Aristotle, however, treats it as a dia-
lectical rival to syllogism, and it influenced Galilei and Bacon
in their views of inference after the Renaissance. If we add to
this logic of " idea," judgment and inference, a doctrine of
categories in the modern sense of the word which makes the
Theaetetus, in which it first occurs, a forerunner of Kant's Critique
of Pure Reason, we have clearly a very significant contribution
to logic even in technical regard. Its general philosophical
setting may be said to enhance its value even as logic.
(a) Of the idea we may say that whatever else it is, and apart
from all puzzles as to ideas of relations such as smallness, of
negative qualities such as injustice, or of human
inventions such as beds, it is opposed to that of which
it is the idea as its intelligible formula or law, the truth
or validity — Herbart'sword — of the phenomenon from the point
of view of nexus or system. The thing of sense in its relative
isolation is unstable. It is and is not. What gives stability is
the insensible principle or principles which it holds, as it were, in
solution. These are the ideas, and their mode of being is naturally
quite other than that of the sensible phenomena which they
order. The formula for an indefinite number of particular
things in particular places at particular times, and all of them
presentable in sensuous imagery of a given time and place, is not
itself presentable in sensuous imagery side by side with the
individual members of the group it orders. The law, e.g., of the
equality of the radii of a circle cannot be exhibited to sense,
even if equal radii may be so exhibited. It is the wealth of
illustration with which Plato expresses his meaning, and the
range of application which he gives the idea — to the class-
4 For whom see Dummler, Antisthenica (1882, reprinted in hit
Kleine Schriften, 1901).
6 Aristotle, Metaphys. 10246 32 sqq.
6 Plato, Theaetetus, 201 E. sqq., where, however, Antisthenes is
not named, and the reference to him is sometimes doubted. But
cf. Aristotle, Met. H 3. 10436 24-28.
7 Diog. Laert. ii. 107.
5
The
"Idea."
898
LOGIC
[GREEK BEFORE ARISTOTLE
concepts of natural groups objectively regarded, to categories,
to aesthetic and ethical ideals, to the concrete aims of the
craftsman as well as to scientific laws — that have obscured his
doctrine, viz. that wherever there is law, there is an idea.
(b) The paradox of the one in the many is none, if the idea
may be regarded as supplying a principle of nexus or organization
to an indefinite multiplicity of particulars. But if
the man?. Antisthenes is to be answered, a further step must be
taken. The principle of difference must be carried
into the field of the ideas. Not only sense is a principle
of difference. The ideas are many. The multiplicity in unity
must be established within thought itself. Otherwise the
objection stands: man is man and good is good, but to say that
man is good is clearly to say the thing that is not. Plato replies
with the doctrine of the interpenetration of ideas, obviously
not of all with all, but of some with some, the formula of identity
in difference within thought itself. Nor can the opponent fairly
refuse to admit it, if he affirms the participation of the identical
with being, and denies the participation of difference with being,
or affirms it with not-being. The Sophistes shows among other
things that an identity-philosophy breaks down into a dualism
of thought and expression, when it applies the predicate of unity
to the real, just as the absolute pluralism on the other hand
collapses into unity if it affirms or admits any form of relation
whatsoever. Identity and difference are all-pervasive categories,
and the speech-form and the corresponding thought-form involve
both. For proposition and judgment involve subject and
predicate and exhibit what a modern writer calls " identity of
reference with diversity of characterization." Plato proceeds
to explain by his principle of difference both privative and
negative predicates, and also the possibility of false predication.
It is obvious that without the principle of difference error is
inexplicable. Even Plato, however, perhaps scarcely shows that
with it, and nothing else but it, error is explained.
(c) Plato's Division, or the articulation of a relatively inde-
terminate and generic concept into species and sub-species with
resultant determinate judgments, presumes of course
the doctrine of the interpenetration of ideas laid down
in the Sophistes as the basis of predication, but its use precedes
the positive development of that formula, though not, save very
vaguely, the exhibition of it, negatively, in the antinomies of
the one and the many in the Parmenides. It is its use, however,
not the theory of it, that precedes. The latter is expounded in
the Politicus (260 sqq.) and Philebus (i6c sqq.). The ideal is
progressively to determine a universe of discourse till true
infimae species are reached, when no further distinction in the
determinate many is possible, though there is still the numerical
difference of the indefinite plurality of particulars. The process
is to take as far as possible the form of a continuous disjunction
of contraries. We must bisect as far as may be, but the division
is after all to be into limbs, not parts. The later examples of
the Politicus show that the permission of three or more co-
ordinate species is not nugatory, and that the precept of dicho-
tomy is merely in order to secure as little of a saltus as possible;
to avoid e.g. the division of the animal world into men and brutes.
It is the middle range of the jueira. of Philebus 170 that appeals
to Bacon, not only this but their mediating quality that appeals
to Aristotle. The media axiomata of the one and the middle
term of the other lie in the phrase. Plato's division is never-
theless neither syllogism nor exclusiva. It is not syllogism
because it is based on the disjunctive, not on the hypothetical
relation, and so extends horizontally where syllogism strikes
vertically downward. Again it is not syllogism because it is
necessarily and finally dialectical. It brings in the choice of an
interlocutor at each stage, and so depends on a concession for
what it should prove.1 Nor is it Bacon's method of exclusions,
which escapes the imputation of being dialectical, if not that of
being unduly cumbrous, in virtue of the cogency of the negative
instance. The Platonic division was, however, offered as the
scientific method of the school. A fragment of the comic poet
1 Aristotle, An. Pr. i. 31, 460 32 sqq.; cf. 916 12 sqq.
Division.
Epicrates gives a picture of it at work.2 And the movement of
disjunction as truly has a place in the scientific specification of a
concept in all its differences as the linking of lower to higher in
syllogism. The two are complementary, and the reinstatement
of the disjunctive judgment to the more honourable role in
inference has been made by so notable a modern logician as
Lotze.
(d) The correlative process of Combination is less elaborately
sketched, but in a luminous passage in the Polilicus (§ 278),
in explaining by means of an example the nature and
0 , J *. ... Combiaa*
use of examples, Plato represents it as the bringing tlom
of one and the same element seen in diverse settings to
conscious realization, with the result that it is viewed as a single
truth of which the terms compared are now accepted as the
differences. The learner is to be led forward to the unknown
by being made to hark back to more familiar groupings of the
alphabet of nature which he is coming to recognize with some
certainty. To lead on, eirajfiv, is to refer back, avaytw,3 to what
has been correctly divined of the same elements in clearer cases.
Introduction to unfamiliar collocations follows upon this, and,
only so, is it possible finally to gather scattered examples into a
conspectus as instances of one idea. or law. This is not only of
importance in the history of the terminology of logic, but
supplies a philosophy of induction.
(e) Back of Plato's illustration and explanation of predication
and dialectical inference there lies not only the question of their
metaphysical grounding in the interconnexion of Meata,
ideas, but that of their epistemological presuppositions. Synthesis.
This is dealt with in the Theaetetus (1846 sqq.). The
manifold affections of sense are not simply aggregated in the
individual, like the heroes in the Trojan horse. There must be
convergence in a unitary principle, soul or consciousness, which
is that which really functions in perception, the senses and their
organs being merely its instruments. It is this unity of apper-
ception which enables us to combine the data of more than one
sense, to affirm reality, unreality, identity, difference, unity,
plurality and so forth, as also the good, the beautiful and their
contraries. Plato calls these pervasive factors in knowledge
Koiva, and describes them as developed by the soul in virtue of
its own activity. They are objects of its reflection and made
explicit in the few with pains and gradually.4 That they are not,
however, psychological or acquired categories, due to " the
workmanship of the mind " as conceived by Locke, is obvious
from their attribution to the structure of mind 5 and from their
correlation with immanent principles of the objective order.
Considered from the epistemological point of view, they are the
implicit presuppositions of the construction or <7uXXo7t<7/i6s 6
in which knowledge consists. But as ideas,7 though of a type
quite apart,8 they have also a constitutive application to reality.
Accordingly, of the selected "kinds" by means of which the
interpenetration of ideas is expounded in the Sophistes, only
motion and rest, the ultimate " kinds " in the physical world,
have no counterparts in the " categories " of the Theaeletus.
In his doctrine as to 'iv r6 iroiovv or Kplvov, as generally in that
of the activity of the vow Airaflifa, Aristotle in the de Anima*
is in the main but echoing the teaching of Plato.10
2 Athenaeus ii. 5<)c. See Usener, Organisation der wissenschaftl.
Arbeit (1884; reprinted in his Vortrage und Aufsatze, 1907).
3 Socrates' reference of a discussion to its presuppositions (Xeno-
phon, Mem. iv. 6, 13) is not relevant for the history of the ter-
minology of induction.
4 Theaeletus, i86c.
6 Timaeus, 370, b (quoted in H. F. Carlill's translation of the
Theaetetus, p. 60).
6 Theaetetus, i86d. ' Sophistes, 253^.
8 Ib. id.; cf. Theaetetus, 197 d.
9 Aristotle, de An. 4306 5, and generally iii. 2, Hi. 5.
10 For Plato's Logic, the controversies as to the genuineness of
the dialogues may be treated summarily. The Theaetetus labours
under no suspicion. The Sophistes is apparently matter for animad-
version by Aristotle in the Metaphysics and elsewhere, but derives
stronger support from the testimonies to the Politicus which pre-
sumes it. The Politicus and Philebus are guaranteed by the use
made of them in Aristotle's Ethics. The rejection of the Parmenides
would involve the paradox of a nameless contemporary of Plato
ARISTOTLE]
LOGIC
899
ii. Aristotle.
Plato's episodic use of logical distinctions' is frequent. His
recourse to such logical analysis as would meet the requirements
of the problem in hand2 is not rare. In the "dialectical"
dialogues the question of method and of the justification of its
postulates attains at least a like prominence with the ostensible
subject matter. There is even formal recognition of the fact
that to advance in dialectic is a greater thing than to bring any
special inquiry to a successful issue.3 But to the end there is a lack
of interest in, and therefore a relative immaturity of, technique
as such. In the forcing atmosphere, however, of that age of
controversy, seed such as that sown in the master's treatment
of the uttered Xir/os 4 quickly germinated. Plato's successors in
the Academy must have developed a system of grammatico-
logical categories which Aristotle could make his own. Else
much of his criticism of Platonic doctrine 6 does, indeed, miss
fire. The gulf too, which the Philebus 6 apparently left un-
bridged between the sensuous apprehension of particulars and
the knowledge of universals of even minimum generality led
with Speusippus to a formula of knowledge in perception («rioTr;-
/ioi'i/oj a'io-flijcnj) . These and like developments, which are to be
divined from references in the Aristotelian writings, jejune, and,
for the most part, of probable interpretation only, complete the
material which Aristotle could utilize when he seceded from the
Platonic school and embarked upon his own course of logical
inquiry.
This is embodied in the group of treatises later known as the
Organon1 and culminates in the theory of syllogism and of
S lloglsm demonstrative knowledge in the Analytics. All else
is finally subsidiary. In the well-known sentences
with which the Organon closes8 Aristotle has been supposed
to lay claim to the discovery of the principle of syllog-
ism. He at least claims to have been the first to dissect the
procedure of the debate-game, and the larger claim may be
and Aristotle who was inferior as a metaphysician to neither. No
other dialogue adds anything to the logical content of these.
Granted their genuineness, the relative dating of three of them is
given, viz. Theaetetus, Sophistes and Politicus in the order named.
The Philebus seems to presuppose Politicus, 283-284, but if this be
an error, it will affect the logical theory not at all. There remains
the Parmenides. It can scarcely be later than the Sophistes. The
antinomies with which it concludes are more naturally taken as a
prelude to the discussion of the Sophistes than as an unnecessary
retreatment of the doctrine of the one and the many in a more
negative form. It may well be earlier than the Theaetetus in its
present form. The stylistic argument shows the Theaetetus re-
latively early. The maturity of its philosophic outlook tends to
give it a place relatively advanced in the Platonic canon. To meet
the problem here raised, the theory has been devised of an earlier
and a later version. The first may have linked on to the series of
Plato's dialogues of search, and to put the Parmenides before it is
impossible. The second, though it might still have preceded the
Parmenides might equally well have followed the negative criticism
of that dialogue, as the beginning of reconstruction. For Plato's
logic this question only has interest on account of the introduction
of an 'ApuTToTtXris in a non-speaking part in the Parmenides. If
this be pressed as suggesting that the philosopher Aristotle was
already in full activity at the date of writing, it is of importance to
know what Platonic dialogues were later than the debut of his
critical pupil.
On the stylistic argument as applied to Platonic controversies
Janell's Quaestiones Platonicae (1901) is important. On the whole
question of genuineness and dates of the dialogues, H. Raeder,
Platans philosophische Entwickelung (1905), gives an excellent
conspectus of the views held and the grounds alleged. See also
PLATO.
1 E.g. that of essence and accident, Republic, 454.
2 E.g. the discussion of correlation, ib. 437 sqq.
3 Politicus, 285^. « Sophistes, 26ic sqq.
6 E.g. in Nic. Eth. i. 6. 6 Philebus, l6d.
7 Principal edition still that of Waitz, with Latin commentary,
(2 vols., 1844-1846). Among the innumerable writers who have
thrown light upon Aristotle's logical doctrine, St Hilaire, Trendelen-
burg, Ueberweg, Hamilton, Mansel, G. Grote may be named. There
a>-e, however, others of equal distinction. Reference to Prantl,
op. cit., is indispensable. Zeller, Die Philosophie der Griechen, ii. 2,
" Aristoteles " (3rd ed., 1879), pp. 185-257 (there is an Eng. trans.),
and Maier, Die Syllogistik des Aristoteles (2 vols., 1896, 1900) (some
900 pp.), are also of first-rate importance.
8 Sophist. Elench. 184, espec. b 1-3, but see Maier, loc. cit. i. I.
thought to follow. In the course of inquiry into the formal
consequences from probable premises, the principle of mediation
or linking was so laid bare that the advance to the analytic
determination of the species and varieties of syllogism was
natural. Once embarked upon such an analysis, where valid
process from assured principles gave truth, Aristotle could
find little difficulty in determining the formula of demonstrative
knowledge or science. It must be grounded in principles of
assured certainty and must demonstrate its conclusions with
the use of such middle or linking terms only as it is possible to
equate with the real ground or cause in the object of knowledge.
Hence the account of axioms and of definitions, both of substances
and of derivative attributes. Hence the importance of deter-
mining how first principles are established. It is, then, a fair
working hypothesis as to the structure of the Organon to place
the Topics, which deal with dialectical reasoning, before the
Analytics.'3 Of the remaining treatises nothing of fundamental
import depends on their order. One, however, the Categories,
may be regarded with an ancient commentator,10 as preliminary
to the dialectical inquiry in the Topics. The other, on thought
as expressed in language (Ilepi ipii-qvtias) is possibly spurious,
though in any case a compilation of the Aristotelian school.
If genuine, its naive theory that thought copies things and other
features of its contents would tend to place it among the earliest
works of the philosopher.
Production in the form of a series of relatively self-contained
treatises accounts for the absence of a name and general definition
of their common field of inquiry. A more important
lack which results is that of any clear intimation as
to the relation in which Aristotle supposed it to
stand to other disciplines. In his definite classification of the
sciences,11 into First Philosophy, Mathematics and Physics,
it has no place. Its axioms, such as the law of contradiction,
belong to first philosophy, but the doctrine as a whole falls
neither under this head nor yet, though the thought has been
entertained, under that of mathematics, since logic orders
mathematical reasoning as well as all other. The speculative
sciences, indeed, are classified according to their relation to form,
pure, abstract or concrete, i.e. according to their objects. The
logical inquiry seems to be conceived as dealing with the thought
of which the objects are objects. It is to be regarded as a
propaedeutic,12 which, although it is in contact with reality in and
through the metaphysical import of the axioms, or again in the
fact that the categories, though primarily taken as forms of
predication, must also be regarded as kinds of being, is not
directly concerned with object-reality, but with the determination
for the thinking subject of what constitutes the knowledge
correlative to being. Logic, therefore, is not classed as one, still
less as a branch of one, among the 'ologies, ontology not excepted.
The way in which logical doctrine is developed in the Aristo-
telian treatises fits in with this view. Doubtless what we have
is in the main a reflex of the heuristic character of Aristotle's
own work as pioneer. But it at least satisfies the requirement
that the inquiry shall carry the plain man along with it. Actual
modes of expression are shown to embody distinctions which
average intelligence can easily recognize and will readily acknow-
ledge, though they may tend by progressive rectification funda-
mentally to modify the assumption natural to the level of thought
from which he begins. Thus we start u from the point of view
of a world of separate persons and things, in which thought
mirrors these concrete realities, taken as ultimate subjects of
predicates. It is a world of communication of thought, where
persons as thinkers need to utter in language truths objectively
valid for the mundus communis. In these truths predicates are
accepted or rejected by subjects, and therefore depend on the
reflection of fact in Xcfyot (propositions). These are combinatory
of parts, attaching or detaching predicates, and so involving
9 References such as 186 12 are the result of subsequent editing
and prove nothing. See, however, ARISTOTLE.
10 Adrastus is said to have called them wp& TUV ToiriKdv.
11 Metaphys. E. I.
12 De Part. Animal. A. I, 6390 I sqq.; cf. Metaphys. 10056 2 sqq.
13 De Interpretation l6a sqq.
goo
LOGIC
[ARISTOTLE
subject, predicate and copula.1 At this stage we are as much
concerned with speech-forms as the thought-forms of which they
are conventional symbols, with Plato's analysis, for instance,
into a noun and a verb, whose connotation of time is as yet a
difficulty. The universal of this stage is the universal of fact,
what is recognized as predicable of a plurality of subjects. The
dialectical doctrine of judgment as the declaration of one member
of a disjunction by contradiction, which is later so important, is
struggling with one of i& initial difficulties,2 viz. the contingency
of particular events future, the solution of which remains im-
perfect.3
The doctrine of the Categories is still on the same level of
thought,4 though its grammatico-logical analysis is the more
advanced one which had probably been developed by
tne Academy before Aristotle came to think of his
friends there as " them " rather than " us." It is
what in one direction gave the now familiar classification of
parts of speech, in the other that of thought-categories under-
lying them. If we abstract from any actual combination of
subject and predicate and proceed to determine the types of pre-
dicate asserted in simple propositions of fact, we have on the one
hand a subject which is never object, a " first substance " or con-
crete thing, of which may be predicated in the first place " second
substance " expressing that it is a member of a concrete class,
and in the second place quantity, quality, correlation, action
and the like. The list follows the forms of the Greek language so
closely that a category emerges appropriated to the use of the
perfect tense of the middle voice to express the relation of the
subject to a garb that it dons. In all this the individual is the
sole self-subsistent reality. Truth and error are about the
individual and attach or detach predicates correctly and in-
correctly. There is no committal to the metaphysics in the light
of which the logical inquiry is at last to find its complete justifica-
tion. The point of view is to be modified profoundly by what
follows — by the doctrine of the class-concept behind the class,
of the form or idea as the constitutive formula of a substance,
or, again, by the requirement that an essential attribute must
be grounded in the nature or essence of the substance of which
it is predicated, and that such attributes alone are admissible
predicates from the point of view of the strict ideal of science.
But we are still on the ground of common opinion, and these
doctrines are not yet laid down as fundamental to the develop-
ment.
Dialectic then, though it may prove to be the ultimate method
of establishing principles in philosophy,6 starts from probable
and conceded premises,6 and deals with them only in
the light of common principles such as may be reason-
ably appealed to or easily established against challenge.
To the expert, in any study which involves contingent matter,
i.e. an irreducible element of indetermination, e.g. to the physician,
there is a specific form of this, but the reflection that this is so is
something of an afterthought. We start with what is prima facie
given, to return upon it from the ground of principles clarified by
the sifting process of dialectic7 and certified by voOs. The Topics
deal with dialectic and constitute an anatomy of argumentation,
or, according to what seems to be Aristotle's own metaphor, a
survey of the tactical vantage-points (TOTTOI) for the conflict of
wits in which the prize is primarily victory, though it is a barren
victory unless it is also knowledge. It is in this treatise that
what have been called "the conceptual categories"8 emerge,
viz. the predicates, or heads of predication as it is analysed in
relation to the provisional theory of definition that dialectic
allows and requires. A predicate either is expressive of the
essence or part of the essence of the subject, viz. that original
group of mutually underivable attributes of which the absence
of any one destroys its right to the class-name, or it is not.
Either it is convertible with the subject or it is not. Here then
1 De Interpretation 160 24-25. 2 76. i8a 28 sqq.
3 Ib. iga 28-29.
* As shown e.g. by the way in which the relativity of sense and the
object of sense is conceived, 76 35-37.
' Topics loia 27 and 36-6 4. • Topics 100.
7 Politics 12820 I sqq. > 1036 21.
The
Topic*.
judgment, though still viewed as combinatory, has the types
which belong to coherent systems of implication discriminated
from those that predicate coincidence or accident, i.e. any
happening not even derivatively essential from the point of view
of the grouping in which the subject has found a place. In the
theory of dialectic any predicate may be suggested for a subject,
and if not affirmed of it, must be denied of it, if not denied must
be affirmed. The development of a theory of the ground on
which subjects claim their predicates and disown alien predicates
could not be long postponed. In practical dialectic the un-
limited possibility was reduced to manageable proportions in
virtue of the groundwork of received opinion upon which the
operation proceeded. It is in the Topics, further, that we clearly
have a first treatment of syllogism as formal implication, with
the suggestion that advance must be made to a view of its use
for material implication from true and necessary principles.
It is in the Topics,9 again, that we have hints at the devices of an
inductive process, which, as dialectical, throw the burden of
producing contradictory instances upon the other party to the
discussion. In virtue of the common-stock of opinion among
the interlocutors and their potentially controlling audience,
this process was more valuable than appears on the face of
things. Obviously tentative, and with limits and ultimate inter-
pretation to be determined elsewhere, it failed to bear fruit till
the Renaissance, and then by the irony of fate to the discrediting
of Aristotle. In any case, however, definition, syllogism,
induction all invited further determination, especially if they
were to take their place in a doctrine of truth or knowledge.
The problem of analytic, i.e. of the resolution of the various
forms of inference into their equivalents in that grouping of terms
or premises which was most obviously cogent, was a legacy of the
Topics. The debate-game had sought for diversion and found
truth, and truth raised the logical problem on a different plane.
At first the problem of formal analysis only. We proceed
with the talk of instances and concern ourselves first with
relations of inclusion and exclusion. The question is
as to membership of a class, and the dominant formula concept.
is the dictum de omni el nullo. Until the view of the
individual units with which we are so far familiar has undergone
radical revision, the primary inquiry must be into the forms of
a class-calculus. Individuals fall into groups in virtue of the
possession of certain predicates. Does one group include, or
exclude, or intersect another with which it is compared ? We are
clearly in the field of the diagrams of the text-books, and much of
the phraseology is based upon an original graphic representation
in extension. The middle term, though conceived as an inter-
mediary or linking term, gets its name as intermediate in a
homogeneous scheme of quantity, where it cannot be of narrower
extension than the subject nor wider than the predicate of the
conclusion.10 It is also, as Aristotle adds,11 middle in position in
the syllogism that concludes to a universal affirmative.11 Again,
so long as we keep to the syllogism as complete in itself and
without reference to its place in the great structure of knowledge,
the nerve of proof cannot be conceived in other than a formal
manner. In analytic we work with an ethos different from that
of dialectic. We presume truth and not probability or con-
cession, but a true conclusion can follow from false premises, and
it is only in the attempt to derive the premises in turn from
their grounds that we unmask the deception. The passage to
the conception of system is still required. The Prior ^^
Analytics then are concerned with a formal logic to Analytics.
be knit into a system of knowledge of the real only in
virtue of a formula which is at this stage still to seek.
The forms of syllogism, however, are tracked successfully through
their figures, i.e. through the positions of the middle term that
Aristotle recognizes as of actual employment, and all their moods,
i.e. all differences of affirmative and negative, universal and
particular within the figures, the cogent or legitimate forms are
9 Topics 1600 37-6 5.
10 This is the explanation of the formal definition of induction,
Prior Analytics, ii. 23, 686 15 sqq.
11 256 36.
ARISTOTLE]
LOGIC
goi
alone left standing, and the formal doctrine of syllogism is com-
plete. Syllogism already defined1 becomes through exhibition
in its valid forms clear in its principle. It is a speech-and-
thought-form (X6-yos) in which certain matters being posited
something other than the matters posited necessarily results
because of them, and, though it still needs to receive a deeper
meaning when presumed truth gives way to necessary truth of
premises, the notion of the class to that of the class-concept,
collective fact to universal law, its formal claim is manifest.
"Certain matters being posited." Subject and predicate not
already seen to be conjoined must be severally known to be in
relation with that which joins them, so that more than one
direct conjunction must be given. " Of necessity." If what
are to be conjoined are severally in relation to a common third
it does perforce relate or conjoin them. "Something other."
The conjunction was by hypothesis not given, and is a new
result by no means to be reached, apart from direct perception
save by use of at least two given conjunctions. " Because of
them," therefore. Yet so long as the class-view is prominent,
there is a suggestion of a begging of the question. The class is
either constituted by enumeration of its members, and, passing
by the difficulty involved in the thought of " its " members,
is an empirical universal of fact merely, or it is grounded in the
class-concept. In the first case it is a formal scheme which helps
knowledge and the theory of knowledge not at all. We need
then to develop the alternative, and to pass from the external
aspect of all-ness to the intrinsic ground of it in the universal
Kad' avrb na.1 $ avro, which, whatsoever the assistance it receives
from induction in some sense of the word, in the course of its
development for the individual mind, is secured against depend-
ence on instances by the decisive fiat or guarantee of vow,
insight into the systematic nexus of things. The conception of
linkage needs to be deepened by the realization of the middle
term as the ground of nexus in a real order which is also rational.
Aristotle's solution of the paradox of inference, viz. of the fact
that in one sense to go beyond what is in the premises is fallacy,
. while in another sense not to go beyond them is futility,
Problem of .. . ,. , ..... ', ... .. .
inference. *les in "ls formula of implicit and explicit, potential
and actual.2 The real nexus underlying the thought-
process is to be articulated in the light of the voucher by intelli-
gence as to the truth of the principles of the various departments
of knowledge which we call sciences, and at the ideal limit it is
possible to transform syllogism into systematic presentation, so
that, differently written down, it is definition. But for human
thought sense, with its accidental setting in matter itself incogniz-
able is always with us. The activity of vovs is never
so perfectly realized as to merge implication in intuition.
Syllogism must indeed be objective, i.e. valid for any thinker,
but it is also a process in the medium of individual thinking,
whereby new truth is reached. A man may know that mules
are sterile and that the beast before him is a mule, and yet believe
her to be in foal " not viewing the several truths in connexion." *
The doctrine, then, that the universal premise contains the con-
clusion not otherwise than potentially is with Aristotle cardinal.
The datum of sense is only retained through the universal.4
It is possible to take a universal view with some at least of the
particular instances left uninvestigated.5 Recognition that the
class-concept is applicable may be independent of knowledge
of much that it involves. Knowledge of the implications of it
does not depend on observation of all members of the class.
Syllogism as formula for the exhibition of truth attained, and
construction or what not as the instrumental process by which
we reach the truth, have with writers since Hegel and Herbart
tended to fall apart. Aristotle's view is other. Both are syllo-
gisms, though in different points of view. For this reason, if
for no other, the conception of movement from the potential
possession of knowledge to its actualization remains indispensable.
1 Prior Analytics, \. I. 240 18-20, SuXXo-yio-^i? Si 4<rr2 X^YOJ iv if
TtOtvriiiv rivSsv irepov TI TWV Kdnivuv (£ ivaynrfs avfj-ftaivti T<jj ravra tlvai.
The equivalent previously in Topics 1000 25 scjq.
* Prior Analytics, ii. 21 ; Posterior Analytics, i. I.
3 670 33-37, pfl <rvv0eup£>i> TO KO0' iK&ripov. .
4 670 39-fr 3. ' 790 4-5.
Nous.
Whether this is explanation or description, a problem or its
solution, is of course another matter.
In the Posterior Analytics the syllogism is brought into
decisive connexion with the real by being set within a system
in which its function is that of material implication p^,,,^,.
from principles which are primary, immediate and Analytics.
necessary truths. Hitherto the assumption of the
probable as true rather than as what will be conceded
in debate6 has been the main distinction of the standpoint
of analytic from that of dialectic. But the true is true only
in reference to a coherent system in which it is an immediate
ascertainment of wOs, or to be deduced from a ground which
is such. The ideal of science or demonstrative knowledge is
to exhibit as flowing from the definitions and postulates of a
science, from its special principles, by the help only of axioms
or principles common to all knowledge, and these not as premises
but as guiding rules, all the properties of the subject-matter,
i.e. all the predicates that belong to it in its own nature. In
the case of any subject-kind, its definition and its existence
being avouched by vow, "heavenly body" for example, the
problem is, given the fact of a non-self-subsistent characteristic
of it, such as the eclipse of the said body, to find a ground, a
ItJtaov which expressed the alrtav, in virtue of which the
adjectival concept can be exhibited as belonging to the subject-
concept Ka.6' O.VTO in the strictly adequate sense of the phrase
in which it means also $ avro.7 We are under the necessity
then of revising the point of view of the syllogism of all-ness.
We discard the conception of the universal as a predicate applic-
able to a plurality, or even to all, of the members of a group.
To know merely /card iravTOs is not to know, save accidentally.
The exhaustive judgment, if attainable, could not be known
to be exhaustive. The universal is the ground of the empirical
" all " and not conversely. A formula such as the equality of
the interior angles of a triangle to two right angles is only
scientifically known when it is not of isosceles or scalene triangle
that it is known, nor even of all the several types of triangle
collectively, but as a predicate of triangle recognized as the
widest class-concept of which it is true, the first stage in the
progressive differentiation of figure at which it can be asserted.8
Three points obviously need development, the nature of
definition, its connexion with the syllogism in which the middle
term is cause or ground, and the way in which we have assurance
of our principles.
Definition is either of the subject-kind or of the property that
is grounded in it. Of the self-subsistent definition is ovalas TIS
yvupiofios* by exposition of genus and differentia.10 It ^//a/yoj,.
is indemonstrable. It presumes the reality of its sub-
ject in a postulate of existence. It belongs to the principles
of demonstration. Summa genera and groups below infimae
species are indefinable. The former are susceptible of
elucidation by indication of what falls under them. The latter
are only describable by their accidents. There can here be
no true differentia. The artificiality of the limit to the articula-
tion of species was one of the points to which the downfall of
Aristotle's influence was largely due. Of a non-self-subsistent
or attributive conception definition in its highest attainable
form is a recasting of the syllogism, in which it was shown that
the attribute was grounded in the substance or self-subsistent
subject of which it is. Eclipse of the moon, e.g. is privation of
light from the moon by the interposition of the earth between
it and the sun. In the scientific syllogism the interposition of
the earth is the middle term, the cause or "because" (babri), the
residue of the definition is conclusion. The difference then is
in verbal expression, way of putting, inflexion.11 If we pluck
• 246 10-11.
''Posterior Analytics, i. 4 naB' afrrA means (i) contained in the
definition of the subject; (2) having the subject contained in its
definition, as being an alternative determination of the subject,
crooked, e.g. is per se of line; (3) self-subsistent ; (4) connected with
the subject as consequent to ground. Its needs stricter determination
therefore.
« 736 26 sqq., 74<i 37 sqq. ' 906 16.
10 Afetaphys. Z. 12, H. 6 ground this formula metaphysically.
11 940 12, 756 32.
902
LOGIC
[ARISTOTLE
the fruit of the conclusion, severing its nexus with the stock
from which it springs, we have an imperfect form of definition,
while, if further we abandon all idea of making it adequate
by exhibition of its ground, we have, with still the same form of
words, a definition merely nominal or lexicographical. In the
aporematic treatment of the relation of definition and syllogism
identical as to one form and in one view, distinct as to another
form and in another view, much of Aristotle's discussion consists.
The rest is a consideration of scientific inquiry as
converging in jiterou f^rr/crts, the investigation of
the link or " because " as ground in the nature of
things. To p.& yap OITLOV TO fiiaov1 real ground and
thought link fall together. The advance from syllogism as
formal implication is a notable one. It is not enough to have
for middle term a causa cognoscenti merely. We must have a
causa essendi. The planets are near, and we know it by their
not twinkling,2 but science must conceive their nearness as the
cause of their not twinkling and make the prius in the real
order the middle term of its syllogism. In this irreversible
catena proceeding from ground to consequent, we have left
far behind such things as the formal parity of genus and differentia
considered as falling under the same predicable,3 and hence
justified in part Porphyry's divergence from the scheme of
predicables. We need devices, indeed, to determine priority
or superior claim to be " better known absolutely or in the
order of nature," but on the whole the problem is fairly faced.4
Of science Aristotle takes for his examples sometimes celestial
physics, more often geometry or arithmetic, sometimes a con-
crete science, e.g. botany.5 In the field of pure form, free
from the disconcerting surprises of sensible matter and so of
absolute necessity, no difficulty arises as to the deducibility
of the whole body of a science from its first principles. In the
sphere of abstract form, mathematics, the like may be allowed,
abstraction being treated as an elimination of matter from
the aiivokov by one act. When we take into account relative
matter, however, and traces of a conception of abstraction as
admitting of degree,6 the question is not free from difficulty.
In the sphere of the concrete sciences where law obtains only
us tiri TO TfoXii this ideal of science can clearly find only a relative
satisfaction with large reserves. In any case, however, the
problem as to first principles remains fundamental.
If we reject the infinite regress and the circle in proof (circulus
in probando) which resolves itself ultimately into proving A by B
Formal an<* ^ ^v ^? we are confronted by the need for
and principles of two kinds, those which condition all search
scientific for truth, and those which are the peculiar or proper
principles. prjncipies of special sciences, their " positions," viz. the
definitions of their subjects and the postulates of the existence of
these. All are indemonstrable and cannot be less sure than the
body of doctrine that flows from them. They must indeed be
recognized as true, primary, causative and the like. But 8 they
are not congenitally present in the individual in a determinate
shape. The doctrine of latency is mystical and savours of
Plato's reminiscence (anamnesis). Yet they must have some-
thing to develop from, and thereupon Aristotle gives an account
of a process in the psychological mechanism which he illustrates
by comparative psychology, wherein a Xo7o$ or meaning emerges,
a "first" universal recognized by induction. Yet
vo**' intelligence, is the principle of first principles.
dialectic. It is infallible, while, whatever the case with perception
of the special sensibles,9 the process which combines
particulars is not. On the side of induction we find that experi-
ence is said to give the specific principles,10 "the phenomena
being apprehended in sufficiency." On the side of intuition,
self-evidence of scientific principles is spoken of.11 Yet dialectic
1 900 6. Cf. Ueberweg, System der Logik, § 101.
2 780 30 sqq. » Topics, loib 18, 19.
4 Posterior Analytics, ii. 13. 6 Posterior Analytics, ii. 16.
* Posterior Analytics, i. 13 ad. fin., and i. 27. The form which a
mathematical science treats as relatively self-subsistent is certainly
not the constitutive idea. 7 Posterior Analytics, i. 3.
8 Posterior Analytics, ii. 19. 9 De Anima, 4286 18, 19.
10 Prior Analytics, i. 30, 460 18. " Topics, loob 20, 21.
is auxiliary and of methodological importance in their establish-
ment.12 Mutually limiting statements occur almost or quite
side by side. We cannot take first principles " as the bare
precipitate of a progressively refined analysis " 13 nor on the
other as constitutive a priori forms. The solution seems to lie
in the conception of a process that has a double aspect. On
the one hand we have confrontation with fact, in which, in
virtue of the rational principle which is the final cause of the
phenomenal order, intelligence will find satisfaction. On the
other we have a stage at which the rational but as yet not
reasoned concepts developed in the medium of the psychological
mechanism are subjected to processes of reflective comparison
and analysis, and, with some modification, maintained against
challenge, till at length the ultimate universals emerge, which
rational insight can posit as certain, and 'the whole hierarchy of
concepts from the " first " universals to TO. antprj are intuited
in a coherent system. Aristotle's terminology is highly technical,
but, as has often been observed, not therefore clear. Here two
words at least are ambiguous, " principle " and " induction." By
the first he means any starting-point, " that from which the
matter in question is primarily to be known," 14 particular facts
therefore, premises, and what not. What then is meant by prin-
ciples when we ask in the closing chapter of his logic how they
become known ? The data of sense are clearly not the principles
in question here. The premises of scientific syllogisms may
equally be dismissed. Where they are not derivative they
clearly are definitions or immediate transcripts from definitions.
There remain, then, primary definitions and the postulates of their
realization, and the axioms or common principles, " which he
must needs have who is to reach any knowledge." 16 In the case
of the former, special each to its own science, Aristotle may be
thought to hold that they are the product of the psychological
mechanism, but are ascertained only when they have faced
the fire of a critical dialectic and have been accepted from
the point of view of the integral rationality of the system of con-
cepts. Axioms, on the other hand, in which the sciences inter-
connect16 through the employment of them in a parity of relation,
seem to be implicit indeed in the psychological mechanism, but
to come to a kind of explicitness in the first reflective reaction
upon it, and without reference to any particular content of it.
They are not to be used as premises but as immanent laws of
thought, save only when an inference from true or admitted
premises and correct in form is challenged. The challenge must
be countered in a reductio ad impossibile in which the dilemma
is put. Either this conclusion or the denial of rationality.
Even these principles, however, may get a greater explicitness
by dialectical treatment.17 The relation, then, of the two orders
of principle to the psychological mechanism is different. The
kind of warrant that intelligence can give to specific principles
falls short of infallibility. Celestial physics, with its pure forms
and void of all matter save extension, is not such an exemplary
science after all. Rationality is continuous throughout. A
\07os emerges with some beings in direct sequence upon the
persistence of impressions.18 Sense is of the " first " universal,
the form, though not of the ultimate universal. The rally from
the rout in Aristotle's famous metaphor is of units that already
belong together, that are of the same regiment or order. On
the other hand, rationality has two stages. In the one it is
relatively immersed in sense, in the other relatively free. The
same break is to be found in the conception of the relation of
receptive to active mind in the treatise Of the Sow/.19 The one
is impressed by things and receives their form without their
matter. The other is free from impression. It thinks its
system of concepts freely on the occasion of the affections of the
receptivity. Aristotle is fond of declaring that knowledge
is of the universal, while existence or reality is individual. It
seems to follow that the cleavage between knowledge and reality
" Topics, loia 25, 36-37, 61-4, &c.
13 Zeller (loc. cit. p. 194), who puts this formula in order to reject it.
14 Metaphys. A I, 10130 14.
16 Posterior Analytics, 720 16 seq.
16 Posterior Analytics, ija 26, 760 37 sqq. " Metaphys. T.
" Posterior Analytics, ii. 19. w de Anima, iii. 4-6.
LATER GREEK]
LOGIC
9°3
is not bridged by the function of vow in relation to " induction."
What is known is not real, and what is real is not known. The
nodus1 has its cause in the double sense of the word
Knowledge " universal " and a possible solution in the doctrine
rea/ft °f e^os- The " form " of a thing constitutes it
what it is, and at the same time, therefore, is
constitutive of the group to which it belongs. It has both in-
dividual and universal reference. The individual is known
in the tldos, which is also the first universal in which by analysis
higher universals are discoverable. These are predicates of the
object known, ways of knowing it, rather than the object itself.
The suggested solution removes certain difficulties, but scarcely
all. On seeing Callias my perception is of man, not Callias,
or even man-Callias. The recognition of the individual is a
matter of his accidents, to which even sex belongs, and the gap
from lowest universal to individual may still be conceived as
unbridged. It is in induction, which claims to start from
particulars and end in universals,2 that we must, if anywhere
within the confines of logical inquiry, expect to find the required
bridge. The Aristotelian conception of induction, however, is
somewhat ambiguous. He had abandoned for the most part
Coam the Platonic sense of the corresponding verb, viz. to
elusions lead forward to the as yet unknown, and his substitute
as to in- is not quite clear. It is scarcely the military metaphor.
auction. rpne acjQiucing of a witness for which he uses the verb 3
is not an idea that covers all the uses.4 Perhaps confrontation
with facts is the general meaning. But how does he conceive
of its operation? There is in the first place the action of the
psychological mechanism in the process from discriminative
sense upwards wherein we realize " first " universals.5 This
is clearly an unreflective, prelogical process, not altogether
lighted up by our retrojection upon it of our view of dialectical
induction based thereon. The immanent rationality of this
first form, in virtue of which at the stage when intelligence
acts freely on the occasion of the datum supplied it recognizes
continuity with its own self-conscious process, is what gives
the dialectical type its meaning. Secondly we have this dia-
lectical " induction as to particulars by grouping of similars"6
whose liability to rebuttal by an exception has been already
noted in connexion with the limits of dialectic. This is the
incomplete induction by simple enumeration which has so
often been laughed to scorn. It is a heuristic process liable
to failure, and its application by a nation of talkers even to
physics where non-expert opinion is worthless somewhat dis-
credited it. Yet it was the fundamental form of induction
as it was conceived throughout the scholastic period. Thirdly
we have the limiting cases of this in the inductive syllogism
5td iraKuoc,7 a syllogism in the third figure concluding universally,
and yet valid because the copula expresses equivalence, and in
analogy8 in which, it has been well said, instances are weighed
and not counted. In the former it has been noted9 that
Aristotle's illustration does not combine particular facts into
a lowest concept, but specific concepts into a generic concept,
and 10 that in the construction of definite inductions the ruling
thought with Aristotle is already, though vaguely, that of
causal relation. It appears safer, notwithstanding, to take the
less subtle interpretation u that dialectical induction struggling
with instances is formally justified only at the limit, and that
this, where we have exhausted and know that we have exhausted
the cases, is in regard to individual subjects rarely and accident-
ally reached, so that we perforce illustrate rather from the
definite class-concepts falling under a higher notion. After
1 Metaphys. M. 10870 10-12; Zeller loc. cit. 304 sqq.; McLeod
Innes, The Universal and Particular in Aristotle's Theory of Know-
ledge (1886).
2 Topics, 1050 13. 3 Metaphys. 9950 8.
4 E.g., Topics, 1086 10, " to induce " the universal.
5 Posterior Analytics, ii. 19, 1006 3, 4.
6 Topics, i. 18, 1086 10. ' Prior Analytics, ii. 23.
8 naphSet-rua, Prior Analytics, ii. 24.
9 Sigwart, Logik, Eng. trans, vol. ii. p. 292 and elsewhere.
10 Ueberweg, System, § 127, with a ref. to de Partibus Animalium,
6670.
11 See 670 I?!? fariLvruv TWV
Summary,
all, Aristotle must have had means by which he reached the
conclusions that horses are long-lived and lack gall. It is only
then in the rather mystical relation of vow to the first type of
induction as the process of the psychological mechanism that an
indication of the direction in which the bridge from individual
being to universal knowledge is to be found can be held to lie.
Enough has been said to justify the great place assigned to
Aristotle in the history of logic. Without pressing metaphysical
formulae in logic proper, he analysed formal implica-
tion, grounded implication as a mode of knowledge
in the rationality of the real, and developed a justificatory
metaphysic. He laid down the programme which the after
history of logic was to carry out. We have of course abandoned
particular logical positions. This is especially to be noted in the
theory of the proposition. The individualism with which he
starts, howsoever afterwards mitigated by his doctrine of TO rl
r)v tlvo.1 or eiSos constituting the individual in a system of
intelligible relations, confined him in an inadmissible way to
the subject-attribute formula. He could not recognize such
vocables as the impersonals for what they were, and had perforce
to ignore the logical significance of purely reciprocal judgments,
such as those of equality. There was necessarily a " sense "
or direction in every proposition, with more than the purely
psychological import that the advance was from the already
mastered and familiar taken as relatively stable, to the new and.
strange. Many attributes, too, were predicable, even to the
end, in an external and accidental way, not being derivable from
the essence of the subject. The thought of contingency was too
easily applied to these attributes, and an unsatisfactory treatment
of modality followed. It is indeed the doctrine of the intract-
ability of matter to form that lies at the base of the paradox
as to the disparateness of knowledge and the real already noted.
On the one hand Aristotle by his doctrine of matter admitted
a surd into his system. On the other, he assigned to vow with
its insight into rationality too high *a function with regard to
the concrete in which the surd was present, a power to certify
the truth of scientific principles. The example of Aristotle's
view of celestial physics as a science of pure forms exhibits
both points. On the Copernican change the heavenly bodies
were recognized as concrete and yet subject to calculable law.
Intelligence had warranted false principles. The moral is that
of the story of the heel of Achilles.
To return to logic proper. The Aristotelian theory of the
universal of science as secure from dependence on its instances
and the theory of linking in syllogism remain a heritage for all
later logic, whether accepted in precisely Aristotle's formula
or no. It is because the intervening centuries had the Aristotelian
basis to work on, sometimes in reduced quantity and corrupt
form, but always in some quantity and some form, that the
rest of our logical tradition is what it is. We stand upon his
shoulders.
iii. Later Greek Logic.
After Aristotle we have, as regards logic, what the verdict of after
times has rightly characterized as an age of Epigoni. So far as the
Aristotelian framework is accepted we meet only minor corrections and
extensions of a formal kind. If there is conscious and purposed
divergence from Aristotle, inquiry moves, on the whole, within the
circle of ideas where Aristotelianism had fought its fight and won
its victory. Where new conceptions emerge, the imperfection of
the instruments, mechanical and methodological, of the sciences
renders them unfruitful, until their rediscovery in a later age. We
have activity without advance, diversity without development.
Attempts at comprehensiveness end in the compromises of eclecti-
cism.
Illustrations are not far to seek. Theophrastus and in general
the elder Peripatetics, before the rise of new schools with new lines
of cleavage and new interests had led to new antagonisms
and new alliances, do not break away from the Aristotelian
metaphysic. Their interests, however, lie in the sublunary
sciences in which the substantive achievement of the school was to
be found. With Theophrastus, accordingly, in his botanical in-
quiries, for example, the alternatives of classification, the normal
sequence of such and such a character upon such another, the
conclusion of rational probability, are what counts. It is perhaps
not wholly fanciful to connect with this attitude the fact that
Aristotle's pupils dealt with a surer hand than the master with the
9°4
LOGIC
[LATER GREEK
conclusions from premises of unlike modality, and that a formal
advance of some significance attributable to Theqphrastus and
Eudemus is the doctrine of the hypothetical and disjunctive syllo-
gisms.
The Stoics are of more importance. Despite the fact that their
philosophic interests lay rather in ethics and physics, their activity
in what they classified as the third department of specula-
tion was enormous and has at least left ineffaceable
Stoics. traces on the terminology of philosophy. Logic is their
word, and consciousness, impression and other technical words come
to us, at least as technical words, from Roman Stoicism. Even
inference, though apparently not a classical word, throws back to
the Stoic name for a conclusion.1 In the second place, it is in the
form in which it was raised in connexion with the individualistic
theory of perception with which the Stoics started, that one question
of fundamental importance, viz. that of the criterion of truth,
exercised its influence on the individualists of the Renaissance.
Perception, in the view of the Stoics, at its highest both revealed and
guaranteed the being of its object. Its hold upon the object in-
volved the discernment that it could but be that which it purported
to be. Such " psychological certainty " was denied by their agnostic
opponents, and in the history of Stoicism we have apparently a
modification of the doctrine of fyavraaia, /caraXijjn-tio? with a view
to meet the critics, an approximation to a recognition that the
primary conviction might meet with a counter-conviction, and
must then persist undissipated in face of the challenge and in the
last resort find verification in the haphazard instance, under varying
conditions, in actual working. The controversy as to the self-
evidence of perception in which the New Academy effected some
sort of conversion of the younger Stoics, and in which the Sceptics
.opposed both, is one of the really vital issues of the decadence.
Another doctrine of the Stoics which has interest in the light of
certain modern developments is their insistence on the place of the
\cKr6v in knowledge. Distinct alike from thing and mental
happening, it seems to correspond to " meaning " as it is used as a
technical phrase now-a-days. This anticipation was apparently
sterile. Along the same lines is their use of the hypothetical form
for the universal judgment, and their treatment of the hypothetical
form as the typical form of inference.
The Stoical categories, too, have an historical significance. They
are apparently offered in place of those of Aristotle, an acquaintance
with whose distinctions they clearly presume. Recognizing a
linguistic side to " logical " theory with a natural development in
rhetoric, the Stoics endeavour to exorcise considerations of language
from the contrasted side. They offer pure categories arising in
series, each successive one presupposing those that have gone
before. Yet the substance, quality, condition absolute (TTWS %xov)
and condition relative of Stoicism have no enduring influence out-
side the school, though they recur with eclectics like Galen. The
Stoics were too " scholastic " in their speculations.
In Epicureanism logic is still less in honour. The practical end,
freedom from the bondage of things with the peace it brings, is all
„ ._ in all, and even scientific inquiry is only in place as a
' means to this end. Of the apparatus of method the less
the better. We are in the presence of a necessary evil.
Yet, in falling back, with a difference, upon the atomism of Demo-
critus, Epicurus had to face some questions of logic. In the inference
from phenomena to further phenomena positive verification must be
insisted on. In the inference from phenomena to their non-pheno-
menal causes, the atoms with their inaccessibility to sense, a different
canon of validity obtains, that of non-contradiction.2 He dis-
tinguishes too between the inference to combination of atoms as
universal cause, and inference to special causes beyond the range of
sense. In the latter case alternatives may be acquiesced in. 3 The
practical aim of science is as well achieved if we set forth possible
causes as jr. showing the actual cause. This pococurantism might
easily be interpreted as an insight into the limitations of inverse
method as such or as a belief in the plurality of causes in Mill's sense
of the phrase. More probably it reflects the fact that Epicurus was,
according to tradition through Nausiphanes, on the whole dominated
by the influences that produced Pyrrhonism. Democritean physics
without a calculus had necessarily proved sterile of determinate
concrete results, and this was more than enough to ripen the natural-
ism of the utilitarian school into scepticism. Some reading between
the lines of Lucretius has led the " logic "of Epicurus to have an
effect on the modern world, but scarcely because of its deserts.
The school of Pyrrho has exercised a more legitimate influence.
Many of tha arguments by which the Sceptics enforced their ad-
TYie vocacy of a suspense of judgment are antiquated in type,
Sceatics '3ut many a'so are, within the limits of the individualistic
theory of knowledge, quite unanswerable. Hume had
constant recourse to this armoury. The major premise of syllogism,
says the Pyrrhonist, is established inductively from the particular
ii. 'E7ri= "in" as in Siroyu-p), tnductio, and -<t>opa.=
-ferentia, as in HiafapA., differentia.
1 Diog. Laert. x. 33 seq. ; Sext. Emp. Adv. Math. vii. 21 1.
8 Diog. Laert. x. 87; cf. Lucretius, vi. 703 sq., v. 526 sqq. (ed.
Munro).
instances. If there be but one of these uncovered by the generaliza-
tion, this cannot be sound. If the crocodile moves its upper, not its
lower, jaw, we may not say that all animals move the lower jaw.
The conclusion then is really used to establish the major premise,
and if we still will infer it therefrom we fall into the circular proof.4
Could Mill say more? But again. The inductive enumeration is
either of all cases or of some only. The former is in an indeter-
minate or infinite subject-matter impossible. The latter is invalid.*
Less familiar to modern ears is the contention that proof needs a
standard or criterion, while this standard or criterion in turn needs
proof. Or still more the dialectical device by which the sceptic
claims to escape the riposte that his very argument presumes the
validity of this or that principle, viz. the doctrine of the equipollence
of counter-arguments. Of course the counter-contention is no less
valid! So too when the reflection is made that scepticism is after
all a medicine that purges out itself with the disease, the disciple of
Pyrrho and Aenesidemus bows and says, Precisely! The sceptical
suspension of judgment has its limits, however. The Pyrrhonist will
act upon a basis of probabilities. Nay, he even treats the idea of
cause6 as probable enough so long as nothing more than action
upon expectation is in question. He adds, however, that any attempt
to establish it is involved in some sort of dilemma. That, for
instance, cause as the correlate of effect only exists with it, and
accordingly, cause which is come while effect is still to come is in-
conceivable.7 From the subjectivist point of view, which is mani-
festly fundamental through most of this, such arguments suasory
of the Pyrrhonist suspense of judgment (eiroxij) are indeed hard to
answer. It is natural, then, that the central contribution of the
Sceptics to the knowledge controversy lies in the modes (TPOTTCI) in
which the relativity of phenomena is made good, that these are
elaborated with extreme care, and that they have a modern ring
and are full of instruction even to-day. Scepticism, it must be
confessed, was at the least well equipped to expose the bankruptcy
of the post-Aristotelian dogmatism.
It was only gradually that the Sceptic's art of fence was developed.
From the time of Pyrrho overlapping Aristotle himself, who seems
to have been well content to use the feints of more than one school
among his predecessors, while showing that none of them could
claim to get past his guard, down through a period in which the
decadent academy under Carneades, otherwise dogmatic in its
negations, supplied new thrusts and parries, to Aenesidemus in the
late Ciceronian age, and again to Sextus Empiricus, there seems to
have been something of plasticity and continuous progress. In this
matter the dogmatic schools offer a marked contrast. In especial
it is an outstanding characteristic of the younger rivals to Aristote-
lianism that as they sprang up suddenly into being to contest the
claims of the Aristotelian system in the moment of its triumph, so
they reached maturity very suddenly, and thereafter persisted for
the most part in a stereotyped tradition, modified only when con-
victed of indefensible weakness. The 3rd century B.C. saw in its first
half the close of Epicurus' activity, and the life-work of Chrysippus,
the refounder of Stoicism, is complete before its close. And subse-
quent variations seem to have been of a negligible where not of an
eclectic character. In the case of Epicureanism we can happily
judge of the tyranny of the literal tradition by a comparison of
Lucretius with the recorded doctrine of the master. But the rule
apparently obtains throughout that stereotype and compromise
offer themselves as the exhaustive alternative. This is perhaps
fortunate for the history of doctrine, for it produces the commentator,
your Aspasius or Alexander of Aphrodisias, and the substitute for
the critic, your Cicero, or your Galen with his attempt at compre-
hension of the Stoic categories and the like while starting from
Aristotelianism. Cicero in particular is important as showing the
effect or philosophical eclecticism upon Roman cultivation, and as
the often author and always popularizer of the Latin terminology
of philosophy.
The cause of the stereotyping of the systems, apart from political
conditions, seems to have been the barrenness of science. Logic
and theory of knowledge go together, and without living science,
theory of knowledge loses touch with life, and logic becomes a
perfunctory thing. Under such circumstances speculative interest
fritters itself and sooner or later the sceptic has his way. Plato is
full of the faith of mathematical physics. Aristotle is optimistic
of achievement over the whole range of the sciences. But the
divorce of science of nature from mathematics, the failure of bio-
logical inquiry to reach so elementary a conception as that of the
nerves, the absence of chemistry from the circle of the sciences,
disappointed the promise of the dawn and the relative achievement
of the noon-day. There is no development. Physical science
remains dialectical, and a physical experiment is as rare in the age
of Lucretius as in that of Empedocles. The cause of eclecticism is
the unsatisfying character of the creeds of such science, in con-
junction with the familiar law that, in triangular or plusquam-
triangular controversies a common hatred will produce an alliance
4 Sextus Empiricus, Pyrrhon. Hypotyp. ii. 195, 196.
6 Sextus, op. cit. ii. 204.
* Op. cit. iii. 17 sqq., and especially 28.
7 The point is raised by Aristotle, 95A.
SCHOLASTICISM]
LOGIC
905
based on compromise. A bastard Platonism through hostility to
Stoicism may become agnostic. Stoicism through hostility to its
sceptical critics may prefer to accept some of the positions of the
dogmatic nihilist.
Of the later schools the last to arise was Neoplatonism. The
mathematical sciences, at least, had not proved disappointing.
For those of the school of Plato whc refused the apostasy
Neo~ of the new academy, there was hope either in the mathe-
platonlsm. mat;cai s^e of the Pythagoreo- Platonic tradition, or in
its ritual and theological side. Neoplatonism is philosophy become
theosophy, or it is the sermon on the text that God geometrizes.
It is of significance in the general history of thought as the one great
school that developed after the decadence had set in. In its meta-
physic it showed no failure in dialectical constructiveness. In the
history of logic it is of importance because of its production of a
whole series of commentators on the Aristotelian logic. Not only
the Introduction of Porphyry, which had lasting effects on the
Scholastic tradition, but the cornmentaries of Themistius, and
Simplicius. It was the acceptance of the Aristotelian logic by Neo-
platonism that determined the Aristotelian complexion of the logic
of the next age. If Alexander is responsible for such doctrines as
that of the intellectus acquisitus, it is to Porphyry, with his char-
acteristically Platonist preference for the doctrine of universals,
and for classificacion, that we owe the scholastic preoccupation with
the realist controversy, and with the quinque voces, i.e. the
Aristotelian predicables as restated by Porphyry.
B. SCHOLASTICISM
The living force in the spiritual life of the Roman empire was,
after all, not philosophy, but religion, and specifically Christianity.
With the extension of Christianity to the Gentile world it at
length became necessary for it to orientate itself towards what
was best in Greek culture. There is a Stoic element in the ethic
of the Pauline epistles, but the theological affinity that the
Johannine gospel, with its background of philosophic ideas,
exhibits to Platonic and Neoplatonist teaching caused the
effort at absorption to be directed rather in that direction.
Neoplatonism had accepted the Aristotelian logic with its
sharper definition than anything handed down from Plato, and,
except the logic of the Sceptics, there was no longer any rival
discipline of the like prestige. The logic of the Stoics had been
discredited by the sceptical onset, but in any case there was no
organon of a fitness even comparable to Aristotle's for the task
of drawing out the implications of dogmatic premises. Aristo-
telian logic secured the imprimatur of the revived Platonism,
and it was primarily because of this that it passed into the service
of Christian theology. The contact of the Church with Platonism
was on the mystical side. Orthodoxy needed to counter heretical
logic not with mysticism, itself the fruitful mother of heresies,
but with argument. Aristotelianism approved itself as the con-
troversial instrument, and in due course held the field alone. The
upshot is what is called Scholasticism. Scholasticism is the
Aristotelianism of medieval orthodoxy as taught in the
" schools " or universities of Western Europe. It takes form as a
body of doctrine drawing its premises from authority, sometimes
in secular matters from that of Aristotle, but normally from that
of the documents and traditions of systematic theology, while
its method it draws from Aristotle, as known in the Latin
versions,1 mainly by Boethius, of some few treatises of the
Organon together with the Isagoge of Porphyry. It dominates
the centres of intellectual life in the West because, despite its
claim to finality in its principles or premises, and to universality
for its method, it represents the only culture of a philosophic
kind available to the adolescent peoples of the Western nations
just becoming conscious of their ignorance. Christianity was
the one organizing principle that pulsed with spiritual life.
The vocation of the student could find fulfilment only in the
religious orders. Scholasticism embodied what the Christian
community had saved from the wreckage of Greek dialectic. Yet
with all its effective manipulation of the formal technique of its
translated and mutilated Aristotle, Scholasticism would have
gone under long before it did through the weakness intrinsic to
its divorce of the form and the matter of knowledge, but for two
reasons. The first is the filtering through of some science and
some new Aristotelian learning from the Arabs. The second
1 See Jourdain, Recherches critiques stir I'dge et I'origine. des
traductions latines d'Aristote (1843).
is the spread of Greek scholarship and Greek manuscripts west-
ward, which was consequent on the Latin occupation of Con-
stantinople in 1204. It was respited by the opportunity which
was afforded it of fresh draughts from the Aristotle of a less
partial and purer tradition, and we have, accordingly, a golden
age of revived Scholasticism beginning in the I3th century,
admitting now within itself more differences than before. It is to
the schoolmen of the two centuries preceding the Turkish
capture of Constantinople that the controversial refinements
usually associated with the name of Scholasticism are attribut-
able. The Analytics of Aristotle now entered quite definitely
into the logical thought of Scholasticism and we have the contrast
of a logica vetus and logica nova. That other matters, the parva
logicalia and Mnemonics adapted from Psellus and possibly of
Stoic origin, entered too did not outweigh this advantage.
Confrontation with the historical Aristotle may have brought
but little comfort to the orthodox system, but it was a stimulus
to dialectical activity within the schools. It provoked the
distinction of what was true secundum fidem and what was true
secundum rationem among even sincere champions of orthodoxy,
and their opponents accepted with a smile so admirable a mask
for that thinking for themselves to which the revival of hope
of progress had spurred them. The pioneers of the Renaissance
owe something of their strength to their training in the develop-
ments which the system that they overthrew underwent during
this period. The respite, however, was short. The flight of
Byzantine scholarship westward in the isth century revealed,
and finally, that the philosophic content of the Scholastic teaching
was as alien from Aristotle as from the spirit of the contemporary
revolt of science, with its cry for a new medicine, a new nautical
astronomy and the like. The doom of the Scholastic Aristotle
was nevertheless not the rehabilitation of the Greek Aristotle.
Between him and the tide of feeling at the Renaissance lay
the whole achievement of Arab science. That impatience of
authority to which we owe the Renaissance, the Reformation
and the birth of Nationalism, is not stilled by the downfall of
Aristotle as the nomen appellativum of the schools. The appeal
is to experience, somewhat vaguely defined, as against all
authority, to the book of nature and no other. At last the world
undertakes to enlarge the circle of its ideas.
C. THE RENAISSANCE
Accordingly what is in one sense the revival of classical
learning is in another a recourse to what inspired that learning,
and so is a new beginning. There is no place for a reformed
Aristotelian logic, though the genius of Zabarella was there to
attempt it. Nor for revivals of the competing systems, though
all have their advocates. Scientific discovery was in the air.
The tradition of the old world was too heavily weighted with
the Ptolemaic astronomy and the like to be regarded as other than
a bar to progress. But from the new point of view its method was
inadequate too, its contentment with an induction that merely
leaves an opponent silent, when experiment and the application
of a calculus were within the possibilities. The transformation
of logic lay with the man of science, hindered though he might
be by the enthusiasm of some of the philosophers of nature.
Henceforth the Aristotelian logic, the genuine no less than the
traditional, was to lie on the other side of the Copernican change.
The demand is for a new organon, a scientific method which
shall face the facts of experience and justify itself by its achieve-
ment in the reduction of them to control. It is a notable feature
of the new movement, that except verbally, in a certain licence
of nominalist expression, due to the swing of the pendulum away
from the realist doctrine of universals, there is little that we can
characterize as Empiricism. Facts are opposed to abstract
universals. Yes. Particulars to controlling formulae. No.
Experience is appealed to as fruitful where the formal employ-
ment of syllogism is barren. But it is not mere induction, with its
" unanalysed concretes taken as ultimate " that is set up as the
substitute for deduction. Rather a scientific process, which as
experiential may be called inductive, but which is in other
regards deductive as syllogism, is set up in constrast to syllogism
906
and enumeration alike. This is to be seen in Zabarella,1 in
Galilei,2 and in Bacon. The reformed Aristotelian logic of the
first-named with its inductio demonstratives, the mathematico-
physical analysis followed by synthesis of the second, the exclusiva,
or method of exclusions of the last, agree at least in this, that the
method of science is one and indivisible, while containing both
an inductive and a deductive moment. That what, e.g., Bacon
says of his method may run counter to this is an accident of the
tradition of the quarrel with realism. So, too, with the scholastic
universals. Aristotle's forms had been correlated, though
inadequately, with the idea of function. Divorced from this they
are fairly stigmatized as mental figments or branded as ghostly
entities that can but block the path. But consider Bacon's own
doctrine of forms. Or watch the mathematical physicist with his
formulae. The faith of science looks outward as in the dawn of
Greek philosophy, and subjectivism such as Hume's has as yet
no hold. Bacon summing up the movement so far as he under-
stood it, in a rather belated way, has no theory of knowledge
beyond the metaphor of the mirror held up to nature. Yet he
offers an ambitious logic of science, and the case is typical.
The science of the Renaissance differs from that of the false
dawn in Greek times in the fact of fruitfulness. It had the
achievement of the old world in the field of mathe-
matics upon which to build. It was in reaction against
a dialectic and not immediately to be again entrapped. In
scientific method, then, it could but advance, provided physics
and mathematics did not again fail of accord. Kepler and
Galilei secured it against that disaster. The ubi materia ibi
geometria of the one is the battle-cry of the mathematico-physical
advance. The scientific instrument of the other, with its moments
of analysis and construction, metodo risolutivo and metodo
compositive, engineers the road for the advance. The new
method of physics is verifiable by its fruitfulness, and so free of
any immediate danger from dialectic. Its germinal thought
may not have been new, but, if not new, it had at least needed
rediscovery from the beginning. For it was to be at once certain
and experiential. A mathematico-physical calculus that would
work was in question. The epistemological problem as such was
out of the purview. The relation of physical laws to the mind
that thought them was for the time a negligible constant.
When Descartes, having faithfully and successfully followed the
mathematico-physical inquiry of his more strictly scientific
predecessors, found himself compelled to raise the question how
it was possible for him to know what in truth he seemed to know
so certainly, the problem entered on a new phase. The scientific
movement had happily been content for the time with a half
which, then and there at least, was more than the whole.
Bacon was no mathematician, and so was out of touch with the
main army of progress. By temperament he was rather with
Bacon tne Humanists. He was content to voice the cry for
the overthrow of the dominant system as such, and
to call for a new beginning, with no realist presuppositions.
He is with the nominalists of the later Scholasticism and the
naturalists of the early Renaissance. He echoes the cry for
recourse to nature, for induction, for experiment. He calls for
a logic of discovery. But at first sight there is little sign of any
greater contribution to the reconstruction than is to be found
in Ramus or many another dead thinker. The syllogism is
ineffective, belonging to argumentation, and constraining assent
where what we want is control of things. It is a mechanical
combination of propositions as these of terms which are counters
to express concepts often ill-defined. The flight from a cursory
survey of facts to wide so-called principles must give way to a
gradual progress upward from propositions of minimum to those
of medium generality, and in these consists the fruitfulness of
science. Yet the induction of the Aristotelians, the dialectical
induction of the Topics, content with imperfect enumeration
and with showing the burden of disproof upon the critic, is
puerile, and at the mercy of a single instance to the contrary.
'See E. Cassirer, Das Erkenntnisproblem, i. 134 seq., and the
justificatory excerpts, pp. 539 sqq.
1 See Riehl in Vierteljahrschr. f. wiss. Philos. (1893).
LOGIC
[THE RENAISSANCE
In all this there is but little promise for a new organon. It is
neither novel nor instrumental. On a sudden Bacon's conception
of a new method begins to unfold itself. It is inductive only
in the sense that it is identical in purpose with the ascent from
particulars. It were better called exclusiva or elimination of
the alternative, which Bacon proposes to achieve, and thereby
guarantee his conclusion against the possibility of instance to
the contrary.
Bacon's method begins with a digest into three tables of the facts
relevant to any inquiry. The first contains cases of the occurrence
of the quality under investigation, colour, e.g., or heat, in ... .
varying combinations. The second notes its absence in Methods
combinations so allied to certain of these that its pre-
sence might fairly have been looked for. The third registers its
quantitative variation according to quantitative changes in its
concomitants. The method now proceeds on the basis of the first
table to set forth the possible suggestions as to a general explanatory
formula for the quality in question. In virtue of the remaining
tables it rejects any suggestion qualitatively or quantitatively
inadequate. If one suggestion, and one alone, survives the process
of attempted rejection it is the explanatory formula required. If
none, we must begin afresh. If more than one, recourse is to be
had to certain devices of method, in the enumeration of which the
methods of agreement, difference and concomitant variations3
find a place, beside the crucial experiment, the glaring instance and
the like. An appeal, however, to such devices, though a permissible
" first vintage " is relatively an imperfection of method, and a proof
that the tables need revision. The positive procedure by hypothesis
and verification is rejected by Bacon, who thinks of hypothesis as
the will o' the wisp of science, and prefers the cumbrous machinery
of negative reasoning.
Historically he appears to have been under the dominance of the
Platonic metaphor of an alphabet of nature, with a consequent
belief in the relatively small number of ultimate principles to be
determined, and of Plato's conception of Division, cleared of its
dialectical associations and used experientially in application to his
own molecular physics. True it is that the rejection of all the co-
species is a long process, but what if therein their simultaneous or
subsequent determination is helped forward ? They, too, must fall
to be determined sometime, and the ideal of science is fully to
determine all the species of the genus. This will need co-operative
effort as described in the account of Solomon's House in the New
Atlantis.* But once introduce the conception of division of labour
as between the collector of data on the one hand and the expert of
method, the interpreter of nature at headquarters, on the other,
and Bacon's attitude to hypothesis and to negative reasoning is at
least in part explained. The hypothesis of the collector, the man
who keeps a rain-gauge, or the missionary among savages, is to be
discounted from as a source of error. The expert on the other hand
may be supposed, in the case of facts over which he has not himself
brooded in the course of their acquisition, to approach them without
any presumption this way or that. He will, too, have no interest
in the isolation of any one of several co-ordinate inquiries. That
Bacon underestimates the importance of selective and of provisional
explanatory hypotheses even in such fields as that of chemistry,
and that technically he is open to some criticism from the point of
view that negative judgment is derivate as necessarily resting on
positive presuppositions, may be true enough. It seems, however,
no less true that the greatness of his conception of organized common
effort in science has but rarely met with due appreciation.
In his doctrine of forms, too, the " universals " of his logic, Bacon
must at least be held to have been on a path which led forward and
not back. His forms are principles whose function falls porms
entirely within knowledge. They are formulae for the
control of the activities and the production of the qualities of bodies.
Forms are qualities and activities expressed in terms of the ultimates
of nature, i.e. normally in terms of collocations of matter or modes
of motion. (The human soul is still an exception.) Form is bound
up with the molecular structure and change of structure of a body,
one of whose qualities or activities it expresses in wider relations.
A mode of motion, for instance, of a certain definite kind, is the
form of heat. It is the recipe for, and at the same time is, heat,
much as HaO is the formula for and is water. Had Bacon analysed
bodies into their elements, instead of their qualities and ways of
behaviour, he would have been the logician of the chemical formula.
Here, too, he has scarcely received his meed of appreciation.
His influence on his successors has rather lain in the general stimulus
of his enthusiasm for experience, or in the success with which he
represents the cause of nominalism and in certain special devices of
method handed down till, through Hume or Herschel, they affected
the thought of Mill. For the rest he was too Aristotelian, if we take
the word broadly enough, or, as the result of his Cambridge studies,
3 Bacon, Novunt Organum, ii. 22, 23; cf. also Aristotle, Topics
i. 12. 13, ii. 10. ii (Stewart, ad Nic. Eth. 11396 27) and Sextus
Empiricus, Pyrr. Hypot. iii. 15.
4 Bacon's Works, ed. Ellis and Spedding, iii. 164-165.
MODERN] LOGIC
too Ramist,1 when the interest in scholastic issues was fading, to
bring his original ideas to a successful market.
Bacon's Logic, then, like Galilei's, intended as a contribution to
scientific method, a systematization of discovery by which, given
the fact of knowledge, new items of knowledge may be acquired,
failed to convince contemporaries and successors alike of its effici-
ency as an instrument. It was an ideal that failed to embody itself
and justify itself by its fruits. It was otherwise with the mathe-
matical instrument of Galilei.
Descartes stands in the following of Galilei. It is concurrently
with signal success in the work of a pioneer in the mathematical
advance that he comes to reflect on method, generalizes
Descartes. the method of mathematics to embrace knowledge as
a whole, and raises the ultimate issues of its presuppositions.
In the mathematics we determine complex problems by a con-
struction link by link from axioms and simple data clearly and
distinctly conceived. Three moments are involved. The first
is an induction, i.e. an exhaustive enumeration of the simple
elements in the complex phenomenon under investigation.
This resolution or analysis into simple, because clear and distinct,
elements may be brought to a standstill again and again by
obscurity and indistinctness, but patient and repeated revision
of all that is included in the problem should bring the analytic
process to fruition. It is impatience, a perversity of will, that is
the cause of error. Upon the analysis there results intuition
of the simple data. With Descartes intuition does not connote
givenness, but its objects are evident at a glance when induction
has brought them to light. Lastly we have deduction the deter-
mination of the most complex phenomena by a continuous
synthesis or combination of the simple elements. Synthesis
is demonstrative and complete. It is in virtue of this view of
derived or mediate knowledge that Descartes speaks of the
(subsumptive) syllogism as "of avail rather in the communica-
tion of what we already know." Syllogism is not the synthesis
which together with analysis goes to constitute the new instru-
ment of science. The celebrated Regulae of Descartes are pre-
cepts directed to the achievement of the new methodological
ideal in any and every subject matter, however reluctant.
It is the paradox involved in the function of intuition, the
acceptance of the psychological characters of clearness and dis-
tinctness as warranty of a truth presumed to be trans-subjec-
tive, that leads to Descartes's distinctive contribution to the theory
of knowledge. In order to lay bare the ground of certainty he
raises the universal doubt, and, although, following Augustine,2
he finds its limit in the thought of the doubter, this of itself is
not enough. Cogito, ergo sum. That I think may be admitted.
What I think may still need validation. Descartes's guarantee
of the validity of my clear and distinct perceptions is the veracity
of God.3 Does the existence of God in turn call for proof? An
effect cannot contain more than its cause, nor the idea of a
perfect Being find adequate source save in the actuality of such
a Being. Thus the intuition of the casual axiom is used to prove
the existence of that which alone gives validity to intuitions.
Though the logical method of Descartes has a great and enduring
influence, it is the dualism and the need of God to bridge it, the
doctrine of " innate " ideas, i.e. of ideas not due to external
causes nor to volition but only to our capacity to think, our
disposition to develop them, and finally the ontological proof,
that affect the thought of the next age most deeply. That
essence in the supreme case involves existence is a thought
which comes to Spinoza more easily, together with the tradition
of the ordo geometricus.
D. MODERN LOGIC
i. The Logic of Empiricism
The path followed by English thought was a different one.
Hobbes developed the nominalism which had been the hall-
mark of revolt against scholastic orthodoxy, and, when he brings
this into relation with the analysis and synthesis of scientific
1 A notable formula of Bacon's Novum Organum ii. 4 § 3 turns
out, Valerius Terminus, cap. n, to come from Aristotle, Post. An.
j. 4 via Ramus. See Ellis in Bacon's Works, Hi. 203 sqq.
2 De Civitate Dei, xi. 26, " Certum est me esse, si fallor.
3 Cf. Plato, Republic, 38iE seq.
907
method, it is at the expense of the latter.4 Locke, when Car-
tesianism had raised the problem of the contents of conscious-
ness, and the spirit of Baconian positivism could not accept of
anything that bore the ill-omened name of innate ideas, elaborated
a theory of knowledge which is psychological in the sense that
its problem is how the simple data with which the individual is
in contact in sensation are worked up into a system. Though he
makes his bow to mathematical method, he, even more than
Hobbes, misses its constructive character. The clue of mathe-
matical certainty is discarded in substance in the English form
of " the new way of ideas."
With Hobbes logic is a calculus of marks and signs in the
Form of names. Naming is what distinguishes man from the
brutes. It enables him to fix fleeting memories Hobbes
and to communicate with his fellows. He alone is
capable of truth in the due conjunction or disjunction of names
in propositions. Syllogism is simply summation of propositions,
its function being communication merely. Analysis is the sole
way of invention or discovery. There is more, however, in
Hobbes, than the paradox of nominalism. Spinoza could draw
upon him for the notion of genetic definition.6 Leibnitz probably
owes to him the thought of a calculus of symbols, and the concep-
tion of demonstration as essentially a chain of definitions.6 His
psychological account of syllogism7 is taken over by Locke.
Hume derived from him the explanatory formula of the associa-
tion of ideas,8 which is, however, still with Hobbes a fact to be
accounted for, not a theory to account for facts, being grounded
physically in " coherence of the matter moved." Finally Mill
took from him his definition of cause as sum of conditions,'
which played no small part in the applied logic of the igth
century.
Locke is of more importance, if not for his logical doctrine,
at least for the theory of knowledge from which it flows. With
Locke the mind is comparable to white paper on which Locte,
the world of things records itself in ideas of sensation.
Simple ideas of sensation are the only points of contact we have
with things. They are the atomic elements which " the work-
manship of the understanding " can thereafter do no more than
systematically compound and the like. It is Locke's initial
attribution of the primary role in mental process to the simple
ideas of sensation that precludes him from the development of
the conception of another sort of ideas, or mental contents that
he notes, which are produced by reflection on " the operations of
our own mind within us." It is in the latter group that we have
the explanation of all that marks Locke as a forerunner of the
critical philosophy. It contains in germ a doctrine of categories
discovered but not generated in the psychological processes of
the individual. Locke, however, fails to " deduce " his cate-
gories. He has read Plato's Theaetetus in the light of Baconian
and individualist preconceptions. Reflection remains a sort of
" internal sense," whose ideas are of later origin than those of the
external sense. His successors emphasize the sensationist
elements, not the workmanship of the mind. When Berkeley
has eliminated the literal materialism of Locke's metaphors of
sense-perception, Hume finds no difficulty in accepting the
sensations as present virtually in their own right, any non-
sensible ground being altogether unknown. From a point of
view purely subjectivist he is prepared to explain all that is to be
left standing of what Locke ascribes to the workmanship of the
mind by the principle of association or customary conjunction of
ideas, which Locke had added a chapter to a later edition of his
Essay explicitly to reject as an explanatory formula. Condillac
goes a step farther, and sees no necessity for the superstructure
at all, with its need of explanation valid or invalid. Drawing
upon Gassendi for his psychological atomism and upon Hobbes
for a thoroughgoing nominalism, he reproduces, as the logical
conclusion from Locke's premises, the position of Antisthenes.
4 Elementa Philosophic, i. 3. 20, i. 6. 17 seq.
6 Hobbes, Elementa Philosophic, i. i. 5.
8 Id. ib. i. 6. 1 6.
7 Id. ib. i. 4. 8; cf. Locke's Essay of Human Understanding,
.iv. 17.
8 Id. Leviathan, i. 3. • Id. Elem. Philos. i. 6. 10.
908
LOGIC
[EMPIRICISM
The last word is that " une science bien traitee n'est qu'une
langue bien faite." *
Locke's logic comprises, amid much else, a theory of general
terms 2 and of definition, a view of syllogism 3 and a declaration
as to the possibility of inference from particular to particular,4
a distinction between propositions which are certain but trifling,
and those which add to our knowledge though uncertain, and a
doctrine of mathematical certainty.5 As to the first, " words
become general by being made the signs of general ideas, and
ideas become general by separating from them " all " that may
determine them to this or that particular existence. By this
way of abstraction they are made capable of representing more
individuals than one." This doctrine has found no acceptance.
Not from the point of view for which idea means image.
Berkeley, though at length the notions of spirits, acts and
relations8 give him pause, prefers the formula which Hume
expresses in the phrase that " some ideas are particular in their
nature but general in their representation,"7 and the after-
history of " abstraction " is a discussion of the conditions
under which one idea " stands for " a group. Not from those
for whom general ideas mean schematic concepts, not imageable.
The critic from this side has little difficulty in showing that
abstraction of the kind alleged still leave the residuum particular
Ms redness, e.g. not redness. It is, however, of the sorts con-
stituted by the representation which his abstraction makes
possible that definition is given, either by enumeration of the
simple ideas combined in the significance of the sortal name, or
" to save the labour of enumerating," and " for quickness and
despatch sake," by giving the next wider general name and the
proximate difference. We define essences of course in a sense,
but the essences of which men talk are abstractions, " creatures
of the understanding." Man determines the sorts or nominal
essences, nature the similitudes. The fundamentally enumera-
tive character of the process is clearly not cancelled by the
recognition that it is possible to abbreviate it by means of
technique. So long as the relation of the nominal to the real
essence has no other background than Locke's doctrine of
perception, the conclusion that what Kant afterwards calls
analytical judgments a priori and synthetic judgments a posteriori
exhaust the field follows inevitably, with its corollary, which
Locke himself has the courage to draw, that the natural sciences
are in strictness impossible. Mathematical knowledge is not
involved in the same condemnation, solely because of the
" archetypal " character, which, not without indebtedness to
Cumberland, Locke attributes to its ideas. The reality of
mathematics, equally with that of the ideals of morals drawn
from within, does not extend to the " ectypes " of the outer world.
The view of reasoning which Locke enunciates coheres with
these views. Reasoning from particular to particular, i.e.
without the necessity of a general premise, must be possible, and
tne possibility finds warranty in a consideration of the psycho-
logical order of the terms in syllogism. As to syllogism specific-
ally, Locke in a passage,8 which has an obviously Cartesian
ring, lays down four stages or degrees of reasoning, and points
out that syllogism serves us in but one of these, and that not the
all-important one of finding the intermediate ideas. He is
prepared readily to " own that all right reasoning may be reduced
to Aristotle's forms of syllogism," yet holds that " a man knows
first, and then he is able to prove syllogistically." The distance
from Locke to Stuart Mill along this line of thought is obviously
but small.
Apart from the adoption by Hume of the association of ideas
as the explanatory formula of the school — it had been allowed by
Hume Malebranche within the framework of his mysticism
and employed by Berkeley in his theory of vision —
there are few fresh notes struck in the logic of sensationalism.
The most notable of these are Berkeley's treatment of " abstract "
1 Condillac, Langue des Calculs, p. 7. z Locke, Essay, iii. 3.
3 Id. ib. iv. 17. 4 Loc. cit. § 8. ' Id. ib. iv. 4, §§ 6 sqq.
* Berkeley, Of the Principles of Human Knowledge, § 142.
7 Hume, Treatise of Human Nature, i. I. 7 (from Berkeley, op.
cit., introd., §§ 15-16).
8 Essay, iv. 17, § 3.
ideas and Hume's change of front as to mathematical certainty.
What, however, Hume describes as " all the logic I think proper
to employ in my reasoning," viz. his " rules by which to judge
cause and effects,"9 had, perhaps, farther-reaching historical
effects than either. In these the single method of Bacon is
already split up into separate modes. We have Mill's inductive
methods in the germ, though with an emphasis quite older than
Mill's. Bacon's/0?vw has already in transmission through Hobbes
been transmuted into cause as antecedent in the time series. It
may, perhaps, be accounted to Hume for righteousness that he
declares — whether consistently or not is another matter — that
" the same effect never arises but from the same cause," and
that he still follows Bacon in the conception of absentia in
proximo. It is " when in any instance we find our expectation
disappointed " that the effect of one of " two resembling objects "
will be like that of the other that Hume proposes to apply his
method of difference.
No scientific discipline, however, with the doubtful exception
of descriptive psychology, stands to gain anything from a temper
like that of Hume. The whittling away of its formal or organizing
rubrics, as e.g., sameness into likeness, is disconcerting to science
wherever the significance of the process is realized. It was because
the aftermath of Newtonian science was so rich that the scientific
faith of naturalism was able to retain a place besides its epistemo-
logical creed that a logician of the school could arise whose spirit
was in some sort Baconian, but who, unlike Bacon, had entered
the modern world, and faced the problems stated for it by Hume
and by Newton.
Stuart Mill's System of Logic marked a fresh stage in the history
of empiricism, for the reason that it made the effort to hold an
even balance between the two moments in the thought
of the school. Agreement in the use of a common
watchword had masked as it seems a real divergence of meaning
and purpose. The apostles of inductive method had preached
recourse to experience, but had meant thereby nature as a
constituted order. They had devised canons for the investigation
of the concrete problems of this, but had either ignored altogether
the need to give an account of the mirroring mind, or, in the
alternative had been, with some naivete, content to assume that
their nominalist friends, consistently their allies in the long
struggle with traditionalism, had adequately supplied or could
adequately supply the need. The exponents of psychological
atomism, on the other hand, with the association of ideas for
their one principle of agglutination had come to mean by
experience the mental phantasmagoria of the individual. They
had undermined the foundations of scientific certainty, and so
far as the fecundity of contemporary science did not give them
pause, were ready, notwithstanding the difference of their
starting-point, to acquiesce in the formula as well as the temper
of Pyrrhonism. They could concede the triumphant achievement
of science only with the proviso that it must be assumed to fall
within the framework of their nominalism. Mill aspired after a
doctrine of method such as should satisfy the needs of the natural
sciences, notably experimental physics and chemistry as under-
stood in the first half of the ipth century and, mutatis mutandis,
of the moral sciences naturalistically construed. In uniting with
this the Associationism which he inherited, through his father,
from Hume, he revealed at once the strength and weakness of
the dual conception of naturalism. His rare thoroughness and
rarer candour made it at once unnecessary and impossible that
the work should be done again.
If judged by what he denies, viz. the formal logic of Hamilton
and Mansel, whose Aristotelian and scholastic learning did but
accentuate their traditionalism, and whose acquiescence in
consistency constituted in Mill's view a discouragement of
research, such as men now incline to attribute at the least
equally to Hume's idealism, Mill is only negatively justified.
If judged by his positive contribution to the theory of method
he may claim to find a more than negative justification for his
teaching in its success. In the field covered by scholastic logic
Mill is frankly associationist. He aims at describing what he
• Hume, Treatise of Human Nature, i. 3. 15.
EMPIRICISM]
LOGIC
909
finds given, without reference to insensible implications of
doubtful validity and value. The upshot is a psychological
account of what from one aspect is evidence, from the other,
belief. So he explains "concepts or general notions"1 by an
abstraction which he represents as a sort of alt-relief operated
by attention and fixed by naming, association with the name
giving to a set of attributes a unity they otherwise lack. This
is manifestly, when all is said, a particular psychological event,
a collective fact of the associative consciousness. It can exercise
no organizing or controlling function in knowledge. So again
in determining the " import " of propositions, it is no accident
that in all save existential propositions it is to the familiar rubrics
of associationism — co-existence, sequence, causation and resem-
blance— that he refers for classification, while his general formula
as to the conjunctions of connotations is associationist through
and through. It follows consistently enough that inference is
from particular to particular. Mill holds even the ideas of
mathematics to be hypothetical, and in theory knows nothing of
a non-enumerative or non-associative universal. A premise that
has the utmost universality consistent with this view can clearly
be of no service for the establishment of a proposition that has
gone to the making of it. Nor again of one that has not. Its
use, then, can only be as a memorandum. It is a shorthand
formula of registration. Mill's view of ratiocinative process
clearly stands and falls with the presumed impossibility of
establishing the necessity for universals of another type than his,
for what may be called principles of construction. His critics
incline to press the point that association itself is only intelligible
so far as it is seen to depend on universals of the kind that he
denies.
In Mill's inductive logic, the nominalistic convention has,
through his tendency to think in relatively watertight com-
partments,2 faded somewhat into the background. Normally
he thinks of what he calls phenomena no longer as psychological
groupings of sensations, as " states of mind," but as things and
events in a physical world howsoever constituted and appre-
hended. His free use of relating concepts, that of sameness,
for instance, bears no impress of his theory of the general notion,
and it is possible to put out of sight the fact that, taken in con-
junction with his nominalism, it raises the whole issue of the
possibility of the equivocal generation of formative principles
from the given contents of the individual consciousness, in any
manipulation of which they are already implied. Equally, too,
the deductive character, apparently in intention as well as in
actual fact, of Mill's experimental methods fails to recall the
point of theory that the process is essentially one from particular
to particular. The nerve of proof in the processes by which he
establishes causal conjunctions of unlimited application is
naturally thought to lie in the special canons of the several
processes and the axioms of universal and uniform causation
which form their background. The conclusions seem not merely
to fall within, but to depend on these organic and controlling
formulae. They follow not merely according to them but from
them. The reference to the rule is not one which may be made
and normally is made as a safeguard, but one which must be
made, if thought is engaged in a forward and constructive move-
ment at all. Yet Mill's view of the function of " universal "
propositions had been historically suggested by a theory — Dugald
Stewart's — of the use of axioms!3 Once more, it would be
possible to forget that Mill's ultimate laws or axioms are not in
his view intuitions, nor forms constitutive of the rational order,
nor postulates of all rational construction, were it not that he has
made the endeavour to establish them on associationist lines.
It is because of the failure of this endeavour to bring the technique
of induction within the setting of his Humian psychology of
belief that the separation of his contribution to the applied logic
of science from his sensationism became necessary, as it happily
1 Mill, Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy, cap. 17.
2 Cf. Mill, Autobiography, p. 159. " I grappled at once with the
problem of Induction, postponing that of Reasoning." Ib. p. 182
(when he is preoccupied with syllogism), " I could make nothing
satisfactory of Induction at this time." .
* Autobiography, p. 181.
was easy. Mill's device rested special inductions of causation
upon the laws that every event has a cause, and every cause has
always the same effect. It rested these in turn upon a general
induction enumerative in character of enormous and practically
infinite range and always uncontradicted. Though obviously
not exhaustive, the unique extent of this induction was held to
render it competent to give practical certainty or psychological
necessity. A vicious circle is obviously involved. It is true, of
course, that ultimate laws need discovery, that they are dis-
covered in some sense in the medium of the psychological
mechanism, and that they are nevertheless the grounds of all
specific inferences. But that truth is not what Mill expounds,
nor is it capable of development within the limits imposed by
the associationist formula.
It is deservedly, nevertheless, that Mill's applied logic has
retained its pride of place amid what has been handed on, if in
modified shape, by writers, e.g., Sigwart. and Professor Bosanquet,
whose theory of knowledge is quite alien from his. He prescribed
regulative or limiting formulae for research as it was actually
conducted in his world. His grasp of the procedure by which the
man of science manipulated his particular concrete problems was
admirable. In especial he showed clear understanding of the
functions of hypothesis and verification in the investigations of
the solitary worker, with his facts still in course of accumulation
and needing to be lighted up by the scientific imagination.
He was therefore enabled to formulate the method of what
Bacon had tended to despise as merely the " first vintage."
Bacon spent his strength upon a dream of organization for all
future discovery. Mill was content to codify. The difference
between Bacon and Mill lies chiefly in this, and it is because of
this difference that Mill's contribution, spite of its debt to the
Baconian tradition, remains both characteristic and valuable.
It is of course possible to criticise even the experimental canons
with some severity. The caveats, however, which are relevant
within the circle of ideas within which Mill's lesson can be learned
and improved on,4 seem to admit of being satisfied by relatively
slight modifications in detail, or by explanations often supplied
or easily to be supplied from points brought out amid the wealth
of illustration with which Mill accompanied his formal or syste-
matic exposition of method. The critic has the right of it when
he points out, for example, that the practical difficulty in the
Method of Agreement is not due to plurality of causes, as Mill
states, but rather to intermixture of effects, while, if the canon
could be satisfied exactly, the result would not be rendered
uncertain in the manner or to the extent which he supposes.
Again the formula of the Joint-Method, which contemplates the
enumeration of cases " which have nothing in common but the
absence of one circumstance," is ridiculously unsound as it
stands. Or, on rather a different line of criticism, the use of
corresponding letters in the two series of antecedents and
consequents raises, it is said, a false presumption of correlation.
Nay, even the use of letters at all suggests that the sort of analysis
that actually breaks up its subject-matter is universally or all
but universally applicable in nature, and this is not the case.
Finally, the conditions of the methods are either realized or not.
If they are realized, the work of the scientist falls entirely within
the field of the processes preliminary to the satisfaction of the
canon. The latter becomes a mere memorandum or formula of
registration. So is it possible " to have the enginer hoist with
his own petar." But the conditions are not realized, and in an
experiential subject-matter are not realizable. Not one circum-
stance only in common but " apparently one relevant circum-
stance only in common " is what we are able to assert. If we add
the qualification of relevance we destroy the cogency of the
method. If we fail to add it, we destroy the applicability.
The objections turn on two main issues. One is the exaggera-
tion of the possibilities of resolution into separate elements that
is due to the acceptance of the postulate of an alphabet of
nature. This so soon as noted can be allowed for. It is to the
4 The insight, for instance, of F. H. Bradley's criticism, Princi-
ples of Logic, II. ii. 3, is somewhat dimmed by a lack of sympathy
due to extreme difference in the point of view adopted.
gio
LOGIC
[RATIONALISM
combination of this doctrine with a tendency to think chiefly of
experiment, of the controlled addition or subtraction of these
elements one at a time, that we owe the theoretically premature
linking of a as effect to A as cause. This too can be met by a
modification of form. The other issue is perhaps of more signi-
ficance. It is the oscillation which Mill manifests between the
conception of his formula as it is actually applicable to concrete
problems in practice, and the conception of it as an expression of
a theoretical limit to practical procedure. Mill seems most often
to think of the former, while tending to formulate in terms of the
latter. At any rate, if relevance in proximo is interpolated in the
peccant clause of the canon of the Joint-Method, the practical
utility of the method is rehabilitated. So too, if the canon
of the Method of Agreement is never more than approxi-
mately satisfied, intermixture of effects will in practice mean
that we at least often do not know the cause or antecedent
equivalent of a given effect, without the possibility of an
alternative. Finally, it is on the whole in keeping with Mill's
presuppositions to admit even in the case of the method of
difference that in practice it is approximative and instructive,
while the theoretical formula, to which it aims at approaching
asymptotically as limit, if exact, is in some sense sterile. Mill
may well have himself conceived his methods as practically
fruitful and normally convincing with the limiting formula in
each case more cogent in form but therewith merely the skeleton
of the process that but now pulsed with life.
Enough has been said to show why the advance beyond the
letter of Mill was inevitable while much in the spirit of Mill
must necessarily affect deeply all later experientialism. After
Mill experientialism takes essentially new forms. In part because
of what Mill had done. In part also because of what he had left
undone. After Mill means after Kant and Hegel and Herbart,
and it means after the emergence of evolutionary naturalism.
Mill, then, marks the final stage in the achievement of a great
school of thought.
ii. The Logic of Rationalism.
A fundamental contrast to the school of Bacon and of Locke is
afforded by thegreat systemsof reason, owning Cartesian inspira-
Splaozn t'on' whicn are identified with the names of Spinoza
and Leibnitz. In the history of logic the latter thinker
is of the more importance. Spinoza's philosophy is expounded
ordine geometrico and with Euclidean cogency from a relatively
small number of definitions, axioms and postulates. But how
we reach our assurance of the necessity of these principles is not
made specifically clear. The invaluable tractate De Intellectus
emendatione, in which the agreement with and divergence from
Descartes on the question of method could have been fully
elucidated, is unhappily not finished. We know that we need
to pass from what Spinoza terms experientia vaga,1 where
imagination with its fragmentary apprehension is liable to error
and neither necessity nor impossibility can be predicated, right up
to that which fictionem terminal — namely, intellectio. And what
Spinoza has to say of the requisites of definition and the marks of
intellection makes it clear that insight comes with coherence, and
that the work of method on the " inductive " side is by means
of the unravelling of all that makes for artificial limitation to
lay bare what can then be seen to exhibit nexus in the one great
system. When all is said, however, the geometric method as
universalized in philosophy is rather used by Spinoza than
expounded.
With Leibnitz, on the other hand, the logical problem holds
the foremost place in philosophical inquiry.2 From the purely
logical thesis, developed at quite an early stage of his
thinking,3 that in any true proposition the predicate is
contained in the subject, the main principles of his doctrine of
Monads are derivable with the minimum of help from his
philosophy of dynamics. Praedicatum inest subjecto. All valid
1 Bacon, Novum organum, i. 100.
2 Russell's Philosophy of Leibnitz, capp. 1-5.
1 See especially remarks on the letter of M. Arnauld (Gerhardt's
edition of the philosophical works, ii. 37 sqq.).
Leibnitz.
propositions express in the last resort the relation of predicate or
predicates to a subject, and this Leibnitz holds after considering
the case of relational propositions where either term may hold
the position of grammatical subject, A = B and the like. There
is a subject then, or there are subjects which must be recognized
as not possible to be predicated, but as absolute. For reasons
not purely logical Leibnitz declares for the plurality of such
subjects. Each contains all its predicates: and this is true not
only in the case of truths of reason, which are necessary, and
ultimately to be exhibited as coming under the law of contra-
diction, " or, what comes to the same thing, that of identity,"
but also in the case of truths of fact which are contingent, though
a sufficient reason can be given for them which " inclines " without
importing necessity. The extreme case of course is the human
subject. " The individual notion of each person includes once
for all what is to befall it, world without end," and " itjWould not
have been our Adam but another, if he had had other events."
Existent subjects, containing eternally all their successive
predicates in the time-series, are substances, which when the
problems connected with their activity, or dynamically speaking
their force, have been resolved, demand — and supply — the
metaphysic of the Monadology.
Complex truths of reason or essence raise the problem of
definition, which consists in their analysis into simpler truths
and ultimately into simple — i.e. indefinable ideas, with primary
principles of another kind — axioms, and postulates that neither
need nor admit of proof. These are identical in the sense that
the opposite contains an express contradiction.4 In the case of
non-identical truths, too, there is a priori proof drawn from the
notion of the terms, " though it is not always in our power to
arrive at this analysis," 6 so that the question arises, specially
in connexion with the possibility of a calculus, whether the
contingent is reducible to the necessary or identical at the ideal
limit. With much that suggests an affirmative answer, Leibnitz
gives the negative. Even in the case of the Divine will, though
it be always for the best possible, the sufficient reason will
" incline without necessitating." The propositions which deal
with actual existence are still of a unique type, with whatever
limitation to the calculus.
Leibnitz's treatment of the primary principles among truths of
reason as identities, and his examples drawn inter alia from the
" first principles " of mathematics, influenced Kant by antago-
nism. Identities some of them manifestly were not. The formula
of identity passed in another form to Herbart and therefore to
Lotze. In recognizing, further, that the relation of an actual
individual fact to its sufficient ground was not reducible to
identity, he set a problem diversely treated by Kant and Herbart.
He brought existential propositions, indeed, within a rational
system through the principle that it must be feasible to assign
a sufficient reason for them, but he refused to bring them under
the conception of identity or necessity, i.e. to treat their opposites
as formally self-contradictory. This bore interest in the Kantian
age in the treatment alike of cause and effect, and of the onto-
logical proof of existence from essence. Not that the Law of
Sufficient Reason is quite free from equivoque. Propositions
concerning the possible existence of individuals put Leibnitz to
some shifts, and the difficulty accounts for the close connexion
established in regard to our actual world between the law of
sufficient reason and the doctrine of the final cause. This con-
nexion is something of an afterthought to distinguish from
the potential contingency of the objectively possible the real
contingency of the actual, for which the " cause or reason " of
Spinoza 6 could not account. The law, however, is not invalidated
by these considerations, and with the degree of emphasis and the
special setting that Leibnitz gives the law, it is definitely his own.
If we may pass by the doctrine of the Identity of Indiscernibles,
which played a part of some importance in subsequent philo-
sophy, and the Law of Continuity, which as Leibnitz represents
it is, if not sheer dogma, reached by something very like a fallacy,
4 Gerhardt, vi. 612, quoted by Russell, loc. cit., p. 19.
6 Ibid., ii. 62, Russell, p. 33.
6 Spinoza, ed. van Vloten and Land, i. 46 (Ethica, i. Ii).
KANT]
LOGIC
911
we have as Leibnitz's remaining legacy to later logicians the
conception of Characteristica Universalis and Ars Combinatoria,
a universal denoting by symbols and a calculus working by
substitutions and the like. The two positions that a subject
contains all its predicates and that all non-contingent proposi-
tions— i.e. all propositions not concerned with the existence of
individual facts ultimately analyse out into identities — obviously
lend themselves to the design of this algebra of thought, though
the mathematician in Leibnitz should have been aware that a
significant equation is never an identity. Leibnitz, fresh from the
battle of the calculus in the mathematical field, and with his
conception of logic, at least in some of its aspects, as a generalized
mathematic,1 found a fruitful inspiration, harmonizing well with
his own metaphysic, in Bacon's alphabet of nature. He, too, was
prepared to offer a new instrument. That the most important
section, the list of forms of combination, was never achieved —
this too was after the Baconian example while the mode of
symbolization was crude with a = ab and the like — matters little.
A new technique of manipulation — it is, of course, no more —
had been evolved.
It may be said that among Leibnitz's successors there is no
Leibnitzian. The system as a whole is something too artificial
to secure whole-hearted allegiance. Wolff's formalism is the
bastard outcome of the speculation of Leibnitz, and is related to
it as remotely as Scholasticism is to Aristotle. Wolff found a
sufficient reason for everything and embodied the results of his
inquiries in systematic treatises, sometimes in the vernacular.
He also, by a transparent petitio principii, brought the law of the
sufficient reason under that of non-contradiction. Wolff and
his numerous followers account for the charge of dogmatism
against " the Leibnitzio-Wolffian school." They are of impor-
tance in the history of logic for two reasons only: they affected
strongly the German vocabulary of philosophy and they con-
stituted the intellectual environment in which Kant grew to
manhood.
A truer continuator of Leibnitz in the spirit was Herbart.
iii. Kant's Logic.
Herbart's admitted allegiance, however, was Kantian with
the qualification, at a relatively advanced stage of his thinking,
that it was " of the year 1828 " — that is, after controversy had
brought out implications of Kant's teaching not wholly con-
templated by Kant himself. The critical philosophy had indeed
made it impossible to hark back to Leibnitz or any other master
otherwise than with a difference.
Yet it is not a single and unambiguous logical movement
that derives from Kant. Kant's lesson was variously under-
stood. Different moments in it were emphasized, with a large
diversity of result. As interpreted it was acquiesced in or
revolted from and revolt ranged from a desire for some
modifications of detail or expression to the call for a radical
transformation. Grounds for a variety of developments are to
be found in the imperfect harmonization of the rationalistic
heritage from the Wolffian tradition which still dominates Kant's
pure general logic with the manifest epistemological intention of his
transcendental theory. Or again, within the latter in his admission
of a duality of thought and " the given " in knowledge, which
within knowledge was apparently irreducible, concurrently with
hints as to the possibility, upon a wider view, of the sublation
of their disparateness at least hypothetically and speculatively.
The sense in which there must be a ground of the unity of the
supersensible2 while yet the transcendent use of Reason — i.e.
its use beyond the limits of experience was denied theoretical
validity — was not unnaturally regarded as obscure.
Kant's treatment of technical logic was wholly traditional, and
in itself is almost negligible. It is comprised3 in an early essay
on the mistaken subtlety of the syllogistic figures, and a late
compilation by a pupil from the introductory matter and
1 Nouyeaux essais, iv. 2 § 9, 17 § 4 (Gerhardt v. 351, 460).
2 Critique of Judgment, Introd. § 2, ad. fin. (Werke, Berlin Academy
edition, vol. v. p. 176, 1. 10).
3 Kant's Introduction to Logic and his Essay on the Mistaken
Subtlety of the Four Figures, trans. T. K. Abbott (1885).
Formal
Logic.
running annotations with which the master had enriched his
interleaved lecture-room copy of Meyer's Compendium of 1752.
Wolff's general logic, " the best," said Kant, " that
we possess," had been abridged by Baumgarten and
the abridgment then subjected to commentation
by Meyer. With this traditional body of doctrine Kant was,
save for matters of minor detail, quite content. Logic was of
necessity formal, dealing as it must with those rules without
which no exercise of the understanding would be possible at all.
Upon abstraction from all particular methods of thought these
rules were to be discerned a priori or without dependence on
experience by reflection solely upon the use of the understanding
in general. The science of the form of thought abstracted in
this way from its matter or content was regarded as of value
both as propaedeutic and as canon. It was manifestly one of
the disciplines in which a position of finality was attainable.
Aristotle might be allowed, indeed, to have omitted no essential
point of the understanding. What the moderns had achieved
consisted in an advance in accuracy and methodical completeness.
"Indeed, we do not require any new discoverers in logic,"4
said the discoverer of a priori synthesis, " since it contains merely
the form of thought." Applied logic is merely psychology,
and not properly to be called logic at all. The technical logic
of Kant, then, justifies literally a movement among his successors
in favour of a formal conception of logic with the law of con-
tradiction and the doctrine of formal implication for its equip-
ment. Unless the doctrine of Kant's " transcendental logic "
must be held to supply a point of view from which a logical
development of quite another kind is inevitable, Kant's mantle,
so far as logic is concerned, must be regarded as having fallen
upon the formal logicians.
Kant's transcendental teaching is summarily as follows:
" Transcendental " is his epithet for what is neither empirical —
i.e. to be derived from experience — nor yet trans-
cendent— i.e. applicable beyond the limits of experi-
ence, the mark of experience being the implication cendental."
of sense or of something which thought contra-
distinguishes from its own spontaneous activity as in some sense
" the given." Those features in our organized experience are
to be regarded as transcendentally established which are the
presuppositions of our having that experience at all. Since
they are not empirical they must be structural and belong to
" the mind " — i.e. the normal human intelligence, and to like
intelligence so far as like. If we set aside such transcendental
conditions as belong to sensibility or to the receptive phase of
mind and are the presuppositions of juxtaposition of parts, the
remainder are ascribable to spontaneity or understanding,
to thought with its unifying, organizing or focussing function,
and their elucidation is the problem of transcendental analytic.
It is still logic, indeed, when we are occupied with the trans-
cendent objects of the discursive faculty as it is employed beyond
the limits of experience where it cannot validate its ideas.
Such a logic, however, is a dialectic of illusion, perplexed by para-
logisms and helpless in the face of antinomies. In transcendental
analytic on the other hand we concern ourselves only with the
transcendental " deduction " or vindication of the conditions of
experience, and we have a logic of cognition in which we may
establish our epistemological categories with complete validity.
Categories are the forms according to which the combining unity
of self-consciousness (synthetic unity of apperception) pluralizes
itself through the various functions involved in the constitution
of objectivity in different types of the one act of thought, viz.
judgment. The clue to the discovery of transcendental conditions
Kant finds in the existence of judgments, most manifest in
mathematics and in the pure science of nature, which are certain,
yet not trifling, necessary and yet not reducible to identities,
synthetic therefore and a priori, and so accounted for neither by
Locke nor by Leibnitz. " There lies a transcendental condition
at the basis of every necessity."
Kant's mode of conceiving the activity of thought in the
constitution of objects and of their connexion in experience
4 Lot, cit., p. n.
LOGIC
{KANT
was thought to lie open to an interpretation in conformity with
the spirit of his logic, in the sense that the form and the content
in knowledge are not merely distinguishable func-
Form of tions within an organic whole, but either separable, or
Thought. at 'east indifferent one to the other in such a way as to
be clearly independent. Thought as form would thus
be a factor or an element in a composite unit. It would clearly
have its own laws. It would be the whole concern of logic,
which, since in it thought has itself for object, would have no
reference to the other term of the antithesis, nor properly and
immediately to the knowledge which is compact of thought
in conjunction with something which, whatever it may be, is
prima facie other than thought. There is too much textual
warrant for this interpretation of Kant's meaning. Doubtless
there are passages which make against an extreme dualistic
interpretation. Even in his " logic " Kant speaks of abstraction
from all particular objects of thought rather than of a resolution
of concrete thinking into thought and its " other " as separable
co-operating factors in a joint product. He spoke throughout,
however, as if form and content were mutually indifferent, so
that the abstraction of form from content implied nothing of
falsification or mutilation. The reserve, therefore, that it was
abstraction and not a decomposing that was in question remained
to the admirers of his logic quite nugatory. They failed to
realize that permissible abstraction from specific contents or
methods of knowledge does not obliterate reference to matter
or content. They passed easily from the acceptance of a priori
forms of thinking to that of forms of a priori thinking, and could
plead the example of Kant's logic.
Kant's theory of knowledge, then, needed to be pressed to
other consequences for logic which were more consonant with the
spirit of the Critique. The forms of thought and what gives
thought its particular content in concrete acts of thinking could
not be regarded as subsisting in a purely external and indifferent
relation one to the other. " Laws according to which the
subject thinks " and " laws according to which the object is
known " cannot be the concern of separate departments of
inquiry. As soon divorce the investigation of the shape and
material of a mirror from the laws of the incidence of the rays that
form images in it, and call it a science of reflection! An im-
portant group of writers developed the conception of an adapta-
tion between the two sides of Kant's antithesis, and made the
endeavour to establish some kind of correlation between logical
forms and the process of " the given." There was a tendency to
fall back upon the conception of some kind of parallelism,
whether it was taken to be interpretative or rather corrective
of Kant's meaning. This device was never remote from the
constructions of writers for whom the teaching of Spinoza and
Leibnitz was an integral part of their intellectual equipment.
Other modes of correlation, however, find favour also, and in
some variety. Kant is seldom the sole source of inspiration. His
unresolved antithesis1 is interpreted either diversely or with a
1 Or antitheses. Kant follows, for example, a different line of
cleavage between form and content from that developed between
thought and the " given." And these are not his only unresolved
dualities, even in the Critique of Pure Reason. For the logical
inquiry, however, it is permissible to ignore or reduce these differ-
ences.
The determination too of the sense in which Kant's theory of
knowledge involves an unresolved antithesis is for the logical purpose
necessary so far only as it throws light upon his logic and his in-
fluence upon logical developments. Historically the question of
the extent to which writers adopted the dualistic interpretation or
one that had the like consequences is of greater importance.
It may be said summarily that Kant holds the antithesis between
thought and " the given " to be unresolved and within the limits
of theory of knowledge irreducible. The dove of thought falls lifeless
if the resistant atmosphere of " the given " be withdrawn (Critique
of Pure Reason, ed. 2 Introd. Kant's Werke, ed. of the Prussian
Academy, vol. iii. p. 32, 11. 10 sqq.). Nevertheless the thing-in-
itself is a problematic conception and of a limiting or negative use
merely. He " had woven,'1 according to an often quoted phrase
of Goethe, a certain sly element of irony into his method • he
pointed as it were with a side gesture beyond the limits which he
himself had drawn." Thus (loc. cit. p. 46, 11. 8, 9) he declares that
there are two lineages united in human knowledge, which perhaps
difference of emphasis. And the light that later writers bring to
bear on Kant's logic and epistemology from other sides of his
speculation varies in kind and in degree.
Another logical movement springs from those whom a corre-
lation of fact within the unity of a system altogether failed to
satisfy. There must also be development of the correlated terms
from a single principle. Form and content must not only corre-
spond one to the other. They must be exhibited as distinguish-
able moments within a unity which can at one and the same
time be seen to be the ground from which the distinction springs
and the ground in virtue of which it is over-ruled. Along this line
of speculation we have a logic which claims that whatsoever
is in one plane or at one stage in the development of thought a
residuum that apparently defies analysis must at another stage
and on a higher plane be shown so to be absorbed as to fall
altogether within thought. This is the view of Hegel upon
which logic comes to coincide with the progressive self-unfolding
of thought in that type of metaphysic which is known as absolute,
i.e. all-inclusive idealism. The exponent of logic as metaphysic,
for whom the rational is the real is necessarily in revolt against
all that is characteristically Kantian in the theory of knowledge,
against the transcendental method itself and against the doctrine
of limits which constitutes the nerve of " criticism." Stress was
to be laid upon the constructive character of the act of thought
which Kant had recognized, and without Kant's qualifications of
it. In all else the claim is made to have left the Kantian teaching
behind as a cancelled level of speculation.
Transcendental method is indeed not invulnerable. A principle
is transcendentally " deduced " when it and only it can explain
the validity of some phase of experience, some order LimHatloa
of truths. The order of truths, the phase of experience of Trans-
and its certainty had to be taken for granted. The cendeotai
sense, for example, in which the irreversibility of Atethe<t-
sequence which is the more known in ordine ad hominem in the
case of the causal principle differs from merely psychological
conviction is not made fully clear. Even so the inference to the
a priori ground of its necessity is, it has been often pointed out,
subject to the limitation inherent in any process of reduction,
in any regress, that is, from conditionate to condition, viz. that
in theory an alternative is still possible. The inferred principle
may hold the field as explanation without obvious competitor
potential or actual. Nevertheless its claim to be the sole possible
explanation can in nowise be validated. It has been established
after all by dialectic in the Aristotelian sense of the word. But
if transcendental method has no special pride of place, Kant's
conclusion as to the limits of the competence of intellectual
faculty falls with it. Cognition manifestly needs the help of
Reason even in its theoretical use. Its speculation can no longer
be stigmatized as vaticination in vacua, nor its results as illusory.
Finally, to logic as metaphysic the polar antithesis is psychology
as logic. The turn of this also was to come again. If logic were
treated as merely formal, the stress of the problem
of knowledge fell upon the determination of the %°glch'""1
processes of the psychological mechanism. If alleged Io^
a priori constituents of knowledge — such rubrics as
substance, property, relation — come to be explained psycho-
logically, the formal logic that has perforce to ignore all that
belongs to psychology is confined within too narrow a range to
be able to maintain its place as an independent discipline, and
tends to be merged in psychology. This tendency is to be seen in
the activity of Fries and Herbart and Beneke, and was actualized
as the aftermath of their speculation. It is no accident that it
was the psychology of apperception and the voluntaryist theory
or practice of Herbart, whose logical theory was so closely allied
to that of the formal logicians proper, that contributed most
spring from a common stock, though to us unknown — namely sense
and understanding." Some indication of the way in which he
would hypothetically and speculatively mitigate the antithesis is
perhaps afforded by the reflection that the distinction of the mental
and what appears as material is an external distinction in which
the one appears outside to the other. " Yet what as thing-in-itself
lies back of the phenomenon may perhaps not be so wholly disparate
after all " (ib. p. 278, 11. 26 sqq.).
AFTER KANT]
LOGIC
Summary.
to the development of the post-Kantian psychological logic.
Another movement helped also; the exponents of naturalistic
evolution were prepared with Spencer to explain the so-called
a priori in knowledge as in truth a posteriori, if not to the
individual at any rate to the race. It is of course a newer type
of psychological logic that is in question, one that is aware of
Kant's " answer to Hume." Stuart Mill, despite of his relation
of antagonism to Hamilton and Mansel, who held themselves to
be Kantian in spirit, is still wholly pre-Kantian in his outlook.
Kant's influence, then, upon subsequent logic is least of all
to be measured by his achievement in his professed contribution
to technical logic. It may be attributed in some
slight degree, perhaps, to incidental flashes of logical
insight where his thought is least of what he himself calls logic,
e.g. his exposition of the significance of synthetic judgments
a priori, or his explanation of the function of imagery in relation
to thought, whereby he offers a solution of the problem of the
conditions under which one member of a group unified through
a concept can be taken to stand for the rest, or again the way
in which he puts his finger on the vital issue in regard to the
alleged proof from essence to existence, and illustrations could
be multiplied. But much more it belongs to his transformation
of the epistemological problem, and to the suggestiveness of his
philosophy as a whole for an advance in the direction of a
speculative construction which should be able to cancel all Kant's
surds, and in particular vindicate a " ground of the unity of the
supersensible which lies back of nature with that which the
concept of freedom implies in the sphere of practice," ' which is
what Kant finally asserts.
iv. After Kant.
Starting from the obvious antithesis of thought and that of
which it is the thought, it is possible to view the ultimate relation
of its term as that of mutual indifference or, secondly, as that of
a correspondence such that while they retain their distinct
character modification of the one implies modification of the
other, or thirdly and lastly, as that of a mergence of one in the
other of such a nature that the merged term, whichever it be,
is fully accounted for in a complete theory of that in which it is
merged.
The first way is that of the purely formal logicians, of whom
Twesten2 and in England H. L. Mansel may be regarded as
typical. They take thought and " the given " as
Logicians* self-contained units which, if not in fact separable, are
at any rate susceptible of an abstraction the one from
the other so decisive as to constitute an ideal separation. The
laws of the pure activity of thought must be independently
determined, and since the contribution of thought to knowledge
is form they must be formal only. They cannot go beyond the
limits of formal consistency or analytic correctness. They are
confined to the determination of what the truth of any matter
of thought, taken for granted upon grounds psychological or
other, which are extraneous to logic, includes or excludes. The
unit for logic is the concept taken for granted. The function
of logic is to exhibit its formal implications and repulsions.
It is questionable whether even this modest task could be really
achieved without other reference to the content abstracted from
than Mansel, for example, allows. The analogy of the resolution
of a chemical compound with its elements which is often on the
lips of those who would justify the independence of thought and
the real world, with an agnostic conclusion as to non-phenomenal
or trans-subjective reality, is not really applicable. The oxygen
and hydrogen, for example, into which water may be resolved
are not in strictness indifferent one to the other, since both are
members of an order regulated according to laws of combination
in definite ratios. Or, if applicable, it is double-edged. Suppose
1 Critique of Judgment, Introd. § 2 (Werke, v., 276 11. 9 sqq.);
cf. Bernard's " Prolegomena " to his translation of this, pp.
xxxviii. sqq.).
* Die Logik, insbesondere die Analytik (Schleswig, 1825). August
Detlev Christian Twesten (1789-1876), a Protestant theologian,
succeeded Schleiermacher as professor in Berlin in 1835.
oxygen to be found only in water. Were it to become conscious,
would it therefore follow that it could infer the laws of a separate
or independent activity of its own? Similarly forms of thinking,
the law of contradiction not excepted, have their meaning only
in reference to determinate content, even though distributively
all determinate contents are dispensable. The extreme formalist
is guilty of a fallacy of composition in regard to abstraction.
It does not follow, however, that the laws asserted by the
formal logicians are invalid or unimportant. There is a per-
missible abstraction, and in general they practise this, and
although they narrow its range unduly, it is legitimately to be
applied to certain characters of thinking. As the living organism
includes something of mechanism — the skeleton, for example —
so an organic logic doubtless includes determinations of formal
consistency. The skeleton is meaningless apart from reference
to its function in the life of an organism, yet there are laws of
skeleton structure which can be studied with most advantage if
other characters of the organism are relegated to the background.
To allow, however, that abstraction admits of degrees, and that it
never obliterates all reference to that from which it is abstracted,
is to take a step forward in the direction of the correlation of
logical forms with the concrete processes of actual thinking.
What was true in formal logic tended to be absorbed in the
correlationist theories.
Those formal logicians of the Kantian school, then, may be
summarily dismissed, though their undertaking was a necessary
one, who failed to raise the epistemological issue at all, or who,-
raising it, acquiesced in a naive dualism agnostic of the real
world as Kant's essential lesson. They failed to develop any
view which could serve either in fact or in theory as a corrective
to the effect of their formalism. What they said with justice
was said as well or better elsewhere.
Among them it is on the whole impossible not to include the
names of Hamilton and Mansel. The former, while his erudition
in respect to the history of philosophical opinion has rarely been
equalled, was not a clear thinker. His general theory of know-
ledge deriving from Kant and Reid, and including among other
things a contaminatio of their theories of perception,3 in no way
sustains or mitigates his narrow view of logic. He makes no
effective use of his general formula that to think is to condition.
He appeals to the direct testimony of consciousness in the sense
in which the appeal involves a fallacy. He accepts an ultimate
antinomy as to the finiteness or infinity of " the unconditioned,"
yet applies the law of the excluded middle to insist that one of
the two alternatives must be true, wherefore we must make the
choice. And what is to be said of the judgment of a writer who
considers the relativity of thought demonstrated by the fact
that every judgment unites two members? Hamilton's signi-
ficance for the history of logic lies in the stimulus that he gave
to the development of symbolic logic in England by his new
analytic based upon his discovery or adoption of the principle
of the quantification of the predicate. Mansel, too, was learned,
specially in matters of Aristotelian exegesis, and much that is
of value lies buried in his commentation of the dry bones of the
Artis Logicae Rudimenta of Locke's contemporary Aldrich. And
he was a clearer thinker than Hamilton. Formal logic of the
extremest rigour is nowhere to be found more adequately ex-
pressed in all its strength, and it must be added in all its weakness,
than in the writings of Mansel. But if the view maintained above
that formal logic must compromise or mitigate its rigour and
so fail to maintain its independence, be correct, the logical
consistency of Mansel's logic of consistency does but emphasize
its barrenness. It contains no germ for further development.
It is the end of a movement.
The brief logic of Herbart4 is altogether formal too. Logical
forms have for him neither psychological nor metaphysical
reference. We are concerned in logic solely with the systematic
3 See Sir William Hamilton: The Philosophy of Perception, by
J. Hutchison Stirling.
4 Hauptpunkle der Logik, 1808 (Werke, ed. Hartenstein, j.
4.65 sqq.), and specially Lehrbuch der Einleitung in die Philosophic
(1813), and subsequently §§ 34 sqq. (Werke, i. 77 sqq.).
914
LOGIC
[AFTER KANT
clarification of concepts which are wholly abstract, so that
they are not merely not ultimate realities, but also in no
sense actual moments of our concrete thinking. The
Herbart. £rst taskof logic is to distinguish and group such con-
cepts according to their marks, and from their classification there
naturally follows their connexion in judgment. It is in the
logic of judgment that Herbart inaugurates a new era. He is
not, of course, the first to note that even categorical judgments
do not assert the reah'zation of their subject. That is a thought
which lies very near the surface for formal logic. He had been
preceded too by Maimon in the attempt at a reduction of the
traditional types of judgment. He was, however, the first whose
analysis was sufficiently convincing to exorcise the tyranny of
grammatical forms. The categorical and disjunctive judgment
reduce to the hypothetical. By means of the doctrine of the
quantification of the predicate, in which with his Leibnitzian
conception of identity he anticipated Beneke and Hamilton
alike, universal and particular judgments are made to pull
together. Modal, impersonal, existential judgments are all
accounted for. Only the distinction of affirmative and negative
judgments remains unresolved, and the exception is a natural
one from the point of view of a philosophy of pluralism. There
was little left to be done here save in the way of an inevitable
mutatis mutandis, even by Lotze and F. H. Bradley. From the
judgment viewed as hypothetical we pass by affirmation of the
antecedent or denial of the consequent to inference. This point
of departure is noteworthy, as also is the treatment of the
inductive syllogism as one in which the middle term is resoluble
into a group or series (Reihe). In indicating specifically, too, the
case of conclusion from a copulative major premise with a dis-
junctive minor, Herbart seems to have suggested the cue for
Sigwart's exposition of Bacon's method of exclusions.
That it was the formal character of Herbart's logic which was
ultimately fatal to its acceptance outside the school as an inde-
pendent discipline is not to be doubted. It stands, however, on
a different footing from that of the formal logic hitherto discussed,
and is not to be condemned upon quite the same grounds. In
the first place, Herbart is quite aware of the nature of abstraction.
In the second, there is no claim that thought at one and the
same time imposes form on " the given " and is susceptible of
treatment in isolation by logic. With Herbart the forms of
common experience, and indeed all that we can regard as his
categories, are products of the psychological mechanism and
destitute of logical import. And lastly, Herbart's logic conforms
to the exigencies of his system as a whole and the principle of the
bare or absolute self -identity of the ultimate " reals " in particular.
It is for this reason that it finally lacks real affinity to the " pure
logic " of Fries. For at the basis of Herbart's speculation there
lies a conception of identity foreign to the thought of Kant with
his stress on synthesis, in his thoroughgoing metaphysical use of
which Herbart goes back not merely to Wolff but to Leibnitz.
It is no mere coincidence that his treatment of all forms of con-
tinuance and even his positive metaphysic of " reals " show
affinity to Leibnitz. It was in the pressing to its extreme con-
sequences of the conception of uncompromising identity which is
to be found in Leibnitz, that the contradictions took their rise
which Herbart aimed at solving, by the method of relations and
his doctrine of the ultimate plurality of " reals," The logic of
relations between conceptual units, themselves unaltered by the
relation, seems a kind of reflection of his metaphysical method.
To those, of course, for whom the only real identity is identity in
difference, while identity without difference, like difference with-
out identity, is simply a limit or a vanishing point, Herbart's
logic and metaphysic will alike lack plausibility.
The setting of Herbart's logic in his thought as a whole might
of itself perhaps justify separate treatment. His far-reaching
influence in the development of later logic must certainly do so.
Directly he affected a school of thought which contained one
logician of first-rate importance in Moritz Wilhelm Drobisch
(1802-1896), professor at Leipzig. In less direct relation stands
Lotze, who, although under other influences he developed a
different view even in logic, certainly let no point in the doctrine
of his great predecessor at Gottingen escape him. A Herbartian
strain is to be met with also in the thought of writers much
further afield, for example F. H. Bradley, far though his meta-
physic is removed from Herbart's. Herbart's influence is surely
to be found too in the evolution of what is called Gegenstands-
theorie. Nor did he affect the logic of his successors through his
logic alone. Reference has been made above to the effect upon
the rise of the later psychological logic produced by Herbart's
psychology of apperception, when disengaged from the back-
ground of his metaphysic taken in conjunction with his treatment
in his practical philosophy of the judgment of value or what he
calls the aesthetic judgment. Emerson's verdict upon a greater
thinker — that his was " not a mind to nestle in " — may be true
of Herbart, but there can be no doubt as to the stimulating
force of this master.
The second way of interpreting the antithesis of thought to
what is thought of, was taken by a group of thinkers among
whom a central and inspiring figure was Schleiermacher. , ^
They in no sense constitute a school and manifest as the
radical differences among themselves. They are rationale
agreed, however, in the rejection, on the one hand, of otknow-
the subjectivist logic with its intrinsic implication that
knowledge veils rather than reveals the real world, and, on the
other hand, of the logic of the speculative construction with its
pretension to " deduce," to determine, and finally at once to
cancel and conserve any antithesis in its all-embracing dialectic.
They agree, then, in a maintenance of the critical point of view,
while all alike recognize the necessity of bringing the thought-
function in knowledge into more intimate relation with its
" other " than Kant had done, by means of some formula of
correlation or parallelism. Such an advance might have taken
its cue directly from Kant himself. As an historical fact it tended
rather to formulate itself as a reaction towards Kant in view of
the course taken by the speculative movement. Thus Schleier-
macher's posthumously published Dialeklik (1839) may be
characterized as an appeal from the absolutist element in
Schelling's philosophy to the conception of that correlation or
parallelism which Schelling had exhibited as flowing from and
subsisting within his absolute, and therein as a return upon
Kant's doctrine of limits. Schleiermacher 's conception
of dialectic is to the effect that it is concerned with the
principles of the art of philosophizing, as these are
susceptible of a relatively independent treatment by a permissible
abstraction. Pure thinking or philosophizing is with a view to
philosophy or knowledge as an interconnected system of all
sciences or departmental forms of knowledge, the mark of know-
ledge being its identity for all thinking minds. Dialectic then
investigates the nexus which must be held to obtain between all
thoughts, but also that agreement with the nexus in being
which is the condition of the validity of the thought-nexus.
In knowing there are two functions involved, the " organic " or
animal function of sensuous experience in virtue of which we
are in touch with being, directly in inner perception, mediately
in outer experience, and the "intellectual" function of construc-
tion. Either is indispensable, though in different departments
of knowledge the predominant r6Ie falls to one or other, e.g. we
are more dependent in physics, less so in ethics. The idea of
a perfect harmony of thinking and being is a presupposition that
underlies all knowing but cannot itself be realized in knowledge.
In terms of the agreement of thought and being, the logical forms
of the part of dialectic correspondent to knowledge statically
considered have parallels and analogies in being, the concept
being correlated to substance, the judgment to causal nexus.
Inference, curiously enough, falls under the technical side of
dialectic concerned with knowledge in process or becoming, a line
of cleavage which Ueberweg has rightly characterized as con-
stituting a rift within Schleiermacher's parallelism.
Schleiermacher's formula obviously ascribes a function in
knowledge to thought as such, and describes in a suggestive
manner a duality of the intellectual and organic functions,
resting on a parallelism of thought and being whose collapse into
identity it is beyond human capacity to grasp. It is rather,
AFTER KANT]
LOGIC
9*5
Lotze.
however, a statement of a way in which the relations of the terms
of the problem may be conceived than a system of necessity.
It may indeed be permitted to doubt whether its influence upon
subsequent theory would have been a great one apart from the
spiritual force of Schleiermacher's personality. Some sort of
correlationist conception, however, was an inevitable develop-
ment, and the list1 of those who accepted it in something of the
spirit of Schleiermacher is a long one and contains many dis-
tinguished names, notably those of Trendelenburg and Ueberweg.
The group is loosely constituted however. There was scope for
diversity of view and there was diversity of view, according as
the vital issue of the formula was held to lie in the relation of
intellectual function to organic function or in the not quite
equivalent relation of thinking to being. Moreover, few of the
writers who, whatsoever it was that they baptized with the name
of logic, were at least earnestly engaged in an endeavour to solve
the problem of knowledge within a circle of ideas which was on
the whole Kantian, were under the dominance of a single in-
spiration. Beneke's philosophy is a striking instance of this,
with application to Fries and affinity to Herbart conjoined with
obligations to Schelling both directly and through Schleier-
macher. Lotze again wove together many threads of earlier
thought, though the web was assuredly his own. Finally it
must not be forgotten that the host of writers who were in
reaction against Hegelianism tended to take refuge in some
formula of correlation, as a half-way house between that and
formalism or psychologism or both, without reference to, and
often perhaps without consciousness of, the way in which
historically it had taken shape to meet the problem held to have
been left unresolved by Kant.
Lotze on the one hand held the Hegelian " deduction " to be
untenable, and classed himself with those who in his own phrase
" passed to the order of the day," while on the other
hand he definitely raised the question, how an " object "
could be brought into forms to which it was not in some sense
adapted. Accordingly, though he regards logic as formal, its
forms come into relation to objectivity in some sort even within
the logical field itself, while when taken in the setting of his
system as a whole, its formal character is not of a kind that
ultimately excludes psychological and metaphysical reference,
at least speculatively. As a logician Lotze stands among the
masters. His flair for the essentials in his problem, his subtlety
of analysis, his patient willingness to return upon a difficulty
from a fresh and still a fresh point of view, and finally his fineness
of judgment, make his logic2 so essentially logic of the present,
and of its kind not soon to be superseded, that nothing more than
an indication of the historical significance of some of its character-
istic features need be attempted here.
In Lotze's pure logic it is the Herbartian element that tends
to be disconcerting. Logic is formal. Its unit, the logical con-
cept, is a manipulated product and the process of manipulation
may be called abstraction. Processes of the psychological
mechanism lie below it. The paradox of the theory of judgment
is due to the ideal of identity, and the way in which this is
evaded by supplementation to produce a non-judgmental
identity, followed by translation of the introduced accessories
with conditions in the hypothetical judgment, is thoroughly
in Herbart's manner. The reduction of judgments is on lines
already familiar. Syllogism is no instrumental method by which
we compose our knowledge, but an ideal to the form of which
it should be brought. It is, as it were, a schedule to be filled
in, and is connected with the disjunctive judgment as a schematic
setting forth of alternatives, not with the hypothetical, and
ultimately the apodictic judgment with their suggestion that
it is the real movement of thought that is subjected to analysis.
Yet the resultant impression left by the whole treatment is not
Herbartian. The concept is accounted for in Kantian terms.
There is no discontinuity between the pre-logical or sub-logical
1 See Ueberweg, System of Logic and History of Logical Doctrines,
§ 34-
* Drei Bucher der Logik, 1874 (E.T., 1884). The Book on Pure
Logic follows in essentials the line of thought of an earlier work (1843).
conversion of impressions into " first universals " and the
formation of the logical concept. Abstraction proves to be
synthesis with compensatory universal marks in the place of the
particular marks abstracted from. Synthesis as the work of
thought always supplies, beside the mere conjunction or disjunc-
tion of ideas, a ground of their coherence or non-coherence. It
is evident that thought, even as dealt with in pure logic, has
an objectifying function. Its universals have objective validity,
though this does not involve direct real reference. The formal
conception of pure logic, then, is modified by Lotze in such a
way as not only to be compatible with a view of the structural
and functional adequacy of thought to that which at every
point at which we take thinking is still distinguishable from
thought, but even inevitably to suggest it. That the unit for
logic is the concept and not the judgment has proved a stumbling-
block to those of Lotze's critics who are accustomed to think
in terms of the act of thought as unit. Lotze's procedure is,
indeed, analogous to the way in which, in his philosophy of
nature, he starts from a plurality of real beings, but by means
of a reductive movement, an application of Kant's transcendental
method, arrives at the postulate or fact of a law of their reciprocal
action which calls for a monistic and idealist interpretation.
He starts, that is in logic, with conceptual units apparently
self-contained and admitting of nothing but external relation,
but proceeds to justify the intrinsic relation between the matter
of his units by an appeal to the fact of the coherence of all content s
of thought. Indeed, if thought admits irreducible units, what
can unite? Yet he is left committed to his puzzle as to a
reduction of judgment to identity, which partially vitiates
his treatment of the theory of judgment. The outstanding
feature of this is, nevertheless, not affected, viz. the attempt
that he makes, inspired clearly by Hegel, " to develop the various
forms of judgment systematically as members of a series of opera-
tions, each of which leaves a part of its problem unmastered
and thereby gives rise to the next."3 As to inference, finally,
the ideal of the articulation of the universe of discourse, as it
is for complete knowledge, when its disjunctions have been
thoroughly followed out and it is exhaustively determined,
carried the day with him against the view that the organon
for gaining knowledge is syllogism. The Aristotelian formula
is " merely the expression, formally expanded and complete,
of the truth already embodied in disjunctive judgment, namely,
that every S which is a specific form of M possesses as its predicate
a particular modification of each of the universal predicates of
M to the exclusion of the rest." Schleiermacher's separation
of inference from judgment and his attribution of the power
to knowledge in process cannot find acceptance with Lotze.
The psychologist and the formal logician do indeed join hands
in the denial of a real movement of thought in syllogism. Lotze's
logic then, is formal in a sense in which a logic which does not
find the conception of synthetic truth embarrassing is not so.
It is canon and not organon. In the one case, however, where
it recognizes what is truly synthesis, i.e. in its account of the
concept, it brings the statics of knowledge, so to speak, into
integral relation with the dynamics. And throughout, wherever
the survival from 1843, the identity bug-bear, is for the moment
got rid of in what is really a more liberal conception, the statical
doctrine is developed in a brilliant and informing manner. Yet
it is in the detail of his logical investigations, something too
volatile to fix in summary, that Lotze's greatness as a logician
more especially lies.
With Lotze the ideal that at last the forms of thought shall
be realized to be adequate to that which at any stage of actual
knowledge always proves relatively intractable is an illuminating
projection of faith. He takes courage from the reflection that
to accept scepticism is to presume the competence of the thought
that accepts. He will, however, take no easy way of parallelism.
Our human thought pursues devious and circuitous methods.
Its forms are not unseldom scaffolding for the house of knowledge
rather than the framework of the house itself. Our task is not
to realise correspondence with something other than thought,
3 Logic, Eng. trans. 35 ad. fin.
916
LOGIC
[AFTER KANT
but to make explicit those justificatory notions which condition
the form of our apprehension. " However much we may
presuppose an original reference of the forms of thought to that
nature of things which is the goal of knowledge, we must be pre-
pared to find in them many elements which do not directly repro-
duce the actual reality to the knowledge of which they are to lead
us." * The impulse of thought to reduce coincidence to coherence
reaches immediately only to objectivity or validity. The sense
in which the presupposition of a further reference is to be inter-
preted and in which justificatory notions for it can be adduced
is only determinable in a philosophic system as a whole, where
feeling has a place as well as thought, value equally with validity.
Lotze's logic then represents the statical aspect of the function
of thought in knowledge, while, so far as we go in knowledge
thought is always engaged in the unification of a manifold, which
remains contradistinguished from it, though not, of course,
completely alien to and unadapted to it. The further step to the
determination of the ground of harmony is not to be taken in
logic, where limits are present and untranscended.
The position of the search for truth, for which knowledge is a
growing organism in which thought needs, so to speak, to feed
on something other than itself, is conditioned in the
post-Kantian period by antagonism to the speculative
physic. movement which culminated in the dialectic of Hegel.
The radical thought of this movement was voiced in
the demand of Reinhold2 that philosophy should " deduce "
it all from a single principle and by a single method. Kant's
limits that must needs be thought and yet cannot be thought
must be thought away. An earnest attempt to satisfy this
demand was made by Fichte whose single principle was the
activity of the pure Ego, while his single method was the asser-
tion of a truth revealed by reflection on the content of conscious
experience, the characterization of this as a half truth and the
supplementation of it by its other, and finally the harmonization
of both. The pure ego is inferred from the fact that the non-ego
is realized only in the act of the ego in positing it. The ego
posits itself, but reflection on the given shows that we must add
that it posits also the non-ego. The two positions are to be
conciliated in the thought of reciprocal limitation of the posited
ego and non-ego. And so forth. Fichte cannot be said to have
developed a logic, but this rhythm of thesis, antithesis and
synthesis, foreshadowed in part for Fichte in Spinoza's formula,
" omnis determinatio est negatio," and significantly in Kant's
triadic grouping of his categories, gave a cue to the thought of
Hegel. Schelling, too, called for a single principle and claimed
to have found it in his Absolute, " the night " said Hegel, "in
which all cows are black," but his historical influence lay, as we
have seen, in the direction of a parallelism within the unity, and
he also developed no logic. It is altogether otherwise with Hegel.
Hegel's logic,3 though it involves inquiries which custom
regards as metaphysical, is not to be characterized as a meta-
Hegei. physic with a method. It is logic or a rationale of
thought by thought, with a full development among
other matters of all that the most separatist of logicians regards
as thought forms. It offers a solution of what has throughout
appeared as the logical problem. That solution lies doubtless
in the evolution of the Idea, i.e. an all-inclusive in which mere
or pure thought is cancelled in its separateness by a transfigura-
tion, while logic is nothing but the science of the Idea viewed in
the medium of pure thought. But, whatever else it be, this
Panlogismus, to use the word of J. E. Erdmann, is at least a
logic. Thought in its progressive unfolding, of which the history
of philosophy taken in its broad outline offers a pageant, neces-
sarily cannot find anything external to or alien from itself,
though that there is something external for it is another matter.
1 Logic, Introd. § ix.
2 For whom see Hoffding, History of Modern Philosophy, Eng.
trans., vol. ii. pp. 122 sqq.; invaluable for the logical methods of
modern philosophers.
3 Wissenschajt der Loeik (1812-1816), in course of revision at
Hegel's death in 1831 (Werke, vols. iii.-v.), and Encyklopddie der
phitosophischen Wissenschaften, i.; Die Logik (1817; 3rd ed., 1830);
Werke. vol. vi.. Eng. trans., Wallace (2nd ed., 1892).
As Fichte's Ego finds that its non-ego springs from and has its
home within its very self, so with Hegel thought finds itself in
its " other," both subsisting in the Idea which is both and
neither. Either of the two is the all, as, for example, the law
of the convexity of the curve is the law of the curve and the law
of its concavity. The process of the development of the Idea or
Absolute is in one regard the immanent process of the all. Logic-
ally regarded, i.e. " in the medium of mere thought," it is
dialectical method. Any abstract and limited point of view
carries necessarily to its contradictory. This can only be atoned
with the original determination by fresh negation in which a
new thought-determination is born, which is yet in a sense the
old, though enriched, and valid on a higher plane. The limita-
tions of this in turn cause a contradiction to emerge, and the
process needs repetition. At last, however, no swing into the
opposite, with its primarily conflicting, if ultimately comple-
mentary function, is any longer possible. That in which no
further contradiction is possible is the absolute Idea. Bare or
indeterminate being, for instance, the first of the determinations
of Hegel's logic, as the being of that which is not anything
determinate, of Kant's thing-in-itself, for example, positively
understood, implicated at once the notion of not-being, which
negates it, and is one with it, yet with a difference, so that we
have the transition to determinate being, the transition being
baptized as becoming. And so forth. It is easy to raise diffi-
culties not only in regard to the detail in Hegel's development of
his categories, especially the higher ones, but also in regard to
the essential rhythm of his method. The consideration that mere
double negation leaves us precisely where we were and not upon
a higher plane where the dominant concept is richer, is, of course,
fatal only to certain verbal expressions of Hegel's intent. There
is a differentiation in type between the two negations. But if
we grant this it is no longer obviously the simple logical operation
indicated. It is inferred then that Hegel complements from the
stuff of experience, and fails to make good the pretension of his
method to be by itself and of itself the means of advance to higher
and still higher concepts till it can rest in the Absolute. He
discards, as it were, and takes in from the stock while professing
to play from what he has originally in his hand. He postulates
his unity in senses and at stages in which it is inadmissible, and
so supplies only a schema of relations otherwise won, a view
supported by the way in which he injects certain determinations
in the process, e.g. the category of chemism. Has he not cooked
the process in the light of the result? In truth the Hegelian
logic suffers from the fact that the good to be reached is pre-
supposed in the beginning. Nature, e.g., is not deduced as real
because rational, but being real its rationality is presumed and,
very imperfectly, exhibited in a way to make it possible to con-
ceive it as in its essence the reflex of Reason. It is a vision rather
than a construction. It is a " theosophical logic." Consider
the rational-real in the unity that must be, and this is the way
of it, or an approximation to the way of it! It was inevitable that
the epistemologists of the search for truth would have none of
it. The ideal in whatsoever sense real still needs to be realized.
It is from the human standpoint regulative and only hypothetic-
ally or formally constitutive. We must not confuse ovaia with
tlvai, nor elvai, with yiyvtcrdaL.
Yet in a less ambitious form the fundamental contentions of
Hegel's method tend to find a qualified acceptance. In any piece
of presumed knowledge its partial or abstract character involves
the presence of loose edges which force the conviction of in-
adequacy and the development of contradictions. Contradic-
tions must be annulled by complementation, with resultant
increasing coherence in ascending stages. At each successive
stage in our progress fresh contradictions break out, but the
ideal of a station at which the thought-process and its other, if
not one, are at one, is permissible as a limiting conception. Yet
if Hegel meant only this he has indeed succeeded in concealing
his meaning.
Hegel's treatment of the categories or thought determinations
which arise in the development of the immanent dialectic is
rich in flashes of insight, but most of them are in the ordinary
1880-1910]
LOGIC
917
view of logic wholly metaphysical. In the stage, however, of his
process in which he is concerned with the notion are to be found
concept, judgment, syllogism. Of the last he declares that it
"is the reasonable and everything reasonable" (Encyk. § 181),
and has the phantasy to speak of the definition of the Absolute as
being " at this stage " simply the syllogism. It is, of course, the
rhythm of the syllogism, that attracts him. The concept goes
out from or utters itself in judgment to return to an enhanced
unity in syllogism. Ueberweg (System § 101) is, on the whole,
justified in exclaiming that Hegel's rehabilitation of syllogism
" did but slight service to the Aristotelian theory of syllogism,"
yet his treatment of syllogism must be regarded as an acute con-
tribution to logical criticism in the technical sense. He insists on
its objectivity. The transition from judgment is not brought
about by our subjective action. The syllogism of " all-ness " is
convicted of a peiitio principii (Encyk. § 190), with consequent
lapse into the inductive syllogism, and, finally, since inductive
syllogism is involved in the infinite process, into analogy.
" The syllogism of necessity," on the contrary, does not presup-
pose its conclusion in its premises. The detail, too, of the whole
discussion is rich in suggestion, and subsequent logicians —
Ueberweg himself perhaps, Lotze certainly in his genetic scale
of types of judgment and inference, Professor Bosanquet notably
in his systematic development of " the morphology of know-
ledge," and others — have with reason exploited it.
Hegel's logic as a whole, however, stands and falls not with his
thoughts on syllogism, but with the claim made for the dialectical
method that it exhibits logic in its integral unity with metaphysic,
the thought-process as the self-revelation of the Idea. The claim
was disallowed. To the formalist proper it was self-condemned
in its pretension to develop the content of thought and its
rejection of the formula of bare-identity. To the epistemologist
it seemed to confuse foundation and keystone, and to suppose
itself to build upon the latter in a construction illegitimately
appropriative of materials otherwise accumulated. At most it
was thought to establish a schema of formal unity which might
serve as a regulative ideal. To the methodologist of science in
genesis it appeared altogether to fail to satisfy any practical
interest. Finally, to the psychologist it spelt the failure of
intellectualism, and encouraged, therefore, some form of re-
habilitated experientialism.
In the Hegelian school in the narrower sense the logic of th,e
master receives some exegesis and defence upon single points
of doctrine rather than as a whole. Its effect upon logic is rather
to be seen in the rethinking of the traditional body of logical
doctrine in the light of an absolute presupposed as ideal, with
the postulate that a regulative ideal must ultimately exhibit
itself as constitutive, the justification of the postulate being held
to lie in the coherence and aJl-inclusiveness of the result. In such
a logic, if and so far as coherence should be attained, would be
found something akin to the spirit of what Hegel achieves,
though doubtless alien to the letter of what it is his pretension
to have achieved. There is perhaps no serious misrepresentation
involved in regarding a key-thought of this type, though not
necessarily expressed in those verbal forms, as pervading such
logic of the present as coheres with a philosophy of the absolute
conceived from a point of view that is intellectualist throughout.
All other contemporary movements may be said to be in revolt
from Hegel.
v. Logic from 1880-1910
' Logic in the present exhibits, though in characteristically
modified shapes, all the main types that have been found in its
past history. There is an intellectualist logic coalescent with an
absolutist metaphysic as aforesaid. There is an epistemological
logic with sometimes formalist, sometimes methodological
leanings. There is a formal-symbolic logic engaged with the
elaboration of a relational calculus. Finally, there is what may be
termed psychological-voluntaryist logic. It is in the rapidity of
development of logical investigations of the third and fourth
types and the growing number of their exponents that the present
shows most clearly the history of logic in the making. All these
movements are logic of the present, and a very brief indication
may be added of points of historical significance.
Of intellectualist logic Francis Herbert Bradley1 (b. 1846)
and Bernard Bosanquet2 (1848) may be taken as typical ex-
ponents. The philosophy of the former concludes to an Absolute
by the annulment of contradictions, though the ladder of Hegel
is conspicuous by its absence. His metaphysical method, how-
ever, is like Herbart's, not identifiable with his logic, and the
latter has for its central characteristic its thorough restatement
of the logical forms traditional in language and the text-books,
in such a way as to harmonize with the doctrine of a reality
whose organic unity is all-inclusive. The thorough recasting
that this involves, even of the thought of the masters when it
occasionally echoes them, has resulted in a phrasing uncouth to
the ear of the plain man with his world of persons and things
in which the former simply think about the latter, but it is
fundamentally necessary for Bradley's purpose. The negative
judgment, for example, cannot be held in one and the same un-
divided act to presuppose the unity of the real, project an adjec-
tive as conceivably applicable to it and assert its rejection.
We need, therefore, a restatement of it. With Bradley reality is
the one subject of all judgment immediate or mediate. The act
of judgment " which refers an ideal content (recognized as such)
to a reality beyond the act " is the unit for logic. Grammatical
subject and predicate necessarily both fall under the rubric of the
adjectival, that is, within the logical idea or ideal content asserted.
This is a meaning or universal, which can have no detached or
abstract self-subsistence. As found in judgment it may exhibit
differences within itself, but it is not two, but one, an articulation
of unity, not a fusion, which could only be a confusion, of differ-
ences. With a brilliant subtlety Bradley analyses the various
types of judgment in his own way, with results that must be taken
into account by all subsequent logicians of this type. The view
of inference with which he complements it is only less satisfactory
because of a failure to distinguish the principle of nexus in syllo-
gism from its traditional formulation and rules, and because he
is hampered by the intractability which he finds in certain forms
of relational construction.
Bosanquet had the advantage that his logic was a work of a
slightly later date. He is, perhaps, more able than Bradley has
shown himself, to use material from alien sources and to penetrate
to what is of value in the thought of writers from whom, whether
on the whole or on particular issues, he disagrees. He treats the
book-tradition, however, a debt to which, nowadays inevitable,
he is generous in acknowledging,3 with a judicious exercise of
freedom in adaptation, i.e. constructively as datum, never
eclectically. In his fundamental theory of judgment his obliga-
tion is to Bradley. It is to Lotze, however, that he owes most
in the characteristic feature of his logic, viz., the systematic
development of the types of judgment, and inference from less
adequate to more adequate forms. His fundamental continuity
with Bradley may be illustrated by his definition of inference.
" Inference is the indirect reference to reality of differences
within a universal, by means of the exhibition of this universal
in differences directly referred to reality."4 Bosanquet's Logic
will long retain its place as an authoritative exposition of logic
of this type.
Of epistemological logic in one sense of the phrase Lotze is
still to be regarded as a typical exponent. Of another type
Chr. Sigwart (q.i>.) may be named as representative Sigwart's
aim was " to reconstruct logic from the point of view of method-
ology." His problem was the claim to arrive at propositions
universally valid, and so true of the object, whosoever the
individual thinker. His solution, within the Kantian circle of
ideas, was that such principles as the Kantian principle of
causality were justified as " postulates of the endeavour after
complete knowledge." " What Kant has shown is not that
irregular fleeting changes can never be the object of consciousness,
but only that the ideal consciousness of complete science would
1 The Principles of Logic (1883).
2 Logic, or The Morphology of Thought (2 vols., 1888).
» Logic, Pref . pp. 6 seq. * Id. vol. ii. p. 4.
9i8
LOGIC
[1880-1910
be impossible without the knowledge of the necessity of all
events.1 " The universal presuppositions which form the out-
line of our ideal of knowledge are not so much laws which the
understanding prescribes to nature ... as laws which the
understanding lays down for its own regulation in its investiga-
tion and consideration of nature. They are a priori because no
experience is sufficient to reveal or confirm them in unconditional
universality; but they are a priori . . . only in the sense of
presuppositions without which we should work with no hope of
success and merely at random and which therefore we must
believe." Finally they are akin to our ethical principles. With
this coheres his dictum, with its far-reaching consequences for
the philosophy of induction, that " the logical justification of
the inductive process rests upon the fact that it is an inevitable
postulate of our effort after knowledge, that the given is necessary,
and can be known as proceeding from its grounds according to
universal laws."2 It is characteristic of Sigwart's point of view
that he acknowledges obligation to Mill as well as to Ueberweg.
The transmutation of Mill's induction of inductions into a
postulate is an advance of which the psychological school of
logicians have not been slow to make use. The comparison of
Sigwart with Lotze is instructive, in regard both to their agree-
ment and their divergence as showing the range of the epistemo-
logical formula.
Of the formal-symbolic logic all that falls to be said here is,
that from the point of view of logic as a whole, it is to be regarded
as a legitimate praxis as long as it shows itself aware of the sense
in which alone form is susceptible of abstraction, and is aware
that in itself it offers no solution of the logical problem. " It is
not an algebra," said Kant 3 of his technical logic, and the kind
of support lent recently to symbolic logic by the Gegenstands-
theorie identified with the name of Alexius Meinong (b. i853)4
is qualified by the warning that the real activity of thought tends
to fall outside the calculus of relations and to attach rather to the
subsidiary function of denoting. The future of symbolic logic
as coherent with the rest of logic, in the sense which the word has
borne throughout its history seems to be bound up with the
question of the nature of the analysis that lies behind the symbol-
ism, and of the way in which this is justified in the setting of a
doctrine of validity. The " theory of the object," itself, while
affecting logic alike in the formal and in the psychological con-
ception of it very deeply, does not claim to be regarded as logic
or a logic, apart from a setting supplied from elsewhere.
Finally we have a logic of a type fundamentally psychological,
if it be not more properly characterized as a psychology which
claims to cover the whole field of philosophy, including the logical
field. The central and organizing principle of this is that know-
ledge is in genesis, that the genesis takes place in the medium of
individual minds, and that this fact implies that there is a neces-
sary reference throughout to interests or purposes of the subject
which thinks because it wills and acts. Historically this doctrine
was formulated as the declaration of independence of the insur-
gents in revolt against the pretensions of absolutist logic. It
drew for support upon the psychological movement that begins
with Fries and Herbart. It has been chiefly indebted to writers,
who were not, or were not primarily, logicians, to Avenarius, for
example, for the law of the economy of thought, to Wundt, whose
system, and therewith his logic,6 is a pendant to his psychology,
for the volitional character of judgment, to Herbert Spencer and
others. A judgment is practical, and not to be divorced without
improper abstraction from the purpose and will that informs it.
A concept is instrumental to an end beyond itself, without any
validity other than its value for action. A situation involving
a need of adaptation to environment arises and the problem it
sets must be solved that the will may control environment and
be justified by success. Truth is the improvised machinery that
is interjected, so far as this works. It is clear that we are in the
1 Logik (1873, 1889), Eng. trans, ii. 17.
2 Op. cit. ii. 289.
3 Introd. to Logic., trans. Abbott, p. 10.
4 Ueber Annahmen (1902, &c.).
6 Logik (1880, and in later editions).
presence of what is at least an important half-truth, which
intellectuallism with its statics of the rational order viewed as a
completely articulate system has tended to ignore. It throws
light on many phases of the search for truth , upon the plain man's
claim to start with a subject which he knows whose predicate
which he does not know is still to be developed, or again upon
his use of the negative form of judgment, when the further
determination of his purposive system is served by a positive
judgment from without, the positive content of which is yet to
be dropped as irrelevant to the matter in hand. The movement
has, however, scarcely developed its logic6 except as polemic.
What seems clear is that it cannot be the whole solution. While
man must confront nature from the human and largely the
practical standpoint, yet his control is achieved only by the
increasing recognition of objective controls. He conquers by
obedience. So truth works and is economical because it is
truth. Working is proportioned to inner coherence. It is well
that the view should be developed into all its consequences.
The result will be to limit it, though perhaps also to justify it,
save in its claim to reign alone.
There is, perhaps, an increasing tendency to recognize that the
organism of knowledge is a thing which from any single view-
point must be seen in perspective. It is of course a postulate
that all truths harmonize, but to give the harmonious whole in a
projection in one plane is an undertaking whose adequacy in
one sense involves an inadequacy in another. No human archi-
tect can hope to take up in succession all essential points of view
in regard to the form of knowledge or to logic. " The great
campanile is still to finish."
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Historical: No complete history of logic in the
sense in which it is to be distinguished from theoretical philosophy
in geneial has as yet been written. The history of logic is indeed
so little intelligible apart from constant reference to tendencies in
philosophical development as a whole, that the historian, when he
has made the requisite preparatory studies, inclines to essay the
more ambitious task. Yet there are, of course, works devoted to
the history of logic proper.
Of these Prantl's Geschichte der Logik im Abendlande (4 vols.,
1855-1870), which traces the rise, development and fortunes of the
Aristotelian logic to the close of the middle ages, is monumental.
Next in importance are the works of L. Rabus, Logik und Metaphysik,
i. (1868) (pp. 123-242 historical, pp. 453-518 bibliographical, pp. 514
sqq. a section on apparatus for the study of the history of logic),
Dje neuesten BestrebungenauJdemGebiete der Logik bei den Deutschen
(1880), Logik (1895), especially for later writers § 17. Ueberweg's
System der Logik und Geschichte der logischen Lehren (4th cd. and last
revised by the author, 1874, though it has been reissued later,
Eng. trans., 1871) is alone to be named with these. Harms' posthu-
mously published Geschichte der Logik (1881) (Die Philosophic in
ihrer Geschichte, ii.) was completed by the author only so far as
Leibnitz. Blakey's Historical Sketch of Logic (1851), though, like all
this writer's works, closing with a bibliography of some pretensions,
is now negligible. Franck, Esquisse d'une histoire de la logique (1838)
is the chief French contribution to the subject as a whole.
Of contributions towards the history of special periods or schools
of logical thought the list, from the opening chapters of Ramus's
Scholae Dialecticae (1569) downwards (v. Rabus he. cit.) would be
endless. What is of value in the earlier works has now been ab-
sorbed. The System der Logik (1828) of Bachmann (a Kantian
logician of distinction) contains a historical survey .(pp. 569-644),
as does the Denklehre (1822) of van Calker (allied in thought to
Fries), pp. 12 sqq.; Eberstein's Geschichte der Logik und Metaphysik
bei den Deutschen von Leibniz bisauf gegenwdrtige Zeit (latest edition,
1799) is still of importance in regard to logicians of the school of
Wolff and the origines of Kant's logical thought. Hoffmann, the
editor and disciple of von Baader, published Grundziige einer Ge-
schichte der Begrife der Logik in Deutschland von Kant bis Baader
(1851). Wallaces prolegomena and notes to his Logic of Hegel
(1874, revised and augmented 1892-1894) are of use for the history
and terminology, as well as the theory. Riehl's article entitled
Logik in Die Kultur der Gegenwart, vi. I. Systematische Philosophic
(1907), is excellent, and touches on quite modern developments.
Liard, Les Logiciens Anglais Contemporains (sth ed., 1907), deals
only with the 19th-century inductive and formal-symbolic logicians
down to Jevons, to whom the book was originally dedicated. Venn's
Symbolic Logic (1881) gave a careful history and bibliography of
that development. The history of the more recent changes is as
yet to be found only in the form of unshaped material in the pages
of review and Jahresbericht. (H. W. B. )
' Yet see Studies in Logic, by John Dewey and others (1903).
LOGOCYCLIC CURVE— LOGOS
919
LOGOCYCLIC CURVE, STROPHOID or FOLIATE, a cubic
curve generated by increasing or diminishing the radius vector
of a variable point Q on a straight line AB by
the distance QC of the point from the foot of
the perpendicular drawn from the origin to
the fixed line. The polar equation is rcosfl
= 0(1 ± sin0), the upper sign referring to the
case when the vector is increased, the lower
when it is diminished. Both branches are in-
cluded in the Cartesian equation (x*+y>) (20.— x)
= a?x, where a is the distance of the line
from the origin. If we take for axes the
fixed line and the perpendicular through the
initial point, the equation takes the form
y ^(a—x) = x V(a+*)- The curve resembles the
folium of Descartes, and has a node between
x = o, x = a, and two branches asymptotic to the
line* =2<i.
LOGOGRAPHI (Xiryos, ypa<t>u>, writers of prose histories or
tales), the name given by modern scholars to the Greek historio-
graphers before Herodotus.1 Thucydides, however, applies
the term to all his own predecessors, and it is therefore usual
to make a distinction between the older and the younger logo-
graphers. Their representatives, with one exception, came from
Ionia and its islands, which from their position were most favour-
ably situated for the acquisition of knowledge concerning the
distant countries of East and West. They wrote in the Ionic
dialect, in what was called the unperiodic style, and preserved
the poetic character of their epic model. Their criticism amounts
to nothing more than a crude attempt to rationalize the current
legends and traditions connected with the founding of cities,
the genealogies of ruling families, and the manners and customs
of individual peoples. Of scientific criticism there is no trace
whatever. * The first of these historians was probably Cadmus
of Miletus (who lived, if at all, in the early part of the 6th century) ,
the earliest writer of prose, author of a work on the founding
of his native city and the colonization of Ionia (so Suidas);
Pherecydes of Leros, who died about 400, is generally considered
the last. Mention may also be made of the following: Hecataeus
of Miletus (550-476); Acusilaus of Argos,2 who paraphrased
in prose (correcting the tradition where it seemed necessary)
the genealogical works of Hesiod in the Ionic dialect; he con-
fined his attention to the prehistoric period, and made no attempt
at a real history; Charon of Lampsacus (c. 450), author of
histories of Persia, Libya, and Ethiopia, of annals (copoi) of
his native town with lists of the prytaneis and archons, and of
the chronicles of Lacedaemonian kings; Xanthus of Sardis in
Lydia (c. 450), author of a history of Lydia, one of the chief
authorities used by Nicolaus of Damascus (fl. during the time of
Augustus); Hellanicus of Mytilene; Stesimbrotus of Thasos,
opponent of Pericles and reputed author of a political pamphlet
on Themistocles, Thucydides and Pericles; Hippys and Glaucus,
both of Rhegium, the first the author of histories of Italy and
Sicily, the second of a treatise on ancient poets and musicians,
used by Harpocration and Plutarch; Damastes of Sigeum,
pupil of Hellanicus, author of genealogies of the combatants
before Troy (an ethnographic and statistical list), of short
treatises on poets, sophists, and geographical subjects.
On the early Greek historians, see G. Busolt, Griechische Geschichte
(1893), i. 147-153; C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Studium der
alien Geschichte (1895); A. Schafer, Abriss der Quellenkunde der
griechischen und romischen Geschichte (ed. H. Nissen, 1889); J. B.
Bury, Ancient Greek Historians (1909), lecture i.; histories of Greek
literature by Miiller-Donaldson (ch. 18) and W. Mure (bk. iv. ch. 3),
where the little that is known concerning the life and writings of the
logographers is exhaustively discussed. The fragments will be found,
with Latin notes, translation, prolegomena, and copious indexes,
in C. W. Miiller's Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum (1841-1870).
See also GREECE: History, Ancient (section, " Authorities ").
• ' The word is also used of the writers of speeches for the use of
the contending parties in the law courts, who were forbidden to
employ advocates.
2 There is some doubt as to whether this Acusilaus was of Pelo-
ppnnesian or Boeotian Argos. Possibly there were two of the name.
For an example of the method of Acusilaus see Bury, op. cit. p. 19.
LOGOS (Xoyos), a common term in ancient philosophy and
theology. It expresses the idea of an immanent reason in the
world, and, under various modifications, is met with in Indian,
Egyptian and Persian systems of thought. But the idea was
developed mainly in Hellenic and Hebrew philosophy, and we
may distinguish the following stages:
i. The Hellenic Logos. — To the Greek mind, which saw in
the world a KOOJUOS (ordered whole), it was natural to regard the
world as the product of reason, and reason as the ruling principle
in the world. So we find a Logos doctrine more or less prominent
from the dawn of Hellenic thought to its eclipse. It rises in
the realm of physical speculation, passes over into the territory
of ethics and theology, and makes its way through at least
three well-defined stages. These are marked off by the names
of Heraclitus of Ephesus, the Stoics and Philo.
It acquires its first importance in the theories of Heraclitus
(6th century B.C.), who, trying to account for the aesthetic
order of the visible universe, broke away to some extent from
the purely physical conceptions of his predecessors and discerned
at work in the cosmic process a \6yos analogous to the reasoning
power in man. On the one hand the Logos is identified with
•yvunri and connected with blKfj, which latter seems to have the
function of correcting deviations from the eternal law that rules
in things. On the other hand it is not positively distinguished
either from the ethereal fire, or from the eluapfifvri and the avajKr/
according to which all things occur. Heraclitus holds that nothing
material can be thought of without this Logos, but he does not
conceive the Logos itseJ f to be immaterial. Whether it is regarded
as in any sense possessed of intelligence and consciousness is
a question variously answered. But there is most to say for
the negative. This Logos is not one above the world or prior
to it, but in the world and inseparable from it. Man's soul is a
part of it. It is relation, therefore, as Schleiermacher expresses
it, or reason, not speech or word. And it is objective, not sub-
jective, reason. Like a law of nature, objective in the world,
it gives order and regularity to the movement of things, and
makes the system rational.3
The failure of Heraclitus to free himself entirely from the
physical hypotheses of earlier times prevented his speculation
from influencing his successors. With Anaxagoras a conception
entered which gradually triumphed over that of Heraclitus,
namely, the conception of a supreme, intellectual principle,
not identified with the world but independent of it. This,
however, was vous, not Logos. In the Platonic and Aristotelian
systems, too, the theory of ideas involved an absolute separation
between the material world and the world of higher reality,
and though the term Logos is found the conception is vague
and undeveloped. With Plato the term selected for the expression
of the principle to which the order visible in the universe is
due is vow or (ro<t>la, not Xcryos. It is in the pseudo-Platonic
Epinomis that Xcryos appears as a synonym for voDs. In Aristotle,
again, the principle which sets all nature under the rule of thought,
and directs it towards a rational end, is voOs, or the divine
spirit itself; while Xo7os is a term with many senses, used as
more or less identical with a number of phrases, ov evtua,
ivtpytia, tVTt\fxaa> ovaia, «?5os, fju>p<t>ri, Sic.
In the reaction from Platonic dualism, however, the Logos
doctrine reappears in great breadth. It is a capital element in
the system of the Stoics. With their Ideological views of the
world they naturally predicated an active principle pervading
it and determining it. This operative principle is called both
Logos and God. It is conceived of as material, and is described
in terms used equally of nature and of God. There is at the same
time the special doctrine of the Xoyos airepfiaTiKos, the seminal
Logos, or the law of generation in the world, the principle of the
active reason working in dead matter. This parts into Xo-yot
o-irtpfjiaTiKoL, which are akin, not to the Platonic ideas, but
rather to the \6yoi tvv\ot of Aristotle. In man, too, there is
a Logos which is his characteristic possession, and which is
evdiadfros, as long as it is a thought resident within his breast,
8 Cf . Schleiermacher's Herakleitos der Dunkle ; art. HERACLITUS
and authorities there quoted.
920
LOGOS
but vpottxipiKos when it is expressed as a word. This distinction
between Logos as ratio and Logos as oratio, so much used sub-
sequently by Philo and the Christian fathers, had been so far
anticipated by Aristotle's distinction between the e£co XOYOS and
the XoiVos iv rf ^vxv- It forms the point of attachment by which
the Logos doctrine connected itself with Christianity. The Logos
of the Stoics (q.v.) is a reason in the world gifted with intelligence,
and analogous to the reason in man.
2. The Hfbrew Logos. — In the later Judaism the earlier
anthropomorphic conception of God and with it the sense of
the divine nearness had been succeeded by a belief which placed
God at a remote distance, severed from man and the world by
a deep chasm. The old familiar name Yahweh became a secret;
its place was taken by such general expressions as the Holy, the
Almighty, the Majesty on High, the King of Kings, and also
by the simple word " Heaven." Instead of the once powerful
confidence in the immediate presence of God there grew up a
mass of speculation regarding on the one hand the distant future,
on the other the distant past. Various attempts were made to
bridge the gulf between God and man, including the angels, and
a number of other hybrid forms of which it is hard to say whether
they are personal beings or abstractions. The Wisdom, the
Shekinah or Glory, and the Spirit of God are intermediate
beings of this kind, and even the Law came to be regarded as an
independent spiritual entity. Among these conceptions that
of the Word of God had an important place, especially the
creative Word of Genesis i. Here as in the other cases we cannot
always say whether the Word is regarded as a mere attribute or
activity of God, or an independent being, though there is a clear
tendency towards the latter. The ambiguity lies in the twofold
purpose of these activities: (i) to establish communication with
God; (2) to prevent direct connexion between God and the world.
The word of the God of revelation is represented as the creative
principle (e.g. Gen. i. 3; Psalm xxxiii. 6), as the executor of the
divine judgments (Hosea vi. 5), as healing (Psalm cvii. 20), as
possessed of almost personal qualities (Isaiah Iv. n; Psalm
cxlvii. 15). Along with this comes the doctrine of the angel of
Yahweh, the angel of the covenant, the angel of the presence, in
whom God manifests Himself, and who is sometimes identified
with Yahweh or Elohim (Gen. xvi. n, 13; xxxii. 29-31; Exod.
iii. 2; xiii. 21), sometimes distinguished from Him (Gen. xxii.
15, &c.; xxiv. 7; xxviii. 12, &c.), and sometimes presented
in both aspects (Judges ii., vi.; Zech. i.). To this must be
added the doctrine of Wisdom, given in the books of Job and
Proverbs. At one time it is exhibited as an attribute of God
(Prov. iii. 19). At another it is strongly personified, so as to
become rather the creative thought of God than a quality (Prov.
viii. 22). Again it is described as proceeding from God as the
principle of creation and objective to Him. In these and
kindred passages (Job xv. 7, &c.) it is on the way to become
hypostatized.
The Hebrew conception is partially associated with the Greek in
the case of Aristobulus, the predecessor of Philo, and, according
to the fathers, the founder of the Alexandrian school. He speaks of
Wisdom in a way reminding us of the book of Proverbs. The
pseudo-Solomonic Book of Wisdom (generally supposed to be the
work of an Alexandrian flourishing somewhere between Aristobulus
and Philo) deals both with the Wisdom and with the Logos. It
fails to hypostatize either. But it represents the former as the
framer of the world, as the power or spirit of God, active alike in
the physical, the intellectual, and the ethical domain, and apparently
objective to God. In the Targums, on the other hand, the three
doctrines of the word, the angel, and the wisdom of God converge
in a very definite conception. In the Jewish theology God is re-
presented as purely transcendent, having no likeness of nature with
man, and making no personal entrance into history. Instead of
the immediate relation of God to the world the Targums introduce
the ideas of the Memra (word) and the Shechlna (real presence).
This Memra ( = Ma'amar) or, as it is also designated, Dibbura, is a
hypostasis that takes the place of God when direct intercourse with
man is in view. In all those passages of the Old Testament where
anthropomorphic terms are used of God, the Memra is substituted
for God. The Memra proceeds from God, and retains the creaturely
relation to God. It does not seem to have been identified with the
Messiah.1 ^__
* Cf. the Targum of Onkelos on the Pentateuch under Gen. vii. 16,
xvii. 2, xxi. 20; Exod. xix. 16, &c. ; the Jerusalem Targum on
3. Philo. — In the Alexandrian philosophy, as represented by
the Hellenized Jew Philo, the Logos doctrine assumes a leading
place and shapes a new career for itself. Philo's doctrine is
moulded by three forces — Platonism, Stoicism and Hebraism.
He detaches the Logos idea from its connexion with Stoic
materialism and attaches it to a thorough-going Platonism.
It is Plato's idea of the Good regarded as creatively active.
Hence, instead of being merely immanent in the Cosmos, it has
an independent existence. Platonic too is the doctrine of the
divine architect who seeks to realize in the visible universe
the archetypes already formed in his mind. Philo was thus
able to make the Logos theory a bridge between Judaism and
Greek philosophy. It preserved the monotheistic idea yet
afforded a description of the Divine activity in terms of Hellenic
thought; the Word of the Old Testament is one with the Xoyos
of the Stoics. And thus in" Philo's conception the Logos is much
more than " the principle of reason, informing the infinite
variety of things, and so creating the World-Order "; it is also
the divine dynamic, the energy and self-revelation of God.
The Stoics indeed sought, more or less consciously, by their
doctrine of the Logos as the Infinite Reason to escape from
the belief in a divine Creator, but Philo, Jew to the core, starts
from the Jewish belief in a supreme, self-existing God, to whom
the reason of the world must be subordinated though related.
The conflict of the two conceptions (the Greek and the Hebrew)
led him into some difficulty; sometimes he represents the Logos
as an independent and even personal being, a " second God,"
sometimes as merely an aspect of the divine activity. And
though passages of the first class must no doubt be explained
figuratively — for Philo would not assert the existence of two
Divine agents — it remains true that the two conceptions cannot
be fused. The Alexandrian philosopher wavers between the
two theories and has to accord to the Logos of Hellas a semi-
independent position beside the supreme God of Judaea. He
speaks of the Logos (i) as the agency by which God reveals
Himself, in some measure to all men, in greater degree to chosen
souls. The appearances recorded in the Old Testament are
manifestations of the Logos, and the knowledge of God possessed
by the great leaders and teachers of Israel is due to the same
source; (2) as the agency whereby man, enmeshed by illusion,
lays hold of the higher spiritual life and rising above his partial
point of view participates in the universal reason. The Logos is
thus the means of redemption; those who realize its activity
being emancipated from the tyranny of circumstance into the
freedom of the eternal.
4. The Fourth Gospel. — Among the influences that shaped
the Fourth Gospel that of the Alexandrian philosophy must be
assigned a distinct, though not an exaggerated importance.
There are other books in the New Testament that bear the same
impress, the epistles to the Ephesians and the Colossians, and to
a much greater degree the epistle to the Hebrews. The develop-
ment that had thus begun in the time of Paul reaches maturity
in the Fourth Gospel, whose dependence on Philo appears (i)
in the use of the allegorical method, (2) in many coincident
passages, (3) in the dominant conception of the Logos. The
writer narrates the life of Christ from the point of view furnished
him by Philo's theory. True, the Logos doctrine is only men-
tioned in the prologue to the Gospel, but it is presupposed
throughout the whole book. The author's task indeed was
somewhat akin to that of Philo, " to transplant into the world of
Hellenic culture a revelation originally given through Judaism."
This is not to say that he holds the Logos doctrine in exactly
the samg form as Philo. On the contrary, the fact that he
starts from an actual knowledge of the earthly life of Jesus,
Numb. vii. 89, &c. For further information regarding the Hebrew
Logos see, beside Dr Kaufmann Kohler, s.v. " Memra," Jewish
Encyc. viii. 464-465, Bousset, Die Religion des Judenthums (1903),
p. 341, and Weber, Judische Theologie (1897), pp. 180-184. The
hypostatizing of the Divine Word in the doctrine of the Memra was
probably later than the time of Philo, but it was the outcome of a
mode of thinking already common in Jewish theology. The same
tendency is of course expressed in the " Logos " of the Fourth
Gospel.
LOGOTHETE— LOGRONO
921
while Philo, even when ascribing a real personality to the Logos,
keeps within the bounds of abstract speculation, leads him
seriously to modify the Philonic doctrine. Though the Alex-
andrian idea largely determines the evangelist's treatment of
the history, the history similarly reacts on the idea. The pro-
logue is an organic portion of the Gospel and not a preface
written to conciliate a philosophic public. It assumes that the
Logos idea is familiar in Christian theology, and vividly sum-
marizes the main features of the Philonic conception — the
eternal existence of the Logos, its relation to God (irpos TOV Btbv,
yet distinct), its creative, illuminative and redemptive activity.
But the adaptation of the idea to John's account of a historical
person involved at least three profound modifications: — (i)
the Logos, instead of the abstraction or semi-personification
of Philo, becomes fully personified. The Word that became
flesh subsisted from all eternity as a distinct personality within
the divine nature. (2) Much greater stress is laid upon the
redemptive than upon the creative function. The latter indeed
is glanced at (" All things were made by him "), merely to pro-
vide a link with earlier speculation, but what the writer is
concerned about is not the mode in which the world came into
being but the spiritual life which resides in the Logos and is
communicated by him to men. (3) The idea of XOYOS as Reason
becomes subordinated to the idea of XOYOS as Word, the expression
of God's will and power, the outgoing of the divine energy, life,
love and light. Thus in its fundamental thought the prologue
of the Fourth Gospel comes nearer to the Old Testament (and
especially to Gen. i.) than to Philo. As speech goes out from
a man and reveals his character and thought, so Christ is " sent
out from the Father," and as the divine Word is also, in accord-
ance with the Hebrew idea, the medium of God's quickening
power.
What John thus does is to take the Logos idea of Philo and
use it for a practical purpose — to make more intelligible to himself
and his readers the divine nature of Jesus Christ. That this
endeavour to work into the historical tradition of the life and
teaching of Jesus — a hypothesis which had a distinctly foreign
origin — led him into serious difficulties is a consideration that
must be discussed elsewhere.
5. The Early Church. — In many of the early Christian writers,
as well as in the heterodox schools, the Logos doctrine is influenced
by the Greek idea. The Syrian Gnostic Basilides held (according
to Irenaeus i. 24) that the Logos or Word emanated from the vovs,
or personified reason, as this latter emanated from the unbegottcn
Father. The completes! type of Gnosticism, the Valentinian, re-
garded Wisdom as the last of the series of aeons that emanated from
the original Being or Father, and the Logos as an emanation from
the first two principles that issued from God, Reason (coOs) and Truth.
Justin Martyr, the first of the sub-apostolic fathers, taught that
God produced of His own nature a rational power(56»a;iuc TWO. XOTIK^V) ,
His agent in creation, who now became man in Jesus (Dial. c. Tryph.
chap. 48, 60). He affirmed also the action of the \6yos oTripnaTtuds,
(Apol. i. 46; ii. 13, &c.). With Tatian (Cohort, ad. Gr. chap. 5, &c.)
the Logos is the beginning of the world, the reason that comes into
being as the sharer of God's rational power. With Athenagoras
(Suppl. chap. 9, 10) He is the prototype of the world and the
energizing principle (ISia xai tutpytta.) of things. Theophilus (Ad
Autolyc. ii. 10, 24) taught that the Logos was in eternity with
God as the X67os ecSiAOeTos, the counsellor of God, and that when
the world was to be created God sent forth this counsellor (<r(>M/3oi>Xos)
' from Himself as the Xo-yos irpo^putos, yet so that the begotten
Logos did not cease to be a part of Himself. With Hippolytus
(Refut. x. 32, &c.) the Logos, produced of God's own substance, is
both the divine intelligence that appears in the world as the Son
of God, and the idea of the universe immanent in God. The early
Sabellians (comp. Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. vi. 33; Athanasius, Contra
Arian. iy.) held that the Logos was a faculty of God, the divine
reason, immanent in God eternally, but not in distinct personality
prior to the historical manifestation in Christ. Origen, referring
the act of creation to eternity instead of to time, affirmed the eternal
personal existence of the Logos. In relation to God this Logos or
Son was a copy of the original, and as such inferior to that. In
relation to the world he was its prototype, the iSia ISewv and its
redeeming power (Contra Cels. v. 608; Frag, de princip. i. 4;
De princip. i. 109, 324).
In the later developments of Hellenic speculation nothing essential
was added to the doctrine of the Logos. Philo's distinction between
God and His rational power or Logos in contact with the world was
Ssnerally maintained by the eclectic Platonists and Neo-Platonists.
y some of these this distinction was carried out to the extent of
predicating (as was done by Numenius of Apamea) three Gods: —
the supreme God; the second God, or Demiurge or Logos; and the
third God, or the world. Plotinus explained the \6yoi as constructive
forces, proceeding from the ideas and giving form to the dead
matter of sensible things (Enneads, v. i. 8 and Richter's Neu-Plat.
Studien).
See the histories of philosophy and theology, and works quoted
under HERACLITUS, STOICS, PHILO, JOHN, THE GOSPEL OF, &c.,
and for a general summary of the growth of the Logos doctrine, E.
Caird, Evolution of Theology in the Greek Philosophers (1904), vol. ii.;
A. Harnack, History of Dogma; E. F. Scott, The Fourth Gospel,
ch. v. (1906); J. M. Heinze, Die Lehre vom Logos in der griech.
Philosophie (1872); J. ReVille, La Doctrine du Logos (1881); Aal,
Gesch. d. Logos-Idee (1899); and the Histories of Dogma, by A.
Harnack, F. Loofs, R. Seeberg. (S. D. F. S.; A. J. G.)
LOGOTHETE (Med. Lat. logotheta, Gr. \oyo8erris, from Xoyos,
word, account, calculation, and riBtvai, to set, i.e. " one who
accounts, calculates or ratiocinates "), originally the title of a
variety of administrative officials in the Byzantine Empire, e.g.
the \oyo8tT-qs TOV Spopov, who was practically the equivalent
of the modern postmaster-general; and the Xoyo&rqs TOV
(TTpaTMTiKov, the logothete of the military chest. Gibbon de-
fines the great Logothete as " the supreme guardian of the laws
and revenues," who " is compared with the chancellor of the
Latin monarchies." From the Eastern Empire the title was
borrowed by the West, though it only became firmly established
in Sicily, where the logotheta occupied the position of chancellor
elsewhere, his office being equal if not superior to that of the
magnus cancellarius. Thus the title was borne by Pietro della
Vigna, the all-powerful minister of the emperor Frederick II.,
king of Sicify.
See Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v. Logotheta.
LOGROfiO, an inland province of northern Spain, the smallest
of the eight provinces formed in 1833 out of Old Castile; bounded
N. by Burgos, Alava and Navarre, W. by Burgos, S. by Soria and
E. by Navarre and Saragossa. Pop. (1900) 189,376; area,
1946 sq. m. Logrono belongs entirely to the basin of the river
Ebro, which forms its northern boundary except for a short
distance near San Vicente; it is drained chiefly by the rivers
Tiron, Oja, Najerilla, Iregua, Leza, Cidacos and Alhama, all
flowing in a north-easterly direction. The portion skirting the
Ebro forms a spacious and for the most part fertile undulating
plain, called La Rioja, but in the south Logrono is considerably
broken up by offshoots from the sierras which separate that
river from the Douro. In the west the Cerro de San Lorenzo,
the culminating point of the Sierra de la Demanda, rises 7562 ft.,
and in the south the Pico de Urbion reaches 7388 ft. The pro-
ducts of the province are chiefly cereals, good oil and wine
(especially in the Rioja), fruit, silk, flax and honey. Wine is the
principal export, although after 1892 this industry suffered
greatly from the protective duties imposed by France. Great
efforts have been made to keep a hold upon French and English
markets with light red and white Rioja wines. No less than
128,000 acres are covered with vines, and 21,000 with olive
groves. Iron and argentiferous lead are mined in small quantities
and other ores have been discovered. The manufacturing
industries are insignificant. A railway along the right bank of
the Ebro connects the province with Saragossa, and from
Miranda there is railway communication with Madrid, Bilbao
and France; but there is no railway in the southern districts,
where trade is much retarded by the lack even of good roads.
The town of Logrono (pop. 1900, 19,237) and the city of Cala-
horra (9475) are separately described. The only other towns
with upwards of 5000 inhabitants are Haro (7914), Alfaro (5938)
and Cervera del Rio Alhama (5930).
LOGRONO, the capital of the Spanish province of Logrono,
on the right bank of the river Ebro and on the Saragossa-
Miranda de Ebro railway. Pop. (1900) 19,237. Logrono is an
ancient walled town, finely situated on a hill 1204 ft. high.
Its bridge of twelve arches across the Ebro was built in 1138,
but has frequently been restored after partial destruction by
floods. The main street, arcaded on both sides, and the crooked
but highly picturesque alleys of the older quarters are in striking
contrast with the broad, tree-shaded avenues and squares laid
out in modern times. The chief buildings are a bull-ring which
922
LOGROSCINO— LOHENGRIN
accommodates 11,000 spectators, and a church, Santa Maria de
Palacio, called " the imperial," from the tradition that its founder
was Constantine the Great (274-337). As the commercial centre
of the fertile and well-cultivated plain of the Rioja, Logrono
has an important trade in; wine.
The district of Logrono was in ancient times inhabited by
the Berones or Verones of Strabo and Pliny, and their Varia is
to be identified with the modern suburb of the city of Logrono
now known as Varea of Barea. Logrono was named by the
Romans Juliobriga and afterwards Lucronius. It fell into the
hands of the Moors in the 8th century, but was speedily retaken
by the Christians, and under the name of Lucronius appears
with frequency in medieval history. It was unsuccessfully
besieged by the French in 1521, and occupied by them from
1808 to 1813. It was the birthplace of the dumb painter Juan
Fernandez Navarrete (15 26-1 579).
LOGROSCINO (or Lo GROSCINO), NICOLA (17007-1765?),
Italian musical composer, was born at Naples and was a pupil
of Durante. In 1738 he collaborated with Leo and others in the
hasty production of Demctrio; in the autumn of the same year
he produced a comic opera L'inganno per inganno, the first of a
long series of comic operas, the success of which won him the
name of " il Dio dell' opera buffa." He went to Palermo, prob-
ably in 1747, as a teacher of counterpoint; as an opera composer
he is last heard of in 1760, and is supposed to have died about
1763. Logroscino has been credited with the invention of the
concerted operatic finale, but as far as can be seen from the
score of // Governalore and the few remaining fragments of
other operas, his finales show no advance upon those of Leo.
As a musical humorist, however, he deserves remembrance, and
may justly be classed alongside of Rossini.
LOGWOOD (so called from the form in which it is imported),
the heart-wood of a leguminous tree, Haematoxylon campechi-
anum, native of Central America, and grown also in the West
Indian Islands. The tree attains a height not exceeding 40 ft.,
and is said to be ready for felling when about ten years old.
The wood, deprived of its bark and the sap-wood, is sent into
the market in the form of large blocks and billets. It is very
hard and dense, and externally has a dark brownish-red colour;
but it is less deeply coloured within. The best qualities come
from Campeachy, but it is obtained there only in small quantity.
Logwood is used in dyeing (q.v.), in microscopy, in the prepara-
tion of ink, and to a small extent in medicine on account of the
tannic acid it contains, though it has no special medicinal value,
being much inferior to kino and catechu. The wood was intro-
duced into Europe as a dyeing substance soon after the discovery
of America, but from 1581 to 1662 its use in England was pro-
hibited by legislative enactment on account of the inferior dyes
which at first were produced by its employment.
The colouring principle of logwood exists in the timber in the form
of a glucoside, from which it is liberated as haematoxylin by fer-
mentation. Haematoxylin, CieH^Oe, was isolated by M. E. Chevreul
in 1810. It forms a crystalline hydrate, CieHnOu+SHzO, which is
a colourless body very sparingly soluble in cold water, but dissolving
freely in hot water and in alcohol. By exposure to the air, especially
in alkaline solutions, haematoxylin is rapidly oxidized into haematein,
Ci«Hi2O«, with the development of a fine purple colour. This re-
action of haematoxylin is exceedingly rapid and delicate, rendering
that body a laboratory test for alkalis. By the action of hydrogen
and sulphurous acid, haematein is easily reduced to haematoxylin.
It is chemically related to brazilin, found in brazil-wood. Hae-
matoxylin and brazilin, and also their oxidation products, haematin
and brazilin, have been elucidated by W. H. Perkin and his pupils
(see Jour. Chem. Soc., 1908, 1909).
LOHARU, a native state of India, in the south-east corner of
the Punjab, between Hissar district and Rajputana. Area, 222
sq. m.; pop. (1901) 15,229; estimated gross revenue, £4800.
The chief, whose title is nawab, is a Mahommedan, of Afghan
descent. The nawab Sir Amir-ud-din-Ahmad Khan, K.C.I. E.,
who is a member of the viceroy's legislative council, was until
1905 administrator and adviser of the state of Maler Kotla.
The town of Loharu had a population in 1901 of 2175.
L0HE, JOHANN KONRAD WILHELM (1808-1872), German
divine and philanthropist, was born on the 2ist of February
1808 in Fiirth near Nuremberg, and was educated at the uni-
versities of Erlangen and Berlin. In 183 1 he was appointed vicar
at Kirchenlamitz, where his fervent evangelical preaching
attracted large congregations and puzzled the ecclesiastical
authorities. A similar experience ensued at Nuremberg, where
he was assistant pastor of St Egidia. In 1837 he became pastor
in Neuendettelsau, a small and unattractive place, where his life's
work was done, and which he transformed into a busy and
influential community. He was interested in the spiritual
condition of Germans who had emigrated to the United States,
and built two training homes for missionaries to them. In 1849
he founded the Lutheran Society of Home Missions and in 1853
an institution of deaconesses. Other institutions were added to
these, including a lunatic asylum, a Magdalen refuge, and hospitals
for men and women. In theology Lohe was a strict Lutheran,
but his piety was of a most attractive kind. Originality of
conception, vividness of presentation, fertility of imagination,
wide knowledge of Scripture and a happy faculty of applying
it, intense spiritual fervour, a striking physique and a powerful
voice made him a great pulpit force. He wrote a good deal,
amongst his books being Drei Bilcher von der Kirche (1845),
Samenkorner des Gebetes (over 30 editions) and several volumes of
sermons. He died on the 2nd of January 1872.
See his Life, by J. Deinzer (3 vols., Giitersloh, 1873, 3rd cd.,
1901).
LOHENGRIN, the hero of the German version of the legend
of the knight of the swan. The story of Lohengrin as we know
it is based on two principal motives common enough in folklore:
the metamorphosis of human beings into swans, and the curious
wife whose question brings disaster. Lohengrin's guide (the
swan) was originally the little brother who, in one version of " the
Seven Swans," was compelled through the destruction of his
golden chain to remain in swan form and attached himself to
the fortunes of one of his brothers. The swan played a part
in classical mythology as the bird of Apollo, and in Scandinavian
lore the swan maidens, who have the gift of prophecy and are
sometimes confused with the Valkyries, reappear again and
again. The wife's desire to know her husband's origin is a
parallel of the myth of Cupid and Psyche, and bore in medieval
times a similar mystical interpretation. The Lohengrin legend
is localized on the Lower Rhine, and its incidents take place
at Antwerp, Nijmwegen, Cologne and Mainz. In its application
it falls into sharp division in the hands of German and French
poets. By the Germans it was turned to mystical use by being
attached loosely to the Grail legend (see GRAIL and PERCEVAL) ;
in France it was adapted to glorify the family of Godfrey de
Bouillon.
The German story makes its appearance in the last stanzas
of Wolfram von Eschenbach's Parzival, where it is related how
Parzival's son, Loherangrin,1 was sent from the castle of the
Grail to the help of the young duchess of Brabant. Guided
by the swan he reached Antwerp, and married the lady on
condition that she should not ask his origin. On the breach
of this condition years afterwards Loherangrin departed, leaving
sword, horn and ring behind him. Between 1283 and 1290, a
Bavarian disciple of Wolfram's2 adopted the story and developed
it into an epic poem of nearly 8000 lines, incorporating episodes
of Lohengrin's prowess in tournament, his wars with Henry I.
against the heathen Hungarians and the Saracens,3 and inci-
dentally providing a detailed picture of the everyday life of
people of high condition. The epic of Lohengrin is put by the
anonymous writer into the mouth of Wolfram, who is made
to relate it during the Contest of the Singers at the Wartburg
in proof of his superiority in knowledge of sacred things over
Klingsor the magician, and the poem is thus linked on to German
1 i.e. Garin le Loherin (q.v.), or Garin-of Lorraine.
2 Elster (Beitrdge) says that the poem is the work of two pot'ts :
the first part by a Thuringian wandering minstrel, the second —
which differs in style and dialect — by a Bavarian official.
3 Based on material borrowed from the Sachsische Weltchronik
(formerly called Repgowische Chronik from its dubious assignment to
Eime von Repgow), the oldest prose chronicle of the world in German
(c. 1248 or 1260).
LOIN— LOIRE
923
•tradition. Its connexion with Parzival implies a mystic applica-
tion. The consecrated wafer shared by Lohengrin and the
swan on their voyage is one of the more obvious means taken
by the poet to give the tale the character of an allegory of the
relations between Christ, the Church and the human soul.
The story was followed closely in its main outlines by Richard
Wagner in his opera Lohengrin.
The French legend of the knight of the swan is attached to
the house of Bouillon, and although William of Tyre refers
to it about 1170 as fable, it was incorporated without question
by later annalists. It forms part of the cycle of the chansons
de gestc dealing with the Crusade, and relates how Helyas,
knight of the swan, is guided by the swan to the help of the
duchess of Bouillon and marries her daughter Ida or Beatrix
in circumstances exactly parallel to the adventures of Lohengrin
and Elsa of Brabant, and with the like result. Their daughter
marries Eustache, count of Boulogne, and had three sons, the
eldest of whom, Godefroid (Godfrey), is the future king of
Jerusalem. But in French story Helyas is not the son of Parzival,
but of the king and queen of Lillefort, and the story of his birth,
of himself, his five brothers and one sister is, with variations,
that of " the seven swans " persecuted by the wicked grand-
mother, which figures in the pages of Grimm and Hans Andersen.
The house of Bouillon was not alone in claiming the knight
of the swan as an ancestor, and the tradition probably originally
belonged to the house of Cleves.
German Versions. — See Lohengrin, ed. Riickert (Quedlinburg
and Leipzig, 1858); another version of the tale, Lorengel, is edited
in the Zeitschr. fur deutsches Altertum (vol. 15); modern German
translation of Lohengrin, by H. A. Junghaus (Leipzig, 1878); Conrad
von Wiirzburg's fragmentary Schwanritter , ed. F. Roth (Frankfurt,
1861). Cf. Elster, Beitrage zur Kritik des Lohengrin (Halle, 1884),
and R. Heinrichs, Die Lohengrindichtung und ihre Deutung (Hamm i.
West., 1905).
French Versions. — Baron de Reiffenberg, Le Chevalier au cygne
el Godfrey de Bouillon (Brussels, 2 vols., 1846-1848), in Man. pour
servir a I' hist, de la province de Namur; C. Hippeau, La Chanson du
chevalier an cygne (1874); H. A. Todd, La Naissance du chevalier
au cygne, an inedited French poem of the 12th cent. (Mod. Lang.
Assoc., Baltimore, 1889); cf. the Latin tale by Jean de Haute Seille
(Johannes do Alta Silva) in his Dolopaihos (ed. Oesterley, Strassburg,
i873)-
English Versions. — In England the story first appears in a short
poem preserved among the Cotton MSS. of the British Museum
and entitled Chevelere assigne. This was edited by G. E. V. Utterson
in 1820 for the Roxburghe Club, and again by H. H. Gibbs in 1868
for the Early English Text Society. The E.E.T.S. edition is accom-
panied by a set of photographs of a 14th-century ivory casket, on
which the story is depicted in 36 compartments. An English prose
romance, Helyas Knight of the Swan, translated by Robert Copland,
and printed by W. Copland about 1550, is founded on a French
romance La Genealogie . . . de Godeffroy de Boulin (printed 1504)
and is reprinted by W. J. Thorns in Early Prose Romances, vol. iii.
It was also printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1512. A modern edition
was issued in 1901 from the Grolier Club, New York.
LOIN (through O. Fr. loigne or logne, mod. longe, from Lat.
lumbus), that part of the body in an animal which lies between
the upper part of the hip-bone and the last of the false ribs on
either side of the back-bone, hence in the plural the general
term for the lower part of the human body at the junction
with the legs, covered by the loin-cloth, the almost universal
garment among primitive peoples. There are also figurative
uses of the word, chiefly biblical, due to the loins being the
supposed seat of male vigour and power of generation. Apart
from these uses the word is a butcher's term for a joint
of meat cut from this part of the body. The upper part of a
loin of beef is known as the " surloin " (Fr. surlonge, i.e. upper
loin). This has been commonly corrupted into " sirloin," and
a legend invented, to account for the name, of a king, James I.
or Charles II., knighting a prime joint of beef " Sir Loin "
in pleasure at its excellence. A double surloin, undivided at
the back-bone, is known as a " baron of beef," probably from
an expansion of the legend of the " Sir Loin."
LOIRE, the longest river of France, rising in the Gerbier de
Jonc in the department of Ardeche, at a height of 4500 ft.
and flowing north and west to the Atlantic. After a course
of 1 8 m. in Ardeche it enters Haute-Loire, in which it follows
a picturesque channel along the foot of basaltic rocks, through
narrow gorges and small plains. At Vorey, where it is joined
by the Arzon, it becomes navigable for rafts. Four miles below
its entrance into the department of Loire, at La Noirie, river
navigation is officially reckoned to begin, and breaking through
the gorges of Saint Victor, the Loire enters the wide and swampy
plain of Forez, after which it again penetrates the hills and
flows out into the plain of Roanne. As in Haute-Loire, it "is
joined by a large number of streams, the most important being
the Coise on the right and the Lignon du Nord or du Forez
and the Aix on the left. Below Roanne the Loire is accompanied
on its left bank by a canal to Digoin (35 m.) in Saone-et-Loire,
thence by the so-called " lateral canal of the Loire " to Briare
in Loiret (122 m.). Owing to the exteme irregularity of the
river in different seasons these canals form the only certain
navigable way. At Digoin the Loire receives the Arroux, and
gives off the canal du Centre (which utilizes the valley of the
Bourbince) to Chalon:sur-Saone. At this point its northerly
course begins to be interrupted by the mountains of Morvan,
and flowing north-west it enters the department of Nievre.
Just beyond Nevers it is joined by the Allier; this river rises
30 m. S.W. of the Loire in the department of Lozere, and follow-
ing an almost parallel course has at the confluence a volume
equal to two-thirds of that of the main stream. Above Nevers
the Loire is joined by the Aron, along which the canal du
Nivernais proceeds northward, and the Nievre, and below the
confluence of the Allier gives off the canal du Berry to Bourges
and the navigable part of the Cher. About this point the valley
becomes more ample and at Briare (in Loiret) the river leaves
the highlands and flows between the plateaus of Gatinais and the
Beauce on the right and the Sologne on the left. In Loiret it
gives off the canal de Briare northward to the Seine and itself
bends north-west to Orleans, whence the canal d'Orleans,
following the little river Cens, communicates with the Briare
canal. At Orleans the river changes its north-westerly for a
south-westerly course. A striking peculiarity of the affluents
of the Loire in Loiret and the three subsequent departments
is that they frequently flow in a parallel channel to the main
stream and in the same valley. Passing Blois in Loir-et-Cher,
the Loire enters Indre-et-Loire and receives on the right the
Cisse, and, after passing Tours, the three important left-hand
tributaries of the Cher, Indre and theVienne. At the confluence
of the Vienne the Loire enters Maine-et-Loire, in its course
through which department it is frequently divided by long
sandy islands fringed with osiers and willows; while upon
arriving at LesPonts-de-Ce it is split into several distinct branches.
The principal tributaries are: left, the Thouet at Saumur, the
Layon and the Evre; right: the Authion, and, most important
tributary of all, the Maine, formed by the junction of the rivers
Mayenne, Sarthe and Loir. Through Loire-Inferieure the river
is studded with islands until below Nantes, where the largest
of them, called Belle-He, is found. It receives the Erdre
on the right at Nantes and on the opposite shore the Sevre-
Nantaise, and farther on the canalized Achenau on the left
and the navigable Etier de Mean on the right near Saint
Nazaire. Below Nantes, between which point and La Martiniere
(below Pellerin) the channel is embanked, the river is known
as the Loire Maritime and widens out between marshy shores,
passing Paimbceuf on the left and finally Saint-Nazaire, where
it is ij m. broad. The length of the channel of the Loire is
about 625 m.; its drainage area is 46,700 sq.m. A lateral canal
(built in 1881-1892 at a cost of about £1,000,000) known as the
Maritime Canal of the Loire between Le Carnet and La Martiniere
enables large ships to ascend to Nantes. It is 9! m. long, and
ig-J (capable of being increased to 24) ft. deep. At each end is
a lock 405 ft. long by 59 ft. wide. The canal de Nantes a Brest
connects this city with Brest.
The Loire is navigable only in a very limited sense. During the
drought of summer thin and feeble streams thread their way between
the sandbanks of the channel; while at other times a stupendous
flood submerges wide reaches of land. In the middle part of its
course the Loire traverses the western portion of the undulating
Paris basin, with its Tertiary marls, sands and clays, and the
924
LOIRE— LOIRE-INFERIEURE
alluvium carried off from these renders its lower channel inconstant;
the rest of the drainage area is occupied by crystalline rocks, over
the hard surface of which the water, undiminished by absorption,
flows rapidly into the streams. When the flood waters of two or
more tributaries arrive at the same time serious inundations result.
Attempts to control the river must have begun at a very early date,
and by the close of the middle ages the bed between Orleans and
Angers was enclosed by dykes 10 to 13 ft. high. In 1783 a double
line of dykes or turcies 23 ft. high was completed from Bee d'Allier
downwards. The channel was, however, so much narrowed that the
embankments are almost certain to give way as soon as the water
rises 16 ft. (the average rise is about 14, and in 1846 and 1856 it
was more than 22). In modern times embankments, aided by
dredging operations extending over a large number of years, have
ensured a depth of 18 ft. in the channel between La Martiniere and
Nantes. Several towns have constructed special works to defend
themselves against the floods; Tours, the most exposed of all, is
surrounded by a circular dyke.
Various schemes for the systematic regulation of the Loire have
been discussed. It has been proposed to construct in the upper
valleys of the several affluents a number of gigantic dams or re-
servoirs from which the water, stored during flood, could be let off
into the river as required. A dam of this kind (built in 1711) at the
village of Pinay, about 1 8 m. above Roanne, and capable of re-
taining from 350 to 450 million cub. ft. of water, has greatly
diminished the force of the floods at Roanne, and maintained the
comparative equilibrium of the current during the dry season.
Three other dams of modern construction are also in existence, one
near Firminy, the other two near St £tienne.
LOIRE, a department of central France, made up in 1793
of the old district of Forez and portions of Beaujolais and
Lyonnais, all formerly included in the province of Lyonnais.
Pop. (1906) 643,943. Area 1853 sq. m. It is bounded N. by
the department of Sa6ne-et-Loire, E. by those of Rh6ne and
Isere, S. by Ardeche and Haute-Loire, and W. by Puy-de-D&me
and Allier. From 1790 to 1793 it constituted, along with that
of Rh&ne, a single department (Rh6ne-et-Loire). It takes its
name from the river which bisects it from south to north. The
Rhone skirts the S.E. of the department, about one-eighth of
which belongs to its basin. After crossing the southern border
the Loire runs through wild gorges, passing the picturesque
crag crowned by the old fortress of St Paul-en-Cornillon. At
St Rambert it issues into the broad plain of Fotez, flows north
as far as its confluence with the Aix where the plain ends, and
then again traverses gorges till it enters the less extensive plain
of Roanne in the extreme north of the department. These two
plains, the beds of ancient lakes, are enclosed east and west by
chains of mountains running parallel with the river. In the
west are the Forez mountains, which separate the Loire basin
from that of the Allier; their highest point (Pierre sur Haute,
5381 ft.) is 12 m. W. of Montbrison. They sink gradually
towards the north, and are successively called Bois Noirs (4239
ft.), from their woods, and Monts de la Madeleine (3822 to 1640
ft.). In the east the Rhone and Loire basins are separated,
by Mont Pilat (4705 ft.) at the north extremity of the Cevennes,
and by the hills of Lyonnais, Tarare, Beaujolais and Charolais,
none of which rise higher than 3294 ft. Of the affluents of the
Loire the most important are the Lignon du Nord, the beautiful
valley of which has been called " La Suisse Forezienne," and the
Aix on the left, and on the right the Ondaine (on which stand
the industrial towns of Chambon-Feugerolles and Firminy),
the Furens and the Rhin. The Gier forms a navigable channel
to the Rhone at Givors, and has on its banks the industrial
towns of St diamond and Rive-de-Gier. From Mont Pilat
descends the Dedme, in the valley of which are the workshops
of Annonay (?.».). The climate on the heights is cold and healthy,
it is unwholesome in the marshy plain of Forez, mild in the valley
of the Rhone. The annual rainfall varies from 39 to 48 in. on
the Forez mountains, but only reaches 20 to 24 in. in the vicinity
of Montbrison.
The plains of Forez and Roanne are the two most important
agricultural districts, but the total production of grain within the
department is insufficient for the requirements ofthe population.
The pasture lands of the plain of Forez,, the western portion of
which is irrigated by the canal of Forez, support a large number of
live stock. Good pasturage is also found on the higher levels of
the Forez mountains, on the north-eastern plateaus, where oxen of
the famous Charolais breed are raised, and on the uplands generally.
Wheat and rye are the leading cereal crops; oats come next in
importance, barley and colza occupying a relatively small area.
The vine is cultivated in the valley of the Rhone, on the lower slopes
of the Forez mountains and on the hills west of the plain of Roanne.
The forests of Mont Pilat and the Forez chain yield good-sized pines
and wood for mining purposes. The so-called Lyons chestnuts are
to a large extent obtained from Forez; the woods and pasture lands
of Mont Pilat yield medicinal plants, such as mint. Poultry-rearing
and bee-keeping are considerable industries. The department is
rich in mineral springs, the waters of St Galmier, Sail-sous-Couzan,
St Romain-le-Puy and St Alban being largely exported. The chief
wealth of the department lies in the coal deposits of the basin of
St Etienne (g.v.), the second in importance in France, quarrying is
also active. Metal-working industries are centred in the S.E. of
the department, where are the great manufacturing towns of St
fitienne, Rive-de-Gier, St diamond and Firminy. At St Etienne
there is a national factory of arms, in which as many as 10,000 have
been employed; apart from other factories of the same kind carried
on by private individuals, the production of hardware, locks, edge-
tools, common cutlery, chain cables for the mines, files, rails, &c.,
occupies thousands of hands. Cast steel is largely manufactured,
and the workshops of the department supply the heaviest con-
structions required in naval architecture, as well as war material
and machinery of every description. The glass industry is carried
on at Rive-de-Gier and St Galmier. St Etienne and St Chamond
are centres for the fabrication of silk ribbons, elastic ribbons and
laces, and the dressing of raw silks. Between 50,000 and 60,000
people are employed in the last-named industries. The arrondisse-
ment of Roanne manufactures cotton stuffs, muslins and the like.
That of Montbrison produces table linen. The department has
numerous dye-works, flour-mills, paper works, lanyards, brick-
works, silk-spinning works and hat factories. It is served by the
Paris-Lyon railway, Roanne being the junction of important lines
from Paris to Lyons and St Etienne. Within the department the
Loire is hardly used for commercial navigation; the chief water-
ways are the canal from Roanne to Digoin (13 m. in the department),
that from Givors to Rive-de-Gier (7 m.) and the Rhone (7 m.).
Loire comprises three arrondissements — St Etienne, Mont-
brison and Roanne — with 31 cantons and 335 communes. It
falls within the region of the XIII. army corps and the dioctse
and acadimie (educational circumscription) of Lyons, where
also is its court of appeal. St fitienne is the capital, other
leading towns being Roanne, Montbrison, Rive-de-Gier, St
Chamond, Firminy and Le Chambon, all separately noticed.
St Bonnet-le-Chateau, besides old houses, has a church of the
1 5th and i6th centuries, containing paintings of the ijth century;
St Rambert and St Romain-le-Puy have priory churches of the
nth and i2th centuries; and at Charlieu there are remains of
a Benedictine abbey founded in the 9th century, including a
porch decorated with fine Romanesque carving.
LOIRE-INFERIEURE, a maritime department of western
France, made up in 1790 of a portion of Brittany on the right
and of the district of Retz on the left of the Loire, and bounded
W. by the ocean, N. by Morbihan and Ille-et-Vilaine, E. by
Maine-et-Loire and S. by Vendee. Pop. (1906) 666,748. Area
2694 sq. m. The surface is very flat, and the highest point, in
the north on the borders of Ille-et-Vilaine, reaches only 377 ft.
The line of hillocks skirting the right bank of the Loire, and
known as the sillon de Brelagne, scarcely exceeds 250 ft.; below
Savenay they recede from the river, and meadows give place
to peat bogs. North of St Nazaire and Grande Briere, measuring
9 m. by 6, and rising hardly 10 ft. above the sea-level, still supplies
old trees which can be used for joiners' work. A few scattered
villages occur on the more elevated spots, but communication
is effected chiefly by the canals which intersect it. The district
south of the Loire lies equally low; its most salient feature is
the lake of Grandlieu, covering 27 sq. m., and surrounded by
low and marshy ground, but so shallow (6j ft. at most) that
drainage would be comparatively easy. The Loire (q.v.) has a
course of 70 m. within the department. On the left bank a
canal stretches for 9 m. between Pellerin, where the dikes which
protect the Loire valley from inundation terminate, and Paim-
bceuf, and vessels drawing 17 or 18 ft. can reach Nantes. The
principal towns on the river within the department are Ancenis,
Nantes and St Nazaire (one of the most important commercial
ports of France) on the right, and Paimbreuf on the left. The
chief affluents are, on the right the Erdre and on the left the
Sevre, both debouching at Nantes. The Erdre in its lower
course broadens in places into lakes which give it the appearance
of a large river. Four miles below Nort it coalesces with the
LOIRET— LOIR-ET-CHER
925
canal from Nantes to Brest. The Sevre is hemmed in by
picturesque hills; at the point where it enters the department
it flows past the beautiful town of Clisson with its imposing
castle of the I3th century. Apart from the Loire, the only
navigable channel of importance within the department is the
Nantes and Brest canal, fed by the Isac, a tributary of the
Vilaine, which separates Loire-Inferieure from Ille-et-Vilaine
and Morbihan. The climate is humid, mild and equable. At
Nantes the mean annual temperature is 54-7° Fahr., and there
are one hundred and twenty-two rainy days, the annual rainfall
being 25-6 in.
Horse and cattle raising prospers, being carried on chiefly in the
west of the department and in the Loire valley. Good butter and
cheese are produced. Poultry also is reared, and there is a good
deal of bee-keeping. Wheat, oats, buckwheat and potatoes are
produced in great abundance; leguminous plants are also largely
cultivated, especially near Nantes. Wine, cider and forage crops are
the chief remaining agricultural products. The woods are of oak
in the interior and pine on the coast. The department has deposits
of tin, lead and iron. N.W. of Ancenis coal is obtained from a bed
which is a prolongation of that of Anjou. The salt marshes, about
6000 acres in all, occur for the most part between the mouth of the
Vilaine and the Loire, and on the Bay of Bourgneuf, and salt-
refining, of which Guerande is the centre, is an important industry.
The granite of the sea-coast and of the Loire up to Nantes is quarried
for large blocks. Steam-engines are built for the government at
Indret, a few miles below Nantes; the forges of Basse-Indre are in
good repute for the quality of their iron; and the production of
the lead-smelting works at Coueron amounts to several millions of
francs annually. There are also considerable foundries at Nantes,
Chantenay, close to Nantes, and St Nazaire, and shipbuilding yards
at Nantes and St Nazaire. Among other industries may be mentioned
the preparation of pickles and preserved meats at Nantes, the curing
of sardines at Le Croisic and in the neighbouring communes, the
manufacture of sugar, brushes, tobacco, macaroni and similar foods,
soap and chemicals at Nantes, and of paper, sugar and soap at
Chantenay. Fishing is prosecuted along the entire coast, particu-
larly at Le Croisic. Among the seaside resorts Le Croisic, Pornichet
and Pornic, where there are megalithic monuments, may be mentioned.
The department is traversed by the railways of the state, the Orleans
company and the Western company. The department is divided
into five arrondissements — -Nantes, Ancenis, Chateaubriant, Paim-
bceuf and St Nazaire — 45 cantons and 219 communes. It has
its appeal court at Rennes, which is also the centre of the academic
(educational division) to which it belongs.
The principal places are Nantes, the capital, St Nazaire
and Chateaubriant, which receive separate treatment. On the
west coast the town of Batz, and the neighbouring villages,
situated on the peninsula of Batz, are inhabited by a small
community possessed of a distinct costume and dialect, and claim-
ing descent from a Saxon or Scandinavian stock. Its members
are employed for the most part in the salt marshes N.E. of the
town. Guerande has well-preserved ramparts and gates of
the 1 5th century, a church dating from the i2th to the i6th
centuries, and other old buildings. At St Philbert-de-Grandlieu
there is a church, rebuilt in the i6th and i7th centuries, but
preserving remains of a previous edifice belonging at least to
the beginning of the nth century.
LOIRET, a department of central France, made up of the
three districts of the ancient province of Orleanais — Orleanais
proper, Gatinais and Dunois — together with portions of those
of lle-de-France and Berry. It is bounded N. by Seine-et-Oise,
N.E. by Seine-et-Marne, E. by Yonne, S. by Nievre and Cher,
S.W. and W. by Loir-et-Cher and N.W. by Eure-et-Loir. Area,
2629 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 364,999. The name is borrowed from
the Loiret, a stream which issues from the ground some miles
to the south of Orleans, and after a course of about 7 m. falls
into the Loire; its large volume gives rise to the belief that it is
a subterranean branch of that river. The Loire traverses the
south of the department by a broad valley which, though
frequently devastated by disastrous floods, is famed for its rich
tilled lands, its castles, its towns and its vine-clad slopes. To
the north of the Loire are the Gatinais (capital Montargis)
and the Beauce; the former district is so named from its gdtines
or wildernesses, of which saffron is, along with honey, the most
noteworthy product; the Beauce (q.v.), a monotonous tract of
corn-fields without either tree or river, has been called the granary
of France. Between the Beauce and the Loire is the extensive
forest of Orleans, which is slowly disappearing before the advances
of agriculture. South of the Loire is the Sologne, long barren
and unhealthy from the impermeability of its subsoil, but now
much improved in both respects by means of pine plantation
and draining and manuring operations. The highest point
(on the borders of Cher) is 900 ft. above sea-level, and the lowest
(on the borders of Seine-et-Marne) is 220 ft. The watershed
on the plateau of Orleans between the basins of the Seine and
Loire, which divide Loiret almost equally between them, is
almost imperceptible. The lateral canal of the Loire from
Roanne stops at Briare; from the latter town a canal (canal
de Briare) connects with the Seine by the Loing valley, which
is joined by the Orleans canal below Montargis. The only im-
portant tributary of the Loire within the department is the
Loiret; the Loing, a tributary of the Seine, has a course
of 40 m. from south to north, and is accompanied first by the
Briare canal and afterwards by that of the Loing. The Essonne,
another important affluent of the Seine, leaving Loiret
below Malesherbes, takes its rise on the plateau of Orleans, as
also does its tributary the Juine. The department has the
climate of the Sequanian region, the mean temperature being
a little above that of Paris; the rainfall varies from 18-5 to 27-5
in., according to the district, that of the exposed Beauce being
lower than that of the well-wooded Sologne. Hailstorms
cause much destruction in the Loire valley and the neighbouring
regions.
The department is essentially agricultural in character. A large
number of sheep, cattle, horses and pies are reared; poultry,
especially geese, and bees are plentiful. The yield of wheat and
oats is in excess of the consumption; rye, barley, meslin, potatoes,
beetroot, colza and forage plants are also cultivated. Wine in
abundance, but of inferior quality, 'is grown on the hills of the
Loire valley. Buckwheat supports bees by its flowers, and poultry
by its seeds. Saffron is another source of profit. The woods consist
of oak, elm, birch and pine; fruit trees thrive in the department,
and Orleans is a great centre of nursery gardens. The industries
are brick and tile making, and the manufacture of faience, for which
Gien is one of the most important centres in France. The Briare
manufacture of porcelain buttons and pearls employs many work-
men. Flour-mills are very numerous. There are iron and copper
foundries, which, with agricultural implement making, bell-founding
and the manufacture of pins, nails and files, represent the chief
metal-working industries. The production of hosiery, wool-spinning
and various forms of wool manufacture are also engaged in. A
large quantity of the wine grown is made into vinegar (vinaigre
d'Orleans). The tanneries produce excellent leather; and paper-
making, sugar-refining, wax-bleaching and the manufacture of
caoutchouc complete the list of industries. The four arrondissements
are those of Orleans, Gien, Montargis and Pithiviers, with 31
cantons and 349 communes. The department forms part of the
academic (educational division) of Paris.
Besides Orleans, the capital, the more noteworthy places,
Gien, Montargis, Beaugency, Pithiviers, Briare and St Benoit-
sur-Loire, are separately noticed. Outside these towns notable
examples of architecture are found in the churches of Clery
(iSth century), of Ferrieres (i3th and I4th centuries) of Puiseaux
(i2th and I3th centuries) and Meung (i2th century). At
Germigny-des-Pres there is a church built originally at the
beginning of the 9th century and rebuilt in the igth century,
on the old plan and to some extent with the old materials.
Yevre-le-Chatel has an interesting chateau of the I3th century,
and Sully -sur- Loire the fine medieval chateau rebuilt at the
beginning of the i7th century by Maximilien de Bethune, duke
of Sully, the famous minister of Henry IV. There are remains
of a Gallo-Roman town (perhaps the ancient Vellaunodunum)
at Trigueres and of a Roman amphitheatre near Montbouy.
LOIR-ET-CHER, a department of central France, formed in
1790 from a small portion of Touraine, the Perche, but chiefly
from the Dunois, Vendomois and Blesois, portions of Orleanais.
It is bounded N. by Eure-et-Loir, N.E. by Loiret, S.E. by Cher,
S. by Indre, S.W. by Indre-et-Loire and N.W. by Sarthe. Pop.
(1906) 276,019. Area, 2479 sq. m. The department takes its
name from the Loir and the Cher by which it is traversed in the
north and south respectively. The Loir rises on the eastern
border of the Perche and joins the Maine after a course of 193 m. ;
the Cher rises on the Central Plateau near Aubusson, and reaches
the Loire after a course of 219 m. The Loire flows through the
926
LOISY
department from north-east to south-west, and divides it into
two nearly equal portions. To the south-east is the district of
the Sologne, to the north-west the rich wheat-growing country
of the Beauce (q.v.) which stretches to the Loir. Beyond that
river lies the Perche. The surface of this region, which contains
the highest altitude in the department (840 ft.), is varied by
hills, valleys, hedged fields and orchards. The Sologne was
formerly a region of forests, of which those in the neighbourhood
of Chambord are the last remains. Its soil, once barren and
marshy, has been considerably improved by draining and
afforestation, though pools are still very numerous. The district
is much frequented by sportsmen. The Cher and Loir traverse
pleasant valleys, occasionally bounded by walls of tufa in which
dwellings have been excavated, as at Les Roches in the Loir
valley; the stone, hardened by exposure to the air, is also used
for building purposes. The Loire and, with the help of the Berry
canal, the Cher are navigable. The chief remaining rivers of the
department are the Beuvron, which flows into the Loire on the
left, and the Sauldre, a right-hand affluent of the Cher. The
climate is temperate and mild, though that of the Beauce tends
to dryness and that of the Sologne to dampness. The mean
annual temperature is between 52° and 53° F.
The department is primarily agricultural, yielding abundance of
wheat and oats. Besides these the chief products are rye, wheat
and potatoes. Vines thrive on the valley slopes, the vineyards
falling into four groups — those of the Cher, which yield fine red
wines, the Sologne, the B16sois and the Vend6mois. In the valleys
fruit-trees and nursery gardens are numerous; the asparagus of
Romorantin and Vend&me is well-known. The Sologne supplies
pine and birch for fuel, and there are extensive forests around Blois
and on both sides of the Loir. Pasture is of good quality in the
valleys. Sheep are the chief, stock; the Perche breed of horses
is much sought after for its combination of lightness and strength.
Bee-farming is of some importance in the Sologne. Formerly the
speciality of Loir-et-Cher was the production of gun-flints. Stone-
quarries are numerous. The chief industries are the cloth-manu-
facture of Romorantin, and leather-dressing and glove-making at
Vend6me; and lime-burning, flour-milling, distilling, saw-milling,
paper-making and the manufacture of " sabots " and boots and
shoes, hosiery and linen goods, are carried on. The department is
served chiefly by the Orleans railway.
The arrondissements are those of Blois; Romorantin and
Vendome, with 24 cantons and 297 communes. Loir-et-Cher
forms part of the educational division (academic) of Paris. Its
court of appeal and the headquarters of the V. army corps, to
the regions of which it belongs, are at Orleans. B!ois, the capital,
Vend6me, Romorantin and Chambord are noticed separately.
In addition to those of Blois and Chambord there are numerous
fine chateaux in the department, of which that of Montrichard
with its donjon of the nth century, that of Chaumont dating
from the isth and i6th centuries, and that of Cheverny (i7th
century) in the late Renaissance style are the most important.
Those at St Aignan, Lassay, Lavardin and Cellettes may also be
mentioned. Churches wholly or in part of Romanesque archi-
tecture are found at Faverolles, Selles-sur-Cher, St Aignan and
Suevres. The village of Troo is built close to ancient tumuli
and has an interesting church of the izth century, and among
other remains those of a lazar-house of the Romanesque period.
At Pontlevoy are the church, consisting of a fine choir in the
Gothic style, and the buildings of a Benedictine abbey. At La
Poissonniere (near Montoire) is a small Renaissance manor-
house, in which Ronsard was born in 1524.
LOISY, ALFRED FIRMIN (1857- ), French Catholic
theologian, was born at Ambrieres in French Lorraine of parents
who, descended from a long line of resident peasantry, tilled
there the soil themselves. The physically delicate boy was put
into the ecclesiastical school of St Dizier, without any intention
of a clerical career; but he decided for the priesthood, and in
1874 entered the Grand Seminaire of Chalons-sur-Marne. Mgr
Meignan, then bishop of Chalons, afterwards cardinal and arch-
bishop of Tours, ordained him priest in 1879. After being cure
successively of two villages in that diocese, Loisy went in May
1881, to study and take a theological degree, to the Institut
Catholique in Paris. Here he was influenced, as to biblical
languages and textual criticism, by the learned and loyal-minded
Abbe Paulin Martin, and as to a vivid consciousness of the true
nature, gravity and urgency of the biblical problems and an
Attic sense of form by the historical intuition and the mordant
irony of Abbe Louis Duchesne. At the governmental institu-
tions, Professors Oppert and Halevy helped further to train him.
He took his theological degree in March 1890, by the oral defence
of forty Latin scholastic theses and by a French dissertation,
Histoire du canon de I'ancien testament, published as his first
book in that year.
Professor now at the Institut Catholique, he published suc-
cessively his lectures: Histoire du canon du N.T. (1891);
Histoire critique du texte et des versions de la Bible (1892); and
Les Evangiles synoptiques (1893, 1894). The two latter works
appeared successively in the bi-monthly L' Enseignement biblique,
a periodical written throughout and published by himself.
But already, on the occasion of the death of Ernest Renan,
October 1892, the attempts made to clear up the main principles
and results of biblical science, first by Mgr d'Hulst, rector of
the Institut Catholique, in his article " La Question biblique "
(Le Correspondant, Jan. 25th, 1893), and then by Loisy himself,
in his paper "La Question biblique et 1'inspiration des Ecritures"
(L' Enseignement biblique, Nov. -Dec. 1893), promptly led to serious
trouble. The latter article was immediately followed by Loisy's
dismissal, without further explanation, from the Institut
Catholique. And a few days later Pope Leo XIII. published
his encyclical Providentissimus Deus, which indeed directly
condemned not Abbe Loisy's but Mgr d'Hulst's position, yet
rendered the continued publication of consistently critical
work so difficult that Loisy himself suppressed his Enseignement
at the end of 1893. Five further instalments of his Synoptiques
were published after this, bringing the work down to the Con-
fession of Peter inclusively.
Loisy next became chaplain to a Dominican convent and
girls' school at Neuilly-sur-Seine (Oct. i894-Oct. 1899), and here
matured his apologetic method, resuming in 1898 the publication
of longer articles, under the pseudonyms of Despres and Firmin
in the Revue du clerge franfais, and of Jacques Simon in the lay
Revue d'hisloire et de litteratwre religieuses. In the former review,
a striking paper upon development of doctrine (Dec. ist, 1898)
headed a series of studies apparently taken from an already
extant large apologetic work. In October 1899 he resigned his
chaplaincy for reasons of health, and settled at Bellevue, some-
what farther away from Paris. His notable paper, " La Religion
d'Israel " (Revue du clerge fran^ais, Oct. isth, 1900), the first
of a series intended to correct and replace Renan's presentation
of that great subject, was promptly censured by Cardinal
Richard, archbishop of Paris; and though scholarly and zealous
ecclesiastics, such as the Jesuit Pere Durand and Monseigneur
Mignot, archbishop of Albi, defended the general method and
several conclusions of the article, the aged cardinal never rested
henceforward till he had secured a papal condemnation also.
At the end of 1900 Loisy secured a government lectureship at
the Ecole des Hautes Etudes Pratiques, and delivered there in
succession courses on the Babylonian myths and the first chapters
of Genesis; the Gospel parables; the narrative of the ministry
in the synoptic Gospels; and the Passion narratives in the same.
The first course was published in the Revue d'hisloire et de
lilterature religieuses; and here also appeared instalments of his
commentary on St John's Gospel, his critically important Notes
sur la Genese, and a Chronique biblique unmatched in its mastery
of its numberless subjects and its fearless yet delicate penetration.
It was, however, two less erudite little books that brought him
a European literary reputation and the culmination of his ecclesi-
astical troubles. L'Evangile et I'eglise appeared in November
1902 (Eng. trans., 1903). Its introduction and six chapters
present with rare lucidity the earliest conceptions of the Kingdom
of Heaven, the Son of God, the Church, Christian dogma and
Catholic worship; and together form a severely critico-historical
yet strongly Catholic answer to Harnack's still largely pietistic
Wesen des Christcntums. It develops throughout the principles
that " what is essential in Jesus' Gospel is what occupies the
first and largest place in His authentic teaching, the ideas for
LOISY
927
which He fought and died, and not only that idea which we may
consider to be still a living force to-day "; that " it is supremely
arbitrary to decree that Christianity must be essentially what
the Gospel did not borrow from Judaism, as though what the
Gospel owes to Judaism were necessarily of secondary worth " ;
that " whether we trust or distrust tradition, we know Christ only
by means of, athwart and within the Christian tradition ";
that " the essence of Christianity resides in the fulness and totality
of its life "; and that " the adaptation of the Gospel to the
changing conditions of humanity is to-day a more pressing need
than ever." The second edition was enlarged by a preliminary
chapter on the sources of the Gospels, and by a third section
for the Son of God chapter. The little book promptly aroused
widespread interest, some cordial sympathy and much vehement
opposition; whilst its large companion the Eludes evangeliques,
containing the course on the parables and four sections of his
coming commentary on the Fourth Gospel, passed almost un-
noticed. On the zist of January 1903 Cardinal Richard publicly
condemned the book, as not furnished with an imprimatur, and
as calculated gravely to trouble the faith of the faithful in the
fundamental Catholic dogmas. On the 2nd of February Loisy
wrote to the archbishop: " I condemn, as a matter of course, all
the errors which men have been able to deduce from my book,
by placing themselves in interpreting it at a point of view
entirely different from that which I had to occupy in composing
it." The pope refused to interfere directly, and the nuncio,
Mgr Lorenzelli, failed in securing more than ten public adhesions
to the cardinal's condemnation from among the eighty bishops of
France.
Pope Leo had indeed, in a letter to the Franciscan minister-
general (November 1898), and in an encyclical to the French
clergy (September 1899), vigorously emphasized the traditionalist
principles of his encyclical Providentissimus of 1893; he had even,
much to his prompt regret, signed the unfortunate decree of the
Roman Inquisition, January 1897, prohibiting all doubt as to
the authenticity of the " Three Heavenly Witnesses " passage,
/ i John v. 7, a text which, in the wake of a line of scholars
from Erasmus downwards, Abbe Paulin Martin had, in 1887,
exhaustively shown to be no older than the end of the 4th
century A.D. Yet in October 1902 he established a " Commission
for the Progress of Biblical Studies," preponderantly composed
of seriously critical scholars; and even one month before his
death he still refused to sign a condemnation of Loisy 's
Etudes evangeliques.
Cardinal Sarto became Pope Pius X. on the 4th of August
1903. On the ist of October Loisy published three new books,
Autour d'un petit livre, Le Quatrieme Evangile and Le Discours
sur la Montague. Autour consists of seven letters, on the origin
and aim of L'Evangile et I'Eglise; on the biblical question;
the criticism of the Gospels; the Divinity of Christ; the Church's
foundation and authority; the origin and authority of dogma,
and on the institution of the sacraments. The second and third,
addressed respectively to a cardinal (Perraud) and a bishop (Le
Camus), are polemical or ironical in tone; the others are all
written to friends in a warm, expansive mood; the fourth letter
especially, appropriated to Mgr Mignot, attains a grand elevation
of thought and depth of mystical conviction. Le Quatrieme
Evangile, one thousand large pages long, is possibly over-confident
in its detailed application of the allegorical method; yet it
constitutes a rarely perfect sympathetic reproduction of a great
mystical believer's imperishable intuitions. Le Discours sur
la Montague is a fragment of a coming enlarged commentary
on the synoptic Gospels. On the 23rd of December the pope
ordered the publication of a decree of the Congregation of the
Index, incorporating a decree of the Inquisition, condemning
Loisy's Religion d" Israel, L'Evangile et I' Eglise, Etudes evangeliques,
Autour d'un petit livre and Le Quatrieme Evangile. The pope's
secretary of state had on the igth December, in a letter to
Cardinal Richard, recounted the causes of the condemnation in
the identical terms used by the latter himself when condemning
the Religion d' Israel three years before. On the I2th of January
1904 Loisy wrote to Cardinal Merry del Val that he received
the condemnation with respect, and condemned whatever might
be reprehensible in his books, whilst reserving the rights of his
conscience and his opinions as an historian, opinions doubtless
imperfect, as no one was more ready to admit than himself,
but which were the only form under which he was able to repre-
sent to himself the history of the Bible and of religion. Since the
Holy See was not satisfied, Loisy sent three further declarations
to Rome; the last, despatched on the i;th of March, was
addressed to the pope himself, and remained unanswered.
And at the end of March Loisy gave up his lectureship, as he
declared, " on his own initiative, in view of the pacification of
minds in the Catholic Church." In the July following he moved
into a little house, built for him by his pupil and friend, the
Assyriologist Francois Thureau Dangin, within the latter's
park at Garnay, by Dreux. Here he continued his important
reviews, notably in the Revue d'histoire et de litterature religieuses,
and published Morceaux d'exigese (1906), six further sections of
his synoptic commentary. In April 1907 he returned to his
native Lorraine, to Ceffonds by Montier-en-Der, and to his
relatives there.
Five recent Roman decisions are doubtless aimed primarily
at Loisy's teaching. The Biblical Commission, soon enlarged
so as to swamp the original critical members, and which had
become the simple mouthpiece of its presiding cardinals, issued
two decrees. The first, on the 27th of June 1906, affirmed, with
some significant but unworkable reservations, the Mosaic
authorship of the Pentateuch; and the second (2gth of May
1907) strenuously maintained the Apostolic Zebedean author-
ship of the fourth Gospel, and the strictly historical character
of the events and speeches recorded therein. The Inquisition,
by its decree Lamentabili sane (2nd of July 1907), condemned
sixty-five propositions concerning the Church's magislerium;
biblical inspiration and interpretation; the synoptic and fourth
Gospels; revelation and dogma; Christ's divinity, human
knowledge and resurrection; and the historical origin and
growth of the Sacraments, the Church and the Creed. And some
forty of these propositions represent, more or less accurately,
certain sentences or ideas of Loisy, when torn from their context
and their reasons. The encyclical Pascendi Dominici Gregis
(Sept. 6th, 1907), probably the longest and most argumentative
papal utterance extant, also aims primarily at Loisy, although
here the vehemently scholastic redactor's determination to piece
together a strictly coherent, complete a priori system of
" Modernism " and his self-imposed restriction to medieval
categories of thought as the vehicles for describing essentially
modern discoveries and requirements of mind, make the identifi-
cation of precise authors and passages very difficult. And
on the 2ist of November 1907 a papal motu proprio declared
all the decisions of the Biblical Commission, past and future,
to be as binding upon the conscience as decrees of the Roman
Congregations.
Yet even all this did not deter Loisy from publishing three
further books. Les Evangiles synoptiques, two large 8vo volumes of
1009 and 798 pages, appeared " chez 1'auteur, a Ceffonds, Montier-
en-Der, Haute-Marne," in January 1908. An incisive introduc-
tion discusses the ecclesiastical tradition, modern criticism; the
second, the first and the third Gospels; the evangelical tradition;
the career and the teaching of Jesus; and the literary form,
the tradition of the text and the previous commentaries. The
commentary gives also a careful translation of the texts. Loisy
recognizes two eye-witness documents, as utilized by all three
synoptists, while Matthew and Luke have also incorporated
Mark. His chief peculiarity consists in clearly tracing a strong
Pauline influence, especially in Mark, which there remodels
certain sayings and actions as these were first registered by the
eye-witness documents. These doctrinal interpretations intro-
duce the economy of blinding the Jews into the parabolic
teaching; the declaration as to the redemptive character of the
Passion into the sayings; the sacramental, institutional words
into the account of the Last Supper, originally, a solemnly simple
Messianic meal; and the formal night-trial before Caiaphas
into the original Passion-story with its informal, morning
928
LOJA— LOKEREN
decision by Caiaphas, and its one solemn condemnation of
Jesus, by Pilate. Mark's narratives of the sepulture by Joseph
of Arimathea and of the empty tomb are taken as posterior to
St Paul; the narratives of the infancy in Matthew and Luke as
later still. Yet the great bulk of the sayings remain substantially
authentic; if the historicity of certain words and acts is here
refused with unusual assurance, that of other sayings and deeds
is established with stronger proofs; and the redemptive con-
ception of the Passion and the sacramental interpretation of the
Last Supper are found to spring up promptly and legitimately
from our Lord's work and words, to saturate the Pauline and
Johannine writings, and even to constitute an element of all three
synoptic Gospels.
Simples Reflexions sur le decret Lamentabili et sur I'encyclique
Pascendi, izmo, 277 pages, was published from Ceffonds a few
days after the commentary. Each proposition of the decree is
carefully tracked to its probable source, and is often found to
modify the latter's meaning. And the study of the encyclical
concludes: " Time is the great teacher ... we would do wrong
to despair either of our civilization or of the Church."
The Church authorities were this time not slow to act. On
the i4th of February Mgr Amette, the new archbishop of Paris,
prohibited his diocesans to read or defend the two books, which
" attack and deny several fundamental dogmas of Christianity,"
under pain of excommunication. The abbe again declared " it
is impossible for me honestly and sincerely to make the act of
absolute retractation and submission exacted by the sovereign
pontiff." And the Holy Office, on the 7th of March, pronounced
the major excommunication against him. At the end of March
Loisy published Quelques Leltres (December igo3-February 1908),
which conclude: "At bottom I have remained in my last writings
on the same line as in the earlier ones. I have aimed at establish-
ing principally the historical position of the various questions,
and secondarily the necessity for reforming more or less the
traditional concepts."
Three chief causes appear jointly to have produced M. Loisy's
very absolute condemnation. Any frank recognition of the
abbe's even general principles involves the abandonment of
the identification of theology with scholasticism or even with
specifically ancient thought in general. The abbe's central
position, that our Lord himself held the proximateness of His
second coming, involves the loss by churchmen of the prestige
of directly divine power, since Church and Sacraments, though
still the true fruits and vehicles of his life, death and spirit,
cannot thus be immediately founded by the earthly Jesus him-
self. And the Church policy, as old as the times of Constantine,
to crush utterly the man who brings more problems and pressure
than the bulk of traditional Christians can, at the time, either
digest or resist with a fair discrimination, seemed to the
authorities the one means to save the very difficult situation.
• BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Autobiographical passages in M. Loisy's Autour
d'un petit lime (Paris, 1903), pp. xv. xvi. I, 2, 157, 218. A full
account of his literary activity and ecclesiastical troubles will be
found in Abbe Albert Houtin's La Question biblique au XIX' sticle
(Paris, 2nd ed., 1902) and La Question biblique au XX' swcle (Paris,
1906), but the latter especially is largely unfair to the conservatives
and sadly lacking in religious feeling. The following articles and
booklets concerning M. Loisy and the questions raised by him are
specially remarkable. France: Peire Durand, S. J., Etudes religieuses
(Paris, Nov. 1901) frankly describes the condition of ecclesiastical
biblical studies; Monseigneur Mignot, archbishop of Albi, Leltres
sur les etudes ecclesiastiques 1900-1901 (collected ed., Paris, 1908)
and " Critique et tradition " in Le Correspondant (Paris, loth
January 1904), the utterances of a finely trained judgment; Mgr Le
Camus, bishop of La Rochelle, Fausse Exegese, mauvaise theologie
(Paris, 1902), a timid, mostly rhetorical, scholar's protest; Pdre
Lagrange, a Dominican who has done much for the spread of Old
Mgr
fondements de la"Foi " in the Bulletin de lilt. eccl. Toulouse (Paris,
December 1903, January 1904), very suggestive papers; Professor
Maurice Blondel's " Histoire et dogma," in La Quinzaine (Paris,
January 16, February 16, 1904), F. de Hugel's " Du Christ 6ternci
et des christologies succcssives " (ibid. June I, 1904), the Abb6 J.
Wehrle's " Le Christ et la conscience catholique " (ibid. August 16,
1904) and F. de Htigel's " Correspondance " (ibid. Sept. 16, 1904)
discuss the relations between faith and the affirmation of phenomenal
happenings; Paul Sabatier, " Les Derniers Ouvrages de I'AbW
Loisy," in the Revue chretienne (D61e, 1904) and Paul Desjardins'
Catholicisme et critique (Paris, 1905), a Broad Church Protestant's
and a moralist agnostic's delicate appreciations; a revue of Les
Evangiles synoptiques by the Abbe Mangenot, in Revue du Clerge
fran^ais (Feb. 15, 1908) containing some interesting discrimina-
tions; a revue by L. in the Revue biblique (1908), pp. 608-620, a
mixture of unfair insinuation, powerful criticism and discriminating
admissions; and a paper by G. P. B. and Jacques Chevalier in the
Annales de philosophic chretienne (Paris, Jan. 1909) seeks to trace
and to refute certain philosophical presuppositions at work in the
book's treatment, especially of the Miracles, the Resurrection and
the Institution of the Church. Italy: " Lettres Romaines " in
Annales de philosophic chretienne (Paris, January-March 1904), an
Italian theologian's fearless defence of Loisy's main New Testament
positions; Rev. P. Louis Billot S.J., De sacra traditione (Freiburg
i. Br. 1905), the ablest of the scholastic criticisms of the historical
method by a highly influential French professor of theology, now
many years in Rome; Quello che vogliamo (Rome, 1907, Eng. trans.,
What we want, by A. L. Lilley, London, 1907), and // Programma dei
Modernisti (ibid. 1908), Eng. trans., The Programme of Modernism
ed. by Lilley (London, eloquent 1098), pleadings by Italian priest,
substantially on M. Loisy's lines; " L' Abate Loisy e il Problema dei
Vangeli Sinottici," four long papers signed " H," in II Rinnovamento
(Milan, 1908, 1909) are candid and circumspect. Germany:
Professor E. Troeltsch, " Was heisst Wesen des Christentums?"
6 arts, in Die christliche Welt (Leipzig, autumn 1903), a profound
criticism of M. Loisy's developmental defence of Catholicism;
Professor Harnack's review of L'Evangile et I'Eglise in the Theol.
Literatur-Zeitung (Leipzig, 23rd January 1904) is generous and
interesting; Professor H. J. Holtzmann's " Urchristentum u.
Reform-Katholizismus," in the Prot. Monatshefte, vii. 5_ (Berlin,
'903)1 " Der Fall Loisy," ibid. ix. I, and his review of " Les fivangiles
synoptiques " in Das zwanzigste Jahrhundert (Munich, May 3, 1908)
are full of facts and of deep thought; Fr. F. von Hummelauer,
Exegetisches zur Inspirationsfrage (Freiburg i. Br. 1904) is a favour-
able specimen of present-day German Roman Catholic scholarship.
America: Professor C. A. Briggs, "The Case of the Abb6 Loisy,"
Expositor (London, April 1905), and C. A. Briggs and F. von
Hugel, The Papal Commission and the Pentateuch (London, 1907)
discuss Rome's attitude towards biblical science. England: The
Rev. T. A. Lacey's Harnack and Loisy, with introduction by Viscount
Halifax (London, 1904) ; " The Encyclical and M. Loisy " (Church
Times, Feb. 20, 1908); " Recent Roman Catholic Biblical Criticism "
(The Times Literary Supplement for January I5th, 22nd, 29th,
1904), and " The Synoptic Gospels " (review in The Times Literary
Supplement, March 26, 1908) are interesting pronouncements
respectively of two Tractarian High Churchmen and of a disciple
of Canon Sanday. Professor Percy Gardner's paper in the Hibbert
Journal, vol. i. (1903) p. 603, is the work of a Puritan-minded,
cultured Broad Church layman. (F. v. H.)
LOJA (formerly written Loxa), a town of southern Spain, in the
province of Granada, on the Granada-Algeciras railway. Pop.
(1900) 19,143. The narrow and irregular streets of Loja wind
up the sides of a steep hill surmounted by a Moorish citadel;
many of the older buildings, including a fine Moorish bridge,
were destroyed by an earthquake in December 1884, although
two churches of the early i6th century remained intact. An iron
bridge spans the river Genii, which flows past the town on the
north, forcing a passage through the mountains which encircle
the fertile and beautiful Vega of Granada. This passage would
have afforded easy access to the territory still held by the Moors
in the last half of the isth century, had not Loja been strongly
fortified; and the place was thus of great military importance,
ranking with the neighbouring town of Alhama as one of the keys
of Granada. Its manufactures consist chiefly of coarse woollens,
silk, paper and leather. Salt is obtained in the neighbourhood.
Loja, which has sometimes been identified with the ancient
Ilipula, or with the Lacibi (Lacibis) of Pliny and Ptolemy, first
clearly emerges in the Arab chronicles of the year 890. It was
taken by Ferdinand III. in 1226, but was soon afterwards
abandoned, and was not finally recaptured until the 28th of
May, 1486, when it surrendered to Ferdinand and Isabella after
a siege.
LOKEREN, an important industrial town of Belgium between
Ghent and Antwerp (in East Flanders on the Durme). Pop.
(1904) 21,869. It lies at the southern point of the district called
Pays de Waes, which in the early part of the igth century was
only sandy moorland, but is now the most highly cultivated
and thickly populated tract in Belgium. The church of St
Laurence is of some interest.
LOKOJA— LOLLARDS
LOKOJA, a town of Nigeria, at the junction of the Niger
and Benue rivers, founded in 1860 by the British consul, W. B.
Baikie, and subsequently the military centre of the Royal Niger
Company. It is in the province of Kabba, 250 m. from the mouth
of the Niger, and is of considerable commercial importance (see
NIGERIA and KABBA).
LOLLARDS, the name given to the English followers of John
Wycliffe; they were the adherents of a religious movement which
was widespread in the end of the I4th and beginning of the isth
centuries, and to some extent maintained itself on to the Reforma-
tion. The name is of uncertain origin; some derive it from
lolium, tares, quoting Chaucer (C. T., Shipman's Prologue): —
" This Loller heer wil prechen us somwhat . . .
He wolde sowen som difficultee
Or springen cokkel in our clene corn " ;
but the most generally received explanation derives the words
from lollen or lullen, to sing softly. The word is much older than
its English use; there were Lollards in the Netherlands at the
beginning of the i4th century, who were akin to the Fratricelli,
Beghards and other sectaries of the recusant Franciscan type.
The earliest official use of the name in England occurs in 1387
in a mandate of the bishop of Worcester against five " poor
preachers," nomine seu ritu Lollardorum confoederatos. It is
probable that the name was given to the followers of Wycliffe
because they resembled those offshoots from the great Franciscan
movement which had disowned the pope's authority and set
before themselves the ideal of Evangelical poverty.
The 1 4th century, so full of varied religious life, made it
manifest that the two different ideas of a life of separation from
the world which in earlier times had lived on side by side within
the medieval church were irreconcilable. The church chose
to abide by the idea of Hildebrand and to reject that of Francis
of Assisi; and the revolt of Ockham and the Franciscans, of
the Beghards and other spiritual fraternities, of Wycliffe and
the Lollards, were all protests against that decision. Gradually
there came to be facing each other a great political Christendom,
whose rulers were statesmen, with aims and policy of a worldly
type, and a religious Christendom, full of the ideas of separation
from the world by self-sacrifice and of participation in the benefits
of Christ's work by an ascetic imitation. The war between the
two ideals was fought out in almost every country in Europe
in the I4th century. In England Wycliffe's whole life was spent
in the struggle, and he bequeathed his work to the Lollards.
The main practical thought with Wycliffe was that the church,
if true to her divine mission, must aid men to live that life of
evangelical poverty by which they could be separate from the
world and imitate Christ, and if the church ceased to be true to
her mission she ceased to be a church. Wycliffe was a meta-
physician and a theologian, and had to invent a metaphysical
theory — the theory of Dominium — to enable him to transfer,
in a way satisfactory to himself, the powers and privileges of
the church to his company of poor Christians; but his followers
were content to allege that a church which held large landed
possessions, collected tithes greedily and took money from
starving peasants for baptizing, burying and praying, could
not be the church of Christ and his apostles.
Lollardy was most flourishing and most dangerous to the
ecclesiastical organization of England during the ten years
after Wycliffe's death. It had spread so rapidly and grown
so popular that a hostile chronicler could say that almost every
second man was a Lollard. Wycliffe left three intimate disciples:
— Nicolas Hereford, a doctor of theology of Oxford, who had
helped his master to translate the Bible into English; John
Ashton, also a fellow of an Oxford college; and John Purvey,
Wycliffe's colleague at Lutterworth, and a co-translator of the
Bible. With these were associated more or less intimately,
in the first age of Lollardy, John Parker, the strange ascetic
William Smith, the restless fanatic Swynderly, Richard Wayts-
tract and Crompe. Wycliffe had organized in Lutterworth
an association for sending the gospel through all England, a
company of poor preachers somewhat after the Wesleyan method
of modern times. " To be poor without mendicancy, to unite
xvi. 30
929
the flexible unity, the swift obedience of an order, with free
and constant mingling among the poor, such was the ideal of
Wycliffe's 'poor priests' " (cf. Shirley, Fasc. Ziz. p. xl.), and,
although proscribed, these " poor preachers " with portions of
their master's translation of the Bible in their hand to guide
them, preached all over England. In 1382, two years before
the death of Wycliffe, the archbishop of Canterbury got the
Lollard opinions condemned by convocation, and, having been
promised royal support, he began the long conflict of the church
with the followers of Wycliffe. He was able to coerce the
authorities of the university of Oxford, and to drive out of it
the leading Wycliffite teachers, but he was unable to stifle
Oxford sympathies or to prevent the banished teachers preaching
throughout the country. Many of the nobles, like Lords Monta-
cute and Salisbury, supported the poor preachers, took them
as private chaplains, and protected them against clerical inter-
ference. Country gentlemen like Sir Thomas Latimer of Bray-
brooke and Sir Richard Stury protected them, while merchants
and burgesses supported them with money. When Richard II.
issued an ordinance (July 1382) ordering every bishop to arrest
all Lollards, the Commons compelled him to withdraw it. Thus
protected, the " poor preachers " won masses of the people to
their opinions, and Leicester, London and the west of England
became their headquarters.
The organization must have been strong in numbers, but only
those who were seized for heresy are known by name, and it
is only from the indictments of their accusers that their opinions
can be gathered. The preachers were picturesque figures in long
russet dress down to the heels, who, staff in hand, preached in
the mother tongue to the people in churches and graveyards,
in squares, streets and houses, in gardens and pleasure grounds,
and then talked privately with those who had been impressed.
The Lollard literature was very widely circulated — books by
Wycliffe and Hereford and tracts and broadsides — in spite
of many edicts proscribing it. In 1395 the Lollards grew so
strong that they petitioned parliament through Sir Thomas
Latimer and Sir R. Stury to reform the church on Lollardist
methods. It is said that the Lollard Conclusions printed by
Canon Shirley (p. 360) contain the substance of this petition.
If so, parliament was told that temporal possessions ruin the
church and drive out the Christian graces of faith, hope and
charity; that the priesthood of the church in communion with
Rome was not the priesthood Christ gave to his apostles; that
the monk's vow of celibacy had for its consequence unnatural
lust, and should not be imposed; that transubstantiation was
a feigned miracle, and led people to idolatry; that prayers
made over wine, bread, water, oil, salt, wax, incense, altars of
stone, church walls, vestments, mitres, crosses, staves, were
magical and should not be allowed; that kings should possess
the jus episcopate, and bring good government into the church ;
that no special prayers should be made for the dead; that auri-
cular confession made to the clergy, and declared to be necessary
for salvation, was the root of clerical arrogance and the cause
of indulgences and other abuses in pardoning sin; that all wars
were against the principles of the New Testament, and were but
murdering and plundering the poor to win glory for kings;
that the vows of chastity laid upon nuns led to child murder;
that many of the trades practised in the commonwealth, such
as those of goldsmiths and armourers, were unnecessary and
led to luxury and waste. These Conclusions really contain the
sum of Wycliffite teaching; and, if we add that the principal
duty of priests is to preach, and that the worship of images,
the going on pilgrimages and the use of gold and silver chalices
in divine service are sinful ( The Peasants' Rising and the Lollards,
p. 47), they include almost all the heresies charged in the indict-
ments against individual Lollards down to the middle of the
iSth century. The king, who had hitherto seemed anxious to
repress the action of the clergy against the Lollards, spoke strongly
against the petition and its promoters, and Lollardy never again
had the power in England which it wielded up to this year.
If the formal statements of Lollard creed are Jo be got from
these Conclusions, the popular view of their controversy with
930
LOLLARDS
the church may be gathered from the ballads preserved in the
Political Poems and Songs relating to English History, published
in 1859 by Thomas Wright for the Master of the Rolls series,
and in the Piers Ploughman poems. Piers Ploughman's Creed
(see LANGLAND) was probably written about 1394, when Lollardy
was at its greatest strength; the ploughman of the Creed is
a man gifted with sense enough to see through the tricks of the
friars, and with such religious knowledge as can be got from the
creed, and from Wycliffe's version of the Gospels. The poet
gives us a " portrait of the fat friar with his double chin shaking
about as big as a goose's egg, and the ploughman with his hood
full of holes, his mittens made of patches, and his poor wife going
barefoot on the ice so that her blood followed " {Early English
Text Society, vol. xxx., pref., p. 16); and one can easily see why
farmers and peasants turned from the friars to the poor preachers.
The Ploughman's Complaint tells the same tale. It paints popes,
cardinals, prelates, rectors, monks and friars, who call them-
selves followers of Peter and keepers of the gates of heaven
and hell, and pale poverty-stricken people, cotless and landless,
who have to pay the fat clergy for spiritual assistance, and asks if
these are Peter's priests. " I trowe Peter took no money, for no
sinners that he sold. . . . Peter was never so great a fole, to
leave his key with such a losell."
In 1399 the Lancastrian Henry IV. overthrew the Plantagenet
Richard II., and one of the most active partisans of the new
monarch was Arundel, archbishop of Canterbury and the most
determined opponent of Lollardy. Richard II. had aided the
clergy to suppress Lollardy without much success. The new
dynasty supported the church in a similar way and not more
successfully. The strength of the anti-clerical party lay in the
House of Commons, in which the representatives of the shires
took the leading part. Twice the Commons petitioned the crown
to seize the temporalities of the church and apply them to such
national purposes as relief of taxation, maintenance of the poor
and the support of new lords and knights. Their anti-clerical policy
was not continuous, however. The court party and the clergy
proposed statutes for the suppression of heresy, and twice at
least secured the concurrence of the Commons. One of these was
the well-known statute De heretico comburendo passed in 1401.
In the earlier stages of Lollardy, when the court and the clergy
managed to bring Lollards before ecclesiastical tribunals backed
by the civil power, the accused generally recanted and showed
no disposition to endure martyrdom for their opinions. They
became bolder in the beginning of the isth century. William
Sawtrey (Chartris), caught and condemned, refused to recant
and was burnt at St Paul's Cross (March 1401), and other
martyrdoms followed. The victims usually belonged to the
lower classes. In 1410 John Badby, an artisan, was sent to the
stake. His execution was memorable from the part taken in it
by the prince of Wales, who himself tried to reason the Lollard
out of his convictions. But nothing said would make Badby
confess that " Christ sitting at supper did give to His disciples
His living body to eat." The Lollards, far from daunted, abated
no effort to make good their ground, and united a struggle for
social and political liberty to the hatred felt by the peasants
towards the Romish clergy. Jak Upland (John Countryman)
took the place of Piers Ploughman, and upbraided the clergy,
and especially the friars, for their wealth and luxury. Wycliffe
had published the rule of St Francis, and had pointed out in a
commentary upon the rule how far friars had departed from
the maxims of their founder, and had persecuted the Spiriluales
(the Fratricelli, Beghards, Lollards of the Netherlands) for
keeping them to the letter (cf. Matthews, English Works of
Wyclif hitherto unprinted, Early Eng. Text Soc., vol. Ixxiv.,
1880). Jak Upland put all this into rude nervous English verse:
" Freer, what charitie is this
To fain that whoso liveth after your order
Liveth most perfectlie,
And next followeth the state of the Apostles
In povertie and pennance :
And yet the wisest and greatest clerkes of you
Wen.d or send or procure to the court of Rome,
. . . and to be assoiled of the vow of povertie."
The archbishop, having the power of the throne behind him,
attacked that stronghold of Lollardy the university of Oxford.
In 1406 a document appeared purporting to be the testimony of
the university in favour of Wycliffe; its genuineness was dis-
puted at the time, and when quoted by Huss at the council of
Constance it was repudiated by the English delegates. The
archbishop treated Oxford as if it had issued the document,
and procured the issue of severe regulations in order to purge the
university of heresy. In 1408 Arundel in convocation proposed
and carried the famous Constitutiones Thomae Arundel intended
to put down Wycliffite preachers and teaching. They provided
amongst other things that no one was to be allowed to preach
without a bishop's licence, that preachers preaching to the laity
were not to rebuke the sins of the clergy, and that Lollard books
and the translation of the Bible were to be searched for and
destroyed.
When Henry V. became king a more determined effort was
made to crush Lollardy. Hitherto its strength had lain among
the country gentlemen who were the representatives of the
shires. The court and clergy had been afraid to attack this
powerful class. The new king determined to overawe them,
and to this end selected one who had been a personal friend and
whose life had been blameless. This was Sir John Oldcastle,
in right of his wife, Lord Cobham, " the good Lord Cobham "
as the common people called him. Henry first tried personal
persuasion, and when that failed directed trial for heresy.
Oldcastle was convicted, but was imprisoned for forty days in
the Tower in hope that he might recant. He escaped, and
summoned his co-religionists to his aid. A Lollard plot was
formed to seize the king's person. In the end Oldcastle was burnt
for an obstinate heretic (Dec. 1417). These persecutions were
not greatly protested against; the wars of Henry V. with France
had awakened the martial spirit of the nation, and little sympathy
was felt for men who had declared that all war was but the
murder and plundering of poor people for the sake of kings.
Mocking ballads were composed upon the martyr Oldcastle,
and this dislike to warfare was one of the chief accusations
made against him (comp. Wright's Political Poems, ii. 244).
But Arundel could not prevent the writing and distribution of
Lollard books and pamphlets. Two appeared about the time
of the martyrdom of Oldcastle — The Ploughman's Prayer and
the Lanthorne of Light. The Ploughman's Prayer declared that
true worship consists in three things — in loving God, and dreading
God and trusting in God above all other things; and it showed
how Lollards, pressed by persecution, became further separated
from the religious life of the church. " Men maketh now great
stonen houses full of glasen windows, and clepeth thilke thine
houses and churches. And they setten in these houses mawmets
of stocks and stones, to fore them they knelen privilich and apert
and maken their prayers, and all this they say is they worship.
. . . For Lorde our belief is that thine house is man's soul."
Notwithstanding the repression, Lollardy fastened in new parts
of England, and Lollards abounded in Somerset, Norfolk,
Suffolk, Essex, Lincoln and Buckinghamshire.
The council of Constance (1414-1418) put an end to the papal
schism, and also showed its determination to put down heresy
by burning John Huss. When news of this reached England the
clergy were incited to still more vigorous proceedings against
Lollard preachers and books. From this time Lollardy appears
banished from the fields and streets, and takes refuge in houses
and places of concealment. There was no more wayside preach-
ing, but instead there were conventicula occulta in houses, in
peasants' huts, in sawpits and in field ditches, where the Bible
was read and exhortations were given, and so Lollardy continued.
In 1428 Archbishop Chichele confessed that the Lollards seemed
as numerous as ever, and that their literary and preaching work
went on as vigorously as before. It was found also that many
of the poorer rectors and parish priests, and a great many
chaplains and curates, were in secret association with the
Lollards, so much so that in many places processions were never
made and worship on saints' days was abandoned. For the
Lollards were hardened by persecution, and became fanatical
LOLLIUS— LOMBARD LEAGUE
931
in the statement of their doctrines. Thomas Bagley was accused
of declaring that if in the sacrament a priest made bread into
God, he made a God that can be eaten by rats and mice; that
the pharisees of the day, the monks, and the nuns, and the friars
and all other privileged persons recognized by the church were
limbs of Satan; and that auricular confession to the priest was
the will not of God but of the devil. And others held that any
priest who took salary was excommunicate; and that boys
could bless the bread as well as priests.
From England Lollardy passed into Scotland. Oxford
infected St Andrews, and we find traces of more than one vigorous
search made for Lollards among the teaching staff of the Scottish
university, while the Lollards of Kyle in Ayrshire were claimed
by Knox as the forerunners of the Scotch Reformation.
The opinions of the later Lollards can best be gathered from the
learned and unfortunate Pecock, who wrote his elaborate Represser
against the " Bible-men," as he calls them. He summed up their
doctrines under eleven heads: they condemn the having and using
images in the churches, the going on pilgrimages to the memorial
or " mynde places " of the saints, the holding of landed possessions
by the clergy, the various ranks of the hierarchy, the traming of
ecclesiastical laws and ordinances by papal and episcopal authority,
the institution of religious orders, the costliness of ecclesiastical
decorations, the ceremonies of the mass and the sacraments, the
taking of oaths and the maintaining that war and capital punish-
ment are lawful. When these points are compared with the Lollard
Conclusions of 1395, it is plain that Lollardy had not greatly altered
its opinions after fifty-five years of persecution. All the articles
of Pecock's list, save that on capital punishment, are to be found
in the Conclusions; and, although many writers have held that
Wycliffe's own views differed greatly from what have been called
the " exaggerations of the later and more violent Lollards," all
these views may be traced to Wycliffe himself. Pecock's idea was
that all the statements which he was prepared to impugn came from
three false opinions or " trowings," viz. that no governance or
ordinance is to be esteemed a law of God which is not founded on
Scripture, that every humble-minded Christian man or woman is
able without " fail and defaut " to find out the true sense of Scripture,
and that having done so he ought to listen to no arguments to the
contrary; he elsewhere adds a fourth (i. 102), that if a man
be not only meek but also keep God's law he shall have a true
understanding of Scripture, even though " no man ellis teche him
saue God." These statements, especially the last, show us the
connexion between the Lollards and those mystics of the 1 4th century ,
such as Tauler and Ruysbroeck, who accepted the teachings of
Nicholas of Basel, and formed themselves into the association of the
Friends of God.
The persecutions were continued down to the reign of Henry
VIII., and when the writings of Luther began to appear in
England the clergy were not so much afraid of Lutheranism
as of the increased life they gave to men who for generations
had been reading Wycliffe's Wicketle. " It is," wrote Bishop
Tunstall to Erasmus in 1523, " no question of pernicious novelty,
it is only that new arms are being added to the great band
of Wycliffite heretics." Lollardy, which continued down to
the Reformation, did much to shape the movement in England.
The subordination of clerical to laic jurisdiction, the reduction
in ecclesiastical possessions, the insisting on a translation of
the Bible which could be read by the " common " man were
all inheritances bequeathed by the Lollards.
LITERATURE. — Fasciculi Zizaniorum Magistri Johannis Wyclif
cum Tritico, edited for the Rolls Series by W. W. Shirley (London,
1858); the Chronicon Angliae, auctore monacho quodam Sancti
Albani, ed. by Sir E. Maunde Thompson (London, 1874); Historia
Anglicana of Thomas Walsingham, ed. by H. T. Riley, vol. iii.
(London, 1869); Chronicon of Henry Knighton, ed. by J. R. Lumby
(London, 1895); R. L. Poole, Wycliffe and Movements for Reform
(London, 1889); R. Pecock, Represser of overmuch Blaming of the
Clergy (2 vols., London, 1860); F. D. Matthew, The English Works
of John Wyclif (Early English Text Society, London, 1880);
T. Wright, Political Poems and Songs (2 vols., London, 1859);
G. V. Lechler, Johann von Wiclif, ii. (1873); J. Loserth, Hus und
Wycliffe (Prague, 1884, English translation by J. Evans, London,
1884); D. Wilkins, Concilia Magnae Britanniae et Hiberniae, iii.
(London, 1773); E. Powell and G. M. Trevelyan, The Peasants'
Rising and the Lollards, a Collection of Unpublished Documents(London ,
1899); G. M. Trevelyan, England in the Age of Wycliffe (London,
1898, 3rd ed., 1904); the publications of the Wiclif Society; H. S.
Cronin, " The Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards," in the English
Historical Review (April 1907, pp. 292 ff.); and J. Gairdner. Lollardy
and the Reformation in England (1908). (T. M. L.)
LOLLIUS, MARCUS, Roman general, the first governor of
Galatia (25 B.C.), consul in 21. In 16, when governor of Gaul,
he was defeated by the Sigambri (Sygambri), Usipetes and
Tencteri, German tribes who had crossed the Rhine. This
defeat is coupled by Tacitus with the disaster of Varus, but
it was disgraceful rather than dangerous. Lollius was subse-
quently (2 B.C.) attached in the capacity of tutor and adviser
to Gaius Caesar (Augustus's grandson) on 'his mission to the
East. He was accused of extortion and treachery to the
state, and denounced by Gaius to the emperor. To avoid
punishment he is said to have taken poison. According to
Velle'ius Paterculus and Pliny, he was a hypocrite and cared
for nothing but amassing wealth. It was formerly thought
that this was the Lollius whom Horace described as a model
of integrity and superior to avarice in Od. iv. 9, but it seems
hardly likely that this Ode, as well as the two Lollian epistles of
Horace (i. 2 and 18), was addressed to him. All three must
have been addressed to the same individual, a young man,
probably the son of this Lollius.
See Suetonius, Augustus, 23, Tiberius, 12; Veil. Pat. ii. 97. 102;
Tacitus, Annals, i. 10, iii. 48; Pliny, Nat. Hist. ix. 35 (58); Dio
Cassius, liv. 6; see also J. C. Tarver, Tiberius the Tyrant (1902),
pp. 200 foil.
LOLOS, the name given by the Chinese to a large tribe of
aborigines who inhabit the greater part of southern Szechuen.
Their home is in the mountainous country called Taliang shan,
which lies between the Yangtsze river on the east and the Kien
ch'ang valley on the west, in south Szechuen, but they are
found in scattered communities as far south as the Burmese
frontier, and west to the Mekong. There seems no reason to
doubt that they were, like the Miaotze, one of the aboriginal tribes
of China, driven southwards by the advancing flood of Chinese.
The name is said to be a Chinese corruption of Lulu, the name
of a former chieftain of a tribe who called themselves Nersu.
Their language, like the Chinese, is monosyllabic and probably
ideographic, and the characters bear a certain resemblance to
Chinese. No literature, however, worthy of the name is known
to exist, and few can read and write. Politically they are divided
into tribes, each under the government of a hereditary chieftain.
The community consists of three classes, the " blackbones"
or nobles, the " whitebones " or plebeians, and the viatze or
slaves. The last are mostly Chinese captured in forays, or
the descendants of such captives. Within Lolo-land proper,
which covers some 1 1 ,000 sq.m., the Chinese government exercises
no jurisdiction. The Lolos make frequent raids on their unarmed
Chinese neighbours. They cultivate wheat, barley and millet,
but little rice. They have some knowledge of metals, making
their own tools and weapons. Women are said to be held in
respect, and may become chiefs of the tribes. They do not
intermarry with Chinese.
See A. F. Legendre, " Les Lolos. Etude ethnologique et anthro-
pologique," in T'oung Poo II., vol. x. (1909); E. C. Baber, Royal
Geog. Society Sup. Papers, vol. i. (London, 1882); F. S. A. Bourne,
Blue Book, China, No. i (1888); A. Hosie, Three Years in Western
China (London, 1897).
LOMBARD LEAGUE, the name given in general to any
league of the cities of Lombardy, but applied especially to the
league founded in 1167, which brought about the defeat of the
emperor Frederick I. at Legnano, and the consequent destruction
of his plans for obtaining complete authority over Italy.
Lacking often the protection of a strong ruler, the Lombard
cities had been accustomed to act together for mutual defence,
and in 1093 Milan, Lodi, Piacenza and Cremona formed an
alliance against the emperor Henry IV., in favour of his
rebellious son Conrad. The early years of the reign of
Frederick I. were largely spent in attacks on the privileges of
the cities of Lombardy. This led to a coalition, formed in
March 1167, between the cities of Cremona, Mantua, Bergamo
and Brescia to confine Frederick to the rights which the emperors
had enjoyed for the past hundred years. This league or concordia
was soon joined by other cities, among which were Milan, Parma,
Padua, Verona, Piacenza and Bologna, and the allies began
to build a fortress near the confluence of the Tanaro and the
932
LOMBARDO— LOMBARDS
Bormida, which, in honour of Pope Alexander III., was called
Alessandria. During the absence of Frederick from Italy
from 1168 to 1174, the relations between the pope and the
league became closer, and Alexander became the leader of the
alliance. Meetings of the league were held in 1172 and 1173
to strengthen the bond, and to concert measures against the
emperor, the penalties of the church being invoked to prevent
defection. The decisive struggle began when Frederick attacked
Alessandria in 1 174. The fortress was bravely defended, and the
siege was raised on the approach of succour from the allied
cities. Negotiations for peace failed, and the emperor, having
marched against Milan, suffered a severe defeat at Legnano
on the 2Qth of May 1176. Subsequently Pope Alexander was
detached from his allies, and made peace with Frederick, after
which a truce for six years was arranged between the emperor
and the league. Further negotiations ripened into the peace of
Constance signed on the 2$th of June 1183, which granted
almost all the demands of the cities, and left only a shadowy
authority to the emperor (see ITALY).
In 1226, when the emperor Frederick II. avowed his intention
of restoring the imperial authority in Italy, the league was
renewed, and at once fifteen cities, including Milan and Verona,
were placed under the ban. Frederick, however, was not in
a position to fight, and the mediation of Pope Honorius III.
was successful in restoring peace. In 1231 the hostile intentions
of the emperor once more stirred the cities into activity. They
held a meeting at Bologna and raised an army, but as in 1226,
the matter ended in mutual fulminations and defiances. A
more serious conflict arose in 1234. The great question at
issue, the nature and extent of the imperial authority over
the Lombard cities, was still unsettled when Frederick's rebellious
son, the German king Henry VII., allied himself with them.
Having crushed his son and rejected the proffered mediation
of Pope Gregory IX., the emperor declared war on the Lombards
in 1236; he inflicted a serious defeat upon their forces at
Cortenuova in November 1237 and met with other successes,
but in 1238 he was beaten back from before Brescia. In 1239
Pope Gregory joined the cities and the struggle widened out
into the larger one of the Empire and the Papacy. This
was still proceeding when Frederick died in December 1250
and it was only ended by the overthrow of the Hohenstaufen
and the complete destruction of the imperial authority in
Italy.
For a full account of the Lombard League see C. Vignati, Storia
diplomata detta Lega Lombarda (Milan, 1866); H. Prutz, Kaiser
Friedrich I., Band ii. (Danzig, 1871-1874); W. von Giesebrecht,
Geschichte der dtutschen Kaiserzeit, Band v. (Leipzig, 1888); and
J. Ficker, Zur Geschichte des Lombardenbundes (Vienna, 1868).
LOMBARDO, the name of a family of Venetian sculptors and
architects; their surname was apparently Solaro, and the
name of Lombardo was given to the earliest known, Martino,
who emigrated from Lombardy to Venice in the middle of the
iSth century and became celebrated as an architect. He had
two sons, Moro and Pietro, of whom the latter (c. 1435-1515)
was one of the greatest sculptors and architects of his time,
while his sons Antonio (d. 1516) and Tullio (d. 1559) were
hardly less celebrated. Pietro's work as an architect is seen in
numerous churches, the Vendramini-Calargi palace (1481), the
doge's palace (1498), the facade (1485) of the scuola of St Mark
and the cathedral of Cividale del Friuli (1502); but he is now
more famous as a sculptor, often in collaboration with his sons;
he executed the tomb of the doge Mocenigo (1478) in the church
of San Giovanni e Paolo at Venice, and a bas-relief for the
tomb of Dante at Ravenna, and in 1483 began the beautiful
decorations in the church of Sta Maria de' Miracoli at Venice,
which is associated with his workshop (see also VENICE for numer-
ous references to the work of the Lombardi). Antonio's master-
piece is the marble relief of St Anthony making a new-born child
speak in defence of its mother's honour, in the Santo at Padua
(1505). Tullio's best-known works are the four kneeling angels
(1484) in the church of San Martino, Venice, a coronation of
the Virgin in San Giovanni Crisostomo and two bas-reliefs in the
Santo, Padua, besides two others formerly in the Spitzer collec-
tion, representing Vulcan's Forge and Minerva disputing with
Neptune.
LOMBARDS, or LANGOBARDI, a Suevic people who appear to
have inhabited the lower basin of the Elbe and whose name is
believed to survive in the modern Bardengau to the south of
Hamburg. They are first mentioned in connexion with the year
A.D. '5, at which time they were defeated by the Romans under
Tiberius, afterwards emperor. In A.D. 9, however, after the
destruction of Varus's army, the Romans gave up their attempt
to extend their frontier to the Elbe. At first, with most of the
Suevic tribes, they were subject to the hegemony of Maroboduus,
king of the Marcomanni, but they revolted from him in his war
with Arminius, chief of the Cherusci, in the year 17. We again
hear of their interference in the dynastic strife of the Cherusci
some time after the year 47. From this time they are not
mentioned until the year 165, when a force of Langobardi, in
alliance with the Marcomanni, was defeated by the Romans,
apparently on the Danubian frontier. It has been inferred from
this incident that the Langobardi had already moved south-
wards, but the force mentioned may very well have been sent
from the old home of the tribe, as the various Suevic peoples
seem generally to have preserved some form of political union.
From this time onwards we hear no more of them until the end
of the 5th century.
In their own traditions we are told that the Langobardi were
originally called Winnili and dwelt in an island named Scadi-
navia (with this story compare that of the Gothic migration, see
GOTHS). Thence they set out under the leadership of Ibor and
Aio, the sons of a prophetess called Gambara, and came into
conflict with the Vandals. The leaders of the latter prayed to
Wodan for victory, while Gambara and her sons invoked Frea.
Wodan promised to give victory to those whom he should see
in front of him at sunrise. Frea directed the Winnili to bring
their women with their hair let down round their faces like beards
and turned Wodan's couch round so that he faced them. When
Wodan awoke at sunrise he saw the host of the Winnili and said,
" Qui sunt isti Longibarbi ?" — " Who are these long-beards ?"-
and Frea replied, " As thou hast given them the name, give them
also the victory." They conquered in the battle and were
thenceforth known as Langobardi. After this they are said to
have wandered through regions which cannot now be identified,
apparently between the Elbe and the Oder, under legendary
kings, the first of whom was Agilmund, the son of Aio.
Shortly before the end of the 5th century the Langobardi
appear to have taken possession of the territories formerly
occupied by the Rugii whom Odoacer had overthrown in 487, a
region which probably included the present province of Lower
Austria. At this time they were subject to Rodulf, king of the
Heruli, who, however, took up arms against them; according
to one story, owing to the treacherous murder of Rodulf's
brother, according to another through an irresistible desire for
fighting on the part of his men. The result was the total defeat
of the Heruli by the Langobardi under their king Tato and the
death of Rodulf at some date between 493 and 508. By this
time the Langobardi are said to have adopted Christianity in
its Arian form. Tato was subsequently killed by his nephew
Waccho. The latter reigned for thirty years, though frequent
attempts were made by Ildichis, a son or grandson of Tato, to
recover the throne. Waccho is said to have conquered the
Suabi, possibly the Bavarians, and he was also involved in strife
with the Gepidae, with whom Ildichis had taken refuge. He
was succeeded by his youthful son Walthari, who reigned only
seven years under the guardianship of a certain Audoin. On
Walthari's death (about 546 ?) Audoin succeeded. He also was
involved in hostilities with the Gepidae, whose support of
Ildichis he repaid by protecting Ustrogotthus, a rival of their
king Thorisind. In these quarrels both nations aimed at ob-
taining the support of the emperor Justinian, who, in pursuance
of his policy of playing off one against the other, invited the
Langobardi into Noricum and Pannonia, where they now settled.
A large force of Lombards under Audoin fought on the imperial
side at the battle of the Apennines against the Ostrogothic king
LOMBARDS
933
Totila in 553, but the assistance of Justinian, though often
promised, had no effect on the relations of the two nations,
which were settled for the moment after a series of truces by the
victory of the Langobardi, probably in 554. The resulting peace
was sealed by the murder of Ildichis and Ustrogotthus, and the
Langobardi seem to have continued inactive until the death of
Audoin, perhaps in 565, and the accession of his son Alboin,
who had won a great reputation in the wars with the Gepidae.
It was about this time that the Avars, under their first Chagun
Baian, entered Europe, and with them Alboin is said to have
made an alliance against the Gepidae under their new king
Cunimund. The Avars, however, did not take part in the final
battle, in which the Langobardi were completely victorious.
Alboin, who had slain Cunimund in the battle, now took Rosa-
mund, daughter of the dead king, to be his wife.
In 568 Alboin and the Langobardi, in accordance with a
compact made with Baian, which is recorded by Menander,
abandoned their old homes to the Avars and passed southwards
into Italy, were they were destined to found a new and mighty
kingdom. (F. G. M. B.)
The Lombard Kingdom in Italy. — In 568 Alboin, king of the
Langobards, with the women and children of the tribe and all
their possessions, with Saxon allies, with the subject tribe of the
Gepidae and a mixed host of other barbarians, descended into
Italy by the great plain at the head of the Adriatic. The war
which had ended in the downfall of the Goths had exhausted
Italy; it was followed by famine and pestilence; and the
government at Constantinople made but faint efforts to retain
the province which Belisarius and Narses had recovered for it.
Except in a few fortified places, such as Ticinum or Pavia, the
Italians did not venture to encounter the new invaders; and,
though Alboin was not without generosity, the Lombards,
wherever resisted, justified the opinion of their ferocity by the
savage cruelty of the invasion. In 5 7 2, according to the Lombard
chronicler, Alboin fell a victim to the revenge of his wife Rosa-
mund, the daughter of the king of the Gepidae, whose skull
Alboin had turned into a drinking cup, out of which he forced
Rosamund to drink. By this time the Langobards had estab-
lished themselves in the north of Italy. Chiefs were placed, or
placed themselves, first in the border cities, like Friuli and Trent,
which commanded the north-eastern passes, and then in other
principal places; and this arrangement became characteristic
of the Lombard settlement. The principal-seat of the settlement
was the rich plain watered by the Po and its affluents, which was
in future to receive its name from them; but their power ex-
tended across the Apennines into Liguria and Tuscany, and then
southwards to the outlying dukedoms of Spoleto and Benevento.
The invaders failed to secure any maritime ports or any territory
that was conveniently commanded from the sea. Ticinum
(Pavia), the one place which had obstinately resisted Alboin,
became the seat of their kings.
After the short and cruel reign of Cleph, the successor of
Alboin, the Lombards (as we may begin for convenience sake
to call them) tried for ten years the experiment of a national
confederacy of their dukes (as, after the Latin writers, their
chiefs are styled), without any king. It was the rule of some
thirty-five or thirty-six petty tyrants, under whose oppression
and private wars even the invaders suffered. With anarchy
among themselves and so precarious a hold on the country, hated
by the Italian population and by the Catholic clergy, threatened
also by an alliance of the Greek empire with their persistent
rivals the Franks beyond the Alps, they resolved to sacrifice
their independence and elect a king. In 584 they chose Authari,
the grandson of Alboin, and endowed the royal domain with a half
of their possessions. From this time till the fall of the Lombard
power before the arms of their rivals the Franks under Charles
the Great, the_ kingly rule continued. Authari, " the Long-
haired," with his Roman title of Flavius, marks the change
from the war king of an invading host to the permanent repre-
sentative of the unity and law of the nation, and the increased
power of the crown, by the possession of a great domain, to enforce
its will. The independence of the dukes was surrendered to the
king. The dukedoms in the neighbourhood of the seat of power
were gradually absorbed, and their holders transformed into royal
officers. Those of the northern marches, Trent and Friuli, with
the important dukedom of Turin, retained longer the kind of
independence which marchlands usually give where invasion
is to be feared. The great dukedom of Benevento in the south,
with its neighbour Spoleto, threatened at one time to be a
separate principality, and even to the last resisted, with varying
success, the full claims of the royal authority at Pavia.
The kingdom of the Lombards lasted more than two hundred
years, from Alboin (568) to the fall of Desiderius (774) — much
longer than the preceding Teutonic kingdom of Theodoric and
the Goths. But it differed from the other Teutonic conquests
in Gaul, in Britain, in Spain. It was never complete in point of
territory: there were always two, and almost to the last three,
capitals — the Lombard one, Pavia; the Latin one, Rome; the
Greek one, Ravenna; and the Lombards never could get access
to the sea. And it never was complete over the subject race:
it profoundly affected the Italians of the north; in its turn
it was entirely transformed by contact with them; but the
Lombards never amalgamated with the Italians till their power
as a ruling race was crushed by the victory given to the Roman
element by the restored empire of the Franks. The Langobards,
German in their faults and in their strength, but coarser, at least
at first, than the Germans whom the Italians had known, the
Goths of Theodoric and Totila, found themselves continually
in the presence of a subject population very different from
anything which the other Teutonic conquerors met with among
the provincials — like them, exhausted, dispirited, unwarlike,
but with the remains and memory of a great civilization round
them, intelligent, subtle, sensitive, feeling themselves infinitely
superior in experience and knowledge to the rough barbarians
whom they could not fight, and capable of hatred such as only
cultivated races can nourish. The Lombards who, after they had
occupied the lands and cities of Upper Italy, still went on send-
ing forth furious bands to plunder and destroy where they did not
care to stay, never were able to overcome the mingled fear and
scorn and loathing of the Italians. They adapted themselves
very quickly indeed to many Italian fashions. Within thirty
years of the invasions, Authari took the imperial title of Flavius,
even while his bands were leading Italian captives in leash like
dogs under the walls of Rome, and under the eyes of Pope Gregory;
and it was retained by his successors. They soon became
Catholics; and then in all the usages of religion, in church
building, in founding monasteries, in their veneration for relics,
they vied with Italians. Authari's queen, Theodelinda, solemnly
placed the Lombard nation under the patronage of St John the
Baptist, and at Monza she built in his honour the first Lombard
church, and the royal palace near it. King Liutprand (712-
744) bought the relics of St Augustine for a large sum to be
placed in his church at Pavia. Their Teutonic speech dis-
appeared; except in names and a few technical words all traces
of it are lost. But to the last they had the unpardonable crime
of being a ruling barbarian race or caste in Italy. To the end
they are " nefandissimi," execrable, loathsome, filthy. So wrote
Gregory the Great when they first appeared. So wrote Pope
Stephen IV., at the end of their rule, when stirring up the kings
of the Franks to destroy them.
Authari's short reign (584-591) was one of renewed effort for
conquest. It brought the Langobards face to face, not merely
with the emperors at Constantinople, but with the first of the
great statesmen popes, Gregory the Great (590-604). But
Lombard conquest was bungling and wasteful; when they had
spoiled a city they proceeded to tear down its walls and raze it
to the ground. Authari's chief connexion with the fortunes of
his people was an important, though an accidental one. The
Lombard chronicler tells a romantic tale of the way in which
Authari sought his bride from Garibald, duke of the Bavarians,
how he went incognito in the embassy to judge of her attractions,
and how she recognized her disguised suitor. The bride was the
Christian Theodelinda, and she became to the Langobards what
Bertha was to the Anglo-Saxons and Clotilda to the Franks.
934
LOMBARDS
She became the mediator between the Lombards and the Catholic
Church. Authari, who had brought her to Italy, died shortly
after his marriage. But Theodelinda had so won on the Lombard
chiefs that they bid her as queen choose the one among them
whom she would have for her husband and for king. She chose
Agilulf, duke of Turin (592-615). He was not a true Langobard,
but a Thuringian. It was the beginning of peace between the
Lombards and the Catholic clergy. Agilulf could not abandon
his traditional Arianism, and he was a very uneasy neighbour,
not only to the Greek exarch, but to Rome itself. But he was
favourably disposed both to peace and to the Catholic Church.
Gregory interfered to prevent a national conspiracy against the
Langobards, like that of St Brice's day in England against the
Danes, or that later uprising against the French, the Sicilian
Vespers. He was right both in point of humanity and of policy.
The Arian and Catholic bishops went on for a time side by side ;
but the Lombard kings and clergy rapidly yielded to the religious
influences around them, even while the national antipathies
continued unabated and vehement. Gregory, who despaired of
any serious effort on the part of the Greek emperors to expel the
Lombards, endeavoured to promote peace between the Italians
and Agilulf; and, in spite of the feeble hostility of the exarchs
of Ravenna, the pope and the king of the Lombards became the
two real powers in the north and centre of Italy. Agilulf was
followed, after two unimportant reigns, by his son-in-law, the
husband of Theodelinda's daughter, King Rothari (636-652),
the Lombard legislator, still an Arian though he favoured the
Catholics. He was the first of their kings who collected their
customs under the name of laws — and he did this, not in their
own Teutonic dialect, but in Latin. The use of Latin implies
that the laws were to be not merely the personal law of the
Lombards, but the law of the land, binding on Lombards and
Romans alike. But such rude legislation could not provide
for all questions arising even in the decayed state of Roman
civilization. It is probable that among themselves the Italians
kept to their old usages and legal precedents where they were
not overridden by the conquerors' law, and by degrees a good
many of the Roman civil arrangements made their way into the
Lombard code, while all ecclesiastical ones, and they were a large
class, were untouched by it.
There must have been much change of property ; but appearances
are conflicting as to the terms on which land generally was held by
the old possessors or the new comers, and as to the relative legal
position of the two. Savigny held that, making allowance for the
anomalies and usurpations of conquest, the Roman population held
the bulk of the land as they had held it before, and were governed
by an uninterrupted and acknowledged exercise of Roman law in
their old municipal organization. Later inquirers, including Leo,
Troya and Hegel, have found that the supposition does not tally
with a whole series of facts, which point to a Lombard territorial law
ignoring completely any parallel Roman and personal law, to a great
restriction of full civil rights among the Romans, analogous to the
condition of the rayah under the Turks, and to a reduction of the
Roman occupiers to a class of half-free " aldii," holding immovable
tenancies under lords of superior race and privilege, and subject
to the sacrifice either of the third part of their holdings or the
third part of the produce. The Roman losses, both of property and
rights, were likely to be great at first; how far they continued
permanent during the two centuries of the Lombard kingdom, or
how far the legal distinctions between Rome and Lombard gradually
passed into desuetude, is a further question. The legislation of the
Lombard kings, in form a territorial and not a personal law, shows
no signs of a disposition either to depress or to favour the Romans,
but only the purpose to maintain, in a rough fashion, strict order
and discipline impartially among all their subjects.
From Rothari (d. 652) to Liutprand (712-744) the Lombard
kings, succeeding one another in the irregular fashion of the time,
sometimes by descent, sometimes by election, sometimes by
conspiracy and violence, strove fitfully to enlarge their boundaries,
and contended with the aristocracy of dukes inherent in the
original organization of the nation, an element which, though
much weakened, always embarrassed the power of the crown,
and checked the unity of the nation. Their old enemies the
Franks on the west, and the Slavs or Huns, ever ready to break
in on the north-east, and sometimes called in by mutinous and
traitorous dukes of Friuli and Trent, were constant and serious
dangers. By the popes, who represented Italian interests, they
were always looked upon with dislike and jealousy, even when
they had become zealous Catholics, the founders of churches
and monasteries; with the Greek empire there was chronic war.
From time to time they made raids into the unsubdued parts of
Italy, and added a city or two to their dominions. But there
was no sustained effort for the complete subjugation of Italy till
Liutprand, the most powerful of the line. He tried it, and failed.
He broke up the independence of the great southern duchies,
Benevento and Spoleto. For a time, in the heat of the dispute
about images, he won the pope to his side against the Greeks.
For a time, but only for a time, he deprived the Greeks of
Ravenna. Aistulf, his successor, carried on the same policy.
He even threatened Rome itself, and claimed a capitation tax.
But the popes, thoroughly irritated and alarmed, and hopeless of
aid from the East, turned to the family which was rising into
power among the Franks of the West, the mayors of the palace
of Austrasia. Pope Gregory III. applied in vain to Charles
Martel. But with his successors Pippin and Charles the popes
were more successful. In return for the transfer by the pope
of the Frank crown from the decayed line. of Clovis to his own,
Pippin crossed the Alps, defeated Aistulf and gave to the pope
the lands which Aistulf had torn from the empire, Ravenna
and the Pentapolis (754-756). But the angry quarrels still went
on between the popes and the Lombards. The Lombards were
still to the Italians a " foul and horrid " race. At length, invited
by Pope Adrian I., Pippin's son Charlemagne once more
descended into Italy. As the Lombard kingdom began, so
it ended, with a siege of Pavia. Desiderius, the last king,
became a prisoner (774), and the Lombard power perished.
Charlemagne, with the title of king of the Franks and Lombards,
became master of Italy, and in 800 the pope, who had crowned
Pippin king of the Franks, claimed to bestow the Roman empire,
and crowned his greater son emperor of the Romans (800).
Effects of the Carolingian Conquest. — To Italy the overthrow
of the Lombard kings was the loss of its last chance of independ-
ence and unity. To the Lombards the conquest was the destruc-
tion of their legal and social supremacy. Henceforth they
were equally with the Italians the subjects of the Frank kings.
The Carolingian kings expressly recognized the Roman law,
and allowed all who would be counted Romans to " profess "
it. But Latin influences were not strong enough to extinguish
the Lombard name and destroy altogether the recollections
and habits of the Lombard rule; Lombard law was still recog-
nized, and survived in the schools of Pavia. Lombardy re-
mained the name of the finest province of Italy, and for a time
was the name for Italy itSelf But what was specially Lombard
could not stand in the long run against the Italian atmosphere
which surrounded it. Generation after generation passed more
and more into real Italians. Antipathies, indeed, survived,
and men even in the loth century called each other Roman or
Langobard as terms of reproach. But the altered name of
Lombard also denoted henceforth some of the proudest of
Italians; and, though the Lombard speech had utterly perished
their most common names still kept up the remembrance that
their fathers had come from beyond the Alps.
But the establishment of the Frank kingdom, and still more
the re-establishment of the Christian empire as the source of
law and jurisdiction in Christendom, had momentous influence
on the history of the Italianized Lombards. The Empire was
the counterweight to the local tyrannies into which the local
authorities established by the Empire itself, the feudal powers,
judicial and military, necessary for the purposes of government,
invariably tended to degenerate. When they became intolerable,
from the Empire were sought the exemptions, privileges, im-
munities from that local authority, which, anomalous and
anarchical as they were in theory, yet in fact were the foundations
of all the liberties of the middle ages in the Swiss cantons, in the
free towns of Germany and the Low Countries, in the Lombard
cities of Italy. Italy was and ever has been a land of cities;
and, ever since the downfall of Rome and the decay of the
municipal system, the bishops of the cities had really been at
the head of the peaceful and industrial part of their population,
LOMBARDY
935
and were a natural refuge for the oppressed, and sometimes for
the mutinous and the evil doers, from the military and civil
powers of the duke or count or judge, too often a rule of cruelty
or fraud. Under the Carolingian empire, a vast system grew
up in the North Italian cities of episcopal " immunities," by
which a city with its surrounding district was removed, more
or less completely, from the jurisdiction of the ordinary authority,
military or civil, and placed under that of the bishop. These
" immunities " led to the temporal sovereignty of the bishops;
under it the spirit of liberty grew more readily than under the
military chief. Municipal organization, never quite forgotten,
naturally revived under new forms, and with its " consuls '.'
at the head of the citizens, with its "arts "and "crafts" and
" gilds," grew up secure under the shadow of the church. In
due time the city populations, free from the feudal yoke, and
safe within the walls which in many instances the bishops had
built for them, became impatient also of the bishop's govern-
ment. The cities which the bishops had made thus independent
of the dukes and counts next sought to be free from the bishops;
in due time they too gained their charters of privilege and liberty.
Left to take care of themselves, islands in a sea of turbulence,
they grew in the sense of self-reliance and independence; they
grew also to be aggressive, quarrelsome and ambitious. Thus,
by the nth century, the Lombard cities had become " com-
munes," commonalties, republics, managing their own affairs,
and ready for attack or defence. Milan had recovered its great-
ness, ecclesiastically as well as politically; it scarcely bowed to
Rome, and it aspired to the position of a sovereign city, mistress
over its neighbours. At length, in the I2th century, the inevit-
able conflict came between the republicanism of the Lombard
cities and the German feudalism which still claimed their
allegiance in the name of the Empire. Leagues and counter-
leagues were formed; and a confederacy of cities, with Milan
at its head, challenged the strength of Germany under one of
its sternest emperors, Frederick Barbarossa. At first Frederick
was victorious; Milan, except its churches, was utterly destroyed;
everything that marked municipal independence was abolished
in the " rebel " cities; and they had to receive an imperial
magistrate instead of their own (1158-1162). But the Lombard
league was again formed. Milan was rebuilt, with the help even
of its jealous rivals, and at Legnano (1176) Frederick was utterly
defeated. The Lombard cities had regained their independence;
and at the peace of Constance (1183) Frederick found himself
compelled to confirm it.
From the peace of Constance the history of the Lombards is
merely part of the history of Italy. Their cities went through the
ordinary fortunes of most Italian cities. They quarrelled and
fought with one another. They took opposite sides in the great
strife of the time between pope and emperor, and were Guelf and
Ghibelline by old tradition, or as one or other faction prevailed in
them. They swayed backwards and forwards between the power
of the people and the power of the few; but democracy and oligarchy
passed sooner or later into the hands of a master who veiled his
lordship under various titles, and generally at last into the hands of
a family. Then, in the larger political struggles and changes of
Europe, they were incorporated into a kingdom, or principality
or duchy, carved out to suit the interest of a foreigner, or to make
a heritage for the nephew of a pope. But in two ways especially
the energetic race which grew out of the fusion of Langobards and
Italians between the 9th and the I2th centuries has left the memory
of itself. In England, at least, the enterprising traders and bankers
who found their way to the West, from the I3th to the i6th centuries,
though they certainly did not all come from Lombardy, bore the
name of Lombards. In the next place, the Lombards or the Italian
builders whom they employed or followed, the " masters of Como,"
of whom so much is said in the early Lombard laws, introduced a
manner of building, stately, solemn and elastic, to which their
name has been attached, and which gives a character of its own to
some of the most interesting churches in Italy. (R. W. C.)
LOMBARDY, a territorial division of Italy, bounded N. by
the Alps, S. by Emilia, E. by Venetia and W. by Piedmont.
It is divided into eight provinces, Bergamo, Brescia, Como,
Cremona, Mantua, Milan, Pavia and Sondrio, and has an area
of 9386 sq. m. Milan, the chief city, is the greatest railway
centre of Italy; it is in direct communication not only with the
other principal towns of Lombardy and the rest of Italy but
also with the larger towns of France, Germany and Switzerland,
being the nearest great town to the tunnels of the St Gothard
and the Simplon. The other railway centres of the territory
are Mortara, Pavia and Mantua, while every considerable town
is situated on or within easy reachof the railway, thisbeing rendered
comparatively easy owing to. the relative flatness of the greater
part of the country. The line from Milan to Porto Ceresio is
worked in the main by electric motor driven trains, while on
that from Lecco to Colico and Chiavenna over-head wires are
adopted. The more remote districts and the immediate environs
of the larger town are served by steam tramways and electric
railways. The most important rivers are the Po, which follows,
for the most part, the southern boundary of Lombardy, and
the Ticino, one of the largest tributaries of the Po, which forms
for a considerable distance the western boundary. The majority
of the Italian lakes, those of Garda, Idro, Iseo, Como, Lugano,
Varese and Maggiore, lie wholly or in part within it. The
climate of Lombardy is thoroughly continental; in summer
the heat is greater than in the south of Italy, while the winter
is very cold, and bitter winds, snow and mist are frequent. In the
summer rain is rare beyond the lower Alps, but a system of irriga-
tion, unsurpassed in Europe, and dating from the middle ages,
prevails, so that a failure of the crops is hardly possible. There
are three zones of cultivation: in the mountains, pasturage;
the lower slopes are devoted to the culture of the vine, fruit-
trees (including chestnuts) and the silkworm; while in the regions
of the plain, large crops of maize, rice, wheat, flax, hemp and
wine are produced, and thousands of mulberry-trees are grown
for the benefit of the silkworms, the culture of which in the
province of Milan has entirely superseded the sheep-breeding
for which it was famous during the middle ages. Milan is indeed
.the principal silk market in the world. In 1905 there were 490
mills reeling silk in Lombardy, with 35,407 workers, and 276
thro wing-mills with 586,000 spindles. The chief centre of silk
weaving is Como, but the silk is commercially dealt with at
Milan, and there is much exportation. A considerable amount
of cotton is manufactured, but most of the raw cotton (600,000
bales) is imported, the cultivation being insignificant in Italy.
There are 400 mills in Lombardy, 277 of which are in the province
of Milan. The largest linen and woollen mills in Italy are situated
at Fara d'Adda. Milan also manufactures motor-cars, though
Turin is the principal centre in Italy for this industry. There
are copper, zinc and iron mines, and numerous quarries of marble,
alabaster and granite. In addition to the above industries the
chief manufactures are hats, rope and paper-making, iron-casting,
gun-making, printing and lithography. Lombardy is indeed the
most industrial district of Italy. In parts the peasants suffer
much from pellagra.
The most important towns with their communal population
in the respective provinces, according to the census of 1901, are
Bergamo (46,861), Treviglio (14,897), total of province 467,549, '
number of communes 306; Brescia (69,210), Chiari (10,749),
total of province 541,765, number of communes 280; Como
(38,174), Varese (17,666), Cantu (10,725), Lecco (10,352), total of
province 594,304, number of communes 510; Cremona (36,848),
Casalmaggiore (16,407), Soresina (10,358), total of province
329,47^ number of communes 133; Mantua (30,127), Viadana
(16,082), Quistello (11,228), Suzzara (11,502), St Benedetto Po
(10,908), total of province 315,448, number of communes 68;
Milan (490,084), Monza (42,124), Lodi (26,827), Busto Arsizio
(20,005), Legnano (18,285), Seregno (12,050), Gallarate (11,952),
Codogno (11,925), total of province 1,450,214, number of com-
munes 297; Pavia (33,922), Vigevano (23,560), Voghera (20,442),
total of province 504,382, number of communes 221; Sondrio
(7077), total of province 130,966, number of communes 78.
The total population of Lombardy was 4,334,099. In most of
the provinces of Lombardy there are far more villages than
in other parts of Italy except Piedmont; this is attributable
partly to their mountainous character, partly perhaps to security
from attack by sea (contrast the state of things in Apulia).
Previous to the fall of the Roman republic Lombardy formed
a part of Gallia Transpadana, and it was Lombardy, Venetia
and Piedmont, the portion of the Italian peninsula N. of thePo,
936
LOMBOK— LOMENIE DE BRIENNE
that did not receive citizenship in 89 B.C. but only Latin rights.
The gift of full citizenship in 49 B.C. made it a part of Italy
proper, and Lombardy and Piedmont formed the nth region of
Augustus (Transpadana) while Venetia and Istria formed the
joth. It was the second of the regions of Italy in size, but the
last in number of towns; it appears, however, to have been
prosperous and peaceful, and cultivation flourished in its fertile
portions. By the end of the 4th century A.D. the name Liguria
had been extended over it, and Milan was regarded as the
capital of both. Stranger still, in the 6th century the old Liguria
was separated from it, and under the name of Alpes Cottiae
formed the 5th Lombard province of Italy.
For details of subsequent history see LOMBARDS and ITALY;
and for architecture see ARCHITECTURE. G. T. Rivoira in Origini
dell' Architetturo Lombarda (2 vols. Rome, 1901-1907), successfully
demonstrates the classical origin of much that had hitherto been
treated by some authorities as " Byzantine." In the development
of Renaissance architecture and art Lombardy played a great part,
inasmuch as both Bramante and Leonardo da Vinci resided in
Milan at the end of the isth century.
LOMBOK (called by the natives Sasak), one of the Lesser
Sunda Islands, in the Dutch East Indies, E. of Java, between
8° 12' and 9* i' S. and 115° 46' and 116° 40' E., with an area of
3136 sq. m. It is separated from Bali by the Strait of Lombok
and from Sumbawa by the Strait of Alas. Rising out of the sea
with bold and often precipitous coasts, Lombok is traversed by
two mountain chains. The northern chain is of volcanic forma-
tion, and contains the peak of Lombok (11,810 ft.), one of the
highest volcanoes in the Malay Archipelago. It is surrounded
by a plateau (with lower summits, and a magnificent lake,
Segara Anak) 8200 ft. high. The southern chain rises a little
over 3000 ft. Between the two chains is a broad valley or terrace
with a range of low volcanic hills. Forest-clad mountains and
stretches of thorny jungle alternating with rich alluvial plains,
cultivated like gardens under an ancient and elaborate system
of irrigation, make the scenery of Lombok exceedingly attractive.
The small rivers serve only for irrigation and the growing of
rice, which is of superior quality. In the plains are also grown
coffee, indigo, maize and sugar, katyang (native beans), cotton
and tobacco. All these products are exported. To the naturalist
Lombok is of particular interest as the frontier island of the
Australian region, with its cockatoos and megapods or mound-
builders, its peculiar bee-eaters and ground thrushes. The
Sasaks must be considered the aborigines, as no trace of an
earlier race is found. They are Mahommedans and distinct in
many other respects from the Hindu Balinese, who vanquished
but could not convert them. The island was formerly divided
into the four states of Karang-Asam Lombok on the W. side,
Mataram in the N.W., Pagarawan in the S.W. and Pagutan
in the E. Balinese supremacy dated from the conquest by Agong
• Dahuran in the beginning of the igth century; the union under
a single raja tributary to Bali dated from 1839. In July 1894
a Dutch expedition landed at Ampanam, and advanced towards
Mataram, the capital of the Balinese sultan, who had defied
Dutch authority and refused to send the usual delegation to
Batavia. The objects of that expedition were to punish Mataram
and to redress the grievances of the Sasaks whom the Balinese
held in cruel subjection. The first Dutch expedition met with
reverses, and ultimately the invaders were forced back upon
Ampanam. The Dutch at once despatched a much stronger
expedition, which landed at Ampanam in September. Mataram
was bombarded by the fleet, and the troops stormed the sultan's
stronghold, and Tjakra Negara, another chieftain's citadel,
both after a desperate resistance. The old sultan of Mataram
was captured, and he and other Balinese chiefs were exiled to
different parts of the Malay Archipelago, whilst the sultan's
heir fell at the hands of his warriors. Thus ended the Balinese
domination of Lombok, and the island was placed under direct
Dutch-Indian control, an assistant resident being appointed
at Ampanam. Lombok is now administered from Bali by the
Dutch resident on that island. The people, however, are in
undisturbed exercise of their own laws, religions, customs and
institutions. Disturbances between the Sasaks and the Lombok
Balinese frequently occur. Lombok has been divided since
1898 into the West, Middle and East Lombok. Its chief towns
are Mataram, Praya and Sisi. On the west coast the harbour
of Ampanam is the most frequented, though, on account of
heavy breakers, it is often difficult of approach. The Sasaks
are estimated at 320,000, the Balinese at 50,000, Europeans
number about 40, Chinese 300, and Arabs 1 70.
See A. R. Wallace, Malay Archipelago (London, 1869, and later
editions). The famous " Wallace's Line " runs immediately west
of Lombok, which therefore has an important part in the work.
Captain W. Cool, With the Dutch in the East (Amsterdam and London,
1897), in Dutch and English, is a narrative of the events sketched
above, and contains many particulars about the folklore and dual
religions of Lombok, which, with Bali, forms the last stronghold of
Hinduism east of Java.
LOMBROSO, CESARE (1836-1909), Italian criminologist,
was born on the i8th of November 1836 at Verona, of a Jewish
family. He studied at Padua, Vienna and Paris, and was
in 1862 appointed professor of psychiatry at Pavia, then director
of the lunatic asylum at Pesaro, and later professor of forensic
medicine and of psychiatry at Turin, where he eventually filled
the chair of criminal anthropology. His works, several of
which have been translated into English, include L'Uomo de-
linquente (1889); L'Uomo di genio (1888) Genio e follia (1877)
and La Donna delinquente (1893). In 1872 he had made the
notable discovery that the disorder known as pellagra was due
(but see PELLAGRA) to a poison contained in diseased maize,
eaten by the peasants, and he returned to this subject in La
Pellagra in Italia (1885) and other works. Lombroso, like
Giovanni Bovio (b. 1841), Enrico Ferri (b. 1856) and Colajanni,
well-known Italian criminologists, and his sons-in-law G. Ferrero
and Carrara, was strongly influenced by Auguste Comte, and
owed to him an exaggerated tendency to refer all mental facts
to biological causes. In spite of this, however, and a serious
want of accuracy and discrimination in handling evidence,
his work made an epoch in criminology; for he surpassed
all his predecessors by the wide scope and systematic character
of his researches, and by the practical conclusions he drew
from them. Their net theoretical results is that the criminal
population exhibits a higher percentage of physical, nervous
and mental anomalies than non-criminals; and that these
anomalies are due partly to degeneration, partly to atavism.
The criminal is a special type of the human race, standing
midway between the lunatic and the savage. This doctrine
of a " criminal type "has been gravely criticized, but is admitted
by all to contain a substratum of truth. The practical reform
to which it points is a classification of offenders, so that the born
criminal may receive a different kind of punishment from the
offender who is tempted into crime by circumstances (see
also CRIMINOLOGY). Lombroso's biological principles are much
less successful in his work on Genius, which he explains as a
morbid, degenerative condition, presenting analogies to insanity,
and not altogether alien to crime. In 1899 he published in
French a book which gives a resume of much of his earlier work,
entitled Le Crime, causes et remedes. Later works are: Delitli
vecchi e delitti nuovi (Turin, 1902); Nuotii studi sul genio (2 vols.,
Palermo, 1902); and in 1908 a work on spiritualism (Eng. trans.,
After Death — What? 1909), to which subject he had turned
his attention during the later years of his life. He died suddenly
from a heart complaint at Turin on the igth of October 1909.
See Kurella, Cesare Lombroso und die Naturgeschichte des Ver-
brechers (Hamburg, 1892); and a biography, with an analysis of
his works, and a short account of their general conclusions by his
daughters, Paola Carrara and Gina Ferrero, written in 1906 on the
occasion of the sixth congress of criminal anthropology at Turin.
LOMENIE DE BRIENNE, ETIENNE CHARLES DE (1727-
1794), French politician and ecclesiastic, was born at Paris
on the 9th of October 1727. He belonged to a Limousin family,
dating from the isth century, and after a brilliant career as a
student entered the Church, as being the best way to attain
to a distinguished position. In 1751 he became a doctor of
theology, though there were doubts as to the orthodoxy of his
thesis. In 1752 he was appointed grand vicar to the archbishop
of Rouen. After visiting Rome, he was made bishop of Condom
LOMOND, LOCH— LOMZA
937
(1760), and in 1763 was translated to the archbishopric of
Toulouse. He had many famous friends, among them A. R. J.
Turgot, the Abbe A. Morellet and Voltaire, and in 17 70 became
an academician. He was on three occasions the head of the
bureau de jurisdiction at the general assembly of the clergy;
he also took an interest in political and social questions of the
day, and addressed to Turgot a number of memoires on these
subjects, one of them, treating of pauperism, being especially
remarkable. In 1787 he was nominated as president of the
Assembly of Notables, in which capacity he attacked the fiscal
policy of Calonne, whom he succeeded as head of the conseil des
finances on the ist of May 1787. Once in power, he succeeded
in making the parlement register edicts dealing with internal
free trade, the establishment of provincial assemblies and the
redemption of the corvee; on their refusal to register edicts
on the stamp duty and the proposed new general land-tax,
he persuaded the king to hold a lit de justice, to enforce their
registration. To crush the opposition to these measures, he
persuaded the king to exile the parlement to Troyes (August
i5th, 1787). On the agreement of the parlement to sanction
a prolongation for two years to the tax of the two vingtiemes
(a direct tax on all kinds of income), in lieu of the above two
taxes, he recalled the councillors to Paris. But a further attempt
to force the parlement to register an edict for raising a loan
of 120 million livres met with determined opposition. The
struggle of the parlement against the incapacity of Brienne
ended on the 8th of May in its consenting to an edict for its
own abolition; but with the proviso that the states-general
should be summoned to remedy the disorders of the state.
Brienne, who had in the meantime been made archbishop of
Sens, now found himself face to face with almost universal
opposition; he was forced to suspend the Cour pleniere which
had been set up to take the place of the parlement, and himself
to promise that the states-general should be summoned. But
even these concessions were not able to keep him in power,
and on the 2gth of August he had to retire, leaving the treasury
empty. On the i5th of December following, he was made
a cardinal, and went to Italy, where he spent two years. After
the outbreak of the Revolution he returned to France, and took
the oath of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy in 1790 (see
FRENCH REVOLUTION). He was repudiated by the pope, and
in 1791 had to give up the biretta at the command of Pius VI.
Both his past and present conduct made him an object of suspicion
to the revolutionaries; he was arrested at Sens on the gth of
November 1793, and died in prison, either of an apoplectic
stroke or by poison, on the i6th of February 1794.
The chief works published by Brienne are: Oraison funebre du
Dauphin (Paris, 1766); Compte-rendu au roi (Paris, 1788); Le
Conciliateur, in collaboration with Turgot (Rome, Paris, 1754).
See also J. Perrin, Le Cardinal Lomenie de Brienne . . . episodes
de la Revolution (Sens, 1896).
LOMOND, LOCH, the largest and most beautiful of Scottish
lakes, situated in the counties of Stirling and Dumbarton. It
is about 23 m. long; its width varies from 5 m. towards the
south end to % m. at the narrows to the north of the Isle of the
Vow; its area is -27 sq. m., and the greatest depth 630 ft. It is
only 23 ft. above the sea, of which doubtless it was at one time
an arm. It contains 30 islands, the largest of which is Inch-
murrin, a deer park belonging to the duke of Montrose. Among
other islands are Inch Cailliach (the " Island of Women," from
the fact that a nunnery once stood there), Inchfad (" Long
Island "), Inchcruin (" Round Island "), Inchtavannach
(" Monks' Isle "), Inchconnachan (" Colquhoun's Isle "), Inch-
lonaig (" Isle of the Yews," where Robert Bruce caused yews to
be planted to provide arms for his bowmen), Creinch, Torrinch
and Clairinch (which gave the Buchanans their war-cry). From
the west the loch receives the Inveruglas, the Douglas, the Luss,
the Finlas and the Fruin. From Balloch in the south it sends off
the Leven to the Clyde; from the east it receives the Endrick,
the Blair, the Cashell and the Arklet; and from the north the
Falloch. Ben Lomond (3192 ft.), the ascent of which is made
with comparative ease from Rowardennan, dominates the land-
scape; but there are other majestic hills, particularly on the
west and north-west banks. The fish are sea-trout, lake-trout,
pike and perch. Part of the shore is skirted by the West High-
land railway, opened in 1894, which has stations on the loch at
Tarbet and Ardlui, and Balloch is the terminus of the lines from
Dumbarton and from Stirling via Buchlyvie. Steamers make the
tour of the loch, starting from Balloch and calling at Balmaha,
Luss, Rowardennan, Tarbet, Inversnaid and Ardlui. Luss has
a considerable population, and there is some stone quarried near
it. INVERSNAID is the point of arrival and departure for the
Trossachs coaches, and here, too, there is a graceful waterfall,
fed by the Arklet from the loch of that name, 2\ m. to the east,
commemorated in Wordsworth's poem of the " Highland Girl."
Inversnaid was in the heart of the Macgregor country, and the
name of Rob Roy is still given to his cave on the loch side a mile
to the north and to his prison 3 m. to the south. Inversnaid
was the site of a fort built in 1713 to reduce the clan to sub-
jection. Craig Royston, a tract lying between Inversnaid and
Ben Lomond, was also associated with Rob Roy.
LOMON6SOV, MIKHAIL VASILIEVICH (1711-1765), Russian
poet and man of science, was born in the year 1711, in the village
of Denisovka (the name of which was afterwards changed in
honour of the poet), situated on an island not far from Kholmo-
gori, in the government of Archangel. His father, a fisherman,
took the boy when he was ten years of age to assist him in his
calling; but the lad's eagerness for knowledge was unbounded.
The few books accessible to him he almost learned by heart;
and, seeing that there was no chance of increasing his stock of
knowledge in his native place, he resolved to betake himself to
Moscow. An opportunity occurred when he was seventeen,
and by the intervention of friends he obtained admission into
the Zaikonospasski school. There his progress was very rapid,
especially in Latin, and in 1734 he was sent from Moscow to St
Petersburg. There again his proficiency, especially in physical
science, was marked, and he was one of the young Russians
chosen to complete their education in foreign countries. He
accordingly commenced the study of metallurgy at Marburg;
he also began to write poetry, imitating German authors, among
whom he is said to have especially admired Giinther. His Ode
on the Taking of Khotin from the Turks was composed in 1739,
and attracted a great deal of attention at St Petersburg. During
his residence in Germany Lomonosov married a native of the
country, and found it difficult to maintain his increasing family
on the scanty allowance granted to him by the St Petersburg
Academy, which, moreover, was irregularly sent. His circum-
stances became embarrassed, and he resolved to leave the country
secretly and to return home. On his arrival in Russia he rapidly
rose to distinction, and was made professor of chemistry in the
university of St Petersburg; he ultimately became rector, and
in 1764 secretary of state. He died in 1765.
The most valuable of the works of Lomonosov are those relating
to physical science, and he wrote upon many branches of it. He
everywhere shows himself a man of the most varied learning. He
compiled a Russian grammar, which long enjoyed popularity, and
did much to improve the rhythm of Russian verse.
LOMZA, or LOMZHA, a government of Russian Poland, bounded
N. by Prussia and the Polish government of Suwalki, E. by the
Russian government of Grodno, S. by the Polish governments
of Siedlce and Warsaw and W. by that of Plock. It covers
4666 sq. m. It is mostly flat or undulating, with a few tracts
in the north and south-west where the deeply cut valleys give a
hilly aspect to the country. Extensive marshes overspread it,
especially on the banks of the Narev, which flows from east to
south-west, joining the Bug in the south-western corner of the
government. The Bug flows along the southern border, joining
the Vistula 20 m. below its confluence with the Narev. There
are forests in the east of the government. The inhabitants
numbered 501,385 in 1872 and 585,033 in 1897, of whom 279,279
were women, and 69,834 lived in towns. The estimated popula-
tion in 1906 was 653,100. By religion 775% are Roman
Catholics, 155% Jews and 5$% members of the Orthodox
Church. Agriculture is the predominant industry, the chief
crops being rye, oats, wheat, barley, buckwheat, peas, potatoes,
flax and hemp. Bees are extensively kept, and large numbers of
93«
LOMZA— LONDON
poultry, especially geese, are reared. Stock raising is carried
on to some extent. The wood trade is important; other in-
dustries are the production of pottery, beer, flour, leather,
bricks, wooden wares, spirits, tobacco and sugar. There is only
one railway (between Grodno and Warsaw); the Bug is navig-
able, but wood only is floated down the Narev. The govern-
ment is divided into seven districts, of which the chief towns,
with their populations in 1897, are Lomza (q.v.), Ostrolenka
(8679), Mazowiec (3900), Ostrow (11,264), Makow (7232), Kolno
(4941) and Szczuczyn (5725).
LOMZA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the
same name, on the Narew, 103 m. by rail N.E. from Warsaw.
Pop. (1872), 13,860, (1900) 22,428. Lomza is an old town, one
of its churches having been erected before 1000. In the i6th
century it carried on a brisk trade with Lithuania and Prussia.
It was well fortified and had two citadels, but nevertheless often
suffered from the invasions of the Germans and Tatars, and in the
1 7th century it was twice plundered by the Cossacks of the
Ukraine. In 1795 it fell under the dominion of Prussia, and
after the peace of Tilsit (1807) it came under Russian rule.
LONAULI, a town of India, in the Poona district of Bombay,
at the top of the Bhor Ghat pass in the Western Ghats, by which
the Great Indian Peninsula railway climbs from Bombay to
Poona. Pop. (1901), 6686. It contains the locomotive works
of the railway. Lonauli is a place of resort from Bombay during
the hot season.
LONDON, a city and port of entry of Middlesex county,
Ontario, Canada, situated 121 m. N.W. of Toronto, on the river
Thames and the Grand Trunk, Canadian Pacific and Michigan
Central railways. Pop. (1901), 37,981; but several suburbs, not
included in these figures, are in' reality part of the city. The
local nomenclature is largely a reproduction of that of the great
city whose name it has borrowed. Situated in a fertile agricul-
tural district, it is a large distributing centre. Among the
industries are breweries, petroleum refineries, and factories
for the manufacture of agricultural implements and of railway
carriages. The educational institutions include the Hellmuth
Ladies' College and the Western University (founded in 1878
under the patronage of the Church of England). London was
founded in 1825-1826.
LONDON, the capital of England and of the British Empire,
and the greatest city in the world, lying on each side of the
river Thames 5° m. above its mouth.1 The " City," so called
both formally and popularly, is a small area (673 acres) on the
north bank of the river, forming the heart of the metropolis,
and constituting within its boundaries one only, and one of the
smallest, of twenty-nine municipal divisions which make up the
administrative County of London. The twenty-eight remaining
divisions are the Metropolitan Boroughs. The county thus
defined has an extreme length (E. to W.) of 16 m., an extreme
breadth (N. to S.) of i ij m., and an area of 74,839 acres or about
117 sq. m. The boroughs are as follows: —
1. North of the Thames. — Touching the northern boundary
of the county, from W. to E. — Hammersmith, Kensington,
Paddington, Hampstead, St Pancras, Islington, Stoke Newing-
ton, Poplar.
Bounded by the Thames — Fulham, Chelsea, the City of West-
minster (here the City of London intervenes), Stepney, Poplar.
Between Westminster, the City and Stepney, and the northern
boroughs — St Marylebone (commonly Marylebone), Holborn
Finsbury, Shoreditch, Bethnal Green.
2. South of the Thames. — Wandsworth, Battersea, Lambeth
Southwark, Camberwell, Bermondsey, Deptford, Lewisham
Greenwich, Woolwich (with a small part of the north bank).
These names are all in common use, though their forma
application is in some cases extended over several districts
of which the ancient names remain familiar. Each borough
is noticed in a separate article.
1 See map in London Statistics (vol. xix., 1909), an annual publica
tion of the London County Council, which besides these division
shows " Water London," the London main drainage area, and th
Central Criminal Court district.
I. EXTENT AND SITE
The County of London is bounded N. and W. by Middle*
ex, E. by Essex and Kent, S. by Kent and Surrey. The
VIetropolitan police area, or " Greater London," however,
unbraces the whole of Middlesex, with parts of the other
hree counties and of Hertfordshire. Its extent is 443,419
acres or nearly 693, sq. m., and its population is about seven
millions. Only here and there upon its fringe the identity
)f this great area with the metropolis is lost to the eye,
where open country remains unbroken by streets or close-set
>uildings.
Site. — North of the Thames, and west of its tributary the
,ea, which partly bounds the administrative county on the east,
,ondon is built upon a series of slight undulations, only rarely
sufficient to make the streets noticeably steep. On the northern
>oundary of the county a height of 443 ft. is found on the open
iampstead Heath. The lesser streams which flow from this
ligh ground to the Thames are no longer open. Some, however,
as well as other natural features effaced by the growth of the
city, retain an historical interest through the survival of their
names in streets and districts, or through their relation to the
original site of London (in the present City). South of the
Thames a broken amphitheatre of low hills, approaching the
river near Greenwich and Woolwich on the east and Putney
and Richmond on the west, encloses a tract flatter than that
to the north, and rises more abruptly in the southern districts
of Streatham, Norwood and Forest Hill.
In attempting to picture the site of London in its original
condition, that is, before any building took place, it is necessary
to consider (i) the condition of the Thames unconfined between
made banks, (2) the slopes overlooking it, (3) the tributary
streams which watered these slopes. The low ground between
the slight hills flanking the Thames valley, and therefore mainly
south of the present river, was originally occupied by a shallow
lagoon of estuarine character, tidal, and interspersed with marshy
tracts and certain islets of relatively firm land. Through this
the main stream of the Thames pursued an ill-defined course.
The tributary streams entered through marshy channels. The
natural process of sedimentation assisted the gradual artificial
drainage of the marshes by means of embankments confining
the river. The breadth of this low tract, from Chelsea downward,
was from 2 to 3 m. The line of the foot of the southern hills,
from Putney, where it nearly approaches the present river,
lies through Stockwell and Camberwell to Greenwich, where
it again approaches the river. On the north there is a flat tract
between Chelsea and Westminster, covering Pimlico, but from
Westminster down to the Tower there is a marked slope directly
up from the river bank. Lower still, marshes formerly extended
far up the valley of the Lea. The higher slopes of the hills were
densely forested (cf. the modern district-name St John's Wood),
while the lower slopes, north of the river, were more open (cf.
Moor-gate). The original city grew up on the site of the City
of London of the present day, on a slight eminence intersected
by the Wai- or Wall-brook, and flanked on the west by the
river Fleet.
These and other tributary streams have been covered in and
built over (in some cases serving as sewers), but it is possible
to trace their valleys at various points by the fall and rise of
streets crossing them, and their names survive, as will be seen,
in various modern applications. The Wallbrook rose in a marsh
in the modern district of Finsbury, and joined the Thames close
to the Cannon Street railway bridge. A street named after it
runs south from the Mansion House parallel with its course.
The Fleet was larger, rising in, and collecting various small
streams from, the high ground of Hampstead. It passed Kentish
Town, Camden Town and King's Cross, and followed a line
approximating to King's Cross Road. The slope of Farringdon
Road, where crossed by Holborn Viaduct, and of New Bridge
Street, Black'friars, marks its course exactly, and that of Fleet
Street and Ludgate Hill its steep banks. The name also appears
in Fleet Road, Hampstead. From King's Cross downward
the banks were so steep and high that the stream was called
TOPOGRAPHY]
LONDON
939
Hollow or Hole-bourne, this name surviving in Holborn; and
it was fed by numerous springs (Bagnigge Well, Clerkenwell and
others) in this vicinity. It entered a creek which was navigable
for a considerable distance, and formed a subsidiary harbour
for the City, but by the i4th century this was becoming choked
with refuse, and though an attempt was made to clear it, and
wharves were built in 1670, it was wholly arched over in 1737-
1765 below Holborn Bridge. Continuing westward, the most
important stream was Tyburn (q.v.), which rose at Hampstead,
and joined the Thames through branches on cither side of
Thorney Island, on which grew up the great ecclesiastical founda-
tion of St Peter, Westminster, better known as Westminster
Abbey. There is no modern survival of the name of Tyburn,
which finds, indeed, its chief historical interest as attaching to
the famous place of execution which lay near the modern Marble
Arch. The residential district in this vicinity was known at
a later date as Tyburnia. The next stream westward was the
Westbourne, the name of which is perpetuated in Westbourne
Grove and elsewhere in Paddington. It rose on the heights
of Hampstead, traversed Paddington, may be traced in the course
of the Serpentine lake in Hyde Park, ran parallel to and east
of Sloane Street, and joined the Thames close to Chelsea Bridge.
The main tributaries of the Thames from the north, to east and
west of those described, are not covered, nor is any tributary
of importance from the south entirely concealed.
Geology. — London lies within the geological area known as the
London basin. Within the confines of Greater London the chalk
which forms the basement of this area appears at the surface in
isolated patches about Greenwich, while its main line approaches
within 10 m. of the City to the south and within 15 to the north-west.
In the south and north-west the typical London clay is the principal
formation. In the south-east, however, the Blackheath and Woolwich
pebble-beds appear, with their belts of Thanet sands bordering the
chalk. Valley gravel borders the Thames, with some interruptions,
from Kingston to Greenwich, and extends to a wide belt, with
ramifications, from Wandsworth south to Croydon, and in a narrower
line from Greenwich towards Bromley. Brick earth overlies it from
Kensington to Brentford and west thereof, and appears in Chelsea
and Fulham, Hornsey and Stoke Newington, and in patches south
of the Thames between Battersea and Richmond. The main de-
posits of alluvium occur below Lambeth and Westminster, and in the
valley of the Wandle, which joins the Thames from the south near
Putney. In the north and west the clay is interspersed with patches
of plateau gravel in the direction of Finchley (where boulder clay
also appears), Enfield and Barnct; and of Bagshot sands on Hamp-
stead Heath and Harrow Hill. Gravel is found on the high ground
about Richmond Park and Wimbledon. (See further MIDDLESEX.)
' Climate. — The climate is equable (though excessive heat is some-
times felt for short periods during the summer) and moist, but
healthy. Snow is most common in the early months of the year.
The fogs of London have a peculiar and perhaps an exaggerated
notoriety. They are apt to occur at all seasons, are common from
September to February, and most common in November. The
atmosphere of London is almost invariably misty in a greater or less
degree, but the denser fogs are generally local and of no long duration.
They sometimes cause a serious dislocation of railway and other
traffic. Their principal cause is the smoke from the general domestic
use of coal. The evil is of very long standing, for in 1306 the citizens
petitioned Edward I. to prohibit the use of sea-coal, and he made it a
capital offence. The average temperature of the hottest month,
July, is 64°-4 F.; of the coldest, January, 37°-9; and the mean
annual 5O°-4. The mean annual rainfall ranges in different parts of
the metropolis from about 2Oj to 273 in.
II. TOPOGRAPHY
London as a whole owes nothing in appearance to the natural
configuration of its site. Moreover, the splendid building is
nearly always a unit; seldom, unless accidentally, a component
part of a broad effect. London has not grown up along formal
lines; nor is any large part of it laid out according to the concep-
tions of a single generation. Yet not a few of the great thorough-
fares and buildings are individually worthy of London's pre-
eminence as a city. The most notable of these fall within a
circumscribed area, and it is therefore necessary to preface their
consideration with a statement of the broader characteristic
divisions of the metropolis.
Characteristic Divisions. — In London north of the Thames, the
salient distinction lies between West and East. From the western
boundary of the City proper, an area covering the greater part
of the city of Westminster, and extending into Chelsea, Kensing-
ton, Paddington and Marylebone, is exclusively associated with
the higher-class life of London. Within the bounds of West-
minster are the royal palaces, the government offices and many
other of the finest public buildings, and the wider area specified
includes the majority of the residences of the wealthier classes,
the most beautiful parks and the most fashionable places of
recreation. " Mayfair," north of Piccadilly, and " Belgravia,"
south of Knightsbridge, are common though unofficial names for
the richest residential districts. The " City " bears in the
great commercial buildings fringing its narrow streets all the
marks of a centre of the world's exchanges. East of it there is
an abrupt transition to the district commonly known as the
" East End," as distinguished from the wealthy " West End,"
a district of mean streets, roughly coincident with the boroughs
of Stepney, and Poplar, Shoreditch and Bethnal Green, and
primarily (though by no means exclusively) associated with
the problems attaching to the life of the poor. On the Thames
below London Bridge, London appears in the aspect of one of the
world's great ports, with extensive docks and crowded shipping.
North London is as a whole residential: Hackney, Islington and
St Pancras consist mainly of dwellings of artisans and the
middle classes; while in Hampstead, St Marylebone and Pad-
dington are many terraces and squares of handsome houses.
Throughout the better residential quarters of London the
number of large blocks of flats has greatly increased in modern
times. But even in the midst of the richest quarters, in West-
minster and elsewhere, small but well-defined areas of the poorest
dwellings occur.
London south of the Thames has none of the grander character-
istics of the wealthy districts to the north. Poor quarters lie
adjacent to the river over the whole distance from Battersea to
Greenwich, merging southward into residential districts of better
class. London has no single well-defined manufacturing quarter.
Suburbs. — Although the boundary of the county of London does
not, to outward appearance, enclose a city distinct from its suburbs,
London outside that boundary may be conveniently considered as
suburban. Large numbers of business men and others who must of
necessity live in proximity to the metropolis have their homes aloof
from its centre. It is estimated that upwards of a million daily enter
and leave the City alone as the commercial heart of London, and a
great proportion of these travel in and out by the suburban railways.
In this aspect the principal extension of London has been into the
counties of Kent and Surrey, to the pleasant hilly districts about
Sydenham, Norwood and Croydon, Chislehurst and Orpington,
Caterham, Rcdhill and Reigate, Epsom, Dorking and Leatnerhead ;
and up the valley of the Thames through Richmond to Kingston and
Surbiton, Esher and Weybridge, and the many townships on both
the Surrey and the Middlesex shores of the river. On the west and
north the residential suburbs immediately outside the county include
Acton and Ealing, Willesden, Highgate, Finchley and Hornsey;
from the last two a densely populated district extends north through
Wood Green and Southeate to Barnet and Enfield ; while the
" residential influence " of the metropolis far exceeds these limits,
and may be observed at Harrow and Pinner, Bushey and Boxmoor,
St Albans, Harpenden, Stevenage and many other places. To the
north-east the beauty of Epping Forest attracts numerous residents
to Woodford, Chingford and Loughton. The valley of the Lea is also
thickly populated, but chiefly by an industrial population working
in the numerous factories along this river. The Lea separates the
county of London from Essex, but the townships of West Ham and
Stratford, Barking and Ilford, Leyton and Walthamstow continue
the metropolis in this direction almost without a break. Their
population is also largely occupied in local manufacturing establish-
ments; while numerous towns on either bank of the lower Thames
share in the industries of the port of London.
Streets. — The principal continuous thoroughfares within the
metropolis, though each bears a succession of names, are coinci-
dent with the main roads converging upon the capital from all
parts of England. On the north of the Thames two great
thoroughfares from the west meet in the heart of the City.
The northern enters the county in Hammersmith as Uxbridge
Road, crosses Kensington and borders the north side of Ken-
sington Gardens and Hyde Park as Bayswater Road. It then
bears successively the names of Oxford Street, New Oxford
Street and High Holborn; enters the City, becomes known as
Holborn Viaduct from the fact that it is there carried over other
940
LONDON
[TOPOGRAPHY
streets which lie at a lower level, and then as Newgate Street
and Cheapside. The southern highway enters Hammersmith,
crosses the centre of Kensington as Kensington Road and High
Street, borders Kensington Gardens and Hyde Park as Kensing-
ton Gore and Knightsbridge, with terraces of fine residences,
and merges into Piccadilly. This beautiful street, with its
northward branches, Park Lane, from which splendid houses
overlook Hyde Park, and Bond Street, lined with handsome
shops, may be said to focus the fashionable life of London.
The direct line of the thoroughfare is interrupted after Piccadilly
Circus (the term " circus " is frequently applied to the open
space — not necessarily round — at the junction of several roads),
but is practically resumed in the Strand, with its hotels, shops and
numerous theatres, and continued through the City in Fleet
Street, the centre of the newspaper world, and Ludgate Hill,
at the head of which is St Paul's Cathedral. Thence it runs by
commercial Cannon Street to the junction with Cheapside and
several other busy streets. At this junction stand the Royal
Exchange, the Mansion House (the official residence of the Lord
Mayor of London) and the Bank of England, from which this
important point in the communications of London is commonly
known as " Bank." From the east two main roads similarly
converge upon the City, which they enter by Aldgate (the
suffix in this and other names indicating the former existence
of one of the City gates). The southern of these highways,
approaching through the eastern suburbs us Barking Road,
becomes East India Docks Road in Poplar and Commercial
Road East in Stepney. The continuous thoroughfare of 12 m.
between Hammersmith and the East India Docks illustrates
successively every phase of London life. The northern road
enters from Stratford and is called Bow Road, Mile End Road,
Whitechapel Road and High Street, Whitechapel. From the
north of England two roads preserve communication-lines from
the earliest times. The Old North Road, entering London from
the Lea valley through Hackney and Shoreditch as Stamford
Hill, Stoke Newington Road and Kingsland Road, reaches the
City by Bishopsgate. The straight highway from the north-
west which as Edgware Road joins Oxford Street at the Marble
Arch (the north-eastern entrance to Hyde Park) is coincident
with the Roman Watling Street. The Holyhead and Great North
Roads, uniting at Barnet, enter London by branches through
Hampstead and through Highgate, between the Old North and
Edgware roads. South of the Thames the thoroughfares crossing
the river between Lambeth and Bermondsey converge upon two
circuses, St George's and the Elephant and Castle. At the second
of these points the majority of the chief roads from the southern
suburbs and the south of England are collected. Among them,
the Old Kent Road continues the southern section of Watling
Street, from Dover and the south-east, through Woolwich and
across Blackheath. The road through Streatham, Brixton and
Kennington, taking name from these districts successively, is
the principal southern highway. The Portsmouth Road from
the south-west is well marked as far as Lambeth, under the names
of Wandsworth, High Street, St John's Hill, Lavender Hill and
Wandsworth Road.
Thames Embankments. — The Thames follows a devious course
through London, and the fine embankments on its north side,
nowhere continuing uninterruptedly for more than 2 m., do not
form important thoroughfares, with the exception of the Victoria
Embankment. Mostly they serve rather as beautiful promen-
ades. One of them begins over against Battersea Bridge. Its
finest portion is the Chelsea Embankment, fronting Battersea
Park across the river, shaded by a pleasant avenue and lined
with handsome houses. It continues, with some interruptions,
nearly as far as the Houses of Parliament. Below these the
grandest of the embankments extends to the City at Blackfriars.
It was formed in 1864-1870, and is named the Victoria Embank-
ment, though its popular title is " The Embankment " simply.
Open gardens fringe it in part on the landward side, and it is
lined with fine public and private buildings. The bold sweep of
the Thames, here some 300 yds. wide, the towers of Westminster
on the one hand and the dome of St Paul's on the other, make
up a fine prospect. Below London Bridge the river is embanked
for a short distance in front of the Tower of London, and above
Westminster Bridge the Albert Embankment extends for nearly
i m. along the south bank.
Bridges. — Fourteen road-bridges cross the Thames within the
county of London. Of these London Bridge, connecting the City
with Southwark and Bermondsey, stands first in historical
interest and in importance as a modern highway. The old
bridge, famous for many generations, bearing its rows of houses
and its chapel in the centre, was completed early in the i3th
century. It was 308 yds. long and had twenty narrow arches,
through which the tides formed dangerous rapids. It stood just
below the existing bridge, which was built of granite by John
Rennie and his son Sir John Rennie, and completed in 1831. A
widening to accommodate the growth of traffic, after being
frequently discussed for many years, was completed in 1904,
by means of corbels projecting on either side, without arresting
traffic during the work. There was no bridge over the Thames
below London Bridge until 1894, when the Tower Bridge was
opened. This is a suspension bridge with a central portion,
between two lofty and massive stone towers, consisting of
bascules which can be raised by hydraulic machinery to admit
the passage of vessels. The bridge is both a remarkable engineer-
ing work, and architecturally one of the finest modern structures
in London. The bridges in order above London Bridge are as
follows, railway-bridges being bracketed — Southwark, (Cannon
Street), (Blackfriars), Blackfriars, Waterloo, (Hungerford — with
a footway), Westminster, Lambeth, Vauxhall, (Grosvenor),
Victoria, Albert, Battersea, (Battersea), Wandsworth, (Putney),
Putney and Hammersmith. Waterloo Bridge, the oldest now
standing within London, is the work of John Rennie, and was
opened in 1817. It is a massive stone structure of nine arches,
carrying a level roadway, and is considered one of the finest
bridges of its kind in the world. The present Westminster
Bridge, of iron on granite piers, was opened in 1862, but another
preceded it, dating from 1750; the view from which was
appreciated by Wordsworth in his sonnet beginning " Earth has
not anything to show more fair." The complete reconstruction
of Vauxhall Bridge was undertaken in 1902, and the new bridge
was opened in 1906. Some of the bridges were built by companies,
and tolls were levied at their crossing until modern times; thus
Southwark Bridge was made toll-free in 1866, and Waterloo
Bridge only in 1878, on being acquired by the City Corporation
and the Metropolitan Board of Works respectively. The road-
bridges mentioned (except the City bridges) are maintained by
the London County Council, who expended for this purpose a
sum of £9149 in 1907-1908. The following table shows the
capital expenditure on the more important bridges and their
cost of maintenance in 1907-1908: —
Net Capital Cost of Maintenance
Expenditure. 1907-1908.
Albert Bridge .... £120,774 £1296
Battersea Bridge . . . 312,193 512
Hammersmith Bridge . . 204,250 421
Lambeth Bridge . . . 47,555 496
Putney Bridge .... 430,052 653
Vauxhall Bridge (temporary) 270,749 73
Vauxhall Bridge (new) . 457,108 1109
Wandsworth Bridge . . 65,661 410
Waterloo Bridge . . . 552,867 1102
Westminster Bridge . . 393,189 1491
The properties entrusted to the Corporation for the upkeep of
London Bridge are managed by the Bridge House Estates
Committee, the revenues from which are also used in the main-
tenance of the other three City bridges, £26,989 being thus
expended in 1907, the Tower bridge absorbing £17,735 of tnis
amount.
Thames Tunnels. — Some of the metropolitan railway lines
cross the . river in tunnels beneath its bed. There are also
several tunnels under the river below London Bridge, namely:
Tower Subway, constructed in 1870 for foot-passengers, but
no longer used, Greenwich Tunnel (1902) for foot-passengers,
Blackwall Tunnel (1897), constructed by the County Council
between Greenwich and Poplar, and Woolwich Tunnel, begun
TOPOGRAPHY)
LONDON
94
in 1910. A tunnel between Rotherhithe and Rat cliff was
authorized in 1897 and opened in 1908. The Thames Tunnel
(1825-1843), 2 m. below London Bridge, became a railway
tunnel in 1865. The County Council maintains a free ferry
at Woolwich for passengers and vehicular traffic. The capital
expenditure on this undertaking was £185,337 and the expense
of maintenance in 1907-1908 £20,881. The Greenwich Tunnel
(capital expenditure £179,293) in the same year had expended on
it for maintenance £3725, and the Blackwall Tunnel (capital
expenditure £1,268,951) £11,420. The capital expenditure on
the Rotherhithe Tunnel was £1,414,561.
Parks. — The administration and acreage of parks and open
spaces, and their provisions for the public recreation, fall for
consideration later, but some of them are notable features in the
topography of London. The royal parks, namely St James's,
Green and Hyde Park, and Kensington Gardens, stretch in an
irregular belt for nearly 3 m. between Whitehall (Westminster)
and Kensington. St James's Park was transformed from marshy
land into a deer park, bowling green and tennis court by Henry
VIII., extended and laid out as a pleasure garden by Charles II.,
and rearranged according to the designs of John Nash in 1827-
1829. Its lake, the broad Mall leading up to Buckingham
Palace, and the proximity of the government buildings in
Whitehall, combine to beautify it. Here was established, by
licence from James I., the so-called Milk Fair, which remained,
its ownership always in the same family, until 1905, when, on
alterations being made to the Mall, a new stall was erected for
the owners during their lifetime, though the cow or cows kept
here were no longer allowed. St James's Park is continued
between the Mall and Piccadilly by the Green Park. Hyde Park,
to the west, belonged originally to the manor of Hyde, which
was attached to Westminster Abbey, but was taken by Henry
VIII. on the dissolution of the monasteries. Two of its gateways
are noteworthy, namely that at Hyde Park Corner at the south-
east and the Marble Arch at the north-east. The first was built
in 1828 from designs of Decimus Burton, and comprises three
arches with a frieze above the central arch copied from the Elgin
marbles in the British Museum. The Marble Arch was intended
as a monument to Nelson, and first stood in front of Buckingham
Palace, being moved to its present site in 1851. It no longer
forms an entrance to the park, as in 1908 a corner of the park
was cut off and a roadway was formed to give additional accommo-
dation for the heavy traffic between Oxford Street, Edgware
Road and Park Lane. The Marble Arch was thus left isolated.
Hyde Park contains the Serpentine, a lake 1500 yds. in length,
from the bridge over which one of the finest prospects in London
is seen, extending to the distant towers of Westminster. Since
the 1 7th century this park has been one of the most favoured
resorts of fashionable society, and at the height of the " season,"
from May to the end of July, its drives present a brilliant scene.
In the 1 7th and i8th centuries it was a favourite duelling-
ground, and in the present day it is not infrequently the scene
of political and other popular demonstrations (as is also Trafalgar
Square), while the neighbourhood of Marble Arch is the constant
resort of orators on social and religious topics. Kensington
Gardens, originally attached to Kensington Palace, were sub-
sequently much extended; they are magnificently timbered,
and contain plantations of rare shrubs and flowering trees.
Regent's Park, mainly in the borough of Marylebone, owes its
preservation to the intention of George III. to build a palace
here. The other most notable open spaces wholly or partly
within the county are Hampstead Heath in the north-west, a
wild, high-lying tract preserved to a great extent in its natural
state, and in the south-west Wimbledon Common, Putney Heath
and the royal demesne of Richmond Park, which from its higher
parts commands a wonderful view up the rich valley of the
Thames. The outlying parts of the county to east, south and
north are not lacking in open spaces, but there is an extensive
inner area where at most only small gardens and squares break
the continuity of buildings, and where in some cases old church-
yards serve as public grounds.
Architecture. — While stone is the material used in the construction
of the majority of great buildings of London, some modern examples
Ecclesias-
tical
architec-
ture.
(notably the Westminster Roman Catholic cathedral) are of red brick
with stone dressings; and brick is in commonest use for general
domestic building. The smoke-laden atmosphere has been found not
infrequently to exercise a deleterious effect upon the stonework of
important buildings; and through the same cause the appearance of
London as a whole is by some condemned as sombre. Bright colour,
in truth, is wanting, though attempts are made in a few important
modern erections to supply it, a notable instance being the Savoy
Hotel buildings (1904) in the Strand. Portland stone is frequently
employed in the larger buildings, as in St Paul's Cathedral, and under
the various influences of weather and atmosphere acquires strongly
contrasting tones of light grey and black. Owing to the by-laws of
the County Council, the method of raising commercial or residential
buildings to an extreme height is not practised in London; the
block known as Queen Anne's Mansions, Westminster, is an ex-
ception, though it cannot be called high in comparison with American
high buildings.
Architectural remains of earlier date than the Norman period are
very few, and of historical rather than topographical importance.
In architecture of the Norman and Gothic periods London
must be considered rich, though its richness is poverty
when its losses, particularly during the great fire of 1666,
are recalled. These losses were confined within the City,
but, to go no farther, included the Norman and Gothic
cathedral of St Paul, perhaps a nobler monument of its period than
any which has survived it, much as it had suffered from injudicious
restoration. Ancient architecture in London is principally ecclesi-
astical. Westminster Abbey is pre-eminent; in part, it may be,
owing to the reverence felt towards it in preference to the classical
St Paul's by those whose ideal of a cathedral church is essentially
Gothic, but mainly from the fact that it is the burial-place of many of
the English monarchs and their greatest subjects, as well as the
scene of their coronations (see WESTMINSTER). In the survey of
London (1598) by John Stow, 125 churches, including St Paul's and
Westminster Abbey, are named; of these 89 were destroyed by the
great fire. Thirteen large conventual churches were mentioned by
Fitzstephen in the time of Henry II., and of these there are some
remains.
The church of St Bartholomew the Great, Smithfield, is the finest
remnant of its period in London. It was founded in 1 123 by Rahere,
who, probably a Breton by birth, was a courtier in the reign of
William II. He is said to have been the king's minstrel, and to
have spent the earlier part of his life in frivolity. Subsequently he
entered holy orders, and in c. 1 120, being stricken with fever while on
a pilgrimage to Rome, vowed that he would found a hospital in
London. St Bartholomew, appearing to him in a vision, bade him
add a church to his foundation. He became an Augustinian canon,
and founded his hospital, which is now, as St Bartholomew's Hospital,
one of the principal medical institutions in the metropolis. He be-
came its first master. Later he erected the priory, for canons of his
order, of which the nave and transepts of the church remain. The
work is in the main very fine Norman, with triforium, ambulatory
and apsidal eastern end. An eastern lady chapel dates from c. 1410,
but the upper part is modern, for the chapel was long desecrated.
There are remains of the cloisters north of the church, — and praise-
worthy efforts have been made since 1903 towards their restoration.
The western limit of the former nave of the church is marked by a fine
Early English doorway, now forming an entrance to the churchyard.
Rahere's tomb remains in the church ; the canopy is Perpendicular
work, but the effigy is believed to be original. He died in 1 144.
The Temple Church (see INNSOF COURT), serving for the Innerand
Middle Temples, belonged to the Knights Templars. It is the finest
of the four ancient round churches in England, dating from 1185,
but an Early English choir opens from the round church. St
Saviour's in Southwark (q.v.), the cathedral church of the modern
bishopric of Southwark, was the church of the priory of St Mary
Overy, and is a large cruciform building mainly Early English in
style. There may be mentioned also an early pier in the church of
St Katherine Cree or Christ Church, Leadenhall Street, belonging to
the priory church of the Holy Trinity; old monuments in the vaults
beneath St James's Church, Clerkenwell, formerly attached to a
Benedictine nunnery; and the Perpendicular gateway and the crypt
of the church of the priory of St John, of Jerusalem (see FINSBURY).
Among other ancient churches within the City, that of All Hallows
Barking, near the Tower of London, is principally Perpendicular and
contains some fine brasses. It belonged to the convent at Barking,
Essex, and was the burial-place of many who were executed at the
scaffold on Tower Hill. St Andrew Undershaft, so named because a
Maypole used to be set up before the former church on May-day, is
late Perpendicular (c. 1530); and contains a monument to John
Stow the chronicler (d. 1605). The church of Austin Friars, origin-
ally belonging to a friary founded' in 1253, became a Dutch church
under a grant of Edward VI., and still remains so; its style is
principally Decorated, but through various vicissitudes little of the
original work is left. St Giles, Cripplegate, was founded c. 1090,
but the existing church is kte Perpendicular. It is the burial-place
of Fox the martyrologist and Milton the poet, and contains some
fine wood-carving by Grinling Gibbons. St Helen's, Bishopsgate,
belonged to a priory of nuns founded c. 1212, but the greater part of
the building is later. It has two naves parallel, originally for the use
942
LONDON
[TOPOGRAPHY
Later
churches.
of the nuns and the parishioners respectively. The church of St
Mary-le-Bow, in Cheapside, is built upon a Norman crypt, and that
of St Olave's, Hart Street, which was Pepys's church and contains a
modern memorial to him, is of the 1 5th century. Other ancient
churches outside the City are few; but there may be noted St
Margaret's, under the shadow of Westminster Abbey; and the
beautiful Ely Chapel in Holborn (q.v.), the only remnant of a palace
of the bishops of Ely, now used by the Roman Catholics. The
Chapel Royal, Savoy, near the Strand, was rebuilt by Henry VII.
on the site of Savoy Palace, which was erected by Peter, earl of
Savoy and Richmond, in 1245, and destroyed in the insurrection of
Wat Tyler in 1381. In 1505 Henry VII. endowed here a hospital of
St John the Baptist for the poor. The chapel was used as the parish
church of St Mary-le-Strand (1564-1717) and constituted a Chapel
Royal in 1773; but there are no remains of the rest of the
foundation.
The architect to whom, after the great fire of 1666, the opportunity
fell of leaving the marks of his influence upon London was Sir
Christopher Wren. Had all his schemes been followed out,
ft t'lat m"uence WOUW have extended beyond architecture
V?? alone. He, among others, prepared designs for laying
out the City anew. But no such model city was destined
to be built; the necessity for haste and the jealous guardianship of
rights to old foundations resulted in the old lines being generally
followed. It is characteristic of London that St Paul's Cathedral
(q.v.) should be closely hemmed in by houses, and its majestic west
front approached obliquely by a winding thoroughfare. The cathe-
dral is Wren's crowning work. It is the scene from time to time of
splendid ceremonies, and contains the tombs of many great men;
but in this respect it cannot compete with the peculiar associations of
Westminster Abbey. Of Wren's other churches it is to be noted that
the necessity of economy usually led him to pay special attention to
a single feature. He generally chose the steeple, and there are many
fine examples of his work in this department. The steeple of St
Mary-le-Bow, commonly called Bow Church, is one of the most note-
worthy. This church has various points of interest besides its Norman
crypt, from which it took the name of Bow, being the first church in
London built on arches. The ecclesiastical Court of Arches sat here
formerly. " Bow bells " are famous, and any person born within
hearing of them is said to be a " Cockney," a term now applied
particularly to the dialect of the lower classes in London. Wren
occasionally followed the Gothic model, as in St Antholin. The
classic style, however, was generally adopted in the period
succeeding his own. Some fine churches belong to this
period, such as St Martin's-in-the-Fields (1726), the
Corinthian portico of which rises on the upper part of Trafalgar
Square; but other examples are regrettable. While the architecture
of the City churches, with the exceptions mentioned, is not as a rule
remarkable, many are notable for the rich and beautiful wood-
carving they contain. A Gothic style has been most commonly
adopted in building modern churches; but of these the most notable,
the Roman Catholic Westminster Cathedral (see WESTMINSTER), is
Byzantine, and built principally of brick, with a lofty campanile.
The only other ecclesiastical building to be specially mentioned is
Lambeth Palace, opposite to the Houses of Parliament across the
Thames. It has been a seat of the archbishops of Canterbury since
1197, and though the present residential portion dates only from the
early igth century, the chapel, hall and other parts are of the I3th
century and later (see LAMBETH).
Among secular buildings, there is none more venerable than the
Tower of London (g.f.), the moated fortress which overlooks the
Thames at the eastern boundary of the City. It presents
fine examples of Norman architecture; its historical
associations are of the highest interest, and its armoury
and the regalia of England, which are kept here, attract great
numbers of visitors.
The Houses of Parliament, with Westminster Abbey and St
Margaret's Church, complete the finest group of buildings which
London possesses; a group essentially Gothic, for the
Houses of Parliament, completed in 1867 from the designs
of Barry, are in a late Perpendicular style. They cover a
great area, the east front giving immediately upon the
The principal external features are the huge Victoria
Tower at the south, and the clock tower, with its well-known chimes
and the hour-bell " Big Ben," on the north. Some of the apartments
are magnificently adorned within, and the building incorporates the
ancient Westminster Hall, belonging to the former royal palace on the
site (see WESTMINSTER). The government offices are principally in
Whitehall, the fine thoroughfare which connects Parliament Square,
in the angle between the Houses and the Abbey, with Trafalgar
Square. Somerset House (1776-1786), a massive range of buildings
by Sir William Chambers, surrounding a quadrangle, and having its
front upon the Strand and back upon the Victoria Embankment,
occupies the site of a palace founded by the protector Somerset,
c. 1548. It contains the Exchequer and Audit, Inland Revenue,
Probate, Registrar-General's and other offices, and one wing
houses King's College. Other offices are the New Record Office, the
repository of State papers and other records, and the Patent Office
in Chancery Lane. The Heralds' College or College of Arms, the
official authority in matters of armorial bearings and pedigrees,
Tower of
London.
Govern-
ment
buildings.
Thames.
occupies a building in Queen Victoria Street, City, erected subse-
quently to the- great fire (1683). The Royal Courts of Justice or
Law Courts stand adjacent to the Inns of Court, facing the Strand at
the point where a memorial marks the site of Old Temple Bar (1672),
at the entrance to the City, removed in 1878 and later re-erected at
Theobald's Park, near Cheshunt, Hertfordshire. The Law Courts
(1882) were erected from the designs of G. E. Street, in a Gothic
style.
The buildings connected with local government in London are with
one exception modern, and handsome town-halls have been erected
for some of the boroughs. The exception is the Guildhall (q.v.) of
the City Corporation, with its splendid hall, the scene of meetings
and entertainments of the corporation, its council chamber, library
and crypt (partly opened to the public in 1910). In 1906 the London
County Council obtained parliamentary sanction for the erection of
a county hall on the south bank of the Thames, immediately east
of Westminster Bridge, and in 1908 a design submitted by Mr Ralph
Knott was accepted in competition. The style prescribed was English
Renaissance. Several of the great livery companies or gilds of the
City possess fine halls, containing portraits and other collections of high
interest and value. Among the more notable of these halls are those
of the Mercers, Drapers, Fishmongers, Clothworkers, Armourers and
Stationers.
The former royal palaces of Westminster and of Whitehall, of
which the fine Jacobean banqueting hall remains, are described under
WESTMINSTER. The present London residence of the „ .
sovereign is Buckingham Palace, on the west side of St "<V'a
James's Park, with beautiful gardens behind it. Bucking-
ham House was built in 1705 for the duke of Buckinghamshire, and
purchased by George III. in 1762. The existing palace was finished
by John Nash in 1835, but did not meet with approval, and was
considerably altered before Queen Victoria occupied it in 1837. As
regards its exterior appearance it is one of the least satisfactory of
London's great buildings, though the throne room and other state
apartments are magnificent within. The picture gallery contains
valuable works of Dutch masters and others. The front of the
palace forms the background to the public memorial to Queen
Victoria, at the head of the Mall. Provision was made in the design,
by Sir Aston Webb, for the extension of the Mall to open upon
Trafalgar Square, through gateways in a semicircular range of
buildings to be occupied by government offices, and for a wide
circular space in front of the Palace, with a statue of the Queen by
Thomas Brock in its centre. St James's Palace, at the north side of
St James's Park, was acquired and rebuilt by Henry VIII., having
been formerly a hospital founded in the I2th century for leprous
maidens. It was the royal residence after the destruction of White-
hall by fire in the time of William III. until a fire in 1809 destroyed
the greater part. Only the gateway and certain apartments remain
of the Tudor building. Marlborough House, adjacent to the palace,
was built by the first duke of Marlborough in 1710 from the designs
of Wren, came into possession of the Crown in 1817, and has been
occupied since 1863 by the prince of Wales. In Kensington (q.v.), on
the west side of Kensington Gardens, is the palace acquired by
William III. as a country seat, and though no longer used by the
sovereign, is in part occupied by members of the royal family, and
possesses a deeper historical interest than the other royal palaces, as
the birth-place of Queen Victoria and her residence in youth.
There are few survivals of ancient domestic architecture in London,
but the gabled and timbered front of Staple Inn, Holborn (q.v.) is a
picturesque fragment. In Bishopsgate Street, City, stood Crosby Hall,
which belonged to Crosby Place, the mansion of Sir John Crosby
(d. 1475). Richard III. occupied the mansion as duke of Gloucester
and Lord Protector (cf. Shakespeare's Richard III., Act i. Sc. 3, &c.)
The hall was removed in 1908, in spite of strong efforts to preserve
it, which resulted in its re-erection on a site in Chelsea. The hall of
the Middle Temple is an admirable example of a refectory of later
date (1572).
A fine though circumscribed group of buildings is that in the heart
of the City which includes the Bank of England, the Royal Exchange
and the Mansion House. The Bank is a characteristic building,
quadrilateral, massive and low, but covering a large area, without
external windows, and almost wholly unadorned; though the north-
west corner is copied from the Temple of the Sibyl at Tivoli. The
building is mainly the work of Sir John Soane (c. 1788). The first
building for the Royal Exchange was erected and presented to the
City by Sir Thomas Gresham (1565-1570) whose crest, a grass-
hopper, appears in the wind-vane above the present building.
Gresham's Exchange was destroyed in the great fire of 1666; and
the subsequent building was similarly destroyed in 1838. The
present building has an imposing Corinthian portico, and encloses a
court surrounded by an ambulatory adorned with historical paintings
by Leighton, Seymour Lucas, Stanhope Forbes and others. The
Mansion House was erected c. 1740.
The only other public buildings, beyond those at Westminster,
which fall into a great group are the modern museums, the Imperial
Institute, London University and other institutions, and Albert Hall,
which lie between Kensington Gore and Brompton and Cromwell
Roads, and th,ese, together with the National Gallery (in Trafalgar
Square) and other art galleries, and the principal scientific, educa-
tional and recreative institutions, are considered in Section V.
COMMUNICATION'S]
LONDON
943
Monuments and Memorials. — The Monument (1677), Fish Street
Hill, City, erected from the designs of Wren in commemoration of the
great fire of 1666, is a Doric column surmounted by a gilt representa-
tion of a flaming urn. The Nelson Column, the central feature of
Trafalgar Square, is from the designs of William Railton (1843),
crowned with a statue of Nelson by Baily, and has at its base four
colossal lions in bronze, modelled by Sir Edwin Landseer. A statue
of the duke of Cambridge, by Captain Adrian Jones, was unveiled
in 1907 in front of the War Office, Whitehall. The duke of York's
Column, Carlton House Terrace (1833), an Ionic pillar, is surmounted
by a bronze statue by Sir Richard Westmacott. The Westminster
Column, outside the entrance to Dean's Yard, was erected to the
memory of the old pupils of Westminster School who died in the
Russian and Indian wars of 1854-1859. The Guards Memorial,
Waterloo Place, commemorates the foot guards who died in the
Crimea. The Albert Memorial, Kensington Gardens, was erected
(1872) by " Queen Victoria and her People to the memory of Albert,
Prince Consort," from the designs of Sir Gilbert Scott, with a statue
of the Prince (1876) by John Henry Foley beneath a hugeornateGothic
canopy. At the eastern end of the Strand a memorial with statue by
Hamo Thorneycroft of William Ewart Gladstone was unveiled in
1905. In Parliament Square and elsewhere are numerous statues,
some of high merit, but it cannot be said that statuary occupies an
important place in the adornment of streets and open places in
London. Cleopatra's Needle, an ancient Egyptian monument, was
presented to the government by Mehemet AH in 1819, brought from
Alexandria in 1878, and erected on the Victoria embankment on a
pedestal of grey granite.
Nomenclature. — Having regard to the destruction of visible
evidences of antiquity in London, both through accidental
agencies such as the great fire, and through inevitable moderniz-
ing influences, it is well that historical associations in nomen-
clature are preserved in a great measure unimpaired. The City
naturally offers the richest field for study in this direction.
The derivations of names may here be grouped into two classes,
those having a commercial connexion, and those associated
with ancient buildings, particularly the City wall and ecclesiastical
foundations. Among examples of the first group, Cheapside
is prominent. This modern thoroughfare of shops was in early
times the Chepe (O. Eng. ceap, bargain), an open place occupied
by. a market, having, until the I4th century, a space set apart
for popular entertainments. There was a Queen Eleanor cross
here, and conduits supplied the city with water. Modern
Cheapside merges eastward into the street called the Poultry,
from the poulterers' stalls " but lately departed from thence,"
according to Stow, at the close of the i6th century. Cornhill,
again, recalls the cornmarket " time out of mind there holden "
(Stow), and Gracechurch Street was corrupted from the name of
the church of St Benet Grasschurch (destroyed by the great fire,
rebuilt, and removed in 1868), which was said to be derived from
a herb-market held under its walls. The Jews had their quarter
near the commercial centre, their presence being indicated by
the street named Old Jewry, though it is probable that they
did not reoccupy this locality after their expulsion in 1290.
Lombard Street similarly points to the residence of Lombard
merchants, the name existing when Edward II. confirmed a
grant to Florentine merchants in 1318, while the Lombards
maintained their position until Tudor times. Paternoster Row,
still occupied by booksellers, takes name from the sellers of
prayer-books and writers of texts who collected under the
shadow of St Paul's Cathedral. As regards names derived from
ancient buildings, instances are the streets called London Wall
and Barbican, and those named after the numerous gates. Of
those associated with ecclesiastical foundations several occur in
the course of this article (Section II., Ecclesiastical Architecture,
&c.). Such are Austin Friars, Crutched Friars, Blackfriars and
Whitefriars. To this last district a curious alternative name,
Alsatia, was given, probably in the i?th century, with reference
to its notoriety as a hiding-place of debtors. A derivation is
suggested from the disputed territory of Alsace, pointing the
contrast between this lawless district and the adjacent Temple,
the home of the law itself. The name Bridewell came from a
well near the Fleet (New Bridge Street), dedicated to St Bride,
and was attached to a house built by Henry VIII. (1522), but
is most familiar in its application to the house of correction
instituted by Edward VI., which remained a prison till 1863.
The Minories, a street leading south from Aldgate, takes name
from an abbey of nuns of St Clare (Sorores Minores) founded
in 1293. Apart from the City an interesting ecclesiastical
survival is the name Broad Sanctuary, Westminster, recalling
the place of sanctuary which long survived the monastery under
the protection of which it originally existed. Covent Garden,
again, took its name from a convent garden belonging to
Westminster. Among the survivals of names of non-ecclesiastical
buildings Castle Baynard may be noted; it stood in the City
on the banks of the Thames, and was held by Ralph Baynard, a
Norman, in the time of William the Conqueror; a later building
being erected in 1428 by Humphrey duke of Gloucester. Here
Richard III. was acclaimed king, and the mansion was used
by Henry VII. and Henry VIII. Its name is kept in a wharf
and a ward of the City.
The survival of names of obliterated physical features or
characteristics is illustrated in Section I.; but additional
instances are found in the Strand, which originally ran close to
the sloping bank of the Thames, and in Smithfield, now the
central meat market, but for long the "smooth field" where a
cattle and hay market was held, and the scene of tournaments
and games, and also of executions. Here in 1381 Wat Tyler
the rebel was killed by Sir William Walworth during the parley
with Richard II. In the West End of London the majority of
important street-names are naturally of a later derivation than
those in the ancient City, though Charing Cross (q.v.) is an
instance of an exception. The derivation commonly accepted
for Piccadilly is from pickadil, a stiff collar or hem in fashion in
the early part of the I7th century (Span, picca, a spear-head).
In Pall Mall and the neighbouring Mall in St James' Park is
found the title of a game resembling croquet (Fr. paille maille)
in favour at or before the time of Charles I., though the Mall
was laid out for the game by Charles II. Other names pointing
to the existence of pastimes now extinct are found elsewhere
in London, as in Balls Pond Road, Islington, where in the i7th
century was a proprietary pond for the sport of duck-hunting.
An entertainment of another form is recalled in the name of
Spring Gardens, St James' Park, where at the time of James I.
there was a fountain or spring so arranged as to besprinkle those
who trod unwarily on the valve which opened it. Many of the
names of the rich residential streets and squares in the west
have associations with the various owners of the properties;
but Mayfair is so called from a fair held on this ground in May
as early as the reign of Charles II. Finally there are several
survivals, in street-names, of former private mansions and other
buildings. Thus the district of the Adelphi, south of Charing
Cross, takes name from the block of dwellings and offices erected
in 1768 by the brothers (Gr. adelphi) Robert and William Adam,
Scottish architects. In Piccadilly Clarendon House, erected in
1664 by Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon, became Albemarle
House when acquired by the duke of Albemarle in 1675.
Northumberland House, from which is named Northumberland
Avenue, opening upon Trafalgar Square, was built c. 1605 by
Henry Howard, earl of Northampton, and was acquired by
marriage by Algernon Percy, earl of Northumberland, in 1642.
It took name from this family, and stood until 1874. Arundel
House, originally a seat of the bishops of Bath, was the residence
of Thomas Howard, earl of Arundel, whose famous collection
of sculpture, the Arundel Marbles, was housed here until pre-
sented to Oxford University in 1667. The site of the house is
marked by Arundel Street, Strand.
III. COMMUNICATIONS
Railways. — The trunk railways leaving London, with their
termini, are as follows: (i) Northern. The Great Northern, Midland
and London & North-Western systems have adjacent termini,
namely King's Cross, St Pancras and Euston, in Euston Road, St
Pancras. The terminus of the Great Central railway is Marylebone,
in the road of that name. (2) Western. The terminus of the Great
Western railway is Paddington (Praed Street); and that of the
London & South-Western, Waterloo, south of the Thames in Lambeth.
(3) Southern. The London, Brighton & South Coast railway has
its western terminus at Victoria, and its central terminus at London
Bridge, on the south side of the Thames. The South-Eastern &
Chatham railway has four terminal stations, all on or close to the
944
LONDON
[COMMUNICATIONS
north bank of the river — Victoria, Charing Cross,1 Holborn Viaduct
and Cannon Street (City). St Paul's Station on the Holborn branch
is also terminal in part. (4) Eastern. The principal terminus of the
Great Eastern Railway is in Liverpool Street (City), but the company
also uses Fenchurch Street (City), the terminus of the London,
Tilbury & Southend railway, and St Pancras. These lines,
especially the southern lines, the Great Eastern, Great Northern and
South-Western carry a very heavy suburban traffic. Systems of
joint lines and running powers are maintained to afford communica-
tion between the main lines. Thus the West London Extension line
carries local traffic between the North Western and Great Western
and the Brighton and South-Western systems, while the Metropolitan
Extension through the City connects the Midland and Great Northern
with the South-Eastern & Chatham lines.
The railways whose systems are mainly or wholly confined within
the metropolitan area, are as follows. The North London railway
has a terminal station at Broad Street, City, and serves the parts of
London implied by its name. The company possesses running powers
over the lines of various other companies: thus its trains run as far
north as Potter's Bar on the Great Northern line, while it serves
Richmond on the west and Poplar on the east. The East London
line connects Shoreditch with New Cross (Deptford) by way of the
Thames Tunnel, a subway under the river originally built for foot-
passengers. The London & India Docks line connects the city
with the docks on the north bank of the river as far as North
Woolwich. The Metropolitan railway has a line from Baker Street
through north-west London to Harrow, continuing to Uxbridge,
while the original main line runs on to Rickmansworth, Aylesbury
and Verney Junction, but has been worked by the Metropolitan and
Great Central companies jointly since 1006. Another line serves the
western outskirts (Hammersmith, Richmond, &c.) from the city.
Metropolitan trains also connect at New Cross with the south-
eastern railway system. This company combines with the Metro-
politan District to form the Inner Circle line, which has stations close
to all the great railway termini north of the Thames. The Metro-
politan District (commonly called the District) system serves
Wimbledon, Richmond, Ealing and Harrow on the west, and passes
eastward by Earl's Court, South Kensington, Victoria and Mansion
House (City) to Whitechapel and Bow. The Metropolitan and the
District lines within London are for the most part underground (this
feature supplying the title of " the Underground " familiarly applied
to both systems); the tunnels being constructed of brick. The
earliest part of the system was opened in '1 863. Although these
railways, as far as concerns the districts they serve, form the fastest
method of communication from point to point, their discomfort,
arising mainly from the impossibility of proper ventilation, and
various other disadvantages attendant upon the use of steam traction,
led to a determination to adapt the lines to electrical working.
Experiments on a short section of the line were made in 1900, and
later schemes were set on foot to electrify the District system and
bring under one general control this railway, other lines in deep
level " tubes " between Baker Street and Waterloo, between Charing
Cross, Euston and Hampstead, and between Hammersmith,
Brompton, Piccadilly, King's Cross and Finsbury Park, and the
London United Tramways Company. The Underground Electric
Railways Company, which acquired a controlling influence over
these concerns, undertook the construction of a great power station
at Chelsea; while the Metropolitan Company, which had fallen into
line with the District (not without dispute over the system of electri-
fication to be adopted) erected a station at Neasden on the Aylesbury
branch. Electric traction was gradually introduced on the Metro-
politan and the District lines in 1906. The former company com-
bined with the Great Western Company as regarde the electrification
of, and provision of stock for, the lines which they had previously
worked jointly, from Edgware Road by Bishop's Road to Hammer-
smith, &c. The Baker Street & Waterloo railway (known as the
" Bakerloo ") was opened in 1906 and subsequently extended in one
direction to Paddington and in the other to the Elephant and Castle.
The Great Northern, Piccadilly & Brompton line, from Finsbury
Park to Hammersmith, was opened early in 1907, and the Charing
Cross, Euston & Hampstead line later in the same year. Deep-
level electric railways (" tubes "), communicating with the surface
by lifts, were already familiar in London. The first opened was the
City & South London (1890), subsequently extended to run between
Euston, the Angel, Islington, the Bank (City) and Clapham. Others
are the Waterloo & City (1898) running from the terminus of the
South-Western railway without intermediate stations to the Bank ;
the Central London (1900), from the Bank to Shepherd's Bush,
Hammersmith; and the Great Northern & City (1904) from
Finsbury Park (which is an important suburban junction on the
Great Northern railway) to Moorgate Street.
Tramways. — The surface tramway system of London cannot be
complete, as, within an area roughly represented by the boroughs of
Chelsea, Kensington and Fulham, the city of Westminster and a
considerable district north thereof, and the city of London, the
1 Charing Cross station was the scene of a remarkable catastrophe
on the 5th of December 1905, when a large part of the roof collapsed,
and the falling ddbris did very serious damage to the Avenue theatre,
which stands close to the station at a lower level.
existing streets could not accommodate tram lines along with other
traffic over any great distance consecutively, and in point of fact
there are few, beyond the embankment line from Blackfriars Bridge
to Westminster Bridge, which connects with the southern system.
Another line, running south from Islington, uses the shallow-level
subway under Kingsway and connects with the embankment line.
The northern, western and eastern outskirts and London south
of the Thames are extensively served by trams. On the formation
of the London County Council there were thirteen tramway com-
panies in existence. Powers under the Tramways Act of 1870
were given to the council, enabling it to acquire possession of these
undertakings, and within the county of Lorfdon they have been for
the most part so acquired, and are worked by the council. Outside
the county both companies and local authorities own and work
tramways. Both electric and horse traction are used; the latter,
however, has been in great part displaced by the former. The total
mileage for greater London is about 240.
Omnibuses. — The omnibus system is very extensive, embracing
all the principal streets throughout the county and extending over
a large part of Greater London. The two principal omnibus com-
panies are the London General Omnibus and the London Road Car.
The first omnibus ran between the Bank and Paddington in 1829.
In 1905 and following years motor omnibuses (worked mostly by
internal combustion engines) began to a large extent to supplant
horse traction. The principal existing companies adopted them, and
new companies were formed to work them exclusively. With their
advantages of greater speed and carry-ing capacity over the horsed
vehicles, their introduction was a most important development,
though their working at first imposed a severe financial strain on
many companies.
Cabs. — The horse-drawn cabs which ply for hire in the streets, or
wait at authorized " cab-stands," are of two kinds, the " hansom,"
a two- wheeled vehicle so named after its inventor (1834) and the
" four-wheeler." " Hackney coaches " for hire are first mentioned
in 1625, when they were kept at inns, and numbered 20. Until 1832
their numberswere restricted, in 1662 to 400, in 1694 to 700, in 1771
to 1000. In some cases a driver owns his cab, but the majority of
vehicles are let to drivers by owners, and the adjustment of terms
between them has led to disputes from time to time. In 1894 a
dispute necessitated the formulation of the " Asquith award " by
the Rt. Hon. H. H. Asquith as home secretary, and subsequent
modifications of this were only arrived at, as in 1904, after a strike
of the drivers affected. A long-standing cause of complaint on the
part of the public has been the common refusal of cab-drivers to
accept their legal fares, but, on the other hand, several attempts to
introduce cabs with an automatic taximeter failed, until the intro-
duction of motor cabs, of which a few had already been plying for
some time when in 1907 a large number, provided with taximeters,
were put into service. Subsequently, as the number of " taxicabs "
(see MOTOR VEHICLES) increased, that of horse-cabs decreased.
Traffic Problem. — One of the most serious administrative problems
met with in London is that of locomotion, especially as regards the
regulation of traffic in the principal thoroughfares and at the busiest
crossings. The police have powers of control over vehicles and exer-
cise them admirably; their work in this respect is a constant source •
of wonder to foreign visitors. But this control does not meet the
problem of actually lessening the number of vehicles in the main
arteries of traffic. At such crossings as that of the Strand and
Wellington Street, Ludgate Circus and south of the Thames, the
Elephant and Castle, as also in the narrow streets of the City, con-
gestion is often exceedingly severe, and is aggravated when any main
street is under repair, and diversion of traffic through narrow side
streets becomes necessary. Many street improvements were carried
out, it is true, in the last half of the igth century, the dates of the
principal being as follows: 1854, Cannon Street; 1864, Southwark
Street; 1870, Holborn Viaduct; 1871, Hamilton Place, Queen
Victoria Street; 1876, Northumberland Avenue; 1882, Tooley
Street; 1883, Hyde Park Corner; 1884, Eastcheap; 1886, Shaftes-
bury Avenue; 1887, Charing Cross Road; 1890-1892, Rosebery
Avenue. At the beginning of the 2Oth century several important
local widenings of streets were put in hand, as for example between
Sloane Street and Hyde Park Corner, in the Strand and at the Marble
Arch (1908). At the same period a great work was undertaken to
meet the want of a proper central communication between north and
south, namely, the construction of a broad thoroughfare, called
Kingsway in honour of King Edward VII., from High Holborn
opposite Southampton Row southward to the Strand, connexion
with which is established at two points through a crescent named
Aldwych. The idea of such a thoroughfare is traceable back to the
time of William IV. The magnitude of the traffic problem as a whole
may be best appreciated by examples of the vast schemes of im-
provement which from time to time have been put forward by
responsible individuals. Thus Sir John Wolfe Barry, as chairman
of the Council of the Society of Arts in 1899, proposed to alleviate
congestion of traffic by bridges over and tunnels under the streets at
six points, namely — Hyde Park Corner, Piccadilly Circus, Ludgate
Circus, Oxford Street and Tottenham Court Road, Strand and
Wellington Street, and Southwark Bridge and Upper Thames Street.
Another scheme seriously suggested in 1904, to meet existing dis-
abilities of communication between north and south by linking the
POPULATION]
LONDON
945
commis-
sion 1903.
northern and southern tramway services, involved the removal of the
Charing Cross terminus of the South Eastern and Chatham railway
to the south side of the river, and the construction of a new bridge
in place of the railway bridge. The mere control of existing traffic,
local street improvements and provision of new means of com-
munication between casual points, were felt to miss the root of the
problem, and in 1903 a Royal Commission was appointed to consider
the whole question of locomotion and transport in London, expert
evidence being taken from engineers, representatives of the various
railway and other companies, of the County Council, borough
councils and police, and others The commission reported in 1905. l
With regard to street improvements the most important
recommendation was that of the construction of two
main avenues 140 ft. wide, one running west and east,
from Bayswater Road to Whitechapel, and passing through
the city in the neighbourhood of London Wall, and another from
Holloway to the Elephant and Castle, to cross the Thames by a new
bridge above Blackfriars. Four lines of surface tramways and four
railway lines in shallow tunnels were proposed along these avenues.
Many widenings and other improvements of existing thoroughfares,
and extensions of tramways were proposed, and detailed recommenda-
tions were made as regards urban and suburban railways, and the
rehousing of the working population on the outskirts of London.
Finally, the commission made the important recommendation that a
traffic board should be established for London, to exercise a general
supervision of traffic, and to act as a tribunal to which all schemes
of railway and tramway construction should be referred.
Thames Steamers. — A local passenger steamboat service on the
Thames suffers from the disadvantage that the river does not provide
the shortest route between points at any great distance apart, and
that the main thoroughfares between east and west do not touch its
banks, so that passengers along those thoroughfares are not tempted
to use it as a channel of communication. High pier dues, moreover,
contributed to the decline of the traffic, and attempts to overcome
the disinclination of passengers to use the river (at any rate in winter)
show a record of failure. The London, Westminster and Vauxhall
Steamboat Company established in 1840 a service of seven steam-
boats between London Bridge and Vauxhall. This company was
bought up by the Citizen and Iron Steamboat Companies in 1865.
The City Steamboat Company, established in 1848, began with eight
boats, and by 1865 had increased their fleet to seventeen, running
from London Bridge to Chelsea. This company was taken over by
the London Steamboat Company in 1875. The sinking of the
" Princess Alice " in 1878 was a serious blow to the London Steam-
boat Company, which collapsed, and was succeeded by the River
Thames Steamboat Navigation Company, which went into liquida-
tion in 1887. The fleet was bought by a syndicate and sold to the
Victoria Steamboat Association. The Thames Steamboat Company
then took up the service, but early in 1902 announced that it would be
discontinued, although in 1904 it was temporarily resumed. Mean-
while, however, in 1902 the London County Council had promoted a
bill in Parliament to enable them to run a service of boats on the
Thames. The bill was thrown out on this occasion, but was revived
and passed in 1904, and on the I7th of June 1905 the service was
put into operation. The boats, however, were worked at a loss, and
the service was discontinued in 1909.
Foreign Communications.— A large pleasure traffic is maintained
by the steamers of the New Palace Company and others in summer
between London Bridge and Southend, Clacton and Harwich,
Ramsgate, Margate and other resorts of the Kent coast, and Calais
and Boulogne. Passenger steamers sail from the port of London to
the principal ports of the British Isles and northern Europe, and to all
parts of the world, but the most favoured passenger services to and
from Europe and North America pass through other ports, to which
the railways provide special services of trains from London. The
principal travelling agency in London is that of Messrs Cook, whose
head office is at Ludgate Circus. A number of sub-offices of large
steamship lines are congregated in Cockspur Street, Trafalgar
Square, and several of the principal railway companies have local
offices throughout the centre of the metropolis for the issue of
tickets and the collection and forwarding of luggage and parcels.
Post Office. — The General Post Office lies in the centre of the City
on either side of the street called St Martin's le Grand. The oldest
portion of the buildings, Ionic in style, was designed by Sir Robert
Smirke and erected in 1829. Here are the central offices of the letter,
newspaper and telegraph departments, with the office of the Post-
master General ; but the headquarters of the parcels department are
at Mount Pleasant, Clerkenwell; those of the Post Office Savings
Bank at Blythe Road, West Kensington, and those of the Money
Order department in Queen Victoria Street. The postal area
is divided into eight districts, commonly designated by initials
(which it is customary to employ in writing addresses) — East Central
(B.C., the City, north to Pentonville and City Roads, west to Gray's
Inn Road and the Law Courts); West Central (W.C., from Euston
Road to the Thames, and west to Tottenham Court Road) ; West
(W., from Piccadilly and Hyde Park north to Marylebone and Edg-
1 The report appeared in eight volumes, the first of which, con-
taining the general conclusions to whick allusion is here made, bore
the number, as a blue-book, Cd. 2597.
ware Roads; the greater part of Paddington and Kensington, north
part of Fulham and Hammersmith) ; South-west (S.W., City of
Westminster south of Piccadilly, Chelsea, South Kensington, the
greater part of Fulham, and London south of the Thames and west
of Vauxhall Bridge) ; South-east (S.E., remainder of London south
of the Thames); East (E., east of the City and Kingsland Road);
North (N., west of Kingsland Road; Islington); North-west (N.W.,
greater part of St Pancras and St Marylebone, and Hampstead).
The postal area excludes part of Woolwich within the county;
but includes considerable areas outside the county in other directions,
as West Ham, Leyton, &c., on the east; Woodford, Chingford, &c.,
on the north-east; Wood Green, Southgate and Finchley on the
north ; Hendon and Willesden on the north-west ; Acton and Ealing,
Barnes and Wimbledon on the west ; and Penge and Beckenham on
the south, wholly or in part. There are ten district head offices
and about a thousand local offices in the metropolitan district.
Telephones. — The National Telephone Company, working under
licence expiring on the 3ist of December 191 1, had until 1901 practic-
ally a monopoly of telephonic communication within London, though
the Post Office owned all the trunk lines connecting the various
telephone areas of the company. The company's management did
not give satisfaction, and the use of the telephone was consequently
restricted in the metropolis, when in 1898 a Select Committee on
Telephones reported that " general immediate and effective " com-
petition by either the government or local authority was necessary
to ensure efficient working. The Post Office thereupon instituted a
separate system of exchanges and lines, intercommunication between
the two systems being arranged. Charges were reduced and efficiency
benefited by this movement. The area covered by the local as
distinct from the trunk service is about 630 sq. m. extending to
Romford, Enfield, Harrow, &c., north of the Thames, and to Dartford
Reigate, Epsom, &c., south of it. Public call offices are provided
in numerous shops, railway stations and other public places, and
at many post offices. The District Messengers Company affords
facilities through local offices for the use of special messengers.
IV. POPULATION, PUBLIC HEALTH, &c.
The population of Greater London by the census of 1901 was
6,581,402.
The following table gives comparisons between the figures
of certain census returns for Greater London and its chief
component parts, namely, the City, the county and the outer
ring (i.e. Greater London outside the county). All the figures
before those of 1901 are adjusted to these areas.
Year.
City.
County.
Outer Ring.
Greater London.
1801
1841
1881
1901
128,129
123-563
50,569
26,923
831,181
1,825,714
3,779,728
4,509,618
155,334
286,067
936,364
2,044,864
1,114,644
2,235,344
4,766,661
6,581,402
The reason for the decrease in the resident City population is
to be found in the rapid extension of business premises, while
the widening ramifications of the outer residential areas are
illustrated by the increase in the later years of the population
of the Outer Ring. The growth and population of London
previous to the ipth century is considered under History, ad Jin.
The foreign-born population of London was 60,252 in 1881, and
I35,377 >n 1901. During 1901, 27,070 aliens (excluding sailors)
arrived at the port, and in 1902, 33,060. Of these last
Russians and Poles numbered 21,013; Germans, 3386;
Austrians and Hungarians, 2197; Dutch, 1902; Norwegians
Swedes and Danes, 1341; and Rumanians, 1016. Other nation-
alities numbered below one thousand each. The foreign-born popu-
jation shows a large increase in percentage to the whole, being I -57
in 1881 and 2-98 in 1901. Residents of Irish birth have decreased
since 1851; those of Scottish birth have increased steadily, and
roughly as the population. German residents are found mainly in
the western and west central districts; French mainly in the City
of Westminster (especially the district of Soho), St Pancras and St
Marylebone; Italians in Holborn (Saffron Hill), Soho and Finsbury ;
and Russians and Poles in Stepney and Bethnal Green.
Vital Statistics. — The following table shows the average birth-
rate and death-rate per thousand at stated periods.
Years.
Births.
Deaths.
i86i-i88o2
1891-1900"
1901-1904"
1905
35-4
3°-3
28-5
27-1
23-4
19-2
16-5
15-6
1 Average.
A comparison of the death-rate of London and those of other
great towns in England and abroad is given here : —
946
LONDON
[PUBLIC HEALTH
Average
1895-1904.
1905.
Leicester .
16-7
13-3
Brussels .
16-7
H-5
Bristol . .
16-9
I4-6
Bradford .
177
IS'2
Leeds
19-1
15-2
LONDON .
18-2
I5-6
Birmingham .
2O-2
16-2
Nottingham .
18-4
16-5
Newcastle
20-9
16-8
Sheffield . .
19-6
17-0
Berlin . .
17-8
17-2
Paris . .
19-2
17-4
Manchester .
22-6
18-0
New York
20-2
18-3
Vienna
2O-O
19-0
Liverpool
23-2
19-6
Rome
I9-I
2O-6
St Petersburg
25-9
25-3
In 1905 the lowest death-rates among the metropolitan boroughs
were returned by Hampstead (9-3), Lewisham (11-7), Wandsworth
(12-6), Woolwich (12-8), Stoke Newington (12-9), and the highest by
Shoreditch (19-7), Finsbury (19-0), Bermondsey (18-7), Bethnal
Green (18-6) and Southwark (18-5). A return of the percentage of
inhabitants dwelling in over-crowded tenements shows 2-7 for Lewis-
ham, 4-5 for Wandsworth, 5-5 for Stoke Newington, and 6-4 for
Hampstead, against 35-2 for Finsbury and 29-9 for Shoreditch.
Sanitation. — As regards sanitation London is under special
regulations. When the statutes relating to public health were con-
solidated and amended in 1875 London was excluded; and the law
applicable to it was specially consolidated and amended in 1891.
The London County Council is a central sanitary authority; the
City and metropolitan boroughs are sanitary districts, and the Cor-
poration and borough councils are local sanitary authorities. The
County Council deals directly with matters where uniformity of
administration is essential, e.g. main drainage, housing of working
classes, infant life protection, common lodging-houses and shelters,
and contagious diseases of animals. With a further view to uni-
formity it has certain powers of supervision and control over local
authorities, and can make by-laws respecting construction of local
sewers, sanitary conveniences, offensive trades, slaughter-houses
and dairies, and prevention of nuisances outside the jurisdiction of
local authorities. A medical officer of health for the whole county
is appointed by the Council, which also pays half the salaries of local
medical officers and sanitary inspectors. The Council may also act in
cases of default by the local authorities, or may make representations
to the Local Government Board respecting such default, whereupon
the Board may direct the Council to withhold payment due to the
local authority under the Equalization of Rates Act 1894.
The first act providing for a commission of sewers in London dates
from 1531. Various works of a more or less imperfect character
were carried out, such as the bridging over in 1637 of the
•unngL-. r;ver Fleet, which as early as 1307 had become inaccessible
to shipping through the accumulation of filth. Scavengers were
employed in early times, and sewage was received into wells and
pumped into the kennels of the streets. A system of main drainage
was inaugurated by the Commissioners of Sewers in 1849, but their
work proceeded very slowly. It was carried on more effectively by
the Metropolitan Board of Works (1856-1888) which expended over
six-and-a-half millions sterling on the work. The London County
Council maintained, completed and improved the system. The
length of sewers in the main system is about 288 m., and their
•construction has cost about eight millions. The system covers the
county of London, West Ham, Penge, Tottenham, Wood Green, and
parts of Beckenham, Hornsey, Croydon, Willesden, East Ham and
Acton. There are actually two distinct systems, north and south of
the Thames, having separate outfall works on the north and south
banks of the river, at Barking and Crossness. The clear effluent
flows into the Thames, and the sludge is taken 50 m. out to sea.
The annual cost of maintenance of the system exceeds £250,000.
The sanitary authorities are concerned only with the supervision of
house drainage, and the construction and maintenance of local
sewers discharging into the main system. The Thames and the Lea
Conservancies have powers to guard against the pollution of the
rivers.
Hospitals. — The Metropolitan Asylums Board, though established
in 1867 purely as a poor-law authority for the relief of the sick, insane
and infirm paupers, has become a central hospital
authority for infectious diseases, with power to receive into
its hospitals persons, who are not paupers, suffering from
fever, smallpox or diphtheria. Both the Board and the
County Council have certain powers and duties of sanitary
authority for the purpose of epidemic regulations. The local sanitary
authorities carry out the provisions of the Infectious Diseases
(Notification and Prevention) Acts, which for London are embodied
in the Public Health (Lbndon) Act 1891. The Board has asylums
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A sy turns
Board.
for the insane at Tooting Bee (Wandsworth), Baling (for children);
King's Langley, Hertfordshire; Caterham, Surrey; and Darenth,
Kent. There are twelve fever hospitals, including northern and
southern convalescent hospitals. For smallpox the Board main-
tains hospital ships moored in the Thames at Dartford, and a land
establishment at the same place. There are land and river
ambulance services.
There are three regular funds in London for the support of
hospitals. (l) King Edward's Hospital Fund (1897) founded by
King Edward VII. as Prince of Wales in commemoration of the
Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria. The League of Mercy, under
royal charter, operates in conjunction with the Fund in the collection
of small subscriptions. The Order of Mercy was instituted by the
King as a reward for distinguished personal service. (2) The
Metropolitan Hospital Sunday Fund, founded in 1873, draws the
greater part of its revenue from collections in churches on stated
occasions. (3) The Metropolitan Hospital Saturday Fund was
founded in 1873, and is made up chiefly of small sums collected in
places of business, &c. The following is a list of the principal London
hospitals, with dates of foundation : —
1. General Hospitals with Medical Schools (all of which, with the
exception of that of the Seamen's Hospital, are schools of London
University) : —
Charing Cross; Agar Street, Strand (1820).
Guy's; St Thomas Street, Southwark (1724).
King's College; Lincoln's Inn Fields (1839).
London; Whitechapel (1740).
Middlesex; Mortimer Street, Marylebone (1745).
North London, or University College; Gower Street (1833).
Royal Free; Gray's Inn Road (1828; on present site, 1842).
London School of Medicine for Women.
St Bartholomew's; Smithfield (1123; refounded 1547).
St George's; Hyde Park Corner (1733).
St Mary's; Paddington (1845).
St Thomas'; Lambeth (1213; on present site, 1871).
Seamen's Hospital Society; Greenwich (1821).
Westminster, facing the Abbey. (1720; on present site, 1834).
2. General Hospitals without Schools: —
Great Northern Central; Islington (1856; on present site,
1887).
Metropolitan; Hackney (1836).
Poplar Hospital for Accidents (1854).
West London; Hammersmith Road (1856).
3. Hospitals for Special Purposes: —
Brompton Consumption Hospital (1841).
Cancer Hospital; Brompton (1851).
City of London Hospital for diseases of the chest; Bethnal
Green (1848).
East London Hospital for Children and Dispensary for
Women; Shad well (1868).
Hospital for Sick Children; Bloomsbury (1852).
London Fever Hospital; Islington (1802).
National Hospital for Paralysed and Epileptics; Bloomsbury
(1859)-.
Royal Hospital for Incurables; Putney (1854).
Royal London Ophthalmic Hospital; City Road (1804; on
present site, 1899).
(See also separate articles on boroughs.)
Water Supply. — In the I2th century London was supplied with
water from local streams and wells, of which Holy Well, Clerk's Well
(Clerkenwell) and St Clement's Well, near St Clement's Inn, were
examples. In 1236 the magistrates purchased the liberty to convey
the waters of the Tyburn from Paddington to the City by leaden
pipes, and a great conduit was erected in West Cheap in 1285.
Other conduits were subsequently built (cf. Conduit Street off Bond
Street, Lamb's Conduit Street, Bloomsbury); and water was also
supplied by the company of water-bearers in leathern panniers borne
by horses. In 1582 Peter Moris, a Dutchman, erected a " forcier "
on an arch of London Bridge, which he rented for lOs. per annum for
500 years. His works succeeded and increased, and continued in his
family till 1701, when a company took over the lease. Other
forciers had been set up, and in 1609, on an act of 1605, Sir Hugh
Myddelton undertook the task of supplying reservoirs at Clerkenwell
through the New river from springs near Ware, Hertfordshire; and
these were opened in 1613. In 1630 a scheme to bring water from
Hoddesdon on the Lea was promoted by aid of a lottery licensed by
Charles I. The Chelsea Water Company opened its supply from the
Thames in 1721; the Lambeth waterworks were erected in 1783;
the Vauxhall Company was established in 1805, the West Middlesex,
near Hammersmith, and the East London on the river Lea in 1806,
the Kent on the Ravensbourne (Deptford) in 1810, the Grand
Junction in 1811, and the Southwark (which amalgamated with the
Vauxhall) in 1822.
For many years proposals to amalgamate the working of the
companies and displace them by a central public authority were
put forward from time to time. The difficulty of administration lay
in the fact that of the area of 620 sq. m. constituting what is known
as " Water London " (see map in London Statistics, vol. xix., issued
by the L.C.C., 1909) the London County Council has authority over
little more than one-third, and therefore when the Council proposed
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Water
Board.
to acquire the eight undertakings concerned its scheme was opposed
not only by the companies but by the county councils and local
authorities outside the County of London. The Council had a
scheme of bringing water to London from Wales, in view of increasing
demands on a stationary supply. This involved impounding the
headwaters of the Wye, the Towey and the Usk, and the total cost
was estimated to exceed fifteen millions sterling. The capacity of
existing sources, however, was deemed sufficient by a Royal Com-
mission under Lord Balfour of Burleigh in 1893, and this opinion was
endorsed by a further Commission under Lord Llandaff. The
construction of large storage reservoirs was recommended, and this
work was put in hand jointly by the New River, West Middlesex and
Grand Junction companies at Staines on the Thames. As regards
administration, Lord Llandaff 'sCommission recommended thecreation
of a Water Trust, and in 1902 the Metropolis Water Act
constituted the Metropolitan Water Board to purchase
and carry on the undertakings of the eight companies,
and of certain local authorities. It consists of 66 members
appointed by the London County Council (14), the City of
London and the City of Westminster (2 each), the other Metropolitan
boroughs (l each), the county councils of Middlesex, Hertfordshire,
Essex, Kent and Surrey (l each), borough of West Ham (2), various
groups of other boroughs and urban districts, and the Thames and
the Lea Conservancies. The first election of the Board took place in
1903. The 24th of June, 1904, was the date fixed on which control
passed to the Board, and in the meantime a Court of Arbitration
adjudicated the claims of the companies for compensation for the
acquisition of their properties.
" Water London " is an irregular area extending from Ware in
Hertfordshire to Sevenoaks in Kent, and westward as far as Ealing
and Sunbury.
A constant supply is maintained generally throughout " Water
London," although a suspension between certain hours has been
occasionally necessitated, as in 1895 and 1898, when, during summer
droughts, the East London supply was so affected. During these
periods other companies had a surplus of water, and in 1899 an
act was passed providing for the interconnexion of systems. The
Thames and Lea are the principal sources of supply, but the Kent
and (partially) the New River Company draw supplies from springs.
The systems of filtration employed by the different companies varied
in efficacy, but both the Royal Commissions decided that water
as supplied to the consumer was generally of a very high standard
of purity. The expenditure of the Water Board for 1907-1908
amounted to £2,846,265. Debt charges absorbed £1,512,718 of this
amount.
Public baths and washhouses are provided by local authorities
under various acts between 1846 and 1896, which have been adopted
by all the borough councils.
Lighting. — From 1416 citizens were obliged to hang out candles
between certain hours on dark nights to illuminate the streets. An
act of parliament enforced this in 1661 ; in 1684 Edward Heming,
the inventor of oil lamps, obtained licence to supply public lights;
and in 1736 the corporation took the matter in hand, levying a rate.
Gas-lighting was introduced on one side of Pall Mall in 1807, and
in 1810 the Gas Light & Coke Company received a charter, and
developed gas-lighting in Westminster. The City of London Gas
Company followed in 1817, and seven other companies soon after.
Wasteful competition ensued until in 1857 an agreement was made
between the companies to restrict their services to separate localities,
and the Gas Light & Coke Company, by amalgamating other com-
panies, then gradually acquired all the gas-lighting north of the
Thames, while a considerable area in the south was provided for by
another great gas company, the South Metropolitan. Various acts
from 1860 onwards have laid down laws as to the quality and cost of
gas. Gas must be supplied at i6-candle illuminating power, and is
officially tested by the chemists' department of the London County
Council. The amalgamations mentioned were effected subsequently
to 1860, and there are now three principal companies within the
county, the Gas Light & Coke, South Metropolitan and Commercial,
though certain other companies supply some of the outlying districts.
As regards street lighting, the extended use of burners with in-
candescent mantles has been of good effect. The Metropolitan
Board of Works, and the commissioners of sewers in the City, began
experiments with electric light. At the close of the igth and the
beginning of the 2Oth century a large number of electric light
companies came into existence, and some of the metropolitan
borough councils, and local authorities within Greater London, also
undertook the supply. An extensive use of the light resulted in the
principal streets and in shops, offices and private houses.
Fire. — In 1832 the fire insurance companies united to maintain a
small fire brigade, and continued to do so until 1866. The brigade
was confined to the central part of the metropolis; for the rest, the
parochial authorities had charge of protection from fire. The central
brigade came under the control of the Metropolitan Board of Works;
and the County Council now manages the Metropolitan Fire Brigade,
under a chief officer and a staff numbering about 1300. The cost of
maintenance exceeds £200,000 annually; contributions towards this
are made by the Treasury and the fire insurance companies. The
Council controls the provision of fire escapes in factories employing
over 40 persons, under an act of 1901 ; it also compels the mainten-
ance of proper precautions against fire in theatres and places of
entertainments. A Salvage Corps is independently maintained by
the Insurance Companies.
Cemeteries. — The administrative authorities of cemeteries for the
county are the borough councils and the City Corporation and
private companies. The large cemetery at Brompton is the property
of the government. Kensal Green cemetery, the burial-place of
many famous persons, is of great extent, but several large cemeteries
outside the metr&polis have come into use. Such are that of the
London Necropolis Company at Brookwood near Woking, Surrey,
and that of the parishes of St Mary Abbots, Kensington, and St
George, Hanover Square, at Hanwell, Middlesex. Crematoria are
provided at certain of the companies' cemeteries, and the Cremation
Act 1902 enabled borough councils to provide crematoria.
V. EDUCATION AND RECREATION
Education. — The British and Foreign School Society (1808) and
the National Society (1811), together with the Ragged Schools Union
(1844), were the only special organizations providing for Element-
the education of the poorer classes until 1870. To meet
the demand for elementary education, increasing as it did eaucation.
with population, was beyond the powers of these societies,
the churches and the various charitable institutions. Thus a return
of 1871 showed that the schools were capable of accommodating only
39% of the children of school-going age. In 1870, however, a
School Board had been created in addition, and this body carried out
much good work during its thirty-four years of existence. In 1903
the Education (London) Act was passed in pursuance of the general
system, put into operation by the Education Act (1902) of bringing
education within the scope of municipal government. The County
Council was created a local education authority, and given control of
secular education in both board and voluntary schools. It appoints
an education committee in accordance with a scheme approved by
the Board of Education. This scheme must allow of the Council
selecting at least a majority of the committee, and must provide for
the inclusion of experts and women. Each school or group of schools
is under a body of managers, in the appointment of whom the borough
council and the County Council share in the following proportions: —
(a) Board or provided schools; borough council, two-thirds; county
council, one-third: (V) Voluntary or non-provided schools; the
foundation, two-thirds; borough council and county council, each
one-sixth. The total number of public elementary schools was 963
in 1905, with 752,487 scholars on the register. Other institutions
include higher elementary schools for pupils certified to be able to
profit by higher instruction; and schools for blind, deaf and defective
children. Instruction for teachers is provided in pupil teachers'
centres (preparatory), and in residential and day training colleges.
There are about 15 such colleges. Previous to the act of 1903 the
County Council had educational powers under the
Technical Instructions Acts which enabled it to provide * "/^,
technical education through a special board, merged by e
the act of 1903 in the education committee. The City and
Guilds of London Institute, Gresham College, also maintains
various technical institutions. The establishment of polytechnics
was provided for by the City of London Parochial Charities Act
1883; the charities being administered by trustees. The model in-
stitution was that of Mr Quintin Hogg (1880) in Regent Street, where
a striking statue by George Frampton (1906) commemorates him.
The general scope of the polytechnics is to give instruction both in
general knowledge and special crafts or trades by means of classes,
lectures and laboratories, instructive entertainments and exhibitions,
and facilities for bodily and mental exercise (gymnasia, libraries, &c.).
Other similar institutions exist primarily for special purposes, as the
St Bride Foundation Institute, near Fleet Street, in immediate
proximity to the great newspaper offices, for the printing trade, and
the Herolds' Institute, a branch of the Borough Polytechnic situated
in Bermondsey, for the purposes of the leather trade. The County
Council also aids numerous separate schools of art, both general and
special, such as the Royal School of Art Needlework and the School
of Art Woodcarving; the City and Guilds Institute maintains similar
establishments at some of its colleges, and art schools are also
generally attached to the polytechnics.
The London County Council maintains a number of industrial
schools and reformatories, both in London and in the country, for
children who have shown or are likely to be misled into a
tendency towards lawlessness. The City Corporation has Phllnn-
separate responsibilities in the same direction, but has ,™itu-
no schools of its own. The expenditure of the London
County Council on education for 1907-1908 was £4,281 ,291
for elementary education, and £742,962 for higher education.
The work of private philanthropists and philanthropical bodies
among the poor of East London, Southwark and Bermondsey, and
elsewhere, falls to be noticed at this point. The labours of the
regular clergy here lie largely in the direction of social reform, and
churches and missions have been established and are maintained by
colleges, such as Christ Church, Oxford, schools and other bodies.
There are, further, " settlements " where members of the various
bodies may reside in order to devote themselves to philanthropical
work; and these include clubs, recreation rooms and other institu-
tions for the use of the poor. Such are the Oxford House, Bethnal
LONDON
[EDUCATION
Green; the Cambridge House, Camberwell Road; Toynbee Hall,
Whitechapel; Mansfield House, Canning Town; the Robert
Browning Settlement, Southwark; and the Passmore Edwards
Settlement, St Pancras. There are also several women's settlements
of a similar character. The People's Palace, Mile End Road, opened
in 1887, is both a recreative and an educational institution (called
East London College) erected and subsequently extended mainly
through the liberality of the Drapers' Company and of private
donors.
In early times the priories and other religious houses had generally
grammar schools attached to them. Those at St Peter's, Westminster,
Public an^ St Paul's, attained a fame which has survived, while
schools. other similar foundations lapsed, such as St Anthony's
(Threadneedle Street, City), at which Sir Thomas More,
Archbishop Whitgift and many other men of eminence received
education. Certain of the schools were re-endowed after the dis-
solution of the monasteries. St Peter's College or Westminster
School (see WESTMINSTER) is unique among English public schools of
the highest rank in maintaining its original situation in London.
Other early metropolitan foundations have been moved in accord-
ance with modern tendencies either into the country or to sites aloof
from the heart of London. Thus Charterhouse school, part of the
foundation of Sir Thomas Sutton (1611), was moved from Finsbury
to Godalming, Surrey; St Paul's School occupies modern buildings
at Hammersmith, and Christ's Hospital is at Horsham, Sussex. Of
other schools, Merchant Taylors' was founded by the Company of
that name in 1561, and has occupied, since 1875, the premises vacated
by Charterhouse School. The Mercers' School, Dowgate, was origin-
ally attached to the hospital of St Thomas of Aeon, which was sold
to the Mercers' Company in 1522, on condition that the company
should maintain the school. The City of London School, founded in
Milk Street, Cheapside, by the City Corporation in 1835, occupies
modern buildings on the Victoria Embankment. Dulwich College
originated in the foundation of the College of God's Gift by Edward
Alleyn in 1626, and is now constituted as one of the principal English
public schools. St Olave's and St Saviour's grammar school, South-
wark, received its charter in 1571. Both classical and modern
education is provided ; a large number of scholarships are maintained
out of the foundation, and exhibitions from the school to the uni-
versities and other higher educational institutions.
London University. — The University of London was incorporated
by royal charter in 1836, as an examining body for conferring degrees.
Its scope and powers were extended by subsequent charters, and in
1900, under the University of London Act 1898, it was reorganized
as both a teaching and an examining body. The function of the
academic department is to control the teaching branch, internal
examinations, &c., and that of the external department to control
external examinations, while the university extension system
occupies a third department. The university is governed by a
senate consisting of a chancellor, chairman of convocation and 54
members, whose appointment is shared by the Crown, convocation,
the Royal Colleges of Physicians and of Surgeons, the Inns of Court,
the Law Society, the London County Council, City Corporation,
City and Guilds Institute, University and King's Colleges and the
faculties. The faculties are theology, arts, law, music, medicine,
science, engineering and economics. The schools of the University
include University College, Gower Street, and King's College,
Somerset House (with both of which preparatory schools are con-
nected), East London College and numerous institutions devoted to
special faculties both within and without London. The university
in part occupies buildings which formerly belonged to the Imperial
Institute.
Other Educational Institutions. — The Board of Education directly
administers the following educational institutions — the Victoria and
Albert Museum, South Kensington, with its branch at Bethnal
Green, from both of which objects are lent to various institutions
for educational purposes; the Royal College of Science, South
Kensington, with which is incorporated the Royal School of Mines;
the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom and the Museum of
Practical Geology, Jermyn Street; the Solar Physics Observatory,
South Kensington; and the Royal College of Art, South Kensington.
At Gresham College, Basinghall Street, City, founded in 1597 by
Sir Thomas Gresham, and moved to its present site in 1843, lectures
are given in the principal branches of science, law, divinity,
medicine, &c.
Some further important establishments and institutions may be
tabulated here: —
Architecture. — The Royal Institute of British Architects, Conduit
Street, conducts examinations and awards diplomas.
Education. — The College of Preceptors, Bloomsbury, conducts
examinations of persons engaged in education and awards diplomas.
Engineering. — A School of Practical Engineering is maintained at
the Crystal Palace, Sydenham.
Law. — The Inns of Court are four — Middle Temple, Inner Temple,
Lincoln's Inn, Gray's Inn. A joint board of examiners examines
students previous to admission. The Council of Legal Education
superintends the education and subsequent examination of students.
(See INNS OF COURT.) The Law Society is the superintending body
for examination and admission in the case of solicitors.
Medical. — The Royal College of Physicians is in Pall Mall East,
and the Royal College of Surgeons is in Lincoln's Inn Fields. The
Society of Apothecaries is in Water Lane, City. The Royal College
of Veterinary Surgeons is in Red Lion Square, and the Royal
Veterinary College at Camden Town. (The principal hospitals
having schools are noted in the list of hospitals, Section VII.)
Military and Naval. — The Royal Military College and the Ordnance
College are at Woolwich ; the Royal Naval College at Greenwich.
Music. — The principal educational institutions are — the Royal
Academy of Music, Tenterden Street, Hanover Square; the Royal
College of Music, South Kensington; Guildhall School, City, near
the Victoria Embankment; London College, Great Marlborough
Street; Trinity College, Manchester Square; Victoria College,
Berners Street ; and the Royal College of Organists, Bloomsbury.
Scientific Societies. — Numerous learned societies have their head-
quarters in London, and the following may especially be noticed here.
Burlington House, in Piccadilly, built in 1872 on the site of a mansion
of the earls of Burlington, houses the Royal Society, the Chemical,
Geological, Linnaean and Royal Astronomical Societies, the Society
of Antiquaries and the British Association for the Advancement
of Science, of which the annual meetings take place at different
British or colonial towns in succession. The Royal Society, the most
dignified and influential of all, was incorporated by Charles II. in
1663. It originally occupied rooms in Crane Court, City, and was
moved in 1780 to Somerset House, where others of the societies named
were also located. The Society of Arts, John Street, Adelphi, was
established in 1754 for the encouragement of arts, manufactures and
commerce. The Royal Institution, Albemarle Street, was founded
in 1799, maintains a library and laboratories and promotes research
in connexion with the experimental sciences. The Royal Geo-
graphical Society, occupying a building close to Burlington House
in Savile Row, maintains a map-room open to the public, holds
lectures by prominent explorers and geographers, and takes a leading
part in the promotion of geographical discovery. The Royal Botanic
Society has private gardens in the midst of Regent's Park, where
flower shows and general entertainments are held. The Royal
Horticultural Society maintains gardens at Wisley, Surrey, and has
an exhibition hall in Vincent Square, Westminster. The exhibitions
of the Royal Agricultural Society are held at Park Royal, near
Willesden. The Zoological Society maintains a magnificent collection
of living specimens in the Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park, a
popular resort.
Museums, Art Galleries, Libraries. — In the British Museum London
possesses one of the most celebrated collections in the world, origin-
ated in 1753 by the purchase of Sir Hans Sloane's collection and
library by the government. The great building in Bloomsbury
(1828-1852) with its massive Ionic portico, houses the collections of
antiquities, coins, books, manuscripts and drawings, and contains
the reading-rooms for the use of readers. The natural history branch
was removed to a building at South Kensington (the Natural History
Museum) in 1881, where the zoological, botanical and mineralogical
exhibits are kept. Close to this museum is the Victoria and Albert
Museum (formerly South Kensington Museum, 1857) for which an
extension of buildings, from a fine design by Sir Aston Webb, was
begun in 1899 and completed in ten years. Here are collections of
pictures and drawings, including the Raphael cartoons, objects of
art of every description, mechanical and scientific collections, and
Japanese, Chinese and Persian collections, and an Indian section.
In the vicinity, also, is the fine building of the Imperial Institute,
founded in 1887 as an exhibition to illustrate the resources of all
parts of the Empire, as well as an institution for the furtherance of
imperial intercourse; though not developed on the scale originally
intended. Other museums are Sir John Soane's collection in
Lincoln's Inn Fields and the Museum of Practical Geology in Jermyn
Street, while the scientific societies have libraries and in some cases
collections of a specialized character, such as the museums of the
Royal College of Surgeons, the Royal Architectural Society, and the
Society of Art and the Parkes Museum of the Sanitary Institute.
Among permanent art collections the first place is taken by the
National Gallery in Trafalgar Square. This magnificent collection
was originated in 1824, and the building dates from 1838, but has been
more than once enlarged. The building of the National Portrait
Gallery, adjoining it, dates from 1896, but the nucleus of the collec-
tion was formed in 1858. The munificence of Sir Henry Tate pro-
vided the gallery, commonly named after him, by the Thames near
Vauxhall Bridge, which contains the national collection of British
art. The Wallace collection of paintings and objects of art, in
Hertford House, Manchester Square, was bequeathed to the nation
by the widow of Sir Richard Wallace in 1897. Dulwich College
possesses a fine series of paintings, of the Dutch and other schools,
bequeathed by Sir P. F. Bourgeois in 1811. There are also notable
collections of pictures in several of the mansions of the nobility,
government buildings, halls of the City Companies and elsewhere.
No gallery in London is exclusively or especially devoted to sculpture.
Of the periodical art exhibitions that of the Royal Academy is most
noteworthy. It is held annually at Burlington House from the first
Monday in May to the first Monday in August. It consists mainly
of paintings, but includes a few drawings and examples of sculpture.
Earlier in each year exhibitions of works by deceased British artists
and by old masters are held, and the Gibson and Diploma Galleries
are permanent exhibitions. At the Guildhall special exhibitions are
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held from time to time. There are a number of art galleries in and
about Bond Street and Piccadilly, Regent Street and Pall Mall, such
as the New Gallery, where periodical exhibitions are given by the
New English Art Club, the Royal Society of Painters in Water-
Colours, the Royal Institute of Painters in Water-Colours, other
societies and art dealers.
Municipal provision of public libraries under acts of 1892 and
1893 is general throughout London, and these institutions are ex-
ceedingly popular for purposes both of reference and of loan. , The
acts are extended to include the provisions of museums and art
galleries, but the borough councils have not as a rule availed them-
selves of this extension. The London County Council administers
the Horniman Museum at Forest Hill, Lewisham. The City Corpora-
tion maintains the fine Guildhall library and museum. A few free
libraries are supported by donations and subscriptions or charities.
Besides the Government reference libraries at the British Museum
and South Kensington there are other such libraries, of a specialized
character, as at the Patent Office and the Record Office. Among
lending libraries should be noticed the London Library in St James's
Square, Pall Mall.
Theatres and Places of Entertainment. — The principal London
theatres lie between Piccadilly and Temple Bar, and High Holborn
and Victoria Street, the majority being in Shaftesbury Avenue, the
Haymarket, the neighbourhood of Charing Cross and the Strand.
At these central theatres successful plays are allowed1 to " run "
for protracted periods, but there are numerous fine houses in other
parts of London which are generally occupied by a succession of
touring companies presenting either revivals of popular plays or
plays successful at the moment in the central theatres. The principal
music halls (variety theatres) are in Shaftesbury Avenue, Piccadilly
Circus, Leicester Square and the Strand. The Covcnt Garden
theatre is the principal home of grand opera; the building, though
spacious, suffers by comparison with the magnificence of opera
houses in some other capitals, but during the opera season the scene
within the theatre is brilliant. The chief halls devoted mainly to
concerts are the Royal Albert Hall, close to the South Kensington
museums, and Queen's Hall in Langham Place, Regent Street. For
a long time St James's Hall (demolished in 1905) between Regent
Street and Piccadilly was the chief concert hall. Oratorio is given
usually in the Albert Hall, the vast area of which is especially suited
for a large chorus and orchestra, and at the Crystal Palace (q.v.).
This latter building, standing on high ground at Sydenham, and
visible from far over the metropolis, is devoted not only to concerts,
but to general entertainment, and the extensive grounds give ac-
commodation for a variety of sports and amusements. Among other
popular places of entertainment may be mentioned the exhibition
grounds and buildings at Earl's Court ; similar grounds at Shepherd's
Bush, where a Franco-British Exhibition was held in 1908, an
Imperial Exhibition in 1909, and an Anglo-Japanese in 1910; the
great Olympia hall, West Kensington; the celebrated wax- work
exhibition of Madame Tussaud in Marylebone Road ; the Alexandra
Palace, Muswell Hill, an institution resembling the Crystal Palace;
and the Agricultural Hall, Islington, where agricultural and other
exhibitions are held. The well-known Egyptian Hall in Piccadilly
was taken down in 1906, and the permanent conjuring entertainment
for which (besides picture exhibitions) it was noted was removed
elsewhere. Theatres, music halls, concert halls and other places
of entertainment are licensed by the County Council, except that the
licence for stage-plays is granted by the lord chamberlain under the
Theatres Act 1843. The council provides for inspection of places
of entertainment in respect of precautions against fire, structural
safety, &c. The principal clubs are in and about Piccadilly and Pall
Mall (see CLUB). A club for soldiers, sailors and marines in London,
called the Union Jack Club, was opened in Waterloo Road by King
Edward VII. in 1907.
Parks and Open Spaces: Administration. — The administration of
parks and open spaces in and round London, topographical details
of the principal of which are given in Section I., is divided between
the Office of Works, the London County Council, the City Corporation
and the borough councils. The Office of Works controls the Royal
parks, the County Council controls the larger parks and open spaces
not under Government or City control, and the borough councils the
smaller; while the City Corporation controls certain public grounds
outside the County of London. There are a few other bodies con-
trolling particular open spaces, as the following list of public grounds
exceeding 50 acres (in 1910) will show: —
1. Under the Office of Works: —
Green Park 52 J acres
Greenwich Park . . . 185
Hyde Park 363! „
Kensington Gardens 274! „
Regent s Park 472 J
St James's Park . 0.7
2. Under the War Office:—
Woolwich Common 159
3. Under the London County Council: —
Avery Hill, Eltham 80 ,,
Battersea Park . . . . . . 199$ M
Blackheath . 267 ,,
Bostall Heath and Woods, Woolwich . 133! „
Brockwell Park, Herne Hill . . . 127^ acres
Clapham Common 205
Clissold Park 54j
Dulwich Park 72
Finsbury Park 115
Hackney Marsh 339
Hainault Forest, Essex 805
Hampstead Heath 320^
Lady well Ground, Lewisham . . . 515
Marble Hill, Twickenham .... 66
Millfields, Hackney 62j
Parliament Hill 267$
Peckham Rye and Park . . . naf
Plumstead Common 103
Southwark Park 63
Streatham Common 66j
Tooting Bee Common 151 J
Tooting Graveney Common ... 66
Victoria Park, East London . . .217
Wandsworth Common . . . 155
Wormwood Scrubbs 193
4. Under the City Corporation: —
Burnham Beeches, Buckinghamshire . 375
Coulsdon Commons, Surrey . . . 347
Epping Forest, Essex 5559?
Highgate Woods . . . . . .69
West Ham Park 77 „
Wimbledon and Putney Commons are under a board of con-
servators. The London County Council's parks and open spaces
increased in number from 40 in 1890 to 114 in 1907, and in acreage
from 2656 to 5006 in the same years. The expenditure in 1907-1908
was £131,582, which sum included £11,987 for bands. (See also
separate articles on boroughs.)
Bathing (at certain hours) and boating are permitted in the orna-
mental waters in several of the parks, music is provided and much
attention is paid to the protection of waterfowl and other birds,
while herds of deer are maintained in some places, and also botanical
gardens. Surplus plants and cuttings are generally distributed
without charge to educational or charitable institutions, and to the
poor. Provision is made for cricket, football and other games in a
number of the parks. Large gatherings of spectators are attracted
to the first-class cricket matches played at Lord's ground, St John's
Wood, by the Marylebone Club and the Middlesex County teams,
Eton College against Harrow School, and Oxford against Cambridge
University; to the Kennington Oval for the matches of the Surrey
club, and the Leyton ground for those of the Essex club. In the
Crystal Palace grounds the final match for the English Association
Football cup is generally played, and huge crowds from both the
metropolis and the provinces witness the game. At Queen's Club,
West Kensington, the annual Oxford and Cambridge athletic meeting
and others take place, besides football matches, and there is covered
accommodation for tennis and other games. Professional association
football teams are maintained locally in several parts of London,
and much popular interest is taken in their matches. Rugby football
is upheld by such notable teams as Blackheath and Richmond.
Fashionable society takes its pastimes at such centres as the grounds
of the Hurlingham and Ranelagh clubs, at Fulham and Barnes
respectively, where polo and other games are played; and Rotten
Row, the horse-track in Hyde Park, is the favourite resort of riders.
In summer, boating on the lovely reaches of the Thames above the
metropolis forms the recreation of thousands. The growth of popu-
larity of the cycle, and later of the motor-car, has been a principal
factor in the wide development of a tendency to leave London
during the " week-end," that is to say, as a rule, for Saturday after-
noon and Sunday. With many this is a practice at all seasons, and
the railway companies foster the habit by means of tickets at re-
duced fares to all parts. The watering-places of the Sussex, Kent and
Essex coasts, and pre-eminently Brighton, are specially favoured
for these brief holidays.
VI. COMMERCE
Port of London.— The extent of the Port of London has been
variously defined for different purposes, but for those of the
Port Authority it is taken to extend from Teddington Lock to a
line between Yantlet Creek in Kent and the City Stone opposite
Canvey Isle and in Essex. London Bridge is to outward appear-
ance the up-river limit of the port. There are wharves and a
large carrying trade in barges above this point, but below it the
river is crowded with shipping, and extensive docks open on
either hand.
Towards the close of the igth century evidence was accumulat-
ing that the development of the Port of London was not keeping
pace with that of shipping generally. In 1900 a Royal Com-
mission was appointed to investigate the existing administration
of the port, the alleged inadequacy of accommodation for
vessels and kindred questions, and to advance a scheme of
950
LONDON
[COMMERCE
reform. The report, issued in 1902, showed apprehension to be
well founded. The river, it was ascertained, was not kept
sufficiently dredged; the re-export trade was noted as showing
an especially serious decline, and the administration was found
to suffer from decentralization. The recommendations of the
Commission included the creation of a single controlling authority
to take over the powers of the Thames Conservancy Watermen's
Company, and Trinity House and the docks of the companies
already detailed. This authority, it was advised, should consist
of 40 members, of whom 1 1 should be nominated by the London
County Council and 3 by the Corporation of the City (supposing
these bodies to accept certain financial responsibilities proposed
in the direction of river improvements), 5 by the governors
of the Bank of England from the mercantile community, 2 by
the London Chamber of Commerce, and i each by the Admiralty,
Board of Trade and Trinity House. The remaining members
should be elected by various groups, e.g. shipowners, barge
owners, the railway companies interested, &c. Rival schemes,
however, were proposed by the London County Council, which
proposed to take over the entire control through a committee,
by the City Corporation, which suggested that it should appoint
10 instead of 3 members to the new board; and by the London
Chamber of Commerce, which proposed a Harbour Trust of
ex-officio and elected members. The Thames Conservancy also
offered itself as the public authority. In 1902 a Mansion House
Conference was convened by the lord mayor and a deputation
was appointed which in 1903 pressed the solution of the matter
upon the government.
A noteworthy scheme to improve the condition of the Thames,
first put forward in 1902-1903, was that of constructing a darn
with four locks across the river between Gravesend
ban-age an<^ Tilbury. The estimated cost was between three
scheme. and four millions sterling, to be met by a toll, and it
was urged that a uniform depth, independent of tides,
would be ensured above the dam, that delay of large vessels
wishing to proceed up river would thus be obviated, that the
river would be relieved of pollution by the tides, and the necessity
for constant dredging would be abolished. This " barrage
scheme " was discussed at considerable length, and its theoretical
advantages were not universally admitted. The scheme included
a railway tunnel beneath the dam, for which, incidentally, a high
military importance was claimed.
In 1904 the Port of London Bill, embodying the recommenda-
tions of the Royal Commission with certain exceptions, was
Port brought forward, but it was found impossible to carry
authorities it through. In 1908, however, the Port of London Act
/pop™ was passed, and came into force in 1909. This act
provided for the establishment of a Port Authority,
the constitution of which is detailed below, which took over
the entire control of the port, together with the docks and other
property of the several existing companies.
The principal dock companies, with the docks owned by them,
were as follows: —
1. London and India Company. — This company had amalgamated
all the docks on the north side of the river except the Millwall Docks.
Following the river down from the Tower these docks, with dates of
original opening and existing extent, are — St Katherine's (1828;
lo£ acres), London (1805; 57$ acres), West India, covering the
northern part of the peninsula called the Isle of Dogs (1802; I2lj
acres), East India, Blackwall (1806; 38 acres), Royal Victoria and
Albert Docks (1876 and 1880 respectively), parallel with the river
along Bugsby's and Woolwich Reaches, nearly 3 m. in distance
(181 acres) and Tilbury Docks, 25 m. below London Bridge, con-
structed in 1886 by the East and West India Docks Company
(65 acres). Tilbury Docks are used by the largest steamers trading
with the port.
2. Millwall Docks (1868), in the south part of the Isle of Dogs, are
36 acres in extent.
3. Surrey Commercial Docks, Rotherhithe (Bermondsey), occupy a
peninsula between the Lower Pool and Limehouse Reach. There
nave been docks at Rotherhithe since the middle of the I7th century.
The total area is 176 acres, a large new dock, the Greenland, being
opened in 1904.
The principal railways have wharves and through connexions for
goods traffic, and huge warehouses are attached to the docks. The
custom house stands on the north bank, a short distance from London
Bridge, in Lower Thames Street. It dates from 1817, the body of the
building being by Laing, but the Corinthian facade was added by
Smirke. It includes a museum containing ancient documents and
specimens of articles seized by the customs authorities.
The chief authorities concerned in the government of the Port of
London till 1909 were: —
1. Thames Conservancy. — For conservancy purposes, regulation
of navigation, removal of obstruction, dredging, &c.
2. City Corporation. — Port sanitary purposes from Teddington
Lock seawards.
3. Trinity House. — Pilotage, lighting and buoying from London
Bridge seawards.
4. The Watermen's and Lightermen's Company. — The licensing
authority for watermen and lightermen.
Besides these authorities, the London County Council, the Board
of Trade, the Admiralty, the Metropolitan and City Police, police of
riparian boroughs, Kent and Essex Fisheries Commissioners, all the
dock companies and others played some part in the government
and public services of the port.
Port Authority. — The Port of London Authority, as con-
stituted by the act of 1908, is a body corporate consisting of a
chairman, vice-chairman, 17 members elected by payers of dues,
wharfingers and owners of river craft, i member elected by
wharfingers exclusively, and 10 members appointed by the
following existing bodies — Admiralty (one); Board of Trade
(two); London County Council (two from among its own
members and two others); City Corporation (one from among
its own members and one other); Trinity House (one). The
Board of Trade and the County Council must each, under the
act, consult with representatives of labour as to the appointment
of one of the members, in order that labour may be represented on
the Port Authority. The first " elected " members were actually,
under the act, appointed by the Board of Trade. The under-
takings of the three dock companies mentioned above were
transferred to and vested in the Port Authority, an equivalent
amount of port stock created under the act being issued to each.
The Port Authority has full powers to authorize construction
works. All the rights, powers and duties of the Thames Con-
servancy, so far as concerns the Thames below Teddington Lock,
were transferred to the Port Authority under the act, as also
were the powers of the Watermen's Company in respect of the
registration and licensing of vessels, and the regulation of
lightermen and watermen. The Port Authority fixes the port
rates, which, however, must not in any two consecutive years
exceed one-thousandth part of the value of all imports and
exports, or a three-thousandth of the value of goods discharged
from or taken on board vessels not within the premises of a
dock. Preferential dock charges are prohibited and a port fund
established under the act. The authority has powers to borrow
money, but for certain purposes in this connexion, as in other
matters, it can only act subject to the approval of the Board of
Trade.
Commerce. — The following figures may be quoted for purposes of
comparison at different periods: —
Value of Exports of Home Produce (1840), £11,586,037; (1874),
£60,232,118; (1880), £52,600,929; (1902-1905 average), £60,095,294.
Imports (1880), £141,442,907; (1902-1905), £174,059,316. These
figures point to the_ fact that London is essentially a mart, and
neither is itself, nor is the especial outlet for, a large manufacturing
centre; hence imports greatly exceed exports.
Vessels entered and cleared (foreign and colonial trade) : —
Year.
Entered.
Cleared.
1694
1750
1800
1841-1850
(average)
1881
1895
'90S
Tonnage.
135.972
511,680
796,632
1,596,453
5,810,043
8,435-676
10,814,115
Tonnage.
81,148
179,860
729,554
1,124,793
4,478,960
6,110,325
7,9i3,"5
In the coastwise trade, in 1881, 38,953 vessels of 4,545,904 tons
entered; in 1895, 43,704 vessels of 6,555,618 tons; but these figures
include vessels trading within the Thames estuary (ports of London,
Rochester, Colchester and Faversham), which later returns do not.
Omitting such vessels, therefore, the number which entered in the
coastwise trade in 1905 was 16,358 of 6,374,832 tons.
Business. — The City has been indicated as the business centre
of the metropolis. Besides the Royal Exchange, in the building
GOVERNMENT]
LONDON
95
of which are numerous offices, including " Lloyd's," the centre
of the shipping business and marine insurance, there are many
exchanges for special articles. Among these are the Corn
Exchange in Mark Lane, where the privilege of a fair was origin-
ally granted by Edward I.; the Wool Exchange, Coleman
Street; the Coal Exchange, Lower Thames Street; the Shipping
Exchange, Billiter Street; and the auction mart for landed
property in Tokenhouse Yard. The Hop Exchange is across the
river in Southwark. In Mincing Lane are the commercial sale-
rooms. Besides the Bank of England there are many banking
houses; and the name of Lombard Street, commemorating the
former money dealers of Lombardy, is especially associated
with them. The majority of the banks are members of the
Clearing House, Post Office Court, where a daily exchange of
drafts representing millions of pounds sterling is effected. The
Royal Mint is on Tower Hill. The Stock Exchange is in Capel
Court, and numbers of brokers have their offices in the vicinity
of the Royal Exchange and the Bank of England.
Manufactures and Retail Trade. — No part of London can be
pointed out as essentially a manufacturing quarter, and there is a
strong tendency for manufacturing firms to establish their factories
outside the metropolis. There are, however, several large breweries,
among which that of Messrs Barclay & Perkins, on the riverside in
Southwark, may be mentioned; engineering works are numerous in
East London by the river, where there are also shipbuilding yards;
the leather industry centres in Bermondsey, the extensive pottery
works of Messrs Doulton are in Lambeth, there are chemical works on
the Lea, and paper-mills on the Wandle. Certain industries (not
confined to factories) have long been associated with particular
localities. Thus, clock-makers and metal-workers are congregated
in Finsbury, especially Clerkenwell and in Islington; Hatton
Garden, near Hplborn Viaduct, is a centre for diamond merchants;
cabinet-making is carried on in Bethnal Green, Shoreditch and the
vicinity ; and large numbers in the East End are employed in the
match industry. Silk-weaving is still carried on in the district of
Spitalfields (see STEPNEY). West of the City certain streets are
essentially connected with certain trades. The old-established
collection of second-hand book-shops in Holywell Street was only
abolished by the widening of the Strand, and a large proportion then
removed to Charing Cross Road. In the Strand, and more especially
in Fleet Street and its offshoots, are found the offices of the majority
of the most -important daily newspapers and other journals. Carriage
and motor-car warehouses congregate in Long Acre. In Tottenham
Court Road are the showrooms of several large upholstering and
furnishing firms. Of the streets most frequented on account of their
fashionable shops Bond Street, Regent Street, Oxford Street, Sloane
Street and High Street, Kensington, may be selected. In the East
End and other poor quarters a large trade in second-hand clothing,
flowers and vegetables, and many other commodities is carried on in
the streets on movable stalls by costermongers and hawkers.
Markets. — The City Corporation exercises a control over the
majority of the London markets, which dates from the close of
the I4th century, when dealers were placed under the govern-
ance of the mayor and aldermen. The markets thus controlled
are:
Central Markets, Smithfield, for meat, poultry, provisions, fruit,
vegetables, flowers and fish. These extend over a great area north of
Newgate Street and east of Farringdon Road. Beneath them are
extensive underground railway sidings. A market for horses and
cattle existed here at least as early as the time of Henry II.
Leadenhall Market, Leadenhall Street, City, for poultry and meat.
This market was in existence before 1411 when it came into the
possession of the City.
Billingsgate Market, by the Thames immediately above the
custom house, for fish. Formerly a point of anchorage for small
vessels, it was made a free market in 1699.
Smithfield Hay Market.
Metropolitan Cattle Market, Copenhagen Fields, Islington.
Deptford Cattle Market (foreign cattle).
Spitalfields Market (fruit, vegetables and flowers).
Shadwell Market (fish).
Of other markets, the Whitechapel Hay Market and Borough
Market, Southwark, are under the control of trustees ; and Woolwich
Market is under the council of that borough. Covent Garden, the
great mart in the west of London for flowers, fruit and vegetables, is
in the hands of private owners. It appears to have been used as a
market early in the i;th century. Scenes of remarkable activity
may be witnessed here and at Billingsgate in the early hours of the
morning when the stock is brought in and the wholesale distributions
are carried on.
VII. GOVERNMENT
Administration before 1888.— The middle of the igth century
found the whole local administration of London still of a medieval
character. Moreover, as complete reform had always been
steadily resisted, homogeneity was entirely wanting. Outside
the City itself a system of local government can hardly
be said to have existed. Greater London (in the
sense in which that name might then have been applied) was
governed by the inhabitants of each parish in vestry assembled,
save that in some instances parishes had elected select vestries
under the provisions of the Vestries Act 1831. In neither case
had the vestry powers of town management. To meet the needs
of particular localities, commissioners or trustees having such
powers had been from time to time created by local acts. The
resulting chaos was remarkable. In 1855 these local acts
numbered 250, administered by not less than 300 bodies, and by
a number of persons serving on them computed at 10,448.
These persons were either self -elected, or elected for life, or both,
and therefore in no degree responsible to the ratepayers. There
were two bodies having jurisdiction over the whole metropolis
except the City, namely, the officers appointed under the Metro-
politan Building Act of 1844, and the Metropolitan Commis-
sioners of Sewers, appointed under the Commissioners of Sewers
Act 1848. Neither body was responsible to the ratepayers.
To remedy this chaotic state of affairs, the Metropolis Manage-
ment Act 1855 was passed. Under that act a vestry elected
by the ratepayers of the parish was established for each parish
in the metropolis outside the City. The vestries so elected for
the twenty-two larger parishes were constituted the local
authorities. The fifty-six smaller parishes were grouped to-
gether in fifteen districts, each under a district board, the members
of which were elected by the vestries of the constituent parishes.
A central body, styled the Metropolitan Board of Metro-
Works, having jurisdiction over the whole metropolis poiitaa
(including the City) was also established, the members
of which were elected by the Common Council of the
City, the vestries and district boards, and the previously estab-
lished local board of Woolwich (q.v.). Further the area of the
metropolis for local government purposes was for the first time
defined, being the same as that adopted in the Commissioners of
Sewers Act, which had been taken from the area of the weekly
bills of mortality. The Metropolitan Board of Works was also
given certain powers of supervision over the vestries and district
boards, and superseded the commissioners of sewers as authority
for main drainage. By an act of the same session it became the
central authority for the administration of the Building Acts, and
subsequently had many additional powers and duties conferred
upon it. The vestries and district boards became the authorities
for local drainage, paving, lighting, repairing and maintaining
streets, and for the removal of nuisances, & 
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