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THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST
SECOND
THIRD
FOURTH
FIFTH
SIXTH
SEVENTH
EIGHTH
NINTH
TENTH
ELEVENTH
edition, published in three volumes, 1768 1771.
ten 17771784.
eighteen 1788 1797.
twenty 1801 1810.
twenty 1815 1817.
twenty 1823 1824.
twenty-one ' 1830 1842.
twenty-two 1853 1860.
twenty-five 1875 1889.
ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902 1903.
published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 1911.
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention
by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
All rights reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XIX
MUN to ODDFELLOWS
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West 32nd Street
1911
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XIX. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. A. W. H. AMBROSIUS ARNOLD WILLEM HUBRECHT, LL.D., D.Sc., PH.D.
Professor of Zoology, and Director of the Institute of Zoology in the University-^ Nemertina (in part).
of Utrecht. Author of Nemertines. I
A. Ca. ARTHUR CAYLEY, LL.D., F.R.S. I Numbers, Partition of.
See the biographical article : CAYLEY, ARTHUR.
A. E. S. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. J JJematoda (in part);
Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University, i Nematomorpna;
Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. I- Nemertina (in part).
A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S. f
Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls' Nicholas, Henry;
College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- -j Northumberland, John Dudley,
1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of duke of.
England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c. I
A. Ge. SIR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, K.C.B. \
See the biographical article : GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD. \
r Mutian;
A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. J ,_. .
Lecturer in Church History in the University of Manchester. US '
1 Myconius, Oswald.
Nnn n|ot nn icm a n
M 80 ? 1 " 0111 l I*
A. Ha. ADOLF HARNACK, PH.D.
See the biographical article: HARNACK, ADOLF. \
A. H.-S. SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINBLER, C.I.E. f W | eh ,.
General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. \ m
A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. f Nestorians (f part);
Professor of New Testament and Church History at the United Independent) NestOHUS (in part);
College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University and Member of | New Jerusalem Church;
Mysore Educational Service. [ Nicholas of Basel.
A. L. ANDREW LANG, LL.D. f Mytholop;
See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW. Name (Local and Personal
Names).
A. LI. D. ARTHUR LLEWELLYN DAVIES (d. 1907).
Trinity College, Cambridge; Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Formerly Assistant -I Negligence.
Reader in Common Law under the Council of Legal Education.
A. M. CL AGNES MURIEL CLAY (Mrs Edward Wilde). ("
Late Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-editor of Sources of-{ Municipium.
Roman History, 133-70 B.C. l_
( Nestor;
Nidiflcation (in part);
A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. ., . Vn ^ .
See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. tmgaie, fi lay.
Nutcracker; Nuthatch;
[ Oeydrome.
A. P. H. ALFRED PETER HILLIER, M.D., M.P. f
President, South African Medical Congress, 1893. Author of South African Studies ;
&c. Served in Kaffir War, 1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in medical I w a tal (in hn.rf)
practice in South Africa till 1896. Member of Reform Committee, Johannesburg, '
and Political Prisoner at Pretoria, 1895-1896. M.P. for Hitchin division of Herts,
1910.
A. R. S. SIR ALEXANDER RUSSELL SIMPSON, M.D., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.).
Emeritus Professor of Midwifery, Edinburgh University. Dean of the Faculty of -I Obstetrics.
Medicine and Professor in the University, 1870-1905.
A. S. E. ARTHUR STANLEY EDDINGTON, M.A., M.Sc., F.R.A.S. f
Chief Assistant at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. Fellow of Trinity College, \ Nebula.
Cambridge.
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributions, appears in the final volume.
v
1988
all]
n
VI
A. S. P.-P.
A. Ts.
A. W. H.*
A. W. Hu.
B.
S. R
B. S. P.
B. W.*
C. F. M. B.
C. H. Ha.
C. H. W. J.
C. K. S.
C. M.
C. Mi.
C.PL
C. R. B.
C. S. S.
D. B. Ma.
D. F. T.
D. G. H.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.
Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford J Mysticism.
Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy.
Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos ; The Philosophical Radicals ; &c.
ALBERT THOMAS.
Member of the French Chamber of Deputies. Contributor to Vol. xi. of theH Napoleon III.
Cambridge Modern History. Author of Le second Empire, &c. I
ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND.
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford.
Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900
I Nonjurors.
'ARTHUR WOLLASTON HUTTON. f
Rector of Bow Church, Cheapside, London. Formerly Librarian of the National J
Liberal Club. Author of Life of Cardinal Manning. Editor of Newman's Lives 1
of the English Saints ; &c. I
-LORD BALCARRES, F.S.A., M.P.
Trustee of National Portrait Gallery. Hon. Secretary of Society for Protection
of Ancient Buildings; Vice-Chairman of National Trust. Junior Lord of the'
Treasury, 1903-1905. M.P. for Chorley division of Lanes from 1895. Son and
heir of the 26th earl of Crawford.
Museums of Art..
SIR BOVERTON REDWOOD, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.I.C., ASSOC.INST.C.E.,
M.INST.M.E.
Adviser on Petroleum to the Admiralty, Home Office, India Office, Corporation of
London, and Port of London Authority. President of the Society of Chemical "
Industry. Member of the Council of the Chemical Society. Member of Council of
Institute of Chemistry. Author of Cantor Lectures on Petroleum; Petroleum and
its Products; Chemical Technology; &c.
Naphtha.
BERTHA SURTEES PHILPOTTS, M.A. (Dublin).
Formerly Librarian of Girton College, Cambridge.
BECKLES WILLSON.
Author of The Hudson's Bay Company ; The Romance of Canada ; &c.
CHARES FREDERIC MOBERLY BELL.
Managing Director of The Times. Correspondent in Egypt, 1865-1890. Author of
Khedives and Pashas; From Pharaoh to Fellah; &c.
j Norway: Early History.
Newfoundland.
JJubar Pasha.
Author of ) Nineveh.
CARLTON HUNTLY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. r iis/.i.i., m ru
Assistant Professor of History at Columbia University, New York City. Member J * las ' m " IV
of the American Historical Association. [ (popes).
REV. CLAUDE HERMANN WALTER JOHNS, M.A., LITT.D.
Master of St Catharine's College, Cambridge. Canon of Norwich.
Assyrian Deeds and Documents.
CLEMENT KING SHORTER. r
Editor of the Sphere. Author of Charlotte Bronte and her Circle; The Brontes :J *
Life and Letters ; &c. [ Illustrated Papers.
CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.TH. f
Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publizistik < Nicaea, Council of.
im Zeitalter Gregor VII. ; Quellen zur Geschichte des Papstlhums ; &c. [
CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH. r
Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni-
potentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's, 1895-1900, and 1902-
1903-
CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-ES L. f
Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of J Neustria.
Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux.
CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT.
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow J .
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. ] Nlkltin;
Author of Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. [ Norden, John.
CHARLES SCOTT SHERRINGTON, D.Sc., M.D., M.A., F.R.S., LL.D. r
Professor of Physiology, University of Liverpool. Foreign Member of Academies J Mnclim Ihn
of Rome, Vienna, Brussels, Gottingen, &c. Author of The Integrative Action of]
the Nervous System. |_
DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. r
Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. Author of J mr.,-,1,. _ nl i
Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory; Selec-} rauscle
lions from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. [_
DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. f
Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The
Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical
works.
DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A.
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford.
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis 1899 and
1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at
Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
vn
D. H.
D. M. W.
D. N. P.
D. Wr.
E. A. F.
E. B. T.
E. F. S.
E.G.
E. Gr.
E.He.
E. H. M.
Ed. M.
E. N.-R.
E. Pr.
E. P. C.
E. R. L.
E. S. G.
E. Wa.
E. W. H.*
F. E. B.
F. G. M. B.
F. G. P.
DAVID HANNAY.
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona.
Navy; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c.
{Napoleonic Campaigns:
Naval Operations;
Navarino, Battle of; Navy;
Nelson; Nile, Battle of the.
SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I. E., K.C.V.O.
Extra Groom-in-Waiting to H.M. King George V. Director of the Foreign Depart-
ment of The Times, 1891-1899. Joint-editor of new volumes (loth edition) of the { Nihilism.
Encyclopaedia Britannica. Author of Russia; Egypt and the Egyptian Question;
The Web of Empire; &c.
DIARMID NOEL PATON, M.D., F.R.C.P. (Edin.).
Regius Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Formerly Super- I
intendent of Research Laboratory of Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh. T Nutrition.
Biological Fellow of Edinburgh University, 1884. Author of Essentials of Human I
Physiology; &c.
DANIEL WRIGHT, M.D.
Translated the History of Nepaul, from the Parbatiya, with an " Introductory -| Nepal (in part).
Sketch of the Country and People of Nepaul." L
EDWARD AUGUSTUS FREEMAN, LL.D. ("
See the biographical article: FREEMAN, E. A. \ Nobility; Normans.
EDWARD BURNETT TYLOR, D.C.L., LL.D.
See the biographical article: TYLOR, EDWARD BURNETT.
EDWARD FAIRBROTHER STRANGE.
Assistant Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington.
Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects,
of Bell's " Cathedral '' Series.
EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D.
See the biographical article : GOSSE, EDMUND.
Oath.
Member of n llt ,i,o,>*,,
Joint-editor 1 lnk aesy.
ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A.
See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY.
: Norton, Thomas;
J Norway: Norwegian Literature;
[ Novel.
'. Mycenae; Naucratis.
Librarian of the Royal
Geographical -j Nyasa.
Neuri.
Nascimento.
EDWARD HEAWOOD, M.A.
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.
Society, London.
ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A.
University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian
at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College.
EDWARD MEYER, PH.D., D.LITT. (Oxon.), LL.D.
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des
Alterthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme.
EUSTACE NEVILLE-ROLFE, C.V.O. (1845-1908). -f Nanles
Formerly H.M. Consul-General at Naples. Author of Naples in the 'Nineties; &c. \ '
EDGAR PRESTAGE.
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester.
Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Com-
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon
Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. Editor of Letters
of a Portuguese Nun ; Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea ; &c.
E. P. CATHCART, M.D.
Grieve Lecturer in Chemical Physiology, University of Glasgow.
SIR EDWIN RAY LANKESTER, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.A., D.Sc., LL.D. f
Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. President of the British Association, 1906.
Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in University College, London,
1874-1890. Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford, 1891-1898.
Director of the Natural History Departments of the British Museum, 1898-1907.
Vice-President of the Royal Society, 1896. Romanes Lecturer at Oxford, 1905.
Author of Degeneration; The Advancement of Science; The Kingdom of Man; &c.
EDWIN STEPHEN GOODRICH, M.A., F.R.S.
Fellow and Librarian of Merton College, Oxford. Aldrichian Demonstrator of Com-
parative Anatomy, University Museum, Oxford.
REV. EDMOND WARRE, M.A., D.D., D.C.L., C.B., C.V.O.
Provost of Eton. Hon. Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. Headmaster of Eton
College, 1884-1905. Author of Grammar of Rowing; &c.
Narses (King of Persia).
| Nutrition (in part).
Mussel (in part).
Myzostomida.
Oar.
SIR EDWARD WALTER HAMILTON, G.C.B., K.C.V.O. (1847-1908). r v .. . n
Joint Permanent Secretary to H.M. Treasury, 1902-1908. Author of National J " onal "
Debt Conversion and Redemption. Conversions (in part).
FRANK EVERS BEDDARD, M.A., F.R.S.
Prosector of the Zoological Society, London. Formerly Lecturer in Biology at
Guy's Hospital, London. Naturalist to "Challenger" Expedition Commission,
1882-1884. Author of Text-Book of Zoogeography; Animal Coloration; &c.
FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge.
FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST.
Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on
'
... ,. -,
lematooa (in part).
r M uscu i ar system-
"
-, .
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. 1 Nerve;
Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. L Nervous System.
viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
F. J. H. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. f
Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of
Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Senior Censor, Student, Tutor -i Numantia.
and Librarian of Christ Church, Oxford, 1891-1907. Author of Monographs on
Roman History, especially Roman Britain ; &c.
F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A.
Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and J
Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial |
German Archaeological Institute. L
F. L. L. LADY LUGARD. f Nassarawa;
See the biographical article: LUGARD, SIR F. J. D. \ Nigeria.
F. N. M. COL. FREDERIC NATUSCH MAUDE, C.B. (" jj aDO i eon i c
Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of War and the~{ f,...
World's Policy; The Leipzig Campaign ; The Jena Campaign; &c. L **
F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. ("Natal (in part); Niger;
Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. \ Nile (in part).
F. W. Ha. FREDERICK WILLIAM HASLUCK, M.A. r
Assistant Director, British School of Archaeology, Athens. Fellow of King's^ Mysia.
College, Cambridge. Browne's Medallist, 1901. [_
F. W. Mo. FREDERICK WALKER MOTT, F.R.S., M.D., F.R.C.P. f"
Physician to Charing Cross Hospital, London. Pathologist to the London County J Neuralgia; Neurasthenia;
Asylums. Fullerian Professor of Physiology, Royal Institution. Editor of Archives | Neuropathology.
of Neurology. I
G. A. C.* REV. GEORGE ALBERT COOKE, M.A., D.D. f
Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture. University of Oxford. .
Fellow of Oriel College; Canon of Rochester. Hon. Canon of St Mary's Cathedral,
Edinburgh. Formerly Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. L
G. B. M. GEORGE BALLARD MATHEWS, M.A., F.R.S. [
Professor of Mathematics, University College of N. Wales, Bangor, 1884-1896. 4 Number.
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. L
G. C. L. GEORGE COLLINS LEVEY, C.M.G.
Member of Board of Advice to Agent-General for Victoria. Formerly Editor and
Proprietor of the Melbourne Herald. Secretary, Colonial Committee of Royal Com- -\ New South Wales: History.
mission to Paris Exhibition, 1900. Secretary to Commissioners for Victoria at the
Exhibitions in London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia and Melbourne.
G. E. REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HiST.S. \
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909- J w ,, . ,
1910. Employed by British Government in preparation of the British Case in the j letnerianos.
British Guiana- Venezuelan and British Guiana-Brazilian Boundary Arbitrations. [
G. F. H.* GEORGE FRANCIS HILL, M.A. r
Assistant in the Department of Coins, British Museum. Corresponding Member of I v um j sma tics
the German and Austrian Archaeological Institutes. Author of Coins of Ancient"]
Sicily ; Historical Greek Coins ; Historical Roman Coins ; &c. L
G. H. Bo. REV. GEORGE HERBERT Box, M.A. r
Rector of Sutton Sandy, Bedfordshire. Lecturer in Faculty of Theology, Uni- J Nahum
versity of Oxford. 1908-1909. Author of Short Introduction to Literature of the Old |
Testament; &c. t
G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.Sc. (Lond.). f
Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: -I Neuroptera.
their Structure and Life.
G. J. T. GEORGE JAMES TURNER. f
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden J. Northampton, Assize of.
Society. [
G. K. G. GROVE KARL GILBERT, LL.D. r
Geologist, U.S. Geological Survey. President of the American Geological Society, J wj aeara
1892-1893 and 1909-1910. Formerly Special Lecturer at Cornell, Columbia and 1
Johns Hopkins Universities. Author of Glaciers and Glaciation ; &c. L
G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. r-vi j._ rn, u - -
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old J HaDl?
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. ( Nawawl; Nosairis.
H. A. G. HERBERT APPOLD GRUEBER, F.S.A.
Keeper of Coins and Medals, British Museum. Treasurer of the Egypt Exploration I
Fund. Vice-President of the Royal Numismatic Society. Author of Coins of the'] Numismatics (in part).
Roman Republic ; &c.
H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. f National Debt <i
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the llth edition of -| H
the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the loth edition. [ newspapers.
H. D. T. H. DENNIS TAYLOR. /
Inventor of the Cooke Photographic Lenses. Author of A System of Applied Optics. \ Objective.
H. E. KARL HERMANN ETHE, M.A., Pn.D. r
Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Aberystwyth (University of J Nasir Khosrau;
Wales). Author of Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts in the India Office Library, 1 NizamL
London (Clarendon Press) ; &c.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix
H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, F.R.S., PH.D. fvMii.. HT / j i- i
Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. Author \ *
of " Amphibia and Reptiles," in the Cambridge Natural History. I tton.
H. F. P. HENRY FRANCIS PELHAM, LL.D., D.C.L. f .
See the biographical article : PELHAM, HENRY FRANCIS. \ "'
H. L. B. HANS LIEN BRAEKSTAD. f
Vice-Consul for Norway in London. Author of The Constitution of the Kingdom of-< Norway: History, 1814-1007.
Norway; &c. L
H. M. C. HECTOR MUNRO CHADWICK, M.A. f
Librarian and Fellow of Clare College, Cambridge, and University Lecturer in i Norns.
Scandinavian. Author of Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions.
H, BI. S. HENRY MORSE STEPHENS, M.A>
Balliol College, Oxford. Professor of History and Director of University Extension, j Necker (in -barf)
University of California. Author of History of the French Revolution ; Modern ]
European History ; &c.
H. M. T. HENRY MARTYN TAYLOR, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. f
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge; formerly Tutor and Lecturer. Smith's ^ Newton, Sir Isaac.
Prizeman, 1865. Editor of the Pitt Press Euclid. L
H. N. D. HENRY NEWTON DICKSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.R.G.S. f
Professor of Geography at University College, Reading. Formerly Vice-President, J Morth Sea;
Royal Meteorological Society. Lecturer in Physical Geography, Oxford University, j Norwegian Sea.
Author of Meteorology ; Elements of Weather and Climate ; &c. L
H. R. M. HUGH ROBERT MILL, D.Sc., LL.D.
Director of British Rainfall Organization. Formerly President of the Royal
Meteorological Society. Hon. Member of Vienna Geographical Society. Hon.
Corresponding Member of Geographical Societies of Paris, Berlin, Budapest, St .
Petersburg, Amsterdam, &c. British Delegate to International Conference on the
Exploration of the Sea at Christiania, 1901. Author of The Realm of Nature; The
Clyde Sea Area; The English Lakes; The International Geography. Editor of
British Rainfall.
Ocean and Oceanography.
H. St. HENRY STURT. M.A.
{
mj,,n
Author of Idola Theatri ; The Idea of a Free Church ; Personal Idealism.
H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. r
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, J Murimuth* Nennius.
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins ; Charlemagne.
H. Wy. MAJOR-GENERAL HENRY WYLIE, C.S.I. f
Officiating Agent to the Governor-General of India for Baluchistan, 1898-1900. < Nepal (in part).
Resident at Nepal, 1891-1900. I.
H. W. R.* REV. HENRY WHEELER ROBINSON, M.A. r
Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior Kennicott Scholar, J _. .. . ,. ..
Oxford, 1901. Author of "Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthrop- 1 Oaoian (in part).
ology," in Mansfield College Essays; &c. L
L A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. (" Nachmanides;
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. President, I m a j ara .
Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short History of Jewish Litera- \ " "
ture; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages. {. "asi.
J. A. C. SIR JOSEPH ARCHER CROWE, K.C.M.G. /- u.,,, *-, c~ n ^\
See the biographical article : CROWE, SIR JOSEPH ARCHER. \ H( ' er ' V n f art >-
J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. (Lond.). f Mncphoiiraiir-
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of -{ rau!>l ' ne *"*
The Geology of Building Stones. I Neocomian.
J. A. L. R. JOHN ATHELSTAN LAURIE RILEY, M.A. J .., / . .%
Pembroke College, Oxford. Author of Athos, or the Mountain of the Monks ; &c. \ Nl istonans ( P art >-
J. A. P.* REV. JAMES .ALEXANDER PATERSON, M.A., D.D. f
Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, New College, Edinburgh. Editor < Numbers, BOOK of.
of Book of Numbers in the " Polychrome " Bible; &c. L
J. D. B. JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. f
King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. J Nicholas (King of Monte-
Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of 1 neern)
Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. [
J. F. -K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HiST.S. r
Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and_ Literature, Liverpool University.
Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. J Nunez de Arce.
Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of
Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. L
J. Hd. JOHN HOLLINGSHEAD (1827-1904). (*
Founder of the Gaiety Theatre, London. Member of Theatrical Licensing Reform -| Music Halls.
Committee, 1866 and 1892. Author of Gaiety Chronicles; &c. [
J. H. F. JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A. [ Name: Gree * and &"*an
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Names;
I Noricum.
J. H. H. JOHN HENRY Mn>DLET9N, M.A., LITT.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). r
Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director Mural TWoratinn fi -hurt)-
of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South J " U6COra
Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times;
Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times.
x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
J. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. f
Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and\ Neville (Family).
Pedigree. I
J. Holl. R. JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., Lixx.D. ("
Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge Uni- J M ann i onn i
versity Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I.; Napoleonic \ * a P' eon
Studies ; The Development of the European Nations ; The Life of Pitt ; &c.
3. Ja. JOSEPH JACOBS, Lrrr.D.
Professor of English Literature in the New York Jewish Theological Seminary of I
America. Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Corre- 1 Nethinim.
spending Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid. Author of Jews of
Angevin England; Studies in Biblical Archaeology; &c.
3. J. Lr. JOSEPH JACKSON LISTER, M.A., F.R.S. f M yce tozoa.
Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.
J. L. E. D. JOHN Louis EMIL DREYER.
Director of Armagh Observatory. Author of Planetary Systems from Tholes to { Observatory.
Kepler; &c. I
J. M. By. J. M. BRYDON. f Nfisfl pi d
Architect of Chelsea Town Hall and Polytechnic, &c. \ w
J. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. fNaucrarv
Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London -! ^ , . N
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. [ Neoplaionism (in part).
J. P. Pe. REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D. ("
Canon Residentiary, P. E. Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in J Nejef ;
the University of Pennsylvania. Director of the University Expedition to Babylonia, ] Nippur.
1888-1895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates. I
J. Si.* REV. JAMES SIBREE, F.R.G.S. I"
Principal Emeritus, United College (L.M.S. and F.F.M.A.), Antananarivo, Mada- J ___ ux
gascar. Member de 1'Academie Malgache. Author of Madagascar and its People; ] nossl " De>
Madagascar before the Conquest; A Madagascar Bibliography; &c. I
J. S. Bl. REV. JOHN SUTHERLAND BLACK, M.A., LL.D.
Assistant-editor of the o.th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Joint-editor of -< Nestorius (in part).
the Encyclopaedia Biblica. [_
J.S.P. JOHN SMITH FLETT, DSc.F.G.S f Mylonite; Napoleonite;
Petrographer to H.M. Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology ml M.-I.. Wan i,.]i n - c uon ;* .
Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsbv 1 5C *' We P hell ne-Syenite,
Medallist of the Geological Society of London. [ Nephehmtes; Obsidian.
J. S. K. JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., F.S.S., F.S.A. (Scot.).
Secretary, Royal Geographical Society. Knight of Swedish Order of North Star.
Commander of the Norwegian Order of St Olaf. Hon. Member, Geographical^ National Debt (in part).
Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, &c. Editor of Statesman's Year Book. Editor of I
the Geographical Journal.
J. T. Be. JOHN THOMAS BEALBY. rNikolayev (in part);
Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical i Nizhniy-Novgorod (in part);
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. [Novgorod (in part).
J. T. C. JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. fiviiiccoi c A/,
Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly) ?T~
Fellow of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in | Nautilus;
The University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. [ Octopus.
JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, Pn.D. f M.-I,..,, / .,-,,1
Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. \ a
J. T. S.*
J. W. JAMES WILLIAMS, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D.
All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln -J Navigation Laws.
College.
J. W.* JAMES WARD, LL.D. f .
See the biographical article: WARD, JAMES. >m -
Jno. W. JOHN WESTLAKE, K.C., LL.D., D.C.L.
Professor of International Law, Cambridge, 1888-1908. One of the Members for
United Kingdom of International Court of Arbitration under the Hague Convention, J Naturalization.
1900-1906. Author of A Treatise on Private International Law, or the Conflict of
Laws; Chapters on the Principles of International Law; part i. " Peace "; part ii.
J. W. G. JOHN WALTER GREGORY, D.Sc., F.R.S. f
Professor of Geology at the University of Glasgow. Professor of Geology and I New South Wales: Geology;
Mineralogy in the University of Melbourne, 1900-1904. Author of The Dead Heart 1 "New Zealand: Geology,
of Australia; &c.
J. W. L. G. JAMES WHITBREAD LEE GLAISHER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (~
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Formerly President of the Cambridge J H aD ; er John
Philosophical Society, and the Royal Astronomical Society. Editor of Messenger ]
of Mathematics and the Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics. {.
K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. f M u . sic * ! , Box;
Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the'} Na " Violin;
Orchestra. . L Nay; Oboe (in part).
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi
L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. f Muscovite*
Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of j M . ,.
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Minera- 1 ne '
logical Magazine. [ Niccolite.
L. R. F. LEWIS RICHARD FARNELL, M.A., LITT.D. f
Fellow and Senior Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford University Lecturer in Classical J M f
Archaeology; Wilde Lecturer in Comparative Religion. Corresponding Member 1 y sl *ry.
of Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of Evolution of Religion ; &c. I
L. V.* LUIGI VlLLARI. r
Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper Correspondent I ..
in East of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906, Philadelphia, 1907, ] "aples, Kingdom Of.
and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town and Country; &c. L
L. W. K. LEONARD WILLIAM KING, M.A., F.S.A. t
King's College, Cambridge. Assistant in Department of Egyptian and Assyrian j Mj nnllr . T/.. TV,;.,... v
Antiquities, British Museum; Lecturer in Assyrian at King's College and London 1
University. Author of The Seven Tablets of Creation ; &c. I
M. Ja. MORRIS JASTROW, PH.D. fltfohn- Nor<ral- Ninih-
Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania. Author of Religion { * mD)
of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c. L " usKu ; Oannes.
M. N. T. MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. -I Nauarchia.
Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum.
N. THE RT. HON. LORD NORTHCLIFFE.
Founder of the Daily Mail; Chief Proprietor of The Times, and other papers and I Newspapers: Price of Ncws-
periodicals. Chairman of the Associated Newspapers, Ltd., and the Amalgamated 1 papers.
Press, Ltd. L
N. D. M. NEWTON DENNISON MERENESS, A.M., PH.D. f jj ew York (in
Author of Maryland as a Proprietary Province. \
0. J. R. H. OSBERT JOHN RADCLIFFE HOWARTH, M.A. f Nnrwav rw -/,*,.,, ,*,j
Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1901. Assistant Secretary of the 1 ao **' . wgrapny a
British Association. I Statistics.
Professor of Geography in the University of Kiel, and Lecturer in the Imperial \ Ocean and Oceanography (in
Naval Academy. Author of Handbuch der Ozeanographie. part) .
f New Siberia Archipelago;
P. A. K. PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVTTCH KROPOTKIN. J Nikolayev (in part) ;
See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A. j Nizhniy-Novgorod (in part);
{ Novgorod (in part).
P. G. PERCY GARDNER, LL.D., LITT.D., F.S.A. f"
See the biographical article : GARDNER, PERCY. |_ Myron.
P. Gi. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., Lrrr.D. I"
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University I N.
Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo- 1 O.
logical Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology.
P. G. K. PAUL GEORGE KONODY. f
Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of The Artist. ] Neer, Van der (in part).
Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c.
P. La. PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S.
Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly J , T>I. i r *;
of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian 1 Morwa y* Physical Geography.
Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Keyser's Comparative Geology. I
R. A. W. ROBERT ALEXANDER WAHAB, C.B., C.M.G., C.I.E.
Colonel, Royal Engineers. Formerly H.M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary De-
limitation, and Superintendent, Survey of India. Served with Tirah Expeditionary
Force, 1897-1898; Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission, Pamirs, 1895; &c.
R. C. T. SIR RICHARD CARNAC TEMPLE, BART., C.I.E. r
Lieut.-Colonel. Formerly Chief Commissioner, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Hon. -| Nicobar Islands.
Fellow of Trinity Hall, Cambridge. Joint-author of Andamanese Language; &c. [
R. G. RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D., D.C.L. f Newman, Francis William;
See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD. \Newton, Sir C. T.
R. J. M. RONALD JOHN MACNEILL, M.A. r
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's < Murray Lord George
Gazette, London.
R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. f Muntjac;
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J M us ir Ox-
Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; The Deer\ , . '
of All Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c. I Mylodon.
R. La. ROBERT LATOUCHE.
Archivist of the department of Tarn et Garonne. Author of Histoire du comte du -j Normandy.
Maine au X. et au XI. siecle.
R. S. P.
xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). f
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the -aAHae^-u- Nonean uonc-
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, J "* en> Hans >
1613-1725 ; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 Nikon.
to 1706; &c.
i *
R. S. B. SIR ROBERT STAWELL BALL, F.R.S., LL.D.
Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and Geometry, University of Cambridge. I ij e i. u i ar Thpnrv
Director of the Cambridge Observatory and Fellow of King's College. Royal j neDUla neory.
Astronomer of Ireland, 1874-1892. Author of The Story of the Heavens; &c.
REGINALD STUART POOLE, LL.D. Jw,, m i.... / ,\
See the biographical article : POOLE, REGINALD STUART. \ Numismatics (in part) .
R. S. T. RALPH STOCKMANN TARR. f
Professor of Physical Geography, Cornell University. Special Field Assistant of the -j New York (in part).
U.S. Geological Survey. Author of Physical Geography of New York State. [_
S. A. C. STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. f
Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew and J Nabataeans (in part) ;
Aramaic, London University, 19041908. Council of Royal Asiatic Society, 1904 ] Nazarite (in part)
1905. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions; The Law of Moses and the Code of
Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient [
Palestine; &c.
St C. VISCOUNT ST CYRES. f Nicole
See the biographical article, IDDESLEIGH, ist Earl of. \
S. H. V.* SYDNEY HOWARD VINES, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. f
Professor of Botany in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, J Naegeli.
Oxford. Hon. Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge. Fellow of the University of 1
London. Author of Student's Text Book of Botany; &c.
S. K. STEN KONOW, PH.D. I"
Professor of Indian Philology in the University of Christiania. Officier de 1'Academie J MundSs.
Frangaise. Author of Stamavidhana Brahmana ; The Karpuramanjari ; Munda j
and Dravidian.
S. N. SIMON NEWCOMB, D.Sc., LL.D. f __. - D , A
See the biographical article : NEWCOMB, SIMON. \ Neptu
T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., LITT.D. f Nemorensis Lacus; Nepi;
Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ Nola; Nomentana, Via;
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of the-| Nomentum; Nora; Norba;
Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topography of Novara; Nuceria Alfaterna;
the Roman Campagna. [ Nuoro
T. A. C. TIMOTHY AUGUSTINE COGHLAN, I.S.O. f M
Agent-General for New South Wales. Government Statistician, New South Wales, J New South Wales:
1886-1905. Author of Wealth and Progress of New South Wales; Statistical Account | Geography and Statistics,
of Australia and New Zealand; &c. L
T. A. I. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. J Name: Law;
Trinity College, Dublin. I Octroi.
T. A. J. THOMAS ATHOL JOYCE, M.A. f
Assistant in Department of Ethnography, British Museum. Hon. Sec. Anthropo- -j Negro (in part).
logical Society. (.
T. Ba. SIR THOMAS BARCLAY. r H.,,*--!-*,,.
Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council of .
the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems of\ North Sea Fisheries Conven-
International Practice and Diplomacy ; &c. M. P. for Blackburn, 1910. [ tion.
T. F. C. THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D. /
Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass. \ NeO-Caesarea, Synod Of.
T. H. THOMAS HODGKIN, LL.D., LITT.D. f , v r
See the biographical article : HODGHN, THOMAS. \ NarS6S ^ Roman General >-
T. H. H.* SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc., F.R.S. \ Muscat;
Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent, Frontier. Surveys, India, 1892-) North- West Frontier Pro-
1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H.M. Commissioner for the Perso- 1 .,
Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Gates of India; &c. L
T. M. L. REV. THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, M.A., D.D. f
Principal and Professor of Church History, United Free Church College, Glasgow. { Occam, William of.
Author of Life of Luther ; &c. L
T. W. R. D THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D. r
Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. President of the Pali
Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal -{ Nagarjuna; Nikaya.
Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the Buddhists;
Early Buddhism ; Buddhist India ; Dialogues of the Buddha ; &c. L
V. H. VICTOR CHARLES MAHILLON. f
Principal of the Conservatoire Royal de Musique at Brussels. Chevalier of the < Oboe (in part).
Legion of Honour.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xiii
W. A. B. C. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. (Bern), r
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haut Dauphine; The Range of J Neuchatel.
the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in
History; &c. Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c. L
W. A. P. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. f Murat- Nibeluneenlied-
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, <
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c. L Nlcnol S I (of Russia).
W. Bl. WILLIAM BLAIN, C.B. (d. 1908). f National Debt: Conversions
Principal Clerk and First Treasury Officer of Accounts, 1903-1908. \ (in part).
W. Cr. WALTER CRANE. f Mnral narnratinn (in t>n.rt\
See the biographical article : CRANE, WALTER. \ M
W. E. G. SIR WILLIAM EDMUND GARSTIN, G.C.M.G. f
Governing Director, Suez Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General of Irrigation,-^ Nile (in part).
Egypt. Adviser to the Ministry of Public Works in Egypt, 1904-1908. L
W. F. C. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. f .,
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, \ f 4nce '
London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). |_ Obscenity.
W. F. R. WILLIAM FIDDIAN REDDAWAY, M.A. r
Censor of Non-Collegiate Students, Cambridge. Fellow and Lecturer of King's J Norway: History
College. Author of " Scandinavia," in Vol. xi. of the Cambridge Modern History. 1
W. F. W. WALTER FRANCIS WILLCOX, LL.B., Pn.D. r
Chief Statistician, United States Census Bureau. Professor of Social Science and
Statistics, Cornell University. Member of the American Social Science Association ! Negro (United States).
and Secretary of the American Economical Association. Author of The Divorce
Problem: A Study in Statistics; Social Statistics of the United States; &c. I
W. G.* WALCOT GIBSON, D.Sc., F.G.S. I"
H.M. Geological Survey. Author of The Gold-Bearing Rocks of the S. Transvaal; 4 Natal: Geology.
Mineral Wealth of Africa; The Geology of Coal and Coal-mining; &c.
W. H. Be. REV^ WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT^M.A., D.D., D.Lrrr.
i.J
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, London. I Nimrod;
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge ; Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth 1 Noah
College, Sheffield. Author of Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets; &c. I
W. H. F. SLR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. f ,__.,",
See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. 1
W. H. P. WALTER HERRIES POLLOCK, M.A. f
Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of Saturday Review, 1883-1894. Author of -j Mussel, Alfred de.
Lectures on French Poets; Impressions of Henry Irving; &c.
W. J. H. WILLIAM JACOB HOLLAND, A.M., D.D., LL.D., D.Sc., PH.D. f
Director of the Carnegie Institute, Pittsburg. President of the American Association "j Museums of Science,
of Museums, 1907-1909. Editor of Annals and Memoirs of Carnegie Museum. I
W. L. F. WALTER LYNWOOD FLEMING, A.M., PH.D. f
Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Author of Documentary -| Nullification.
History of Reconstruction ; &c.
W. L. G. WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A. r
Professor of Colonial History, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly J W nw Rrnnciik
Beit Lecturer in Colonial History, Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy 1 ' ew BrunswlcK
Council (Canadian Series). L
W. Mo. WILLIAM MORRIS. /M,,I T\- *-/
See the biographical article : MORRIS, WILLIAM. \ Mural Decoratl <" (*
W. M. D. WILLIAM MORRIS DAVIS, D.Sc., PH.D. f
Professor of Geology in Harvard University. Formerly Professor of Physical i North America.
Geography. Author of Physical Geography ; &c.
W. M. R. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. f ...
See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE G. \ munu0t
W. 0. M. WILLIAM O'CONNOR MORRIS (d. 1904).
Formerly Judge of County Courts, Ireland; and Professor of Law to the King's J nTnnnnll Daniel
Inns, Dublin. Author of Great Commanders of Modern Times; Irish History] ' uallel '
Ireland, 1798-1898; &c. L
W. P. R. THE HON. WILLIAM PEMBER REEVES. f
Director of London School of Economics. Agent-General and High Commissioner
for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Minister of Education, Labour, and Justice, New-^ New Zealand.
Zealand, 1891-1896. Author of The Long White Cloud: a History of New Zealand;
&c.
W. R. E. H. WILLIAM RICHARD EATON HODGKINSON, PH.D., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.C.S. f
Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ordnance College, Woolwich. Formerly J Nitrnzlvpprin
Professor of Chemistry and Physics, R.M.A., Woolwich. Part-author of Valentin- 1
Hodgkinson's Practical Chemistry; &c. L
XIV
iV . r\. I"l j
W. R. M.*
W. R. S.
W. S. IVl.
W. T. A.
W. W. R.*
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
WILLIAM RICHARD MORFILL, M.A. (d. 1910). r
Formerly Professor of Russian and other Slavonic Languages in the University of I ,,_*,.,.
.Oxford. Author of Russia; Slavonic^ neslor -
Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution
Literature; &c.
WILLIAM ROBERT MARTIN.
Captain, R.N. Formerly Lecturer at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Author
of Treatise on Navigation and Nautical Astronomy; &c.
WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.
See the biographical article : SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON.
WILLIAM SYMINGTON M'CORMICK, M.A., LL.D.
Secretary to the Carnegie Trust of the Scottish Universities. Formerly Professor
of English, University College, Dundee. Author of Lectures on Literature; &c.
WALKER TALLMADGE ARNDT, M.A.
WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, D. PH.
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York.
I
t Navigation.
f Nabataeans (in part) ;
I Nazarite (in part) ;
1 Numeral;
I Obadiah (in part).
I Occleve.
| New York (in part).
Nimes, Councils of.
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Munich.
Murad.
Muratori.
Mushroom.
Mutilation.
Mysore.
Narcissus.
Narcotics.
Nashville.
Nassau.
Nebraska.
Nevada.
New Caledonia.
Newcastle, Dukes of.
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
New England.
New Guinea.
New Hampshire.
New Hebrides.
New Jersey.
New Mexico.
New Orleans.
New York City.
Ney.
Niam-Niam.
Nicaragua.
Nice.
Nickel.
Nightingale, Florence.
Nimes.
Nitre-Compounds.
Nitrogen.
Norfolk, Earls and Dukes
of.
Norfolk.
Northampton, Earls and
Marquesses of.
Northamptonshire.
North Carolina.
North Dakota.
Northumberland, Earls and
Dukes of.
Northumberland.
Norwich.
Nottingham.
Nottinghamshire.
Novaya Zemlya.
Nuremberg.
Nursing.
Nut.
Oak.
Oates, Titus.
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XIX
MUN, ADRIEN ALBERT MARIE DE, COUNT (1841- ),
French politician, was born at Lumigny, in the department of
Seine-et-Marne, on the 28th of February 1841. He entered the
army, saw much service in Algeria (1862), and took part in
the fighting around Metz in 1870. On the surrender of Metz,
he was sent as a prisoner of war to Aix-la-Chapelle, whence he
returned in time to assist at the capture of Paris from the
Commune. A fervent Roman Catholic, he devoted himself
to advocating a patriarch type of Christian Socialism. His elo-
quence made him the most prominent member of the Cercles
Catholiques d'Ouvriers, and his attacks on Republican social
policy at last evoked a prohibition from the minister of war.
He thereupon resigned his commission (Nov. 1875), and in the
following February stood as Royalist and Catholic candidate
for Pontivy. The influence of the Church was exerted to secure
his election, and the pope during its progress sent him the order
of St Gregory. He was returned, but the election was declared
invalid. He was re-elected, however, in the following August,
and for many years was the most conspicuous leader of the
anti-Republican party. " We form," he said on one occasion,
'' the irreconcilable Counter-Revolution." As far back as 1878 he
had declared himself opposed to universal suffrage, a declaration
that lost him his seat from 1879 to 1881. He spoke strongly
against the expulsion of the French princes, and it was chiefly
through his influence that the support of the Royalist party was
given to General Boulanger. But as a faithful Catholic he obeyed
the encyclical of 1892, and declared his readiness to rally to a
Republican government, provided that it respected religion.
In the following January he received from the pope a letter
commending his action, and encouraging him in his social
reforms. He was defeated at the general election of that
year, but in 1894 was returned for Finistere (Morlaix). In
1897 he succeeded Jules Simon as a member of the French
Academy. This honour he owed to the purity of style
and remarkable eloquence of his speeches, which, with a few
pamphlets, form the bulk of his published work. In Ma voca-
tion sociale (1908) he wrote an explanation and justification of
his career.
MUN, THOMAS (1571-1641), English writer on economics,
was the third son of John Mun, mercer, of London. He began
by engaging in Mediterranean trade, and afterwards settled
down in London, amassing a large fortune. He was a member
of the committee of the East India Company and of the standing
commission on trade appointed in 1622. In 1621 Mun published
A Discourse of Trade from England unto the East Indies. But
it is by his England's Treasure by Forraign Trade that he is
nx. i
remembered in his history of economics. Although written
possibly about 1630, it was not given to the public until 1664,
when it was " published for the Common good by his son John,"
and dedicated to Thomas, earl of Southampton, lord high
treasurer. In it we find for the first time a clear statement of
the theory of the balance of trade.
MUNCHAUSEN, BARON. This name is famous in literary
history on account of the amusingly mendacious stories known as
the Adventures of Baron Munchausen. In 1785 a little shilling
book of 49 pages was published in London (as we know from the
Critical Review for December 1785), called Baron Munchausen' s
Narrative of his Marvellous Travels and Campaigns in Russia.
No copy is known to exist, but a second edition (apparently
identical) was printed at Oxford early in 1786. The publisher
of both these editions was a certain Smith, and he then sold it
to another bookseller named Kearsley, who brought out in
1786 an enlarged edition (the additions to which were stated in
the 7th edition not to be by the original author), with illustra-
tions under the title of Gulliver Reviv'd: the Singular Travels,
Campaigns, Voyages, and Sporting Adventures of Baron Munnik-
houson, commonly pronounced Munchaitsen; as he relates them
over a bottle when surrounded by his friends. Four editions
rapidly succeeded, and a free German translation by the poet
Gottfried August Burger, from the fifth edition, was printed
at Gottingen in 1786. The seventh English edition (1793),
which is the usual text, has the moral sub-title, Or the Vice of
Lying properly exposed, and had further new additions. In 1 792 a
Sequel appeared, dedicated to James Bruce, the African traveller,
whose Travels to Discover the Nile (1790) had led to incredulity
and ridicule. As time went on Munchausen increased in popu-
larity and was translated into many languages. Continuations
were published, and new illustrations provided (e.g. by T.
Rowlandson, 1809; A. Crowquill, 1859; A. Cruikshank, 1869; the
French artist Richard, 1878; Gustave Dore, 1862; W. Strang
and J. B. Clark, 1895). The theme of Baron Munchausen,
the " drawer of the long-bow " par excellence, has become part
of the common stock of the world's story-telling.
The original author was at first unknown, and until 1824
he was generally identified with Burger, who made the .German
translation of 1786. But Burger's biographer, Karl von Rein-
hard, in the Berlin Gesellschafter of November 1824, set the
matter at rest by stating that the real author was Rudolf Erich
Raspe (q.v.). Raspe had apparently become acquainted at
Gottingen with Hieronymus Karl Friedrich, Freiherr von
Miinchhausen, of Bodenwerder in Hanover. This Freiherr von
Miinchhausen (1720-1797) had been in the Russian service and
MUNCH-BELLINGHAUSEN MUNDAS
served against the Turks, and on retiring in 1760 he lived on
his estates at Bodenwerder and used to amuse himself and his
friends, and puzzle the quidnuncs and the dull-witted, by
relating extraordinary instances of his prowess as soldier and
sportsman. His stories became a byword among his circle,
and Raspe, when hard up f^r a living in London, utilized the
suggestion for his little brochure. But his narrative owed much
also to such sources, known to Raspe, as Heinrich Bebel's
Facetiae bebelianae (1508), J. P. Lange's Ddiciae academicae
(1665), a section of which is called Mendacia ridicula,
Castiglione's Cortcgiano (1528), the Travels of the Finkenritter,
attributed to Lorenz von Lauterbach in the i6th century, and
other works of this sort. Raspe can only be held responsible
for the nucleus of the book; the additions were made by book-
sellers' hacks, from such sources as Lucian's Vera historia, or
the Voyages imaginaires (1787), while suggestions were taken
from Baron de Toll's Memoirs (Eng. Irans. 1785), the conlem-
porary aeronaulical feats of Montgolfier and Blanchard, and any
topical " sensations " of the moment, such as Bruce's explora-
tions in Africa. Munchausen is thus a medley, as we have
it, a classical instance of the fanlastical mendacious literary
genre.
See the introduction by T. Seccombe to Lawrence and Bullen's
edition of 1895. Adolf Ellisen, whose father visited Freiherr von
Mtinchhausen in 1795 and found him very uncommunicative, brought
out a German edition in 1849, with a valuable essay on pseudology
in general. There is useful material in Carl Muller-Fraureuth's Die
deutschenLugendichtungenaufMunchkausen(i88i)andinGriesbacYi's
edition of Burger's translation (1890).
MUNCH-BELLINGHAUSEN, ELIGIUS FRANZ JOSEPH,
FREIHERR VON (1806-1871), Austrian poet and dramatist (who
wrote under the pseudonym " Friedrich Halm >; ), was born al
Cracow on Ihe 2nd of April 1806, the son of a districl judge.
Educaled al firsl al a private school in Vienna, he afterwards
altended lectures al Ihe university, and in 1826, at the early
age of twenty, married and entered Ihe governmenl service.
In 1840 he became Regierungsral, in 1845 Hofrat and custodian
of the royal library, in 1861 life member of the Austrian Herren-
haus (upper chamber), and from 1869 to 1871 was inlendanl
of the two court Iheatres in Vienna. He died at Hulteldorf
near Vienna on the 2 2nd of May 1871. Miinch-Bellinghausen's
dramas, among them notably Griseldis (1835; publ. 1837; nth
ed., 1896), Der Adept (1836; publ. 1838), Camoens (1838), Der
Sohn der WUdnis (1842; loth ed., 1896), and Der Fechter von
Ravenna (1854; publ. 1857; 6lh ed., 1894), are dislinguished by
elegance of language, melodious versification and clever construc-
tion, and were for a lime exceedingly popular.
His poems, Gedichle, were published in Stuttgart, 1850 (new ed.,
Vienna. 1877). His works, Santliche Werke, were published in
eight volumes (1856-1864), to which four posthumous volumes were
added in 1872. Ausgewdhlte Werke, ed. by A. Schlossar, 4 vols.
(1904). See F. Pachler, Jugend und Lehrjahre des Dichters F. Halm
(1877); J. Simiani, Gedenkblatter an F. Halm (1873). Halm's
correspondence with Enk von der Burg has been published by
R. Schachinger (1890).
MUNCIE, a city and the county-seal of Delaware counly,
Indiana, U.S.A., on Ihe West Fork of Ihe While river, about
57 m. N.E. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1880), 5210; (1800), 11,345;
(1900) 20,942, of whom 1235 were foreign-born; (1910 census)
24,005. It is served by the Cenlral Indiana, Ihe Chicago,
Cincinnali & Louisville, Ihe Cleveland, Cincinnali, Chicago &
Si Louis, the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, Ihe Forl
Wayne, Cincinnati & Louisville, and the Lake Erie & Western
railways, and by Ihe Indiana Union Traction, the Dayton &
Muncie Traction, and the Muncie & Portland Traction (eleclric
inler-urban) railways. The cily is buill on level ground (allitude
950 ft.), and has an altractive residential section. It is one
of the principal manufacturing centres in Indiana, owing largely
lo ils silualion in Ihe natural gas belt. In 1900 and in 1905
it was the largest producer of glass and glassware in Ihe
Uniled States, the value of its product in 1905 being $2,344,462.
Muncie (named after the Munsee Indians, one of the Ihree
principal divisions of Ihe Dela wares) was settled about 1833
and was chartered as a city in 1865.
MUNDAS. The Munda (Munda) family is the least numerous
of the linguistic families of India. It comprises several dialects
spoken in the two Chota Nagpur plateaux, the adjoining districls
of Madras and Ihe Central Provinces, and in the Mahadeo hills.
The number of speakers of Ihe various dialects, according to
the census of 1901, are as follow: Santali, 1,795,113; Mundari,
460,744; Bhumij, 111,304; Birhar, 526; Koda, 23,873; Ho,
371,860; Tun, 3880; Asuri, 4894; Korwa, 16,442; Korku, 87,675;
Kharia, 82,506; Juang, 10,853; Savara, 157,136; Gadaba, 37,230;
total, 3,164,036. Santali, Mundari, Bhumij, Birhar, Koda, Ho,
Tun, Asuri and Korwa are only siighlly differing forms of one
and Ihe same language, which can be called Kherwari, a name
borrowed from Santali Iradition. Kherwari is the principal
Munda language, and quite 88% of all Ihe speakers of Munda
longues belong lo it. The Korwa dialect, spoken in the western
part of Chota Nagpur, connects Kherwari with the remaining
Munda languages. Of Ihese il is mosl closely relaled lo the
Kurku language of the Mahadeo hills in Ihe Cenlral Provinces.
Kurku, in ils lurn, in important poinls agrees with Kharia and
Juang, and Kharia leads over to Savara and Gadaba. The
Iwo lasl-menlioned forms of speech, which are spoken in the
north-easl of Ihe Madras Presidency, have been much influenced
by Dravidian languages.
The Munda dialecls are nol in sole possession of Ihe lerrilory
where Ihey are spoken. They are, as a rule, only found in Ihe
hills and jungles, while Ihe plains and valleys are inhabiled by
people speaking some Aryan language. When brought into
close contacl with Aryan tongues the Munda forms of speech are
apt to give way, and in the course of time they have been
partly superseded by Aryan dialecls. There are accordingly
some Aryanized Iribes in norlhern India who have formerly
belonged lo Ihe Munda slock. Such are Ihe Cheros of Behar
and Chota Nagpur, the Kherwars, who are found in the same
localities, in Mirzapur and elsewhere, the Savaras, who formerly
extended as far north as Shahabad, and others. It seems
possible lo Irace an old Munda element in some Tibeto-Burman
dialecls spoken in Ihe Himalayas from Bashahr easlwards.
By race the Mundas are Dravidians, and their language was
likewise long considered as a member of Ihe Dravidian family.
Max Muller was the first to dislinguish the two families. He
also coined the name Munda for the smaller of them, which has
later on often been spoken of under other denominations, such as
Kolarian and Kherwarian. The Dravidian race is generally
considered as the aboriginal population of soulhern India. The
Mundas, who do nol appear lo have extended much farther
towards the south than at presenl, must have mixed with
the Dravidians from very early times. The so-called Nahali
dialed of Ihe Mahadeo hills seems lo have been originally a
Munda form of speech which has come under Dravidian influ-
ence, and finally passed under Ihe spell of Aryan longues. The
same is perhaps the case with the numerous dialects spoken by
Ihe Bhils. Al all evenls, Munda languages have apparently
been spoken over a wide area in central and north India. They
were Ihen early superseded by Dravidian and Aryan dialecls,
and al Ihe present day only scanty remnanls are found in the
hills and jungles of Bengal and the Cenlral Provinces.
Though Ihe Munda family is not connected wilh any olher
languages in India proper, it does not form an isolaled group. It
belongs to a widely spread family, which extends from India in
the west to Easter Island in the easlern Pacific in Ihe easl. In
Ihe first place, we find a connected language spoken by the
Khasis of the Khasi hills in Assam. Then follow the Mon-
Khmer languages of Farther India, Ihe dialecls spoken by Ihe
aboriginal inhabilants of the Malay Peninsula, the Nancowry
of Ihe Nicobars, and, finally, Ihe numerous dialecls of Auslro-
nesia, viz. Indonesic, Melanesic, Polynesic, and so on. Among
Ihe various members of Ihis vast group the Munda languages
are most closely related to the Mon-Khmer family of Farther
India. Kurku, Kharia, Juang, Savara and Gadaba are more
closely related lo lhal family lhan is Kherwari, the principal
Munda form of speech.
We do not know if the Mundas enlered India from wilhoul.
MUNDAY
If so, they can only have immigrated from the east. At all
events they must have been settled in India from a very early
period. The Sabaras, the ancestors of the Savaras, are already
mentioned in old Vedic literature. The Munda languages
seem to have been influenced by Dravidian and Aryan forms
of speech. In most characteristics, however, they differ widely
from the neighbouring tongues.
The Munda languages abound in vowels, and also possess a richly
developed system of consonants. Like the Dravidian languages,
they avoid beginning a word with more than one consonant. While
those latter forms of speech shrink from pronouncing a short conso-
nant at the end of words, the Mundas have the opposite tendency,
viz. to shorten such sounds still more. The usual stopped consonants
viz. k, c (i.e. English ch), t and p are formed by stopping the
current of breath at different points in the mouth, and then letting it
pass out with a kind of explosion. In the Munda language this
operation can be abruptly checked half-way, so that the breath does
not touch the organs of speech in passing out. The result is a sound
that makes an abrupt impression on the ear, and has been described
as an abrupt tone. Such sounds are common in the Munda languages.
They are usually written k', c', t' and p'. Similar sounds are also
found in the Mon-Khmer languages and in Indo-Chinese.
The vowels of consecutive syllables to a certain extent approach
each other in sound. Thus in Kherwari the open sounds a (nearly
English a in all) and a (the a in care) agree with each other and not
with the corresponding close sounds o (the o in pole) and e (the e in
pen). The Santali passive suffix ok' accordingly becomes dk' after
a or d ; compare sdn-dk', go, but dal-ok', to be struck.
Words are formed from monosyllabic bases by means of various
additions, suffixes (such as are added after the base), prefixes (which
Precede the base) and infixes (which are inserted into the base itself),
uffixes play a great r61e in the inflexion of words, while prefixes and
infixes are of greater importance as formative additions. Compare
Kurku k-on, Savara on, son ; Kharia ro-mong, Kherwari mu, nose ;
Santali bar, to fear; bo-to-r, fear; dal, to strike; da-pa-l, to strike each
other.
The various classes of words are not clearly distinguished. The
same base can often be used as a noun, an adjective or a verb. The
words simply denote some being, object, quality, action or the like,
but they do not tell us how they are conceived.
Inflexion is effected in the usual agglutinative way by means of
additions which are " glued " or joined to the unchanged base.
In many respects, however, Munda inflexion has struck out peculiar
lines. Thus there is no grammatical distinction of gender. Nouns
can be divided into two classes, viz. those that denote animate
beings and those that denote inanimate objects respectively. There
are three numbers the singular, the dual and the plural. On the
other hand, there are no real cases, at least in the most typical
Munda, languages. The direct and the indirect object are indicated
by means of certain additions to the verb. Certain relations in
time and space, however, are indicated by means of suffixes, which
have probably from the beginning been separate words with a definite
meaning. The genitive, which can be considered as an adjective
preceding the governing word, is often derived from such forms
denoting locality. Compare Santali hdr-rd, in a man; Mr-ran, of
a man.
Higher numbers are counted in twenties, and not in tens as in the
Dravidian languages.
The pronouns abound in different forms. Thus there are double
sets of the dual and the plural of the pronoun of the first person, one
including and the other excluding the person addressed. The Rev.
A. Nottrott aptly illustrates the importance of this distinction by
remarking how it is necessary to use the exclusive form if telling the
servant that " we shall dine at seven." Otherwise the speaker will
invite the servant to partake of the meal. In addition to the usual
personal pronouns there are also short forms, used as suffixes and
infixes, which denote a direct object, an indirect object, or a genitive.
There is a corresponding richness in the case of demonstrative
pronouns. Thus the pronoun " that " in Santali has different forms
to denote a living being, an inanimate object, something seen, some-
thing heard, and so on. On the other hand, there is no relative
pronoun, the want being supplied by the use of indefinite forms of the
verbal bases, which can in this connexion be called relative participles.
The most characteristic feature of Munda grammar is the verb,
especially in Kherwari. Every independent word can perform the
function of a verb, and every verbal form can, in its turn, be used as a
noun or an adjective. The bases of the different tenses can there-
fore be described as indifferent words which can be used as a noun,
as an adjective, and as a verb, but which are in reality none of them.
Each denotes simply the root meaning as modified by time. Thus
in Santali the base ddl-ket', struck, which is formed from the base
dal, by adding the suffix kef of the active past, can be used as a noun
(compare dal-ket'-ko, strikers, those that struck), as an adjective
(compare dal-ket'-hdr, struck man, the man that struck), and as a
verb. In the last case it is necessary to add an a if the action really
takes place; thus, dal-kef-a, somebody struck.
It has already been remarked that the cases of the direct and
indirect object are indicated by adding forms of the personal
pronouns to the verb. Such pronominal affixes are inserted before
the assertive particle a. Thus the affix denoting a direct object of the
third person singular is e, and by inserting it in dal-kef-a we arrive
at a form dal-ked-e-a, somebody struck him. Similar affixes can be
added to denote that the object or subject of an action belongs to
somebody. Thus Santali hap&n-in-e dal-ket'-tako-tin-a, son-my-he
struck-theirs-mine, my son who belongs to me struck theirs.
In a sentence such as har kord-e dal-ked-e-a, man boy-he struck-
him, the man struck the boy, the Santals first put together the ideas
man, boy, and a striking in the past. Then the e tells us that the
striking affects the boy, and finally the -a indicates that the whole
action really takes place. It will be seen that a single verbal form
in this way often corresponds to a whole sentence or a series of sen-
tences in other languages. If we add that the most developed
Munda languages possess different bases for the active, the middle
and the passive, that there are different causal, intensive and recipro-
cal bases, which are conjugated throughout, and that the person of
the subject is often indicated in the verb, it will be understood that
Munda conjugation presents a somewhat bewildering aspect. It
is, however, quite regular throughout, and once the mind becomes
accustomed to these peculiarities, they do not present any difficulty
to the understanding.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Max Muller, Letter to Chevalier Bunsen on the
Classification of the Turanian Languages. Reprint from Chr. K. J.
Bunsen, Christianity and Mankind, vol. iii. (London, 1854),
especially pp. 175 and sqq.; Friedrich Muller, Grundriss der Sprach-
vnssenschaft, vol. iii. part i. (Wien, 1884), pp. 106 and sqq., vol. iv.
part i. (Wien, 1888), p. 229; Sten Konow, Munda and Dravidian
Languages " in Grierson's Linguistic Survey of India, iv. i and teq.
(Calcutta, 1906). (S. K.)
MUNDAY (or MONDAY), ANTHONY (c. 1553-1633), English
dramatist and miscellaneous writer, son of Christopher Monday,
a London draper, was born in 1553-1554. He had already
appeared on the stage when in 1576 he bound himself
apprentice for eight years to John Allde, the stationer, an
engagement from which he was speedily released, for in
1578 he was in Rome. In the opening b'nes of his English
Romayne Lyfe (1582) he avers that in going abroad he
was actuated solely by a desire to see strange countries and
to learn foreign languages; but he must be regarded, if
not as a spy sent to report on the English Jesuit College in
Rome, as a journalist who meant to make literary capital out of
the designs of the English Catholics resident in France and
Italy. He says that he and his companion, Thomas Nowell,
were robbed of all they possessed on the road from Boulogne to
Amiens, where they were kindly received by an English priest,
who entrusted them with letters to be delivered in Reims.
These they handed over to the English ambassador in Paris,
where under a false name, as the son of a well-known English
Catholic, Munday gained recommendations which secured his
reception at the English College in Rome. He was treated with
special kindness by the rector, Dr Morris, for the sake of his
supposed father. He gives a detailed account of the routine of
the place, of the dispute between the English and Welsh students,
of the carnival at Rome, and finally of the martyrdom of Richard
Atkins (? 1 559-1 581). He returned to England in 1 578-1 579, and
became an actor again, being a member of the Earl of Oxford's
company between 1579 and 1584. In a Catholic tract entitled
A True Reporte of the death of M. Campion (1581), Munday
is accused of having deceived his master Allde, a charge which
he refuted by publishing Allde's signed declaration to the con-
trary, and he is also said to have been hissed off the stage. He
was one of the chief witnesses against Edmund Campion and
his associates, and wrote about this time five anti-popish
pamphlets, among them the savage and bigoted tract entitled A
Discoverie of Edmund Campion and his Confederates whereto
is added the execution of Edmund Campion, Raphe Sherwin, and
Alexander Brian, the first part of which was read aloud from
the scaffold at Campion's death in December 1581. His political
services against the Catholics were rewarded in 1584 by the post
of messenger to her Majesty's chamber, and from this time he
seems to have ceased to appear on the stage. In 1 598-1 599, when
he travelled with the earl of Pembroke's men in the Low
Countries, it was in the capacity of playwright to furbish up old
plays. He devoted himself to writing for the booksellers and
the theatres, compiling religious works, translating Amadis de
Gaule and other French romances, and putting words to popular
airs. He was the chief pageant-writer for the City from 1605
M UNDELL A M UNDT
to 1616, and it is likely that he supplied most of the pageants
between 1592 and 1605, of which no authentic record has been
kept. It is by these entertainments of his, which rivalled in
success those of Ben Jonson and Middleton, that he won his
greatest fame; but of all the achievements of his versatile talent
the only one that was noted in his epitaph in St Stephens,
Coleman Street, London, where he was buried on the loth of
August 1633, was his enlarged edition (1618) of Stow's Survey of
London. In some of his pageants he signs himself " citizen and
draper of London," and in his later years he is said to have
followed his father's trade.
Of the eighteen plays between the dates of 1584 and 1602 which
are assigned to Munday in collaboration with Henry Chettle, Michael
Dray ton, Thomas Dekker and other dramatists, only four are extant.
John a Kent and John a Cumber, dated 1595, is supposed to be the
same as Wiseman of West Chester, produced by the Admiral's men
at the Rae Theatre on the 2nd of December 1 594. A ballad of British
Sidanen, on which it may have been founded, was entered at
Stationers' Ha'.l in 1579. The Downfall of Robert Earl of Huntingdon,
afterwards called Re-bin Hood of merrie Sherwodde (acted in February
! 599) was followed in the same month by a second part, The Death
of Robert Earl of Huntingdon (printed 1601), in which he collaborated
with Henry Chettle. Munday also had a share with Michael Dray-
ton, Robert Wilson and Richard Hathway in the First Part of the
history of the life of Sir John Oldcastle (acted 1599), which was
printed in 1600, with the name of William Shakespeare, which was
speedily withdrawn, on the title page. William Webbe (Discourse
of English Poetrie, 1586) praised him for his pastorals, of which there
remains only the title, Sweet Sobs and Amorous Complaints of Shep-
herds and Nymphs; and Francis Meres (Palladis Tamia, 1598) gives
him among dramatic writers the exaggerated praise of being " our
best plotter." Ben Jonson ridiculed him in The Case is Altered
as Antonio Balladino, pageant poet. Munday's works usuaUy
appeared under his own name, but he sometimes used the pseudonym
of " Lazarus Piot." A. H. Bullen identifies him with the Shepherd
Tony " who contributed " Beauty sat bathing by a spring " and six
other lyrics to England's Helicon (ed. Bullen, 1899, p. 15).
The completest account of Anthony Munday is T. Seccombe's
article in the Diet. Nat. Biog. A life and bibliography are prefixed
to the Shakespeare Society s reprint of John a Kent and John a
Cumber (ed. J. P. Collier, 1851). His two " Robin Hood " plays
were edited by J. P. Collier in Old Plays (1828), and his English
Romayne Lyfe was printed in the Harleian Miscellany, vii. 136 seq.
(ed. Park, 1811). For an account of his city pageants see F. W.
Fairholt, Lord Mayor's Pageants (Percy Soc., No. 38, 1843).
MUNDELLA, ANTHONY JOHN (1825-1897), English educa-
tional and industrial reformer, of Italian extraction, was born at
Leicester in 1825. After a few years spent at an elementary
school, he was apprenticed to a hosier at the age of eleven; He
afterwards became successful in business in Nottingham, filled
several civic offices, and was known for his philanthropy. He
was sheriff of Nottingham in 1853, and in 1859 organized the
first courts of arbitration for the settlement of disputes between
masters and men. In November 1868 he was returned to
parliament for Sheffield as an advanced Liberal. He represented
that constituency until November 1885, when he was returned
for the Brightside division of Sheffield, which he continued to
represent until his death. In the Gladstone ministry of 1880
Mundella was vice-president of the council, and shortly after-
wards was nominated fourth charity commissioner for England
and Wales. In February 1886 he was appointed president
of the board of trade, with a seat in the cabinet, and was sworn
a member of the privy council. In August 1892, when the
Liberals again came into power, Mundella was again appointed
president of the board of trade, and he continued in this
position until 1894, when he resigned office. His resignation
was brought about by his connexion with a financial company
which went into liquidation in circumstances calling for the
official intervention of the board of trade. However innocent
his own connexion with the company was, it involved him in
unpleasant public discussion, and his position became untenable.
Having made a close study of the educational systems of Germany
and Switzerland, Mundella was an early advocate of compulsory
education in England. He rendered valuable service in con-
nexion with the Elementary Education Act of 1870, and the
educational code of 1882, which became known as the " Mundella
Code," marked a new departure in the regulation of public
elementary schools and the conditions of the Government
grants. To his initiative was chiefly due the Factory Act
of 1875, which established a ten-hours day for women and
children in textile factories; and the Conspiracy Act, which
removed certain restrictions on trade unions. It was he
also who established the labour department of the board of
trade and founded the Labour Gazette. He introduced and
passed bills for the better protection of women and children in
brickyards and for the limitation of their labours in factories;
and he effected substantial improvements in the Mines Regula-
tion Bill, and was the author of much other useful legislation.
In recognition of his efforts, a marble bust of himself, by Boehm,
subscribed for by 80,000 factory workers, chiefly women and
children, was presented to Mrs Mundella. He died in London
on the 2ist of July 1897.
MUNDEN, JOSEPH SHEPHERD (1758-1832), English actor,
was the son of a London poulterer, and ran away from home
to join a strolling company. He had a long provincial experience
as actor and manager. His first London appearance was in
1790 at Covent Garden, where he practically remained until
1811, becoming the leading comedian of his day. In 1813 he
was at Drury Lane. He retired in 1824, and died on the 6th
of February 1832.
MUNDEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Hanover, picturesquely situated at the confluence of the Fulda
and the Werra, 21 m. N.E. of Cassel by rail. Pop. (1905),
10,755. It is an ancient place, municipal rights having been
granted to it in 1 247. A few ruins of its former walls still survive.
The large Lutheran church of St Blasius (i4th-i5th centuries)
contains the sarcophagus of Duke Eric of Brunswick-Calenberg
(d. 1540). The 13th-century Church of St Aegidius was injured
in the siege of 1625-26 but was subsequently restored. There is
a new Roman Catholic church (1895). The town hall (1619),
and the ducal castle, built by Duke Eric II. about 1570, and
rebuilt in 1898, are the principal secular buildings. In the
latter is the municipal museum. There are various small
industries and a trade in timber. Miinden,often called " Hanno-
versch-Munden " (i.e. Hanoverian MUnden), to distinguish it
from Prussian Minden, was founded by the landgraves of
Thuringia, and passed in 1247 to the house of Brunswick. It
was for a time the residence of the dukes of Brunswick-Liineburg.
In 1626 it was destroyed by Tilly.
See Willigerod, Geschichte von Miinden (Gottingen, 1808); and
Henze, Fiihrer durch Miinden und Umgegend (Munden, 1900).
MUNDRUCUS, a tribe of South American Indians, one of the
most powerful tribes on the Amazon. In 1788 they completely
defeated their ancient enemies the Murasi After 1803 they
lived at peace with the Brazilians, and many are civilized.
MUNDT, THEODOR (1808-1861), German author, was born
at Potsdam on the igth of September 1808. Having studied
philology and philosophy at Berlin, he settled in 1832 at Leipzig,
as a journalist, and was subjected to a rigorous police supervision.
In 1839 he married Klara Mtiller (1814-1873), who under the
name of Luise Miihlbach became a popular novelist, and he
removed in the same year to Berlin. Here his intention of
entering upon an academical career was for a time thwarted
by his collision with the Prussian press laws. In 1842, however,
he was permitted to establish himself as privatdocent. In 1848
he was appointed professor of literature and history in Breslau,
and in 1850 ordinary professor and librarian in Berlin; there he
died on the 3oth of November 1861. Mundt wrote extensively
on aesthetic subjects, and as a critic he had considerable influence
in his time. Prominent among his works are Die Kunst der
deutschen Prosa (1837); Geschichte der Liter atur der Gegerrwart
(1840); Aesthetik; die Idee der Schonheit und des Kunstwerks im
Lichte unserer Zeit (1845, new ed. 1868); Die Gotterwelt der
alien Vdlker (1846, new ed. 1854). He also wrote several
historical novels; Thomas Milnzer (1841); Mendoza, der Voter
der Schelmen (1847) and Die Matadore (1850). But perhaps
Mundt's chief title to fame was his part in the emancipation of
women, a theme which he elaborated in his Madonna, Unter-
haltungen mil einer Heiligen (1835).
MUNICH
MUNICH (Ger. Miinchen), a city of Germany, capital of
the kingdom of Bavaria, and the third largest town in the
German Empire. It is situated on an elevated plain, on the
river Isar, 25 m. N. of the foot-hills of the Alps, about midway
between Strassburg and Vienna. Owing to its lofty site (1700 ft.
above the sea) and the proximity of the Alps, the climate is
changeable, and its mean annual temperature, 49 to 50 F.,
is little higher than that of many places much farther to the
north. The annual rainfall is nearly 30 in. Munich lies at
the centre of an important network of railways connecting
it directly with Strassburg (for Paris), Cologne, Leipzig, Berlin,
Rosenheim (for Vienna) and Innsbruck (for Italy via the Brenner
pass), which converge in a central station.
Munich is divided into twenty-four municipal districts, nine-
teen of which, including the old town, lie on the left bank of the
Isar, while the suburban districts of Au, Haidhausen, Giesing,
Bogenhausen and Ramersdorf are on the opposite bank. The
old town, containing many narrow and irregular streets, forms a
semicircle with its diameter towards the river, while round
its periphery has sprung up the greater part of modern Munich,
including the handsome Maximilian and Ludwig districts.
The walls with which Munich was formerly surrounded have
been pulled down, but some of the gates have been left. The
most interesting is the Isartor and the Karlstor, restored in
1835 and adorned with frescoes. The Siegestor (or gate of
victory) is a modern imitation of the arch of Constantine at
Rome, while the stately Propylaea, built in 1854-1862, is a
reproduction of the gates of the Athenian Acropolis.
Munich owes its architectural magnificence largely to Louis I.
of Bavaria, who ascended the throne in 1825, and his successors;
while its collections of art entitle it to rank with Dresden and
Berlin. Most of the modern buildings have been erected after
celebrated prototypes of other countries and eras, so that, as
has been said by Moriz Carriere, a walk through Munich affords
a picture of the architecture and art of two thousand years.
In carrying out his plans Louis I. was seconded by the architect
Leo von Klenze, while the external decorations of painting and
sculpture were mainly designed by Peter von Cornelius, Wilhelm
von Kaulbach and Schwanthaler. As opportunity offers, the
narrow streets of the older city are converted into broad, straight
boulevards, lined with palatial mansions and public buildings.
The hygienic improvement effected by these changes, and by
a new and excellent water supply, is shown by the mortality
averages 40-4 per thousand in 1871-1875, 30-4 per thousand
in 1881-1885, and 20-5 per thousand in 1903-1904. The archi-
tectural style which has been principally followed in the later
public buildings, among them the law courts, finished in 1897,
the German bank, St Martin's hospital, as well as in numerous
private dwellings, is the Italian and French Rococo, or Renais-
sance, adapted to the traditions of Munich architecture in the
1 7th and i8th centuries. A large proportion of the most notable
buildings in Munich are in two streets, the Ludwigstrasse and
the Maximilianstrasse, the creations of the monarchs whose
names they bear. The former, three-quarters of a mile long
and 40 yds. wide, chiefly contains buildings in the Renaissance
style by Friedrich von Gartner. The most striking of these are
the palaces of Duke Max and of Prince Luitpold; the Odeon, a
large building for concerts, adorned with frescoes and marble
busts; the war office; the royal library, in the Florentine palatial
style; the Ludwigskirche, a successful reproduction of the
Italian Romanesque style, built in 1829-1844, and containing
a huge fresco of the Last Judgment by Cornelius; the blind
asylum; and, lastly, the university. At one end this street is
terminated by the Siegestor, while at the other is the Feldher-
renhalle (or hall of the marshals), a copy of the Loggia dei Lanzi
at Florence, containing statues of Tilly and Wrede by Schwan-
thaler. Adjacent is the church of the Theatines, an imposing
though somewhat over-ornamented example of the Italian
Rococo style; it contains the royal burial vault. In the Maxi-
milianstrasse, which extends from Haidhausen on the right bank
of the Isar to the Max- Joseph Platz, King Maximilian II. tried
to introduce an entirely novel style of domestic architecture,
formed by the combination of older forms. At the east end it
is closed by the Maximilianeum, an extensive and imposing
edifice, adorned externally with large sculptural groups and
internally with huge paintings representing the chief scenes in
the history of the world. Descending the street, towards the
west are passed in succession the old buildings of the Bavarian
national museum, the government buildings in which the Com-
posite style of Maximilian has been most consistently carried
out, and the mint. On the north side of the Max- Joseph Platz
lies the royal palace, consisting of the Alte Residenz, the
Konigsbau, and the Festsaalbau. The Alte Residenz dates
from 1601 to 1616; its apartments are handsomely fitted up
in the Rococo style, and the private chapel and the treasury
contain several crowns and many other interesting and valuable
objects. The Festsaalbau, erected by Klenze in the Italian
Renaissance style, is adorned with mural paintings and sculp-
tures, while the Konigsbau, a reduced copy of the Pitti Palace
at Florence, contains a series of admirable frescoes from the
Niebelungenlied by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld. Adjoining
.the palace are two theatres, the Residenz or private theatre,
and the handsome Hof theater, accommodating 2500 spectators.
The Allerheiligen-Hofkirche, or court-church, is in the Byzantine
style, with a Romanesque facade.
The Ludwigstrasse and the Maximilianstrasse both end at
no great distance from the Frauenplatz in the centre of the old
town. On this square stands the Frauenkirche, the cathedral
church of the archbishop of Munich-Freising, with its lofty cupola
capped towers dominating the whole town. It is imposing from
its size, and interesting as one of the few examples of indigenous
Munich art. On the adjacent Marienplatz are the old town-
hall, dating from the I4th century and restored in 1865, and
the new town-hall, the latter a magnificent modern Gothic
erection, freely embellished with statues, frescoes, and stained-
glass windows, and enlarged in 1900-1905. The column in the
centre of the square was erected in 1638, to commemorate the
defeat of the Protestants near Prague by the Bavarians during
the Thirty Years' War.
Among the other churches of Munich the chief place is due to
St Boniface's, an admirable copy of an early Christian basilica.
It is adorned with a cycle of religious paintings by Heinrich
von Hess (1798-1863), and the dome is supported by sixty-
four monoliths of grey Tyrolese marble. The parish church of
Au, in the Early Gothic style, contains gigantic stained-glass
windows and some excellent wood-carving; and the church
of St John in Haidhausen is another fine Gothic structure.
St Michael's in the Renaissance style, erected for the Jesuits in
1583-1595, contains the monument of Eugene Beauharnais by
Thorwaldsen. The facade is divided into storeys, and the
general effect is by no means ecclesiastical. St Peter's is inter-
esting as the oldest church in Munich (i2th century), though no
trace of the original basilica remains. Among newer churches
the most noticeable are the Evangelical church of St Luke, a
Transitional building, with an imposing dome, finished in 1896,
and the Gothic parochial church of the Giesing suburb, with a
tower 312 ft. high and rich interior decorations (1866-1884).
The valuable collections of art are enshrined in handsome
buildings, mostly in the Maximilian suburb on the north side
of the town. The old Pinakothek, erected by Klenze in 1826-
1836, and somewhat resembling the Vatican, is embellished
externally with frescoes by Cornelius and with statues of twenty-
four celebrated painters from sketches by Schwanthaler. It
contains a valuable and extensive collection of pictures by the
earlier masters, the chief treasures being the early German
and Flemish works and the unusually numerous examples of
Rubens. It also affords accommodation to more than 300,000
engravings, over 20,000 drawings, and a large collection of
vases. Opposite stands the new Pinakothek, built 1846-1853,
the frescoes on which, designed by Kaulbach, show the effects of
wind and weather. It is devoted to works by painters of the
last century, among which Karl Rottmann's Greek landscapes
are perhaps the most important. The Glyptothek, a building by
Klenze in the Ionic style, and adorned with several groups and
MUNICH
single statues, contains a valuable series of sculptures, extending
from Assyrian and Egyptian monuments down to works by
Thorwaldsen and other modern masters. The celebrated
Aeginetan marbles preserved here were found in the island of
Aegina in 1811. Opposite the Glyptothek stands the exhibition
building, in the Corinthian style, it was finished in 1845, and is
used for periodic exhibitions of art. In addition to the museum
of plaster casts, the Antiquarium (a collection of Egyptian, Greek
and Roman antiquities under the roof of the new Pinakothek)
and the Maillinger collection, connected with the historical
museum, Munich also contains several private galleries. Fore-
most among these stand the Schack Gallery, bequeathed by
the founder, Count Adolph von Schack, to the emperor William
II. in 1894, rich in works by modern German masters, and the
Lotzbeck collection of sculptures and paintings. Other struc-
tures and institutions are the new buildings of the art association ;
the academy of the plastic arts (1874-1885), in the Renaissance
style; and the royal arsenal (Zeughaus) with the military
museum. The Schwanthaler museum contains models of most
of the great sculptor's works.
The immense scientific collection in the Bavarian national
museum, illustrative of the march of progress from the Roman
period down tp the present day, compares in completeness
with the similar collections at South Kensington and the Musee
de Cluny. The building which now houses this collection was
erected in 1894-1900. On the walls is a series of well-executed
frescoes of scenes from Bavarian history, occupying a space of
16,000 sq. ft. The ethnographical museum, the cabinet of
coins, and the collections of fossils, minerals, and physical
and optical instruments, are also worthy of mention. The art
union, the oldest and roost extensive in Germany, possesses a
good collection of modern works. The chief place among the
scientific institutions is due to the academy of science, founded
in 1759. The royal library contains over 1,300,000 printed
volumes and 30,000 manuscripts. The observatory is equipped
with instruments by the celebrated Josef Fraunhofer.
At the head of the educational institutions of Munich stands
the university, founded at Ingolstadt in 1472, removed to
Landshut in 1800, and transferred thence to Mumch in 1826.
In addition to the four usual faculties there is a fifth of political
economy. In connexion with the university are medical and
other schools, a priests' seminary, and a library of 300,000
volumes. The polytechnic institute (Technische Hochschule) in
1899 acquired the privilege of conferring the degree of doctor
of technical science. Munich contains several gymnasia or
grammar-schools, a military academy, a veterinary college, an
agricultural college, a school for architects and builders, and
several other technical schools, and a conservatory of music.
The general prison in the suburb of Au is considered a model
of its kind; and there is also a large military prison. Among
other public buildings, the crystal palace (Glas-palast), 765 ft.
in length, erected for the great exhibition of 1854, is now used,
as occasion requires, for temporary exhibitions. The Wittelsbach
palace, built in 1843-1850, in the Early English Pointed style, is
one of the residences of the royal family. Among the numerous
monuments with which the squares and streets are adorned,
the most important are the colossal statue of Maximilian II.
in the Maximilianstrasse, the equestrian statues of Louis I. and
the elector Maximilian I., the obelisk erected to the 30.000
Bavarians who perished in Napoleon's expedition to Moscow,
the Wittelsbach fountain (1895), the monument commemorative
of -the peace of 1871, and the marble statue of Justus Liebig,
the chemist, set up in 1883.
The English garden (Englischer Garten), to the north-east of
the town, is 600 acres in extent, and was laid out by Count
Rumford in imitation of an English park. On the opposite bank
of the Isar, above and below the Maximilianeum, extend the
Gasteig promenades, commanding fine views of the town. To
the south-west of the town is the Theresienwiese, a large common
where the popular festival is celebrated in October. Here is
situated the Ruhmeshalle or hall of fame, a Doric colonnade
containing busts of eminent Bavarians. In front of it is a
colossal bronze statue of Bavaria, 170 ft. high, designed by
Schwanthaler. The botanical garden, with its large palm-house,
the Hofgarten, surrounded with arcades containing frescoes of
Greek landscapes by Rottmann, and the Maximilian park to
the east of the Isar, complete the list of public parks.
The population of Munich in 1905 was 538,393. The per-
manent garrison numbers about 10,000 men. Of the population,
84% are Roman Catholic, 14% Protestants, and 2% Jews.
Munich is the seat of the archbishop of Munich-Freising
and of the general Protestant consistory for Bavaria. About
twenty newspapers are published here, including the Allgemeine
Zeitung. Some of the festivals of the Roman Church are cele-
brated with considerable pomp; and the people also cling to
various national fetes, such as the Metzgersprung, the Schaffler-
tanz, and the great October festival.
Munich has long been celebrated for its artistic handicrafts,
such as bronze-founding, glass- staining, silversmith's work, and
wood-carving, while the astronomical instruments of Fraunhofer
and the mathematical instruments of Traugott Lieberecht von
Ertel (1778-1858) are also widely known. Lithography, which
was invented at Munich at the end of the i8th century, is
extensively practised here. The other industrial products
include wall-paper, railway plant, machinery, gloves and
artificial flowers. The most characteristic industry, however,
is brewing. Four important markets are held at Munich
annually. The city is served by an extensive electric tramway
system.
History. The Villa Munichen or Forum ad monachos, so
called from the monkish owners of the ground on which it lay,
was first called into prominence by Duke Henry the Lion, who
established a mint here in 1158, and made it the emporium for
the salt coming from Hallein and Reichenhall. The Bavarian
dukes of the Wittelsbach house occasionally resided at Munich,
and in 1255 Duke Louis made it his capital, having previously
surrounded it with walls and a moat. The town was almost
entirely destroyed by fire in 1327, after which the emperor Louis
the Bavarian, in recognition of the loyalty of the citizens,
rebuilt it very much on the scale it retained down to the beginning
of the 1 9th century. Among the succeeding rulers those who did
most for the town in the erection of handsome buildings and the
foundation of schools and scientific institutions were Albert V.,
William V., Maximilian I., Max Joseph and Charles Theodore.
In 1632 Munich was occupied by Gustavus Adolphus, and in
1705, and again in 1742, it was in possession of the Austrians.
In 1791 the fortifications were razed.
Munich's importance in the' history of art is entirely of modern
growth, and may be dated from the acquisition of the Aeginetan
marbles by Louis I., then crown prince, in 1812. Among the
eminent artists of this period whose names are more or less
identified with Munich were Leo von Klenze (1784-1864),
Joseph Daniel Ohlmiiller (1791-1839), Friedrich von Gartner
(1792-1847), and Georg Friedrich Ziebland (1800-1873), the
architects; Peter von Cornelius (1783-1867), Wilhelm von Kaul-
bach (1804-1874), Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld (1794-1872),
and Karl Rottmann, the painters; and Ludwig von Schwanthaler,
the sculptor. Munich is still the leading school of painting in
Germany, but the romanticism of the earlier masters has been
abandoned for drawing and colouring of a realistic character.
Karl von Piloty (1826-1886) and Wilhelm Diez (1839-1907) long
stood at the head of this school.
See Mittheilungcn de.s statistischen Bureaus der Stadt Munchen (vols.
i.-v., 1875-1882); Sold, Munchen mil seinen Umgebungen (1854);
Reber, Bautechnischer Fiihrer durch die Stadt Munchen (1876) ; Daniel,
Handbuch der Geographic (new ed., 1895); Prantl, Geschichte der
Ludwig- Maximilians Universitat (Munich, 1872); Goering, 30 Jahre
Munchen (Munich, 1904); von Ammon, Die Gegend von Munchen
sologisch geschildert (Munich, 1895); Kronegg, Illustrierte Geschichte
er Stadt Munchen (Munich, 1903); the Jahrbuch fur Munchener
Geschichte, edited by Reinhardstottner and Trautmann (Munich,
1887-1894); Aufleger and Trautmann, Alt-Miinchen in Bild und
Wort (Munich, 1895) ; Rohmeder, Munchen als Handelsstadt (Munich,
1905); H. Tinsch, Das Stadtrecht von Munchen (Bamberg, 1891);
F. Pecht, Geschichte der munchener Kunst im 19 Jahrhundert (Munich,
1888) ; and Trautwein, Fiihrer durch Munchen (2Othed., 1906). There
is an English book on Munich by H..R. Wadleigh (1910).
MUNICIPALITY MUNICIPIUM
MUNICIPALITY, a modern term (derived from Lat. muni-
cipium; see below), now used both for a city or town which
is organized for self-government under a municipal corporation,
and also for the governing body itself. Such a corporation
in Great Britain consists of a head as a mayor or provost, and
of superior members, as aldermen and councillors, together with
the simple corporators, who are represented by the governing
body; it acts as a person by its common seal, and has a perpetual
succession, with power to hold lands subject to the restrictions
of the Mortmain laws; and it can sue or be sued. Where
necessary for its primary objects, every corporation has power
to make by-laws and to enforce them by penalties, provided they
are not unjust or unreasonable or otherwise inconsistent with
the objects of the charter or other instrument of foundation.
See BOROUGH, COMMUNE, CORPORATION, LOCAL GOVERNMENT,
FINANCE, &c., and for details of the functions of the municipal
government see the sections under the general headings of the
different countries and the sections on the history of these countries.
MUNICIPIUM (Lat. munus, a duty or privilege, capere, to
take), in ancient Rome, the term applied primarily to a status,
a certain relation between individuals or communities and the
Roman state; subsequently and in ordinary usage to a com-
munity, standing in such a relation to Rome. Whether the
name signifies the taking up of burdens or the acceptance of
privileges is a disputed point. But as ancient authorities are
unanimous in giving munus in this connexion the sense of
" duty " or " service," it is probable that the chief feature
of municipality was the performance of certain services to
Rome. 1 This view is confirmed by all that we know about
the towns to which the name was applied in republican times.
The status had its origin in the conferment of citizenship upon
Tusculum in 381 B.C. (Livy vi. 26; cf. Cic. pro Plane. 8, 19),
and was widely extended in the settlement made by Rome at
the close of the Latin War in 338 B.C. (see ROME, History).
Italian towns were then divided into three classes: (i) Coloniae
civium Romanorum, whose members had all the rights of citizen-
ship; (2) municipia, which received partial citizenship; (3) foeder-
alae civitates (including the so-called Latin colonies), which
remained entirely separate from Rome, and stood in relations
with her which were separately arranged by her for each state by
treaty (foedus). The munitipia stood in very different degrees
of dependence on Rome. Some, such as Fundi (Livy viii. 14;
cf. ibid. 19), enjoyed a local self-government only limited in the
matter of jurisdiction; others, such as Anagnia (Livy ix. 43;
Festus, de verb, signification, s.v. " municipium," p. 127, ed.
Muller), were governed directly from Rome. But they all had
certain features in common. Their citizens were called upon
to pay the same dues and perform the same service in the legions
as full Roman citizens, but were deprived of the chief privileges
of citizenship, those of voting in the Comitia (jus suffragii), and
of holding Roman magistracies (jus honorum). It would also
appear from Festus (op. cit. s.v. praefectura, p. 233) that juris-
diction was entrusted in every municipium to praefecti juri
dicundo sent out from Rome to represent the Praetor Urbanus. 2
The conferment of municipality can therefore hardly have been
regarded as other than an imposing of burdens, even in the
case of those cities which retained control of their own affairs.
But after the close of the second Punic War, when Rome had
become the chief power, not only in Italy, but in all the neigh-
bouring lands round the Mediterranean, we can trace a growing
tendency among the Italian cities to regard citizenship of this
great state as a privilege, and to claim complete citizenship as
a reward of their services in helping to build up the Roman
power. During the 2nd century B.C. the jus suffragii and jus
honorum were conferred upon numerous municipia (Livy xxxviii.
36, 37), whose citizens were then enrolled in the Roman tribes.
They can have exercised their public rights but seldom, owing to
their distance from Rome; but the consulships of C. Marius,
1 For a contrary view, however, see Marquardt, Rom. Staatsverw.
i. p. 26, n. 2 (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1881), and authorities there cited.
1 For a different view see Willems, Droit public romain, p. 381
(Louvain, 1874).
a municeps of Arpinum (between 107 and 100 B.C.), and the
strength of the support given to Tiberius Gracchus in the
assembly by the voters from Italian towns (133 B.C.) show what
an important influence the members of these municipia could
occasionally exercise over Roman politics. The cities thus
privileged, however, though receiving complete Roman citizen-
ship, were not, as the logic of public law might seem to demand,
incorporated in Rome, but continued to exist as independent
urban units; and this anomaly survived in the municipal system
which was developed, on the basis of these grants of citizen-
ship, after the Social War. That system recognized the municeps
as at once a citizen of a self-governing city community, and
a member of the city of Rome, his dual capacity being illustrated
by his right of voting both in the election of Roman magistrates
and in the election of magistrates for his cwn town.
The result of the Social War which broke out in 91 B.C.
(see ROME: History) was the establishment of a new uniform
municipality throughout Italy, and the obliteration of any
important distinction between the three classes established
after the Latin War. By the Lex Julia of 90 B.C. and the
Lex Plautia Papiria of 89 B.C. every town in Italy which made
application in due form received the complete citizenship.
The term municipium was no longer confined to a particular
class of Italian towns but was adopted as a convenient name
for all urban communities of Roman citizens in Italy. The
organization of a municipal system, which should regulate the
governments of all these towns on a uniform basis, and define
their relation to the Roman government, was probably the work
of Sulla, who certainly gave great impetus to the foundation
in the provinces of citizen colonies, which were the earliest
municipia outside Italy, and enjoyed the same status as the
Italian towns. Julius Caesar extended the sphere of the Roman
municipal system by his enfranchisement of Cisalpine Gaul,
and the consequent inclusion of all the towns of that region
in the category of municipia. He seems also to have given
a more definite organization to the municipia as a whole. But,
excepting those in Cisalpine Gaul, the municipal system still
embraced no towns outside Italy other than the citizen colonies.
Augustus and his successors adopted the practice of granting
to existing towns in the provinces either the full citizenship,
or a partial ciiritas known as the jus Latii. This partial civitas
does not seem to have been entirely replaced, as in Italy, by
the grant of full privileges to the communities possessing it,
and the distinction survived for some time in the provinces
between coloniae, municipia juris Romani, and municipia juris
Latini. But the uniform system of administration gradually
adopted in all three classes rendered the distinction entirely
unimportant, and the general term municipium is used of all
alike. The incorporation of existing towns, hitherto non-Roman,
in the uniform municipal system of the principate took place
mainly in the eastern part of the Empire, where Greek civiliza-
tion had long fostered urban life. In the west city commu-
nities rapidly sprang up under direct Roman influence. The
development of towns of the municipal type on the sites where
legions occupied permanent quarters can be traced in several
of the western provinces; and it cannot be doubted that this
development became the rule wherever a body of Roman
subjects settled down together for any purpose and permanently
occupied a region. At any rate by the end of the ist century
of the principate municipia are numerous in the western as
well as the eastern half of the Empire, and the towns are every-
where centres of Roman influence.
Of the internal life of the municipia very little is known
before the Empire. For the period after Julius Caesar, however,
we have two important sources of information. A series of
municipal laws gives us a detailed knowledge of the constitution
imposed, with slight variations, on all the municipia; and a
host of private inscriptions gives particulars of their social life.
The municipal constitution of the ist century of the principate
is based upon the type of government common to Greece and
Rome from earliest times. , The government of each town
consists of magistrates, senate and assembly, and is entirely
8
MUNICIPIUM
independent of the Roman government except in certain cases
of higher civil jurisdiction, which come under the direct cog-
nisance of the praetor urbanus at Rome. On the other hand,
each community is bound to perform certain services to the
Imperial government, such as the contribution of men and
horses for military service, the maintenance of the imperial
post through its neighbourhood, and the occasional entertain-
ment of Roman officials or billeting of soldiers. The citizens
were of two classes: (i) cives, whether by birth, naturalization
or emancipation, (2) incolae, who enjoyed a partial citizenship
based on domicile for a certain period. Both classes were
liable to civic burdens, but the incolae had none of the privi-
leges of citizenship except a limited right of voting. The
citizens were grouped in either tribes or curiae, and accordingly
the assembly sometimes bore the name of Comitia Tributa,
sometimes that of Comitia Curiata. The theoretical powers
of these comitia were extensive both in the election of magis-
trates and in legislation. But the growing influence of the
senate over elections on the one hand, and on the other hand the
increasing reluctance of leading citizens to become candidates
for office (see below), gradually made popular election a mere
form. The senatorial recommendation of the necessary number
of candidates seems to have been merely ratified in the comitia;
and a Spanish municipal law of the ist century makes special
provision for occasions on which an insufficient number of
candidates are forthcoming. In Italy, however, the reality of
popular elections seems to have survived to a later date. The
inscriptions at Pompeii, for instance, give evidence of keenly
contested elections in the 2nd century. The local senate, or
curia, always exercised an important influence on municipal
politics. Its members formed the local nobility, and at an
early date special privileges were granted by Rome to provincials
who were senators in their native towns. For the composition,
powers, and history of the provincial senate see DECURIO.
The magistrates were elected annually, and were six in number,
forming three pairs of colleagues. The highest magistrates
were the Ilviri (Duoviri) juri dicundo, who had charge, as their
name implies, of all local jurisdiction, and presided over the
assembly. Candidates for this office were required to be over
25 years of age, to have held one of the minor magistracies,
and to possess all the qualifications required of members of the
local senate (see DECURIO). Next in dignity were the Hviri
aediles, who had charge -of the roads and public buildings, the
games and the corn-supply, and exercised police control through-
out the town. They appear to have been regarded as sub-
ordinate colleagues (collegae minores) of the Hviri juri dicundo,
and in some towns at least to have had the right to convene
and preside over the comitia in the absence of the latter. Indeed
many inscriptions speak of IVviri (Quatluorviri) consisting of
two IVviri juri dicundo and two IVviri aediles; but in the
majority of cases the former are regarded as distinct and
superior magistrates. The two quaestores, who appear to have
controlled finance in a large number of municipia, cannot be
traced in others; and it is probable that in the municipia, as
at Rome, the quaestorship was locally instituted, as need arose,
to relieve the supreme magistrates of excessive business. Other
municipal magistrates frequently referred to in the inscriptions
are the quinquennales and praefecti. The quinquennales super-
seded the Ilviri or IVviri juri dicundo every five years, and
differed from them only in possessing, in addition to their other
powers, those exercised in Rome before the time of Sulla by the
censors. Two classes of praefecti are found in the municipalities
under the Empire, both of which are to be distinguished from
the officials who bore that name in the municipia before the
Social War. The first class consists of those praefecti who were
nominated as temporary delegates by the Ilviri, when through
illness or compulsory absence they were unable to discharge
the duties of their office. The second class, referred to in
inscriptions by the name of praefecti ab decurionibus creati
lege Petronia, seem to have been appointed by the local senate
in case of a complete absence of higher magistrates, such as
would have led in Rome to the appointment of an interrex.
From a social point of view the municipia of the Roman Empire
may be treated under three heads: (i) as centres of local self-
government, (2) as religious centres, (3) as industrial centres, (i)
The chief feature of the local government of the towns is the wide-
spread activity of the municipal authorities in improving the general
conditions of life in the town. In the municipalities, as in Rome,
provision was made out of the public funds for feeding the poorest
Eart of the population, and providing a supply of corn which could
e bought Dy ordinary citizens at a moderate price. In Pliny's
time there existed in many towns public schools controlled by the
municipal authorities, concerning which Pliny remarks that they
were a source of considerable disturbance in the town at the times
when it was necessary to appoint teachers. He himself encouraged
the establishment of another kind of municipal school at Como,
where the leading townspeople subscribed for the maintenance of
the school, and the control, including the appointment of teachers,
remained in the hands of the subscribers. Physicians seem to have
been maintained in many towns at the public expense. The water-
supply was also provided out of the municipal budget, and controlled
by magistrates, appointed for the purpose. To enable it to bear the
expense involved in all these undertakings, the local treasury was
generally assisted by large benefactions, either in money or in works,
from individual citizens; but direct taxation for municipal purposes
was hardly ever resorted to. The treasury was filled out of the
Eroceeds of the landed possessions of the community, especially such
uitful sources of revenue as mines and quarries, and out of import
and export duties. It was occasionally subsidized by the emperor
on occasions of sudden and exceptional calamity.
2. The chief feature in the religious life of the towns was the
important position they occupied as centres for the cult of the
emperor. Caesar-worship as an organized cult developed sponta-
neously in many provincial towns during the reign of Augustus,
and was fostered by him and his successors as a means of promoting
in these centres of vigour and prosperity a strong loyalty to Rome
and the emperor, which was one of the firmest supports of the latter's
power. The order of Augustales, officials appointed to regulate the
worship of the emperor in the towns, occupied a position of dignity
and importance in provincial society. It was composed of the lead-
ing and the wealthiest men among the lower classes of the popula-
tion. By the organization of the order on these lines Augustus
secured the double object of maintaining Caesar-worship in all the
most vigorous centres of provincial life, and attracting to himself
and his successors the special devotion of the industrial class which
had its origin in the municipia of the Roman Empire, and has become
the greatest political force in modern Europe.
3. The development of this free industrial class is the chief feature
of the municipia considered as centres of industry and handicraft.
The rise to power of the equestrian order in Rome during the last
century of the Republic had to some extent modified the old Roman
principle that trade and commerce were beneath the dignity of
the governing class; but long after the fall of the Republic the aristo-
cratic notion survived in Rome that industry and handicrafts were
only fit for slaves. In the provincial towns, however, this idea was
rapidly disappearing in the early years of the Empire, and even in
the country towns of Italy the inscriptions give evidence not much
later of the existence of a large and nourishing free industrial class,
proud of its occupation, and bound together by a strong esprit de
corps. Already the members of this class show a strong tendency
to bind themselves together in gilds (collegia, sodalitates) , and the
existence of countless associations of the kind is revealed by the
inscriptions. The formation of societies for religious and other
purposes was frequent at Rome from the earliest times in all classes
of the free population. After the time of Sulla these societies were
regarded by the government with suspicion, mainly on account of the
political uses to which they were turned, and various measures were
passed for their suppression in Rome and Italy. This policy was
continued by the early emperors and extended to the whole Empire,
but in spite of opposition the gilds in the provincial towns grew and
flourished. The ostensible objects of nearly all such collegia of which
we have any knowledge were twofold, the maintenance of the
worship of some god, and provision for the performance of proper
funerary rights for its members. But under cover of these two main
objects, the only two purposes for which such combinations were
allowed under the Empire, associations of all kinds grew up. The
organization of the gilds was based on that of the municipality.
Each elected its officers and treasurers at an annual meeting, and
every five years a revision of the list of members was held, correspond-
ing to that of the senators held quinquennially by the city magis-
trates. It is doubtful how far these societies served to organize
and improve particular industries. There is no evidence to show
that any societies during the first three centuries consisted solely
of workers at a single craft. But there can be little doubt that the
later craft gilds were a development, through the industrial gilds
of the provincial towns, of one of the most ancient features of Roman
life.
Remarkable concord seems generally to have existed in the
municipia between the various classes of the population. This
is accounted for partly by the strong civic feeling which formed
a bond of unity stronger than most sources of friction, and
MUNIMENT MUNKACS
partly to the general prosperity of the towns, which removed
any acute discontent. The wealthy citizen seems always to
have had to bear heavy financial burdens, and to have enjoyed
in return a dignity and an actual political preponderance which
made the general character of municipal constitutions distinctly
timocratic.
The policy adopted by the early emperors of encouraging,
within the limits of a uniform system, the independence and
civic patriotism of the towns, was superseded in the 3rd and
4th centuries by a deliberate effort to use the towns as instru-
ments of the imperial government, under the direct control of
the emperor or his representatives in the provinces. This
policy was accompanied by a gradual decay of civic feeling and
municipal enterprise, which showed itself mainly in the un-
willingness of the townsmen to become candidates for local
magistracies, or to take up the burdens entailed in membership of
the municipal senate. Popular control of the local government
of the towns was ceasing to be a reality as early as the end of
the ist century of the Empire. Two centuries later local
government was a mere form. And the self-governing com-
munities of the middle ages were a restoration, rather than a
development, of the flourishing and independent municipalities
of the age of Augustus and his immediate successors.
AUTHORITIES. C. Bruns, Fontes juris romani, c. III., No. 18,
and c. IV. (Freiburg, 1893), for Municipal Laws and references to
Mommsen's commentary in C.I.L. ; E. Kuhn, Stadtische u. burgerliche
Verfasxung des rom. Reichs (Leipzig, 1864): Marquardt, Romische
Staatsverwaltung, I. i. (Leipzig, 1881); Toutain. in Daremberg-
Saglio Dictionnaire des antiquites grecques el romaines, s.v. " Munici-
pium "; S. Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius, c. 2
and 3 (London, 1904). For the gilds see Mommsen, De collegiis el
sodaliciis Romanorum (Keil, 1843); Liebenam, Geschichte u. Organi-
sation des rom. Vereinswesens (Leipzig, 1890). (A. M. CL.)
MUNIMENT, a word chiefly used in the plural, as a collective
term for the documents, charters, title-deeds, &c. relating to
the property, rights and privileges of a coiporation, such as a
college, a family or private person, and kept as " evidences "
for defending the same. Hence the medieval usage of the word
munimenlum, in classical Latin, a defence, fortification, from
munire, to defend.
MUNI RIVER SETTLEMENTS, or SPANISH GUINEA, a Spanish
protectorate on the Guinea Coast, West Africa, rectangular
in form, with an area of about 9800 sq. m. and an estimated
population of 150,000. The protectorate extends inland about
125 miles and is bounded W. by the Atlantic, N. by the German
colony of Cameroon, E. and S. by French Congo. The coast-
line, 75 m. long, stretches from the mouth of the Campo in
2 10' N. to the mouth of the Muni in i N., on the north arm
of Corisco Bay. The small islands of Corisco ((?..), Elobey
Grande, Elobey Chico and Bana in Corisco Bay also belong
to Spain.
From the estuary of the Campo the coast trends S.S.W. in
a series of shallow indentations, until at the bold bluff of Cape
San Juan it turns eastward and forms Corisco Bay. The coast
plain, from 12 to 25 m. wide, is succeeded by the foot-hills of
the Crystal Mountains, which traverse the country in a north
to south direction. These are a table-land, from which rise
granitic hills 700 to 1200 ft. above the geueral level, which is
about 2500 ft. above the sea. The mountainous region, which
extends inland beyond the Spanish frontier, contains many
narrow valleys and marshy depressions. The greater part of
the country forms the basin of the river Benito, which, rising
in French Congo a little east of the frontier, flows through the
centre of the Spanish protectorate and enters the sea, after a
course of 300 m., about midway between the Campo and Muni
estuaries. The southern bank of the lower course of the Campo
and the northern bank of the lower course of the Muni, form
part of the protectorate. The mouths of the Campo and
Benito are obstructed by sand bars, whereas the channel leading
to the Muni is some 36 ft. deep and the river itself is more than
double that depth. It is from this superiority of access that
the country has been named after the Muni River. The course
of all the rivers is obstructed by rapids in their descent from
the table-land to the plain. The greater part of the country
is covered with dense primeval forest. This forest growth is
due to the fertility of the soil and the great rainfall, Spanish
Guinea with the neighbouring Cameroon country possessing
one of the heaviest rain records of the world. The humidity
of the climate joined to the excessive heat (the average tempera-
ture is 78 F.) makes the climate trying. In the eastern parts
of the protectorate the forest is succeeded by more open country.
Among the most common trees are oil-palms, rubber-trees, ebony
and mahogany. The forests are the home of monkeys and of
innumerable birds and insects, often of gorgeous colouring.
In the north-east of the country elephants are numerous.
The inhabitants are Bantu-Negroid, the largest tribe repre-
sented being the Fang (q.v.), called by the Spaniards Pamues.
They are immigrants from the Congo basin and have pushed
before them the tribes, such as the Benga, which now occupy
the coast-lands. The villages of the Fang are usually placed
on the top of small hills. They cultivate the yam, banana and
manioc, and are expert fishers and hunters. The European
settlements are confined to the coast. There are trading stations
at the mouths of the Campo, Benito and Muni rivers, at Bata,
midway between the Campo and Benito, and on Elobey Chico.
There are cocoa, coffee and other plantations, but the chief
trade is in natural products, rubber, palm oil and palm kernels,
and timber. Cotton goods and alcohol are the principal imports.
Trade is largely in the hands of British and German firms. The
annual value of the trade in 1903-1906 was about 100,000.
Spain became possessed of Fernando Po at the end of the
i8tb century, and Spanish traders somewhat later established
" factories " on the neighbouring coasts' of the mainland, but
no permanent occupation appears to have been contemplated.
During the igth century a number of treaties were concluded
betv/een Spanish naval officers and the chiefs of the lower
Guinea coast, and when the partition of Africa was in progress
Spain laid claim to the territory between the Campo river and
the Gabun. Germany and France also claimed the territory,
but in 1885 Germany withdrew in favour of France. After
protracted negotiations between France and Spain a treaty
was signed in June 1900 by which France acknowledged Spanish
sovereignty over the coast region between the Campo and
Muni rivers and the hinterland as far east as 11 20' E. of
Greenwich, receiving in return concessions from Spain in the
Sahara (see Rio DE ORC), and the right of pre-emption over
Spain's West African possessions. In 1901-1902 the eastern
frontier was delimited, being modified in accordance with
natural features. The newly acquired territories were placed
under the superintendence of the governor-general of Fernando
Po, sub-governors being stationed at Bata, Elobey Chico and
Corisco.
See R. Beltran y R6zpide, La Guinea espanola (Madrid, 1901),
and Guinea continental espanola (Madrid, 1903); H. Lorin, "Lea
colonies espagnoles du golfe de Guinee " in Quest, dip. et col., vol.
xxi. (1906); E. L. Perea, " Estado actual de los territories espafioles
de Guinea " in Revisia de geog. colon, y mercantil (Madrid, 1905) ; J. B.
Roche, Aupays des Pahouins (Paris, 1904). A good map compiled
by E. d'Almonte on the scale of 1 :2oo,ooo was published in Madrid
in 1903. Consult also the works cited under FERNANDO Po.
MUNKACS, a town of Hungary, in the county of Bereg,
220 m. E.N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 13,640. It
is situated on the Latorcza river, and on the outskirts of the
East Beskides mountains, where the hills touch the plains. Its
most noteworthy buildings are the Greek Catholic cathedral
and the beautiful castle of Count Schonborn. In the vicinity,
on a steep hill 580 ft. high, stands the old fort of Munkacs,
which played an important part in Hungarian history, and was
especially famous for its heroic defence by Helene Zrinyi, wife
of Emeric Tokoli and mother of Francis Rakoczy II., for three
years against the Austrians (1685-1688). It was afterwards
used as a prison. Ypsilanti, the hero of Greek liberty, and
Kazinczy, the regenerator of Hungarian letters, were confined in
it. According to tradition, it was near Munkacs that the
Hungarians, towards the end of the gth century, entered the
country. In 1896 in the fort was built one of the " millennial
10
MUNKACSY MUNRO, R.
monuments " established at seven different points of the
kingdom.
MUNKACSY, MICHAEL VON (1844-1900), Hungarian painter,
whose real name was MICHAEL (MISKA) LEO LIEB, was the third
son of Michael Lieb, a collector of salt-tax in Munkacs, Hungary,
and of Cacilia Rock. He was born in that town on the 2oth
of February 1844. In 1848 his father was arrested at Miskolcz
for complicity in the Hungarian revolution, and died shortly
after his release; a little earlier he had also lost his mother,
and became dependent upon the charity of relations, of whom
an uncle, Rock, became mainly responsible for his maintenance
and education. He was apprenticed to a carpenter, Langi, in
1855, but shortly afterwards made the acquaintance of the
painters Fischer and Szamossy, whom he accompanied to Arad
in 1858. From them he received his first real instruction in
art. He worked mainly at Budapest during 1863-1865, and
at this time first adopted, from patriotic motives, the name by
which he is always known. In 1865 he visited Vienna, returning
to Budapest in the following year, and went thence to Munich,
where he contributed a few drawings to the Fliegende Blatter.
About the end of 1867 he was working at Dusseldorf, where he
was much influenced by Ludwig Knaus, and painted (1868-
1869) his first picture of importance, " The Last Day of a
Condemned Prisoner," which was exhibited in the Paris Salon
in 1870, and obtained for him a mMaille unique and a very
considerable reputation. He had already paid a short visit to
Paris in 1867, but on the 25th of January 1872 he took up his
permanent abode in that city, and remained there during the
rest of his working life. Munkacsy's other chief pictures are
" Milton dictating Paradise Lost to his Daughters " (Paris
Exhibition, 1878), " Christ before Pilate " (1881), " Golgotha "
(1883), " The Death of Mozart " (1884), " Arpad, chief of the
Magyars, taking possession of Hungary," painted for the new
House of Parliament in Budapest, and exhibited at the Salon
in 1893, and " Ecce Homo." He had hardly completed the
latter work when a malady of the brain overtook him, and he
died on the 3Oth of April 1900, at Endenich, near Bonn. Just
before his last illness he had been offered the directorship of
the Hungarian State Gallery at Budapest. Munkacsy's masterly
characterization, force and power of dramatic composition
secured him a great vogue for his works, but it is doubtful if
his reputation will be maintained at the level it reached during
his lifetime. " Christ before Pilate " and " Golgotha " were sold
for 32,000 and 35,000 respectively to an American buyer.
Munkacsy received the following awards for his work exhibited
at Paris: Medal, 1870, Medal, 2nd class; Legion of Honour,
1877; Medal of Honour, 1878; Officer of the Legion, 1878; Grand
Prix, Exhibition of 1889; Commander of the Legion, 1889.
See F. Walther Ilges, " M. von Munkacsy," Kiinstler Mono-
graphieji (1899); C. Sedelmeyer, Christ before Pilate (Paris, 1886);
I. Beavington Atkinson, " Michael Munkacsy," Magazine of Art
(1881). (E. F. S.)
MtiNNICH, BURKHARD CHRISTOPH, COUNT (1683-1767),
Russian soldier and statesman, was born at Neuenhuntorf, in
Oldenburg, in 1683, and at an early age entered the French
service. Thence he transferred successively to the armies of
Hesse-Darmstadt and of Saxony, and finally, with the rank of
general-in-chief and the title of count, he joined the army of
Peter II. of Russia. In 1732 he became field-marshal and
president of the council of war. In this post he did good
service in the re-organization of the Russian army, and founded
the cadet corps which was destined to supply the future genera-
tions of officers. In 1 734 he took Danzig, and with 1 736 began
the Turkish campaigns which made Munnich's reputation as a
soldier. Working along the shores of the Black Sea from the
Crimea, he took Ochakov after a celebrated siege in 1737, and
in 1739 won the battle of Stavutschina, and took Khotin (or
Choczim), and established himself firmly in Moldavia. Marshal
Miinnich now began to take an active part in political affairs,
the particular tone of which was given by his rivalry with Biron,
or Bieren, duke of Courland. But his activity was brought to
a close by the revolution of 1741; he was arrested on his way
to the frontier, and condemned to death. Brought out for
execution, and withdrawn from the scaffold, he was later sent to
Siberia, where he remained fcr several years, until the accession
of Peter III. brought about his release in 1762. Catherine II.,
who soon displaced Peter, employed the old field-marshal
as director-general of the Baltic ports. He died in 1767. Feld-
marschall Miinnich was a fine soldier of the professional type,
and many future commanders, notably Louden and Lacy,
served their apprenticeship at Ochakov and Khotin. As a
statesman he is regarded as the founder of Russian Philhellenism.
He had the grade of count of the Holy Roman Empire. The
Russian 37th Dragoons bear his name.
He wrote an bauche pour donner une idee de la forme de V empire
"~e Russie (Leipzig, 1774), and his voluminous diaries have appeared
in various publications Herrmann, Beitrage zur Geschichte des russi-
schen Reichs (Leipzig. 1843). See Hempel, Leben Miinnichs (Bremen.
1742); Halem, Geschichte des F. M. Grafen Miinnich (Oldenburg^
1803 ; 2nd ed., 1838) ; Kostomarov, Feldmarschall Miinnich (Russische
Geschichte inBiographien,v. 2).
MUNRO, SIR HECTOR (1726-1805), British general, son of
Hugh Munro of Novar, in Cromarty, was born in 1726, and
entered the army in 1749. He went to Bombay in 1761, in
command of the Sgth regiment, and in that year effected the
surrender of Mahe from the French. Later, when in command of
the Bengal army, he suppressed a mutiny of sepoys at Patna,
and on the 23rd of October 1764 won the victory of Buxar
against Shuja-ud-Dowlah, the nawab wazir of Oudh, and Mir
Kasim, which ranks amongst the most decisive battles ever
fought in India. Returning home, he became in 1768 M.P.
for the Inverness Burghs, which he continued to represent in
parliament for more than thirty years, though a considerable
portion of this period was spent in India, whither he returned
in 1778 to take command of the Madras army. In that year
he took Pondicherry from the French, but in 1780 he was defeated
by Hyder Ali near Conjeeveram, and forced to fall back on
St Thomas's Mount. There Sir Eyre Coote took over command
of the army, and in 1781 won a signal victory against Hyder Ali
at Porto Novo, where Munro was in command of the right
division. Negapatam was taken by Munro in November of
the same year; and in 1782 he returned to England. He died on
the 27th of December 1805.
MUNRO, HUGH ANDREW JOHNSTONS (1810-1885), British
scholar, was born at Elgin on the igth of October 1819. He
was educated at Shrewsbury school, where he was one of
Kennedy's first pupils, and proceeded to Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, in 1838. He became scholar of his college in 1840,
second classic and first chancellor's medallist in 1842, and
fellow of his college in 1843. He became classical lecturer at
Trinity College, and in 1869 was elected to the newly-founded
chair of Latin at Cambridge, but resigned it in 1872. The
great work on which his reputation is mainly based is his
edition of Lucretius, the fruit of the labour of many years (text
only, i vol., 1860; text, commentary and translation, 2 vols.,
1864). As a textual critic his knowledge was profound and
his judgment unrivalled; and he made close archaeological
studies by frequent travels in Italy and Greece. In 1867 he
published an improved text of Aetna with commentary, and
in the following year a text of Horace with critical introduction,
illustrated by specimens of ancient gems selected by C. W. King.
His knowledge and taste are nowhere better shown than in his
Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus (1878). He was a master
of the art of Greek and Latin verse composition. His contri-
butions to the famous volume of Shrewsbury verse, Sabrinae
corolla, are among the most remarkable of a remarkable collec-
tion. His Translations into Latin and Greek Verse were privately
printed in 1884. Like his translations into English, they are
characterized by minute fidelity to the original, but never cease
to be idiomatic. He died at Rome on the 3Oth of March 1885.
See Memoir by J. D. Duff, prefixed to a re-issue of the trans, of
Lucretius in " Bohn's Classical Library " ('908).
MUNRO, MONEO or MONROE, ROBERT (d. c. 1680), Scots
general, was a member of a well-known family in Ross-shire,
the Munroes of Foulis. With several of his kinsmen he served
in the continental wars under Gustavus Adolphus; and he
MUNRO, SIR T. MUNSTER
ii
appears to have returned to Scotland about 1638, and to have
taken some part in the early incidents of the Scottish rebellion
against Charles I. In 1642 he went to Ireland, nominally as
second in command under Alexander Leslie, but in fact in chief
command of the Scottish contingent against the Catholic rebels.
After taking and plundering Newry in April 1642, and ineffec-
tually attempting to subdue Sir Phelim O'Neill, Munro succeeded
in taking prisoner the earl of Antrim at Dunluce. The arrival
of Owen Roe O'Neill in Ireland strengthened the cause of the
rebels (see O'NEILL), and Munro, who was poorly supplied with
provisions and war materials, showed little activity. Moreover,
the civil war in England was now creating confusion among parties
in Ireland, and the king was anxious to come to terms with
the Catholic rebels, and to enlist them on his own behalf against
the parliament. The duke of Ormonde, Charles's lieutenant-
general in Ireland, acting on the king's orders, signed a cessation
of hostilities with the Catholics on the isth of September 1643,
and exerted himself to despatch aid to Charles in England.
Munro in Ulster, holding his commission from the Scottish
parliament, did not recognize the armistice, and his troops
accepted the solemn league and covenant, in which they were
joined by many English soldiers who left Ormonde to join him.
In April 1644 the English parliament entrusted Munro with the
command of all the forces in Ulster, both English and Scots.
He thereupon seized Belfast, made a raid into the Pale, and
unsuccessfully attempted to gain possession of Dundalk and
Drogheda. His force was weakened by the necessity for sending
troops to Scotland to withstand Montrose; while Owen Roe
O'Neill was strengthened by receiving supplies from Spain and
the pope. On the sth of June 1646 was fought the battle of
Benburb, on the Blackwater, where O'Neill routed Munro, but
suffered him to withdraw in safety to Carrickfergus. In 1647
Ormonde was compelled to come to terms with the English
parliament, who sent commissioners to Dublin in June of that
year. The Scots under Munro refused to surrender Carrick-
fergus and Belfast when ordered by the parliament to return
to Scotland, and Munro was superseded by the appointment of
Monk to the chief command in Ireknd. In September 1648
Carrickfergus was delivered over to Monk by treachery, and
Munro was taken prisoner. He was committed to the Tower
of London, where he remained a prisoner for five years. In
1654 he was permitted by Cromwell to reside in Ireland, where
he had estates in right of his wife, who was the widow of Viscount
Montgomery of Ardes. Munro continued to live quietly near
Comber, Co. Down, for many years, and probably died there
about 1680. He was in part the original of Dugald Dalgetty in
Sir Walter Scott's Legend of Montrose.
See Thomas Carte, History of the Life of James, Duke of Ormonde
(6 vols., Oxford, 1851); Sir J. T. Gilbert, Contemporary History of
Affairs in Ireland 1641-1652 (3 vols., Dublin, 1879-1880) and
History of the Irish Confederation and the War in Ireland (7 vols.,
Dublin, 1882-1891); John Spalding, Memorials of the Troubles in
Scotland and England (2 vols., Aberdeen, 1850); The Montgomery
MSS., 1603-1703, edited by G. Hill (Belfast, 1869); Sir Walter
Scott, The Legend of Montrose, author's preface.
MUNRO, SIR THOMAS (1761-1827), Anglo-Indian soldier and
statesman, was born at Glasgow on the 27th of May 1761, the
son of a merchant. Educated at Glasgow University, he was
at first intended to enter his father's business, but in 1789 he
was appointed to an infantry cadetship in Madras. He served
with his regiment during the hard-fought war against Hyder
Ali (1780-83), and again in the first campaign against Tippoo
(1790-92). He was then chosen as one of four military
officers to administer the Baramahal, part of the territory
acquired from Tippoo, where he remained for seven years,
learning the principles of revenue survey and assessment which
he afterwards applied throughout the presidency of Madras.
After the final downfall of Tippoo in 1799, he spent a short time
restoring order in Kanara; and then for another seven years
(1800-1807) he was placed in charge of the northern districts
" ceded " by the nizam of Hyderabad, where he introduced
the ryotwari system of land revenue. After a long furlough
in England, during which he gave valuable evidence upon
matters connected with the renewal of the company's charter,
he returned to Madras in 1814 with special instructions to reform
the judicial and police systems. On the outbreak of the Pindari
War in 1817, he was appointed as brigadier-general to command
the reserve division formed to reduce the southern territories of
the Peshwa. Of his signal services on this occasion Canning
said in the House of Commons: " He went into the field with
not more than five or six hundred men, of whom a very small pro-
portion were Europeans. . . . Nine forts were surrendered to him
or taken by assault on his way; and at the end of a silent and
scarcely observed progress he emerged . . . leaving everything
secure and tranquil behind him." In 1820 he was appointed
governor of Madras, where he founded the systems of revenue
assessment and general administration which substantially
remain to the present day. His official minutes, published by
Sir A. Arbuthnot, form a manual of experience and advice for
the modern civilian. He died of cholera on the 6th of July 1827,
while on tour in the " ceded " districts, where his name is preserved
by more than one memorial. An equestrian statue of him, by
Chantrey, stands in Madras city.
See biographies by G. R. Gleig (1830), Sir A. Arbuthnot (1881)
and J. Bradshaw (1894).
MUNSHI, or MOONSHI, the Urdu name of a writer or secretary,
used in India of the native language teachers or secretaries
employed by Europeans.
MUNSTER, GEORG, COUNT zu (1776-1844), German palae-
ontologist, was born on the i7th of February 1776. He formed
a famous collection of fossils, which was ultimately secured by the
Bavarian state, and formed the nucleus of the palaeontological
museum at Munich. Count Miinster assisted Goldfuss in his
great work Petrefacta Germaniae. He died at Bayreuth on the
23rd of December 1844.
MUNSTER, SEBASTIAN (1489-1552), German geographer,
mathematician and Hebraist, was born at Ingelheim in the
Palatinate. After studying at Heidelberg and Tubingen, he
entered the Franciscan order, but abandoned it for Luther-
anism about 1529. Shortly afterwards he was appointed court
preacher at Heidelberg, where he also lectured in Hebrew and
Old Testament exegesis. From 1536 he taught at Basel, where
he published his Cosmographia universalis in 1544, and where
he died of the plague on the 23rd of May 1552. A disciple
of Elias Levita, he was the first German to edit the Hebrew
Bible (2 vols., fol., Basel, 1534-1535); this edition was accom-
panied by a new Latin translation and a large number of anno-
tations. He published more than one Hebrew grammar, and
was the first to prepare a Grammatica chaldaica (Basel, 1527).
His lexicographical labours included a Dictionarium chaldaicum
(1527), and a Dictionarium trilingue, of Latin, Greek and
Hebrew (1530). But his most important work was his Cosmo-
graphia, which also appeared in German as a Beschreibung oiler
Lander, the first detailed, scientific and popular description of
the world in Munster's native language, as well as a supreme
effort of geographical study and literature in the Reformation
period. In this Miinster was assisted by more than one hundred
and twenty collaborators.
The most valued edition of the Cosmographia or Beschreibung
is that of 1550, especially prized for its portraits and its city and
costume pictures. Besides the works mentioned above we may
notice Munster's Germaniae descriptio of 1530, his Novus orbis of
1532, his Mappa Europae of 1536, his Rhaelia of 1538, his editions
of Solinus, Mela and Ptolemy in 1538-1540 and among non-
g:ographical treatises his Horologiographia, 1531, on dialling (see
IAL), his Organum uranicum of 1536 on the planetary motions, and
his Rudimenta mathematica of 1551. His published maps numbered
142.
See V. Hantzsch, Sebastian Miinster (1898), in vol. xviii. of the
Publications of the Royal Society of Sciences of Saxony, Historical-
Philological Section).
MUNSTER, a town of Germany, in the district of Upper
Alsace, 16 m. from Colmar by rail, and at the foot of the Vosges
Mountains. Pop. (1905), 6078. Its principal industries are
spinning, weaving and bleaching. The town owes its origin
to a Benedictine abbey, which was founded in the yth century,
and at one time it was a free city of the empire. In its
12
MUNSTER MUNSTERBERG, H.
neighbourhood is the ruin of Schwarzenberg. The Ministerial,
or Gregoriental, which is watered by the river Fecht, is famous
for its cheese.
See Rathgeber, Milnster-im-Gregoriental (Strassburg, 1874) and
F. Hecker, Die Stadt und das Tal zu Miinster im St Gregoriental
(Munster, 1890).
MUNSTER, a town of Germany, capital of the Prussian pro-
vince of Westphalia, and formerly the capital of an important
bishopric. It lies in a sandy plain on the Dortmund-Ems canal,
at the junction of several railways, 107 m. S.W. of Bremen
on the line to Cologne. Pop. (1885), 44,060; (1905) 81,468.
The town preserves its medieval character, especially in the
" Prinzipal-Markt " and other squares, with their lofty gabled
houses and arcades. The fortifications were dismantled during
the 1 8th century, their place being taken by gardens and prome-
nades. Of the many churches of Munster the most important
is the cathedral, one of the most striking in Germany, although
disfigured by modern decorations. It was rebuilt in the i3th
and I4th centuries, and exhibits a combination of Romanesque
and Gothic forms; its chapter-house is specially fine. The
beautiful Gothic church of St Lambert (i4th century) was
largely rebuilt after 1868; on its tower, which is 312 ft. in height,
hang three iron cages in which the bodies of John of Leiden
and two of his followers were exposed in 1536. The church of
St Ludger, erected in the Romanesque style about 1170, was
extended in the Gothic style about 200 years later; it has a
tower with a picturesque lantern. The church of St Maurice,
founded about 1070, was rebuilt during the igth century, and
the Gothic church of Our Lady dates from the i4th century.
Other noteworthy buildings are the town-hall, a fine Gothic
building of the i4th century, and the Stadtkeller, which contains
a collection of early German paintings. The room in the town-
hall called the Friedens Saal, in which the peace of Westphalia
was signed in October 1648, contains portraits of many ambas-
sadors and princes who were present at the ceremony. The
Schloss, built in 1767, was formerly the residence of bishops of
Munster. The private houses, many of which were the winter
residences of the nobility of Westphalia, are admirable examples
of German domestic architecture in the i6th, i7th and i8th
centuries. The university of Munster, founded after the Seven
Years' War and closed at the beginning of the igth century,
was reopened as an academy in 1818, and again attained the
rank of a university in 1902. It possesses faculties of theology,
philosophy and law. In connexion with it are botanical and
zoological gardens, several scientific collections, and a library of
1 20,000 volumes. Munster is the seat of a Roman Catholic
bishop and of the administrative and judicial authorities of
Westphalia, and is the headquarters of an army corps. The
Westphalian society of antiquaries and several other learned
bodies also have their headquarters here. Industries include
weaving, dyeing, brewing and printing, and the manufacture of
furniture and machines. There is a brisk trade in cattle, grain
and other products of the neighbourhood.
History. Munster is first mentioned about the year 800,
when Charlemagne made it the residence of Ludger, the newly-
appointed bishop of the Saxons. Owing to its distance from
any available river or important highway, the growth of the
settlement round the monasterium was slow, and it was not
until after 1186 that it received a charter, the name Munster
Having supplanted the original name of Mimegardevoord about
a century earlier. During the I3th and I4th centuries the
town was one of the most prominent members of the Hanseatic
League. At the time of the Reformation the citizens were
inclined to adopt the Protestant doctrines, but the excesses
of the Anabaptists led in 1535 to the armed intervention of
the bishop and to the forcible suppression of all divergence
from the older faith. The Thirty Years' War, during which
Munster suffered much from the Protestant armies, was ter-
minated by the peace of Westphalia, sometimes called the peace
of Munster, because it was signed here on the 24th of October
1648. The authority of the bishops, who seldom resided at
Munster, was usually somewhat limited, but in 1661 Bishop
Christoph Bernhard von Galen took the place by force, built a
citadel, and deprived the citizens of many of their privileges.
During the Seven Years' War Munster was occupied both
by the French and by their foes. Towards the close of the
1 8th century the town was recognized as one of the intellectual
centres of Germany.
The bishopric of Munster embraced an area of about 2500 sq. m.
and contained about 350,000 inhabitants. Its bishops, who
resided generally at Ahaus, were princes of the empire. In
the 1 7th century Bishop Galen, with his army of 20,000 men.
was so powerful that his alliance was sought by Charles II. of
England and other European sovereigns. The bishopric was
secularized and its lands annexed to Prussia in 1803.
See Geisberg, Merkwiirdigkeiten der Stadt Munster (1877) ; Erhard,
Geschichte Munslers (1837); A.Tibus, Die Stadt Miinster (Munster,
1882); Hellinghaus, Quellen und Forschungen zur Geschichte der
Stadt Munster (Munster, 1898); Pieper, Die alte Universitiit Munster
1773-1818 (Munster, 1902). See also Tucking, Geschichte des Stifts
Munster unter C. B. von Galen (Munster, 1865).
MUNSTER, a province of Ireland occupying the S.W. part of
the island. It includes the counties Clare, Tipperary, Limerick,
Kerry, Cork and Waterford (q.v. for topography, &c.). After
the occupation of Ireland by the Milesians, Munster (Mumha)
became nominally a provincial kingdom; but as the territory was
divided between two families there was constant friction and
it was not until 237 that Oliol Olum established himself as king
over the whole. In 248 he divided his kingdom between his
two sons, giving Desmond (q.v., Des-Mumha) to Eoghan and
Thomond (Tuadh-Mumha) or north Munster to Cormac. He
also stipulated that the rank of king of Munster should belong
in turn to their descendants. In this way the kingship of
Munster survived until 1194; but there were kings of Desmond
and Thomond down to the i6th century. Munster was originally
of the same extent as the present province, excepting that it
included the district of Ely, which belonged to the O'Carrols
and formed a part of the present King's County. During the
1 6th century, however, Thomond was for a time included in
Connaught, being declared a county under the name of Clare
(q.v.) by Sir Henry Sidney. Part of Munster had been included
in the system of shiring generally attributed to King John. In
1570 a provincial presidency of Munster (as of Connaught)
was established by Sidney, Sir John Perrot being the first
president, and lasted until 1672. Under Perrot a practically
new shiring was carried out.
MUNSTER AM STEIN, a watering-place of Germany, in the
Prussian Rhine province, on the Nahe, 2^ m. S. of Kreuznach,
on the railway from Bingerbriick to Strassburg. Pop. (1905),
915. Above the village are the ruins of the castle of Rhein-
grafenstein (i2th century), formerly a seat of the count palatine
of the Rhine, which was destroyed by the French in 1689, and
those of the castle of Ebernburg, the ancestral seat of the lords
of Sickingen, and the birthplace of Franz von Sickingen, the
famous landsknecht captain and protector of Ulrich von Hutten,
to whom a monument was erected on the slope near the ruins
in 1889. The spa (saline and carbonate springs), specific in
cases of feminine disorders, is visited by about 5000 patients
annually.
See Welsch, Das Sol- und Thermalbad Munster am Stein (Kreuz-
nach, 1886) and Messer, Fiihrer durch Bad Kreuznach und Munster
am Stein (Kreuznach, 1905).
MUNSTERBERG, HUGO ( 1 863- ) , German-American psycho-
physiologist, was born at Danzig. Having been extraordinary
professor at Freiburg-im-Breisgau, he became in 1892 pro-
fessor of psychology at Harvard University. Among his more
important works are Beitriige zur experimentellen Psychologic
(4 vols., Freiburg, 1889-1892); Psychology and Life (New
York, 1899); Grundzuge der Psychologic (Leipzig, 1900);
American Traits from the Point of View of a German (Boston,
1901); Die Amerikaner (several ed.; Eng. trans. 1904); Science
and Idealism (New York, 1906); Philosophic der Werte (Leipzig,
1908); Aus Deulsch-Amerika (Berlin, 1908); Psychology and
Crime (New York, 1908). He has been prominently identified
with the modern developments of experimental psychology
MUNSTERBERG MUNZER
(see PSYCHOLOGY), and his sociological writings display the
acuteness of a German philosophic mind as applied to the study
of American life and manners.
MUNSTERBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian pro-
vince of Silesia, on the Ohlau, 36 m. by rail S. of Breslau. Pop.
(1905), 8475. It is partly surrounded by medieval walls. It
has manufactures of drain-pipes and fireproof bricks; there are
also sulphur springs. Miinsterberg was formerly the capital
of the principality of the same name, which existed from the
I4th century down to 1791, when it was purchased by the
Prussian crown. Near the town is the former Cistercian abbey
of Heinrichau.
MUNTANER, RAMON '(1265-1336?), Catalan historian, was
born at Peralada (Catalonia) in 1265. The chief events of his
career are recorded in his chronicle. He accompanied Roger de
Flor to Sicily in 1300, was present at the siege of Messina,
served in the expedition of the Almogavares against Asia Minor,
and became the first governor of Gallipoli. Later he was
appointed governor of Jerba or Zerbi, an island in the Gulf of
Gabes, and finally entered the service of the infante of Majorca.
On the isth of May 1325 (some editions give the year 1335) he
began his Chronica, o descripcio dels jets, e hazanas del inclyt
rey Don laume Primer, in obedience, as he says, to the express
command of God who appeared to him in a vision. Muntaner's
book, which was first printed at Valencia in 1558, is the chief
authority for the events of his period, and his narrative, though
occasionally prolix, uncritical and egotistical, is faithful and
vivid. He is said to have died in 1336.
His chronicle is most accessible in the edition published by Karl
Lanz at Stuttgart in 1844.
MUNTJAC, the Indian name of a small deer typifying the
genus Cerndus, all the members of which are indigenous to the
southern and eastern parts of Asia and the adjacent islands,
and are separated by marked characters from all their allies.
For the distinctive features of the genus see DEER. As regards
general characteristics, all muntjacs are small compared with
the majority of deer, and have long bodies and rather short
limbs and neck. The antlers of the bucks are small and simple;
The Indian Muntjac (Cervulus muntjac).
the main stem or beam, after giving off a short brow-tine, in-
clining backwards and upwards, being unbranched and pointed,
and when fully developed curving inwards and somewhat down-
wards at the tip. These small antlers are supported upon
pedicles, or processes of the frontal bones, longer than in any
other deer, the front edges of these being continued downwards
as strong ridges passing along the sides of the face above the
eyes. From this feature the name rib-faced deer has been
suggested for the muntjac. The upper canine teeth of the males
are large and sharp, projecting outside the mouth as tusks, and
loosely implanted in their sockets. In the females they are
much smaller.
Muntjacs are solitary animals, even two being rarely seen
together. They are fond of hilly ground covered with forests,
in the dense thickets of which they pass most of their time, only
coming to the skirts of the woods at morning and evening to
graze. They carry the head and neck low and the hind-quarters
high, their action in running being peculiar and not elegant,
somewhat resembling the pace of a sheep. Though with no
power of sustained speed or extensive leaping, they are remark-
able for flexibility of body and facility of creeping through
tangled underwood. A popular name with Indian sportsmen
is " barking deer," on account of the alarm-cry a kind of short
shrill bark, like that of a fox, but louder. When attacked by
dogs, the males use their sharp canine teeth, which inflict deep
and even dangerous wounds.
In" the Indian muntjac the height of the buck is from 20 tc 22 in.;
allied types, some of which have received distinct names, occur in
Burma and the Malay Peninsula and Islands. Among these, the
Burmese C. muntjac grandicornis is noteworthy on account of its
large antlers. The Tibetan muntjac (C. lachrymans) , from Moupin
in eastern Tibet and Hangchow in China, is somewhat smaller than
the Indian animal, with a bright reddish-brown coat. The smallest
member of the genus (C. reevest) occurs in southern China and has a
reddish-chestnut coat, speckled with yellowish grey and a black
band down the nape. The Tenasserim muntjac (C. feae), about the
size of the Indian species, is closely allied to the hairy-fronted
muntjac (C. crinifrons) of eastern China, but lacks the tuft of hair
on the forehead. The last-mentioned species, by its frontal tuft,
small rounded ears, general brown coloration, and minute antlers,
connects the typical muntjacs with the small tufted deer or tufted
muntjacs of the genus Elaphodus of eastern China and Tibet. These
last have coarse bristly hair of a purplish-brown colour with light
markings, very large head-tufts, almost concealing the minute
antlers, of which the pedicles do not extend as ribs down the face.
They include E. cephalophus of Tibet, E. michianus of Ningpo, and
E. ichangensis of the mountains of Ichang. (R. L.*)
MUNZER, THOMAS (c. 1480-1525), German religious enthu-
siast, was born at Stolberg in the Harz near the end of the 1 5th
century, and educated at Leipzig and Frankfort, graduating is
theology. He held preaching appointments in various places,
but his restless nature prevented him from remaining in one
position for any length of time. In 1520 he became a preacher
at the church of St Mary, Zwickau, and his rude eloquence,
together with his attacks on the monks, soon raised him to
influence. Aided by Nicholas Storch, he formed a society the
principles of which were akin to those of the Taborites, and
claimed that he was under the direct influence of the Holy
Spirit. His zeal for the purification of the Church by casting
out all unbelievers brought him into conflict with the governing
body of the town, and he was compelled to leave Zwickau. He
then went to Prague, where his preaching won numerous ad-
herents, but his violent language brought about his expulsion
from this city also. At Easter 1523 Miinzer came to Allstedt,
and was soon appointed preacher at the church of St John,
where he made extensive alterations in the services. His
violence, however, aroused the hostility of Luther, in retaliation
for which Miinzer denounced the Wittenberg teaching. His
preaching soon produced an uproar in Allstedt, and after holding
his own for some time he left the town and went to Miihlhausen,
where Heinrich Pfeiffer was already preaching doctrines similar
to his own. The union of Miinzer and Pfeiffer caused a disturb-
ance in this city and both were expelled. Miinzer went to
Nuremberg, where he issued a writing against Luther, who had
been mainly instrumental in bringing about his expulsion from
Saxony. About this time his teaching became still more violent.
He denounced established governments, and advocated common
ownership of the means of life. After a tour in south Germany
he returned to Miihlhausen, overthrew the governing body of
the city, and established a communistic theocracy. The
Peasants' War had already broken out in various parts of
Germany; and as the peasantry around Miihlhausen were imbued
with Miinzer's teaching, he collected a large body of men to
plunder the surrounding country. He established his camp at
Frankenhausen; but on the isth of May 1525 the peasants were
dispersed by Philip, landgrave of Hesse, who captured Mtinzer
and executed him on the 27th at Miihlhausen. Before his
MUNZINGER MURAD
death he is said to have written a letter admitting the justice of
his sentence.
His Aussgetriickte Emplossung des falschen Glaubens has been
edited by R. Jordan (Muhlhausen, 1901), and a life of Munzer,
Die Histori von Thome Muntzer des Anfengers der duringischen
Uffrur, has been attributed to Philip Melanchthon (Hagenau, 1525).
See G. T. Strobel, Leben, Schriften und Lehren Thomd Miinlzers
(Nuremberg, 1795); J. K. Seidemann, Thomas Munzer (Leipzig,
1842); O. Merx, Thomas Munzer und Heinrich Pfeiffer (Gottingen,
1889) ; G. Wolfrau, Thomas Munzer in Allstedt (Jena, 1852).
MUNZINGER, WERNER (1832-1875), Swiss linguist and
traveller, was born at Olten in Switzerland, on the 2ist of April
1832. After studying natural science, Oriental languages and
history, at Bern, Munich and Paris, he went to Egypt in 1852
and spent a year in Cairo perfecting himself in Arabic. Entering
a French mercantile house, he went as leader of a trading expe-
dition to various parts of the Red Sea, fixing his quarters at
Massawa, where he acted as French consul. In 1855 he removed
to Keren, the chief town of the Bogos, in the north of Abyssinia,
which country he explored during the next six years. In 1861
he joined the expedition under T. von Heuglin to Central Africa,
but separated from him in November in northern Abyssinia,
proceeding along the Gash and Atbara to Khartum. Thence,
having meantime succeeded Heuglin as leader of the expedition,
he travelled in 1862 to Kordofan, failing, however, in his attempt
to reach Darfur and Wadai. After a short stay in Europe in
1863, Munzinger returned to the north and north-east border-
lands of Abyssinia, and in 1865, the year of the annexation of
Massawa by Egypt, was appointed British consul at that town.
He rendered valuable aid to the Abyssinian expedition of
1867-68, among other things exploring the almost unknown
Afar country. In acknowledgment of his services he received the
C.B. In 1868 he was appointed French consul at Massawa, and
in 1871 was named by the khedive Ismail governor of that town
with the title of bey. In 1870, with Captain S. B. Miles, Mun-
zinger visited southern Arabia. As governor of Massawa he
annexed to Egypt the Bogos and Hamasen provinces of northern
Abyssinia, and in 1872 was made pasha and governor-general
of the eastern Sudan. It is believed that it was on his advice
that Ismail sanctioned the Abyssinian enterprise, but on the war
assuming larger proportions in 1875 the command of the Egyptian
troops in northern Abyssinia was taken from Munzinger, who was
selected to command a small expedition intended to open up
communication with Menelek, king of Shoa, then at enmity with
the negus Johannes (King John) and a potential ally of Egypt.
Leaving Tajura Bay on the 27th of October 1875 Munzinger
started for Ankober with a force of 350 men, being accompanied
by an envoy from Menelek. The desert country to be traversed
was in the hands of hostile tribes, and on reaching Lake Aussa
the expedition was attacked during the night by Gallas Mun-
zinger, with his wife and nearly all his companions, being
killed.
Munzinger's contributions to the knowledge of the country,
people and languages of north-eastern Africa are of solid value.
See Proc. R.G.S., vol. xiii.; Journ. R.G.S., vols. xxxix., xli. and xlvi.
(obituary notice); Petermanns Mitteilungen for 1858, 1867, 1872
et seq. ; Dietschi and Weber, Werner Munzinger, ein Lebensbild
(1875); J- v - Keller-Zschokke, Werner Munzinger Pasha (1890).
Munzinger published the following works: Vber die Sitten und das
Recht der Bogos (1859); Ostafrikanische Studien (1864; 2nd ed., 1883;
his most valuable book) ; Die deutsche Expedition in Ostafrika (1865) ;
Vocabulaire de la langue de Tigre (1865), besides papers in the geo-
graphical serials referred to, and a memoir on the northern borders
of Abyssinia in the Zeitschrift fur allgemeine Erdkunde, new series,
vol. ih.
MURAD, or AMURATH, the name of five Ottoman sultans.
MURAD I., surnamed Khudavendighiar (1310-1389), was the
son of Orkhan and the Greek princess Nilofer, and succeeded
his father in 1359. He was the first Turkish monarch to obtain
a definite footing in Europe, and his main object throughout
his career was to extend the European dominions of Turkey.
The revolts of the prince of Caramania interfered with the
realization of this plan, and trouble was caused from this quarter
more than once during his reign until the decisive battle of Konia
(1387), when the power of the prince of Caramania was broken.
The state of Europe facilitated Murad's projects: civil war and
anarchy prevailed in most of the countries of Central Europe,
where the feudal system was at its last gasp ( and the small
Balkan states were divided by mutual jealousies. The capture
of Adrianople, followed by other conquests, brought about a
coalition under the king of Hungary against Murad, but his able
lieutenant Lalashahin, the first beylerbey of Rumelia, defeated
the allies at the battle of the Maritsa in 1363. In 1366 the
king of Servia was defeated at Samakov and forced to pay
tribute. Kustendil, Philippopolis and Nish fell into the hands,
of the Turks; a renewal of the war in 1381 led to the capture
of Sofia two years later. Europe was now aroused; Lazar,
king of Servia, formed an alliance with the Albanians, the
Hungarians and the Moldavians against the Turks. Murad
hastened back to Europe and met his enemies on the field of
Kossovo (1389). Victory finally inclined to the side of the
Turks. When the rout of the Christians was complete, a Servian
named Milosh Kabilovich penetrated to Murad's tent on pretence
of communicating an important secret to the sultan, and stabbed
the conqueror. Murad was of independent character and
remarkable intelligence. He was fond of pleasure and luxury,
cruel and cunning. Long relegated to the command of a distant
province in Asia, while his brother Suleiman occupied an enviable
post in Europe, he became revengeful; thus he exercised great
cruelty in the repression of the rebellion of his son Prince Sauji,
the first instance of a sultan's son taking arms against his father.
Murad transferred the Ottoman capital from Brusa to Adrianople,
where he built a palace and added many embellishments to
the town. The development of the feudal system of timars and
ziamets and its extension to Europe was largely his work.
MURAD II. (1403-1451) succeeded his father Mahommed I.
in 1421. The attempt of his uncle Prince Mustafa to usurp
the throne, supported as it was by the Greeks, gave trouble at
the outset of his reign, and led to the unsuccessful siege of
Constantinople in 1422. Murad maintained a long struggle
against the Bosnians and Hungarians, in the course cf which
Turkey sustained many severe reverses through the valour oi
Janos Hunyadi. Accordingly in 1444 he concluded a treaty at
Szegedin for ten years, by which he renounced all claim to Servia
and recognized George Brancovich as its king. Shortly after
this, being deeply affected by the death of his eldest son Prince
Ala-ud-din, he abdicated in favour of Mahommed, his second
son, then fourteen years of age. But the treacherous attack, in
violation of treaty, by the Christian powers, imposing too hard
a task on the inexperienced young sovereign, Murad returned
from his retirement at Magnesia, crushed his faithless enemies
at the battle of Varna (Novemebr 10, 1444), and again withdrew
to Magnesia. A revolt of the janissaries induced him to return
to power, and he spent the remaining six years of his life in
warfare in Europe, defeating Hunyadi at Kossovo (October
17-19, 1448). He died at Adrianople in 1451, and was buried
at Brusa. By some considered as a fanatical devotee, and by
others as given up to mysticism, he is generally described as
kind and gentle in disposition, and devoted to the interests of
his country.
MURAD III. (1546-1595), was the eldest son of Selim II.,
and succeeded his father in 1574. His accession marks the
definite beginning of the decline of the Ottoman power, which
had only been maintained under Selim II. by the genius of the
all-powerful grand vizier Mahommed Sokolli. For, though
Sokolli remained in office until his assassination in October 1578,
his authority was undermined by the harem influences, which
with Murad III. were supreme. Of these the most powerful
was that of the sultan's chief wife, named Safie (the pure), a
beautiful Venetian of the noble family of Baffo, whose father
had been governor of Corfu, and who had been captured as a
child by Turkish corsairs and sold into the harem. This lady,
in spite of the sultan's sensuality and of the efforts, temporarily
successful, to supplant her in his favour, retained her ascendancy
over him to the last. Murad had none of the qualities of a
ruler. He was good-natured, though cruel enough on occasion:
his accession had been marked by the murder, according to the
MURAENA
custom then established, of his five brothers. His will-power
had early been undermined by the opium habit, and was further
weakened by the sensual excesses that ultimately killed him.
Nor had he any taste for rule; his days were spent in the society
of musicians, buffoons and poets, and he himself dabbled in
verse-making of a mystic tendency.
His one attempt at reform, the order forbidding the sale of
intoxicants so as to stop the growing intemperance of the
janissaries, broke down on the opposition of the soldiery. He
was the first sultan to share personally in the proceeds of the
corruption which was undermining the state, realizing especially
large sums by the sale of offices. This corruption was fatally
apparent in the army, the feudal basis of which was sapped by
the confiscation of fiefs for the benefit of nominees of favourites
of the harem, and by the intrusion, through the same influences
of foreigners and rayahs into the corps of janissaries, of which
the discipline became more and more relaxed and the temper
increasingly turbulent. In view of this general demoralization
not even the victorious outcome of the campaigns in Georgia,
the Crimea, Daghestan, Yemen and Persia (1578-1590) could
prevent the decay of the Ottoman power; indeed, by weakening
the Mussulman states, they hastened the process, since they
facilitated the advance of Russia to the Black Sea and the
Caspian.
Murad, who had welcomed the Persian War as a good oppor-
tunity for ridding himself of the presence of the janissaries,
whom he dreaded, had soon cause to fear their triumphant
return. Incensed by the debasing of the coinage, which robbed
them of part of their pay, they invaded the Divan clamouring
for the heads of the sultan's favourite, the beylerbey of Rumelia,
and of the defterdar (finance minister), which were thrown to
them (April 3, 1589). This was the first time that the janissaries
had invaded the palace: a precedent to be too often followed.
The outbreak of another European war in 1592 gave the sultan
an opportunity of ridding himself of their presence. Murad died
in 1595, leaving to his successor a legacy of war and anarchy.
It was under Murad III. that England's relations with the
Porte began. Negotiations were opened in 1579 with Queen
Elizabeth through certain British merchants; in 1580 the first
Capitulations with England were signed; in 1583 William
Harebone, the first British ambassador to the Porte, arrived
at Constantinople, and in 1593 commercial Capitulations were
signed with England granting the same privileges as those
enjoyed by the French. (See CAPITULATIONS.)
MURAD IV. (1611-1640) was the son of Sultan Ahmed I.,
and succeeded his uncle Mustafa I. in 1623. For the first nine
years of his reign his youth prevented him from taking more than
an observer's part in affairs. But the lessons thus learnt were
sufficiently striking to mould his whole character and policy.
The minority of the sultan gave full play to the anarchic elements
in the state; the soldiery, spahis and janissaries, conscious of
their power and reckless through impunity, rose in revolt
whenever the whim seized them, demanding privileges and the
heads of those who displeased them, not sparing even the
sultan's favourites. In 1631 the spahis of Asia Minor rose in
revolt, in protest against the deposition of the grand vizier
Khosrev: their representatives crowded to Constantinople,
stoned the new grand vizier, Hafiz, in the court of the palace,
and pursued the sultan himself into the inner apartments,
clamouring for seventeen heads of his advisers and favourites,
on penalty of his own deposition. Hafiz was surrendered, a
voluntary martyr; other ministers were deposed; Mustafa
Pasha, aga of the janissaries, was saved by his own troops.
But Mura-d was now beginning to assert himself. Khosrev was
executed in Asia Minor by his orders; a plot of the spahis to
depose him was frustrated by the loyalty of Koes Mahommed,
aga of the janissaries, and of the spahi Rum Mahommed
(Mahommed the Greek); and on the 2gth of May 1632, by a
successful personal appeal to the loyalty of the janissaries,
Murad crushed the rebels, whom he surrounded in the Hippo-
drome. At the age of twenty he found himself possessed of
effective autocratic power.
His severity has remained legendary. Death was the penalty
for the least offence, and no past services as Koes Mahommed
was to find to his cost were admitted in extenuation. The use
of tobacco, coffee, opium and wine were forbidden on pain
of death; eighteen persons are said to have been put to death in
a single day for infringing this rule. During his whole reign,
indeed, supposed offenders against the sultan's authority were
done to death, singly or in thousands. The tale of his victims is
said to have exceeded 100,000.
But if he was the most cruel, Murad was also one of the most
manly, of the later sultans. He was of gigantic strength, which
he maintained by constant physical exercises. He was also
fond of hunting, and for this reason usually lived at Adrianople.
He broke through the alleged tradition, bequeathed by Suleiman
the Magnificent to his successors, that the sultan should not
command the troops in person, and took command in the
Persian war which led to the capture of Bagdad (1638) and the
conclusion of an honourable peace (May 7, 1639). Early in 1640
he died, barely twenty-nine years of age. The cause of his death
was acute gout brought on by excessive drinking. In spite of
his drunkenness, however, Murad was a bigoted Sunni, and the
main cause of his campaign against Persia was his desire to
extirpate the Shia heresy. In the intervals of his campaignings
and cruelties the sultan would amuse his entourage by exhibit-
ing feats of strength, or compose verses, some of which were
published under the pseudonym of Muradi.
See, for details of the lives of the above, J. von Hammer-Purgstall,
Geschichte des osmanischen Retches (Pest, 1840), where further
authorities are cited.
MURAD V. (1840-1904), eldest son of Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid,
was born on the 2ist of September 1840. On the accession of
his uncle Abd-ul-Aziz, Prince Mahommed Murad Effendi
as he was then called was deprived of all share in public
affairs and imprisoned, owing to his opposition to the sultan's
plan for altering the order of succession. On the deposition of
Abd-ul-Aziz on the 3oth of May 1876, Murad was haled from his
prison by a mob of softas and soldiers of the " Young Turkey "
party under Suleiman Pasha, and proclaimed " emperor by the
grace of God and the will of the people." Three months later,
however, his health, undermined by his long confinement, gave
way; and on the 313! of August he was deposed to make room
for his younger brother, Abd-ul-Hamid II. He was kept in
confinement in the Cheragan palace till his death on the zgth of
August 1904.
See Keratry, Mourad V., prince, sultan, prisonnier d'ftat 1840-
1876 (Paris, 1878); Djemaleddin Bey, Sultan Murad V., the Turkish
Dynasty Mystery, 1876-1895 (London, 1895).
MURAENA, the name of an eel common in the Mediterranean,
and highly esteemed by the ancient Romans; it was afterwards
Muraena picta, from the Indo- Pacific.
applied to the whole genus of fishes to which the Mediterranean
species belongs, and which is abundantly represented in tropical
and sub-tropical seas, especially in rocky parts or on coral reefs.
Some ninety species are known. In the majority a long fin
runs from the head along the back, round the tail to the vent,
i6
MURAL DECORATION
but all are destitute of pectoral and ventral fins. The skin is
scaleless and smooth, in many species ornamented with varied
and bright colours, so that these fishes are frequently mistaken
for snakes. The mouth is wide, the jaws strong and armed with
formidable, generally sharply pointed, teeth, which enable the
Muraena not only to seize its prey (which chiefly consists of
other fishes) but also to inflict serious, and sometimes danger-
ous, wounds on its enemies. It attacks persons who approach
its places of concealment in shallow water, and is feared by
fishermen.
Some of the tropical Muraenas exceed a length of 10 ft., but
most of the species, among them the Mediterranean species,
attain to only half that length. The latter, the " morena " of
the Italians and the Muraena Helena of ichthyologists, was
considered by the ancient Romans to be one of the greatest
delicacies, and was kept in large ponds and aquaria. It is not
confined to the coasts of southern Europe, but is spread over the
Indian Ocean, and is not uncommon on the coasts of Australia.
Its body is generally of a rich brown, marked with large yellowish
spots, each of which contains smaller brown spots.
MURAL DECORATION, a general term for the art of ornament-
ing wall surfaces. There is scarcely one of the numerous
branches of decorative art which has not at some time or other
been applied to this purpose. 1 For what may be called the
practical or furnishing point of view, see WALL-COVERINGS.
Here the subject is treated rather as part of the history of art.
x. Reliefs sculptured in Marble or Stone. This is the oldest
method of wall-decoration, of which numerous examples exist.
The tombs and temples of Egypt are rich in this kind of mural
ornament of various dates, extending over nearly 5000 years.
These sculptures are, as a rule, carved in low relief; in many cases
they are " counter-sunk," that is, the most projecting parts of
the figures do not extend beyond the flat surface of the ground.
Some unfinished reliefs discovered in the rock-cut tombs of
Thebes show the manner in which the sculptor set to work.
The plain surface of the stone was marked out by red lines into a
number of squares of equal size. The use of this was probably
twofold: first, as a guide in enlarging the design from a small
drawing, a method still commonly practised; second, to help the
artist to draw his figures with just proportions, following the
strict canons which were laid down by the Egyptians. No
excessive realism or individuality of style arising from a careful
study of the life-model was permitted. 2 When the surface had
been covered with these squares, the artist drew with a brush
dipped in red the outlines of his relief, and then cut round them
with his chisel.
When the relief was finished, it was, as a rule, entirely painted
over with much minuteness and great variety of colours. More
rarely the ground was left the natural tint of the stone or marble,
and only the figures and hieroglyphs painted. In the case of
sculpture in hard basalt or granite the painting appears often
to have been omitted altogether. The absence of perspective
effects and the severe self-restraint of the sculptors in the matter
of composition show a sense of artistic fitness in this kind of
decoration. That the rigidity of these sculptured pictures did
not arise from want of skill or observation of nature on the part
of the artists is apparent when we examine their representations
of birds and animals; the special characteristics of each creature
and species were unerringly caught by the ancient Egyptian,
and reproduced in stone or colour, in a half-symbolic way,
suggesting those peculiarities of form, plumage, or movement
which are the " differentia " of each, other ideas bearing less
directly on the point being eliminated.
The subjects of these mural sculptures are endless; almost
every possible incident in man's life here or beyond the grave
is reproduced with the closest detail. The tomb of Tih at
Sakkarah (about 4500 B.C.) has some of the finest and earliest
specimens of these mural sculptures, especially rich in illustra-
1 See also CERAMICS ; MOSAIC ; PAINTING ; SCULPTURE ; TAPESTRY ;
TILES; also EGYPT; Art and Archaeology; GREEK ART; ROMAN ART;
&c.
1 During the earliest times more than 4000 years before our era
there appear to have been exceptions to this rule.
lions of the domestic life and occupations of the Egyptians.
The latter tombs, as a rule, have sculptures depicting the religious
ritual and belief of the people, and the temples combine these
hieratic subjects with the history of the reigns and victor'es of
the Egyptian kings.
The above remarks as to style and manner of execution may
be applied also to the wall-sculptures from the royal palaces of
Nineveh and Babylon, the finest of which are shown by inscrip-
tions to date from the time of Sennacherib to that of Sardana-
palus (from 705 to 625 B.C.). These are carved in low relief with
almost gem-like delicacy of detail on enormous slabs of white
marble. The sacred subjects, generally representing the king
worshipping one of the numerous Assyrian gods, are mostly
large, often colossal in scale. The other subjects, illustrating
the life and amusements of the king, his prowess in war or
hunting, or long processions of prisoners and tribute-bearers
coming to do him homage, are generally smaller and in some cases
very minute in scale (fig. i). The arrangement of these reliefs
FIG. i. -Assyrian Relief, on a Marble Wall-slab from the Palace
of Sardanapalus at Nineveh.
in long horizontal bands, and their reserved conventional treat-
ment are somewhat similar to those of ancient Egypt, but they
show a closer attention to anatomical truth and a greater
love for dramatic effect than any of the Egyptian reliefs. As in
the art of Egypt, birds and animals are treated with greater
realism than human figures. A relief in the British Museum,
representing a lioness wounded by an arrow in her spine and
dragging helplessly her paralysed hind legs, affords an example
of wonderful truth and pathos. Remarkable technical skill is
shown in all these sculptures by the way in which the sculptors
have obtained the utmost amount of effect with the smallest
possible amount of relief, in this respect calling strongly to mind
a similar peculiarity in the work of the Florentine Donatello.
The palace at Mashita on the hajj road in Moab, built by the
Sasanian Chosroes II. (A.D. 614-627), is ornamented on the
exterior with beautiful surface sculpture in stone. The designs
are of peculiar interest as forming a link between Assyrian and
Byzantine art, and they are not remotely connected with the
decoration on Moslem buildings of comparatively modern
date. 3
Especially in Italy during the middle ages a similar treatment
* Among the Mashita carvings occurs that oldest and most widely
spread of all forms of Aryan ornament the sacred tree between two
animals. The sculptured slab over the " lion-gate " at Mycenae
has the other common variety of this motive^ the fire-altar between
the beasts. These designs, occasionally varied by figures of human
worshippers instead of the beasts, survived long after their meaning
had been forgotten; even down to the present day they frequently
appear on carpets and other textiles of Oriental manufacture.
MURAL DECORATION
of marble in low relief was frequently used for wall-decoration.
The most notable example is the beautiful series of reliefs on the
west front of Orvieto Cathedral, the work of Giovanni Pisano and
his pupils in the early part of the i4th century. These are small
reliefs, illustrative of the Old and New Testaments, of graceful
design and skilful execution. A growth of branching foliage
serves to unite and frame the tiers of subjects.
Of a widely different class, but of considerable importance in
the history of mural decoration, are the beautiful reliefs, sculp-
tured in stone and marble, with which Moslem buildings in
many parts of the world are ornamented. These are mostly
geometrical patterns of great intricacy, which cover large
surfaces, frequently broken up into panels by bands of more
flowing ornament or Arabic inscriptions. The mosques of
Cairo, India and Persia, and the domestic Moslem buildings of
Spain are extremely rich in this method of decoration. In
western Europe, especially during the isth century, stone
panelled-work with rich tracery formed a large part of the scheme
of decoration in all the more splendid buildings. Akin to this,
though without actual relief, is the stone tracery inlaid flush
into rough flint walls which was a mode of ornament largely
used for enriching the exteriors of churches in the counties of
Norfolk and Suffolk. It is almost peculiar to that district, and
is an example of the skill and taste with which the medieval
builders adapted their method of ornamentation to the materials
in hand.
2. Marble Veneer. Another widely used method of mural
decoration has been the application of thin marble linings to
wall-surfaces, the decorative effect being produced by the natural
beauty of the marble itself and not by sculptured reliefs. One of
the oldest buildings in the world, the so-called " Temple of the
Sphinx " among the Giza pyramids, is built of great blocks of
granite, the inside of the rooms being lined with slabs of semi-
transparent African alabaster about 3 in. thick. In the ist cen-
tury thin veneers of richly coloured marbles were largely used
by the Romans to decorate brick and stone walls. Pliny (H. N.
xxxvi. 6) speaks of this practice as being a new and degenerate
invention in his time. Many examples exist at Pompeii and in
other Roman buildings. Numerous Byzantine churches, such
as St Saviour's at Constantinople, and St George's, Thessalonica,
have the lower part of the internal walls richly ornamented in
this way. It was commonly used to form a dado, the upper part
of the building being covered with mosaic. The cathedral of
Monreale and other Siculo-Norman buildings owe a great deal
of their splendour to these linings of richly variegated marbles.
In most cases the main surface is of light-coloured marble or
alabaster, inlaid bands of darker tint or coloured mosaic being
used to divide the surface into panels. The peculiar Italian-
Gothic of northern and central Italy during the I4th and isth
centuries, and at Venice some centuries earlier, relied greatly
for its effects on this treatment of marble. St Mark's at Venice
and the cathedral of Florence are magnificent examples of this
work used externally. Both inside and out most of the richest
examples of Moslem architecture owe much to this method of
decoration; the mosques and palaces of India and Persia are in
many cases completely lined with the most brilliant sorts of
marble of contrasting tints.
3. Wall-Linings of Glazed Bricks or Tiles. This is a very
important class of decoration, and from its almost imperishable
nature, its richness of colour, and its brilliance of surface is
capable of producing a splendour of effect only rivalled by glass
mosaics. In the less important form that of bricks modelled
or stamped in relief with figures and inscriptions, and then coated
with a brilliant colour in siliceous enamel it was largely used
by the ancient Egyptians and Assyrians as well as by the later
Sasanians of Persia. In the nth and 1 2th centuries the Moslems
of Persia brought this art to great perfection, and used it on a
large scale, chiefly, though not invariably, for internal walls.
The main surfaces were covered by thick earthenware tiles,
overlaid with a white enamel. These were not rectangular, but
of various shapes, mostly some form of a star, arranged so as to
fit closely together. Delicate and minute patterns were then
painted on the tiles, after the first firing, in a copper-like colour
with strong metallic lustre, produced by the deoxidization of
a metallic salt in the process of the second firing. Bands and
friezes with Arabic inscriptions, modelled boldly in high relief,
were used to break up the monotony of the surface. In these,
as a rule, the projecting letters were painted blue, and the flat
ground enriched with very minute patterns in the lustre-colour.
This combination of bold relief and delicate painting produces
great vigour and richness of effect, equally telling whether viewed
in the mass or closely examined tile by tile. In the i5th century
lustre-colours, though still largely employed for plates, vases and
other vessels, especially in Spain, were little used for tiles; and
another class of ware, rich in the variety and brilliance of its
colours, was extensively used by Moslem builders all over the
Mahommedan world. The most sumptuous sorts of tiles used
for wall-coverings are those of the so-called " Rhodian " and
Damascene wares, the work of Persian potters at many places.
Those made at Rhodes are coarsely executed in comparison with
the produce of the older potteries at Isfahan and Damascus
(see CERAMICS). These are rectangular tiles of earthenware,
covered with a white " slip," and painted in brilliant colours with
slight conventionalized representations of various flowers,
especially the rose, the hyacinth and the carnation. The red
used is applied in considerable body, so as to stand out in slight
relief. Another class of design is more geometrical, forming
regular repeats; but the most beautiful compositions are those
in which the natural growth of trees and flowers is imitated, the
branches and blossoms spreading over a large surface covered by
hundreds of tiles without any repetition. One of the finest
examples is the " Mecca wall " in the mosque of Ibrahim Agha,
Cairo; and other Egyptian mosques are adorned in the same way
(fig. 2). Another variety, the special production of Damascus,
FIG. 2. One of the Wall-tiles from the Mosque of Ibrahim
Agha, Cairo. (10 in. square.)
has the design almost entirely executed in blue. It was about
A.D. 1600, in the reign of Shah Abbas I., that this class of pottery
was brought to greatest perfection, and it is in Persia that the
most magnificent examples are found, dating from the izth to
the 1 7th centuries. The most remarkable examples for beauty
and extent are the mosque at Tabriz, built by Ah' Khoja in the
1 2th century, the ruined tomb of Sultan Khodabend (A.D. 1303-
1316) at Sultaniyas, the palace of Shah Abbas I. and the tomb
of Abbas II. (d. A.D. 1666) at Isfahan, all of which buildings are
covered almost entirely inside and out.
Another important class of wall-tiles are those manufactured
by the Spanish Moors, called " azulejos," especially during the
1 4th century. These are in a very different style, being designed
i8
MURAL DECORATION
to suggest or imitate mosaic. They have intricate inter-
lacing geometrical patterns marked out by lines in slight
relief; brilliant enamel colours were then burned into the tile,
the projecting lines forming boundaries for the pigments. A
rich effect is produced by this combination of relief apd colour.
They are mainly used for dadoes about 4 ft. high, often sur-
mounted by a band of tiles with painted inscriptions. The
Alhambra and Generalife Palaces at Granada, begun in the
I3th century, but mainly built and decorated by Yusuf I. and
Mahommed V. (A.D. 1333-1391), and the Alcazar at Seville have
the most beautiful examples of these " azulejos." The latter
building chiefly owes its decorations to Pedro the Cruel (A.D.
1364), who employed Moorish workmen for its tile-coverings
and other ornaments. Many other buildings in southern Spain
are enriched in the same way, some as late as the i6th century.
Almost peculiar to Spain are a variety of wall-tile the work of
Italians in the i6th and I7th centuries. These are effective,
though rather coarsely painted, and have a rich yellow as the
predominant colour. The Casa de Pilatos and Isabel's Chapel
in the Alcazar Palace, both at Seville, have the best specimens
of these, dating about the year 1 500. In other Western countries
tiles have been used more for pavements than for wall-decoration.
4. Wall-Coverings of Hard Stucco, frequently enriched with
Reliefs. The Greeks and Romans possessed the secret of making
a hard kind of stucco, creamy in colour, and capable of receiving
a polish like that of marble; it would stand exposure to the
weather. Those of the early Greek temples which were built,
not of marble, but of stone, such as the Doric temples at Aegina,
Phigaleia, Paestum and Agrigentum, were all entirely coated
inside and out with this material, an admirable surface for the
further polychromatic decoration with which all Greek buildings
seem to have been ornamented. Another highly artistic use
of stucco among the Greeks and Romans, for the interiors of
buildings, consisted in covering the walls and vaults with a
smooth coat, on which while still wet the outlines of figures,
FIG. 3. Modelled Stucco Wall-Relief, from a Tomb in Magna
Graecia. (About half full size.)
groups and other ornaments were sketched with a point; more
stucco was then applied in lumps and rapidly modelled into
delicate relief before it had time to set. Some tombs in Magna
Graecia of the 4th century B.C. are decorated in this way with
figures of nymphs, cupids, animals and wreaths, all of which are
models of grace and elegance, and remarkable for the dexterous
way in which a few rapid touches of the modelling tool or thumb
have produced a work of the highest artistic beauty (fig. 3).
Roman specimens of this sort of decoration are common, fine
examples have been found in the baths of Titus and numerous
tombs near Rome, as well as in many of the houses of Pompeii.
FIG. 4. Stucco Wall-Relief, from the Alhambra.
These are mostly executed with great skill and frequently
with good taste, though in some cases, especially at Pompeii,
elaborate architectural compositions with awkward attempts at
effects of violent perspective, modelled in slight relief on flat
wall-surfaces, produce an unpleasing effect. Other Pompeian
examples, where the surface is divided into flat panels, each
containing a figure or group, have great merit for their delicate
richness, v/ithout offending against the canons of wall-decoration,
one of the first conditions of which is that no attempt should be
made to disguise the fact of its being a solid wall and a flat
surface.
The Moslem architects of the middle ages made great use of
stucco ornament both for external and internal walls. The
stucco is modelled in high or low relief in great variety of geo-
metrical patterns, alternating with bands of more flowing
ornament or long Arabic inscriptions. Many of their buildings,
such as the mosque of Tulun at Cairo (A.D. 879), owe nearly all
their beauty to this fine stucco work, the purely architectural
shell of the structure being often simple and devoid of ornament.
These stucco reliefs were, as a rule, further decorated with
delicate painting in gold and colours. The Moorish tower at
Segovia in Spain is a good example of this class of ornament used
externally. With the exception of a few bands of brick and the
stone quoins at the angles, the whole exterior of the tower is
covered with a network of stucco reliefs in simple geometrical
patterns. The Alhambra at Granada and the Alcazar at Seville
have the richest examples of this work. The lower part of the
walls is lined with marble or tiles to a height of about 4 ft. and
above that in many cases the whole surface is encrusted with
these reliefs, the varied surface of which, by producing endless
gradations of shadow, takes away any possible harshness from
the brilliance of the gold and colours (fig. 4).
During the i6th century, and even earlier, stucco wall-reliefs
were used with considerable skill and decorative effect in Italy,
England and other Western countries. Perhaps the most graceful
MURAL DECORATION
examples are the reliefs with which Vasari in the i6th century
encrusted pillars and other parts of the court in the Florentine
Palazzo Vecchio, built of plain stone by Michelozzo in 1454.
Some are of flowing vines and other plants winding spirally
round the columns. The English examples of this work are
effectively designed, though coarser in execution. The outside
of a half-timbered house in the market-place at Newark-upon-
Trent has high reliefs in stucco of canopied figures, dating from
the end of the isth century. The counties of Essex and Suffolk
are rich in examples of this work used externally; and many
16th-century houses in England have fine internal stucco
decoration, especially Hardwicke Hall (Derbyshire), one of the
rooms of which has the upper part of the wall enriched with
life-sized stucco figures in high relief, forming a deep frieze all
round.
5. Sgraffito. This is a variety of stucco work used chiefly in
Italy from the i6th century downwards, and employed only for
exteriors of buildings, especially the palaces of Tuscany and
northern Italy. The wall is covered with a coat of stucco made
black by an admixture of charcoal; over this a second thin coat
of white stucco is laid. When it is all hard the design is produced
by cutting and scratching away the white skin, so as to show the
black under-coat. Thus the drawing appears in black on a white
ground. This work is effective at a distance, as it requires a
bold style of handling, in which the shadows are indicated by
cross-hatched lines more or less near together. 1 Flowing ara-
besques mixed with grotesque figures occur most frequently in
sgraffito. In recent years the sgraffito method has been revived;
and the result of Mr Moody's experiments may be seen on the
east wall of the Royal College of Science in Exhibition Road,
London.
6. Stamped Leather. This was a magnificent and expensive
form of wall-hanging, chiefly used during the i6th and lyth
centuries. Skins, generally of goats or calves, were well tanned
and cut into rectangular shapes. They were then covered with
FIG. 5. Italian Stamped Leather; i6th century,
silver leaf, which was varnished with a transparent yellow lacquer
making the silver look like gold. The skins were then stamped
or embossed with patterns in relief, formed by heavy pressure
from metal dies, one in relief and the other sunk. The reliefs
were then painted by hand in many colours, generally brilliant
1 A good description of the process is given by Vasari, Tre arti del
disegno, cap. xxvi.
in tone. Italy and Spain (especially Cordova) were important
seats of this manufacture; and in the 17th century a large
quantity was produced in France. Fig. 5 gives a good example
of Italian stamped leather of the i6th century. In England,
chiefly at Norwich, this manufacture was carried on in the
1 7th and i8th centuries. In durability and richness of effect
stamped leather surpasses most other forms of movable wall-
decoration.
7. Painted Cloth. Another form of wall-hanging, used most
largely during the isth and i6th centuries, and in a less extensive
way a good deal earlier, is canvas painted to imitate tapestry.
English medieval inventories both of ecclesiastical and domestic
goods frequently contain items such as these: " stayned cloths
for hangings," " paynted cloths with stories and batailes," or
" paynted cloths of beyond sea work," or " of Flaunder's work."
Many good artists working at Ghent and Bruges during the first
half of the isth century produced fine work of this class, as well
as designs for real tapestry. Several of the great Italian artists
devoted their skill in composition and invention to the painting
of these wall-hangings. The most important existing example
is the series of paintings of the triumph of Julius Caesar executed
by Andrea Mantegna (1485-1492) for Ludovico Gonzaga, duke
of Mantua, and now at Hampton Court. These are usually,
but wrongly, called " cartoons," as if they were designs meant
to be executed in tapestry; this is not the case, as the paintings
themselves were used as wall-hangings. They are nine in number
and each compartment, 9 ft. square, was separated from the next
by a pilaster. They form a continuous procession, with life-
sized figures, remarkable for their composition, drawing and
delicate colouring the latter unfortunately much disguised by
" restoration." Like most of these painted wall-hangings,
they are executed in tempera, and rather thinly painted, so
that the pigment might not crack off through the cloth falling
slightly into folds. Another remarkable series of painted cloth
hangings are those at Reims Cathedral. In some cases dyes
were used for this work. A MS. of the isth century gives
receipts for " painted cloth," showing that sometimes they were
dyed in a manner similar to those Indian stuffs which were
afterwards printed, and are now called chintzes. These
receipts are for real dyes, not for pigments, and among them
is the earliest known description of the process called "setting"
the woad or indigo vat, as well as a receipt for removing or
" discharging " the colour from a cloth already dyed. Another
method employed was a sort of " encaustic " process; the cloth
was rubbed all over with wax, and then painted in tempera;
heat was then applied so that the colours sank into the melting
wax, and were thus firmly fixed upon the cloth.
8. Printed Hangings and Wail-Papers. The printing of
various textiles with dye-colours and mordants is probably one
of the most ancient arts. Pliny (H. N. xxxv.) describes a
dyeing process employed by the ancient Egyptians, in which
the pattern was probably formed by printing from blocks.
Various methods have been used for this work wood blocks in
relief, engraved metal plates, stencil plates and even hand-
painting; frequently two or more of these methods have
been employed for the same pattern. The use of printed stuffs
is of great antiquity among the Hindus and Chinese, and
was certainly practised in western Europe in the I3th century,
and perhaps earlier. The Victoria and Albert Museum has
13th-century specimens of block-printed silk made in Sicily, of
beautiful design. Towards the end of the i4th century a
great deal of block-printed linen was made in Flanders, and
largely imported into England.
Wall-papers did not come into common use in Europe till the
1 8th century, though they appear to have been used much
earlier by the Chinese. A few rare examples exist in England
which may be as early as the i6th century; these are imitations,
generally in flock, of the fine old Florentine and Genoese cut
velvets, and hence the style of the design in no way shows the
date of the wall-paper, the same traditional patterns being
reproduced for many years with little or no change. Machinery
enabling paper to be made in long strips was not invented till
20
MURAL DECORATION
the end of the i8th century, and up to that time wall-papers
were printed on small square pieces of hand-made paper, difficult
to hang, disfigured by numerous joints, and comparatively
costly; on these accounts wall-papers were slow in superseding
the older modes of mural decoration. A little work by Jackson
of Battersea, printed in London in 1744, throws some light on
the use of wall-papers at that time. He gives reduced copies
of his designs, mostly taken from Italian pictures or antique
sculpture during his residence in Venice. Instead of flowing
patterns covering the wall, his designs are all pictures land-
scapes, architectural scenes or statues treated as panels, with
plain paper or painting between. They are all printed in oil,
with wooden blocks worked with a rolling press, apparently an
invention of his own. They are all in the worst possible taste,
and yet are offered as great improvements on the Chinese papers
which he says were then in fashion. Fig. 6 is a good English
FIG. 6. Early 18th-century Wail-Paper. (22 in. wide.)
example of 18th-century wall-paper printed on squares of stout
hand-made paper 22 in. wide. The design is apparently copied
from an Indian chintz.
In the iQth century in England, a great advance in the
designing of wall-papers was made by William Morris and his
school.
9. Painting. This is naturally the most important and the
most widely used of all forms of wall-decoration, as well as
perhaps the earliest.
Egypt (see EGYPT: Art and Archaeology) is the chief store-
house of ancient specimens of this, as of almost all the arts.
Owing to the intimate connexion between the
platings, sculpture and painting of early times, the remarks
above as to subjects and treatment under the head
of Egyptian wall-sculpture will to a great extent apply also to
the paintings. It is an important fact, which testifies to the
antiquity of Egyptian civilization, that the earliest paintings,
dating more than 4000 years before our era, are also the cleverest
both in drawing and execution. In later times the influence of
Egyptian art, especially in painting, was important even among
distant nations. In the 6th century B.C. Egyptian colonists,
introduced by Cambyses into Persepolis, influenced the painting
and sculpture of the great Persian Empire and throughout the
valley of the Euphrates. In a lesser degree the art of Babylon
and Nineveh had felt considerable Egyptian influence several
centuries earlier. The same influence affected the early art of
the Greeks and the Etrurians, and it was not till the middle of
the 5th century B.C. that the further development and perfecting
of art in Greece obliterated the old traces of Egyptian mannerism.
After the death of Alexander the Great, when Egypt came into
the possession of the Lagidae (320 B.C.), the tide of influence
flowed the other way, and Greek art modified though it did not
seriously alter the characteristics of Egyptian painting and
sculpture, which retained much of their early formalism and
severity. Yet the increased sense of beauty, especially in the
human face, derived from the Greeks was counterbalanced by
loss of vigour; art under the Ptolemies became a dull copy ism
of earlier traditions.
The general scheme of mural painting in the buildings of
ancient Egypt was complete and magnificent. Columns,
mouldings and other architectural features were enriched with
patterns in brilliant colours; the fiat wall -spaces were covered
with figure-subjects, generally in horizontal bands, and the
ceilings were ornamented with sacred symbols, such as the vulture
or painted blue and studded with gold stars to symbolize the
sky. The wall-paintings are executed in tempera on a thin skin
(Taken from Lottie's Ride in Egypt.)
FIG. 7. Egyptian Wall-Painting of the Ancient Empire
in the Bulak Museum.
of fine lime, laid over the brick, stone or marble to form a smooth
and slightly absorbent coat to receive the pigments, which were
most brilliant in tone and of great variety of tint. Not employing
fresco, the Egyptian artists were not restricted to " earth colours,"
but occasionally used purples, pinks and greens which would
have been destroyed by fresh lime. The blue used is very
beautiful, and is generally laid on in considerable body it is
frequently a " smalt " or deep-blue glass, coloured by copper
oxide, finely powdered. Red and yellow ochre, carbon-black,
and powdered chalk-white are most largely used. Though in
the paintings of animals and birds considerable realism is often
seen (fig. 7), yet for human figures certain conventional colours
are employed, e.g. white for females' flesh, red for the males, or
black to indicate people of negro race. Heads are painted in
profile, and little or no shading is used. Considerable knowledge
of harmony is shown in the arrangement of the colours; and
otherwise harsh combinations of tints are softened and brought
into keeping by thin separating lines of white or yellow. Though
at first sight the general colouring, if seen in a museum, may
appear crude, yet it should be remembered that the internal
paintings were much softened by the dim light in Egyptian
buildings, and those outside were subdued by contrast with the
brilliant sunshine under which they were always seen.
The rock-cut sepulchres of the Etrurians supply the only
existing specimens of their mural painting; and, unlike the
tombs of Egypt, only a small proportion appear to BtruKM
have been decorated in this way. The actual dates p a i a ti ag .
of these paintings are very uncertain, but they range
possibly from about the 8th century B.C. down to almost the
Christian era. The tombs which possess these paintings are
MURAL DECORATION
21
mostly square-shaped rooms, with slightly-arched or gabled roofs,
excavated in soft sandstone or tufa hillsides. The earlier ones
show Egyptian influence in drawing and in composition : they
are broadly designed with flat unshaded tints, the faces in profile,
except the eyes, which are drawn as if seen in front. Colours, as
in Egypt, are used conventionally male flesh red, white or
pale yellow for the females, black for demons. In one respect
these paintings differ from those of the Egyptians; few colours
are used red, brown, and yellow ochres, carbon-black, lime or
chalk-white, and occasionally blue are the only pigments. The
rock-walls are prepared by being covered with a thin skin of
lime stucco, and lime or chalk is mixed in small quantities with
all the colours; hence the restriction to " earth pigments," made
necessary by the dampness of these subterranean chambers.
The process employed was in fact a kind of fresco, though the
stucco ground was not applied in small patches only sufficient
for the day's work; the dampness of the rock was enough to
keep the stucco skin moist, and so allow the necessary infiltration
of colour from the surface. Many of these paintings when first
discovered were fresh in tint and uninjured by time, but they are
soon dulled by exposure to light. In the course of centuries
great changes of style naturally took place; the early Egyptian
influence, probably brought to Etruria through the Phoenician
traders, was succeeded by an even more strongly-marked Greek
influence at first archaic and stiff, then developing into great
beauty of drawing, and finally yielding to the Roman spirit, as
the degradation of Greek art advanced under their powerful but
inartistic Roman conquerors.
Throughout this succession of styles Egyptian, Greek and
Graeco-Roman there runs a distinct undercurrent of individu-
ality due to the Etruscans themselves. This appears not only
in the drawing but also in the choice of subjects. In addition
to pictures of banquets with musicians and dancers, hunting
and racing scenes, the workshops of different craftsmen and other
domestic subjects, all thoroughly Hellenic in sentiment, other
paintings occur which are very un-Greek in feeling. These
represent the judgment and punishment of souls in a future life.
Mantus, Charun and other infernal deities of the Rasena,
hideous in aspect and armed with hammers, or furies depicted
as black-bearded demons winged and brandishing live snakes,
terrify or torture shrinking human souls. Others, not the earliest
in date, represent human sacrifices, such as those at the tomb of
Patroclus a class of subjects which, though Homeric, appears
rarely to have been selected by Greek painters. The constant
import into Etruria of large quantities of fine Greek painted
vases appears to have contributed to keep up the supremacy of
Hellenic influence during many centuries, and by their artistic
superiority to have prevented the development of a more original
and native school of art. Though we now know Etruscan
painting only from the tombs, yet Pliny mentions (H . N. xxxv. 3)
that fine wall-paintings existed in his time, with colours yet
fresh, on the walls of ruined temples at Ardea and Lanuvium,
executed, he says, before the founding of Rome. As before men-
tioned, the actual dates of the existing paintings are uncertain.
It cannot therefore be asserted that any existing specimens are
much older than 600 B.C., though some, especially at Veii,
certainly appear to have the characteristics of more remote
antiquity. The most important of these paintings have been
discovered in the cemeteries of Veii, Caere, Tarquinii, Vulci,
Cervetri and other Etruscan cities.
Even in Egypt the use of colour does not appear to have been
more universal than it was among the Greeks (see GREEK ART),
Greek w ^ a PP ue d ' lt freely to their marble statues and
Paiatiag. reliefs, the whole of their buildings inside and out,
as well as for the decoration of flat wall-surfaces.
They appear to have cared little for pure form, and not to have
valued the delicate ivory-like tint and beautiful texture of their
fine Pentelic and Parian marbles, except as a ground for coloured
ornament. A whole class of artists, called A-yaX/jdmoi' tyKavarai,
were occupied in colouring marble sculpture, and their services
were very highly valued. 1 In seme cases, probably for the sake of
1 This process, circumlitio, is mentioned by Pliny (H. N. xxxv. 40).
hiding the joints and getting a more absorbent surface, the
marble, however pure and fine in texture, was covered with a
thin skin of stucco made of mixed lime and powdered marble.
An alabaster sarcophagus, found in a tomb near Corneto, and
now in the Etruscan museum at Florence, is decorated outside
with beautiful purely Greek paintings, executed on a stucco
skin as hard and smooth as the alabaster. The pictures represent
combats of the Greeks and Amazons. The colouring, though
rather brilliant, is simply treated, and the figures are kept
strictly to one plane without any attempt at complicated
perspective. Other valuable specimens of Greek art, found at
Herculaneum and now in the Naples Museum, are some small
paintings, one of girls playing with dice, another of Theseus and
the Minotaur. These are painted with miniature-like delicacy on
the bare surface of marble slabs; they are almost monochromatic,
and are of the highest beauty both in drawing and in gradations
of shadow quite unlike any of the Greek vase-paintings. The
first-mentioned painting is signed AAEEANAPOS A6HNAI02.
It is probable that the strictly archaic paintings of the Greeks,
such as those of Polygnotus in the 5th century B.C., executed
with few and simple colours, had much resemblance to those on
vases, but Pliny is wrong when he asserts that, till the time of
Apelles (c. 350-310 B.C.), the Greek painters only used black,
white, red and yellow. 2 Judging from the peculiar way in which
the Greeks and their imitators the Romans used the names of
colours, it appears that they paid more attention to tones and
relations of colour than to actual hues. Thus most Greek and
Latin colour-names are now untranslatable. Homer's " wine-
like sea " (olvoi/), Sophocles's " wine-coloured ivy " ((Ed. Col.),
and Horace's " purpureus olor " probably refer less to what we
should call colour than to the chromatic strength of the various
objects and their more or less strong powers of reflecting light,
either in motion or when at rest. Nor have we any word like
Virgil's " flavus," which could be applied both to a lady's hair
and to the leaf of an olive-tree. 3
During the best periods of Greek art the favourite classes of
subjects were scenes from poetry, especially Homer and con-
temporary history. The names TnvaKoOriia] and trroa iromXij
were given to many public buildings from their walls being
covered with paintings. Additional interest was given to the
historical subjects by the introduction of portraits; e.g. in the
great picture of the battle of Marathon (490 B.C.), on the walls of
the errod irotKtXij in Athens, portraits were given of the Greek
generals Miltiades, Callimachus, and others. This picture was
painted about forty years after the battle by Polygnotus and
Micon. One of the earliest pictures recorded by Pliny (xxxv. 8)
represented a battle of the Magnesians (c. 716 B.C.); it was
painted by Bularchus, a Lydian artist, and bought at a high
price by King Candaules. Many other important Greek
historical paintings are mentioned by Pausanias and earlier
writers. The Pompeian mosaic of the defeat of the Persians by
Alexander is probably a Romanized copy from some celebrated
Greek painting; it obviously was not designed for mosaic
work.
Landscape painting appears to have been unknown among the
Greeks, even as a background to figure-subjects. The poems
especially of Homer and Sophocles show that this was not through
want of appreciation of the beauties of nature, but partly,
probably, because the main object of Greek painting was to tell
some definite story, and also from their just sense of artistic
fitness, which prevented them from attempting in their mural
decorations to disguise the flat solidity of the walls by delusive
effects of aerial perspective and distance.
It is interesting to note that even in the time of Alexander
the Great the somewhat archaic works of the earlier painters
were still appreciated. In particular Aristotle praises Polygnotus,
* Pliny's remarks on subjects such as this should be received with
caution. He was neither a scientific archaeologist nor a practical
artist.
s So also a meaning unlike ours is attached to Greek technical
words by rivm they meant, not " tone," but the gradations of
light and shade, and by ApiMty/i the relations of colour. See Pliny,
H. N. xxxv. 5 ; and Ruskin, Mod. Painters, pt. iv. cap. 13.
22
MURAL DECORATION
both for his power of combining truth with idealization
in his portraits and for his skill in depicting men's mental
characteristics; on this account he calls him 6 i70o7P<i</>os.
Lucian too praises Polygnotus alike for his grace, drawing and
colouring. Later painters, such as Zeuxis and Apelles, appear
to have produced easel pictures more than mural paintings,
and these, being easy to move, were mostly carried off to Rome
by the early emperors. Hence Pausanias, who visited Greece
in the time of Hadrian, mentions but few works of the later
artists. Owing to the lack of existing specimens of Greek
painting it would be idle to attempt an account of their technical
methods, but no doubt those employed by the Romans described
below were derived with the rest of their art from the Greeks.
Speaking of their stucco, Pliny refers its superiority over that
made by the Romans to the fact that it was always made of
lime at least three years old, and that it was well mixed and
pounded in a mortar before being laid on the wall; he is here
speaking of the thick stucco in many coats, not of the thin skin
mentioned above as being laid on marble. Greek mural painting,
like their sculpture, was chiefly used to decorate temples and
public buildings, and comparatively rarely either for tombs 1 or
private buildings at least in the days of their early republican
simplicity.
A large number of Roman mural paintings (see also ROMAN
ART) now exist, of which many were discovered in the private
houses and baths of Pompeii, nearly all dating
Painting, between A.D. 63, when the city was ruined by an
earthquake, and A.D. 79, when it was buried by
Vesuvius. A catalogue of these and similar paintings from Hercu-
laneum and Stabiae, compiled by Professor Helbig, comprises 1 966
specimens. The excavations in the baths of Titus and other
ancient buildings in Rome, made in the early part of the i6th
century, excited the keenest interest and admiration among the
painters of that time, and largely influenced the later art of the
Renaissance. These paintings, especially the " grotesques "
or fanciful patterns of scroll-work and pilasters mixed with
semi-realistic foliage and figures of boys, animals and birds,
designed with great freedom of touch and inventive power, seem
to have fascinated Raphael during his later period, and many of
his pupils and contemporaries. The " loggie " of the Vatican
and of the Farnesina palace are full of carefully studied
16th-century reproductions of these highly decorative paintings.
The excavations in Rome have brought to light some mural
paintings of the ist century A.D., perhaps superior in execution
even to the best of the Pompeian series (see Plate).
The range of subjects found in Roman mural paintings is large
mythology, religious ceremonies, genre, still life and even
landscape (the latter generally on a small scale, and treated in an
artificial and purely decorative way), and lastly history. Pliny
mentions several large and important historical paintings, such
as those with which Valerius Maximus Messala decorated the
walls of the Curia Hostilia, to commemorate his own victory over
Hiero II. and the Carthaginians in Sicily in the 3rd century B.C.
The earliest Roman painting recorded by Pliny was by Fabius,
surnamed Pictor, on the walls of the temple of Salus, executed
about 300 B.C. (H.N. xxxv. 4).
Pliny (xxxv. i) laments the fact that the wealthy Romans
of his time preferred the costly splendours of marble and por-
phyry wall-linings to the more artistic decoration of paintings
by good artists. Historical painting seems then to have gone
out of fashion; among the numerous specimens now existing
few from Pompeii represent historical subjects; one has the
scene of Massinissa and Sophonisba before Scipio, and another
of a riot between the people of Pompeii and Nocera, which
happened 59 A.D.
Mythological scenes, chiefly from Greek sources, occur most
frequently: the myths of Eros and Dionysus are especial
favourites. Only five or six relate to purely Roman mythology.
1 One instance only of a tomb-painting is mentioned by Pausanias
(vii. 22). Some fine specimens have been discovered in the Crimea,
but not of a very early date; see Stephani, Compte rendu, &c.,
(St Petersburg, 1878), &c.
We have reason to think that some at least of the Pompeian
pictures are copies, probably at third or fourth hand, from
celebrated Greek originals. The frequently repeated subjects
of Medea meditating the murder of her children and Iphigenia
at the shrine of the Tauric Artemis suggest that the motive
and composition were taken from the originals of these subjects
by Timanthes. Those of lo and Argus, the finest example of
which is in the Palatine " villa of Livia " and of Andromeda
and Perseus, often repeated on Pompeian walls, may be from
the originals by Nicias.
In many cases these mural paintings are of high artistic
merit, though they are probably not the work of the most
distinguished painters of the time, but rather of a humbler
class of decorators, who reproduced, without much original
invention, stock designs out of some pattern-book. They
are, however, all remarkable for the rapid skill and extreme
" verve " and freedom of hand with which the designs are, as
it were, flung on to the walls with few but effective touches.
Though in some cases the motive and composition are superior
to the execution, yet many of the paintings are remarkable
both for their realistic truth and technical skill. The great
painting of Ceres from Pompeii, now in the Naples Museum,
is a work of the highest merit.
In the usual scheme of decoration the broad wall-surfaces are
broken up into a series of panels by pilasters, columns, or other
architectural forms. Some of the panels contain pictures with
figure-subjects; others have conventional ornament, or hanging
festoons of fruit and flowers. The lower part of the wall is
painted one plain colour, forming a dado; the upper part some-
times has a well-designed frieze of flowing ornaments. In the
better class of painted walls the whole is kept flat in treatment,
and is free from too great subdivision, but in many cases great
want of taste is shown by the introduction of violent effects of
architectural perspective, and the space is broken up by ccm-
plicated schemes of design, studded with pictures in varying
scales which have little relation to their surroundings. The
colouring is on the whole pleasant and harmonious unlike the
usual chromo-lithographic copies. Black, yellow, or a rich deep
red are the favourite colours for the main ground of the walls,
the pictures in the panels being treated separately, each with its
own background.
An interesting series of early Christian mural paintings exists
in various catacombs, especially those of Rome and Naples.
They are of value both as an important link in the Egrly
history of art and also as throwing light on the Christian
mental state of the early Christians, which was dis- Painting la
tinctly influenced by the older faith. Thus in the ltaly '
earlier paintings of about the 4th century we find Christ repre-
sented as a beardless youth, beautiful as the artist could make
him, with a lingering tradition of Greek idealization, in no degree
like the " Man of Sorrows " of medieval painters, but rather
a kind of genius of Christianity in whose fair outward form
the peace and purity of the new faith were visibly symbolized,
just as certain distinct attributes were typified in the persons
of the gods of ancient Greece. The favourite early subject,
" Christ the Good Shepherd " (fig. 8), is represented as Orpheus
playing on his lyre to a circle of beasts, the pagan origin of the
picture being shown by the Phrygian cap and by the presence of
lions, panthers and other incongruous animals among the listen-
ing sheep. In other cases Christ is depicted standing with a sheep
borne on His shoulders like Hermes Criophoros or Hermes
Psychopompos favourite Greek subjects, especially the former,
a statue of which Pausanias (ix. 22) mentions as existing at
Tanagra in Boeotia. Here again the pagan origin of the type
is shown by the presence in the catacomb paintings of the pan-
pipes and pedum, special attributes of Hermes, but quite foreign
to the notion of Christ. Though in a degraded form, a good
deal survives in some of these paintings, especially in the earlier
ones, of the old classical grace of composition and beauty of
drawing, notably in the above-mentioned representations where
old models were copied without any adaptation to their new
meaning. Those of the sth and 6th centuries follow the classical
MURAL DECORATION
A WALL PAINTING IN THE MUSEO NAZIONALE. AT ROME, FROM A ROMAN VILLA DISCOVERED IN 1878, EARLY IMPERIAL STYLE
MURAL DECORATION
lines, though in a rapidly deteriorating style, until the introduc-
tion of a foreign the Byzantine element, which created a
fresh starting-point on different lines. The old naturalism and
survival of classical freedom of drawing is replaced by stiff,
conventionally hieratic types, superior in dignity and strength
to the feeble compositions produced by the degradation into
which the native art of Rome had fallen. The designs of this
second period of Christian art are similar to those of the mosaics,
FIG. 8. Painted Vault from the Catacombs of St.Callixtus, Rome.
In the centre Orpheus, to represent Christ the Good Shepherd,
and round are smaller paintings of various types of Christ.
such as many at Ravenna, and also to the magnificently illumi-
nated MSS. For some centuries there was little change or
development in this Byzantine style of art, so that it is impossible
in most cases to be sure from internal evidence of the date of
any painting. This to some extent applies also to the works
of the earlier or pagan school, though, roughly speaking, it may
be said that the least meritorious pictures are the latest in
date.
These catacomb paintings range over a long space of time;
some may possibly be of the ist or 2nd century, e.g. those
in the cemetery of Domitilla, Rome; others are as late as the
oth century, e.g. some full-length figures of St Cornelius and
St Cyprian in the catacomb of St Callixtus, under which earlier
paintings may be traced. In execution they somewhat resemble
the Etruscan tomb-paintings; the walls of the catacomb passages
and chambers, excavated in soft tufa, are covered with a thin
skin of white stucco, and on that the mural and ceiling paintings
are simply executed in earth colours. The favourite subjects
of the earliest paintings are scenes from the Old Testament
which were supposed to typify events in the life of Christ, such
as the sacrifice of Isaac (Christ's death), Jonah and the whale
(the Resurrection), Moses striking the rock, or pointing to the
manna (Christ the water of life, and the Eucharist), and many
others. The later paintings deal more with later subjects,
either events in Christ's life or figures of saints and the miracles
they performed. A fine series of these exists in the iower church
of S. Clemente in Rome, apparently dating from the 6th to the
loth centuries; among these are representations of the passion
and death of Christ subjects never chosen by the earlier
Christians, except as dimly foreshadowed by the Old Testament
types. When Christ Himself is depicted in the early catacomb
paintings it is in glory and power, not in His human weakness and
suffering.
Other early Italian paintings exist on the walls of the church
of the Tre Fontane near Rome, and in the Capella di S. Urbano
alia Caffarella, executed in the early part of the nth century.
The atrium of S. Lorenzo fuori le mura, Rome, and the church
of the Quattro Santi Incoronati have mural paintings of the
first half of the I3th century, which show no artistic improve-
ment over those at S. Clemente four or five centuries older.
It was not in fact till the second half cf the I3th century
that stiff traditional Byzantine forms and colouring began
to be superseded by the revival of native art in Italy by
the painters of Florence, Pisa and Siena. During the fiist
thirteen centuries of the Christian era mural painting appears
to have been for the most part confined to the repre-
sentation of sacred subjects. It is remarkable that during
the earlier centuries council after council of the Christian
Church forbade the painting of figure-subjects, and especially
those of any Person of the Trinity; but in vain. In spite
of the zeal of bishops and others, who sometimes with their
own hands defaced the pictures of Christ on the walls of
the churches, in spite of threats of excommunication, the for-
bidden paintings by degrees became more numerous, till the walls
of almost every church throughout Christendom were decorated
with whole series of pictured stories. The useless prohibition
was becoming obsolete when, towards the end of the 4th century,
the learned Paulinus, bishop of Nola, ordered the two basilicas
which he had built at Fondi and Nola to be adorned with wall-
paintings of sacred subjects, with the special object, as he says,
of instructing and refining the ignorant and drunken people.
These painted histories were in fact the books of the unlearned,
and we can now hardly realize their value as the chief mode of
religious teaching in ages when none but the clergy could read
or write.
During the middle ages, just as long before among the ancient
Greeks, coloured decoration was used in the widest possible
manner not only for the adornment of flat walls, English
but also for the enrichment of sculpture and all the Mural
fittings and architectural features of buildings, P'fattag.
whether the material to be painted was plaster, stone, marble
or wood. It was only the damp and frosts of northern climates
that to some extent limited the external use of colour to the less
exposed parts of the outsides of buildings. The varying tints
and texture of smoothly worked stone appear to have given no
pleasure to the medieval eye; and in the rare cases in which the
poverty of some country church prevented its walls from being
adorned with painted ornaments or pictures the whole surface
of the stonework inside, mouldings and carving as well as
flat wall-spaces, was covered with a thin coat of whitewash.
Internal rough stonework was invariably concealed by stucco,
forming a smooth ground for possible future paintings. Un-
happily a great proportion of mural paintings have been de-
stroyed, though many in a more or less mutilated state still exist
in England. It is difficult (and doubly so since the so-called
" restoration " of most old buildings) to realize the splendour
of effect once possessed by every important medieval church.
From the tiled floor to the roof all was one mass of gold and
colour. The brilliance of the mural paintings and richly
coloured sculpture and mouldings was in harmony with the
splendour of the oak-work screens, stalls, and roofs all
decorated with gilding and painting, while the light, passing
through stained glass, softened and helped to combine
the whole into one mass of decorative effect. Colour was
boldly applied everywhere, and thus the patchy effect was
avoided which is so often the result of the modern timid and
partial use of painted ornament. Even the figure-sculpture
was painted in a strong and realistic manner, sometimes by a
wax encaustic process, probably the same as the circumlitio
of classical times. In the accounts for expenses in decorating
Orvieto cathedral wax is a frequent item among the materials
used for painting. In one place it is mentioned that wax was
supplied to Andrea Pisano (in 1345) for the decoration of the
beautiful reliefs in white marble on the lower part of the west
front.
From the nth to the i6th century the lower part of the walls,
generally 6 to 8 ft. from the floor, was painted with a dado
the favourite patterns till the I3th century being either a sort
of sham masonry with a flower in each rectangular space
(fig. 9), or a conventional representation of a curtain with
24
iegula.1 folds stiffly treated,
pictures with figure-subjects
MURAL DECORATION
FIG. 9. Wall-Paintingof the I3th
century. " Masonry pattern."
Above this dado ranges of
were painted in tiers one
above the other, each picture
frequently surrounded by a
painted frame with arch and
gable of architectural design.
Painted bands of chevron or
other geometrical ornament
till the I3th century, and
flowing ornament afterwards,
usually divide the tiers of pic-
tures horizontally and form the
top and bottom boundaries of
the dado. In the case of a
church, the end walls usually
have figures to a larger scale.
On the east wall of the nave over the chancel arch there was
generally a large painting of the " Doom " or Last Judgment.
One of the commonest subjects is a colossal figure of St Chris-
topher (fig. 10) usually on the nave wail opposite the principal
FIG. 10. Wall-Painting of St Christopher. (Large life-size.)
entrance selected because the sight of a picture of this saint
was supposed to bring good luck for the rest of the day. Figures
were also often painted on the jambs of the windows and on the
piers and soffit of the arches, especially that opening into the
chancel.
The little Norman church at Kempley in Gloucestershire (date
about noo) has perhaps the best-preserved specimen of the com-
plete early decoration of a chancel. 1 The north and south walls
are occupied by figures of the twelve apostles in architectural
niches, six on each side. The east wall had single figures of saints
at the sides of the central window, and the stone barrel vault is
covered with a representation of St John's apocalyptic vision
Christ in majesty surrounded by the evangelistic beasts, the seven
candlesticks and other figures. The chancel arch itself and the
jambs and mouldings of the windows have stiff geometrical designs,
and over the arch, towards the nave, is a large picture of the
" Doom." The whole scheme is very complete, no part of the
internal plaster or stonework being undecorated with colour.
Though the drawing is rude, the figures and their drapery are
treated broadly and with dignity. Simple earth colours are used,
painted in tempera on a plain white ground, which covers alike
both the plaster of the rough walls and the smooth stone of the
arches and jambs.
In the I3th century the painters of England reached a high
point of artistic power and technical skill, so that paintings were
produced by native artists equal, if not superior, to those of
the same period anywhere on the Continent. The central
paintings on the walls of the chapter-house and on the retable
of the high altar of Westminster Abbey are not surpassed by
1 See Archoeologia, vol. xlvi. (1880).
any of the smaller works even of such men as Cimabue and Duccio
di Buoninsegna, who were living when these Westminster
paintings were executed. Unhappily, partly through the
poverty and anarchy brought about by the French wars and
the Wars of the Roses, the development of art in England made
little progress after the beginning of the I4th century, and it
FIG. 1 1 . i sth-century English Painting St John the Evangelist.
was not till a time when the renaissance of art in Italy had fallen
into decay that its influence reached the British shores. In
the 1 5th century some beautiful work, somewhat affected by
Flemish influence, was produced in England (fig. n), chiefly
in the form of figures painted on the oak panels of chancel
and chapel screens, especially in Norfolk and Suffolk; but these
cannot be said to rival the works of the Van Eycks and other
painters of that time in Flanders. To return to the i^th
century, the culminating period of English art in painting and
sculpture, much was owed to Henry III.'s love for and patronage
of the fine arts; he employed a large number of painters to
decorate his various castles and palaces, especially the palace of
Westminster, one large hall of which was known as the " painted
MURAL DECORATION
chamber " from the rovvs of fine pictures with which its walls
were covered. After the i3th century the " masonry pattern "
was disused for the lower parts of walls, and the chevrony and
other stiff patterns for the borders were replaced by more flowing
designs. The character of the painted figures became less
monumental in style; greater freedom of drawing and treatment
was adopted, and they cease to recall the archaic majesty and
grandeur of the Byzantine mosaics.
It may be noted that during the I4th century wall-spaces
unoccupied by figure-subjects were often covered by graceful
flowing patterns, drawn with great
freedom and rather avoiding geo-
metrical repetition. Fig. 12, from
the church of Stanley St Leonard's,
Gloucestershire, is a good character-
istic specimen of 14th-century decora-
tion; it is on the walls of the chancel,
filling up the spaces between the
painted figures; the flowers are blue,
and the lines red on a white ground.
In some cases the motive of the
design is taken from encaustic tiles,
: * Bengeo Church, Herts, where
tne wa U ls divided into squares, each
containing an heraldic lion. This
imitative notion occurs during all periods masonry, hanging
curtains, tiles and architectural features such as niches and
canopies being very frequently represented, though always
in a simple decorative fashion with no attempt at actual
deception not probably from any fixed principle that shams
were wrong, but because the good taste of the medieval
painters taught them that a flat unrealistic treatment gave
the best and most decorative effect. Thus in the isth and
1 6th centuries the commonest forms of unpictorial wall-
decoration were various patterns taken from the beautiful
damasks and cut velvets of Sicily, Florence, Genoa and other
places in Italy, some form of the " pine-apple " or rather " arti-
choke " pattern being the favourite (fig. 13), a design which,
tury Wall-Painting.
FIG. 13. 15th-century Wall-Painting, taken from a Genoese
or Florentine velvet design.
developed partly from Oriental sources, and coming to perfection
at the end of the i$th century, was copied and reproduced in
textiles, printed stuffs and wall-papers with but little change
down to the present century a remarkable instance of survival
in design. Fig. 14 is a specimen of isth-century English decora-
tive painting, copied from a 14th-century Sicilian silk damask.
Diapers, powderings with flowers, . sacred monograms and
sprays of blossom were frequently used to ornament large
surfaces in a simple way. Many of these are extremely beautiful
(fig. IS)-
Subjects of Medieval Wall- Paintings. In churches and domestic
buildings alike the usual subjects represented on the walls were
specially selected for their moral and religious teaching, either
FIG. 14. 15th-century Wall-Painting, the design copied from
a 13th-century Sicilian silk damask.
stories from the Bible and Apocrypha, or from the lives of saints,
or, lastly, symbolical representations setting forth some important
theological truth, such as figures of virtues and vices, or the Scala
humanae salyationis, showing the. perils and temptations of the
human soul in its struggle to escape hell and gain paradise a rude
foreshadowing of the great scheme worked out with such perfection
by Dante in his Commedia. A fine example of this subject exists
on the walls of Chaldon church, Surrey. 1 In the selection of saints
for paintings in England,
those of English origin are
naturally most frequently
represented, and different
districts had certain local
favourites. St Thomas of
Canterbury was one of the
most widely popular; but
few examples now remain,
owing to Henry VIII.'s
special dislike to this saint
and the strict orders that
were issued for all pictures
of him to be destroyed.
For a similar reason most
paintings of saintly popes
were obliterated.
Methods of Execution.
Though Eraclius, who
probably wrote before the
loth century, mentions
the use of an oil-medium,
yet till about the I3th
century mural paintings
appear to have been exe-
cuted in the most simple FlG i 5 ._p ow derings used in i 5 th-
way, in tempera mainly century Wall Painting,
with earth colours applied
on dry stucco; even when a smooth stone surface was to be
painted a thin coat of whitening or fine gesso was laid as a
ground. In the 131(1 century, and perhaps earlier, oil was com-
monly used both as a medium for the pigments and also to make
a varnish to cover and fix tempera paintings. The Van Eycks
introduced the use of dryers of a better kind than had yet been
used, and so largely extended the application of oil-painting.
Before their time it seems to have been the custom to dry wall-
paintings laboriously by the use of charcoal braziers, if they were
in a position where the sun could not shine upon them. This is
'See Collections of Surrey Archaeol. Soc. vol. v. pt. ii. (1871).
26
MURANO
specially recorded in the valuable series of accounts for the expenses
of wall-paintings in the royal palace of Westminster during the
reign of Henry III., printed in Vetusta monumenta, vol. vi. (1842).
All the materials used, including charcoal to dry the paintings and
the wages paid to the artists, are given. The materials mentioned
are plumbum album el rubeum, viridus, vermilio, synople, acre,
azura, aurum, argentum, collis, oleum, vernix.
Two foreign painters were employed Peter of Spain and William
of Florence at sixpence a day, but the English painters seem to
FIG. 16. Pattern in Stamped and Moulded Plaster, decorated with
gilding and transparent colours; 15th-century work. (Full size.)
have done most of the work and received higher pay. William,
an English monk in the adjoining Benedictine abbey of West-
minster, received two shillings "a day. Walter of Durham and
various members of the Otho family, royal goldsmiths and moneyers,
worked for many years on the adornment of Henry III.'s palace
and were well paid for their skill. Some fragments of paintings
from the royal chapel of St Stephen are now in the British
Museum. They are delicate and carefully painted subjects from
the Old Testament, in rich colours, each with explanatory inscrip-
tion underneath. The scale is small, the figures being scarcely
a foot high. Their method of execution is curious. First the
smooth stone wall was covered with a coat of red, painted in oil,
probably to keep back the damp; on that a thin skin of fine gesso
(stucco) has been applied, and the outlines of the figures marked
with a point; the whole of the background, crowns, borders of
dresses, and other ornamental parts have then been modelled and
stamped with very minute patterns in slight relief, impressed on
the surface of the gesso while it was yet soft. The figures have then
been painted, apparently in tempera, gold leaf has been applied
to the stamped reliefs, and the whole has been covered with an oil
varnish. It is difficult to realize the labour required to cover large
halls such as the above chapel and the " painted chamber," the
latter about 83 ft. by 27 ft., with this style of decoration.
In many cases the grounds were entirely covered with shining
.metal leaf, over which the paintings were executed; those parts,
such as the draperies, where the metallic lustre was wanted, were
painted in oil with transparent colours, while the flesh was painted
in opaque tempera. The effect of the bright metal shining through
the rich colouring is magnificent. This minuteness of much of the
medieval wall-decoration is remarkable. Large wall-surfaces and
intricate mouldings were often completely covered by elaborate
gesso patterns in relief of almost microscopic delicacy (fig. 1 6).
The cost of stamps for this is among the items in the Westminster
accounts. These patterns when set and dry were further adorned
with gold and colours. So also with the architectural painting;
the artist was not content simply to pick out the various members
of the mouldings in different colours, but he also frequently covered
each bead or fillet with painted flowers and other patterns, as
delicate as those in an illuminated MS. so minute and highly-
finished that they are almost invisible at a little distance, but yet
add greatly to the general richness of effect. All this is neglected
in modern reproductions of medieval painting, in which both
touch and colour are coarse and harsh caricatures of the old
work, such as disfigure the Sainte Chapelle in Paris, and many
cathedrals in France, Germany and England. Gold was never
used in large quantities without the ground on which it was laid
being broken up by some such delicate reliefs as that shown in
fig. 16, so its effect was never dazzling, (W. Mo.; J. H. M.)
Mural painting in England fell into disuse in the i6th century,
until attempts to revive it were made in the igth century.
For domestic purposes wood panelling, stamped leather, and
tapestry were chiefly used as wall-coverings. In the reign of
Henry VIII., probably in part through Holbein's influence, a
rather coarse tempera wall-painting, German in style, appears
to have been common. 1 A good example of arabesque painting
of this period in black and white, rudely though boldly drawn
and Holbeinesquein character, was discovered in 1881 behind the
panelling in one of the canons' houses at Westminster. Other
examples exist at Haddon Hall (Derbyshire) and elsewhere.
Many efforts have been made in England to revive fresco
painting. The Houses of Parliament bear witness to this, the
principal works there being those of William Dyce and Daniel
Maclise. That of G. F. Watts, whose easel work also is generally
distinguished by its mural feeling, is full of serious purpose and
dignity of conception. " Buono fresco " (the painting in tempera
upon a freshly laid ground of plaster while wet), " spirit fresco "
or Gambier-Parry method (the painting with a spirit medium
upon a specially prepared plaster or canvas ground 2 ) , and "water-
glass " painting (wherein the method is similar to water-colour
painting on a prepared plastered wall, the painting when finished
being covered with a chemical solution which hardens and
protects the surface), have all been tried. Other processes are
also in the experimental stage, such as that known as Keim's,
which has been successfully tried by Mrs Merritt in a series of
mural paintings in a church at Chilworth. Unless, however,
some means can be found of enabling the actual painted wall
to resist the natural dampness of the English climate, it does not
seem likely that true fresco painting can ever be naturalized in
Great Britain. Of two of the few modern artists entrusted
with important mural work in England, Ford Madox Brown
and Frederick J. Shields, the former distinguished especially for
his fine series of mural paintings in the Manchester town-hall, in
the later paintings there adopted the modern method of painting
the design upon canvas in flat oil colour, using a wax medium,
and afterwards affixing the canvas to the wall by means of white
lead. This is a usual method with modern decorators. Mr
Shields has painted the panels of his scheme of mural decoration
in the chapel of the Ascension at Bayswater, London, also
upon canvas in oils, and has adopted the method of fixing them
to slabs of slate facing the waD so as to avoid the risk of damp
from the wall itself. Friezes and frieze panels or ceilings in
private houses are usually painted upon canvas in oil and affixed
to the wall or inserted upon their strainers, like pictures in a
frame. (Walter Crane has used fibrous plaster panels, painting in
ordinary oil colours with turpentine as a medium, as in Redcross
Hall.) Recently there has been a revival of tempera painting,
and a group of painters are producing works on panel and canvas
painted in tempera or fresco secco, with yolk of egg as a medium,
according to the practice of the early Italian painters and the
directions of Cennino Cennini. A pure luminous quality of
colour is produced, valuable in mural decoration and also-
durable, especially under varnish. (W. CR.)
MURANO (anc. Ammariuno), an island in the Venetian lagoon
abouj i m. north of Venice. It is 5 m. in circumference,
and a large part of it is occupied by gardens. It contained 5436
inhabitants in 1901, but was once much more populous than
it is at present, its inhabitants numbering 30,000. It was a
favourite resort of the Venetian nobility before they began to
build their villas on the mainland; land in the isth and i6th
centuries its gardens and casinos, of which some traces remain,
were famous. It was here that the literary clubs of the Vigilanti,
the Studiosi and the Occulti, used to meet.
'Shakespeare, Henry IV., Part. II. act n. sc. i: " Falstaff. And
for thy walls, a pretty slight drollery, or the story of the prodigal,
or the German hunting in waterwork, is worth a thousand of these
bed-hangings and these fly-bitten tapestries."
1 It was in this method that the lunettes by Lord Leighton at the
Victoria and Albert Museum were painted on the plaster wall. The
same painter produced a fresco at Lyndhurst Church, Hants.
MURAS MURAT
27
The town is built upon one broad main canal, where the
tidal current runs with great force, and upon several smaller
ones. The cathedral, S. Donato, is a fine basilica, of the izth
century. The pavement (of mi) is as richly inlaid as that of
St Mark's, and the mosaics cf the tribune are remarkable. The
exterior of the tribune is beautiful, and has been successfully
restored. The church of St Peter the Martyr (1509) contains a
fine picture by Gentile Bellini and other works, and S. Maria degli
Angeli also contains several interesting pictures. Murano has
from ancient times been celebrated for its glass manufactories.
When and how the art was introduced is obscure, but there
are notices of it as early as the nth century; and in 1250 Christo-
foro Briani attempted the imitation of agate and chalcedony.
From the labours of his pupil Miotto sprang that branch of
the glass trade which is concerned with the imitation of gems.
In the 1 5th century the first crystals were made, and in the
1 7th the various gradations of coloured and iridescent glass
were invented, together with the composition called " aventu-
rine "; the manufacture of beads is now a main branch of the
trade. The art of the glass-workers was taken under the
protection of the Government in 1275, and regulated by a special
code of laws and privileges; two fairs were held annually, and
the export of all materials, such as alum and sand, which enter
into the composition of glass was absolutely forbidden. With
the decay of Venice the importance of the Murano glass-works
declined; but A. Salviati (1816-1890) rediscovered many of the
old processes, and eight firms are engaged in the trade, the
most renewed being the Venezia Murano Company and Salviati.
The municipal museum contains a collection of glass illustrating
the history and progress of the art.
The island of Murano was first peopled by the inhabitants
of Altino. It originally enjoyed independence under the rule
of its tribunes and judges, and was one of the twelve confederate
islands of the lagoons. In the i2th century the doge Vital
Micheli II. incorporated Murano in Venice and attached it to
the Sestiere of S. Croce. From that date it was governed by
a Venetian nobleman with the title of podesta whose office
lasted sixteen months. Murano, however, retained its original
constitution of a greater and a lesser council for the transaction
of municipal business, and also the right to coin gold and silver
as well as its judicial powers. The interests of the town
were watched at the ducal palace by a nuncio and a solicitor;
and this constitution remained in force till the fall of the
republic.
See Venezia e le sue Lagune; Paoletti, II Fiore di Venezia; Bus-
solin, Guida alle fabbriche vetrarie di Murano; Romania, Storia
documentata di Venezia, i. 41.
MURAS, a tribe of South-American Indians living on the
Amazon, from the Madeira to the Purus. Formerly a powerful
people, they were defeated by their neighbours the Mundrucus
in 1788. They are now partly civilized. Each village has
a chief whose office is hereditary, but he has little power. The
Muras are among the lowest of all Amazonian tribes.
MURAT, JOACHIM (1767-1815), king of Naples, younger
son of an innkeeper at La Bastide-Fortuniere in the department
of Lot, France, was born on the 25th of March 1767. Destined
for the priesthood, he obtained a bursary at the college of Cahors,
proceeding afterwards to the university of Toulouse, Tjhere
he studied canon law. His vocation, however, was certainly
not sacerdotal, and after dissipating his money he enlisted in a
cavalry regiment. In 1789 he had attained the rank of martchal
des logis, but in 1790 he was dismissed the regiment for in-
subordination. After a period of idleness, he was enrolled,
through the good offices of J. B. Cavaignac, in the new Constitu-
tional Guard of Louis XVI. (1791). In Paris he gained a reputa-
tion for his good looks, his swaggering attitude, and the violence
of his revolutionary sentiments. On the 3Oth of May 1792, the
guard having been disbanded, he was appointed sub-lieutenant
in the 2ist Chasseurs a cheval, with which regiment he served
in the Argonne and the Pyrenees, obtaining in the latter campaign
the command of a squadron. After the gth Thermidor, however,
and the proscription of the Jacobins, with whom he had
conspicuously identified himself, he fell under suspicion and
was recalled from the front.
Returning to Paris (1795), he made the acquaintance of
Napoleon Bonaparte, another young officer out of employment,
who soon gained a complete ascendancy over his vain, ambitious
and unstable nature. On the I3th Vendemiaire, when Bonaparte,
commissioned by Barras, beat down with cannon the armed
insurrection of the Paris sections against the Convention, Murat
was his most active and courageous lieutenant, and was rewarded
by the lieutenant-colonelcy of the 2 ist Chasseurs and the appoint-
ment of first aide de camp to General Bonaparte in Italy. In
the first battles of the famous campaign of 1796 Murat so
distinguished himself that he was chosen to carry the captured
flags to Paris. He was promoted to be general of brigade, and
returned to Italy in time to be of essential service to Bonaparte
at Bassano, Corona and Fort St Giorgio, where he was wounded.
He was then sent on a diplomatic mission to Genoa, but returned
in time to be present at Rivoli. In the advance into Tirol in
the summer of 1797 he commanded the vanguard, and by his
passage of the Tagliamento hurried on the preliminaries of
Leoben. In 1798 he was for a short time commandant at Rome,
and then accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt. At the battle
of the Pyramids he led his first famous cavalry charge, and so
distinguished himself in Syria that he was made general of
division (October, 1 799). He returned to France with Bonaparte,
and on the i8th Brumaire led into the orangery of Saint Cloud
the sixty grenadiers whose appearance broke up the Council
of Five Hundred. After the success of the coup d'ttat he was
made commandant of the consular guard, and on the 2oth of
January 1800 he married Caroline Bonaparte, youngest sister
of the first consul. He commanded the French cavalry at
the battle of Marengo, and was afterwards made governor in
the Cisalpine Republic. As commander of the army of observa-
tion in Tuscany he forced the Neapolitans to evacuate the Papal
States and to accept the treaty of Florence (March 28, 1801).
In January 1804 he was given the post of governor of Paris,
and in this capacity appointed the military commission by which
the due d'Enghien was tried and shot (March 20); in May he was
made marshal of the empire; in February 1805 he was made
grand admiral, with the title of prince, and invested with the
grand eagle of the Legion of Honour. He commanded the
cavalry of the Grand Army in the German campaign of 1805,
and was sc conspicuous at Austerlitz that Napoleon made him
grand duke of Berg and Cleves (March 15, 1806). He com-
manded the cavalry at Jena, Eylau, and Friedland, and in
1808 was made general-in-chief of the French aimies in Spain.
He entered Madrid on the 25th of March, and on the 2nd of
May suppressed an insurrection in the city. He did much to
prepare the events which ended in the abdication of Charles IV.
and Ferdinand VII. at Bayonne; but the hopes he had cherished
of himself receiving the crown of Spain were disappointed. On
the ist of August, however, he was appointed by Napoleon to
the throne of Naples, vacated by the transference of Joseph
Bonaparte to Spain.
King Joachim Napoleon, as he styled himself, entered Naples
in September, his handsome presence and open manner gaining
him instantaneous popularity. Almost his first act as king
was to attack Capri, which he wrested from the British; but,
this done, he returned to Naples and devoted himself to establish-
ing his kingship according to his ideas, a characteristic blend
of the vulgarity of a fdnenu with the essential principles of
the Revolution. He dazzled the lazzaroni with' the extravagant
splendour of his costumes; he set up a sumptuous court, created
a new nobility, nominated marshals. With an eye to the over-
throw of his legitimate rival in Sicily, he organized a large army
and even a fleet; but he also swept away the last relics of the
effete feudal system and took efficient measures for suppressing
brigandage. From the first his relations with Napoleon were
strained. The emperor upbraided him sarcastically for his
" monkey tricks " (singeries); Murat ascribed to the deliberate
ill-will of the French generals who served with him, and even to
Napoleon, the failure of his attack on Sicily in 1810. He resented
MURAT
his subordination to the emperor, and early began his pose as an
Italian king by demanding the withdrawal of the French troops
from Naples and naturalization as Neapolitans of all Frenchmen
in the service of the state (1811). Napoleon, of course, met this
demand with a curt refusal. A breach between the brothers-
in-law was only averted by the Russian campaign of 1812 and
Napoleon's invitation to Murat to take command of the cavalry
in the Grand Army. This was a call which appealed to all
his strongest military instincts, and he obeyed it. During the
disastrous retreat he showed his usual headstrong courage; but
in the middle of December he suddenly threw up his command
and returned to Naples. The reason of this was the suspicion,
which had been growing on him for two years past, that Napoleon
was preparing for him the fate of the king of Holland, and that
his own wife, Queen Caroline, was plotting with the emperor
for his dethronement. To Marshal Davout, who pointed out to
him that he was only king of Naples " by grace of the emperor
and the blood of Frenchmen," he replied that he was king of
Naples as the emperor of. Austria was emperor of Austria, and
that he could do as he liked. He was, in fact, already dreaming
of exchanging his position of a vassal king of the French Empire
for that of a national Italian king. In the enthusiastic reception
that awaited him on his return to Naples on the 4th of February
there was nothing to dispel these illusions. All the Italian
parties flocked round him, flattering and cajoling him: the
patriots, because he seemed to them loyal and glorious enough
to assume the task of Italian unification; the partisans of the dis-
possessed princes, because they looked upon him as a convenient
instrument and as simple enough to be made an easy dupe.
From this moment dates the importance of Murat in the
history of Europe during the next few years. He at once,
without consulting his minister of foreign affairs, despatched
Prince Cariati on a confidential mission to Vienna; if Austria
would secure the renunciation of his rights by King Ferdinand
and guarantee the possession of the kingdom of Naples to himself,
he would place his army at her disposal and give up his claims
to Sicily. Austria herself, however, had not as yet broken
definitively with Napoleon, and before she openly joined the
Grand Alliance, after the illusory congress of Prague, many
things had happened to make Murat change his mind. He was
offended by Napoleon's bitter letters and by tales of his slighting
comments on himself; he was alarmed by the emperor's scarcely
veiled threats; but after all he was a child of the Revolution
and a born soldier, with all the soldier's instinct of loyalty to
a great leader, and he grasped eagerly at any excuse for believing
that Napoleon, in the event of victory, would maintain him
on his throne. Then came the emperor's advance into Germany,
supported as yet by his allies of the Rhenish Confederation.
On the fatal field of Leipzig Murat once more faught on Napo-
leon's side, leading the French squadrons with all his old valour
and dash. But this crowning catastrophe was too much for
his wavering faith. On the evening of the i6th of October,
the first day of the battle, Metternich found means to open a
separate negotiation with him: Great Britain and Austria
would, in the event of Murat's withdrawal from Napoleon's
army and refusal to send reinforcements to the viceroy of Italy,
secure the cession to him of Naples by King Ferdinand, guarantee
him in its possession, and obtain for him further advantages
in Italy. To accept the Austrian advances seemed now his
only chance of continuing to be a king. At Erfurt he asked
and obtained the emperor's leave to return to Naples; " our
adieux," he said, " were not over-cordial."
He reached Naples on the 4th of November and at once
informed the Austrian envoy of his wish to join the Allies,
suggesting that the Papal States, with the exception of Rome
and the surrounding district, should be made over to him as
his reward. On the 3ist of December Count Neipperg, after-
wards the lover of the empress Marie Louise, arrived at Naples
with powers to treat. The result was the signature, on the nth
of January 1814, of a treaty by which Austria guaranteed to
Murat the throne of Naples and promised her good offices to
secure the assent of the other Allies. Secret additional articles
stipulated that Austria would use her good offices to secure the
renunciation by Ferdinand of his rights to Naples, in return
for an indemnity to hasten the conclusion of peace between
Naples and Great Britain, and to augment the Neapolitan
kingdom by territory embracing 400,000 souls at the expense
of the states of the Church.
The project of the treaty having been communicated to
Castlereagh, he replied by expressing the willingness of the
British government to conclude an armistice with " the person
exercising the government of Naples " (Jan. 22), and this was
accordingly signed on the 3rd of February by Bentinck. It
was clear that Great Britain had no intention of ultimately
recognizing Murat's right to reign. As for Austria, she would
be certain that Murat's own folly would, sooner or later, give
her an opportunity for repudiating her engagements. For the
present the Neapolitan alliance would be invaluable to the Allies
for the purpose of putting an end to the French dominion in
Italy. The plot was all but spoilt by the prince royal of Sicily,
who in an order of the day announced to his soldiers that their
legitimate sovereign had not renounced his rights to the throne
of Naples (Feb. 20); from the Austrian point of view it was
compromised by a proclamation issued by Bentinck at Leghorn
on the i4th of March, in which he called on the Italians to rise
in support of the " great cause of their fatherland." From
Dijon Castlereagh promptly wrote to Bentinck (April 3) to say
that the proclamation of the prince of Sicily must be disavowed,
and that if King Ferdinand did not behave properly Great
Britain would recognize' Murat's title. A letter from Metternich
to Marshal Bellegarde, of the same place and date, insisted
that Bentinck 's operations must be altered; the last thing that
Austria desired was an Italian national rising.
It was, indeed, by this time clear to the allied powers that
Murat's ambition had o'erleaped the bounds set for them.
" Murat, a true son of the Revolution," wrote Metternich,
in the same letter, " did not hesitate to form projects of con-
quest when all his care should have been limited to simple
calculations as to how to preserve his throne. ... He dreamed
of a partition of Italy between him and us. ... When we refused
to annex all Italy north of the Po, he saw that his calculations
were wrong, but refused to abandon his ambitions. His attitude
is most suspicious." " Press the restoration of the grand-duke
in Tuscany," wrote Castlereagh to Bentinck; " this is the true
touchstone of Murat's intentions. We must not suffer him to
carry out his plan of extended dominion; but neither must
we break with him and so abandon Austria to his augmented
intrigues."
Meanwhile, Murat had formally broken with Napoleon, and
on the i6th of January the French envoy quitted Naples. But
the treason by which he hoped to save his throne was to make
its loss inevitable. He had betrayed Napoleon, only to be made
the cat's-paw of the Allies. Great Britain, even when con-
descending to negotiate with him, had never recognized his
title; she could afford to humour Austria by holding out hopes of
ultimate recognition, in order to detach him from Napoleon; for
Austria alone of the Allies was committed to him, and Castle-
reagh well knew that, when occasion should arise, her obliga-
tions would not be suffered to hamper her interests. With the
downfall of Napoleon Murat's defection had served its turn;
moreover, his equivocal conduct during the campaign in Italy 1
had blunted the edge of whatever gratitude the powers may
have been disposed to feel; his ambition to unite all Italy south
of the Po under his crown was manifest, and the statesmen
responsible for the re-establishment of European order were
little likely to do violence to their legitimist principles in order
to maintain on his throne a revolutionary sovereign who was
proving himself so potent a centre of national unrest.
At the very opening of the congress of Vienna Talleyrand,
with astounding effrontery, affected not to know " the man "
1 He had contributed to the defeats of the viceroy Prince Eugene
in January and February 1814, but did not show any eagerness to
press his victories to the advantage of the Allies, contenting himself
with occupying the principality of Benevento.
MURAT
29
who had been casually referred to as " the king of Naples ";
and he made it the prime object of his policy in the weeks that
followed to secure the repudiation by the powers of Murat's
title, and the restoration of the Bourbon king. The powers,
indeed, were very ready to accept at least the principle of this
policy. " Great Britain," wrote Castlereagh to Lord Liverpool
on the 3rd of September from Geneva, " has no objection, but
the reverse, to the restoration of the Bourbons in Naples." 1
Prussia saw in Murat the protector of the malcontents in Italy. 2
Alexander I. of Russia had no sympathy for any champion of
Liberalism in Italy save himself. Austria confessed " sub
sigillo " that she shared " His Most Christian Majesty's views
as to the restoration of ancient dynasties." 3 The main difficul-
ties in the way were Austria's treaty obligations and the means
by which the desired result was to be obtained.
Talleyrand knew well that Austria, in the long run, would
break faith with Murat and prefer a docile Bourbon on the throne
of Naples to this incalculable child of the Revolution; but he
had his private reasons for desiring to " score off " Metternich,
the continuance of whose quasidiplomatic liaison with Caroline
Murat he rightly suspected. He proposed boldly that, since
Austria, in view of the treaty of Jan. n, 1814, was naturally
reluctant to undertake the task, the restored Bourbon king
of France should be empowered to restore the Bourbon king of
Naples by French arms, thus reviving once more the ancient
Habsburg-Bourbon rivalry for dominion in Italy. 4
Metternich, with characteristic skill, took advantage of this
situation at once to checkmate France and to disembarrass
Austria of its obligations to Murat. While secretly assuring
Louis XVTII., through his confidant Blacas, that Austria was
in favour of a Bourbon restoration in Naples, he formally
intimated to Talleyrand that a French invasion of Italian soil
would mean war with Austria. 6 To Murat, who had appealed
to the treaty of 1814, and demanded a passage northward for
the troops destined to oppose those of Louis XVIII., he explained
that Austria, by her ultimatum to France, had already done all
that was necessary, that any movement of the Neapolitan
troops outside Naples would be a useless breach of the peace
of Italy, and that it would be regarded as an attack on Austria
and a rupture of the alliance. Murat's suspicions of Austrian
sincerity were now confirmed; 6 he realized that there was no
question now of his obtaining any extension of territory at the
expense of the states of the Church, and that in the Italy as
reconstructed at Vienna his own position would be intolerable.
Thus the very motives which had led him to betray Napoleon
now led him to break with Austria. He would secure his throne
by proclaiming the cause of united Italy, chasing the Austrians
1 P.O. Vienna Congress, vii.
2 Mem. of Hardenberg, F.O. Cong. Pruss. Arch. 20. Aug. 14-
June 15.
3 Metternich to Bombelles. Jan. 13, 1815, enclosed in Castle-
reagh to Liverpool of Jan. 25. F.O. Congr. Vienna, xi.
4 Sorel, viii. 41 1 seq.
' Cf. a " most secret " communication to be made to M. de Blacas
(in Metternich to Bombelles, Vienna, Jan. 13, 1815). Murat's
aggressive attitude, and the unrest in Italy, are largely due to the
threatening attitude of France. . . . H.I.M. is not prepared to
risk a rising of Italy under " the national flag." How will France
coerce Naples? By sending an army into Italy across our states,
which would thus become infected with revolutionary views?
The emperor could not allow such an expedition. When Italy is
settled and we will not allow Murat to keep the Marches . . .
he will lose prestige, and then . . . will be the time for Austria to
give effect to the views which, all the time, she shares with His
Most Christian Majesty." (In Castlereagh to Liverpool, " private,"
Jan. 25, 1815. F.O. Vienna Congr. xi.)
* That they were fully justified is clear from the following ex-
tract from a letter of Metternich to Bombelles at Paris (dated
Vienna, Jan. 13, 1815). " Whether Joachim or a Bourbon reigns
at Naples is for us a very subordinate question. . . . When Europe
is established on solid foundations the fate of Joachim will no longer
be problematical, but do not let us risk destroying Austria and
France and Europe, in order to solve this question at the worst
moment it would be put on the tapis. . . . This is no business of
the Congress, but let the Bourbon Powers declare that they maintain
their claims." (In Castlereagh's private letter to Lord Liverpool,
Jan. 15, 1815, F.O. Vienna Congr. xi.)
from the peninsula, and establishing himself as a national
king.
To contemporary observers in the best position to judge
the enterprise seemed by no means hopeless. Lord William
Bentinck, the commander of the English forces in Italy, wrote
to Castlereagh 7 that, " having seen more of Italy," he doubted
whether the whole force of Austria would be able to expel Murat;
" he has said clearly that he will raise the whole of Italy; and
there is not a doubt that under the standard of Italian indepen-
dence the whole of Italy will rally." This feeling, continued
Bentinck, was due to the foolish and illiberal conduct of the
restored sovereigns; the inhabitants of the states occupied by
the Austrian troops were " discontented to a man "; even in Tus-
cany " the same feeling and desire " universally prevailed. All
the provinces, moreover, were full of unemployed officers and
soldiers who, in spite of Murat's treason, would rally to his
standard, especially as he would certainly first put himself into
communication with Napoleon in Elba; while, so far as Bentinck
could hear of the disposition of the French army, it would be
" dangerous to assemble it anywhere or for any purpose." The
urgency of the danger was, then, fully realized by the powers
even before Napoleon's return from Elba; for they were well
aware of Murat's correspondence with him. On the first news
of Napoleon's landing in France, the British government wrote
to Wellington 8 that this event together with " the proofs of
Murat's treachery " had removed " all remaining scruples " on
their part, and that they were now " prepared to enter into a
concert for his removal," adding that Murat should, in the event
of his resigning peaceably, receive " a pension and all considera-
tion." The rapid triumph of Napoleon, however, altered this
tone. " Bonaparte's successes have altered the situation," wrote
Castlereagh to Wellington on the 24th, adding that Great Britain
would enter into a treaty with Murat, if he would give guarantees
" by a certain redistribution of his forces " and the like, and
that in spite of Napoleon's success he would be " true to Europe."
In a private letter enclosed Castlereagh suggested that Murat
might send an auxiliary force to France, where " his personal
presence would be unseemly." 9
Clearly, had King Joachim played his cards well he had the
game in his hands. But it was not in his nature to play them
well. He should have made the most of the chastened temper
of the Allies, either to secure favourable terms from them, or
to hold them in play until Napoleon was ready to take the field.
But his head had been turned by the flatteries of the " patriots";
he believed that all Italy would rally to his cause, and that alone
he would be able to drive the " Germans " over the Alps, and
thus, as king of united Italy, be in a position to treat on equal
terms with Napoleon, should he prove victorious; and he
determined to strike without delay. On the 23rd the news
reached Metternich at Vienna that the Neapolitan troops were
on the march to the frontier. The Allies at once decided to
commission Austria to deal with Murat; in the event of whose
defeat, Ferdinand IV. was to be restored to Naples, on promising
a general amnesty and giving guarantees for a " reasonable "
system of government. 10
Meanwhile, in Naples itself there were signs enough that
Murat's popularity had disappeared. In Calabria the indiscrimi-
nate severity of General Manhes in suppressing brigandage had
made the government hated; in the capital the general dis-
affection had led to rigorous policing, while conscripts had to
be dragged in chains to join their regiments. 11 In these circum-
stances an outburst of national enthusiasm for King Joachim
was hardly to be expected; and the campaign in effect proved a
complete fiasco. Rome and Bologna were, indeed, occupied with-
out serious opposition; but on the I2th of April Murat's forces
received a check from the advancing Austrians at Ferrara and
on the 2nd of May were completely routed at Tolentino. The
7 Letter dated Florence, Jan. 7, 1815. F.O. Vienna Congr. xi.
8 F.O. Vienna Congr. xii., Draft to Wellington dated March 12.
9 F.O. Vienna Congr. xii.
10 Ibid. Wellington to Castlereagh, Vienna, March 25.
u F.O. Cong. xi. ; Munster to Castlereagh, Naples, Jan. 22.
MURATORI
Austrians advanced on Naples, when Ferdinand IV. was duly
restored, while Queen Caroline and her children were deported to
Trieste.
Murat himself escaped to France, where his offer of service
was contemptuously refused by Napoleon. He hid for a
while near Toulon, with a price upon his head; then, after
Waterloo, refusing an asylum in England, he set out for Corsica
(August). Here he was joined by a few rash spirits who urged
him to attempt to recover his kingdom. Though Metternich
offered to allow him to join his wife at Trieste and to secure
him a dignified position and a pension, he preferred to risk
all on a final throw for power. On the 28th of September he
sailed for Calabria with a flotilla of six vessels carrying some
250 armed men. Four of his ships were scattered by a storm;
one deserted him at the last moment, and on the 8th of October
he landed at Pizzo with only 30 companions. Of the popular
enthusiasm for his cause which he had been led to expect there
was less than no sign, and after a short and unequal contest he
was taken prisoner by a captain named Trenta-Capilli, whose
brother had been executed by General Manhes. He was im-
prisoned in the fort of Pizzo, and on the isth of October 1815
was tried by court-martial, under a law of his own, for disturbing
the public peace, and was sentenced to be shot in half an hour.
After writing a touching letter of farewell to his wife and children,
he bravely met his fate, and was buried at Pizzo.
Though much good may be said of Murat as a king sincerely
anxious for the welfare of his adopted country, his most abiding
title to fame is that of the most dashing cavalry leader of the
age. As a man he was rash, hot-tempered and impetuously
brave; he was adored by his troopers who followed their
idol, the " golden eagle," into the most terrible fire and against
the most terrible odds. Napoleon lived to regret his refusal
to accept his services during the Hundred Days, declaring that
Murat's presence at Waterloo would have given more con-
centrated power to the cavalry charges and might possibly have
changed defeat into victory.
By his wife Maria Annunciata Carolina Murat had two sons.
The elder, NAPOLEON ACHII.LE MURAT (1801-1847), during his
father's reign prince royal of the Two Sicilies, emigrated about
1821 to America, and settled near Tallahassee, Florida, where
in 1826-1838 he was postmaster. In 1826 he married a
great-niece of Washington. He published Lettres d'un citoyen
des Etats-Unis A un de ses amis d Europe (Paris, 1830); Esquisse
morale et politique des Etats-Unis (ibid. 1832); and Exposition des
principes du gouiiernement ripublicain lei qu'il a ete perfectionni en
Amerique (ibid. 1833). He died in Florida on the isth of April
1847-
The second son, NAPOLEON LUCIEN CHARLES MURAT (1803-
1878), who was created prince of Ponte Corvo in 1813, lived
with his mother in Austria after 1815, and in 1824 started to
join his brother in America, but was shipwrecked on the coast
of Spain and held for a while a prisoner. Arriving in 1823,
two years later he married in Baltimore a rich American,
Georgina Frazer (d.. 1879) ; but her fortune was lost, and for
some years his wife supported herself and him by keeping a
girls' school. After several abortive attempts to return to
France, the revolution of 1848 at last gave him his opportunity.
He was elected a member of the Constituent Assembly and of
the Legislative Assembly (1849), was minister plenipotentiary
at Turin from October 1849 to March 1850, and after the coup
d'ttat of the 2nd of December 1851 was made a member of the
consultative commission. On the proclamation of the Empire,
he was recognized by Napoleon III. as a prince of the blood royal,
with the title of Prince Murat, and, in addition to the payment
of 2,000,000 fr. of debts, was given a^ income of 150,000 fr.
As a member of the Senate he distinguished himself in 1861
by supporting the temporal power of the pope, but otherwise
he played no conspicuous part. The fall of the Empire in Sep-
tember 1870 involved his retirement into private life. He died
on the loth of April 1878, leaving three sons and two daughters,
(i) Joachim, Prince Murat (1834-1901), in 1854 married Maley
Berthier, daughter of the Prince de Wagram, who bore him a
son, Joachim (b. 1856), who succeeded him as head of the family,
and two daughters, of whom the younger, Anna (b. 1863),
became the wife of the Austrian minister Count Goluchowski.
(2) Achille (1847-1895), married Princess Dadian of Mingrelia.
(3) Louis (b. 1851), married in 1873 to the widowed Princess
Eudoxia Orbeliani (nee Somov), was for a time orderly officer
to Charles XV.' of Sweden. (4) Caroline (b. 1832), married in
1850 Baron Charles de Chassiron and in 1872 Mr John Garden
(d. 1885). (5) Anna (b. 1841), married in 1865 Antoine de
Noailles, due de Mouchy.
AUTHORITIES. See A. Sorel, L'Europe el la r&vclution franfaise
(8 yols., 1885-1892) passim, but especially vol. viii. for Murat's
policy after the 1812; Helfert, Joachim Murat, seine letzten Kampfe
und sein Ende (Vienna, 1878); G. Romano, Ricordi muratiani
(Pavia, 1890); Correspondence de Joachim Murat, Juillet 1791-
Juillet 1808, ed A. Lumbroso (Milan, 1899); Count Murat, Murat,
lieutenant de I'empereur en Espagne (Paris, 1897); Guardione,
Cioacchino Murat in Italia (Palermo, 1899); M. H. Weil, Prince
Eugene et Murat (5 vols., Paris, 1901-1904) ; Chavenon and Saint-
Yves, Joachim Murat (Paris, 1905); Lumbroso, L'Agonia di un
regnp; Cioacchino Murat al Pizzo (Milan, 1904). See also the
bibliography to NAPOLEON I. (W. A. P.)
MURATORI, LUDOVICO ANTONIO (1672-1750), Italian
scholar, historian and antiquary, was born of poor parents at
Vignola in the duchy of Modena on the 2ist of October 1672.
While young he attracted the attention of Father Bacchini,
the librarian of the duke of Modena, by whom his literary tastes
were turned toward historical and antiquarian research. Having
taken minor orders in 1688, Muratori proceeded to his degree
of doctor inutroquejurebelore 1694, was ordained priest in 1695
and appointed by Count Carlo Borromeo one of the doctors
of the Ambrosian library at Milan. From manuscripts now
placed under his charge he made a selection of materials for
several volumes (Anecdota), which he published with notes.
The reputation he acquired was such that the duke of Modena
offered him the situation of keeper of the public archives of the
duchy. Muratori hesitated, until the offer of the additional
post of librarian, on the resignation of Father Bacchini, deter-
mined him in 1700 to return to Modena. The preparation of
numerous valuable tracts on the history of Italy during the middle
ages, and of dissertations and discussions on obscure points
of historical and antiquarian interest, as well as the publication
of his various philosophical, theological, legal, poetical and
other works absorbed the greater part of his time. These
brought him into communication with the most distinguished
scholars of Italy, France and Germany. But they also exposed
him in his later years to envy. His enemies spread abroad
the rumour that the pope, Benedict XIV., had discovered in his
writings passages savouring of heresy, even of atheism. Muratori
appealed to the pope, repudiating the accusation. His Holiness
assured him of his protection, and, without expressing his
approbation of the opinions in question of the learned antiquary,
freed him from the imputations of his enemies. Muratori
died on the 23rd of January 1750, and was buried with much
pomp in the church of Santa Maria di Pomposa, in connexion
with which he had laboured as parish priest for many years.
His remains were removed in 1774 to the church of St Augustin.
Muratori is rightly regarded as the " father of Italian history."
This is due to his great collection, Rerum italicarum scriptores,
to which he devoted about fifteen years' work (1723-1738).
The gathering together and editing some 25 huge folio
volumes of texts was followed by a series of 75 dissertations
on medieval Italy (Antiquitates italicae medii aevi, 1738-1742, 6
vols. folio). To these he added a Novtts thesaurus inscriptionum
(4 vols. , 1 739-1 743) , which was of great importance in the develop-
ment of epigraphy. Then, anticipating the action of the learned
societies of the igth century, he set about a popular treatment
of the historical sources he had published. These Annali
d' Italia (1744-1749) reached 12 volumes, but were imperfect and
are of little value. In addition to this national enterprise
(the Scriptores were published by the aid of the Societa palatina
of Milan) Muratori published Anecdota ex ambrosianae biblio-
thecaecodd. (2 vols. 4to, Milan, 1697, 1698; Padua, 1713);
Anecdota graeca (3 vols. 4to, Padua, 1709); Antichita Estens
MURAVIEV MURCHISON
(2 vols. fol., Modena, 1717); Vita e rime di F. Petrarca (1711),
and Vita ed cpere di L. Castehetro (1727).
In biblical scholarship Muratori is chiefly known as the dis-
coverer of the so-called Muratorian Canon, the name given to a
fragment (85 lines) of early Christian literature, which he found
in 1740, embedded in an 8th-century codex which forms a
compendium of theological tracts followed by the five early
Christian creeds. The document contains a list of the books of
the New Testament, a similar list concerning the Old Testament
having apparently preceded it. It is in barbarous Latin which
has probably been translated from original Greek the language
prevailing in Christian Rome until c. 200. There is little doubt
that it was composed in Rome and we may date it about the
year 190. Lightfoot inclined to Hippolytus as its author. It
is the earliest document known which enumerates the books in
order.
The first line of the fragment is broken and speaks of the
Gospel of St Mark, but there is no doubt that its compiler
knew also of St Matthew. Acts is ascribed to St Luke. He
names thirteen letters of St Paul but says nothing of the Epistle
to the Hebrews. The alleged letters of Paul to the Laodiceans
and Alexandrians he rejects, " for gall must not be mixed with
honey." The two Epistles of Peter and the Epistle of James
are not referred to, but that of Jude and two of John are accepted.
He includes the Apocalypse of John and also the Apocalypse
of Peter. The Shtpherd of Hermas he rejects as not of apostolic
origin, but this test of canonicity is not consistently applied
for he allows the " Wisdom written by the friends of Solomon in
his honour." He rejects the writings of the Gnostics Valentinus
and Basilides, and of Montanus.
The list is not an authoritative decree, but a private register
of what the author considers the prevailing Christian sentiment
in his neighbourhood. He notes certain differences among
the Gospels, because not all the evangelists were eye-witnesses
of the life of Jesus; yet Mark and Luke respectively have behind
them the authority of Peter and of Paul, who is thus regarded
as on a footing with the Twelve. The Fourth Gospel was
written by John at the request of the other apostles and the
bishops on the basis of a revelation made to Andrew. The
letters of Paul are written to four individuals and to seven
different churches, like the seven letters in the Apocalypse of
John.
It is interesting to notice the coincidence of his list with the
evidence gained from Tertullian for Africa and from Irenaeus
for Gaul and indirectly for Asia Minor. Before the year 200
there was widespread agreement in the sacred body of apostolic
writings read in Christian churches on the Lord's Day along with
the Old Testament.
Muratori's Letters, with a Life prefixed, were published by Lazzari,
(2 vols., Venice, 1783). His nephew, F. G. Muratori, also wrote
a Vita del celebre Ludov. Ant. Muratori (Venice, 1756). See also
A. G. Spinelli " BibliographiadellelettereestampadiL. A. Muratori "
in Bolletino dell' institute storico italiano (1888), and Carducci's
preface to the new Scriptores. The Muratorian Canon is given
in full with a translation in H. M. Gwatkin's Selections from Early
Christian Writers. It is also published as No. I of H. Lietzmann's
Kleine Tcxte fur theologische Vorlesungen (Bonn, 1902). See also
Journal of Theological Studies, viii. 537.
MURAVIEV, MICHAEL NIKOLAIEVICH, COUNT (1845-19(50),
Russian statesman, was born on the igth of April 1845. He
was the son of General Count Nicholas Muraviev (governor of
Grodno), and grandson of the Count Michael Muraviev, who
became notorious for his drastic measures in stamping out the
Polish insurrection of 1863 in the Lithuanian provinces. He was
educated at a secondary school at Poltava, and was for a short
time at Heidelberg University. In 1864 he entered the chancel-
lery of the minister for foreign affairs at St Petersburg, and was
soon afterwards attached to the Russian legation at Stuttgart,
where he attracted the notice of Queen Olga of Wiirttemberg.
He was transferred to Berlin, then to Stockholm, and back
again to Berlin. In 1877 he was second secretary at the Hague.
During the Russo-Turkish War of 1878 he was a delegate of the
Red Cross Society in charge of an ambulance train provided i
by Queen Olga of Wiirttemberg. After the war he was succes-
sively first secretary at Paris, chancellor of the embassy at Berlin,
and then minister at Copenhagen. In Denmark he was brought
much into contact with the imperial family, and on the death of
Prince Lobanov in 1897 he was appointed by the Tsar Nicholas II.
to be his minister of foreign affairs. The next three and a half
years were a critical time for European diplomacy. The Chinese
and Cretan questions were disturbing factors. As regards Crete,
Count Muraviev's policy was vacillating; in China his hands were
forced by Germany's action at Kiaochow. But he acted with
singular Itgerete with regard at all events to his assurances to
Great Britain respecting the leases of Port Arthur and Talienwan
from China; he told the British ambassador that these would
be " open ports," and afterwards essentially modified this
pledge. When the Tsar Nicholas inaugurated the Peace Con-
ference at the Hague, Count Muraviev extricated his country
from a situation of some embarrassment; but when, subsequently,
Russian ' agents in Manchuria and at Peking connived at the
agitation which culminated in the Boxer rising of 1900, the
relations of the responsible foreign minister with the tsar became
strained. Muraviev died suddenly on the 2ist of June 1900,
of apoplexy, brought on, it was said, by a stormy interview
with the tsar.
MURCHISON, SIR RODERICK IMPEY (1792-1871), British
geologist, was born at Tarradale, in eastern Ross, Scotland, on
the igth of February 1792. His father, Kenneth Murchison
(d. 1796), came of an old Highland clan in west Ross-shire, and
having been educated as a medical man, acquired a fortune in
India; while stilt in the prime of life he returned to Scotland,
where, marrying one of the Mackenzies of Fairburn, he purchased
the estate of Tarradale and settled for a few years as a resident
Highland landlord. Young Murchison left the Highlands when
three years old, and at the age of seven was sent to the grammar
school of Durham, where he remained for six years. He was then
placed at the military college, Great Marlow, to be trained for
the army. With some difficulty he passed the examinations,
and at the age of fifteen was gazetted ensign in the 36th regiment.
A year later (1808) he landed with Wellesley in Galicia, and was
present at the actions of Rorica and Vimiera. Subsequently
under Sir John Moore he took part in the retreat to Corunna
and the final battle there. This was his only active service.
The defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo seeming to close the prospect
of advancement in the military profession, Murchison, after
eight years of service, quitted the army, and married the daughter
of General Hugonin, of Nursted House, Hampshire. With her
he then spent rather more than two years on the Continent,
particularly in Italy, where her cultivated tastes were of signal
influence in guiding his pursuits. He threw himself with all the
enthusiasm of his character into the study of art and antiquities,
and for the first time in his life tasted the pleasures of truly
intellectual pursuits.
Returning to England in 1818, he sold his paternal property
in Ross-shire and settled in England, where he took to field
sports. He soon became one of the greatest fox-hunters in the
midland counties; but at last, getting weary of such pursuits and
meeting Sir Humphry Davy, who urged him to turn his energy
to science, he was induced to attend lectures at the Royal
Institution. This change in the current of his occupations
was much helped by the sympathy of his wife, who, besides her
artistic acquirements, took much interest in natural history.
Eager and enthusiastic in whatever he undertook, he was fasci-
nated by the young science of geology. He joined the Geological
Society of London and soon showed himself one of its most
active members, having as his colleagues there such men as
Sedgwick, W. D. Conybeare, W. Buckland, W. H. Fitton and
Lyell. Exploring with his wife the geology of the south of
England, he devoted special attention to the rocks of the north-
west of Sussex and the adjoining parts of Hants and Surrey, on
which, aided by Fitton, he wrote his first scientific paper, read
to the society in 1825. Though he had reached the age of thirty-
two before he took any interest in science, he developed his
taste and increased his knowledge so rapidly that in the first
MURCIA
three years of his scientific career he had explored large parts
of England and Scotland, had obtained materials for three
important memoirs, as well as for two more written in conjunction
with Sedgwick, and had risen to be a prominent member of the
Geological Society and one of its two secretaries. Turning his
attention for a little to Continental geology, he explored with
Lyell the volcanic region of Auvergne, parts of southern France,
northern Italy, Tirol and Switzerland. A little later, with
Sedgwick as his companion, he attacked the difficult problem
of the geological structure of the Alps, and their joint paper
giving the results of their study will always be regarded as one of
the classics in the literature of Alpine geology.
It was in the year 1831 that Murchison found the field in which
the chief work of his life was to be accomplished. Acting on
a suggestion made to him by Buckland he betook himself to
the borders of Wales, with the view of endeavouring to discover
whether the greywacke rocks underlying the Old Red Sandstone
could be grouped into a definite order of succession, as the
Secondary rocks of England had been made to tell their story by
William Smith. For several years he continued to work vigor-
ously in that region. The result was the establishment of the
Silurian system under which were grouped for the first time a
remarkable series of formations, each replete with distinctive
organic remains ol ' ;r than and very different from those of
the other rocks of England. These researches, together with
descriptions of the coal-fields and overlying formations in south
Wales and the English border counties, were embodied in The
Silurian System (London, 1839), a massive quarto in two parts,
admirably illustrated with map, sections, pictorial views and
plates of fossils. The full import of his discoveries was not at
first perceived; but as years passed on the types of exigence
brought to light by him from the rocks of the border counties
of England and Wales were ascertained to belong to a geological
period of which there are recognizable traces in almost all parts
of the globe. Thus the term " Silurian," derived from the
name of the old British tribe Silures, soon passed into the
vocabulary of geologists in every country.
The establishment of the Silurian system was followed by
that of the Devonian system, an investigation in which, aided
by the palaeontological assistance of W. Lonsdale, Sedgwick
and Murchison were fellow-labourers, both in the south-west
of England and in the Rhineland. Soon afterwards Murchison
projected an important geological campaign in Russia with the
view of extending to that part of the Continent the classification
he had succeeded in elaborating for the older rocks of western
Europe. He was accompanied by P. E. P. de Verneuil (1805-
1873) and Count A. F. M. L. A. von Keyserling (1815-1891), in
conjunction with whom he produced a magnificent work on
Russia and the Ural Mountains. The publication of this mono-
graph in 1845 completes the first and most active half of Murchi-
son's scientific career. In 1846 he was knighted, and in the
same year he presided over the meeting of the British Association
at Southampton. During the later years of his life a large part
of his time was devoted to the affairs of the Royal Geographical
Society, of which he was in 1830 one of the founders, and he was
president 1843-1845, 1851-1853, 1856-1859 and 1862-1871. So
constant and active were his exertions on behalf of geographical
exploration that to a large section of the contemporary public he
was known rather as a geographer than a geologist. He particu-
larly identified himself with the fortunes of David Livingstone
in Africa, and did much to raise and keep alive the sympathy
of his fellow-countrymen in the fate of that great explorer.
The chief geological investigation of the last decade of his life
was devoted to the Highlands of Scotland, where he believed
he had succeeded in showing that the vast masses of crystalline
schists, previously supposed to be part of what used to be termed
the Primitive formations, were really not older than the Silurian
period, for that underneath them lay beds of limestone and
quartzite containing Lower Silurian (Cambrian) fossils. Subse-
quent research, however, has shown that this infraposition of
the fossiliferous rocks is not their original place, but has been
brought about by a gigantic system of dislocations, whereby
successive masses of the oldest gneisses have been torn up from
below and thrust bodily over the younger formations.
In 1855 Murchison was appointed director-general of the
geological survey and director of the Royal School of Mines and
the Museum of Practical Geology in Jermyn Street, London, in
succession to Sir Henry De la Beche, who had been the first to
hold these offices. Official routine now occupied much of his
time, but he found opportunity for the Highland researches
just alluded to, and also for preparing successive editions of his
work Siluria (1854, ed. 5, 1872), which was meant to present
the main features of the original Silurian System together with
a digest of subsequent discoveries, particularly of those which
showed the extension of the Silurian classification into other
countries. His official position gave him further opportunity
for the exercise of those social functions for which he had always
been distinguished, and which a considerable fortune inherited
from near relatives on his mother's side enabled him to display
on a greater scale. His house in Belgrave Square was one of the
great centres where science, art, literature, politics and social
eminence were brought together in friendly intercourse. In
1863 he was made a K.C. B., and three years later was raised
to the dignity of a baronet. The learned societies of his own
country bestowed their highest rewards upon him: the Royal
Society gave him the Copley medal, the Geological Society its
Wollaston medal, and the Royal Society of Edinburgh its
Brisbane medal. There was hardly a foreign scientific society
of note which had not his name enrolled among its honorary
members. The French Academy of Sciences awarded him the
prix Cuvier, and elected him one of its eight foreign members in
succession to Faraday.
One of the closing public acts of Murchison's life was the
founding of a chair of geology and mineralogy in the university
of Edinburgh, for which he gave the sum of 6000, an annual
sum of 200 being likewise provided by a vote in parliament for
the endowment of the professorship. While the negotiations
with the Government in regard to this subject were still in
progress, Murchison was seized with a paralytic affection on
2ist of November 1870. He rallied and was able to take
interest in current affairs until the early autumn of the follow-
ing year. After a brief attack of bronchitis he died on the
22nd of October 1871. Under his will there was established
the Murchison Medal and geological fund to be awarded
annually by the council of the Geological Society in London.
See the Life of Sir Roderick I. Murchison, by Sir A. Geikie (2 vols.,
1875)- (A. GE.)
MURCIA, a maritime province of south-eastern Spain, bounded
on the E. by Alicante, S.E. and S. by the Mediterranean Sea, W.
by Almerfa and Granada and N. by Albacete. Pop. (1900),
577,987; area, 4453 sq. m. The extent of coast is about 75 m.;
from Cape Palos westwards to Villaricos Point (where Almeria
begins) it is fringed by hills reaching their greatest elevation
immediately east of Cartagena; northwards from Cape Palos
to the Alicante boundary a low sandy tongue encloses the
shallow lagoon called Mar Menor. Eastward from the Mar
Menor and northward from Cartagena stretches the plain known
as El Campo de Cartagena, but the surface of the rest of the
province is diversified by ranges of hills, belonging to the same
system as the Sierra Nevada, which connect the mountains of
Almeria and Granada with those of Alicante. The general
direction of these ranges is from south-west to north-east; they
reach their highest point (5150 ft.) on the Sierra de Espufia,
between the Mula and Sangonera valleys. They are rich in
iron, copper, argentiferous lead, alum, sulphur, and saltpetre.
Mineral springs occur at Mula, Archena (hot sulphur), and
Alhama (hot chalybeate). The greater part of the province
drains into the Mediterranean, chiefly by the Segura, which
enters it in the north-west below Hellin in Albacete, and leaves
it a little above Orihuela ip Alicante; within the province it
receives on the left the Arroyo del Jua, and on the right the
Caravaca, Quipar, Mula, and Sangonera. The smaller streams
of Nogalte and Albujon fall directly into the Mediterranean and
the Mar Menor respectively. The climate is hot and dry, and
MURCIA MURDOCK
33
agriculture is largely dependent on irrigation, which, where
practicable, has been carried on since the time of the Moors.
Wheat, barley, maize, hemp, oil, and wine (the latter somewhat
rough in quality) are produced; fruit, especially the orange, is
abundant along the course of the Segura; mulberries for seri-
culture are extensively grown around the capital; and the
number of bees kept is exceptionally large. Esparto grass is
gathered on the sandy tracts. The live stock consists chiefly of
asses, mules, goats and pigs; horses, cattle and sheep being
relatively few. Apart from agriculture, the principal industry
is mining, which has its centre near Cartagena. Large quantities'
of lead and esparto, as well as of zinc, iron and copper ores, and
sulphur, are exported. The province is traversed by a railway
which connects Murcia with Albacete and Valencia; from
Alcantarilla there is a branch to Lorca and Baza. Near the
capital and other large towns there are good roads, but the
means of communication are defective in the remoter districts.
This deficiency has somewhat retarded the development of
mining, and, although it has been partly overcome by the
construction of light railways, many rich deposits of ore remain
unworked. The chief towns are Murcia, the capital, Cartagena,
Lorca, La Uni6n, Mazarron, Yecla, Jumilla, Aguilas, Caravaca,
Totana, Cieza, Mula, Moratalla, and Cehegin. Other towns
with more than 7000 inhabitants are Alhama, Bulias. Fuente
Alamo, Molina and Torre Pacheco.
The province of Murcia was the first Spanish possession of
the Carthaginians, by whom Nova Carthago was founded. The
Romans included it in Hispania Tarraconensis. Under the
Moors the province was known as Todmir, which included,
according to Edrisi, the cities Murcia, Orihuela, Cartagena,
Lorca, Mula and Chinchilla. The kingdom of Murcia, which
came into independent existence after the fall of Omayyads
(see CALIPHATE) included the present Albacete as well as Murcia.
It became subject to the crown of Castile in the I3th century.
Until 1833 the province of Murcia also included Albacete.
MURCIA, the capital of the Spanish province of Murcia;
on the river Segura, 25 m. W. of the Mediterranean Sea. Pop.
(1900), 111,539. Murcia is connected by rail with all parts
of Spain, and is an important industrial centre, sixth in respect
of population among the cities of the kingdom. It has been an
episcopal see since 1291. It is built nearly in the centre of a
low-lying fertile plain, known as the huerta or garden of Murcia,
which includes the valleys of the Segura and its right-hand tribu-
tary the Sangonera, and is surrounded by mountains. Despite
the proximity of the sea, the climate is subject to great varia-
tions, the summer heat being severe, while frosts are common in
winter. The city is built mainly on the left bank of the Segura,
which curves north-eastward after receiving the Sangonera below
Murcia, and falls into the Mediterranean about 30 m. N.E. A
fine stone bridge of two arches gives access to the suburb of San
Benito, which contains the bull-ring. As a rule the streets are
broad, straight and planted with avenues of trees, but the
Calle de Plateria and Calle de la Traperia, which contain many
of the principal shops, are more characteristically Spanish, being
lined with old-fashioned balconied houses, and so narrow that
wheeled traffic is in most parts impossible. In summer these
thoroughfares are shaded by awnings. The Malecon, or embank-
ment, is a fine promenade skirting the left bank of the Segura;
the river is here crossed by a weir and supplies power to several
silk-mills. The principal square is the Arenal or Plaza de la
Constituci6n, planted with orange trees and adjoining the
Glorieta Park. The cathedral, dating from 1388-1467, is the
work of many architects; in the main it is late Gothic, but a
Renaissance dome and a tower 480 ft. high were added in 1521,
while a Corinthian facade was erected in the i8th century.
There are some good paintings and fine wood-carving in the
interior. Other noteworthy buildings are the colleges of San
Fulgencio and San Isidro, the bishops' palace, the hospital of
San Juan de Dios, the Moorish Alhondiga, or grain warehouse,
the buildings of the municipal and provincial councils and
the Contraste, which is adorned with sculptured coats-of-arms,
and was originally designed to contain standard weights and
XIX. 2
measures; it has become a picture-gallery. There are two
training schools for teachers, a provincial institute and a museum.
Since 1875 the industrial importance of Murcia has steadily
increased. Mulberries (for silkworms), oranges and other fruits
are largely cultivated in the huerta, and the silk industry, which
dates from the period of Moorish rule, is still carried on. Manu-
factures of woollen, linen and cotton goods, of saltpetre, flour,
leather and hats, have been established in more modern times,
and Murcia is the chief market for the agricultural produce of
a large district. A numerous colony of gipsies has settled in the
west of the city.
Murcia was an Iberian town before the Punic Wars, but its
name then, and under Roman cule, is not known, though some
have tried to identify it with the Roman Vergilia. To the Moors,
who took possession early in the 8th century, it was known as
Medinat Mursiya. Edrisi described it in the i2th century as
populous and strongly fortified. After the fall of the caliphate
of Cordova it passed successively under the rule of Almeria,
Toledo and Seville. In 1172 it was taken by the Almohades, and
from 1223 to 1243 it became the capital of an independent
kingdom. The Castilians took it at the end of this period,
when large numbers of immigrants from north-eastern Spain
and Provence settled in the town; French and Catalan names are
still not uncommon. Moorish princes continued to rule in name
over this mixed population, but in 1269 a rising against the
suzerain, Alphonso the Wise, led to the final incorporation of
Murcia (which then included the present province of Albacete)
into the kingdom of Castile. During the War of the Spanish
Succession Bishop Luis de Belluga defended the city against
the archducal army by flooding the huerta. In 1810 and 1812
it was attacked by the French under Marshal Soult. It suffered
much from floods in 1651, 1879 and 1907, though the construc-
tion of the Malecon has done much to keep the Segura within
its own channel. In 1829 many buildings, including the
cathedral, were damaged by an earthquake.
MURDER, in law, the unlawful killing of a person with malice
aforethought (see HOMICIDE). The O. Eng. morSor comes ulti-
mately from the Indo-European root mar-, to die, which has
also given Lat. mars, death, and all its derivatives in English,
French and other Rom. languages; cf. Gr. |3por6$, for noprbs,
mortal. The O. Eng. form, Latinized as murdrum, murtrum,
whence Fr. meurtre, is represented in other Teutonic languages
by a cognate form, e.g. Ger. Mord, Du. moord.
MURDOCK, WILLIAM (1754-1839), British inventor, was
born near the village of Auchinleck in Ayrshire on the 2 rst of
August 1754. His father, John Murdoch (as the name is spelt
in Scotland), was a millwright and miller, and William was
brought up in the same occupation. In 1777 he entered the
employment of Boulton & Watt in the Soho works at Birming-
ham, and about two years afterwards he was sent to Cornwall to
superintend the fitting of Watt's engines. It is said that while
staying at Redruth he carried a series of experiments in the
distillation of coal so far that in 1792 he was able to light his
cottage and offices with gas, but the evidence is not conclusive.
However, after his return to Birmingham about 1799, he made
such progress in the discovery of practical methods for making,
storing and purifying gas that in 1802 a portion of the exterior
of the Soho factory was lighted with it in celebration of the peace
of Amiens, and in the following year it -was brought into use
for the interior. Murdock was also the inventor of important
improvements in the steam-engine. He was the first to devise
an oscillating engine, of which he made a model about 1784; in
1786 he was busy somewhat to the annoyance of both Boulton
and Watt with a steam carriage or road locomotive; and in
1799 he invented the long D slide valve. He is also believed to
have been the real deviser of the sun and planet motion patented
by Watt in 1781. In addition his ingenuity was directed to
the utilization of compressed air, and in 1803 he constructed
a steam gun. He retired from business in 1830, and died at Soho
on the isth of November 1839.
At the celebration of the centenary of gas lighting in 1892, a bust
of Murdock was unveiled by Lord Kelvin in the Wallace Monument.
34
MURE MURGER
Stirling, and there is also a bust of him by Sir F. L. Chantrey at
Handsworth Church, where he was buried. His " Account of the
Application of Gas from Coal to Economical Purposes " appeared
in the Phil. Trans, for 1808.
MURE, SIR WILLIAM (1594-1657), Scottish writer, son of
Sir William Mure of Rowallan, was born in 1594. His mother
was Elizabeth, sister of the poet Alexander Montgomerie (q.v.).
He was a member of the Scottish parliament in 1643, and took
part in the English campaign of 1644. He was wounded at
Marston Moor, but a month later was commanding a regiment
at Newcastle. He died in 1657. He wrote Dido and Aeneas;
a translation (1628) of Boyd of Trochrig's Latin Hecatombe
Christiana; The True Crucifixe for True Catholikes (1629); a
paraphrase of the Psalms; the Historic and Descent of the
House of Rowallane; A Counter-buff to Lysimachus Nicanor;
TheCry of Blood and of a Broken Covenant (1650); besides much
miscellaneous verse and many sonnets.
A complete edition of his works was edited by William Tough
for the Scottish Text Society (2 vols., 1898). Mure's Lute-Book,
a musical document of considerable interest, is preserved in the
Laing collection of MSS. in the library of the university of
Edinburgh.
MURE, WILLIAM (1799-1860), Scottish classical scholar,
was born at Caldwell, Ayrshire, on the 9th of July 1799. He
was educated at Westminster School and the universities of
Edinburgh and Bcnn. From 1846 to 1855 he represented the
county of Renfrew in parliament in the Conservative interest,
and was lord rector of Glasgow University in 1847-1848. For
many years he devoted his leisure to Greek 'studies, and in
1850-1857 he published five volumes of a Critical History of
the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece, which, though
uncompleted and somewhat antiquated, is still useful. He died
in London on the ist of April 1860.
MURENA, the name of a Roman plebeian family from
Lanuvium, belonging to the Licinian gens, said to be derived
from the fondness of one of the family for lampreys (murenae) .
The principal members of the family were Lucius Licinius
Murena, who was defeated by Mithradates in Asia in 81 B.C., and
his son Lucius Licinius Murena, who was defended by Cicero
in 62 B.C. against a charge of bribery (Cic. Pro Murena). The
son was for several years legate of Lucius Licinius Lucullus
in the third Mithradatic War. In 65 he was praetor and made
himself popular by the magnificence of the games provided by
him. As administrator of Transalpine Gaul after his praetorship
he gained the goodwill of both provincials and Romans by his
impartiality. In 62 he was elected consul, but before entering
upon office he was accused of bribery by Servius Sulpicius,an
unsuccessful competitor, supported by Marcus Porcius Cato
the younger and Servius Sulpicius Rufus, a famous jurist and
son of the accuser. Murena was defended by Marcus Licinius
Crassus (afterwards triumvir), Quintus Hortensius and Cicero,
and acquitted, although it seems probable that he was guilty.
During his consulship he passed a law {lex Junta Licinia) which
enforced more strictly the provision of the lex Caecilia Didia
that laws sjjould be promulgated three nundinae before they
were proposed to the comitia, and further enacted that, in order
to prevent forgery, a copy of every proposed statute should be
deposited before witnesses in the aerarium.
MURETUS, the Latinized name of MARC ANTOINE MURET
(1526-1585), French humanist, who was born at Muret near
Limoges on the i2th of April 1526. At the age of eighteen he
attracted the notice of the elder Scaliger, and was invited to
lecture in the archiepiscopal college at Auch. He afterwards
taught Latin at Villeneuve, and then at Bordeaux. Some time
before 1552 he delivered a course of lectures in the college of
Cardinal Lemoine at Paris, which was largely attended, Henry
II. and his queen being among his hearers. His success made him
many enemies, and he was thrown into prison on a disgraceful
charge, but released by the intervention of powerful friends.
The same accusation was brought against him at Toulouse, and
he only saved his life by timely flight. The records of the town
show that he was burned in effigy as a Huguenot and as shame-
fully immoral (1554). After a wandering and insecure life of
some years in Italy, he received and accepted the invitation of
the Cardinal Ippolyte d'Este to settle in Rome in 1559. In
1561 he revisited France as a member of the cardinal's suite
at the conference between Roman Catholics and Protestants held
at Poissy. He returned to Rome in 1563. His lectures gained
him a European reputation, and in 15 78 he received a tempting
offer from the king of Poland to become teacher of jurisprudence
in his new college at Cracow. Muretus, however, who about
1576 had taken holy orders, was induced by the liberality of
Gregory XIII. to remain in Rome, where he died on the 4th of
June 1585.
Complete editions of his works: editio princeps, Verona (1727-
1730); by D. Ruhnken (1789), by C. H. Frotscher (1834-1841);
two volumes of Scripta selecta, by J. Frey (1871); Variae lectiones,
by F. A. Wolf and J. H. Fasi (1791-1828). Muretus edited a number
of classical authors with learned and scholarly notes. His other
works include Juvenilia et poemata varia, orationes and epistolae.
See monograph by C. Dejob (Paris, 1881); J. E. Sandys, HisU
Class. Schol., (2nd ed., 1908), ii. 148-152.
MUREXIDE (NH^Cs^NsOe.HzO), the ammonium salt of
purpuric acid. It may be prepared by heating alloxantin in
ammonia gas to 100 C., or by boiling uramil with mercuric oxide
(J. v. Liebig, F. Wohler, Ann., 1838, 26, 319), 2C 4 H6N 3 O 3 +O =
NH4-C 8 H 4 N 6 O6+H 2 O. W. N. Hartley (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1905,
87, 1791) found considerable difficulty in obtaining specimens
of murexide sufficiently pure to give concordant results when
examined by means of their absorption spectra, and conse-
quently devised a new method of preparation for murexide. In
this process alloxantin is dissolved in a large excess of boiling
absolute alcohol, and dry ammonia gas is passed into the solution
for about three hours. The solution is then filtered from the
precipitated murexide, which is washed with absolute alcohol
and dried. The salt obtained in this way is in the anhydrous
state. It may also be prepared by digesting alloxan with
alcoholic ammonia at about 78 C.; the purple solid so formed
is easily soluble in water, and the solution produced is
indistinguishable from one of murexide.
On the constitution of murexide see also O. Piloty (Ann., 1904,
333. 3); R. Mohlau (Ber., 1904, 37, 2686); and M. Slimmer and J.
Stieglitz (Amer. Chem. Jour., 1904, 31, 661).
MURFREESBORO, a city and the county-seat of Rutherford
county, Tennessee, U.S.A., near the Stone River, 32 m. S.E. of
Nashville. Pop. (1890), 3739; (1900), 3999 (2248 negroes);
(1910), 4679. It is served by the Nashville Chattanooga & St
Louis railway. It is in an agricultural region where cotton is
an important crop, and has a considerable trade in red cedar,
hardwood, cotton, livestock and grain; it has also various
manufactures. At Murfreesboro are Soule College for girls
(Methodist Episcopal South; 1852), Tennessee College for girls
(Baptist, 1906), Mooney School for boys (1901), and Bradley
Academy for negroes. Murfreesboro was settled in 1811; was
incorporated in 1817, and from 1819 to 1825 was the capital
of the state. It was named in honour of Colonel Hardy
Murfree (1752-1809), a native of North Carolina, who served as
an officer of North Carolina troops in the War of Independence,
and after 1807 lived in Tennessee. About 2 m. west of the
city the battle of Murfreesboro, or Stone River (q.v.), was
fought on the 3ist of December 1862 and the 2nd of January
1863.
MURGER, HENRY (1822-1861), French man of letters, was
born in Paris on the 24th of March 1822. His father was a
German concierge and a tailor. At the age of fifteen Murger was
sent into a lawyer's office, but the occupation was uncongenial
and his father's trade still more so; and he became secretary to
Count Alexei Tolstoi. He published in 1843 a poem entitled
Via dolorosa, but it made no mark. He also tried journalism,
and the paper Le Castor, which figures in his Vie de Bohdme
as having combined devotion to the interests of the hat trade
with recondite philosophy and elegant literature, is said to have
existed, though shortlived. In 1848 appeared the collected
sketches called Scenes de la vie de BohZme.- This book describes
the fortunes and misfortunes, the loves, studies, amusements
and sufferings of a group of impecunious students, artists and
MURGHAB MURILLO
35
men of letters, of whom Rodolphe represents Murger himself,
while the others have been more or less positively identified.
Murger, in fact, belonged to a clique of so-called Bohemians, the
most remarkable of whom, besides himself, were Privat d'Angle-
mont and Champfleury. La Vie de Boheme, arranged for the
stage in collaboration with Theodore Barriere, was produced
at the Varietes on the 22nd of November 1849, and was a
triumphant success; it afterwards formed the basis of Puccini's
opera, La Boheme (1898). From this time it was easy for
Murger to live by journalism and general literature. He was
introduced in 1851 to the Revue des deux mondes. But he was a
slow, fastidious and capricious worker, and his years of hardship
and dissipation had impaired his health. He published among
other works Claude et Marianne in 1851 ; a comedy, Le Bonhomme
Jadis in 1852; Le Pays Latin in 1852; Adeline Prolat (one of the
most graceful and innocent if not the most original of his tales)
in 1853; and Les Buveurs d'eau in 1855. This last, the most
powerful of his books next to the Vie de Boheme, traces the fate
of certain artists and students who, exaggerating their own
powers and disdaining merely profitable work, come to an evil
end not less rapidly than by dissipation. Some years before
his death, which took place in a maison de sanle near Paris on
the 28th of January 1861, Murger went to live at Marlotte, near
Fontainebleau, and there he wrote an unequal book entitled
Le Sabot rouge (1860), in which the character of the French
peasant is uncomplimentarily treated.
See an article by A. de Pontmartin in the Revue des deux mondes
{October 1861).
MURGHAB, a river of Afghanistan, which flows into Russian
territory. It rises in the Firozkhoi highlands, the northern
scarp of which is defined by the Band-i-Turkestan, and after
traversing that plateau from east to west it turns north through
deep defiles to Bala Murghab. Beyond this, in the neighbour-
hood of Maruchak, it forms for a space the boundary-line between
Afghan and Russian Turkestan; then joining the Kushk river
at Pul-i-Khishti (Tash Kupri) it runs north to Merv, losing itself
in the sands of the Merv desert after a course of about 450 m.,
its exact source being unknown. In the neighbourhood of
Bala Murghab it is 50 yds. broad and some 3 ft. deep, with a
rapid current. In the lower part of its course it is flanked by
a remarkable network of canals. The ancient city of Merv,
which was on its banks, was the great centre of medieval Arab
trade, and Buddhist caves are found in the scarped cliffs of its
right bank near Panjdeh.
MURI, a province of the British protectorate of Northern
Nigeria. It lies approximately between 9 and 11 40' E. and
7 10' and 9 40' N. The river Benue divides it through its
length, and the portion on the southern bank of the river is
watered by streams flowing from the Cameroon region to the
Benue. The province is bordered S. by Southern Nigeria,
S.E. by German territory (Cameroon), E. by the province of
Yola, N. by Bauchi, W. by Nassarawa and Bassa. The district
of Katsena- Allah extends south of the Benue . considerably
west of 9 E., the approximate limit of the remainder of the
province. Muri has an area of 25,800 sq. m. and an estimated
population of about 828,000. The province is rich in forest
products and the Niger Company maintains trading stations
on the river. Cotton is grown, and spinning thread, weaving
and dyeing afford occupation to many thousands. The valley
of the Benue has a climate generally unhealthy to Europeans,
but there are places in the northern part of the province, such
as the Fula settlement of Wase on a southern spur of the
Murchison hills, where the higher altitude gives an excellent
climate. Muri includes the ancient Jukon empire together with
various small Fula states and a number of pagan tribes, among
whom the Munshi, who extend into the provinces of Nassarawa
and Bassa, are among the most turbulent. The Munshi occupy
about 4000 sq. m. in the Katsena-Allah district. The pagan
tribes in the north of the province are lawless cannibals who by
constant outrages and murders of traders long rendered the main
trade route to Bauchi unsafe, and cut off the markets of the
Benue valley and the Cameroon from the Hausa states. Only
two routes, one via Wase and the other via Gatari, pass through
this belt. In the south of the province a similar belt of hostile
pagans closed the access to the Cameroon except by two routes,
Takum and Beli. For Hausa traders to cross the Muri province
was a work of such danger and expense that before the advent
of British administration the attempt was seldom made.
Muri came nominally under British control in 1900. The
principal effort of the administration has been to control and
open the trade routes. In 1904 an expedition against the
northern cannibals resulted in the capture of their principal
fortresses and the settlement and opening to trade of a large
district, the various routes to the Benue being rendered safe.
In 1905 an expedition against the Munshi, rendered necessary
by an unprovoked attack on the Niger Company's station at
Abinsi, had a good effect in reducing the riverain portion of
this tribe to submission. The absence of any central native
authority delayed the process of bringing the province under
administrative control. Its government "has been organized
on the same system as the rest of Northern Nigeria, and is under
a British resident. It has been divided into three administrative
divisions east, central and west with their respective head-
quarters at Lau, Amar and Ibi. Provincial and native courts
of justice have been established. The telegraph has been
carried to the town of Muri. Muri is one of the provinces in
which the slave trade was most active, and its position between
German territory and the Hausa states rendered it in the early
days of the British administration a favourite route for the
smuggling of slaves.
MURILLO, BARTOLOM6 ESTEBAN (1617-1682), Spanish
painter, son of Caspar Esteban Murillo and Maria Perez, was
born at Seville in 1617, probably at the end 1 of the year, as he
was baptized on the first of January 1618. Esteban-Murillo
appears to have been the compound surname of the father,
but some inquirers consider that, in accordance with a frequent
Andalusian custom, the painter assumed the surname of his
maternal grandmother, Elvira Murillo, in addition to that of
his father. His parents (the father an artisan of a humble
class), having been struck with the sketches which the boy
was accustomed to make, placed him under the care of their
distant relative, Juan del Castillo, the painter. Juan, a correct
draughtsman and dry colourist, taught him all the mechanical
parts of his profession with extreme care, and Murillo proved
himself an apt pupil. The artistic appliances of his master's
studio were not abundant, and were often of the simplest kind.
A few casts, some stray fragments of sculpture and a lay figure
formed the principal aids available for the Sevillian student of
art. A living model was a luxury generally beyond the means
of the school, but on great occasions the youths would strip in
turn and proffer an arm or a leg to be .studied by their fellows.
Objects of still life, however, were much studied by Murillo,
and he early learnt to hit off the ragged urchins of Seville.
Murillo in a few years painted as well as his master, and as
stiffly. His two pictures of the Virgin, executed during this
period, show how thoroughly he had mastered the style, with all
its defects. Castillo was a kind man, but his removal to Cadiz
in 1639-1640 threw his favourite pupil upon his own resources.
The fine school of Zurbaran was too expensive for the poor
lad; his parents were either dead or too poor to help him, and
he was compelled to earn his bread by painting rough pictures
for the " feria " or public fair of Seville. The religious daubs
exposed at that mart were generally of as low an order as the
prices paid for them. A " pintura de la feria " (a picture for
the fair) was a proverbial expression for an execrably bad one;
yet the street painters who thronged the market-place with
their "clumsy saints and unripe Madonnas " not unfrequently
rose to be able and even famous artists. This rough-and-ready
practice, partly for the market-place, partly for converts in
Mexico and Peru, for whom Madonnas and popular saints
were produced and shipped off by the dozen, doubtless increased
Murillo's manual dexterity; but, if we may judge from the
picture of the " Virgin and Child" shown in the Murillo-room at
Seville as belonging to this period, he made little improvement
MURILLO
in colouring or in general strength of design. Struck by the
favourable change which travel had wrought upon the style
of his brother artist Pedro de Moya, Murillo in 1642 resolved
to make a journey to Flanders or Italy. Having bought a large
quantity of canvas, he cut it into squares of different sizes, which
he converted into pictures of a kind likely to sell. The American
traders bought up his pieces, and he found himself sufficiently
rich to carry out his design. He placed his sister, who was
dependent on him, under the care of some friends, and without
divulging his plans to any one set out for Madrid. On reaching
the capital he waited on Velazquez, his fellow-townsman then
at the summit of his fortune and asked for some introduc-
tion to friends in Rome. The master liked the youth, and
offered him lodging in his own house, and proposed to procure
him admission to the royal galleries of the capital. Murillo
accepted the offer, and here enjoyed the masterpieces of Italy
and Flanders without travelling beyond the walls of Madrid.
The next two years- were chiefly spent in copying from Ribera,
Vandyck and Velazquez; and in 1644 he so astonished the latter
with some of his efforts that they were submitted to the king
and the court. His patron now urged him to go to Rome,
and offered him letters to smooth his way; but Murillo preferred
returning to his sister and his native Seville.
The friars of the convent of San Francesco in Seville had
about this time determined to adorn the walls of their small
cloister in a manner worthy of their patron saint. But the
brotherhood had no money; and after endless begging they found
themselves incapable of employing an artist of name to execute
the task. Murillo was needy, and offered his services; after
balancing their own poverty against his obscurity the friars
bade him begin. Murillo covered the walls with eleven large
pictures of remarkable power and beauty displaying by turns
the strong colouring of Ribera, the lifelike truthfulness of
Velazquez, and the sweetness of Vandyck. Among them were
to be found representations of San Francesco, of San Diego, of
Santa Clara and of San Gil. These pictures were executed
in his earliest style, commonly called his frio or cold style. It
was based chiefly on Ribera and Caravaggio, and was dark with
a decided outline. This rich collection is no longer in Seville;
Marshal Soult carried off ten of the works. The fame of these
productions soon got abroad, and " El Claustro Chico " swarmed
daily with artists and critics. Murillo was no longer friendless
and unknown. The rich and the noble of Seville overwhelmed
him with their commissions and their praises.
In 1648 Murillo married a wealthy lady of rank, Dona Beatriz
de Cabrera y Sotomayor, of the neighbourhood of Seville, and
his house soon became the favourite resort of artists and
connoisseurs. About this time he was associated with the land-
scape-painter Yriarte the two artists interchanging figures and
landscapes for their respective works; but they did not finally
agree, and the co-operation came to an end. Murillo now
painted the well-known " Flight into Egypt," and shortly
afterwards changed his earliest style of painting for his calido
or warm style. His drawing was still well defined, but his
outlines became softer and his figures rounder, and his colouring
gained in warmth and transparency. His first picture of this
style, according to Cean Bermudez, was a representation of
" Our Lady of the Conception," and was painted in 1652 for
the brotherhood of the True Cross; he received for it 2500 reals
(26). In 1655 he executed his two famous paintings of " San
Leandro " and " San Isidoro " at the order of Don Juan Federigo,
archdeacon of Carmona, which are now in the cathedral of
Seville. These are two noble portraits, finished with great care
and admirable effect, but the critics complain of the figures
being rather short. His next picture, the " Nativity of the
Virgin," painted for the chapter, is regarded as one of the most
delightful specimens of his calido style. In the following year
(1656) the same body gave him an order for a vast picture of San
Antonio de Padua, for which he received 10,000 reals (104).
This is one of his most celebrated performances, and still hangs
in the baptistery of the cathedral. It was " repaired " in 1833;
the grandeur of the design, however, and the singular richness
of the colouring may still be traced. The same year saw him
engaged on four large semicircular pictures, designed by his
friend and patron Don Justino Neve y Yevenes, to adorn the
walls of the church of Santa Maria la Blanca. The first two
(now in Madrid) were meant to illustrate the history of the
Festival of Our Lady of the Snow, or the foundation of the
Roman basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore. The one represents
the wealthy but childless Roman senator and his lady asleep
and dreaming; the other exhibits the devout pair relating
their dream to Pope Liberius. Of these two noble paintings
the Dream is the finer, and in it is to be noticed the commence-
ment of Murillo's third and last style, known as the vaporoso or
vapoury. It should be noted, however, that the three styles
are not strictly separable into date-periods; for the painter
alternated the styles accordingly to his subject-matter or the
mood of his inspiration, the calido being the most frequent. In
the vaporoso method the well-marked outlines and careful
drawing of his former styles disappear, the outlines are lost
in the misty blending of the light and shade, and the general
finish betrays more haste than was usual with Murillo. After
many changes of fortune, these two pictures now hang in the
Academy at Madrid. The remaining pieces executed for this
small church were a " Virgin of the Conception " and a figure of
" Faith." Soult laid his hands on these also, and they have not
been recovered.
In 1658 Murillo undertook and consummated a task which
had hitherto baffled all the artists of Spain, and even royalty
itself. This was the establishing of a public academy of art. By
superior tact and good temper he overcame the vanity of Valdes
Leal and the presumption of the younger Herrera, and secured
their co-operation. The Academy of Seville was accordingly
opened for the first time in January 1660, and Murillo and the
second Herrera were chosen presidents. The former continued
to direct it during the following year; but the calls of his studio
induced him to leave it in other hands. It was then flourishing,
but not for long.
Passing over some half-length pictures of saints and a dark-
haired Madonna, painted in 1668 for the chapter-room of the
cathedral of his native city, we enter upon the most splendid
period of Murillo's career. In 1661 Don Miguel Manara Vicen-
telo de Leca, who had recently turned to a life of sanctity from
one of the wildest profligacy, resolved to raise money for the
restoration of the dilapidated Hospital de la Caridad, of whose
pious gild he was himself a member. Manara commissioned
his friend Murillo to paint eleven pictures for this edifice of San
Jorge. Three of these pieces represented the " Annunciation,"
the " Infant Saviour," and the " Infant St John." The remaining
eight are considered Murillo's masterpieces. They consist of
" Moses striking the Rock," the " Return of the Prodigal,"
" Abraham receiving the Three Angels," the "Charity of San
Juan de Dios," the " Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes," " Our
Lord healing the Paralytic," " St Peter released from Prison by
the Angel," and " St Elizabeth of Hungary." These works
occupied the artist four years, and in 1674 he received for his
eight great pictures 78,115 reals or about 800. The " Moses, "
the " Loaves and Fishes," the " San Juan," and the three
subjects which we have named first, are still at Seville; the
French carried off the rest, but the " St Elizabeth " and the
" Prodigal Son " are now back in Spain. For compass and
vigour the " Moses " stands first; but the " Prodigal's Return "
and the " St Elizabeth " were considered by Bermudez the
most perfect of all as works of art. The front of this famous
hospital was also indebted to the genius of Murillo; five large
designs in blue glazed tiles were executed from his drawings.
He had scarcely completed the undertakings for this edifice
when his favourite Franciscans again solicited his aid. He
accordingly executed some twenty paintings for the humble
little church known as the Convent de los Capucinos. Seventeen
of these Capuchin pictures are preserved in the Museum of
Seville. Of these the " Charity of St Thomas of Villanueva "
is reckoned the best. Murillo himself was wont to call it " su
lienzo " (his own picture). Another little piece of extraordinary
MURIMUTH MURKER
37
merit, which once hung in this church, is the " Virgin of the
Napkin," believed to have been painted on a " servilleta " and
presented to the cook of the Capuchin brotherhood as a memorial
of the artist's pencil.
In 1670 Murillo is said to have declined an invitation to court,
preferring to labour among the brown coats of Seville. Eight
years afterwards his friend the canon Justino again employed
him to paint three pieces for the Hospital de los Venerables:
the " Mystery of the Immaculate Conception," " St Peter
Weeping," and the " Blessed Virgin." As a mark of esteem,
Murillo next painted a full-length portrait of the canon. The
spaniel at the feet of the priest has been known to call forth a
snarl from a living dog. His portraits generally, though few,
are of great beauty. Towards the close of his life Murillo
executed a series of pictures illustrative of the life of " the
glorious doctor " for the Augustinian convent at Seville. This
brings us to the last work of the artist. Mounting a scaffolding
one day at Cadiz (whither he had gone in 1681) to execute the
higher parts of a large picture of the " Espousal of St Catherine,"
on which he was engaged for the Capuchins of that town, he
stumbled, and fell so violently that he received a hurt from which
he never recovered. The great picture was left unfinished, and
the artist returned to Seville to die. He died as he had lived,
a humble, pious, brave man, on the 3rd of April 1682 in the arms
of the chevalier Pedro Nunez de Villavicencio, an intimate
friend and one of his best pupils. Another of his numerous
pupils was Sebastian Gomez, named " Murillo's Mulatto."
Murillo left two sons (one of them at first an indifferent painter,
afterwards a priest) and a daughter his wife having died
before him.
Murillo has always been one of the most popular of painters
not in Spain alone. His works show great technical attainment
without much style, and a strong feeling for ordinary nature
and for truthful or sentimental expression without lofty beauty
or ideal elevation. His ecstasies of Madonnas and Saints are
the themes of some of his most celebrated achievements. Take
as an example the " Immaculate Conception " (or " Assumption
of the Virgin," for the titles may, with reference to Murillo's
treatments of this subject, almost be interchanged) in the
Louvre, a picture for which, on its sale from the Soult collection,
one of the largest prices on record was given in 1852, some
24,600. His subjects may be divided into two great groups
the scenes from low life (which were a new experiment in Spanish
art, so far as the subjects of children are concerned), and the
Scriptural, legendary and religious works. The former, of
which some salient specimens are in the Dulwich Gallery, are,
although undoubtedly truthful, neither ingenious not sym-
pathetic; sordid unsightliness and roguish squalor are their
foundation. Works of this class belong mostly to the earlier
years of Murillo's practice. The subjects in which the painter
most excels are crowded compositions in which some act of
saintliness, involving the ascetic or self-mortifying element,
is being performed subjects which, while repulsive in some of
their details, emphasize the broadly human and the expressly
Catholic conceptions of life. A famous example is the picture,
now in the Madrid Academy, of St Elizabeth of Hungary washing
patients afflicted with the scab or itch, and hence commonly
named " El Tinoso." Technically considered, it unites his three
styles of painting, more especially the cold and the warm. His
power of giving atmosphere to combined groups of figures is one
of the marked characteristics of Murillo's art; and he may be said
to have excelled in this respect all his predecessors or con-
temporaries of whatever school.
Seville must still be visited by persons who wish to study
Murillo thoroughly. A large number of the works which used
to adorn this city have, however, been transported else-
whither. In the Prado Museum at Madrid are forty-five
specimens of Murillo the " Infant Christ and the Baptist "
(named " Los Nifios della Concha "), " St Ildefonso vested with
a Chasuble by the Madonna," &c.; in the Museo della Trinidad,
" Christ and the Virgin appearing to St Francis in a Cavern "
(an immense composition), and various others. In the National
Gallery, London, the chief example is the " Holy Family "; this
was one of the master's latest works, painted in Cadiz. In
public galleries in the United Kingdom there are altogether
twenty-four examples by Murillo; in those of Spain, seventy-one.
Murillo, who was the last pre-eminent painter of Seville, was
an indefatigable and prolific worker, hardly leaving his painting-
room save for his devotions in church; he realized large prices,
according to the standard of his time, and made a great fortune.
His character is recorded as amiable and soft, yet independent,
subject also to sudden impulses, not unmixed with passion.
See Stirling, Annals of the Artists of Spain (3 vols., London,
1848); Richard Ford, Handbook for Spain (London, 1855); Curtis,
Catalogue of the Works of Velasquez and Murillo (1883); L. Alfonso,
Murillo, el hombre, &c. (1886); C. Justi, Murillo (illustrated,
1892); P. Lefort, Murillo elfes eleves (1892); F. M. Tubino, Murillo,
su epoca, &c. (1864; Eng. trans., 1879); Dr G. C. Williamson,
Murillo (1902) ; C. S. Ricketts, Th* Prado (1903). (W. M. R.)
MURIMUTH, ADAM (c. 1274-1347), English ecclesiastic and
chronicler, was born in 1274 or 1275 and educated in the civil
law at Oxford. Between 1312 and 1318 he practised in the
papal curia at Avignon. Edward II. and Archbishop Winchelsey
were among his clients, and his legal services secured for him
canonries at Hereford and St Paul's, and the precentorship
of Exeter Cathedral. In 1331 he retired to a country living
(Wraysbury, Bucks), and devoted himself to writing the history
of his own times. His Continuatio chronicarum, begun not
earlier than 1325, starts from the year 1303, and was carried
up to 1347, the year of his death. Meagre at first, it becomes
fuller about 1340 and is specially valuable for the history of the
French wars. Murimuth has no merits of style, and gives a
bald narrative of events. But he incorporates many documents
in the latter part of his book. The annals of St. Paul's which
have been edited by Bishop Stubbs, are closely related to the
work of Murimuth, but probably not from his pen. The
Continuatio was carried on, after his death, by an anonymous
writer to the year 1380.
The only complete edition of the Continuatio chronicarum is that
by E. M. Thompson (Rolls series, 1889). The preface to this edition,
and to W. Stubbs's Chronicles of Edward I. and II., vol. i. (Rolls
series, 1882), should be consulted. The anonymous continuation
is printed in T. Hog's edition of Murimuth (Eng. Hist. Soc., London,
1846). (H. W. C. D.)
MURKER, THOMAS (1475-1537?), German satirist, was
born on the 24th of December 1475 at Oberehnheim near Strass-
burg. In 1490 he entered the order of Franciscan monks, and
in 1495 began a wandering life, studying and then teaching and
preaching in Freiburg-in-Breisgau, Paris, Cracow and Strassburg.
The emperor Maximilian I. crowned him in 1505 poeta laureatus;
in 1506, he was created doctor theologiae, and in 1513 was ap-
pointed custodian of the Franciscan monastery in Strassburg,
an office which, on account of a scurrilous publication, he was
forced to vacate the following year. Late in life, in 1518, he
began the study of jurisprudence at the university of Basel,
and in 1519 took the degree of doctor juris. After journeys in
Italy and England, he again settled in Strassburg, but, disturbed
by the Reformation, sought an exile at Lucerne in Switzerland
in 1526. In 1533 he was appointed priest of Oberehnheim,
where he died in 1537, or, according to some accounts, in 1536.
Murner was an energetic and passionate character, who made
enemies wherever he went. There is not a trace of human
kindness in his satires, which were directed against the cor-
ruption of the times, the Reformation, and especially against
Luther. His most powerful satire and the most virulent
German satire of the period is Von dem grossen lulherischen
Narren, wie ihn Dr Murner beschworen hat. Among others
may be mentioned Die Narrenbeschworung (1512); Die Schelmen-
zunft (1512); Die Gauchmatt, which treats of enamoured fools
(1519), and a translation of Virgil's Aeneid (1515) dedicated to
the emperor Maximilian I. Murner also wrote the humor-
ous Chartiludium logicae (1507) and the Ludus studentum
freiburgensium (1511), besides a translation of Justinian's
Institutiones (1519).
All Murner's more important works have been republished in
MUROM MURRAY, A. S.
critical editions; a selection was published by G. Balke in Kiirsch-
ner's Deutsche Nationattiteratur (1890). Cf. W. Kawerau, Murner
und die Kirche des Mittelalters (1890); and by the same writer,
Murner und die deutsche Reformation (1891); also K. Ott, Uber
Murners Verhdltniss zu Geiler (1896).
MUROM, a town of Russia, in the government of Vladimir,
on the craggy left bank of the Oka, close to its confluence with
the Tesha, 108 m. by rail S.E. of the city of Vladimir. Pop.
(1900), 12,874. Muron has an old cathedral. It is the chief
entrepot for grain from the basin of the Ewer Oka, and carries
on an active trade with Moscow and Nizhniy-Novgorod. It is
famed, as in ancient times, for kitchen-gardens, especially for
its cucumbers and seed for canaries. Its once famous tanneries
have lost their importance, but the manufacture of linen has
increased; it has also steam flour-mills, distilleries, manufac-
tories of soap and of iron implements.
MURPHY, ARTHUR (1727-1805), Irish actor and dramatist,
son of a Dublin merchant, was born at Clomquin, Roscommon,
on the 27th of December 1727. From 1738 to 1744, under
the name of Arthur French, he was a student at the English
college at St Omer. He entered the counting-house of a mer-
chant at Cork on recommendation of his uncle, Jeffery French,
in 1747. A refusal to go to Jamaica alienated French's interest,
and Murphy exchanged his situation for one in London. By
the autumn of 1752 he was publishing the Gray's Inn Journal,
a periodical in the style of the Spectator. Two years later he
became an actor, and appeared in the title-roles of Richard III.
and Othello; as Biron in Southerne's Fatal Marriage; and as
Osmyn in Congreve's Mourning Bride. His first farce, The
Apprentice, was given at Drury Lane on the 2nd of January
1756. It was followed, among other plays, by The Upholsterer
(1757), The Orphan of China (1759), The Way to Keep Him
(1760), All in the Wrong (1761), The Grecian Daughter (1772),
and Know Your Own Mind (1777). These were almost all
adaptations from the French, and were very successful, securing
for their author both fame and wealth. .Murphy edited a
political periodical, called the Test, in support of Henry Fox, by
whose influence he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn,
although he had been refused at the Middle Temple in 1757
on account of his connexion with the stage. Murphy also
wrote a biography of Fielding, an essay on the life and genius
of Samuel Johnson and translations of Sallust and Tacitus.
Towards the close of his life the office of a commissioner of
bankrupts and a pension of 200 were conferred upon him
by government. He died on the i8th of June 1805.
MURPHY, JOHN FRANCIS (1853- ), American landscape
painter, was born at Oswego, New York, on the nth of
December 1853. He first exhibited at the National Academy
of Design in 1876, and was made an associate in 1885 and a
full academician two years later. He became a member of the
Society of American Artists (1901) and of the American Water
Color Society.
MURPHY, ROBERT (1806-1843), British mathematician, the
son of a poor shoemaker, was born at Mallow, in Ireland, in
1806. At the age of thirteen, while working as an apprentice
in his father's shop, he became known to certain gentlemen in
the neighbourhood as a self-taught mathematician. Through
their exertions, after attending a classical school in his native
town, he was admitted to Caius College, Cambridge, in 1825.
Third wrangler in 1829, he was elected in the same year a fellow
of his college. A course of dissipation led him into debt; his
fellowship was sequestered for the benefit of his creditors, and
he was obliged to leave Cambridge in December 1832. After
living for some time with his relations in Ireland, he repaired
to London in 1836, a penniless literary adventurer. In 1838
he became examiner in mathematics and physics at London
University. He had already contributed several mathematical
papers to the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions (1831-1836),
Philosophical Magazine (1833-1842), and the Philosophical
Transactions (1837), and had published Elementary Principles of
the Theories of Electricity (1833). He now wrote for the " Library
of Useful Knowledge " a Treatise on the Theory of Algebraical
Equations (1839). He died on the i2th of March 1843.
MURPHYSBORO, a city and the county-seat of Jackson
county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the south part of the state, on the
Big Muddy River, about 57 m. N. of Cairo. Pop. (1890), 3880;
(1900), 6463, including 557 foreign-born and 456 negroes; (1910),
7485. It is served by the Illinois Central, the Mobile & Ohio
and the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railways. It is
the centre for a farming region, in which there are deposits of
coal, iron, lead and shale, and there are various manufactures
in the city. Murphysboro was incorporated in 1867, and re-
incorporated in 1875.
MURRAIN (derived through O. Fr. marine, from Lat. mori, to
die), a general term for various virulent diseases in domesticated
animals, synonymous with plague or epizooty. The principal
diseases are dealt with under RINDERPEST; PLEURO-PNEUMONIA;
ANTHRAX; and FOOT AND MOUTH PISEASE. See also VETER-
INARY SCIENCE.
MURRAY (or MORAY), EARLS OF. The earldom of Moray was
one of the seven original earldoms of Scotland, its lands corre-
sponding roughly to the modern counties of Inverness and Ross.
Little is known of the earls until about 1314, when Sir Thomas
Randolph, a nephew of King Robert Bruce, was created earl
of Moray (q.v.), and the Randolphs held the earldom until 1346,
when the childless John Randolph, 3rd earl of this line and a
soldier of repute, was killed at the battle of Neville's Cross.
According to some authorities the earldom was then held by
John's sister Agnes (c. 1312-1369) and her husband, Patrick
Dunbar, earl of March or Dunbar (c. 1285-1368). However
this may be, in 1359 an English prince, Henry Plantagenet,
duke of Lancaster (d. 1361), was made earl of Moray by King
David II.; but in 1372 John Dunbar (d. 1391), a graiftlson of
Sir Thomas Randolph and a son-in-law of Robert II., obtained
the earldom. The last of the Dunbar earls was James Dunbar,
who was murdered in August 1429, and after this date his
daughter Elizabeth and her husband, Archibald Douglas (d. 1455),
called themselves earl and countess of Moray.
The next family to bear this title was an illegitimate branch
of the royal house of Stuart, James IV. creating his natural
son, James Stuart (c. 1490-1544), earl of Moray. James died
without sons, and after the title had been borne for a short time
by George Gordon, 4th earl of Huntly (c. 1514-1562), who
was killed at Corrichie in 1562, it was bestowed in 1562 by
Mary Queen of Scots upon her half-brother, an illegitimate son
of James V. This was the famous regent, James Stuart, earl
of Moray, or Murray (see below), who was murdered in January
1570; after this event a third James Stuart, who had married
the regent's daughter Elizabeth (d. 1591), held the earldom.
He, who was called the " bonny earl," was killed by his heredi-
tary enemies, the Gordons, in February 1592, when his son James
(d. 1638) succeeded to the title. The earldom of Moray has
remained in the Stuart family since this date. Alexander, the
4th earl (d. 1701), was secretary of state for Scotland from 1680
to 1689; and in 1796 Francis, the 9th earl (1737-1810), was
made a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Stuart.
See vol. vi. of Sir R. Douglas's Peerage of Scotland, new ed. by
Sir J. B. Paul (1909).
MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART (1841-1904), British
archaeologist, was born at Arbroath on the 8th of January 1841,
and educated there, at Edinburgh high school and at the
universities of Edinburgh and Berlin. In 1867 he entered the
British Museum as an assistant in the department of Greek and
Roman antiquities under Sir Charles Newton, whom he suc-
ceeded in 1886. His younger brother, George Robert Milne
Murray (b. 1858), was made keeper of the botanical department
in 1895, the only instance of two brothers becoming heads of
departments at the museum. In 1873 Dr Murray published a
Manual of Mythology, and in the following year contributed to
the Contemporary Review two articles one on the Homeric
question which led to a friendship with Mr Gladstone, the
other on Greek painters. In 1880-1883 he brought out his
History of Greek Sculpture, which at once became a standard
work. In 1886 he was selected by the Society of Antiquaries of
Scotland to deliver the Rhind lectures on archaeology, out of
MURRAY, D. MURRAY, LORD GEORGE
39
which grew his Handbook of Greek Archaeology (1892). In
1894-1896 Dr Murray directed some excavations in Cyprus
undertaken by means of a bequest of 2000 from Miss Emma
Tournour Turner. The objects obtained are described and
illustrated in Excavations in Cyprus, published by the trustees
of the museum in 1900. Among Dr Murray's other official
publications are three folio volumes on Terra-cotta Sarcophagi,
White Athenian Vases and Designs from Greek Vases. In 1898
he wrote for the Portfolio a monograph on Greek bronzes,
founded on lectures delivered at the Royal Academy in that
year, and he contributed many articles on archaeology to
standard publications. In recognition of his services to archaeo-
logy he was made LL.D. of Glasgow University in 1887 and
elected a corresponding member of the Berlin Academy of
Sciences in 1900. He died in March 1904.
MURRAY, DAVID (1840- ), Scottish painter, was born in
Glasgow, and spent some years in commercial pursuits before
he practised as an artist. He was elected an associate of the
Royal Academy in 1891 and academician in 1905; and also
became an associate of the Royal Scottish Academy and of
the Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours, and a member
of the Royal Scottish Water Colour Society. He is a landscape
painter of distinction, and two of his pictures, " My Love is
gone a-sailing " (1884) and " In the Country of Constable "
(1903), have been bought for the National Gallery of British
Art. " Young Wheat," painted in 1890, is one of his most
noteworthy works.
MURRAY, EUSTACE CLARE GRENVILLE (1824-1881),
English journalist, was born in 1824, the natural son of the 2nd
duke of Buckingham. Educated at Magdalen Hall (Hertford
College), Oxford, he entered the diplomatic service through the
influence of Lord 'Palmerston, and in 1851 joined the British
embassy at Vienna as attache. At the same time he agreed
to act as Vienna correspondent of a London daily paper, a
breach of the conventions of the British Foreign Office which
cost him his post. In 1852 he was transferred to Hanover,
and thence to Constantinople, and finally, in 1855, was made
consul-general at Odessa. In 1868 he returned to England,
and devoted himself to journalism. He contributed to the
early numbers of Vanity Fair, and in 1869 founded a clever but
abusive society paper, the Queen's Messenger. For a libel
published in this paper Lord Carrington horsewhipped him
on the doorstep of a London club. Murray was subsequently
charged with perjury for denying on oath his authorship of the
article. Remanded on bail, he escaped to Paris, where he
subsequently lived, acting as correspondent of various London
papers. In 1874 he helped Edmund Yates to found the World.
Murray died at Passy on the aoth of December 1881.
His score of books, several of which were translated into French
and published in Paris, include French Pictures in English Chalk
(1876-1878); The Roving Englishman in Turkey (1854); Men of the
Second Empire (1872); Young Brown (1874); Sidelights on English
Society (1881) ; and Under the Lens: Social Photographs (1885).
MURRAY, LORD GEORGE (1694-1760), Scottish Jacobite
general, fifth son of John, ist duke of Atholl, by his first wife,
Catherine, daughter of the 3rd duke of Hamilton, was born
at Huntingtower, near Perth, on the 4th of October 1694.
He joined the army in Flanders in June 1712; in 1715, contrary
to their father's wishes, he and his brothers, the marquis of
Tullibardine and Lord Charles Murray, joined the Jacobite rebels
under the earl of Mar, each brother commanding a regiment of
men of Atholl. Lord Charles was taken prisoner at Preston,
but after the collapse of the rising Lord George escaped with
Tullibardine to South Uist, and thence to France. In 1719
Murray took part in the Jacobite attempt in conjunction with
the Spaniards in the western highlands, under the command of
Tullibardine and the earl marischal, which terminated in " the
affair of Glenshiel " on the roth of June, when he was wounded
while commanding the right wing of the Jacobites. After
hiding for some months in the highlands he reached Rotter-
dam in May 1720. There is no evidence for the statement that
Murray served in the Sardinian army, and little is known of his
life on the continent till 1724, when he returned to Scotland,
where in the following year he was granted a pardon. The duke
of Atholl died in 1724 and was succeeded in the title by his second
son James, owing to the attainder of Tullibardine; and Lord
George leased from his brother the old family property of
Tullibardine in Strathearn, where he lived till 1745.
On the eve of the Jacobite rising of 1745 the duke of Perth
made overtures to Lord George Murray on behalf of the
Pretender; but even after the landing of Charles Edward in
Scotland in July, accompanied by Tullibardine, Murray's attitude
remained doubtful. He accompanied his brother the duke to
Crieff on the 2ist of August to pay his respects to Sir John Cope,
the commander of the government troops, and he permitted
the duke to appoint him deputy-sheriff of Perthshire. It has
been suggested that Murray acted with duplicity, but his
hesitation was natural and genuine; and it was not till early in
September, when Charles Edward was at Blair Castle, which had
been vacated by the duke of Atholl on the prince's approach,
that Murray decided to espouse the Stuart cause. He then
wrote to his brother explaining that he did so for conscientious
reasons, while realizing the risk of ruin it involved. On joining
the Jacobite army Lord George received a commission as lieu-
tenant-general, though the prince ostentatiously treated him
with want of confidence; and he was flouted by the Irish adven-
turers who were the Pretenderis trusted advisers. At Perth
Lord George exerted himself with success to introduce discipline
and organization in the army he was to command, and he gained
the confidence of the highland levies, with whose habits and
methods of fighting he was familiar. He also used his influence
to prevent the exactions and arbitrary interference with civil
rights which Charles was too ready to sanction on the advice of
others. At Prestonpans, on the 2ist of September, Lord George,
who led the Jacobite left wing in person, was practically com-
mander-in-chief, and it was to his able generalship that the
victory was mainly due. During the six weeks' occupation of
Edinburgh he did useful work in the further organization and
disciplining of the army. He opposed Charles's plan of invading
England, and when his judgment was overruled he prevailed
on the prince to march into Cumberland, which he knew to be
favourable ground for highlander tactics, instead of advancing
against General Wade, whose army was posted at Newcastle.
He conducted the siege of Carlisle, but on the surrender of the
town on the I4th of November he resigned his command on
the ground that his authority had been insufficiently upheld by
the prince, and he obtained permission to serve as a volunteer
in the ranks of the Atholl levies. The dissatisfaction, however,
of the army with the appointment of the duke of Perth to
succeed him compelled Charles to reinstate Murray, who accord-
ingly commanded the Jacobites in the march to Derby. Here
on the sth of December a council was held at which Murray
urged the necessity for retreat, owing to the failure of the English
Jacobites to support the invasion and the absence of aid from
France. As Murray was supported by the council the retreat
was ordered, to the intense chagrin of Charles, who never forgave
him; but the failure of the enterprise was mainly chargeable
to Charles himself, and it was not without justice that Murray's
aide de camp, the chevalier Johnstone, declared that " had
Prince Charles slept during the whole of the expedition, and
allowed Lord George Murray to act for him according to his
own judgment, he would have found the crown of Great Britain
on his head when he awoke." Lord George commanded the
rear-guard during the retreat; and this task, rendered doubly
dangerous by the proximity of Cumberland in the rear and Wade
on the flank, was made still more difficult by the incapacity
and petulance of the Pretender. By a skilfully fought rear-
guard action at Clifton Moor, Lord George enabled the army to
reach Carlisle safely and without loss of stores or war material;
and on the 3rd of January 1746 the force entered Stirling, where
they were joined by reinforcements from Perth. The prince
laid siege to Stirling Castle, while Murray defeated General
Hawley near Falkirk; but the losses of the Jacobites by sickness
and desertion, and the approach of Cumberland, made retreat
MURRAY, JAMES MURRAY, EARL OF
to the Highlands an immediate necessity, in which the prince
was compelled to acquiesce; his resentment was such that he
gave ear to groundless suggestions that Murray was a traitor,
which the latter's failure to capture his brother's stronghold
of Blair Castle did nothing to refute.
In April 1746 the Jacobite army was in the neighbourhood
of Inverness, and the prince decided to give battle to the duke
of Cumberland. Charles took up a position on the left bank of
the Nairn river at Culloden Moor, rejecting Lord George's Murray
advice to select a much stronger position on the opposite bank.
The battle of Culloden, where the Stuart cause was ruined,
was fought on the i6th of April 1746. On the following day the
duke of Cumberland intimated to his troops that " the public
orders' of the rebels yesterday was to give us no quarter";
Hanoverian news-sheets printed what purported to be copies
of such an order, and the historian James Ray and other con-
temporary writers gave further currency to a calumny that has
been repeated by modern authorities. Original copies of Lord
George Murray's " orders at Culloden " are in existence, one of
which is among Cumberland's own papers, while another was
in the possession of Lord Hardwicke, the judge who tried the
Jacobite peers in 1746, and they contain no injunction to refuse
quarter. After the defeat Murray conducted a remnant of the
Jacobite army to Ruthven, and prepared to organize further
resistance. Prince Charles, however, had determined to aban-
don the enterprise, and at Ruthven Lord George received an
order dismissing him from the prince's service, to which he replied
in a letter upbraiding Charles for his distrust and mismanage-
ment. Charles's belief in the general's treachery was shared
by several leading Jacobites, but there appears no ground for
the suspicion. From the moment he threw in his lot with the
exiled prince's cause Lord George Murray never deviated in his
loyalty and devotion, and his generalship was deserving of the
highest praise; but the discipline he enforced and jealousy of
his authority made enemies of some of those to whom Charles
was more inclined to listen than to the general who gave him
sound but unwelcome advice.
Murray escaped to the continent in December 1746, and was
graciously received in Rome by the Old Pretender, who granted
him a pension; but in the following year when he went to Paris
Charles Edward refused to see him. Lord George lived at
various places abroad until his death, which occurred at Medem-
blik in Holland on the nth of October 1760. He married
in 1728 Amelia, daughter and heiress of James Murray of
Strowan and Glencarse, by whom he had three sons and two
daughters. His eldest son John became 3rd duke of Atholl in
1764; the two younger sons became lieutenant-general and
vice-admiral respectively in the British service.
See A Military History of Perthshire, ed. by the marchioness of
Tullibardine (2 vols., London, 1908), containing a memoir of Lord
George Murray and a facsimile copy of his orders at Culloden;
The Atholl Chronicles, ed. by the duke of Atholl (privately printed) ;
The Chevalier James de Johnstone, Memoirs of the Rebellion in 1745
(jrd ed., London, 1822); James Ray, Compleat Historic of the Rebel-
lion, 1745-1746 (London, 1754); Robert Patten, History of the late
Rebellion (2nd ed., London, 1717); Memoirs of Sir John Murray of
Brpughton, ed. by R. F. Bell (Edinburgh, 1898); Andrew Henderson,
History of the Rebellion, 1745-1746 (2nd ed., London, 1748).
(R. J- M.)
MURRAY, JAMES (c. 1710-1794), British governor of Canada,
was a younger son of Alexander Murray, 4th Lord Elibank
(d. 1736). Having entered the British army, he served with the
1 5th Foot in the West Indies, the Netherlands and Brittany, and
became lieut.enant-colonel of this regiment by purchase in 1751.
In 1757 he led his men to North America to take part in the
war against France. He commanded a brigade at the siege of
Louisburg, was one of Wolfe's three brigadiers in the expedition
against Quebec, and commanded the left wing of the army in
the famous battle in September 1759. After the British victory
and the capture of the city, Murray was left in command of
Quebec; having strengthened its fortifications and taken
measures to improve the morale of his men, he defended it in
April and May 1760 against the attacks of the French, who were
soon compelled to raise the siege. The British troops had been
decimated by disease, and it was only a remnant that Murray
now led to join General Amherst at Montreal, and to be present
when the last batch of French troops in Canada surrendered.
In October 1760 he was appointed governor of Quebec, and he
became governor of Canada after this country had been formally
ceded to Great Britain in 1763. In this year he quelled a
dangeious mutiny, and soon afterwards his alleged partiality for
the interests of the French Canadians gave offence to the British
settlers; they asked for his recall, and in 1766 he retired from his
post. After an inquiry in the House of Lords, he was exonerated
from the charges which had been brought against him. In
1774 Murray was sent to Minorca as governor, and in 1781,
while he was in charge of this island, he was besieged in Fort
St Philip by a large force of French and Spaniards. After a
stubborn resistance, which lasted nearly seven months, he was
obliged to surrender the place; and on his return to England
he was tried by a court-martial, at the instance of Sir William
Draper, who had served under him in Minorca as lieutenant-
governor. He was acquitted and he became a general in 1783.
He died on the i8th of June 1794. Murray's only son was
James Patrick Murray (1782-1834), a major-general and member
of parliament.
MURRAY, SIR JAMES AUGUSTUS HENRY (1837- ),
British lexicographer, was born at Denholm, near Hawick,
Roxburghshire, and after a local elementary education proceeded
to Edinburgh, and thence to the university of London, where
he graduated B.A. in 1873. Sir James Murray, who received
honorary degrees from several universities, both British and
foreign, was engaged in scholastic work for thirty years, from
1855 to 1885, chiefly at Hawick and Mill Hill. During this time
his reputation as a philologist was increasing, and he was
assistant examiner in English at the University of London from
1875 to 1879 and president of the Philological Society of London
from 1878 to 1880, and again from 1882 to 1884. It was in
connexion with this society that he undertook the chief work
of his life, the editing of the New English Dictionary, based on
materials collected by the society. These materials, which had
accumulated since 1857, when the society first projected the
publication of a dictionary on philological principles, amounted
to an enormous quantity, of which an idea may be formed from
the fact that Dr Furnivall sent in " some ton and three-quarters
of materials which had accumulated under his roof." After
negotiations extending over a considerable period, the contracts
between the society, the delegates of the Clarendon Press, and
the editor, were signed on the ist of March 1879, and Murray
began the examination and arrangement of the raw material,
and the still more troublesome work of re-animating and main-
taining the enthusiasm of " readers." In 1885 he removed from
Mill Hill to Oxford, where his Scriptorium came to rank among
the institutions of the University city. The first volume of
the dictionary was printed at the Clarendon Press, Oxford,
in 1888. A full account of its beginning and the manner of
working up the materials will be found in Murray 's presidential
address to the Philological Society in 1879, while reports of
its progress are given in the addresses by himself and other
presidents in subsequent years. In addition to his work as a
philologist, Murray was a frequent contributor to the transac-
tions of the various antiquarian and archaeological societies of
which he is a member; and he wrote the article on the English
language for this Encyclopaedia. In 1885 he received the
honorary degree of M.A. from Balliol College; he was an original
fellow of the British Academy, and in 1908 he was knighted.
MURRAY (or MORAY), JAMES STUART, EARL OF (c. 1531-
1570), regent of Scotland, was an illegitimate son of James V.
of Scotland by Margaret Erskine, daughter of John Erskine,
earl of Mar. In 1538 he was appointed prior of the abbey of
St Andrews in order that James V. might obtain possession of
its funds. Educated at St Andrews University, he attacked,
in September 1549, an English force which had made a descent
on the Fife coast, and routed it with great slaughter. In
addition to the priory of St Andrews, he received those also of
Pittenweem and Macon in France, but manifested no vocation
MURRAY, JOHN
for a monastic life. The discourses of Knox, which he heard
at Calder, won his approval, and shortly after the return of the
reformer to Scotland in 1559, James Stuart left the party of the
queen regent and joined the lords of the congregation, who
resolved forcibly to abolish the Roman service. After the
return of Queen Mary in 1561, he became her chief adviser, and
his cautious firmness was for a time effectual in inducing her
to adopt a policy of moderation towards the reformers. At the
beginning of 1562 he was created earl of Murray, a dignity also
held by George Gordon, earl of Huntly, who, however, had
lost the queen's favour. Only a few days later he was made earl
of Mar,*but as this title was claimed by John, Lord Erskine,
Stuart resigned it and received a second grant of the earldom of
Murray, Huntly by this time having been killed in battle.
Henceforward he was known as the earl of Moray, the alternative
Murray being a more modern and less correct variant. About
this time the earl married Anne (d. 1583), daughter of William
Keith, ist Earl Marischal.
After the defeat and death of Huntly, the leader of the
Catholic party, the policy of Murray met for a time with no
obstacle, but he awakened the displeasure of the queen by his
efforts in behalf of Knox when the latter was accused of high
treason; and as he was also opposed to her marriage with
Darnley, he was after that event declared an outlaw and took
refuge in England. Returning to Scotland after the murder
of Rizzio, he was pardoned by the queen. He contrived,
however, to be away at the time of Darnley's assassination,
and avoided the tangles of the marriage with Bothwell by going
to France. After the abdication of Queen Mary at Lochleven,
in July 1567, he was appointed regent of Scotland. When
Mary escaped from Lochleven (May 2, 1568), the duke of Chatel-
herault and other Catholic nobles rallied to her standard,
but Murray and the Protestant lords gathered their adherents,
defeated her forces at Langside, near Glasgow (May 13, 1568),
and compelled her to flee to England. Murray displayed
promptness in baffling Mary's schemes, suppressed the border
thieves, and ruled firmly, resisting the temptation to place the
crown on his own head. He observed the forms of personal
piety; possibly he shared the zeal of the reformers, while he
moderated their bigotry. But he reaped the fruits of the
conspiracies which led to the murders of Rizzio and Darnley.
He amassed too great a fortune from the estates of the Church
to be deemed a pure reformer of its abuses. He pursued his
sister with a calculated animosity which would not have spared
her life had this been necessary to his end or been favoured by
Elizabeth. The mode of producing the casket letters and
the false charges added by Buchanan, deprive Murray of any
claim to have been an honest accuser. His reluctance to charge
Mary with complicity in the murder of Darnley was feigned,
and his object was gained when he was allowed to table the
accusation without being forced to prove it. Mary remained
a captive under suspicion of the gravest guilt, while Murray
ruled Scotland in her stead, supported by nobles who had taken
part in the steps which ended in Bothwell's deed. During the
year between his becoming regent and his death several events
occurred for which he has been censured, but which were
necessary for his security: the betrayal to Elizabeth of the duke
of Norfolk and of the secret plot for the liberation of Mary; the
imprisonment of the earl of Northumberland, who after the
failure of his rising in the north of England had taken refuge
in Scotland; and the charge brought against Maitland of Leth-
ington of complicity in Darnley's murder. Lethington was
committed to custody, but was rescued by Kirkaldy of Grange,
who held the castle of Edinburgh, and while there " the chame-
leon," as Buchanan named Maitland hi his famous invective,
gained over those in the castle, including Kirkaldy. Murray
was afraid to proceed with the charge on the day of trial, while
Kirkaldy and Maitland held the castle, which became the
stronghold of the deposed queen's party. It has been suspected
that Maitland and Kirkaldy were cognizant of the design of
Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh to murder Murray, for he had been
with them in the castle. This has been ascribed to private
vengeance for the ill-treat inent of his wife; but the feud of the
Hamiltons with the regent is the most reasonable explanation.
As he rode through Linlithgow Murray was shot on the 2ist of
January 1570 from a window by Hamilton, who had made careful
preparation for the murder and his own escape. He was buried
in the south aisle of St Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh, amid general
mourning. Knox preached the sermon and Buchanan furnished
the epitaph, both panegyrics. The elder of his two daughters,
Elizabeth, married James Stuart (d. 1592), son of James, ist
Lord Doune, who succeeded to the earldom of Murray in right
of his wife.
The materials for the life of Murray are found in the records and
documents of the time, prominent among which are the various
Calendars of State Papers. Mention must also be made of the many
books which treat of Mary, Queen of Scots, and of the histories of
the time-^- especially J. A. Froude, History of England, and Andrew
Lang, History of Scotland.
MURRAY, JOHN, the name for several generations of a great
firm of London publishers, founded by John McMurray (1745-
I 793). a native of Edinburgh and a retired lieutenant of marines,
who in 1768 bought the book business of William Sandby in
Fleet Street, and, dropping the Scottish prefix, called himself
John Murray. He was one of the twenty original proprietors
of the Morning Chronicle, and started the monthly English
Review (1783-1796). Among his publications were Mjtford's
Greece, Langhorne's Plutarch's Lives, and the first part of Isaac
D 'Israeli's Curiosities of Literature. He died on the 6th of
November 1793.
JOHN MURRAY (2) (1778-1843), his son, was then fifteen.
During his minority the business was conducted by Samuel
Highley, who was admitted a partner, but in 1803 the partner-
ship was dissolved. Murray soon began to show the courage
in literary speculation which earned for him later the name
given him by Lord Byron of " the Anak of publishers." In
1807 he took a share with Constable in publishing Marmion,
and became part owner of the Edinburgh Review, although with
the help of Canning he launched in opposition the Quarterly
Review (Feb. 1809), with William Gifford as its editor, and Scott,
Canning, Southey, Hookham Frere and John Wilson Croker
among its earliest contributors. Murray was closely connected
with Constable, but, to his distress, was compelled in 1813 to
break this association on account of Constable's business methods,
which, as he foresaw, led to disaster. In 1811 the first two
cantos of Childe Harold were brought to Murray by R. C. Dallas,
to whom Byron had presented them. Murray paid Dallas
500 guineas for the copyright. In 1812 he bought the pub-
lishing business of William Miller (1769-1844), and migrated to
50, Albemarle Street. Literary London flocked to his house, and
Murray became the centre of the publishing world. It was in
his drawing-room that Scott and Byron first met, and here, in
1824, after the death of Lord Byron, the MS. of his memoirs,
considered by Gifford unfit for publication, was destroyed.
A close friendship existed between Byron and his publisher,
but for political reasons business relations ceased after the
publication of the 5th canto of Don Juan. Murray paid Byron
some 20,000 for his various poems. To Thomas Moore he
gave nearly 5000 for writing the life of Byron, and to Crabbe
3000 for Tales of the Hall. He died on the 27th of June 1843.
His son, JOHN MURRAY (3) (1808-1892), inherited much of
his business tact and judgment. " Murray's Handbooks " for
travellers were issued under his editorship, and he himself wrote
several volumes (see his article on the " Handbooks " in Murray's
Magazine, November 1889). He published many books of
travel; also Campbell's Lives of the Chancellors, The Speaker's
Commentary, Smith's Dictionaries; and works by Hallam,
Gladstone, Lyell, Layard, Dean Stanley, Borrow, Darwin, Living-
stone and Samuel Smiles. He died on the 2nd of April 1892,
and was succeeded by his eldest son, JOHN MURRAY (4) (b. 1851),
under whom, in association with his brother, A. H. Hallam
Murray, the firm was continued.
See Samuel Smiles, A Publisher and his Friends, Memoirs and
Correspondence of the late John Murray . . . (1891), for the second
John Murray; a series of three articles by F. Espinasse on " The
MURRAY, J. MURREE
House of Murray," in The Critic (Jan. 1860) ; and a paper by the
same writer in Harper's New Monthly Magazine (Sept. 1885). See
the Letters and Journals of Byron (ed. Prothero, 1898-1901).
MURRAY, JOHN (1778-1820), Scottish chemist, was born at
Edinburgh in 1778 and died there on the 22nd of July 1820.
He graduated M.D. at St Andrews in 1814, and attained some
reputation as a lecturer on chemistry and materia medica. He
was an opponent of Sir Humphry Davy's theory of chlorine,
supporting the view that the substance contained oxygen, and
it was in the course of experiments made to disprove his argu-
ments that Dr John Davy discovered phosgene or carbonyl
chloride. He was a diligent writer of textbooks, including
Elements of Chemistry (1801); Elements of Materia Medica and
Pharmacy (1804), A System of Chemistry (1806), and (anony-
mously) A Comparative View of the Huttonian and Neptunian
Systems of Geology. He is sometimes confused with another
John Murray (1786-1851), a popular lecturer at mechanics'
institutes. The two men carried on a dispute about the inven-
tion of a miners' safety lamp in the Phil. Mag. for 1817.
MURRAY, SIR JOHN (1841- ), British geographer and
naturalist, was born at Coburg, Ontario, Canada, on the
3rd of March 1841, and after some years' local schooling studied
in Scotland and on the Continent. He was then engaged for
some years in natural history work at Bridge of Allan. In
1868 he visited Spitsbergen on a whaler, and in 1872, when the
voyage of the " Challenger " was projected, he was appointed
one of the naturalists to the expedition. At the conclusion of
the voyage he was made principal assistant in drawing up the
scientific results, and in 1882 he became editor of the Reports,
which were completed in 1896. He compiled a summary of the
results, and was part-author of the Narrative of the Cruise and of
the Report on Deep-sea Deposits. He also published numerous
important papers on oceanography and marine biology. In
1898 he was made K.C.B., and the received many distinctions
from the chief scientific societies of the world. Apart from his
work in connexion with the " Challenger " Reports, he went in
1880 and 1882 on expeditions to explore the Faeroe Channel,
and between 1882 and 1894 was the prime mover in various
biological investigations in Scottish waters. In 1897, with
the generous financial assistance of Mr Laurence Pullar and a
staff of specialists, he began a bathymetrical survey of the
fresh-water lochs of Scotland, the results of which, with a
fine series of illustrations and maps, were published in 1910
in six volumes. He took a leading part in the expedition
which started in April 1910 for the physiological and biological
investigation of the North Atlantic Ocean on the Norwegian
vessel " Michael Sars."
MURRAY, LINDLEY (1745-1826), Anglo-American gram-
marian, was born at Swatara, Pennsylvania, on the 22nd of
April 1745. His father, a Quaker, was a leading New York
merchant. At the age of fourteen he was placed in his father's
office, but he ran away to a school in Burlington, New Jersey.
He was brought back to New York, but his arguments against
a commercial career prevailed, and he was allowed to study
law. On being called to the bar he practised successfully in
New York. In 1783 he was able to retire, and in 1784 he left
America for England. Settling at Holgate, near York, he
devoted the rest of his life to literary pursuits. His first book
was Power of Religion on the Mind (1787). In 1795 he issued
his Grammar of the English Language. This was followed,
among other analogous works, by English Exercises, and the
English Reader. These books passed through several editions,
and the Grammar was the standard textbook for fifty years
throughout England and America. Lindley Murray died on
the i6th of January 1826.
See the Memoir o/_ the Life and Writings of Lindley Murray
(partly autobiographical), by Elizabeth Frank (1826); Life of
Murray, by W. H. Egle (New York, 1885).
MURRAY (or MORAY), SIR ROBERT (c. 1600-1673), one- of
the founders of the Royal Society, was the son of Sir Robert
, Murray of Craigie, Ayrshire, and was born about the beginning
of the i-7th century. In early life he served in the French army,
and, winning the favour of Richelieu, rose to the rank of colonel.
On the outbreak of the Civil War he returned to Scotland and
collected recruits for the royal cause. The triumph of Ciomwell
compelled him for a time to return to France, but he took part
in the Scottish insurrection in favour of Charles II. in 1650, and
was named lord justice clerk and a privy councillor. These
appointments, which on account of the overthrow of the royal
cause proved to be at the time only nominal, were confirmed at
the Restoration in 1660. Soon after this Sir Robert Murray
began to take a prominent part in the deliberations of a club
instituted in London for the discussion of natural science, or,
as it was then called, the " new philosophy." When it was
proposed to obtain a charter for the society he undertook to
interest the king in the matter, the result being that on the
i5th of July 1662 the club was incorporated by charter under
the designation of the Royal Society. Murray was its first
president. He died in June 1673.
MURRAY, the largest river in Australia. It rises in the
Australian Alps in 36 40' S. and 147 E., and flowing north-west
skirts the borders of New South Wales and Victoria until it
passes into South Australia, shortly after which it bends south-
ward into Lake Alexandrina, a shallow lagoon, whence it makes
its way to the sea at Encounter Bay by a narrow opening at
35 35' S. and 138 55' E. Near its source the Murray Gates,
precipitous rocks, tower above it to the height of 3000 ft.;
and the earlier part of its course is tortuous and uneven.
Farther on it loses so much by evaporation in some parts as to
become a series of pools. Its length till it debouches into Lake
Alexandrina is 1120 m., its average breadth in summer is 240 ft.,
its average depth about i6ft.;and it drains an area of about
270,000 sq. m. For small steamers it is navigable as far as
Albury. Periodically it overflows, causing wide inundations.
The principal tributaries of the Murray are those from New
South Wales, including the Edward River, the united streams of
the Murrumbidgee and Lachlan, and the Darling or Callewatta.
In 1829 Captain Sturt traced the Murrumbidgee River till it
debouched into the Murray, which he followed down to Lake
Alexandrina, but he was compelled, after great hardships, to
return without discovering its mouth. In 1831 Captain Barker,
while attempting to discover this, was murdered by the natives.
MURRAY COD (Oligorus macquariensis) , one of the largest
of the numerous fresh-water Perciform fishes of Australia, and
the most celebrated for its excellent flavour. It belongs to
the family Serranidae. Its taxonomic affinities lie in the direc-
tion of the perch and not of the cod family. The shape of the
body is that of a perch, and the dorsal fin consists of a spinous
Murray Cod.
and rayed portion, the number of spines being eleven. The
length of the spines varies with age, old individuals having
shorter spines that is, a lower dorsal fin. The form of the
head and the dentition also resemble those of a perch, but
none of the bones of the head has a serrated margin. The
scales are small. The colour varies in different localities; it
is generally brownish, with a greenish tinge and numerous
small dark green spots. As implied by the name, this fish has
its headquarters in the Murray River and its tributaries, but it
occurs also in the northern parts of New South Wales. It is the
most important food fish of these rivers, and is said to attain
a length of more than 3 ft. and a weight of 1 20 Ib.
MURREE, a town and sanatorium of British India, in the
Rawalpindi district of the Punjab, 7517 ft. above the sea. about
five hours' journey by cart-road from Rawalpindi town, and
the starting-point for Kashmir. The houses are built on the
MURSHIDABAD MUSCAT
43
summit and sides of an irregular ridge, and command magnifi-
cent views over forest-clad hills and deep valleys, studded with
villages and cultivated fields, with the snow-covered peaks of
Kashmir in the background. The population in 1901 was 1844;^
but these figures omit the summer visitors, who probably number
10,000. The garrison generally consists of three mountain
batteries. Since 1877 the summer offices of the provincial
government have been transferred to Simla. The Murree
brewery, one of the largest in India, is the chief industrial
establishment. The Lawrence Military Asylum for the children
of European soldiers is situated here.
MURSHIDABAD, or MOORSHEEDABAD, a town and district
of British India, in the Presidency division of Bengal. The
administrative headquarters of the district are at Berhampur.
The town of Murshidabad is on the left bank of the Bhagirathi
or old sacred channel of the Ganges. Pop. (1901), 15,168.
The city of Murshidabad was the latest Mahommedan capital
of Bengal. In 1704 the nawab Murshid Kulia Khan changed
the seat of government from Dacca to Maksudabad, which he
called after his own name. The great family of Jagat Seth
maintained their position as state bankers at Murshidabad
from generation to generation. Even after the conquest of
Bengal by the British, Murshidabad remained for some time
the seat of administration. Warren Hastings removed the
supreme civil and criminal courts to Calcutta in 1772, but in
1775 the latter court was brought back to Murshidabad again.
In 1 790, under Lord Cornwallis, the entire revenue and judicial
staffs were fixed at Calcutta. The town is still the residence
of the nawab, who ranks as the first nobleman of the province
with the style of nawab bahadur of Murshidabad, instead of
nawab nazim of Bengal. His palace, dating from 1837, is a
magnificent building in Italian style. The city is crowded with
other palaces, mosques, tombs, and gardens, and retains such
industries as carving in ivory, gold and silver embroidery, and
silk-weaving. A college is maintained for the education of the
nawab 's family.
The DISTRICT OF MURSHIDABAD has an area of 2143 sq. m.
It is divided into two nearly equal portions by the Bhagirathi,
the ancient channel of the Ganges. The tract to the west,
known as the Rarh, consists of hard clay and nodular limestone.
The general level is high, but interspersed with marshes and
seamed by hill torrents. The Bagri or eastern half belongs to
alluvial plains of eastern Bengal. There are few permanent
swamps; but the whole country is low-lying, and liable to annual
inundation. In the north-west are a few small detached hillocks,
said to be of basaltic formation. Pop. (1901), 1,333,184, show-
ing an increase of 6-6% in the decade. The principal industry
is that of silk, formerly of much importance, and now revived
with government assistance. A narrow-gauge railway crosses
the district, from the East Indian line at Nalhati to Azimganj
on the Bhagirathi, the home of many rich Jain merchants; and
a branch of the Eastern Bengal railway has been opened.
HUS, the name of a Roman family of the plebeian Decian
gens, (i) PUBLICS DECIUS Mus won his first laurels in the
Samnite War, when in 343 B.C., while serving as tribune of the
soldiers, he rescued the Roman main army* frdm an apparently
hopeless position (Livy vii. 34). In 340, as consul with T.
Manlius Torquatus as colleague, he commanded in the Latin
War. The decisive battle was fought near Mt Vesuvius.
The consuls, in consequence of a dream, had agreed that the
general whose troops first gave way should devote himself to
destruction, and so ensure victory. The left wing under Decius
became disordered, whereupon, repeating after the chief pontiff
the solemn formula of self-devotion he dashed into the ranks
of the Latins, and met his death (Livy viii. 9). (2) His son,
also called PUBLIUS, consul for the fourth time in 295, followed
the example of his father at the battle of Sentinum, when the
left wing which he commanded was shaken by the Gauls (Livy
x. 28). The story of the elder Decius is regarded by Mommsen
as an unhistorical " doublette " of what is related on better
authority of the son.
MUSAEUS, the name of three Greek poets, (i) The first was
a mythical seer and priest, the pupil or son of Orpheus, who was
said to have been the founder of priestly poetry in Attica.
According to Pausanias (i. 25) he was buried on the Museum hill,
south-west of the Acropolis. He composed dedicatory and
purificatory hymns and prose treatises, and oracular responses.
These were collected and arranged in the time of Peisistratus
by Onomacritus, who added interpolations. The mystic and
oracular verses and customs of Attica, especially of Eleusis,
are connected with his name (Herod, vii. 6; viii. 96; ix. 43).
A Titanomachia and Theogonia are also attributed to him
(G. Kinkel, Epicorum graecorum fragmenla, 1878). (2) The
second was an Ephesian attached to the court of the kings of
Pergamum, who wrote a Perseis, and poems on Eumenes and
Attalus (Suidas, s.v.). (3) The third (called Grammaticus in
all the MSS.) is of uncertain date, but probably belongs to the
beginning of the 6th century A.D., as his style and metre are
evidently modelled after Nonnus. He must have lived before
Agathias (530-582) and is possibly to be identified with the
friend of Procopius whose poem (340 hexameter lines) on the
story of Hero and Leander is by far the most beautiful of the age
(editions by F. Passow, 1810; G. H. Schafer, 1825; C. Dilthey,
1874). The little love-poem Alpheus and Arethusa (Anthol. pal.
ix. 362) is also ascribed to Musaeus.
MUSA KHEL, a Pathan tribe on the Dera Ghazi Khan border
of the Punjab province of India. They are of Kakar origin,
numbering 4670 fighting men. They enter British territory
by the Vihowa Pass, and carry on an extensive trade, but are
not dependent on India for the necessaries of life. They are
a peaceful and united race, and have been friendly to the British,
but at enmity with the Khetrans and the Baluch tribes to the
south of their country. In 1879 the Musa Khels and other
Pathan tribes to the number of 5000 made a demonstration
against Vihowa, but the town was reinforced and they dispersed.
In 1884 they were punished, together with the Kakars, by the
Zhob Valley Expedition.
MUSA' US, JOHANN KARL AUGUST (1735-1787), German
author, was born on the 29th of March 1735 at Jena, studied
theology at the university, and would have become the pastor
of a parish but for the resistance of some peasants, who objected
that he had been known to dance. In 1760 to 1762 he published
in three volumes his first work, Grandison der Zweite, afterwards
(in 1781-1782) rewritten and issued with a new title, Der deutsche
Grandison. The object of this book was to satirize Samuel
Richardson's hero, who had many sentimental admirers in
Germany. In 1763 Musaus was made master of the court pages
at Weimar, and in 1769 he became professor at the Weimar
gymnasium. His second book Physiognomische Reisen did not
appear until 1778-1779. It was directed against Lavater, and
attracted much favourable attention. In 1782 to 1786 he
published his best work Volksmiirchen der Deutschen. Even
in this series of tales, the substance of which Musaus collected
among the people, he could not refrain from satire. The stories,
therefore, lack the simplicity of genuine folk-lore. In 1785
was issued Freund Heins Erscheinungen in Holbeins Manier by
J. R. Schellenberg, with explanations in prose and verse by
Musaus. A collection of stories entitled Straussfedern, of which
a volume appeared in 1787, Musaus was prevented from com-
pleting by his death on the 28th of October 1787.
The Volksmiirchen have been frequently reprinted (Dusseldorf,
1903, &c.). They were translated into French in 1844, and three
of the stories are included in Carlyle's German Romance (1827);
Musaus's Nachgelassene Scriften were edited by his relative, A. von
Kotzebue (1791). See M. Miiller, /. K. A. Musaus (1867), and an
essay by A. Stern in Beitrdge zur Literaturgeschichte des 18. Jahr-
hunderts (1893).
MUSCAT, MUSKAT or MASKAT, a town on the south-east
coast of Arabia, capital of the province of Oman. Its value
as a naval base is derived from its position, which commands
the entrance to the Persian Gulf. The town of Gwadar, the
chief port of Makr5n, belongs to Muscat, and by arrangement
with the sultan the British occupy that port with a telegraph
station of the Indo-Persian telegraph service. An Indian
political residency is established at Muscat. In geographical
44
MUSCATINE MUSCLE AND NERVE
position it is isolated from the interior of the continent. The
mountains rise behind it in a rugged wall, across which no road
exists. It is only from Matrah, a northern suburb shut off by
an intervening spur which reaches to the sea, that land com-
munication with the rest of Arabia can be maintained. Both
Muscat and Matrah are defended from incursions on the land-
ward side by a wall with towers at intervals. Muscat rose to
importance with the Portuguese occupation of the Persian Gulf,
and is noted for the extent of Portuguese ruins about it. Two
lofty forts, of which the most easterly is called Jalali and the
western Merani, occupy the summits of hills on either side the
cove overlooking the town; and beyond them on the seaward
side are two smaller defensive works called Sirat. All these
are ruinous. A low sandy isthmus connects the rock and
fortress of Jalali with the mainland, and upon this isthmus stands
the British residency. The sultan's palace is a three-storeyed
building near the centre of the town, a relic of Portuguese
occupation, called by the Arabs El Jereza, a corruption of
Igrezia (church). This term is probably derived from the chapel
once attached to the buildings which formed the Portuguese
governor's residence and factory. The bazaar is insignificant,
and its most considerable trade appears to be in a sweetmeat
prepared from the gluten of maize. Large quantities of dates
are also exported.
History. The early history of Muscat is the history of Portu-
guese ascendancy in the Persian Gulf. When Albuquerque first
burnt the place after destroying Karyat in 1508, Kalhat was
the chief port of the coast and Muscat was comparatively
unimportant. Kalhat was subsequently sacked and burnt, the
great Arab mosque being destroyed, before Albuquerque returned
to his ships, " giving many thanks to our Lord." From that
date, through 114 years of Portuguese ascendancy, Muscat was
held as a naval station and factory during a period of local
revolts, Arab incursions, and Turkish invasion by sea; but it
was not till 1622, when the Portuguese lost Hormuz, that Muscat
became the headquarters of their fleet and the most important
place held by them on the Arabian coast. In 1650 the Portu-
guese were finally expelled from Oman. Muscat had been
reduced previously by the humiliating terms imposed upon the
garrison by the imam of Oman after a siege in 1648. For five
years the Persians occupied Oman, but they disappeared in
1741. Under the great ruler of Oman, Said ibn Sultan (1804-
1856), the fortunes of Muscat attained their zenith; but on his
death, when his kingdom was divided and the African possessions
were parted from western Arabia, Muscat declined. In 1883-
1884, when Turki was sultan, the town was unsuccessfully
besieged by the Indabayin and Rehbayin tribes, led by Abdul
Aziz, the brother of Turki. In 1885 Colonel Miles, resident at
Muscat, made a tour through Oman, following the footsteps of
Wellsted in 1835, and confirmed that traveller's report of
the fertility and wealth of the province. In 1898 the French
acquired the right to use Muscat as a coaling station.
See Stiffe, " Trading Ports of Persian Gulf," vol. ix. Geog. Journal,
and the political reports of the Indian government from the Persian
Gulf. Colonel Miles's explorations in Oman will be found in vol. vii.
Geog. Journal (1896). (T. H. H.*)
MUSCATINE, a city and the county-seat of Muscatine county,
Iowa, U.S.A., on the Mississippi river (here crossed by a wagon
bridge), at the apex of the " great bend," in the south-east part
of the state. Pop. (1890), 11,454; (1900), 14,073, of whom
2352 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 16,178. It is served
by the Chicago Milwaukee & Saint Paul, the Chicago Rock
Island & Pacific, and the Muscatine North & South railways.
It is built on high rocky bluffs, and is the centre of a pearl-
button industry introduced in 1891 by J. F. Boepple, a German,
the buttons being made from the shells of the fresh-water
mussel found in the neighbourhood; and there are other manu-
factures. Coal is mined in the vicinity, and near the city are
large market-gardens, the water-melons growing on Muscatine
Island (below the city) and sweet potatoes being their most
important products. The municipality owns and operates the
waterworks. Muscatine began as a trading-post in 1833. It
was laid out in 1836, incorporated as a town under the name
of Bloomington in 1839, and first chartered as a city, under its
present name, in 1851.
MUSCHELKALK, in geology, the middle member of the
German Trias. It consists of a series of calcareous, marly
and dolomitic beds which lie conformably between the Bunter
and Keuper formations. The name Muschelkalk (Fr., calcaire
coquillier; conchylien, formation of D'Orbigny) indicates a
characteristic feature in this series, viz. the frequent occurrence
of lenticular banks composed of fossil shells, remarkable in the
midst of a singularly barren group. In its typical form the
Muschelkalk is practically restricted to the German region
and its immediate neighbourhood; it is found in Thuringia,
Harz, Franconia, Hesse, Swabia. and the Saar and Alsace
districts. Northward it extends into Silesia, Poland and Heligo-
land. Representatives are found in the Alps, west and south
of the Vosges, in Moravia, near Toulon and Montpellier,
in Spain and Sardinia; in Rumania, Bosnia, Dalmatia, and
beyond this into Asia in the Himalayas, China, Australia,
California, and in North Africa (Constantine). From the nature
of the deposits, as well as from the impoverished fauna, the
Muschelkalk of the type area was probably laid down within
a land-locked sea which, in the earlier portion of its existence,
had only imperfect communications with the more open waters
of the period. The more remote representatives of the formation
were of course deposited in diverse conditions, and are only to
be correlated through the presence of some of the Muschelkalk
fossils.
In the " German " area the Muschelkalk is from 250-350 ft.
thick; it is readily divisible into three groups, of which the
upper and lower are pale thin-bedded limestones with greenish-
grey marls, the middle group being mainly composed of
gypsiferous and saliniferous marls with dolomite. The Lower
Muschelkalk consists, from below upwards, of the following
rocks, the ochreous Wellen Dolomit, lower Wellen Kalk, upper
Wellen Kalk (so called on account of the wavy character of the
bedding) with beds of " Schaumkalk " (a porous cellular lime-
stone), and Oolite and the Orbicularis beds (with Myophoria
orbicularis) . In the Saar and Alsace districts and north Eifel,
these beds take on a sandy aspect, the " Muschelsandstein."
The Middle Muschelkalk or Anhydrite group, as already indi-
cated, consists mainly of marls and dolomites with beds of
anhydrite, gypsum and salt. The salt beds are worked at
Hall, Friedrichshall, Heilbronn, Stettin and Erfurt. It is from
this division that many of the mineral springs of Thuringia and
south Germany obtain their saline contents. The cellular
nature of much of the dolomite has given rise to the term
" Zellendolomit." The Upper Muschelkalk (Hauptmuschelkalk,
Friedrichshallkalk of von Alberti) consists of regular beds of
shelly limestone alternating with beds of marl. The lower
portion or " Trochitenkalk " is often composed entirely of the
fragmentary stems of Encrinus liliiformis; higher up come the
" Nodosus " beds with Ceratites compressus, C. nodosus, and
C. semipartitus in ascending order. In Swabia and Franconia
the highest beds are platy dolomites with Tringonodus Sander-
gensis and the crustacean Bairdia. Stylolites are common in
all the Muschelkalk limestones. The Alpine Muschelkalk differs
in many respects from that of the type area, and shows a closer
relationship with the Triassic Mediterranean sea; the more
important local phases will be found tabulated in the article
TRIAS.
In addition to the fossils mentioned above, the following are
Muschelkalk forms: Terebratulina vulgaris, Spiriferina Mantzeli
and 5. hirsuta, Myophoria vulgaris, Rhynchotites hirundo, Ceratites
Miinsteri, Ptychites studeri, Balatonites balatonicus, Aspidura scutel-
lata, Daonella Lommeli, and in the Alpine region several rock-
forming Algae, Bactryllium, Gyroporella, Diplopora, &c.
(J. A. H.)
MUSCLE AND NERVE (Physiology). 1 Among the properties
of living material there is one, widely though not universally
present in it, which forms the pre-eminent characteristic of
'The anatomy of the muscles is dealt with under MUSCULAR
SYSTEM, and of the nerves under NERVE and NERVOUS SYSTEM.
MUSCLE AND NERVE
45
muscular cells. This property is the liberation of some of
the energy contained in the chemical compounds of the cells
in such a way as to give mechanical work. The
mechanical work is obtained by movement resulting
from a change, it is supposed, in the elastic tension of the
framework of the living cell. In the fibrils existing in the
cell a sudden alteration of elasticity occurs, resulting in an
increased tension on the points of attachment of the cell to the
neighbouring elements of the tissue in which the cell is placed.
These yield under the strain, and tne cell shortens between
those points of its attachment. This shortening is called
contraction. But the volume of the cell is not
Mm'" " appreciably altered, despite the change of its shape,
for its one diameter increases in proportion as its
other is diminished. The manifestations of contractility by
muscle are various in mode. By tonic contraction is meant
a prolonged and equable state of tension which yields under
analysis no element of intermittent character. This is mani-
fested by the muscular walls of the hollow viscera and of the
heart, where it is the expression of a continuous liberation of
energy in process in the muscular tissue, the outcome of the
latter's own intrinsic life, and largely independent of any con-
nexion with the nervous system. The muscular wall of the
blood-vessels also exhibits tonic contraction, which, however,
seems to be mainly traceable to a continual excitation of the
muscle cells by nervous influence conveyed to them along their
nerves, and originating in the great vaso motor centre in the bulb.
In the ordinary striped muscles of the skeletal musculature, e.g.
gastrocnemius, tonic contraction obtains; but this, like the last
mentioned, is not autochthonous in the muscles themselves; it
is indirect and neural, and appears to be maintained reflexly.
The receptive organs of the muscular sense and of the semi-
circular canals are to be regarded as the sites of origin of this
reflex tonus of the skeletal muscles. Striped muscles possessing
an autochthonous tonus appear to be the various sphincter
muscles.
Another mode of manifestation of contractility by muscles
is the rhythmic. A tendency to rhythmic contraction seems dis-
coverable in almost all muscles. In some it is very marked, for
example in some viscera, the spleen, the bladder, the ureter, the
uterus, the intestine, and especially in the heart. In several of
these it appears not unlikely that the recurrent explosive libera-
tions of energy in the muscle tissue are not secondary to recurrent
explosions in nerve cells, but are attributable to decompositions
arising sua sponte in the chemical substances of the muscle cells
themselves in the course of their living. Even small strips of
the muscle of the heart, if taken immediately after the death of
the animal, continue, when kept moist and warm and supplied
with oxygen, to " beat " rhythmically for hours. Rhythmic
contraction is also characteristic of certain groups of skeletal
muscles, e.g. the respiratory. In these the rhythmic activity is,
however, clearly secondary to rhythmic discharges of the nerve
cells constituting the respiratory centre in the bulb. Such
discharges descend the nerve fibres of the spinal cord, and through
'the intermediation of various spinal nerve cells excite the
respiratory muscles through their motor nerves. A form of
contraction intermediate in character between the tonic and
the rhythmic is met in the auricle of the heart of the toad. There
slowly successive phases of increased and of diminished tonus
regularly alternate, and upon them are superposed the rhythmic
" beats " of the pulsating heart.
" The beat," i.e. the short-lasting explosive contraction of
the heart muscle, can be elicited by a single, even momentary,
application of a stimulus, e.g. by an induction shock. Similarly,
such a single stimulus elicits from a skeletal muscle a single
" beat," or, as it is termed, a " twitch." In the heart muscle
during a brief period after each beat, that is, after each
single contraction of the rhythmic series, the muscle becomes
inexcitable. It cannot then be excited to contract by any
agent, though the inexcitable period is more brief for strong
than for weak stimuli. But in the skeletal, voluntary or
striped muscles a second stimulus succeeding a previous so
Excit-
ability.
quickly as to fall even during the continuance of the contraction
excited by a first, elicits a second contraction. This second
contraction starts from whatever phase of previous contraction
the muscle may have reached at the time. A third stimulus
excites a third additional contraction, a fourth a fourth, and so
on. The increments of contraction become, however, less and
less, until the succeeding stimuli serve merely to maintain, not
to augment, the existing degree of contraction. We arrive thus
by synthesis at a summation of " beats " or of simple contrac-
tions in the compound, or " tetanic," or summed contraction of
the skeletal muscles. The tetanic or summed contractions are
more extensive than the simple, both in space and time, and
liberate more energy, both as mechanical work and heat. The
tension developed by their means in the muscle is many times
greater than that developed by a simple twitch.
Muscle cells respond by changes in their activity to changes
in their environment, and thus are said to be " excitable."
They are, however, less excitable than are the nerve
cells which innervate them. The change which
excites them is termed a stimulus. The least
stimulus which suffices to excite is known as the stimulus of
threshold value. In the case of the heart muscle this threshold
stimulus evokes a beat as extensive as does the strongest
stimulus; that is, the intensity of the stimulus, so long as it
is above threshold value, is not a function of the amount of the
muscular response. But in the ordinary skeletal muscles the
amount of the muscular contraction is for a short range of
quantities of stimulus (of above threshold value) proportioned
to the intensity of the stimulus and increases with it. A value
of stimulus, however, is soon reached which evokes a maximal
contraction. Further increase of contraction does not follow
further increase of the intensity of the stimulus above that
point.
Just as in a nerve fibre, when excited by a localized stimulus,
the excited state spreads from the excited point to the adjacent
unexcited ones, so in muscle the " contraction," when excited
at a point, spreads to the adjacent uncontracted parts. Both
in muscle and in nerve this spread is termed conduction.
It is propagated along the muscle fibres of the skeletal muscles
at a rate of about 3 metres per second. In the heart muscle
it travels much more slowly. The disturbance travels as a
wave of contraction, and the whole extent of the wave-like
disturbance measures in ordinary muscles much more than the
whole length of any single muscle fibre. That the excited state
spreads only to previously unexcited portions of the muscle
fibre shows that even in the skeletal variety of muscle there
exists, though only for a very brief time, a period of inexcitability.
The duration of this period is about yj"tr of a second in skeletal
muscle.
When muscle that has remained inactive for some time is
excited by a series of single and equal stimuli succeeding at
intervals too prolonged to cause summation the succeeding
contractions exhibit progressive increase up to a certain degree.
The tenth contraction usually exhibits the culmination of this
so-called " staircase effect." The explanation may lie in the
production of CO? in the muscle. That substance, in small
doses, favours the contractile power of muscle. The muscle
is a machine for utilizing the energy contained in its own chemical
compounds. It is not surprising that the chemical substances
produced in it by the decomposition of its living material should
not be of a nature indifferent for muscular life. We find that
if the series of excitations of the muscle be prolonged beyond
the short stage of initial improvement, the contractions, after
being well maintained for a time, later decline in force and
speed, and ultimately dwindle even to vanishing point. This
decline is said to be due to muscular fatigue. The muscle
recovers on being allowed to rest unstimulated for a while,
and more quickly on being washed with an innocuous but non-
nutritious solution, such as -6%, NaCl in water. The washing
seems to remove excreta of the muscle's own production, and
the period of repose removes them perhaps by diffusion, perhaps
by breaking them down into innocuous material. Since the
4 6
MUSCLE AND NERVE
Neuron
Theory.
muscle produces lactic acids during activity, it has been sug-
gested that acids are among the " fatigue substances " with
which muscle poisons itself when deprived of circulating blood.
Muscles when active seem to pour into the circulation substances
which, of unknown chemical composition, are physiologically
recognizable by their stimulant action on the respiratory nervous
centre. The effect of the fatigue substances upon the contrac-
tion of the tissue is manifest especially in the relaxation process.
The contracted state, instead of rapidly subsiding after dis-
continuance of the stimulus, slowly and only partially wears
off, the muscle remaining in a condition of physiological
" contracture." The alkaloid veratrin has a similar effect
upon the contraction of muscle; it enormously delays the
return from the contracted state, as also does epinephrin, an
alkaloid extracted from the suprarenal gland.
Nervous System. The work of Camillo Golgi (Pavia, 1885
and onwards) on the minute structure of the nervous system has
led to great alteration of doctrine in neural physi-
ology. It had been held that the branches of the
nerve cells, that is to say, the fine nerve fibres
since all nerve fibres are nerve cell branches, and all nerve cell
branches are nerve fibres which form a close felt-work in the
nervous centres, there combined into a network actually con-
tinuous throughout. This continuum was held to render possible
conduction in all directions throughout the grey matter of the
whole nervous system. The fact that conduction occurred
preponderantly in certain directions was explained by appeal
to a hypothetical resistance to conduction which, for reasons
unascertained, lay less in some directions than in others. The
intricate felt-work has by Golgi been ascertained to be a mere
interlacement, not an actual anastomosis network; the branches
springing from the various cells remain lifelong unattached and
unjoined to any other than their own individual cell. Each
neuron or nerve cell is a morphologically distinct and discrete
unit connected functionally but not structurally with its neigh-
bours, and leading its own life independently of the destiny of
its neighbours. Among the properties of the neuron is con-
ductivity in all directions. But when neurons are linked together
it is found that nerve impulses will only pass from neuron A to
neuron B, and not from neuron B to neuron A; that is, the
transmission of the excited state or nervous impulse, although
possible in each neuron both up and down its own cell branches,
is possible from one nerve cell to another in one direction only.
That direction is the direction in which the nerve impulses
flow under the conditions of natural life. The synapse, therefore,
as the place of meeting of one neuron with the next is called,
is said to valve the nerve circuits. This determinate sense
of the spread is called the law of forward direction. The synapse
appears to be a weak spot in the chain of conduction, or rather
to be a place which breaks down with comparative ease under
stress, e.g. under effect of poisons. The axons of the motor
neurons are, inasmuch as they are nerve fibres in nerve trunks,
easily accessible to artificial stimuli. It can be demonstrated
that they are practically indefatigable repeatedly stimulated
by electrical currents, even through many hours, they, unlike
muscle, continue to respond with unimpaired reaction. .
^ et wnen the muscular contraction is taken as index
of the response of the nerve, it is found that unmis-
takable signs of fatigue appear even very soon after commence-
ment of the excitation of the nerve, and the muscle ceases
to give any contraction in response to stimuli applied indirectly to
it through its nerve. But the muscle will, when excited directly,
e.g. by direct application of electric currents, contract vigorously
after all response on its part to the stimuli (nerve impulses)
applied to it indirectly through its nerve has failed. The
inference is that the "fatigue substances" generated in .the
muscle fibres in the course of their prolonged contraction injure
and paralyse the motor end plates, which are places of synapsis
between nerve cell and muscle cell, even earlier than they harm
the contractility of the muscle fibres themselves. The alkaloid
curarin causes motor paralysis by attacking in a selective way
this junction of motor nerve cell and striped muscular fibre.
Non-myelinate nerve fibres are as resistant to fatigue as are
the myelinate.
The neuron is described as having a cell body or perikaryon
from which the cell branches dendrites and axon extend^
and it is this perikaryon which, as its name implies,
contains the nucleus. It forms the trophic centre of
the cell, just as the nucleus-containing part of every
cell is the trophic centre of the whole cell. Any part of the cell
cut off from the nucleus-containing part dies down: this is as
true of nerve cells as of amoeba, and in regard to the neuron
it constitutes what is known as the Wallerian degeneration.
On the other hand, in some neurons, after severance of the axon
from the rest of the cell (spinal motor cell), the whole nerve
cell as well as the severed axon degenerates, and may eventu-
ally die and be removed. In the severed axon the degenera-
tion is first evident in a breaking down of the naked nerve
filaments of the motor end plate. A little later the breaking
down of the whole axon, both axis cylinder and myelin sheath
alike, seems to occur simultaneously throughout its entire
length distal to the place of severance. The complex fat of
the myelin becomes altered chemically, while the other com-
ponents of the sheath break down. This death of the sheath as
well as of the axis cylinder shows that it, like the axis cylinder,
is a part of the nerve cell itself.
In addition to the trophic influence exerted by each part
of the neuron on its other parts, notably by the perikaryon
on the cell branches, one neuron also in many instances in-
fluences the nutrition of other neurons. When, for instance,
the axons of the ganglion cells of the retina are severed by
section of the optic nerve, and thus their influence upon the
nerve cells of the visual cerebral centres is set aside, the nerve
cells of those centres undergo secondary atrophy (Gadden's
atrophy). They dwindle in size; they do not, however, die.
Similarly, when the axons of the motor spinal cells are by
severance of the nerve trunk of a muscle broken through, the
muscle cells undergo " degeneration " dwindle, become fatty,
and alter almost beyond recognition. This trophic influence
which one neuron exerts upon others, or upon the cells of an
extrinsic tissue, such as muscle, is exerted in that
direction which is the one normally taken by the T a ! c ^
T * . . Activity of
natural nerve impulses. It seems, especially in ^ eurong
the case of the nexus between certain neurons,
that the influence, loss of which endangers nutrition, is associ-
ated with the occurrence of something more than merely the
nervous impulses awakened from time to time in the leading
nerve cell. The wave of change (nervous impulse) induced
in a neuron by advent of a stimulus is after all only a sudden
augmentation of an activity continuous within the neuron
a transient accentuation of one (the disintegrative) phase of
the metaboh'sm inherent in and inseparable from its life. The
nervous impulse is, so to say, the sudden evanescent glow of an
ember continuously black-hot. A continuous lesser " change "
or stream of changes sets through the neuron, and is distributed
by it to other neurons in the same direction and by the same
synapses as are its nerve impulses. This gentle continuous
activity of the neuron is called its tonus. In tracing the tonus
of neurons to a source, one is always led link by link against
the current of nerve force so to say, " up stream " to the
first beginnings of the chain of neurons in the sensifacient surfaces
of the body. From these, as in the eye, ear, and other sense
organs, tonus is constantly initiated. Hence, when cut off
from these sources, the nutrition of the neurons of various
central mechanisms suffers. Thus the tonus of the motor
neurons of the spinal cord is much lessened by rupture of the
great afferent root cells which normally play upon them.
A prominent and practically important illustration of neural
tonus is given by the skeletal muscles. These muscles exhibit
a certain constant condition of slight contraction, which dis-
appears on severance of the nerve that innervates the muscle.
It is a muscular tonus of central source consequent on
the continual glow of excitement in the spinal motor neuron,
whose outgoing end plays upon the muscle cells, whose ingoing
MUSCLE AND NERVE
47
end is played upon by other neurons spinal, cerebral and
cerebellar.
It is with the neural element of muscle tonus that tendon pheno-
mena are intimately associated. The earliest-studied of these, the
" knee-jerk," may serve as example of the class. It is a brief ex-
tension of the limb at the knee-joint, due to a simple contraction of
the extensor muscle, elicited by a tap or other short mechanical
stimulus applied to the muscle fibres through the tendon of the
muscle. The jerk is obtainable only from muscle fibres possessed
of neural tonus. If the sensory nerves of the extensor muscle be
severed, the "jerk " is lost. The brevity of the interval between
the tap on the knee and the beginning of the resultant contraction
of the muscle seems such as to exclude the possibility of reflex
development. A little experience in observations on the knee-jerk
imparts a notion of the average strength of the " jerk." Wide
departures from the normal standard are met with and are sympto-
matic of certain nervous conditions. Stretching of the muscles
antagonistic to the extensors namely, of the flexor muscles
reduces the jerk by inhibiting the extensor spinal nerve cells through
the nervous impulses generated by the tense flexor muscles. Hence
a favourable posture of the limb for eliciting the jerk is one ensuring
relaxation of the hamstring muscles, as when the leg has been
crossed upon the other. In sleep the jerk is diminished, in deep
sleep quite abolished. Extreme bodily fatigue diminishes it. Con-
versely, a cold bath increases it. The turning of attention towards
the knee interferes with the jerk; hence the device of directing the
person to perform vigorously some movement, which does not
involve the muscles ot the lower limb, at the moment when the
light blow is dealt upon the tendon. A slight degree of contraction
of muscle seems the substratum of all attention. The direction of
attention to the performance of some movement by the arm ensures
that looseness and freedom from tension in the thigh muscles which
is essential for the provocation of the jerk. The motor cells of
the extensor muscles, when preoccupied by cerebral influence,
appear refractory. T. Ziehen has noted exaltation of the jerk to
follow extirpation of a cortical centre.
Although the cell body or perikaryon of the neuron, with
its contained nucleus, is essential for the maintenance of the
life of the cell branches, it has become recognized
Conduction .!_,, , ,. f t,
la Neurons. ^" a *- t" e ac t ua ' process and function of con-
duction " in many neurons can, and does, go on
without the cell body being directly concerned in the conduction.
S. Exner first showed, many years ago, that the nerve impulse
travels through the spinal ganglion at the same speed as along
the other parts of the nerve trunk that is, that it suffers no
delay in transit through the perikarya of the afferent root-
neurons. Bethe has succeeded in isolating their perikarya
from certain of the afferent neurons of the antennule of
Carcinus. The conduction through the amputated cell branches
continues unimpaired for many hours. This indicates that
the conjunction between the conducting substance of the
dendrons and that of the axon can be effected without the
intermediation of the cell body. But the proper nutntion
of the conducting substance is indissolubly dependent on the
cell branches being in continuity with the cell body and nucleus
it contains. Evidence illustrating this nexus is found in the
visible changes produced in the perikaryon by prolonged
activity induced and maintained in the conducting branches
of the cell. As a result the fatigued cells appear shrunken,
and their reaction to staining reagents alters, thus showing
chemical alteration. Most marked is the decrease in the
volume of the nucleus, amounting even to 44% of the initial
volume. In the myelinated cell branches of the neuron, that
is, in the ordinary nerve fibres, no visible change has ever been
demonstrated as the result of any normal activity, however
great a striking contrast to the observations obtained on
the perikarya. The chemical changes that accompany activity
in the nerve fibre must be very small, for the production of
COj is barely measurable, and no production of heat is
observable as the result of the most forced tetanic activity.
The nerve cells of the higher vertebrata, unlike their blood
cells, their connective tissue cells, and even their muscle cells,
Growth la early, and indeed in embryonic life, lose power of
Nervous multiplication. The number of them formed is
System. definitely closed at an early period of the individual
life. Although, unlike so many other cells, thus early sterile for
reproduction of their kind, they retain for longer than most cells
a high power of individual growth. They continue to grow, and
to thrust out new branches and to lengthen existing branches,
for many years far into adult life. They similarly possess power
to repair and to regenerate their cell branches where these are
injured or destroyed by trauma or disease. This is the explana-
tion of the repair of nerve trunks that have been severed, with
consequent degeneration of the peripheral nerve fibres. As a
rule, a longer time is required to restore the motor than the
sensory functions of a nerve trunk.
Whether examined by functional or by structural features,
the conducting paths of the nervous system, traced from
beginning to end, never terminate in the centres of
that system, but pass through them. All ultimately
emerge as efferent channels. Every efferent
channel, after entrance in the central nervous system, sub-
divides; of its subdivisions some pass to efferent channels
soon, others pass further and further within the cord and brain
before they finally reach channels of outlet. All the longest
routes thus formed traverse late in their course the cortex of
the cerebral hemisphere. It is this relatively huge development
of cortex cerebri which is the pre-eminent structural character
of man. This means that the number of " longest routes "
in man is, as compared with lower animals, disproportionately
great. In the lower animal forms there is no such nervous
structure at all as the cortex cerebri. In the frog, lizard, and
even bird, it is thin and poorly developed. In the marsupials
it is more evident, and its excitation by electric currents evokes
movements in the musculature of the crossed side of the body.
Larger and thicker in the rabbit, when excited it gives rise in
that animal to movements of the eyes and of the fore-limbs
and neck; but it is only in much higher types, such as the
dog, that the cortex yields, under experimental excitation,
definitely localized foci, whence can be evoked movements
of the fore-limb, hind-limb, neck, eyes, ears and fate. In
the monkey the proportions it assumes are still greater, and
the number of foci, for distinct movements of this and that
member, indeed for the individual joints of each limb, are
much more numerous, and together occupy a more extensive
surface, though relatively to the total surface of the brain a
smaller one.
Experiment shows that in the manlike (anthropoid) apes the
differentiation of the foci or "centres " of movement in the motor
field of the cortex is even more minute. In them areas are found
whence stimuli excite movements of this or that finger alone,
of the upper lip without the lower, of the tip only of the tongue,
or of one upper eyelid by itself. The movement evoked from
a point of cortex is not always the same; its character is
determined by movements evoked from neighbouring points
of cortex immediately antecedently. Thus a point A will, when
excited soon subsequent to point B, which latter yields pro-
trusion of lips, itself yield lip-protrusion, whereas if excited
after C, which yields lip-retraction, it will itself yield lip-retrac-
tion. The movements obtained by point-to-point excitation
of the cortex are often evidently imperfect as compared with
natural movements that is, are only portions of complete
normal movements. Thus among the tongue movements
evoked by stigmatic stimulation of the cortex undeviated
protrusion or retraction of the organ is not found. Again,
from different points of the cortex the assumption of the
requisite positions of the tongue, lips, cheeks, palate and
epiglottis, as components in the act of sucking, can be pro-
voked singly. Rarely can the whole action be provoked, and
then only gradually, by prolonged and strong excitation
of one of the requisite points, e.g. that for the tongue, with
which the other points are functionally connected. Again,
no single point in the cortex evokes the act of ocular converg-
ence and fixation. All this means that the execution of natural
movements employs simultaneous co-operative activity of a
number of points in the motor fields on both sides of the brain
together.
The accompanying simple figure indicates better than any
verbal description the topography of the main groups of foci
in the motor field of a manlike ape (chimpanzee). It will be
MUSCLE AND NERVE
noted from it that there is no direct relation between the extent of
a cortical area and the mass of muscles which it controls.
The mass of muscles in the trunk is greater than in the leg, and
in the leg is greater than in the arm, and in the arm is many times
greater than in the face and head; yet for the last the cortical
area is the most extensive of all, and for the first-named is
the least extensive of all.
The motor field of the cortex is, taken altogether, relatively
to the size of the lower parts of the brain, larger in the anthropoid
than in the inferior monkey brains. But in the anthropoid
Anus <J vagina*
**? :XMftL ty*
Knee ''^'^^^/^'^y^^ ..Chest
Hip.
come to be furnished more and more with fibres that are fully
myelinate. At the beginning of its history each is unprovided
with myelinate nerve fibres. The excitable foci of the cerebral
cortex are well myelinated long before the unexcitable are so.
The regions of the cortex, whose conduction paths are early
completed, may be arranged in groups by their connexions
with sense-organs: eye-region, ear-region, skin and somaesthetic
region, olfactory and taste region. The areas of intervening
cortex, arriving at structural completion later than the above
sense-spheres, are called by some association-spheres, to indicate
the view that they contain the neural mechanisms of
reactions (some have said " ideas ") associated with
the sense perceptions elaborated in the several sense-
spheres.
The name " motor area " is given to that region
of cortex whence, as D. Ferrier's investigations
showed, motor reactions of the facial and Seasorl-
limb muscles are regularly and easily motor
evoked. This region is often called the &*"*.
sensori-motor cortex, and the term somaesthetic has
also been used and seems appropriate. It has been
found that disturbance of sensation, as well as
disturbance of movement, is often incurred by its
injury. Patients in whom, for purposes of diagnosis,
it has been electrically excited, describe, as the
initial effect of the stimulation, tingling and obscure
but locally-limited sensations, referred to the part
whose muscles a moment later are thrown into
co-ordinate activity. The distinction, therefore,
between the movement of the eyeballs, elicited from
the occipital (visual) cortex, and that of the hand,
elicited from the cortex in the region of the central
Sulciis cerUfaUs, sulcus (somaesthetic), is not a difference between
cords. r1a.iticaion Mi** motor and sensory, for both are sensori-motor in the
Diagram of the Topography of the Main Groups of Foci in the Motor Field nature of their reactions; the difference is only a
of Chimpanzee. difference between the kind of sense and sense-organ
brain still more increased even than the motor field are the great in the two cases, the muscular apparatus in each case being
EAT--.'''
Eyelid .
Nose
Cidaure
' Opening
regions of the cortex outside that field, which yield no definite
movements under electric excitation, and are for that reason
known as " silent." The motor field, therefore, though absolutely
larger, forms a smaller fraction of the whole cortex of the brain
than in the lower forms. The statement that in the anthropoid
(orang-outan) brain the groups of foci in the motor fields of the
cortex are themselves separated one from another by sur-
rounding inexcitable cortex, has been made and was one of
great interest, but has not been confirmed by subsequent
observation. That in man the excitable foci of the motor
field are islanded in excitable surface similarly and even more
extensively, was a natural inference, but it had its chief basis
in the observations on the orang, now known to be erroneous.
In the diagram there is indicated the situation of the cortical
centres for movement of the vocal cords. Their situation is
at the lower end of the motor field. That they should lie
there is interesting, because that place is close to one known
in man to be associated with management of the movements
concerned in speech. When that area in man is injured, the
ability to utter words is impaired. Not that there is paralysis
of the muscles of speech, since these muscles can be used perfectly
for all acts other than speech. The area in man is known as
the motor centre for speech; in most persons it exists only in
the left half of the brain and not in the right. In a similar way
damage of a certain small portion of the temporal lobe of the
brain produces loss of intelligent apprehension of words spoken,
although there is no deafness and although words seen are
perfectly apprehended. Another region, " the angular region,"
is similarly related to intelligent apprehension of words seen,
though not of words heard.
When this differentiation of cortex, with its highest expres-
sion in man, is collated' with the development of the cortex
as studied in the successive phases of its growth and ripening
in the human infant, a suggestive analogy is obvious. The
nervous paths in the brain and cord, as they attain completion,
an appanage of the sensual.
That the lower types of vertebrate, such as fish, e.g. carp,
possess practically no cortex cerebri, and nevertheless execute
" volitional " acts involving high co-ordination and suggesting
the possession by them of associative memory, shows that for
the existence of these phenomena the cortex cerebri is in them
not essential. In the dog it has been proved that after removal
from the animal of every vestige of its cortex cerebri, it still
executes habitual acts of great motor complexity requiring
extraordinarily delicate adjustment of muscular contraction.
It can walk, run and feed; such an animal, on wounding its
foot, will run on three legs, as will a normal dog under similar
mischance. But signs of associative memory are almost, if
not entirely, wanting. Throughout three years such a dog
failed to learn that the attendant's lifting it from the cage at a
certain hour was the preliminary circumstance of the feeding-
hour; yet it did exhibit hunger, and would refuse further food
when a sufficiency had been taken. In man, actually gross
sensory defects follow even limited lesions of the cortex. Thus
the rabbit and the dog are not absolutely blinded by removal
of the entire cortex, but in man destruction of the occipital
cortex produces total blindness, even to the extent that the
pupil of the eye does not respond when light is flashed into
the eye.
Examination of the cerebellum by the method of Wallerian
degeneration has shown that a large number of spinal and
bulbar nerve cells send branches up into it. These
seem to end, for the most, part, in the grey cortex
of the median lobe, some, though not the majority, of
them decussating across the median line. The organ seems
also to receive many fibres from the parietal region of the
cerebral hemisphere. From the organ there emerge fibres
which cross to the opposite red nucleus, and directly or
indirectly reach the thalamic region of the crossed hemi-
sphere. The pons or middle peduncle, which was regarded,
Cerebellum.
MUSCLE AND NERVE
49
on the uncertain ground of naked-eye dissection of human
anatomy, as commissural between the two lateral lobes of
the cerebellum, is now known to constitute chiefly a cerebro-
cerebellar decussating path. Certain cerebellar cells send
processes down to the cell-group in the bulb known as the
nucleus of Deiters, which latter projects fibres down the
spinal cord. Whether there is any other or direct emergent
path from the cerebellum into the spinal cord is a matter
on which opinion is divided.
Injuries of the cerebellum, if large, derange the power of
executing movements, without producing any detectable
derangement of sensation. The derangement gradually dis-
appears, unless the damage to the organ be very wide. A
reeling gait, oscillations of the body which impart a zigzag
direction to the walk, difficulty in standing, owing to unsteadi-
ness of limb, are common in cerebellar disease. On the other
hand, congenital defect amounting to absence of one cerebellar
hemisphere has been found to occasion practically no symptoms
whatsoever. Not a hundredth part of the cerebellum has
remained, and yet there has existed ability to stand, to walk, to
handle and lift objects in a fairly normal way, without any trace
of impairment of cutaneous or muscular sensitivity. The
damage to the cerebellum must, it would seem, occur abruptly or
quickly in order to occasion marked derangement of function,
and then the derangement falls on the execution of movements.
One aspect of this derangement, named by Luciani astasia,
is a tremor heightened by or only appearing when the muscles
enter upon action " intention tremor." Vertigo is a frequent
result of cerebellar injury: animals indicate it by their actions;
patients describe it. To interpret this vertigo, appeal must
be made to disturbances, other than cerebellar, which like-
wise occasion vertigo. These include, besides ocular squint,
many spatial positions and movements unwonted to the body:
the looking from a height, the gliding over ice, sea-travel, to
some persons even travelling by train, or the covering of one
eye. Common to all these conditions is the synchronous rise
of perceptions of spatial relations between the self and the
environment which have not, or have rarely, before arisen in
synchronous combination. The tactual organs of the soles, and
the muscular sense organs of limbs and trunk, are originating
perceptions that indicate that the self is standing on the
solid earth, yet the eyes are at the same time originating
perceptions that indicate that the solid earth is far away
below the standing self. The combination is hard to harmonize
at first; it is at least not given as innately harmonized. Per-
ceptions regarding the " me " are notoriously highly charged
with " feeling," and the conflict occasions the feeling insuffi-
ciently described as " giddiness." The cerebellum receives
paths from most, if not from all, of the afferent roots. With
certain of these it stands associated most closely, namely,
with the vestibular, representing the sense organs which furnish
data -for appreciation of positions and movements of the head,
and with the channels, conveying centripetal impressions from
the apparatus of skeletal movement. Disorder of the cere-
bellum sets at variance, brings discord into, the space-percep-
tions contributory to the movement. The body's movement
becomes thus imperfectly adjusted to the spatial requirements
of the act it would perform.
In the physiological basis of sense exist many impressions
which, apart from and devoid of psychical accompaniment,
reflexly influence motor (muscular) innervation. It is with
this sort of habitually apsychical reaction that the cerebellum
is, it would seem, employed. That it is apparently devoid of
psychical concomitant need not imply that the impressions
concerned in it are crude and inelaborate. The seeming want
of reaction of so much of the cerebellar structure under artificial
stimulation, and the complex relay system revealed in the
histology of the cerebellum, suggest that the impressions are
elaborate. Its reaction preponderantly helps to secure co-
ordinate innervation of the skeletal musculature, both for
maintenance of attitude and for execution of movements.
Sleep. The more obvious of the characters of sleep (q.v.) are
essentially nervous. In deep sleep the threshold-value of the
stimuli for the various senses is very greatly raised, rising
rapidly during the first hour and a half of sleep, and then declining
with gradually decreasing decrements. The muscles become less
tense than in their waking state: their tonus is diminished, the
upper eyelid falls, and the knee-jerk is in abeyance. The
respiratory rhythm is less frequent and the breathing less deep;
the heart-beat is less frequent; the secretions are less copious;
the pupil is narrow; in the brain there exists arterial anaemia with
venous congestion, so that the blood-flow there is less than in the
waking state.
It has been suggested that the gradual cumulative result
of the activity of the nerve cells during the waking day is to
load the brain tissue with " fatigue-substances "
which clog the action of the cells, and thus periodi- s / eep .
cally produce that loss of consciousness, &c., which
is sleep. Such a drugging of tissue by its own excreta is known
in muscular fatigue, but the fact that the depth of sleep progres-
sively increases for an hour and more after its onset prevents
complete explanation of sleep on similar lines. It has been
urged that the neurons retract during sleep, and that thus at the
synapses the gap between nerve cell and nerve cell becomes
wider, or..t>jat the supporting cells expand between the nerve
cells and tend to isolate the latter one from the other. Certain it is
that in the course of the waking day a great number of stimuli
play on the sense organs, and through these produce disintegra-
tion of the living molecules of the central nervous system.
Hence during the day the assimilatory processes of these cells
are overbalanced by their wear and tear, and the end-result is
that the cell attains an atomic condition less favourable to
further disintegration than to reintegration. That phase of
cell life which we are accustomed to call " active " is accompanied
always by disintegration. When in the cell the assimilative
processes exceed dissimilative, the external manifestations of
energy are liable to cease or diminish. Sleep is not exhaustion
of the neuron in the sense that prolonged activity has reduced
its excitability to zero. The nerve cell just prior to sleep is still
well capable of response to stimuli, although perhaps the thres-
hold-value of the stimulus has become rather high, whereas after
entrance upon sleep and continuance of sleep for several hours,
and more, when all spur to the dissimilation process has been
long withheld, the threshold-value of the sensory stimulus
becomes enormously higher than before. The exciting cause
of sleep is therefore no complete exhaustion of the available
material of the cells, nor is it entirely any paralysing of them by
their excreta. It is more probably abeyance of external function
during a periodic internal assimilatory phase.
Two processes conjoin to initiate the assimilatory phase. There
is close interconnexion between the two aspects of the double
activity that in physiological theory constitute the chemical life of
protoplasm, between dissimilation and assimilation. Hering has
long insisted on a self-regulative adjustment of the cell metabolism,
so that action involves reaction, increased catabolism necessitates
after-increase of anabolism. The long-continued incitement to
catabolism of the waking day thus of itself predisposes the nerve
cells towards rebound into the opposite phase; the increased cata-
bolism due to the day's stimuli induces increase of anabolism, and
though recuperation goes on to a large extent during the day itself,
the recuperative process is slower than, and lags behind, the dis-
integrative. Hence there occurs a cumulative effect, progressively
increasing from the opening till the closing hours. The second
factor inducing tiie assimilative change is the withdrawal of the
nervous system from sensual stimulation. The eyes are closed,
the maintenance.of posture by active contraction is replaced by the
recumbent pose which can be maintained by static action and the
mere mechanical consistence of the body, the ears are screened
from noise in the quiet chamber, the skin from localized pressure
by a soft, yielding couch. The effect of thus reducing the excitant
action of the environment is to give consciousness over more to
mere revivals by memory, and gradually consciousness lapses. A
remarkable case is well authenticated, where, owing to disease, a
young man had lost the use of all the senses save of one eye and of
one ear. If these last channels were sealed, in two or three minutes'
time he invariably fell asleep.
If natural sleep is the expression of a phase of decreased excit-
ability due to the setting in of a tide of anabolism in the cells of the
nervous system, what is the action of narcotics ? They lower the
MUSCOVITE
external activities of the cells, but do they not at the same time
lower the internal, reparative, assimilative activity of the cell that
in natural sleep goes vigorously forward preparing the system for
the next day's drain on energy? In most cases they seem to
Narcotics.
lower both the internal and the external activity of the
nerve cells, to lessen the cell's entire metabolism, to
reduce the speed of its whole chemical movement and life. Hence
it is not surprising that often the refreshment, the recuperation,
obtained from and felt after sleep induced by a drug amounts to
nothing, or to worse than nothing. But very often refreshment
is undoubtedly obtained from such narcotic sleep. It may be
supposed that in the latter case the effect of the drug has been to
ensure occurrence of that second predisposing factor mentioned
above, of that withdrawal of sense impulses from the nerve centres
that serves to usher in the state of sleep. In certain conditions it
may be well worth while by means of narcotic drugs to close the
portals of the senses for the sake of thus obtaining stillness in the
chambers of the mind; their enforced quietude may induce a
period in which natural rest and repair continue long after the
initial unnatural arrest of vitality due to the drug itself has passed
away.
Hypnotism. The physiology of this group of " states " is,
as regards the real understanding of their production, eminently
vague (see also HYPNOTISM). The conditions which tend to in-
duce them contain generally, as one element, constrained visual
attention prolonged beyond ordinary duration. Symptoms
attendant on the hypnotic state are closure of tht e eyelids by
the hypnotizer without subsequent attempt to open them by
the hypnotized subject; the pupils, instead of being constricted,
as for near vision, dilate, and there sets in a condition superficially
resembling sleep. But in natural sleep the action of all parts
of the nervous system is subdued, whereas in the hypnotic the
reactions of the lower, and some even of the higher, parts are
exalted. Moreover, the reactions seem to follow the sense
impressions with such fatality, that, as an inference, absence of
will-power to control them or suppress them is suggested. This
reflex activity with " paralysis of will " is characteristic of the
somnambulistic state. The threshold-value of the stimuli
adequate for the various senses may be extraordinarily lowered.
Print of microscopic size may be read; a watch ticking in another
room can be heard. Judgment of weight and texture of surface
is exalted; thus a card can in a dark room be felt and then
re-selected from the re-shuffled pack. Akin to this condition is
that in which the power of maintaining muscular effort is in-
creased; the individual may lie stiff with merely head and feet
supported on two chairs; the limbs can be held outstretched for
hours at a time. This is the cataleptic state, the phase of hypno-
tism which the phenomena of so-called " animal hypnotism "
resemble most. A frog or fowl or guinea-pig held in some
unnatural pose, and retained so forcibly for a time, becomes
" set " in that pose, or rather in a posture of partial recovery of
the normal posture. In this state it remains motionless for
various periods. This condition is more than usually readily
induced when the cerebral hemispheres have been removed.
The decerebrate monkey exhibits " cataleptoid " reflexes.
Father A. Kircher's experimentum mirabile with the fowl and
the chalk line succeeds best with the decerebrate hen. The
^attitude may be described as due to prolonged, not very intense,
.discharge from reflex centres that regulate posture and are
iprobably intimately connected with the cerebellum. A sudden
iintense sense stimulus usually suffices to end this tonic discharge.
It completes the movement that has already set in but had been
.checked, as it were, half-way, though tonically maintained.
Coincidently with the persistence of the tonic contraction, the
higher and volitional centres seem to lie under a spell of
inhibition; their action, which would complete or cut short the
posture-spasm, rests in abeyance. Suspension of cerebral
influence exists even more markedly, of course, when the
.cerebral hemispheres have been ablated.
But a potent according to some, the most potent factor
;in hypnotism, namely, suggestion, is unrepresented in the
production of so-called animal hypnotism. We know that one
idea suggests another, and that volitional movements are the
outcome of ideation. If we assume that there is a material
process at the basis of ideation, we may take the analogy of the
concomitance between a spinal reflex movement and a skin
sensation. The physical " touch " that initiates the psychical
" touch " initiates, through the very same nerve channels, a
reflex movement responsive to the physical " touch," just as the
psychical " touch " may be considered also a response to the
same physical event. But in the decapitated animal we have
good arguments for belief that we get the reflex movement alone
as response; the psychical touch drops out. Could we assume
that there is in the adult man reflex machinery which is of higher
order than the merely spinal, which employs much more complex
motor mechanisms than 1 they, and is connected with a much
wider range of sense organs; and could we assume that- this
reflex machinery, although usually associated in its action with
memorial and volitional processes, may in certain circumstances
be sundered from these latter and unattendant on them may
in fact continue in work when the higher processes are at a
standstill then we might imagine a condition resembling that
of the somnambulistic and cataleptic states of hypnotism.
Such assumptions are not wholly unjustified. Actions of great
complexity and delicacy of adjustment are daily executed by each
of us without what is ordinarily understood as volition, and without
more than a mere shred of memory attached thereto. To take
one's watch from the pocket and look at it when from a familiar
clock-tower a familiar bell strikes a familiar hour, is an instance of
a habitual action initiated by a sense perception outside attentive
consciousness. We may suddenly remember dimly afterwards that
we have done so, and we quite fail to recall the difference between
the watch time and the clock time. In many instances hypnotism
seems to establish quickly reactions similar to such as usually
result only from long and closely attentive practice. The sleeping
mother rests undisturbed by the various noises of the house and
street, but wakes at a slight murmur from her child. The ship's
engineer, engaged in conversation with some visitor to the engine-
room, talks apparently undisturbed by all the multifold noise and
rattle of the machinery, but let the noise alter in some item which,
though unnoticeable to the visitor, betokens importance to the
trained ear, and his passive attention is in a moment caught. The
warders at an asylum have been hypnotized to sleep by the bedside
of dangerous patients, and " suggested " to awake the instant the
patients attempt to get out of bed, sounds which had no import for
them being inhibited by suggestion. Warders in this way worked
all day and performed night duty also for months without showing
fatigue. This is akin to the " repetition " which, read by the
schoolboy last thing overnight, is on waking " known by heart."
Most of us can wake somewhere about a desired although unusually
early hour, if overnight we desire much to do so.
Two theories of a physiological nature have been proposed
to account for the separation of the complex reactions of
these conditions of hypnotism from volition and from memory.
R. P. H. Heidenhain's view is that the cortical centres of the
hemisphere are inhibited by peculiar conditions attaching
to the initiatory sense stimuli. W. T. Preyer's view is that the
essential condition for initiation is fatigue of the will-power
under a prolonged effort of undivided attention.
Hypnotic somnambulism and hypnotic catalepsy are not {he
only or the most profound changes of nervous condition that
hypnosis can induce. The physiological derangement which
is the basis of the abeyance of volition may, if hypnotism be
profound, pass into more widespread derangement, exhibiting
itself as the hypnotic lethargy. This is associated not only with
paralysis of will but with profound anaesthesia. Proposals
have been made to employ hypnotism as a method of producing
anaesthesia for surgical purposes, but there are two grave
objections to such employment. In order to produce a sufficient
degree of hypnotic lethargy the subject must be made extremely
susceptible, and this can only be done by repeated hypnotization.
It is necessary to hypnotize patients every day for several weeks
before they can be got into a degree of stupor sufficient to allow
of the safe execution of a surgical operation. But the state
itself, when reached, is at least as dangerous to life as is that
produced by inhalation of ether, and it is more difficult to
recover from. Moreover, by the processes the subject has gone
through he has had those physiological activities upon which
his volitional power depends excessively deranged, and not
improbably permanently enfeebled. (C. S. S.)
MUSCOVITE, a rock-forming mineral belonging to the mica
group (see MICA). It is also known as potash-mica, being a
potassium, hydrogen and'aluminium orthosilicate,
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
As the common white mica obtainable in thin, transparent
cleavage sheets of large size it was formerly used in Russia for
window panes and known as " Muscovy glass "; hence the name
muscovite, proposed by J. D. Dana in 1850. It crystallizes in
the monoclinic system; distinctly developed crystals, however,
are rare and have the form of rough six-sided prisms or plates:
thin scales without definite crystal outlines are more common.
The most prominent feature is the perfect cleavage parallel to
t^ e basal plane (c in the figure), on
which the lustre is pearly in character.
jit "7 The hardness is 2-2 1, and the spec,
grav. 2-8-2-9. The plane of the optic
axes is perpendicular to the plane of
symmetry and the acute bisectrix nearly normal to the cleavage;
the optic axial angle is 60-70, and double refraction is strong
and negative in sign.
Muscovite frequently occurs as fine scaly to almost compact
aggregates, especially when, as is often the case, it has resulted
by the alteration of some other mineral, such as felspar, topaz,
cyanite, &c.j several varieties depending on differences in
structure have been distinguished. Fine scaly varieties are
damourite, margarodite (from Gr. jia/xyapt-njj, a pearl), gilber-
tite, sericite (from <njpt/cos, silky), &c. In sericite the fine scales
are united in fibrous aggregates giving rise to a silky lustre:
this variety is a common constituent of phyllites and sericite-
schists. Oncosine (from oyKotns, intumescence) is a compact
variety forming rounded aggregates, which swell up when
heated before the blowpipe. Closely related to oncosine are several
compact minerals, included together under the name pinite,
which have resulted by the alteration of iolite, spodumene and
other minerals. Other varieties depend on differences in
chemical composition. Fuchsite or " chrome-mica " is a bright
green muscovite containing chromium; it has been used as a
decorative stone. Oellacherite is a variety containing some
barium. In phengite there is more silica than usual, the com-
position approximating to H 2 KAI 3 (Si3O 8 )3.
Muscovite is of wide distribution and is the commonest of the
micas. In igneous rocks it is found only in granite, never in
volcanic rocks; but it is abundant hi gneiss and mica-schist,
and in phyllites and clay-slates, where it has been formed at
the expense of alkali-felspar by dynamo-metamorphic processes.
In pegmatite-veins traversing granite, gneiss or mica-schist it
occurs as large sheets of commercial value, and is mined in India,
the United States and Brazil (see MICA), and to a limited extent,
together with felspar, in southern Norway and in the Urals.
Large sheets of muscovite were formerly obtained from Solovetsk
Island, Archangel. (L. J. S.)
MUSCULAR SYSTEM (Anatomy 1 ). The muscular tissue
(Lat. musculus, from a fancied resemblance of certain muscles
to a little mouse) is of three kinds: (i) voluntary or striped
muscle; (2) involuntary or unstriped muscle, found in the skin,
walls of hollow viscera, coats of blood and lymphatic vessels, &c. ;
(3) heart muscle. The microscopical differences of these different
kinds are discussed in the article on CONNECTIVE TISSUES. Here
only the voluntary muscles, which are under the control of the
will, are to be considered.
The voluntary muscles form the red flesh of an animal, and
are the structures by which one part of the body is moved at
will upon another. Each muscle is said to have an origin and
an insertion, the former being that attachment which is usually
more fixed, the latter that which is more movable. This
distinction, however, although convenient, is an arbitrary one,
and an example may make this clear. If we take the pectoralis
major, which is attached to the front of the chest on the one
hand and to the upper part of the arm bone on the other, the
effect of its contraction will obviously be to draw the arm towards
the chest, so that its origin under ordinary circumstances is said
to be from the chest while its insertion is into the arm; but if.
in climbing a tree, the hand grasps a branch above, the muscular
contraction will draw the chest towards the arm, and the latter
will then become the origin. Generally, but not always, a
1 For physiology, see MUSCLE AND NERVE.
muscle is partly fleshy and partly tendinous; the fleshy contractile
part is attached at one or both ends to cords or sheets of white
fibrous tissue, which in some cases pass round pullies and so
change the direction of the muscle's
action. The other end of these cords
or tendons is usually attached to the
periosteum of bones, with which it
blends. In some cases, when a
tendon passes round a bony pulley,
a sesamoid bone is developed in it
which diminishes the effects of fric-
tion. A good example of this is the
patella in the tendon of the rectus
femoris (fig. i, P.).
Every muscle is supplied with blood
vessels and lymphatics (fig. i, v, a, /),
and also with one or more nerves.
The nerve supply is very important
both from a medical and a morpho-
logical point of view. The approxi-
mate attachments are also important,
because unless they are realized
the action of the muscle cannot be
understood, but the exact attach-
ments are perhaps laid too great stress
on in the anatomical teaching of
medical students. The study of the
actions of muscles is, of course, a
physiological one, but teaching the
subject has been handed over to the
anatomists, and the results have been
in some respects unfortunate. Until
very recently the anatomist studied
only the dead body, and his one idea
of demonstrating the action of a
muscle was to expose and then to
pull it, and whatever happened he
said was the action of that muscle.
It is now generally recognized that
no movement is so simple that only
one muscle is concerned in it, and that
what a, muscle may do and what it
really does do are not necessarily the
same thing. As far as the deeper
muscles are concerned, we still have
onlythe anatomical method to depend
upon, but with the superficial muscles it should be checked by
causing a living person to perform certain movements and then
studying which muscles take part in them.
For a modern study of muscular actions, see C. E. Beevor's,
Croonian Lectures for ipoj (London, 1904).
Muscles have various shapes: they may be fusiform, as in fig. i,.
conical, riband-like, or flattened into triangular or quadrilateral'
sheets. They may also be attached to skin, cartilage or fascia,
instead of to bone, while certain muscles surround openings,
which they constrict and are called sphincters. The names of the-
muscles have gradually grown up, and no settled plan has been,
used in giving them. Sometimes, as in the coraco-brachialis and:
thyro-hyoid, the name describes the origin and insertion of the
muscle, and, no doubt, for the student of human anatomy this,
is the most satisfactory plan, since by learning the name the
approximate attachments are also learnt. Sometimes the name
only indicates some peculiarity in the shape of the muscle and
gives no clue to its position in the body or its attachments;
examples of this are biceps, semitendinosus and pyriformis.
Sometimes, as in the flexor carpi ulnaris and corrugator supercilii,
the use of the muscle is shown. At other times the position in,
the body is indicated, but not the attachments, as hi the tibialis:
anticus and peroneus longus, while, at other times, as in the case
of the pectineus, the name is only misleading. Fortunately the
names of the describers themselves are very seldom applied to,
muscles; among the few examples are Horner's muscle and the.
FIG. i. The Rectus Mus-
cle of the Thigh; to
show the constituent
parts of a muscle.
R, The fleshy belly.
to, Tendon of origin.
ti, Tendon of insertion,
n, Nerve of supply.
a, Artery of supply.
v. Vein.
/, Lymphatic vessel.
P, The patella.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
muscular band of Treitz. The German anatomists at the Basel
conference lately proposed a uniform Latin and Greek nomencla-
ture, which, though not altogether satisfactory, is gaining ground
on the European continent. As there are some four hundred
Epicranial aponeurosis ATTRAHENS AUREM
transverse wrinkles in the forehead. The anterior, posterior and
superior auricular muscles are present but are almost functionless
in man. The orbicularis palpebrarum forms a sphincter round the
eyelids, which it closes, though there is little doubt that parts of the
muscle can act separately and cause various expressions. The side of
FRONTALIS
ORBICULARIS PALPEBRARUM
PYKAMIDALIS NASI
COMPRESSOR NARIS
LEVATOR LADII SUFERIORIS ALALQUE NASI
LEVATOR LABII SUPERIORS
MINOR
Parotid
gland
STEENO-
MASTOID
DEPRESSOR ALAE NASI
ZYGOMATICUS MAJOR
Stenson's duct
ORBICULARIS ORIS
RISORIUS
BUCCINATOR
DEPRESSOR AXGULI ORIS
DEPRESSOR LABII INFERIORIS
MASSETER
PLATVSMA UVOIDES
From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 2. The Muscles of the Face and Scalp (muscles of expression).
muscles on. each side of the body it will be impossible here to
attempt more than a mere sketch of them; for the details the
anatomical textbooks must be consulted.
MUSCLES OF THE HEAD AND FACE (see fig. 2). The scalp is
moved by a large flat muscle called the occipito-frontalis, which has
two muscular bellies, the occipitalis and frontalis, and an intervening
epicranial aponeurosis; this muscle moves the scalp and causes the
the nose has several muscles, the actions of which are indicated by their
names ; they are the compressor, two dilatores and the depressor aloe
nasi, while the levator labii superioris et alae nasi sometimes goes to
the nose. Raising the upper lip, in addition to the last named, are
the levator labii superioris proprius and the levator anguli oris, while
the zygomaticus major draws the angle of the mouth outward. The
lower lip is depressed by the depressor labii inferioris and depressor
anguli oris, while the orbicularis oris acts as a sphincter to the mouth.
Epicranial aponeurosis
TEMPORAL MUSCLE
Auriculo-temporal nerve
Superficial temporal
artery
External carotid artery
Internal literal ligament
Posterior auricular artery
Lingual nerve
Mylo-hyoid nerve
Parotid gland
Inferior dental nerve
MASSETER (cut)
Temporal branch of
buccal nerve
/ Temporal branches of
f inferior maxillary nerve
EXTERNAL PTERYCOID
Posterior dental artery
Posterior dental nerve
Long buccal nerve
Pterygo-mandibular
Mental branch of inferior
dental nerve
From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Booh of Anatomy.
FIG. 3. Pterygoid Region.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
53
The buccinator muscle in the substance of the cheeks rises from the
upper and lower jaws and runs forward to blend with the orbicularis
oris. All the foregoing are known as muscles of expression and all
are supplied by the seventh or facial nerve. The temporal muscle
at the side of the cranium (fig. 3) and the masseter (fig. 2), which
rises from the zygoma, close the mouth, since both are inserted into
the ramus of the mandible ; while, rising from the pterygoid plates,
are the external and internal pterygoid muscles (fig. 3), the former of
which pulls forward the condyle, and so the whole mandible, while
the latter helps to close the mouth by acting on the angle of the lower
jaw. This group of muscles forms the masticatory set, all of which
are supplied by the third division of the fifth nerve. For the
muscles of the orbit, see EYE ; for those of the soft palate and pharynx,
see PHARYNX; and for those of the tongue, see TONGUE.
both triangles to the hyoid bone Where it passes deep to the
sterno-mastoid it has a central tendon which is bound to the first
rib by a loop of cervical fascia. Rising from the styloid process are
three muscles, the stylo-glossus, stylo-hyoid and stylo-pharyngeus,
the names of which indicate their attachments. Covering these
muscles of the anterior triangle is a thin sheet, close to the skin,
called the platysma, the upper fibres of which run back from the
mouth over the cheek and are named the risorius (fig. 2) ; this sheet
is one of the few remnants in man of the ski musculature or panni-
culus carnosus of lower Mammals. With regard to the nerve supply
of the anterior triangle muscles, all those which go to the tongue
are supplied by the hypoglossal or twelfth cranial nerve while the
muscles below the hyoid bone are apparently supplied from this
nerve but really from the upper cervical nerves (see NERVE,
STERI.O-CLEIDO-
MASTOID
lYlO-HYOID
DIGASTRIC
'HYOCLOSSUS
iTYLO-HYOID
MIDDLE CONSTRICTOR
THYEO-HYOID
INTERIOR CONSTRICTOR
;O-BYOID
INFERIOR CONSTRICTOR
iTERNO-BYOID
STERNO-THYROID
From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 4. The Triangles of the Neck (muscles).
MUSCLES OF THE NECK (fig. 4). Just below the mandible is the
digastric, which, as its name shows, has two bellies and a central
tendon; the anterior belly, supplied by the fifth nerve, is attached to
the mandible near the symphysis, the posterior supplied by the
seventh of the mastoid process, while the central tendon is bound
to the hyoid bone. Stretching across from one side of the lower jaw
to the other and forming a floor to the mouth is the mylo-hyoid muscle ;
posteriorly this reaches the hyoid bone, and in the mid-line has a
tendinous raphe separating the two halves of the muscle. Rising
from the manubrium sterni and inner part of the clavicle is the
sterno-deido-mastoid, which is inserted into the mastoid process and
superior curved lines of the occipital bone; when it contracts it
makes the face look over the opposite shoulder, and it is supplied
by the spinal accessory nerve as well as by branches from the
cervical plexus. It is an important surgical landmark, and forms a
diagonal across the quadrilateral outline of the side of the neck,
dividing it into an anterior triangle with its apex downward and a
posterior with its apex upward. In the anterior triangle the relative
positions of the hyoid bone, thyroid cartilage and sternum should
be realized, and then the hyo-glossus, thyro-hyoid, sterno-hyoid and
sterno-thyroid muscles are explained by their names. The omo-hyoid
muscle rises from the upper border of the scapula and runs across
CRANIAL; and NERVE, SPINAL). The posterior triangle is formed
by the sterno-mastoid in front, the trapezius behind, and the clavicle
below; in its floor from above downward part of the following muscles
are seen: complexus, splenius, levator anguli scapulae, scalenus
medius and scalenus anticus. Sometimes a small piece of the
scalenus posticus is caught sight of behind the scalenus medius. The
splenius rotates the head to its own side, the levator anguli scapulae
raises the upper angle of the scapula, while the three scalenes run
from the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae and fix or
raise the upper ribs. The trapezius (fig. 5) arises from the spines
of the thoracic vertebrae and the ligamentum nuchae, and is inserted
into the outer third of the clavicle and the spine of the scapula; it is
used in shrugging the shoulders and in drawing the upper part of the
scapula toward the mid-dorsal line. Its nerve supply is the spinal
accessory and third and fourth cervical nerves. When the super-
ficial muscles and complexus are removed from the hack of the neck,
the sub-occipital triangle is seen beneath the occipital bone. Exter-
nally it is bounded by the superior oblique, running from the trans-
verse process of the atlas to the lateral part of the occipital bone,
internally by the rectus capilis poslicus major, passing from the spine
of the axis to the lateral part of the occipital bone, and inferiorly by
the inferior oblique joining the spine of the axis to the transverse
54
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
process of the atlas. These muscles move the head on the atlas
and the atlas on the axis. They are supplied by the posterior branch
of the first cervical nerve.
MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK. The trapezius has already been de-
scribed as a superficial muscle of the upper part of the back; in the
loin region the latissimus dorsi (fig. 5) is the superficial muscle, its
origin being from the lower thoracic spines, lower ribs and lumbar
COMPLEXUS'
STERNO-MASTOID
SPLENIUS CAPITIS
SPLENTUS com
SERRATUS posncus SUPERIOR
LEVAIOR ANODU SCAPULAS
RHOVBOIDEUS MINOR
RHOMBOIDEUS
MAJOK
TRAPEZIUS
TERES MAJOR
forming the semispinalis and multifidus spinae muscles. The
latissimus dorsi and rhomboids, are supplied by branches of the
brachial plexus of nerves, while the deeper muscles get their nerves-
from the posterior primary divisions of the spinal nerves (see NERVE,
SPINAL). On the anterior part of the thoracic region the pectoralis
major runs from the clavicle, sternum and ribs, to the humerus (fig. 6) ;
deep to this is the pectoralis minor, passing from the upper ribs to-
STERNO-MASTOID
TRAPEZTOS
Fascia over gluteus
maxim us
DELTOID
RHOMBOIDEUS
MAJOR
TERES MAJOR
LATISSIMUS
DORSI
OBIIQUOS EXTERNOS
ABDOUINIS
OBLIQUUS DJTERNUS
Gluteal fascia
Fascia over gluteus
maximus (cut)
GLGTEUS MAXDIUS
From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Tat Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 5. Superficial Muscles of the Back.
fascia, and it i inserted into the upper part of the arm bone or
humerus. When the trapezius is cut, the rhomboid muscles (major
and minor) passing from the upper thoracic spines to the vertebral
border of the scapula are seen, and deep to these is the serralus
ppsticus superior passing from nearly the same spines to the upper
ribs. On reflecting the latissimus dorsi the serratus posticus inferior
is seen running from the lower thoracic spines to the lower ribs.
When these muscles are removed the great mass of the erector spinae
is exposed, familiar to every one as the upper cut of the sirloin or ribs
of beef ; it runs all the way up the dorsal side of the vertebral column
from the pelvis to the occiput, the complexus already mentioned
being its extension to the head. It 13 longitudinally segmented
jnto many different bundles to which special names are given, and it
is attached to the various vertebrae and ribs as it goes up, thus
straightening the spinal column. Deep to the erector spinae are
found shorter bundles passing from one vertebra to another and
the coracoid process. The serratus magnus is a large muscle rising
by serrations from the upper eight ribs, and running back to the
vertebral border of the scapula, which it draws forward as in the
fencer's lunge. Between the ribs are the external and internal inter-
costal muscles; the former beginning at the tubercle and ending at
the junctions of the ribs with their cartilages, while the latter only
begin at the angle of the ribs but are prolonged on to the sternum, so
that an interchondral as well as an intercostal part of each muscle
is recognized. The fibres of the external intercostals run downward
and forward, those of the internal downward and backward (see
RESPIRATION). The abdominal walls are formed of three sheets
of muscle, of which the most superficial or external oblique (fig. 6)
is attached to the outer surfaces of the lower ribs; its fibres run
downward and forward to the pelvis and mid-line of the abdomen,
the middle one or internal oblique is on the same plane as the ribs,
and its fibres run downward and backward, while the transversalis
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
55
is attached to the deep surfaces of the ribs, and its fibres run horizon-
tally forward. Below, all these muscles are attached to the crest of
the ilium and to Poupart's ligament, which is really the lower free
edge of the external oblique, while, behind, the two deeper ones,
at all events, blend with the fascia lumborum. As they approach
the mid-ventral line they become aponeurotic and form the sheath
of the rectus. The rectus abdominis (fig. 6) is a flat muscular band
which runs up on each side of the linea alba or mid-ventral line of the
abdomen from the pubis to the ribs and sternum. This muscle
has certain tendinous intersections or lineae transversae, the positions
SIERNO-IIASTOID
TRAPEZTOS
rotating muscles pass from the scapula to the upper end of the
humerus; these are the subscapularis passing in front of the shoulder
joint, the supraspinatus above the joint, and the infraspinatus and
teres minor behind. The teres major (fig. 5) comes from near the
lower angle of the scapula, and is inserted with the latissimus dorsi
into the front of the surgical neck of the humerus. The coraco-
brachialis (fig. 7) passes from the coracoid process to the middle of
the humerus in front of the shoulder joint, while the brachialis
anticus passes in front of the elbow from the humerus to the coronoid
process of the ulna. Passing in front of both shoulder and elbow is
Coracoid
process
PECTORAUS
MAJOR (divided)
PECTORALIS
MINOR
sternal part
Sheath of rectus
PYRAMIDALIS ABDOIONIS
Poupart's ligament
Extemal abdominal ring
Triangular fascia
v- \
From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Tact Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 6. Anterior Muscles of the Trunk.
of which are noticed in the article ANATOMY (Superficial and A rtistic) ,
and the morphology of which is referred to later. In front of the
lowest part of the rectus is sometimes a small triangular muscle
called the pyramidalis. The quadratus lumborum is a muscle at the
back of the abdominal wall which runs between the last rib and the
crest of the ilium. In front of the bodies of the vertebrae is a
preyertebral or hypaxial musculature, of which the rectus capitis
anticus major and minor muscles and longus colli in the neck and the
psoas in the loins form the chief parts, the latter being familiar as
the undercut of the sirloin of beef, while the pelvis is closed below by
a muscular floor formed by the levator ani and coccygeus muscles.
The diaphragm is explained in a separate article.
MUSCLESOF THE UPPER EXTREMITY. The deltoid (seefigs.7and8)
is the muscle which forms the shoulder cap and is used in abducting
the arm to a right angle with the trunk; it runs from the clavicle,
acromial process and spine of the scapula, to the middle of the
humerus, and is supplied by the circumflex nerve. Several short
the biceps (fig. 7), the long head of which rises from the tap of the
glenoid cavity inside the joint, while the short head comes from the
coracoid process. The insertion is into the tubercle of the radius.
These three muscles are ail supplied by the same (musculo-cutaneous)
nerve. At the back of the arm is the triceps (fig. 8) which passes
behind both shoulder and elbow joints and is the great extensor
muscle of them; its long head rises from just below the glenoid
cavity of the scapula, while the inner and outer heads come from the
back of the humerus. It is inserted into the olecranon process of
the u'.na and is supplied by the musculo-spinal nerve. The muscles
of the front of the forearm form superficial and deep sets (see fig. 7).
Most of the superficial muscles come from the internal condyle of
the humerus. From without inward they are the pronator radii
teres going to the radius, the flexor carpi radialis to the base of the
index metacarpa) bone, the palmaris longus to the palmar fascia,
the flexor subhmis digitorum to the middle phalanges of the fingers,
and the flexor carpi ulnaris to the pisiform bone. The important
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
points of practical interest about these muscles are noticed in the
article ANATOMY (Superficial and Artistic). In addition to these
the brachio-radialis is a flexor of the forearm, though it arises from
the outer supracondylar ridge of the humerus. It is supplied by the
musculo-spiral nerve, the flexor carpi ulnaris by the ulnar, the rest
by the median. The deep muscles of the front of the forearm consist
of the flexor longus pollicis running from the radius to the terminal
phalanx of the thumb, the flexor profundus digitorum from the ulna
to the terminal phalanges of the fingers, and the pronator quadratus
INSERTION OF
PECTORALIS MINOR
DELTOID
Axillary artery
Musculc-
cutaneous nerve
Median nerve
(outer head)
Median nerve
(inner head)
INSERTION OF |
PECTORALIS
MAJOR
CORACO-BRAI
SHORT HEAD op BICEPS
LONG HEAD OF BICEPS
BRACHIALIS AOTICUS
TRICEPS (inner bead)
Musculo-cutaneous nerve
Musculo-spiral nerve
BRACHIO-RADIALIS
EXTENSOR CARPI RADIALIS
LONGIOR
Radial artery (cut)
EXTENSOR ossis
HETACARPI POLLICIS
Radial artery (cut)
Anterior annular
ligament.
Ulnar nerve
Semflunar fascia of biceps
PRONATOR RADH TERES
Deep fascia of forearm
FLEXOR CARPI KADIALIS
PALMARIS LONGUS
FLEXOR CARFI ULNARIS
FLEXOR SUBLIMIS DIGITORUM
FLEXOR LONGUS POLLICIS
PRONATOR QUADRATUS
Ulnar artery
Ulnar nerve
From A, M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book of Analomf.
FIG. 7. Superficial Muscles on the Front of the Arm and Forearm.
passing across from the lower third of the ulna to the same amount
of the radius. These three muscles are supplied by the anterior
interosseous branch of the median nerve, but the flexor profundus
digitorum has an extra twig from the ulnar. The extensor muscles
at the back of the forearm are also divided into superficial and deep
sets (see fig. 8). The former rise from the region of the external
condyle of the humerus, and consist of the extensor carpi radialis
longior and brevior inserted into the index and medius metacarpal
bones, the extensor communis digitorum to the middle and distal
phalanges of the fingers, the extensor minimi digiti, the extensor carpi
ulnaris passing to the metatarsal bone of the minimus, and the
supinator brevis wrapping round the neck of the radius to which it
is inserted. The aconeus which runs from the external condyle to
the olecranon process is really a part of the triceps. The deep
muscles rise from the posterior surfaces of the radius and ulna, and
are the extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis, the name of which gives its
insertion, the extensor brevis pollicis to the proximal phalanx, and
the extensor longus pollicis to the distal phalanx of the thumb, while
\ TRAPEZTUS
DELTOID
INFRASPIXATUS
TERES MAJOR
LATISSQIUS DOESI
BRACHIALIS ANTICUS
TRICEPS
External intermuscular septum
BRACnlO-RALULIS
Ulnar nerve
EXIENSOR CARPI RADIALiS
LONCIOR
EXTENSOR CARPI RADIALIS
BREVIOR
Deep fascia of forearm
EXTENSOR COMMUNE DIGITORUM
EXTENSOR CARPI CLNARIS
EXTENSOR ossis METACARPI
POLLICIS
EXTENSOR BREVIS POUJOS
EXTENSOR MINIMI Dic.m
TENDONS OF EXTENSORS OF
CARPUS
Posterior annular ligament
EXTENSOR LONGUS POLLICIS
EXTENSOR INDICIS
From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 8. The Muscles on the Back of the Arm, Forearm and Hand.
the extensor indicts joins the extensor communis slip to the index
finger; all these posterior muscles are supplied by the posterior
interosseous nerve. In front and behind the wrist the tendons are
bound down by the anterior and posterior annular ligaments, while
on the flexor surface of each finger is a strong fibrous sheath or theca
for the flexor tendons. The ball of the thumb is occupied by short
muscles called the thenar group, while hypnthenar muscles are found
in the ball of the little finger. The four tumbrical muscles (fig. 9. )
run from the flexor profundus digitorum tendons to those of the
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
57
extensor communis between the heads of the metacarpal bones,
while, rising from the shafts of these bones, are the three palmar
and four dorsal interosseous muscles (fig. 9, e) which also are inserted
into the extensor tendons. The two outer lumbricals and the
thenar muscles are supplied by the median nerve; all the other hand
muscles by the ulnar.
MUSCLES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY. On the front of the thigh
the quadriceps extensor muscles are the most important: there are
four of these, the rectus femoris (fig. l) with its straight and reflected
heads rising from just above the acetabulum, the crureus, deep to
this, from the front of the femur, and the vastus externus and internus
wrapping round the femur on each side from the linea aspera. All
these are inserted into the patella, or rather the patella is a sesamoid
bone developed where their common tendon passes round the lower
FIG. 9. Tendons attached to a Finger.
a, The extensor tendon. e. An interosseous muscle.
b, Deep flexor. /, Tendinous expansion from the lum-
c, Superficial flexor. brical and interosseous muscles
d, A lumbrical muscle. joining the extensor tendon.
end of the femur when the knee is bent. The distal part of this
tendon, which passes from the patella to the tubercle of the tibia,
is the ligamentum patellae. The sartorius is a long riband-like
muscle running from the anterior superior spine of the ilium to the
inner surface of the tibia, obliquely across the front of the thigh.
It forms the outer boundary of Scarpa's triangle, the inner limit of
which is the adductor longus and the base Poupart's ligament.
The floor is formed by the iliacus from the iliac fossa of the pelvis,
which joins the psoas, to be inserted with it into the lesser trochanter,
and by the pectineus running from the upper ramus of the pubis to
just below the insertion of the last muscles. The adductor muscles,
longus, brevis and magnus, all rise from the subpubic arch, and are
inserted into the linea aspera of the femur, so that they draw the
femur toward the middle line. The gracilis (fig. 10) is part of the
adductor mass, though its insertion is into the upper part of the
tibia. The extensor muscles of the front of the thigh are supplied
by the anterior crural nerve, but the adductor group on the inner
side from the obturator. The pectineus is often supplied from both
sources. On the back of the thigh the gluteus maximus (figs. 5 and
lo) plays an important part in determining man's outline (see
ANATOMY : Superficial and Artistic). It rises from the sacral region,
and is inserted into the upper part of the femur and the deep fascia
of the thigh, which is very thick and is known as the fascia lata ;
the muscle is a great extensor of the hip and raises the body from the
stooping position. The gluteus medius rises from the ilium, above the
hip joint, and passes to the great trochanter; it abducts the hip and
enables the body to be balanced on one leg, as in taking a step for-
ward. The gluteus minimus is covered by the last muscle, and passes
from the ilium to the front of the great trochanter, thus rotating the
hip joint inward. Some of its anterior fibres are sometimes separate
from the rest, and are then called the scansorius (see JOINTS).
When the gluteus maximus is removed, a number of short externally
rotating muscles are seen, rising from the pelvis and inserted into
the great trochanter (fig. 10) ; these are, from above downward, the
pyriformis, gemellus superior, obturator internus, gemellus inferior
and quadratus femoris. They are all supplied by special branches of
the sacral plexus. On cutting the quadratus femoris a good deal of
the obturator externus can be seen, coming from the outer surface
of the obturator membrane and passing to the digital fossa of the
great trochanter. Unlike the rest of this group, it is supplied by the
obturator nerve. Coming from the anterior part of the crest of the
ilium is the tensor fasciae femoris, which is inserted into the fascia
lata, as is part of the gh'teus maximus, and the thickened band of
fascia which runs down the outer side of the thigh from these to the
head of the tibia is known as the ilio tibial band. The tensor fasciae
femoris, gluteus medius and minimus, are supplied by the superior
gluteal nerve, the gluteus maximus by the inferior gluteal. At the
back of the thigh are the hamstrings rising from the tuberosity of the
ischium (fig. 10); these are the semimembranosusandsemitendinosus,
passing to the inner part of the upper end of the tibia and forming
the internal hamstrings, and the biceps femoris or external hamstring,
which has an extra head from the shaft of the femur and is inserted
into the head of the fibula. These muscles are supplied by the great
sciatic nerve and extend the hip joint while they flex the knee. In
the leg, as distinguished from the thigh, are three groups of muscles,
anterior, external and posterior. The anterior group (fig. n) all
come from the front of the tibia and fibula, and consist of the
extensor longus digitorum, extending the middle and distal phalanges
of the four outer toes, the extensor proprius hallucis, extending the
big toe, and the peroneus tertius, a purely human muscle inserted
into the base of the fifth metatarsal bone. All these are supplied by
the anterior tibial nerve.
The external group comprises the peroneus longus and brevis,
rising from the outer surface of the fibula and inserted into the
tarsus (fig. n), the longus tendon passing across the sole to the base
of the first metatarsal bone, the brevis to the base of the fifth
metatarsal. These are supplied by the musculo-cutaneous nerve.
OBTURATOR
:EKNUSAND
EMELLI
ADDUCTOR
SEHTTENDINOSUS
SnOMEUBRANOSU:
SARTORIUS TENDON
BICEPS (short
head)
Tibial nerve
BICEPS TENDON
(along with
peroneal nerve)
PLANTARIS
GASTROCNEJOUS
From A. M. Pateison, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy.
FTG. 10. The Muscles on the Back of the Thigh.
The posterior group is- divided into a superficial and a deep set.
The superficial is composed of the gastrocnemius, the two heads of
which rise from the two condyles of the femur, the soleus, which rises
from the upper parts of the back of the tibia and fibula, the plantaris,
which comes from just above the external condyle of the femur,
and the popliltus which, although on a deeper plane, really belongs
to this group and rises by a tendon from the outer condyle while its
fleshy part is inserted into the upper part of the back of the tibia.
The gastrocnemius and soleus unite to form the tendo Achillis, which
is attached to the posterior part of the calcaneum, while the plantaris
runs separately as a very thin tendon to the same place. These
muscles are supplied by the internal popliteal nerve. The deep set
is formed by three muscles which rise from the posterior surf aces of
the tibia and fibula, the flexor longus digitorum,'the tibialis posticus,
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
and the flexor longus hallucis from within outward. Their tendons
all pass into the sole, that of the flexor longus digitorum being
inserted into the terminal phalanges of the four outer toes, the flexor
longus hallucis into the terminal phalanx of the big toe, while the
tibialis posticus sends expansions to most of the tarsal bones. The
nerve supply of this group is the posterior tibial. On the dorsum of
the foot is the extensor brevis digitorum (fig. 1 1), which helps to extend
EXTENSOR LONGUS
DicrroRuii
PERONEUS
PERONEUS B
Lower portion of
anterior anm___
ligament
TENDON OF PERONECS.
TERTIHS
INNERMOST sup OF
EXTENSOR BREVIS
mcrroRUM
From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy.
FIG. II. Muscles of the Front of the Right Leg and Dorsum
of the Foot.
the four inner toes, while in the sole are four layers of short muscles,
the most superficial of which consists of the abductor hallucis, the
flexor brevis digitorum, and the abductor minimi digiti, the names of
which indicate their attachments. The second layer is formed by
muscles which are attached to the flexor longus digitorum tendon ;
they are the accessorius, running forward to the tendon from the
lower surface of the calcaneum, and the four lumbricales, which rise
from the tendon after jt has split for the four toes and pass
between the toes to be inserted into the tendons of the extensor
longus digitorum on the dorsum. The third layer comprises the
flexor brevis hallucis, adductor obliauus and adductor transversus
hallucis and the flexor brevis minimi digiti. The fourth layer contains
the three plantar and four dorsal interosseous murcles, rising from
the metatarsal bones and inserted into the proximal phalanges
and extensor tendons in such a way that the plantar muscles draw
the toes towards the line of the second toe while the dorsal draw
them away from that line. Of these sole muscles the flexor brevis
digitorum, flexor brevis hallucis, abductor hallucis and the innermost
lumbrical are supplied by the internal plantar nerve, while all the
rest are supplied by the external plantar.
Embryology.
The. development of the muscular system is partly known from
the results of direct observation, and partly inferred from the study
of the part of the nervous system whence the innervation is derived.
The unstriped muscle is formed from the mesenchyme cells of the
somatic and splanchnic layers of the mesoderm (see EMBRYOLOGY),
but never, as far as we know, from the mesodermic somites. The
heart muscle is also developed from mesenchymal cells, though the
changes producing its feebly striped fibres are more complicated.
The skeletal or real striped muscles are derived either from the meso-
dermic somites or from the branchial arches. As the mesodermic
somites are placed on each side of the neural canal in the early
embryo, it is obvious that the greater part of the trunk musculature
spreads gradually round the body from the dorsal to the ventral
side and consists of a series of plates called myotomes (fig. 12). The
muscle fibres in these plates run in the long a*is of the embryo, and
are at first separated from those of the two neighbouring plates by
thin fibrous intervals called myocommata. In some cases these
From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 12. Scheme to Illustrate the Disposition of the Myotomes
in the Embryo in Relation to the Head, Trunk and Limbs.
A, B, C, First three cephalic myotomes.
N, 1,2, 3, 4, Last persisting cephalic myotomes.
C, T, L, S, Co., The myotomes of the cervical, thoracic, lumbar,
sacral and caudal regions.
I., II., III., IV., V., VI., VII., VIII., IX., X., XL, XII., Refer to
the cranial nerves and the structures with which they may be
embryologically associated.
myocommata persist and even become ossified, as in the ribs, but
more usually they disappear early, and the myotomes then unite with
one another to form a great muscular sheet. In the whole length of the
trunk a longitudinal cleavage at right angles to the surface occurs,
splitting the musculature into a dorsal and ventral part, supplied
respectively by the dorsal and ventral primary divisions of the spinal
nerves. F_rom the dorsal part the various muscles of the erector
spinae series are derived by further longitudinal cleavages either
tangential or at right angles to the surface, while the ventral part
is again longitudinally split into mesial and lateral portions. A
transverse section of the trunk at this stage, therefore, would show
the cut ends of three longitudinal strips of muscle: (i) a mesial
ventral, from which the rectus, pyramidalis sterno-hyoid, omo-
hyoid and sterno-thyroid muscles are derived ; (2) a lateral ventral,
forming the flat muscles of the abdomen, intercostals and part of
the sternomastoid and trapezius; and (3) the dorsal portion already
noticed. The mesial ventral part is remarkable for the persistence
of remnants of myocommata in it, forming the lineae transversae
of the rectus and the central tendon of the omo-hyoid. The lateral
part in the abdominal region splits tangentially into three layers,
MUSES, THE
59
the external and internal oblique and the transversalis, the fibres
of which become differently directed. In the thoracic region the
intercostals probably indicate a further tangential splitting of the
middle or internal oblique layer, because the external oblique is
continued headward superficially to the ribs and the transversalis
deeply to them. The more cephalic part of the external oblique
layer probably disappears by a process of pressure or crowding out
owing to the encroachment of the serratus magnus, a muscle which
its nerve supply indicates is derived from the lower cervical myo-
tomes. The deeper parts of the lateral mass of muscles spread to
the ventral surface of the bodies of the vertebrae, and form the
hypaxial muscles such as the psoas, longus colli and recti capitis
antici. The nerve supply indicates that the lowest myotomes taking
part in the formation of the abdominal walls are those supplied by
the first and second lumbar nerves, and are represented by the
cremaster muscle in the scrotum. In the perineum, however, the
third and fourth sacral myotomes are represented, and these muscles
are differentiated largely from the primitive sphincter which sur-
rounds the cloacal orifice, though partly from vestigial tail muscles
(see P. Thompson, Journ. Anal, and Phys., vol. xxxv; and R. H.
Paramore, Lancet, May 21, 1910). In the head no distinct myotomes
have been demonstrated in the mammalian embryo, but as they are
present in more lowly vertebrates, it is probable that their develop-
ment has been slurred over, a process often found in the embryology
of the higher forms. Probably nine cephalic myotomes originally
existed; of which the first gives rise to the eye muscles supplied by
the third nerve, the second to the superior oblique muscle supplied
by the fourth nerve, and the 'third to the external rectus supplied by
the sixth nerve. The fourth, fifth and sixth myotomes are sup-
pressed, but the seventh, eighth and ninth possibly form the muscles
of the tongue supplied by the twelfth cranial nerve.
Turning now to the branchial arches, the first branchiomere is
innervated by the fifth cranial nerve, and to it belong the masseter,
temporal, pterygoids, anterior belly of the digastric, mylo-hyoid,
tensor tympam and tensor palati, while from the second branchio-
mere, supplied by the seventh or facial nerve, all the facial muscles
of expression and the stylo-hyoid and posterior belly of the digastric
are derived, as well as the platysma, which is one of the few remnants
of the panniculus carnosus or skin musculature of the lower mam-
mals. From the third branchiomere, the nerve of which is the ninth
or glossopharyngeal, the stylo-pharyngeus and upper part of the
pharyngeal constrictors are formed, while the fourth and fifth gill
arches give rise to the muscles of the larynx and the lower part of
the constrictors supplied by the vagus or tenth nerve. It is possible
that parts of the sterno-mastoid and trapezius are also branchial
in their origin, since they are supplied by the spinal accessory or
eleventh nerve, but this is unsettled. The limb musculature is
usually regarded as a sleeve-like outpushing of the external oblique
stratum of the lateral ventral musculature of the trunk, and it is
believed that parts of several myotomes are in this way pushed out
in the growth of the limb bud. This process actually occurs in the
lower vertebrates, and the nerve supplies provide strong presumptive
evidence .that this is the real phylogenetic history of the higher forms,
though direct observation shows that the limb muscles of mammals
are formed from the central mesoderm of the limb and at first are
quite distinct from the myotomes of the trunk. A possible explana-
tion of the difficulty is that this is another example of the slurring
over of stages in phytogeny, but this is one of many obscure morpho-
logical points. The muscles of each limb are divided into a dorsal
and ventral series, supplied by dorsal and ventral secondary divisions
of the nerves in the limb plexuses, and these correspond to the original
position of the limbs as they grow out from the embryo, so that in
the upper extremity the back of the arm, forearm and dorsum of the
hand are dorsal, while in the lower the dorsal surface is the front of
the thigh and leg and the dorsum of the foot.
For further details see Development of the Human Body, by J. P.
McMurrich (London, 1906), and the writings of L. Bolk, Morphol.
Jahrb. vols. xxi-xxv.
Comparitive Anatomy.
In the acrania (e.g. amphioxus) the simple arrangement of myo-
tomes and myocommata seen in the early human embryo is perma-
nent. The myotomes or muscle plates are < shaped, with their
apices pointing towards the head end, each being supplied by its
own spinal nerve. In the fishes this arrangement is largely persis-
tent, but each limb of the < is bent on itself, so that the myotomes
have now the shape of a , the central angle of which corresponds
to the lateral line of the fish. In the abdominal region, however,
the myotomes fuse and rudiments of the recti and obhqui abdominis
muscles of higher types are seen. In other regions too, such as the
fins of fish and the tongue of the Cyclostomata (lamprey), specialized
muscular bundles are separated off and are coincident with the
acquirement of movements of these parts in different directions.
In the Amphibia the limb musculature becomes much more complex
as the joints are formed, and many of the muscles can be homologized
with those of mammals, though this is by no means always the case,
while, in the abdominal region, a superficial delaminatipn occurs,
so that in many forms a superficial and deep rectus abdominis occurs
as well as a cutaneus abdominis .delaminated from the external
oblique. It is probable that this delamination is the precursor of
the panniculus carnosus or skin musculature of mammals. The
branchial musculature also becomes much more complex, and the
mylo-hyoid muscle, derived from the first branchial arch and lying
beneath the floor of the mouth, is very noticeable and of great
importance in breathing.
In the reptiles further differentiation of the muscles is seen, and
with the acquirement of costal respiration the external and internal
intercostals are formed by a delamination of the internal oblique
stratum. In the dorsal region several of the longitudinal muscles
which together make up the erector spinae are distinct, and a very
definite sphincter cloacae is formed round and cloacal aperture.
In mammals certain muscles vary in their attachments or presence
and absence in different orders, sub-orders and families, so that,
were it not for the large amount of technical knowledge required
in recognizing them, they might be useful from a classificatory point
of view. There is, however, a greater gap between the musculature
of Man and that of the other Primates than there is between many
different orders, and this is usually traceable either directly or
indirectly to the assumption of the erect position.
The chief causes which produce changes of musculature are:
(i) splitting, (2) fusion, (3) suppression either partial or complete,
(4) shifting of origin, (5) shifting of insertion, (6) new formation,
(7) transference of part of one muscle to another. In many of these
cases the nerve supply gives an important clue to the change which
has been effected. Splitting of a muscular mass is often the result
of one part of a muscle being used separately, and a good example
of this is the deep flexor mass of the forearm. In the lower mammals
this mass rises from the flexor surface of the radius and ulna, and
supplies tendons to the terminal phalanges of all five digits, but in
man the thumb is used separately, and, in response to this, that
partf the mass which goes to the thumb is completely split off into
a separate muscle, the flexor longus pollicis. The process, however,
is going farther, for we have acquired the habit of using our index
finger alone for many purposes, and the index slip of the flexor
profundus digitorum is in us almost as distinct a muscle as the flexor
longus pollicis. Fusion may be either collateral or longitudinal.
The former is seen in the case of the flexor carpi ulnaris. In many
mammals (e.g. the dog), there are two muscles inserted separately
into the pisiform bone, one rising from the internal condyle of the
humerus, the other from the olecranon process, but in many others
(e.g. man) the two muscles have fused. Longitudinal fusion is seen
in the digastric, where the anterior belly is part of the first (man-
dibular) branchial arch and the posterior of the second or hyoid arch ;
in this case, as one would expect, the anterior belly is supplied by
the fifth nerve and the posterior by the seventh. Partial suppression
of a muscle is seen in the rhomboid sheet; in the lower mammals
this rises from the head, neck and anterior (cephalic) thoracic spines,
but in man the head and most of the neck part is completely sup-
pressed. Complete suppression of a muscle is exemplified in the
omo-trachelian, a muscle which runs from the cervical vertebrae
to the acromian process and fixes the scapula for the strong action
of the triceps in pronograde mammals; in man this strong action
of the triceps is no longer needed for progression, and the fixing
muscle has disappeared. Shifting of origin is seen in the short head
of the biceps femoris. This in many lower mammals (e.g. rabbit)
is a muscle running from the tail to the lower leg; in many others
(e.g. monkeys and man) the origin has slipped down to the femur,
and in the great anteater it is evident that the agitator caudae has
been used as a muscle slide, because the short head of the biceps
or tenuissimus has once been found rising from the surface of this
muscle. Shifting of an insertion is not nearly as common as shifting
of an origin; it is seen, however, in the peroneus tertius of man, in
which part of the extensor longus digitorum has acquired a new
attachment to the base of the fifth metatarsal bone. The new
formation of a muscle is seen in the stylo-hyoideus alter, an occasional
human muscle; in this the stylo-hyoid ligament has been converted
into a muscle. The transference of part of one muscle to another
is well shown by the human adductor magnus; here the fibres which
pass from the tuber ischii to the condyle of the femur have a nerve
supply from the great sciatic instead of the obturator, and in most
lower mammals are a separate part of the hamstrings known as the
presemimembranosus.
For further details see Bronn's Classen und Ordnungen des Thicr-
reichs; " The Muscles of Mammals," by F. G. Parsons, Jour. Anat.
and Phys. xxxii. 428; also accounts of the musculature of mammals,
by Windle and Parsons, in Proc. Zool. Soc. (1894, seq.); Humphry,
Observations in Myology (1874). (F. G. P.)
MUSES, THE (Gr. MoDow, the thinkers), in Greek myth-
ology, originally nymphs of springs, then goddesses of song, and,
later, of the different kinds of poetry and of the arts and sciences
generally. In Homer, who says nothing definite as to their
names or number, they are simply goddesses of song, who dwell
among the gods on Olympus, where they sing at their banquets
under the leadership of Apollo Musagetes. According to Hesiod
(Theog. 77), who first gives the usually accepted names and
number, they were the daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne, the
personification of memory; others made them children of
6o
MUSET MUSEUMS OF ART
Uranus and Gaea. Three older Muses (Mneme, Melete, Aoide)
were sometimes distinguished, whose worship was said to have
been introduced by the Aloidae on Mt Helicon (Pausanias ix. 29).
It is probable that three was the original number of the
Muses, which was increased to nine owing to their arrangement
in three groups of three in the sacred choruses. Round the
altar of Zeus they sing of the origin of the world, of gods and men,
of the glorious deeds of Zeus; they also honour the great heroes;
and celebrate the marriages of Cadmus and Peleus, and the
death of Achilles. As goddesses of song they protect those who
recognize their superiority, but punish the arrogant such as
Thamyris, the Thracian bard, who for having boasted himself
their equal was deprived of sight and the power of song. From
their connexion with Apollo and their original nature as inspiring
nymphs of springs they also possess the gift of prophecy. They
are closely related to Dionysus, to whose festivals dramatic
poetry owed its origin and development. The worship of the
Muses had two chief seats on the northern slope of Mt
Olympus in Pieria, and on the slope of Mt Helicon near
Ascra and Thespiae in Boeotia. Their favourite haunts were the
springs of Castalia, Aganippe and Hippocrene. From Boeotia
their cult gradually spread over Greece. As the goddesses who
presided over the nine principal departments of letters, their
names and attributes were: Calliope, epic poetry (wax tablet and
pencil); Euterpe, lyric poetry (the double flute); Erato, rotic
poetry (a small lyre) ; Melpomene, tragedy (tragic mask and ivy
wreath); Thalia, comedy (comic mask and ivy wreath); Poly-
hymnia (or Polymnia), sacred hymns (veiled, and in an attitude
of thought); Terpsichore, choral song and the dance (the lyre);
Clio, history (a scroll); Urania, astronomy (a celestial globe).
To these Arethusa was added as the muse of pastoral poetry.
The Roman poets identified the Greek Muses with the Italian
Camenae (or Casmenae), prophetic nymphs of springs and god-
desses of birth, who possessed a grove near the Porta Capena
at Rome. One of the most famous of these was Egeria, the
counsellor of King Numa.
See H. Deiters, Ueber die Verehrung der Musen bei den Griechen
(1868); P. Decharme, Les Muses (i8fc); J. H. Krause, Die Musen
(1871); F. Rodiger, Die Musen (1875); O. Navarre in Daremberg
and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites, and O. Bie in Roscher's
Lexikon der Mythologie, the latter chiefly for representations of the
Muses in art.
MUSET, COLIN (fl. 1200), French trouvere, was poet and
musician, and made his living by wandering from castle to castle
singing his own songs. These are not confined to the praise of
the conventional love that formed the usual topic of the trouveres,
but contain many details of a singer's life. Colin shows naive
gratitude for presents in kind from his patrons, and recommends
a poet repulsed by a cruel mistress to find consolation in the
bans morceaux qu'on mange devant un grand feu. One of his
patrons was Agnes de Bar, duchess of Lorraine (d. 1226).
See'Hist. lilt, de la France, xxiii. 547-553 ; also a thesis, De Nicolas
Museto (1893), by J. Bedier.
MUSEUMS OF ART. 1 The later igth century was remarkable
for the growth and development of museums, both in Great
Britain and abroad. This growth, as Professor Stanley Jevons
predicted, synchronizes with the advancement of education.
Public museums are now universally required; old institutions
have been greatly improved, and many new ones have been
founded. The British parliament has passed statutes conferring
upon local authorities the power to levy rates for library and
museum purposes, while on the continent of Europe the collection
and exhibition of objects of antiquity and art has become a
recognized duty of the state and municipality alike.
A sketch of the history of museums in general is given below,
under MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE. The modern museum of art differs
essentially from its earlier prototypes. The aimless collection
of curiosities and bric-a-brac, brought together without method
1 Under the term " museum " (Gr. novaflov, temple of the muses)
we accept the ordinary distinction, by which it covers a collection of
all so_rts of art objects, while an art gallery (q.v.) confines itself
practically to pictures.
or system, was the feature of certain famous collections in by-
gone days, of which the Tradescant Museum, formed in the i7th
century, was a good example. This museum was a miscellany
without didactic value; it contributed nothing to the advance-
ment of art; its arrangement was unscientific, and the public
gained little or no advantage from its existence. The modern
museum, on the other hand, should be organized for the public
good, and should be a fruitful source of amusement and instruc-
tion to the whole community. Even when Dr Waagen described
the collections of England, about 1840, private individuals
figured chiefly among the owners of art treasures. Nowadays in
making a record of this nature the collections belonging to the
public would attract most attention. This fact is becoming more
obvious every year. Not only are acquisitions of great value
constantly made, but the principles of museum administration
and development are being more closely defined. What Sir
William Flower, an eminent authority, called the " new museum
idea " (Essays on Museums, p. 37) is pervading the treatment of
all the chief museums of the world. Briefly stated, the new
principle of museum development first enunciated in 1870, but
now beginning to receive general support is that the first aim of
public collections shall be education, and their second recreation.
To be of teaching value, museum arrangement and classification
must be carefully studied. Acquisitions must be added to their
proper sections; random purchase of " curios " must be avoided.
Attention must be given to the proper display and cataloguing
of the exhibits, to their housing and preservation, to the lighting,
comfort and ventilation of the galleries. Furthermore, facilities
must be allowed to those who wish to make special study of
the objects on view. "A museum is like a living organism:
it requires continual and tender care; it must grow, or it will
perish " (Flower, p. 13).
Great progress has been made in the classification of objects,
a highly important branch of museum work. There are three
possible systems namely, by date, by material and
by nationality. It has been found possible to tl ^f
combine the systems to some extent; for instance,
in the ivory department of the Victoria and Albert Museum,
South Kensington, London, where the broad classification is
by material, the objects being further subdivided according to
their age, and in a minor degree according to their nationality.
But as yet there is no general preference of one system to another.
Moreover, the principles of classification are not easily laid down;
e.g. musical instruments: should they be included in art exhibits
or in the ethnographical section to which they also pertain?
Broadly speaking, objects must be classified according to the
quality (apart from their nature) for which they are most remark-
able. Thus a musket or bass viol of the i6th century, inlaid
with ivory and highly decorated, would be properly included in
the art section, whereas a 'common flute or weapon, noteworthy
for nothing but its interest as an instrument of music or destruc-
tion, would be suitably classified as ethnographic. In England,
at any rate, there is no uniformity of practice in this respect,
and though it is to be hoped that the ruling desire to classify
according to strict scientific rules may not become too preva-
lent, it would nevertheless be a distinct advantage if, in one or
more of the British museums, some attempt were made to
illustrate the growth of domestic arts and crafts according to
classification by date. Examples of this classification in Munich,
Amsterdam, Basel, Zurich and elsewhere afford excellent lessons
of history and art, a series of rooms being fitted up to show
in chronological order the home life of our ancestors. In the
National Museum of Bavaria (Munich) there is a superb suite of
rooms illustrating the progress of art from Merovingian times
down to the igth century. Thus classification, though studied,
must not check the elasticity of art museums; it should not be
allowed to interfere with the mobility of the exhibits that is to
say, it should always be possible to withdraw specimens for the
closer inspection of students, and also to send examples on loan
to other museums and schools of art an invaluable system long
in vogue at the Victoria and Albert Museum, and one which
should be still more widely adopted. An axiom of museum law
MUSEUMS OF ART
61
is that the exhibits shall be properly shown. " The value of a
museum is to be tested by the treatment of its contents "
(Flower, p. 24). But in many museums the chief hindrance to
study and enjoyment is overcrowding of exhibits. Although
a truism, it is necessary to state that each object should be
properly seen, cleaned and safeguarded; but all over the world
this rule is forgotten. The rapid acquisition of objects is one
cause of overcrowding, but a faulty appreciation of the didactic
purpose of the collection is more frequently responsible.
In Great Britain, museum progress is satisfactory. Visitors
are numbered by millions, access is now permitted on Sundays
and week-days alike, and entrance fees are being con-
*sistently reduced; in this the contrast between Great
Britain and some foreign countries is singular. A
generation or so ago the national collections of Italy used to be
always open to the public. Pay-days, however, were gradually
established, with the result that the chief collections are now
only visible without payment on Sundays. In Dresden payment
is obligatory five days a week. The British Museum never
charges for admission. On the other hand, the increase in
continental collections is more rapid than in Great Britain, where
acquisitions are only made by gift, purchase or bequest. In
other European countries enormous collections have been
obtained by revolutions and conquest, by dynastic changes, and
by secularizing religious foundations. Some of the chief
treasures of provincial museums in France were spoils of the
Napoleonic armies, though the great bulk of this loot was returned
in 1815 to the original owners. In Italy the conversion of a
monastery into a museum is a simple process, the Dominican
house of San Marco in Florence offering a typical example. A
further stimulus to the foundation of museums on the continent
is the comparative ease with which old buildings are obtained
and adapted for the collections. Thus the Germanisches Museum
of Nuremberg is a secularized church and convent ; the enormous
collections belonging to the town of Ravenna are housed in an
old Camaldulensian monastery. At Louvain and Florence
municipal palaces of great beauty are used; at Nlmes a famous
Roman temple; at Urbino the grand ducal palace, and so on.
There are, however, certain disadvantages in securing both
building and collection ready-made, and the special care devoted
to museums in Great Britain can be traced to the fact that their
cost to the community is considerable. Immense sums have
been spent on the buildings alone, nearly a million sterling being
devoted to the new buildings for the Victoria and Albert Museum
in London. Had it been possible to secure them without such
an outlay the collections themselves would have been much
increased, though in this increase itself there would have been a
danger, prevalent but not yet fully realized in other countries,
of crowding the vacant space with specimens of inferior quality.
The result is that fine things are badly seen owing to the masses
of second-rate examples; moreover, the ample space available
induces the authorities to remove works of art from their original
places, in order to add them to the museums. Thus the statue
of St George by Donatello has been taken from the church of Or
San Michele at Florence (on the plea of danger from exposure),
and is now placed in a museum where, being dwarfed and under
cover, its chief artistic value is lost. The desire to make financial
profit from works of art is a direct cause of the modern museum
movement in Italy. One result is to displace and thus depreciate
many works of art, beautiful in their original places, but quite
insignificant Vhen put into a museum. Another result is that,
owing to high entrance fees, the humbler class of Italians can
rarely see the art treasures of their own country. There are
other collections, akin to art museums, which would best be
called biographical museums. They illustrate the life and work
of great artists or authors. Of these the most notable are the
museums commemorating Diirer at Nuremberg, Beethoven at
Bonn, Thorwaldsen at Copenhagen, Shakespeare at Stratford
and Michelangelo at Florence. The sacristies of cathedrals often
contain ecclesiastical objects of great value, and are shown
to the public as museums. Cologne, Aachen, Milan, Monza and
Reims have famous treasuries. Many Italian cathedrals have
small museums attached to them, usually known as " Opera del
Duomo."
United Kingdom. The influence and reputation of the British
Museum are so great that its original purpose, as stated in the
preamble of the act by which it was founded (1753,
c. 22), may be quoted: " Whereas all arts and sciences Museum.
have a connexion with each other, and discoveries
in natural philosophy and other branches of speculative know-
ledge, for the advancement and improvement whereof the said
museum or collection was intended, do, or may in many instances
give help and success to the most useful experiments and under-
takings . . ." The "said museum " above mentioned referred
to the collection of Sir Hans Sloane, to be purchased under the
act just quoted. Sir Hans Sloane is therein stated, " through
the course of many years, with great labour and expense, to
have gathered together whatever could be procured, either in
our own or foreign countries, that was rare and curious." In
order to buy his collections and found the museum a lottery of
300,000 was authorized, divided into 50,000 tickets, the prizes
varying from 10 to 10,000. Provision was made for the
adequate housing of Sir Robert Cotton's books, already bought in
1700 (12 and 13 Will. III. c. 7). This act secured for the nation
the famous Cottonian manuscripts, "of great use and service for
the knowledge and preservation of our constitution, both in
church and state." Sir Robert's grandson had preserved the
collection with great care, and was willing that it should not be
" disposed of or embeziled," and that it should be preserved for
public use and advantage. This act also sets forth the oath to
be sworn by the keeper, and deals with the appointment of
trustees. This is still the method of internal government at the
British Museum, and additions to the Board of Trustees are made
by statute, as in 1824, in acknowledgment of a bequest. The
trustees are of three classes: (a) three principal trustees, namely
the Primate, the Lord Chancellor and the Speaker; (b) general
trustees, entitled ex officio to the position in virtue of ministerial
office; (c) family, bequest and nominated trustees. A standing
committee of the trustees meets regularly at the museum for the
transaction of business. The great departments of the museum
(apart from the scientific and zoological collections, now placed
in the museum in Cromwell Road, South Kensington) are of
printed books, MSS., Oriental books, prints and drawings,
Egyptian and Assyrian antiquities, British and medieval
antiquities, coins and medals. Each of these eight departments
is under a keeper, with an expert staff of subordinates, the head
executive officer of the whole museum being styled director and
chief librarian. The museum has been enriched by bequests
of great importance, especially in the library. Recent legacies
have included the porcelain bequeathed by Sir Wollaston Franks,
and the valuable collection of works of art (chiefly enamels and
gold-smithery) known as the Waddesdon bequest a legacy of
Baron F. de Rothschild. The most important group of acquisi-
tion by purchase in the history of the museum is the series of
Greek sculptures known as the Elgin Marbles, bought by act of
parliament (56 Geo. Ill, c. 99).
There are four national museums controlled by the Board of
Education, until recently styled the Department of Science and
Art. The chief of these is the Victoria and Albert Museums of
Museum at South Kensington. This museum has a theBoaraof
dependency at Bethnal Green, the Dublin and ^d"""' "-
Edinburgh museums having been now removed from its direct
charge. There is also a museum of practical geology in Jermyn
Street, containing valuable specimens of pottery and majolica.
The Victoria and Albert Museum owed its inception to the
Exhibition of 1851, from the surplus funds of which 12 acres of
land were bought in South Kensington. First known as the
Department of Practical Art, the museum rapidly established
itself on a broad basis. Acquisitions of whole collections and
unique specimens were accumulated. In 1857 the Sheepshanks
gallery of pictures was presented; in 1879 the India Office trans-
ferred to the department the collection of Oriental art formerly
belonging to the East India Company; in 1882 the Jones bequest
of French furniture and decorative art (1740-1810) was received;
MUSEUMS OF ART
in 1884 the Patent Museum was handed over to the department.
Books, prints, MSS. and drawings were bequeathed by the Rev.
A. Dyce and Mr John Forster. Meanwhile, gifts and purchases
had combined to make the collection one of the most important
in Europe. The chief features may be summarized as consisting
of pictures, including the Raphael cartoons lent by the king;
textiles, silks and tapestry; ceramics and enamels; ivory and
plastic art, metal, furniture and Oriental collections. The
guiding principle of the museum is the illustration of art applied
to industry. Beauty and decorative attraction is perhaps the
chief characteristic of the exhibits here, whereas the British
Museum is largely archaeological. With this object in view,
the museum possesses numerous reproductions of famous
art treasures: casts, facsimiles and electrotypes, some of
them so well contrived as to be almost indistinguishable
from the originals. An art library with 75,000 volumes
and 25,000 prints and photographs is at the disposal of
students, and an art school is also attached to the museum.
The museum does considerable work among provincial schools
of art and museums, " circulation " being its function in
this connexion. Works of art are sent on temporary loan to
local museums, where they are exhibited for certain periods
and on being withdrawn are replaced by fresh examples. The
subordinate museum of the Beard of Education at Bethnal
Green and that at Edinburgh call for no comment, their contents
being of slender value. The Dublin Museum, though now
controlled by the Irish Department, may be mentioned here as
having been founded and worked by the Board of Education.
Apart from the fact that it is one of the most suitably housed
and organized museums in the British Isles, it is remarkable for
its priceless collection of Celtic antiquities, belonging to the
Royal Irish Academy, and transferred to the Kildare Street
Museum in 1890. Among its most famous specimens of early
Irish art may be mentioned the shrine and bell of St Patrick,
the Tara brooch, the cross of Cong and the Ardagh chalice. The
series of bronze and stone implements is most perfect, while
the jewels, gold ornaments, torques, fibulae, diadems, and so
forth are such that, were it possible again to extend the galleries
(thus allowing further classification and exhibition space), the
collection would surpass the Danish National Museum at
Copenhagen, its chief rival in Europe.
The famous collections of Sir Richard Wallace (d. 1890) having
been bequeathed to the British nation by his widow, the public
other nas acc l u i re<: l a magnificent gallery of pictures,
National together with a quantity of works of art, so important
and Quasi- as to make it necessary to include Hertford House
among national museums. French art predominates,
and the examples of bronze, furniture, and porcelain
are as fine as those to be seen in the Louvre. Hertford House,
however, also contains a most remarkable collection of armour,
and the examples of Italian faience, enamels, bijouterie, &c.,
are of first-rate interest. The universities of Cambridge and
Oxford have museums, the latter including the Ashmolean collec-
tions, a valuable bequest of majolica from D. Fortnum, and some
important classical statuary, now in the Taylorian Gallery.
Christ Church has a small museum and picture gallery. Trinity
College, Dublin, has a miniature archaeological collection,
containing some fine examples of early Irish art. The National
Museum of Antiquities of Scotland, controlled by the Board of
Manufactures, was formed by the Scottish Society of Antiquaries,
and has a comprehensive collection of Scottish objects, lay and
religious. The Tower of London contains armour of historic
and artistic interest, and the Royal College of Music has an
invaluable collection of musical instruments, presented by Mr
George Donaldson. Art museums are also to be found in several
public schools in the United Kingdom.
The Museums Act of 1845 enabled town councils to found and
maintain museums. This act was superseded by another passed
Munid I ' n 1 ^S I k v ^ r William Ewart, which in its turn has
Museurns. been replaced by amending statutes passed in 1855,
1866, 1868 and 1885. The Museums and Gymna-
siums Act of 1891 sanctioned the provision and maintenance of
museums for the reception of local antiquities and other objects
of interest, and allows a jd. rate, irrespective of other acts.
Boroughs have also the right to levy special rates under private
municipal acts, Oldham affording a case in point. Civic museums
must still be considered to be in their infancy. Although
the movement is now firmly established in municipal enterprise,
the collections, taken as a whole, are still somewhat nondescript.
In many cases collections have been handed over by local
societies, particularly in geology, zoology and other scientific
departments. There are about twelve museums in which Roman
antiquities are noticeable, among them being Leicester, and the
Civic Museum of London, at the Guildhall. British and Anglo-
Saxon relics are important features at Sheffield and Liverpool;
in the former case owing to the Bateman collection acquired in
1876; while the Mayer collection presented to the latter city
contains a highly important series of carved ivories. At Salford,
Glasgow and Manchester industrial art is the chief feature of the
collections. Birmingham, with perhaps the finest provincial
collection of industrial art, is supported by the rates to the extent
of 4200 a year. Its collections (including here, as in the majority
of great towns, an important gallery of paintings) are entirely
derived from gifts and bequests. Birmingham has made a
reputation for special exhibitions of works of art lent for a time
to the corporation. These loan exhibitions, about which
occasional lectures are given, and of which cheap illustrated
catalogues are issued, have largely contributed to the great
popularity and efficiency of the museum. Liverpool, Preston,
Derby and Sheffield owe their fine museum buildings to private
generosity. Other towns have museums which are chiefly
supported by subscriptions, e.g. Chester and Newcastle, where
there is a fine collection of work by Bewick the engraver. At
Exeter the library, museum, and art gallery, together with
schools of science and art, are combined in one building. Other
towns may be noted as having art museums: Stockport, Notting-
ham (Wedgwood collection), Leeds, Bootle, Swansea, Bradford,
Northampton (British archaeology), and Windsor. There are
museums at Belfast, Larne, Kilkenny and Armagh. The cost
of the civic museum, being generally computed with the mainten-
ance of the free library, is not easily obtained. In many cases
the librarian is also curator of the museum; elsewhere no curator
at all is appointed, his work being done by a caretaker. In
some museums there is no classification or cataloguing and
the value of existing collections is impaired both by careless
treatment and by the too ready acceptance of worthless
gifts; often enough the museums are governed by committees
of the corporation whose interest and experience are not
great.
Foreign Museums. Art museums are far more numerous
on the continent of Europe than in England. In Germany
progress has been very striking, their educational aspect being
closely studied. In Italy public collections, which are ten times
more numerous than in England, are chiefly regarded as financial
assets. The best examples of classification are to be found
abroad, at Vienna, Amsterdam, Ziirich, Munich and Gizeh in
Egypt. The Musee Carnavalet, the historical collection of the
city of Paris, is the most perfect civic museum in the world.
The buildings in which the objects can be most easily studied are
those of Naples, Berlin and Vienna. The value of the aggregate
collections in any single country of the great powers, Russia
excepted, probably exceeds the value of British collections. At
the same time, it must be remembered that mas'ses of foreign
collections represent expropriations by the city and the state,
together with the inheritance of royal and semi-royal collectors.
In Germany and Italy, for instance, there are at least a dozen
towns which at one time were capitals of principalities. In
some countries the public holds over works of art the pre-emptive
right of purchase. In Italy, under the law known as the Editto
Pacca, it is illegal to export the more famous works of art.
Speaking generally, the cost of maintaining municipal museums
abroad is very small, many being without expert or highly-paid
officials, while admission fees are often considerable. Nowhere
in the United Kingdom are the collections neglected in a manner
MUSEUMS OF ART
through which certain towns in Italy and Spain have gained an
unenviable name.
Berlin and Vienna have collections of untold richness, and the
public are freely admitted. Berlin, besides its picture gallery
di-rmanv an d architectural museum, has a collection of Christian
and antiquities in the university. The old museum, a
Austria. royal foundation, is renowned for its classical sculp-
ture and a remarkable collection of medieval statuary, in
which Italian art is well represented. The new museum is
also noteworthy for Greek marbles, and contains bronzes and
engravings, together with one of the most typical collections of
Egyptian art. Schliemann's discoveries are housed in the
Ethnographic Museum. The Museum of Art and Industry,
closely similar in object and arrangement to the Victoria and
Albert Museum in London, contains collections of the same
character enamels, furniture, ceramics, &c. Vienna also has
one of these museums (Kunstgewerbe), in which the great value
of the examples is enhanced by their judicious arrangement.
The Historical Museum of this city is interesting, and the
Imperial Museum (of which the structure corresponds almost
exactly with a plan of an ideal museum designed by Sir William
Flower) is one of the most comprehensive extant, containing
armour of world-wide fame and the choicest specimens of indus-
trial art. Prague, Innsbruck and Budapest are respectively
the homes of the national museums of Bohemia, Tirol and
Hungary. The National Museum of Bavaria (Munich) has been
completed, and its exhibition rooms, 100 in number, show the
most recent methods of classification, Nuremberg, with upwards
of eighty rooms, being its only rival in southern Germany.
Mainz and Trier have Roman antiquities. Hamburg, Leip/ig and
Breslau have good " Kunstgewerbe " collections. In Dresden
there are four great museums the Johanneum, the Albertinum,
the Zwinger and the Griine Gewolbe in which opulent art can
best be appreciated ; the porcelain of the Dresden galleries is
superb, and few branches of art are unrepresented. Gotha is
remarkable for its ceramics, Brunswick for enamels (in the
ducal cabinet). Museums of minor importance exist at Hanover,
Ulm, Wurzburg, Danzig and Ltibeck.
The central museum of France, the Louvre, was founded
as a public institution during the Revolutionary period. It
contains the collections of Francois I., Louis XIV.,
and the Napoleons. Many works of art have been
added to it from royal palaces, and collections formed by dis-
tinguished connoisseurs (Campana, Sauvageot, La Caze) have
been incorporated in it. The Greek sculpture, including the
Venus of Melos and the Nike of Samothrace, is of pre-eminent
fame. Other departments are well furnished, and from a
technical point of view the manner in which the officials have
overcome structural difficulties in adapting the palace to the
needs of an art museum is most instructive. The Cluny
Museum, bought by the city in 1842, ^.nd subsequently
transferred to the state, supplements the medieval collections
of the Louvre, being a storehouse of select works of art. It
suffers, however, from being overcrowded, while for purposes
of study it is badly lighted. At the same time the Maison
Cluny is a well-furnished house, decorated with admirable
things, and as such has a special didactic value of its own,
corresponding in this respect with Hertford House and the
Poldi-Pezzoli Gallery at Milan collections which are more than
museums, since they show in the best manner the adaptation of
artistic taste to domestic life. ^The French provincial museums
are numerous and important. Twenty-two were established
early in the igth century, and received 1000 pictures as gifts
from the state, numbers of which were not returned in 1815 to
the countries whence they were taken. The best of these
museiyns are at Lyons; at Dijon, where the tombs of Jean sans
Peur and Philip the Bold are preserved; at Amiens, where the
capital Musee de Picardie was built in 1850; at Marseilles and at
Bayeux, where the " Tapestry " is well exhibited. The collec-
tions of Lille, Bordeaux, Toulouse, and Avignon are also impor-
tant. The objects shown in these museums are chiefly local
gleanings, consisting largely of church plate, furniture, together
France.
with sculpture, carved wood, and pottery, nearly everything
being French in origin. In many towns Roman antiquities and
early Christian relics are preserved (e.g. Autun, Nlmes, Aries
and Luxeuil). Other collections controlled by municipalities
are kept at Rouen, Douai, Montpellier, Chartres (14th-century
sculptures), Grenoble, Toulon, Ajaccio, Epinal (Carolingian
objects), Besancon, Bourges, Le Mans (with the remarkable
enamel of Geoffrey of Anjou), Nancy, Aix and in many other
towns. As a rule, the public is admitted free of charge, special
courtesy being shown to foreigners. In many cases the collections
are ill cared for and uncatalogued, and little money is provided
for acquisitions in the civic museums; indeed, in this respect the
great national institutions contrast unfavourably with British
establishments, to which purchase grants are regularly made.
The national, civic and papalmuseumsofltalyare sonumerous
that a few only can be mentioned. The best arranged and best
classified collection is the Museo Nazionale at Naples,
containing many thousand examples of Roman
art, chiefly obtained from the immediate neighbourhood. For
historical importance it ranks as primus inter pares with the
collections of Rome and the Vatican. It is, however, the only
great Italian museum where scientific treatment is consistently
adopted. Other museums of purely classical art are found at
Syracuse, Cagliari and Palermo. Etruscan art is best displayed
at Arezzo, Perugia (in the university), Cortona, Florence (Museo
Archeologico), Volterra and the Vatican. The Florentine
museums are of great importance, consisting of the archaeological
museum of antique bronzes, Egyptian art, and a great number of
tapestries. The Museo Nazionale, housed in the Bargello (A.D.
1260), is the central depository of Tuscan art. Numerous
examples of Delia Robbia ware have been gathered together,
and are fixed to the walls in a manner and position which reduce
their value to a minimum. The plastic arts of Tuscany are
represented by Donatello, Verrocchio, Ghiberti, and Cellini,
while the Carrand collection of ivories, pictures, and varied
medieval specimens is of much interest. This museum, like so
many others, is becoming seriously overcrowded, to the lasting
detriment of churches, market-places, and streets, whence these
works ofartarebeingruthlesslyremoved. The public is admitted
free one day a week, and the receipts are devoted to art and
antiquarian purposes (" tasse . . . destinate . . . alia conver-
sazione dei monumenti, all' ampliamento 'degli scavi, ed' all'
incremento dei instituti . . . nella citta." Law of 1875, 5).
The museums of Rome are numerous, the Vatican alone contain-
ing at least six Museo Clementino, of classical art, with the
Laocoon, the Apollo Belvedere, and other masterpieces; the
Chiaramonti, also of classical sculpture; the Gallery of Inscrip-
tions; the Egyptian, the Etruscan and the Christian museums.
The last is an extensive collection corresponding with another
papal museum in the Lateran Palace, also known as the Christian
Museum (founded 1843), an d remarkable for its sarcophagi and
relics from the catacombs. The Lateran has also a second
museum known as the Museo Profano. 'Museums belonging
to the state are equally remarkable. The Kircher Museum deals
with prehistoric art, and contains the " Preneste Hoard." The
Museo Nazionale (by the Baths of Diocletian), the Museo Capi-
tolino, and the Palazzo dei Conservatori contain innumerable
specimens of the finest classical art, vases, bronzes, mosaics,
and statuary, Greek as well as Roman. Among provincial
museums there are few which do not possess at least one or two
objects of signal merit. Thus Brescia, besides a medieval
collection, has a famous bronze Victory. Pesaro, Urbino, and
the Museo Correr at Venice have admirable examples of majolica;
Milan, Pisa and Genoa have general archaeology combined with
a good proportion of mediocrity. The civic museum of Bologna
is comprehensive and well arranged, having Egyptian, classical,
and Etruscan collections, besides many things dating from the
" Bella Epoca " of Italian art. At Ravenna alone can the
Byzantine art of Italy be properly understood, and it is most
deplorable that the superb collections in its fine galleries should
remain uncatalogued and neglected. Turin, Siena, Padua, and
other towns have civic museums.
MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE
Russia.
The Ryks Museum at Amsterdam, containing the national
collections of Holland, is a modern building in which a series
Belgium of historical rooms are furnished to show at a glance
and the artistic progress of the Dutch at any given period.
Holland. Nine rooms are also devoted to the chronological
display of ecclesiastical art. Besides the famous paintings, this
museum (the sole drawback of which is the number of rooms
which have no top light) contains a library, many engravings, a
comprehensive exhibit of armour, costume, metal-work, and a
department of maritime craftsmanship. Arnhem and Haarlem
have municipal collections. At Leiden the university maintains
a scholarly collection of antiquities. The Hague and Rotterdam
have also museums, but everything in Holland is subordinated
to the development of the great central depository at Amsterdam,
to which examples are sent from all parts of the country. In
Belgium the chief museum, that of ancient industrial art, is at
Brussels. It contains many pieces of medieval church furniture
and decoration, but in this respect differs only in size from the
civic museums of Ghent and Luxemburg and the Archbishop's
Museum at Utrecht. In Brussels, however, there is a good show
of Prankish and Carolingian objects. The city of Antwerp
maintains the Musee Plantin, a printing establishment which has
survived almost intact, and presents one of the most charming
and instructive museums in the world. As a whole, the
museums of Belgium are disappointing, though, per contra, the
churches are of enhanced interest, not having been pillaged for
the benefit of museums.
New museums are being founded in Russia every year.
Kharkoff and Odessa (the university) have already large collec-
tions, and in the most remote parts of Siberia it is
curious to find carefully chosen collections. Krasno-
yarsk has 12,000 specimens, a storehouse of Buriat art. Irkutsk
the capital, Tobolsk, Tomsk (university), Khabarovsk, and
Yakutsk have now museums. In these Russian art naturally
predominates. It is only at Moscow and St Petersburg that
Western art is found. The Hermitage Palace in the latter city
contains a selection of medieval objects of fabulous value, there
being no less than forty early ivories. But from a national point
of view these collections are insignificant when compared with
the gold and silver objects illustrating the primitive arts and
ornament of Scythia, Crimea and Caucasia, the high standard
attained proving an advanced stage of manual skill. At Moscow
(historical museum) the stone and metal relics are scarcely less
interesting. There is also a museum of industrial art, the speci-
mens of which are not of unusual value, but being analogous to
the Kunstgewerbe movement in Germany, it exercises a whole-
some influence upon the designers who study in its schools.
American museums are not committed to traditional systems,
and scientific treatment is allowed its fullest scope. They exist
in great numbers, and though in some cases their
exhibits are chiefly ethnographic, a far wider range
of art objects is rapidly being secured. The National Museum
at Washington, a branch of the Smithsonian Institution (q.v.),
while notable for its American historical and ethnological
exhibits, has the National Gallery of Art. The Metropolitan
Museum of Art (held by trustees for the benefit of the city
of New York) has in the Cesnola collection the most complete
series of Cypriot art objects. It has also departments of coins,
Greek sculpture and general examples of European and American
art. The Museum of Fine Arts at Boston is very comprehensive,
and has a remarkable collection of ceramics, together with good
reproductions of antique art. There are museums at St
Louis, Chicago, Pittsburg, Brooklyn, Cincinnati, Buffalo and
Washington, as well as Montreal in Canada; and the universities
of Harvard, Chicago, Pennsylvania and Yale have important
collections.
The Swiss National Museum is situated at Zurich, and though
of medium size (50 rooms), it is a model of arrangement and
organization. Besides the special feature of rooms
Countries, illustrating the historical progress of art, its collection
of stained glass is important. Basel also (historical
museum) is but little inferior in contents or system to the Zurich
America.
establishment. Geneva has three collections. Lausanne holds
the museum of the canton, and Bern has a municipal collection.
All these institutions are well supported financially, and are
much appreciated by the Swiss public. The art museums of
Stockholm, Christiania and Copenhagen rank high for their
intrinsic excellence, but still more for their scientific and didactic
value. Stockholm has three museums: that of the Royal
Palace, a collection of costume and armour; the Northern
Museum, a large collection of domestic art; the National
Museum, containing the prehistoric collections, gold ornaments,
&c., classified in a brilliant manner. The National Museum
of Denmark at Copenhagen is in this respect even more famous,
being probably the second national collection in the world. The
arrangement of this collection leaves little to be desired, and it
is to be regretted that some British collections, in themselves of
immense value, cannot be shown, as at Copenhagen, in a manner
which would display their great merits to the fullest degree.
There is also at Copenhagen a remarkable collection of antique
busts (Gamle Glyptotek), and the Thorwaldsen Museum con-
nected with the sculptor of that name. Norse antiquities are
at Christiania (the university) and Bergen. Athens has three
museums, all devoted to Greek art: that of the Acropolis, that
of the Archaeological Society (vases and terra-cotta) and the
National Museum of Antiquities. The state owns all discoveries
and these are accumulated at the capital, so that local museums
scarcely exist. The collections, which rapidly increase, are of
great importance, though as yet they cannot vie with the
aggregate in other European countries. The Museum of
Egyptian Antiquities (Cairo), founded by Mariette Bey at Bulak,
afterwards removed to the Giza palace and developed by Maspero,
is housed in a large building erected in 1902, well classified, and
liberally supported with money and fresh acquisitions. Minor
museums exist at Carthage and Tunis. At Constantinople the
Turkish Museum contains some good classical sculpture and a
great deal of rubbish. The Museo del Prado and the Archaeo-
logical Museum at Madrid are the chief Spanish collections,
containing numerous classical objects and many specimens of
Moorish and early Spanish art. In Spain museums are badly
kept, and their contents are of indifferent value. The museums
of the chief provinces are situated at Barcelona, Valencia,
Granada and Seville. Cadiz and Cordova have also sadly
neglected civic collections. The National Museum of Portugal at
Lisbon requires no special comment. The progress of Japan
is noticeable in its museums as in its industrial enterprise. The
National Museum(Weno Park, Tokyo) is large and well arranged
in a new building of Western architecture. Kioto and Nara
have excellent museums, exclusively of Oriental art, and two or
three other towns have smaller establishments, including com-
mercial museums. There are several museums in India, the
chief one being at Calcutta, devoted to Indian antiquities.
The best history *pf museums can be found in the prefaces and
introductions to their official catalogues, but the following works
will be useful for reference: Annual Reports presented to Parliament
(official) of British Museum and Board of Education; Civil Service
Estimates, Class IV., annually presented to Parliament; Second
Report of Select Committee of House of Commons on Museums of
Science and Art Department (official; I vol., 1898); Annual Reports
of the Museum Association (London) ; Edward Edwards, The Fine
Arts in England (London, 1840); Professor Stanley Jevons, " Use
and Abuse of Museums," printed in Methods of Social Reform
(London, 1882); Report of Committee on Provincial Museums.
Report of British Association (London, 1887); Thos. Greenwood,
Museums and Art Galleries (London, 1888); Professor Brown Goode,
Museums of the Future, Report on" the National Museum for 1889
(Washington, 1891) ; Principles of Museum Administration; Report of
Museum Association (London, 1895) ; Mariotti, La Legislazione delle
belle arti. (Rome, 1892); L. B6nedite, Rapport sur r organisation
. . . dans les musees de la Grande Bretagne (official; Paris, 1895);
Sir William Flower, Essays on Museums (London, 1898); Le Gallerie
nazionali italiane (3 vols., Rome, 1894); D. Murray, Museums:
Their History and Use, with Bibliography and List of Museums in
the United Kingdom (3 vols., 1904). (B.)
MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE. The ideal museum should cover
the whole field of human knowledge. It should teach the
truths of all the sciences, including anthropology, the science
which deals with man and all his works in every age. All the
MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE
sciences and all the arts are correlated. The wide separation
of collections illustrative of the arts (see MUSEUMS OF ART above)
from those illustrative of the sciences, and their treatment as
if belonging to a wholly different sphere, is arbitrary. Such
separation, which is to-day the rule rather than the exception,
is due to the circumstances of the origin of many collections,
or in other cases to the limitations imposed by poverty or lack
of space. Many of the national museums of continental Europe
had their beginnings in collections privately acquired by
monarchs, who, at a time when the modern sciences were in their
infancy, entertained themselves by assembling objects which
appealed to their love of the beautiful and the curious. The
pictures, marbles, bronzes and bric-a-brac of the palace became
the nucleus of the museum of to-day, and in some notable cases
the palace itself was converted into a museum. In a few instances
these museums, in which works of art had the first place, have
been enriched and supplemented by collections illustrative of
the advancing sciences of a later date, but in a majority of cases
these collections have remained what they were at the outset,
mere exponents of human handicraft in one or the other, or all
of its various departments. Some recent great foundations
have copied the more or less defective models of the past, and
museums devoted exclusively to the illustration of one or the
other narrow segment of knowledge will no doubt continue to
be multiplied, and in spite of their limited range, will do much
good. A notable illustration of the influence of lack of space
in bringing about a separation of anthropological collections
from collections illustrative of other sciences is afforded by the
national collection in London. For many years the collections
of the British Museum, literary, artistic and scientific, were
assembled in ideal relationship in Bloomsbury, but at last the
accumulation of treasure became so vast and the difficulties of
administration were so pressing that a separation was decided
upon, and the natural history collections were finally removed
to the separate museum in Cromwell Road, South Kensington.
But the student of museums can never fail to regret that the
necessities of space and financial considerations compelled this
separation, which in a measure destroyed the ideal relationship
which had for so many years obtained.
The ancient world knew nothing of museums in the modern
sense of the term. There were collections of paintings and
statuary in the temples and palaces of Greece and Rome; the
homes of the wealthy were everywhere adorned by works of art;
curious objects of natural history were often brought from afar,
as the skins of the female gorillas, which Hanno after his voyage
on the west coast of Africa hung up in the temple of Astarte at
Carthage; Alexander the Great granted to his illustrious teacher,
Aristotle, a large sum of money for use in his scientific researches,
sent him natural history collections from conquered lands, and
put at his service thousands of men to collect specimens, upon
which he based his work on natural history; the museum of
Alexandria, which included within its keeping the Alexandrian
library, was a great university composed of a number of associated
colleges; but there was nowhere in all the ancient world an
institution which exactly corresponded in its scope and purpose
to the modern museum. The term " museum," after the
burning of the great institution of Alexandria, appears to have
fallen into disuse from the 4th to the i?th century, and the idea
which the word represented slipped from the minds of men.
The revival of learning in the i5th century was accompanied
by an awakening of interest in classical antiquity, and many
persons laboured eagerly upon the collection of memorials of
the past. Statuary, inscriptions, gems, coins, medals and manu-
scripts were assembled by the wealthy and the learned. The
leaders in this movement were presently followed by others who
devoted themselves to the search for minerals, plants and curious
animals. Among the more famous early collectors of objects
of natural history may be mentioned Georg Agricola (1490-1555),
who has been styled " the father of mineralogy." By his
labours the elector Augustus of Saxony was induced to establish
the Kunst und Naturalien Kantmer, which has since expanded
into the various museums at Dresden. One of his contempo-
xrx. 3
raries was Conrad Gesner of Zurich (1516-1565), " the German
Pliny," whose writings are still resorted to by the curious.
Others whose names are familiar were Pierre Belon (1517-1564),
professor at the College de France; Andrea Cesalpini (1510-1603),
whose herbarium is still preserved at Florence; Ulissi Aldrovandi
(1522-1605), remnants of whose collections still exist at Bologna;
Ole Worm (1588-1654), a Danish physician, after whom the so-
called " Wormian bones " of the skull are named, and who was
one of the first to cultivate what is now known as the science
of prehistoric archaeology. At a later date the collection of
Albert Seba (1665-1736) of Amsterdam became famous, and
was purchased by Peter the Great in 1716, and removed to
St Petersburg. In Great Britain among early collectors were
the two Tradescants; Sir John Woodward (1665-1728), a portion
of whose collections, bequeathed by him to Cambridge University
is still preserved there in the Woodwardian or Geological Museum ;
Sir James Balfour (1600-1657), and Sir Andrew Balfour (1630-
1694), whose work was continued in part by Sir Robert Sibbald
(1641-1722). The first person to elaborate and present to modern
minds the thought of an institution which should assemble
within its walls the things which, men wish to see and study was
Bacon, who in his New Atlantis (1627) broadly sketched the
outline of a great national museum of science and art.
The first surviving scientific museum established upon a
substantial basis was the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford,
founded by Elias Ashmole. The original collection had been
made by the Tradescants, father and son, gardeners who were
in the employment of the duke of Buckingham and later of King
Charles I. and his queen; it consisted of " twelve cartloads of
curiosities," principally from Virginia and Algiers, which the
younger Tradescant bequeathed to Ashmole, and which, after
much litigation with Tradescant's widow, he gave to Oxford
upon condition that a suitable building should be provided.
This was done in 1682 after plans by Sir Christopher Wren.
Ashmole in his diary makes record, on the I7th of February
1683, that " the last load of my rareties was sent to the barge,
and this afternoon I relapsed into the gout."
The establishment of the German academy of Naturae
Curiosi in 1652, of the Royal Society of London in 1660, and of
the Academic des Sciences of Paris in 1666, imparted a powerful
impulse to scientific investigation, which was reflected not only
in the labours of a multitude of persons who undertook the
formation of private scientific collections, but in the initiation
by crowned heads of movements looking toward the formation
of national collections, many of which, having their beginnings
in the latter half of the i7th century and the early years of the
1 8th century, survive to the present day.
The most famous of all English collectors in his time was
Sir Hans Sloane (1660-1753), whose vast collection, acquired at
a great outlay of money, and including the collections of Petiver,
Courten, Merret, Plukenet, and Buddie all of which he had
purchased was by his will bequeathed to the British nation on
condition that parliament should pay to his heirs the sum of
20,000, a sum far less than that which he had expended upon it,
and representing, it is sdld, only the value of the coins which it
contained. Sloane was a man who might justly have said of
himself " humani nihil a me alienum puto "; and his collection
attested the catholicity of his tastes and the breadth of his
scientific appetencies. The bequest of Sloane was accepted
upon the terms of his will, and, together with the library of
George II., which had likewise been bequeathed to the nation,
was thrown open to the public at Bloomsbury in 1759 as the
British Museum. As showing the great advances which have
occurred in the administration of museums since that day, the
following extract taken from A Guide- Book to the General
Contents of the British Museum, published in 1761, is interest-
ing: ". . . fifteen persons are allowed to view it in one Company,
the Time allotted is two Hours; and when any Number not
exceeding fifteen are inclined to see it, they must send a List of
their Christian and Sirnames, Additions, and Places of Abode, to
the Porter's Lodge, in order to their being entered in the Book;
in a few Days the respective Tickets will be made out, specifying
66
MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE
the Day and Hour in which they are to come, which, on being
sent for, are delivered. If by any Accident some of the Parties
are prevented from coming, it is proper they send their
Ticket back to the Lodge, as nobody can be admitted with it
but themselves. It is to be remarked that the fewer Names there
are in a List, the sooner they are likely to be admitted to see it."
The establishment of the British Museum was coincident in
time with the development of the systematic study of nature,
of which Linnaeus was at that time the most distinguished
exponent. The modern sciences, the wonderful triumphs of
which have revolutionized the world, were just emerging from
their infancy. Museums were speedily found to furnish the
best agency for preserving the records of advancing knowledge,
so far as these consisted of the materials upon which the investi-
gator had laboured. In a short time it became customary for
the student, either during his lifetime or at his death, to entrust
to the permanent custody of museums the collections upon
which he had based his studies and observations. Museums were
thenceforth rapidly multiplied, and came to be universally
regarded as proper repositories for scientific collections of all
kinds. But the use of museums as repositories of the collec-
tions of the learned came presently to be associated with their
use as seats of original investigation and research. Collections
of new and rare objects which had not yet received attentive
study came into their possession. Voyages of exploration
into unknown lands, undertaken at public or private expense,
added continually to their treasures. The comparison of newer
collections with older collections which had been already made
the subject of study, was undertaken. New truths were thus
ascertained. A body of students was attracted to the museums,
who in a few years by their investigations began not only to add
to the sum of human knowledge, but by their publications to
shed lustre upon the institutions with which they were connected.
The spirit of inquiry was wisely fostered by private and public
munificence, and museums as centres for the diffusion of scientific
truth came to hold a well-recognized position. Later still,
about the middle of the ipth century, when the importance of
popular education and the necessity of popularizing knowledge
came to be more thoroughly recognized than it had heretofore
been, museums were found to be peculiarly adapted in certain
respects for the promotion of the culture of the masses. They
became under the new impulse not merely repositories of scientific
records and seats of original research, but powerful educational
agencies, in which by object lessons the most important truths of
science were capable of being pleasantly imparted to multitudes.
The old narrow restrictions were thrown down. Their doors
were freely opened to the people, and at the beginning of the
zoth century the movement for the establishment of museums
assumed a magnitude scarcely, if at all, less than the movement
on behalf of the diffusion of popular knowledge through public
libraries. While great national museums have been founded and
all the large municipalities of the world through private or civic
gifts have established museums within their limits, a multitude
of lesser towns, and even in some cases villages, have established
museums, and museums as adjuncts of universities, colleges and
high schools have come to be recognized as almost indispensable.
The movement has assumed its greatest proportions in Great
Britain and her colonies, Germany, and the United States of
America, although in many other lands it has already advanced
far.
There are now in existence in the world, exclusive of museums
of art, not less than 2000 scientific museums which possess in
themselves elements of permanence, some of which are splendidly
supported by public munificence, and a number of which have
been richly endowed by private benefactions.
Great Britain and Ireland. The greatest museum in London
is the British Museum. The natural history department at
South Kensington, with its wealth of types deposited there,
constitutes the most important collection of the kind in the
world. The Museum of Practical Geology in Jermyn Street
contains a beautiful and well-arranged collection of minerals
and a very complete series of specimens illustrative of the
petrography and the invertebrate paleontology of the British
Islands. The botanical collections at Kew are classic, and are
as rich in types as are the zoological collections of the British
Museum. The Hunterian Museum of the Royal College of
Surgeons contains a notable assemblage of specimens illustrating
anatomy, both human and comparative, as well as pathology.
In London also a number of private owners possess large collec-
tions of natural history specimens, principally ornithological,
entomological and conchological, in some instances destined to
find a final resting place in the national collection. One of the
most important of these great collections is that formed by F.
Ducane Godman, whose work on the fauna of middle America,
entitled Biologia centrali-americana, is an enduring monument
to his learning and generosity. The Hon. Walter Rothschild
has accumulated at Tring one of the largest and most important
natural history collections which has ever been assembled by a
single individual. It is particularly rich in rare species which
are either already extinct or verging upon extinction, and the
ornithological and entomological collections are vast in extent
and rich in types. Lord Walsingham has at his country seat,
Merton Hall, near Thetford, the largest and most perfect
collection of the microlepidoptera of the world which is in
existence.
The Ashmolean Museum and the University Museum at Oxford,
and the Woodwardian Museum and the University Museum at
Cambridge, are remarkable collections. The Free Public Museum
at Liverpool is in some respects one of the finest and most
successfully arranged museums in Great Britain. It contains
a great wealth of important scientific material, and is rich in
types, particularly of birds. The Manchester Museum of Owens
College and the museum in Sheffield have in recent years
accomplished much for the cause of science and popular educa-
tion. The Bristol Museum has latterly achieved considerable
growth and has become a centre of much enlightened activity.
The Royal Scottish Museum, the herbarium of the Royal
Botanical Garden, and the collections of the Challenger Expe-
dition Office in Edinburgh, are worthy of particular mention.
The museum of the university of Glasgow and the Glasgow
Museum contain valuable collections. The museum of St
Andrews University is very rich in, material illustrating marine
zoology, and so also are the collections of University College at
Dundee. The Science and Art Museum of Dublin and the
Public Museum of Belfast, in addition to the works of art which
they contain, possess scientific collections of importance.
There are also in Great Britain and Ireland some two hundred
smaller museums, in which there are collections which cannot be
overlooked by specialists, more particularly by those interested
in geology, paleontology and archaeology.
India. The Indian Museum, the Geological Museum of the
Geological Survey of India, and the herbarium of the Royal Botanic
Garden in Calcutta, are richly endowed with collections illustrating
the natural history of Hindostan and adjacent countries. The
finest collection of the vertebrate fossils of the Siwalik Hills is that
found in the Indian Museum. The Victoria and Albert Museum in
Bombay and the Government Museum in Madras are institutions
of importance.
Australia. The Queensland Museum, and the museum of the
Geological Survey of Queensland located in Brisbane, and the
National Museum at Melbourne, Victoria, represent important
beginnings. Sydney, the capital of New South Wales, is the centre
of considerable scientific activity. The museums connected with
the university of Sydney, the museum of the Geological Survey of
New South Wales, and the Australian Museum, all possess valuable
collections. The museum at Adelaide is noteworthy.
New Zealand. Good collections are found in the Otago Museum,
Dunedin, the Canterbury Museum at Christ Church, the Auckland
Museum at Auckland, and the Colonial Museum at Wellington.
South Africa. The South African Museum at Capetown is a
flourishing and important institution, which has done excellent
work in the field of South African zoology. A museum has been
established at Durban, Natal, which gives evidence of vitality.
Egypt. Archaeological studies overshadow all others in the land
of the Nile, and the splendid collections of the great museum of
antiquities at Cairo find nothing to parallel them in the domain of
the purely natural sciences. A geological museum was, however,
established in the autumn of 1903, and in view of recent remarkable
paleontological discoveries in Egypt possesses brilliant opportunities.
MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE
67
Canada. In connexion with the Universite Laval in Quebec,
the McGill University in Montreal, and the university of Toronto
in Ontario, beginnings of significance have been made. The Peter
Redpath Museum of McGilT College contains important collections
in all branches of natural history, more particularly botany.
The provincial museum at Victoria, British Columbia, is growing m
importance. A movement has been begun to establish at Ottawa
a museum which shall in a sense be for the Dominion a national
establishment.
France. Paris abounds in institutions for the promotion of culture.
In possession of many of the institutions of learning, such as the Ecole
Nationals Superieure des Mines, the Inslitut National Agronomique,
and the various learned societies, are collections of greater or less
importance which must be consulted at times by specialists in the
various sciences. The Museum d'Histoire Naturelle in the Jardin
des Plantes is the most comprehensive and important collection of
its kind in the French metropolis, and while not as rich in types as
the British Museum, nevertheless contains a vast assemblage of
classic specimens reflecting the labours of former generations of
French naturalists. Unfortunately, much of the best material,
consisting of the types of species obtained by the naturalists of
French voyages of exploration, have been too long exposed to the
intense light which fills the great building and have become bleached
and faded to a great degree. The zeal to popularize knowledge by
the display of specimens has conflicted with the purpose to preserve
the records of science, a fact which French naturalists themselves
universally admit. As in England, so also in France, there are a
number of virtuosi, who have amassed fine private collections.
One of the very largest and finest of all the entomological collections
of the world is that at Rennes, belonging to the brothers Oberthiir,
upon which they have expended princely sums. The Museum des
Sciences Naturelles of Lyons is in some respects an important
institution.
Belgium. Brussels has been called " a city of museums." The
Musee du Congo and the Musee Royal d'Histoire Naturelle du Belgique
are the two most important institutions from the standpoint of the
naturalist. The former is rich in ethnographic and zoological material
brought from the Congo Free State, and the latter contains very
important paleontological collections.
Holland. The zoological museum of the Koninklijk Zoologisch
Genootschap, affiliated with the university at Amsterdam, is well
known. The royal museums connected with the university of
Leiden are centres of much scientific activity.
Denmark. The National Museum at Copenhagen is particularly
rich in Scandinavian and Danish antiquities.
Sweden. In Stockholm, the capital, the Nordiska Museet is
devoted to Scandinavian ethnology, and the Naturhistoriska Riks-
Museum is rich in paleontological, botanical and archaeological
collections. Great scientific treasures are also contained in the
museums connected with the university of Upsala.
Norway. Classic collections especially interesting to the student
of marine zoology are contained in the university of Christiania.
Germany, Germany is rich in museums, some of which are of
very great importance. The Museum fur Naturkunde, the ethno-
graphical museum, the anthropological museum, the mineralogical
museum and the agricultural museum in Berlin are noble institutions,
the first mentioned being particularly rich in classical collections.
Hamburg boasts an excellent natural history musei-m and ethno-
graphical museum, the Museum Godeffroy and the Museum Umlauff.
There are a number of important private collections in Hamburg.
The municipal museum in Bremen is important from the standpoint
of the naturalist and ethnologist. The Roemer Museum at Hildes-
heim is one of the best provincial museums in Germany. Dresden
even more justly than Brussels may be called "a city of museums,"
and the mineralogical, archaeological, zoological and anthropological
museums are exceedingly important from the standpoint of the
naturalist. Here also in private hands is the greatest collection
of palaearctic lepidoptera in Europe, belonging to the heirs of Dr
Otto Staudinger. The ethnographical museum at Leipzig is rich
in collections brought together from South and Central America.
The natural history museum, the anatomical museum and the ethno-
graphical museum in Munich are important institutions, the first
mentioned being particularly rich in paleontological treasures.
The natural history museum of Stuttgart is likewise noted for
its important paleontological collections. The Senckenbergische
Naturforsckende Gesellschaft museum at Frankfort-on-the-Main
contains a very important collection of ethnographical, zoological
and botanical material. The museum of the university at Bonn,
and more particularly the anatomical museum, are noteworthy.
In connexion with almost all the German universities and in almost
all the larger towns and cities are to be found museums, in many of
which there are important assemblages illustrating not only the
natural history of the immediate neighbourhood, but in a multitude
of cases containing important material collected in foreign lands.
One of the most interesting of the smaller museums lately established
is that at Liibeck, a model in its way for a provincial museum.
Austro-Hungary. The Imperial Natural HistoryMuseum inVienna
is one of the noblest institutions of its kind in Europe, and possesses
one of the finest mineralogical collections in the world. It is rich
also in botanical and conchological collections. There are important
ethnographical and anthropological collections at Budapest. The
natural history collections of the Bohemian national museum at
Prague are well arranged, though not remarkably extensive.
Russia. The Rumiantsof Museum in Moscow possesses splendid
buildings, with a library of over 700,000 volumes in addition to
splendid artistic treasures, and is rich in natural history specimens.
It is one of the most magnificent foundations of its kind in Europe.
There are a number of magnificent museums in St Petersburg which
contain stores of important material. Foremost among these is
the museum of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, rich in collec-
tions illustrating the zoology, paleontology and ethnology, not only
of the Russian Empire, but also of foreign lands. There are a number
of provincial museums in the larger cities of Russia which are growing
in importance.
Italy. Italy is rich in museums of art, but natural history
collections are not as strongly represented as in other lands. Con-
nected with the various universities are collections which possess
more or less importance from the standpoint of the specialist.
The Museo Civico di Storia Naturale at Genoa, and the collections
preserved at the marine biological station at Naples, have most
interest for the zoologist.
Spain. There are no natural history collections of first importance
in Spain, though at all the universities there are minor collections,
which are in some instances creditably cared for and arranged.
Portugal. The natural history museum at Lisbon contains
important ornithological treasures.
Eastern Asia. The awakening of the empire of Japan has resulted
among other things in the cultivation of the modern sciences, and
there are a number of scientific students, mostly trained in European
and American universities, who are doing excellent work in the
biological and allied sciences. Very creditable beginnings have been
made in connexion with the Imperial University at Tokio for the
establishment of a museum of natural history. At Shanghai there
is a collection, gathered by the Chinese branch of the Royal Asiatic
Society, which is in a decadent state, but contains much good
material. Otherwise as yet the movement to establish museums has
not laid strong hold upon the inhabitants of eastern Asia. At
Batavia in Java, and at Manila in the Philippine Islands, there are
found the nuclei of important collections.
United States. The movement to establish museums in the
United States is comparatively recent. One of the very earliest
collections (1802), which, however, was soon dispersed, was
made by Charles Willson Peale (q.v.). The Academy of Natural
Sciences in Philadelphia, established in 1812, is the oldest society
for the promotion of the natural sciences in the United States.
It possesses a very important library and some most excellent
collections, and is rich in ornithological, conchological and
botanical types. The city of Philadelphia also points with pride
to the free museum of archaeology connected with the university
of Pennsylvania, and to the Philadelphia museums, the latter
museums of commerce, but which incidentally do much to pro-
mote scientific knowledge, especially in the domain of ethnology,
botany and mineralogy. The Wistar Institute of Anatomy
is well endowed and organized. The zoological museum at
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, is associated
with the names of Louis and Alexander Agassiz, the former of
whom by his learning and activity as a collector, and the latter
by his munificent gifts, as well as by his important researches,
not only created the institution, but made it a potent agency
for the advancement of science. The Peabody Museum of
American Archaeology and Ethnology, likewise connected with
Harvard University, is one of the greatest institutions of its
kind in the New World. The Essex Institute at Salem, Massa-
chusetts, is noteworthy. The Butterfield Museum, Dartmouth
College, Hanover, New Hampshire, and the Fairbanks Museum
of Natural Science (1891) at St Johnsbury, Vermont, are im-
portant modern institutions. In the museum of Amherst
College are preserved the types of the birds described by J. J.
Audubon, the shells described by C. B. Adams, the mineralogical
collections of Charles Upham Shepard, and the paleontological
collections of President Hitchcock. In Springfield (1898)
and Worcester, Massachusetts, there are excellent museums.
The Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University,
New Haven, Connecticut, contains much of the paleontological
material described by Professor O. C. Marsh. The New
York State Museum at Albany is important from a geological
and paleontological standpoint. The American Museum of
Natural History in New York City, founded in 1869, provision
for the growth and enlargement of which upon a scale of the
68
MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE
Gallery of
Reptiles
Gallery of Birds
THE CARNEGIE INSTITUTE
Pittsburg, Penn.,U.S.A.
Plan of First Floor.
Reference.
A. Main Entrance to Institute
B. Entrance to Main Auditorium
C. Main Entrance to Library
1. Administration Rooms of Institute
2. Public Comfort Rooms
3. Administrative Rooms of Library
1 Children's]
1 Children's Library
Library
o
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o
I
Cu
T'
It
! 3
&
1 MI
Open
Court
Open Court
L.
o
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Loan Department of
Library*
Open Court
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Gallery of Useful Arts
Ceramics, etc.
H
3 3
3
31 Greenroom of p j f " ij Greenroom
I Auditorium t**" *" ""I Auditoriui
of
Gallery of
Architecture
The width of the front of the building
ia 400 feet; Its depth over all exceeds
6 00 feet
Emery Walkw K.
MUSGRAVE MUSH
69
utmost magnificence has been made, is liberally -supported
both by public and private munificence. The ethnographical,
paleontological and archaeological material gathered within
its walls is immense in extent and superbly displayed. The
museum of the New York botanical garden in Bronx Park is
a worthy rival to the museums at Kew. The Brooklyn Institute
of Arts and Sciences combines with collections illustrative of
the arts excellent collections of natural history, many of which
are classic.
The United States National Museum at Washington, under
the control of the Smithsonian Institution, of which it is a depart-
ment, has been made the repository for many years past of the
scientific and artistic collections coming into the possession of
the government. The growth of the material entrusted to its
keeping has, more particularly in recent years, been enormous,
and the collections have wholly outgrown the space provided
in the original building, built for it during the incumbency
of Professor Spencer F. Baird as secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution. The congress of the United States has in recent
years made provision for the erection of a new building upon
the Mall in Washington, to which the natural history collections
are ultimately to be transferred, the old buildings to be retained
for the display of collections illustrating the progress of the arts,
until replaced by a building of better construction for the same
purpose. The United States National Museum has published
a great deal, and has become one of the most important agencies
for the diffusion of scientific knowledge in the country. It is
liberally supported by the government, and makes use of the
scientific men connected with all the various departments of
activity under government control as agents for research. The
collections of the United States Geological Survey, as well as
many of the more important scientific collections made by the
Department of Agriculture, are deposited here.
As-the result of the great Columbian international exposition,
which took place in 1893, a movement originated in the city of
Chicago, where the exposition was held, to form a permanent
collection of large proportions. The great building in which
the international exposition of the fine arts was displayed
was preserved as the temporary home for the new museum.
Marshall Field contributed $1,000,000 to the furtherance of
the enterprise, and in his honour the institution was called
" The Field Columbian Museum." The growth of this
institution was very rapid, and Mr. Field, at his death, in
1906, bequeathed to the museum $8,000,000, half to be
applied to the erection of a new building, the other half to consti-
tute an endowment fund, in addition to the revenues derived
from the endowment already existing. The city of Chicago
provides liberally for the support of the museum, the name
of which, in the spring of 1906, was changed to " The Field
Museum of Natural History. '' The city of St Louis has taken
steps, as the result of the international exposition of 1904, to
emulate the example of Chicago, and the St Louis Pubb'c Museum
was founded under hopeful auspices in 1905.
Probably the most magnificent foundation for the advance-
ment of science and art in America which has as yet been created
is the Carnegie Institute in the city of Pittsburg. The Carnegie
Institute is a complex of institutions, consisting of a museum
of art, a museum of science, and a school for the education of
youth in the elements of technology. Affiliated with the
museums of art and science, and under the same roof, is the
Central Free Library of Pittsburg. The buildings erected
for the accommodation of the institute, at the entrance to
Schenley Park, cost $8,000,000, and Mr Andrew Carnegie
provided liberally for the endowment of the museums of art
and science and the technical school, leaving to the city of
Pittsburg the maintenance of the general library. The natural
history collections contained in the museum of science, although
the institution was only founded in 1896, are large and
important, and are particularly rich in mineralogy, geology,
paleontology, botany and zoology. The entomological collections
are among the most important in the new world. The concho-
logical collections are vast, and the paleontological collections
are among the most important in America. The great Bayet
collection is the largest and most complete collection represent-
ing European paleontology in America. The Carnegie Museum
contains natural history collections aggregating over 1,500,000
specimens, which cost approximately 125,000, and these are
growing rapidly. The ethnological collections, particularly
those illustrating the Indians of the plains, and the archaeological
collections, representing the cultures more particularly of Costa
Rica and of Colombia, are large.
in connexion with almost all the American colleges and
universities there are museums of more or less importance.
The Bernice Pauahi Bishop museum at Honolulu is an institution
established by private munificence, which is doing excellent
work in the field of Polynesian ethnology and zoology.
Other American Countrits. The national museum in the city of
Mexico has in recent years been receiving intelligent encouragement
and support both from the government and by private individuals,
and is coming to be an institution of much importance. National
museums have been established at the capitals of most of the Central
American and South American states. Some of them represent
considerable progress, but most of them are in a somewhat languish-
ing condition. Notable exceptions are the national museum in
Rio de Janeiro, the Museu Paraense (Museu Goeldi), at Para, the
Museu Paulista at Sao Paulo, and the national museum in Buenos
Aires. The latter institution is particularly rich in paleontological
collections. There is an excellent museum at Valparaiso in Chile,
which in recent years has been doing good work. (W. J. H.)
MUSGRAVE, SAMUEL (1732-1780), English classical scholar
and physician, was born at Washfield, in Devonshire, on the
zgth of September 1732. Educated at Oxford and elected
to a Radcliffe travelling fellowship, he spent several years
abroad. In 1766 he settled at Exeter, but not meeting with
professional success removed to Plymouth. He ruined his
prospects, however, by the publication of a pamphlet in the
form of an address to the people of Devonshire, in which he
accused certain members of the English ministry of having been
bribed by the French government to conclude the peace of 1763,
and declared that the Chevalier d'Eon de Beaumont, French
minister plenipotentiary to England, had in his possession
documents which would prove the truth of his assertion. De
Beaumont repudiated all knowledge of any such transaction
and of Musgrave himself, and the House of Commons in 1770
decided that the charge was unsubstantiated. Thus discredited,
Musgrave gained a precarious living in London by his pen until
his death, in reduced circumstances, on the 5th of July 1780.
He wrote several medical works, now forgotten ; and his edition
of Euripides (1778) was a considerable advance on that of Joshua
Barnes.
See W. Munk, Roll of the Royal College of Physicians, ii. (1878).
MUSH, the chief town of a sanjak of the same name of the
Bitlis vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, and an important military
station. It is situated at the mouth of a gorge in the mountains
on the south side of the plain, the surrounding hills being covered
with vineyards and some oak scrub. There are few good houses;
the streets are ill-paved and winding, while the place and its
surroundings are extremely dirty. The castle, of which there
are some remains, is said to have been built by Mushig, an
Armenian king of the province Daron, who founded the town.
A khan, with two stone lions (Arab or Seljuk) in bas-relief,
deserves notice, but the bazaar is poor, although pretty
embroidered caps are produced. Good roads lead to Erzerum
and Bitlis. There are 1400 inhabitants, consisting of Kurds
and Armenians, about equally divided. The climate is healthy
but cold in winter, with a heavy snow fall. Mush is the seat
of the Gregorian and Roman Catholic Armenian bishops and
some American mission schools. Some miles to the west at
the edge of the plain is the celebrated monastery of Surp
Garabed or St John the Baptist, an important place of Armenian
pilgrimage.
Mush plain, 35 m. long by 12 broad, is very fertile, growing
wheat and tobacco, and is dotted with many thriving Armenian
villages. The Murad or eastern Euphrates traverses the western
end of the plain and disappears into a narrow mountain gorge
there. Vineyards are numerous and a fair wine is produced.
MUSHROOM
Wood is scarce and the usual fuel is tezek or dried cow-dung.
There are several sulphur springs, and earthquakes are frequent
and sometimes severe. It was on the plain of Mush that
Xenophon first made acquaintance with Armenian houses,
which have little changed since his day.
MUSHROOM. 1 There are few more useful, more easily
recognized, or more delicious members of the vegetable kingdom
than the common mushroom, known botanically as Agaricus
campestris (or Psalliota, campestris). It grows in short grass
in the temperate regions of all parts of the world. Many
edible fungi depend upon minute and often obscure botanical
characters for their determination, and may readily be con-
founded with worthless or poisonous species; but that is not the
case with the common mushroom, for, although several other
species of Agaricus somewhat closely approach it in form and
colour, yet the true mushroom, if sound and freshly gathered, may
be distinguished from all other fungi with great ease. It almost
invariably grows in rich, open, breezy pastures, in places where
the grass is kept short by the grazing of horses, herds and flocks.
Although this plant is popularly termed the " meadow mush-
room," it never as a rule grows in meadows. It never grows in
wet boggy places, never in woods, or on or about stumps of trees.
An exceptional specimen or an uncommon variety may sometimes
be seen in the above-mentioned abnormal places, but the best,
the true, and common variety of the table is the produce of short,
upland, wind-swept pastures. A true mushroom is never large in
size; its cap very seldom exceeds 4, at most 5 in. in diameter.
The large examples measuring from 6 to 9 or more in. across
the cap belong to Agaricus arvensis, called from its large size and
coarse texture the horse mushroom, which grows in meadows
and damp shady places, and though generally wholesome is
coarse and sometimes indigestible. The mushroom usually
grown in gardens or hot-beds, in cellars, sheds, &c., is a distinct
variety known as Agaricus hortensis. On being cut or broken the
flesh of a true mushroom remains white or nearly so, the flesh
of the coarser horse mushroom changes to buff or sometimes to
dark brown. To summarize the characters of a true mushroom
it grows only in pastures; it is of small size, dry, and with
unchangeable flesh; the cap has a frill; the gills are free from the
stem, the spores brown-black or deep purple-black in colour,
and the stem solid or slightly pithy. When all these char-
acters are taken together no other mushroom-like fungus
and nearly a thousand species grow in Britain can be con-
founded with it.
The parts of a mushroom consist chiefly of stem and cap; the stem
has a clothy ring round its middle, and the cap is furnished under-
neath with numerous radiating coloured gills. Fig. I (i) represents
a section through an infant mushroom, (2) a mature example,
and (3) a longitudinal section through a fully developed mushroom.
The cap D, E is fleshy, firm and white within, never thin and watery ;
externally it is pale brown, dry, often slightly silky or floccose,
never viscid. The cuticle of a mushroom readily peels away from
the flesh beneath, as shown at F. The cap has a narrow dependent
margin or frill, as shown at G, and in section at H ; this dependent
frill originates in the rupture of a delicate continuous wrapper,
which in the infancy of the mushroom entirely wraps the young
plant; it is shown in its continuous state at j, and at the moment
of rupture at K. The gills underneath the cap L, M, N are at first
white, then rose-coloured, at length brown-black. A point of great
importance is to be noted in the attachment of the gills near the stem
at o, P ; the gills in the true mushroom are (as shown) usually more
or less free from the stem, they never grow boldly against it or run
down it; they may sometimes just touch the spot where the stem
joins the bottom of the cap, but never more; there is usually a slight
channel, as at p, all round the top of the stem. When a mushroom
is perfectly ripe and the gills are brown-black in colour, they throw
down a thick dusty deposit of fine brown-black or purple-black
spores ; it is essential to note the colour. The spores on germination
make a white felted mat, more or less dense, of mycelium; this,
when compacted with dry, half-decomposed dung, is the mushroom
spawn of gardeners. The stem is firm, slightly pithy up the middle,
but never hollow; it _ bears a floccose ring near its middle, as
illustrated at Q, Q; this ring originates by the rupture of the thin
general wrapper x of the infant plant.
Like all widely spread and much-cultivated plants, the edible
*The earlier 15th-century form of the word was musseroun,
muscheron, &c., and was adapted from the French mousseron, which
is generally connected with moutse, moss.
mushroom has numerous varieties, and it differs in different
places and under different modes of culture in much the same
way as our kitchen-garden plants differ from the type they have
been derived from, and from each other. In some instances
these differences are so marked that they have led some
botanists to regard as distinct species many forms usually
esteemed by others as varieties only.
FIG. i. Pasture Mushroom (Agaricus campestris).
A small variety of the common mushroom found in pastures has
been named A. pratensis; it differs from the type in having a pale
reddish-brown scaly top, and the flesh on being cut or broken
changes to pale rose-colour. A variety still more marked, with a
darker brown cap and the flesh changing to a deeper rose, and
sometimes blood-red, has been described as A. rufescens. The
well-known compact variety of mushroom-growers, with its white
cap and dull purplish clay-coloured gills, is A. hortensis. Two
sub-varieties of this have been described under the names of A.
Buchanani and A. elongatus, and other distinct forms are known to
botanists. A variety also grows in woods named A. silvicola; this
can only be distinguished from the pasture mushroom by its elongated
bulbous stem antfits externally smooth cap. There is also a fungus
well known to botanists and cultivators which appears to be inter-
mediate between the pasture variety and the wood variety, named
A. vaporarius. The large rank horse mushroom, now generally
referred to as A. arvensis, is probably a variety of the pasture mush-
room; it grows in rings in woody places and under trees and hedges
in meadows; it has a large scaly round cap, and the flesh quickly
changes to buff or brown when cut or broken ; the stem too is hollow.
An unusually scaly form of this has been described as A.-viUaticus
and another as A. augustus.
A species, described by Berkeley and Broome as distinct from
both the pasture mushroom and horse mushroom, has been pub-
lished under the name of A. elvensis. This grows under oaks, in
clusters a most unusual character for the mushroom, and is said
to be excellent for the table. An allied fungus peculiar to woods,
with a less fleshy cap than the true mushroom, with hollow stem,
and strong odour, has been described as a close ally of the pasture
mushroom under the name of A. silvaticus; its qualities for the table
have not been recorded.
Many instances are on record of symptoms of poisoning, and
even death, having followed the consumption of plants which have
passed as true mushrooms; these cases have probably arisen from
the examples consumed being in a state of decay, or from some mis-
take as to the species eaten. It should always be specially noted
whether the fungi to be consumed are in a fresh and wholesome
condition, otherwise they act as a poison in precisely the same way
as does any other semi-putrid vegetable. Many instances are on
record where mushroom-beds have been invaded by a growth of
strange fungi and the true mushrooms have been ousted to the advan-
tage of the new-comers. When mushrooms are gathered for sale
by persons unacquainted with the different species mistakes are of
frequent _ occurrence. A very common spurious mushroom in
markets is A. velutinus, a slender, ringless, hollow-stemmed, black-
gilled fungus, common in gardens and about dung and stumps; it
is about the size of a mushroom, but thinner in all its parts and far
more brittle ; it has a black hairy fringe hanging round the edge of the
cap when fresh. Another spurious mushroom, and equally common
in dealers' baskets, is A. lacrymabundus; this grows in the same posi-
tions as the last, and is somewhat fleshier and more like a true mush-
room; it has a hollow stem and a slight ring, the gills are black-brown'
mottled and generally studded with tear-like drops of moisture.
In both these species the gills distinctly touch and grow on to the
stem. Besides these there are numerous other black-gilled species
which find a place in baskets some species far too small to bear
MUSHROOM
7 1
any resemblance to a mushroom, others large and deliquescent,
f:nerally belonging to the stump- and dung-borne genus Coprinus.
he true mushroom itself is to a great extent a dung-borne species,
therefore mushroom-beds are always liable to an invasion from other
dung-borne forms. The spores of all fungi are constantly floating
about in the air, and when the spores of dung-infesting species
alight on a mushroom-bed they find a nidus already prepared that
exactly suits them; and if the spawn of the new-comer becomes
more profuse than that of the mushroom the stranger takes up his
position at the expense of the mushroom. There is also a fungus
named Xylaria vaporaria, which sometimes fixes itself on mushroom-
beds and produces such an enormous quantity of string-like spawn
that the entire destruction of the bed results. This spawn is some-
times so profuse that it is pulled out of the beds in enormous masses
and carted away in barrows.
Sometimes cases of poisoning follow the consumption of what
have really appeared to gardeners to be true bed-mushrooms, and
to country folks as small horse mushrooms. The case is made more
complicated by the fact that these highly poisonous forms now and
then appear upon mushroom-beds to the exclusion of the mush-
rooms. This dangerous counterfeit is A . fastibilis, or sometimes A .
crustuliniformis, a close ally if not indeed a mere variety of the first.
A description of one will do for both, A. fastibilis being a little the
more slender of the two. Both have fleshy caps, whitish, moist and
clammy to the touch ; instead of a pleasant odour, they have a dis-
agreeable one; the stems are ringless, or nearly so; and the gills,
which are palish-clay-brown, distinctly touch and grow on to the
solid or pithy stem. These two fungi usually grow in woods, but
sometimes in hedges and in shady places in meadows, or even, as has
been said, as invaders on mushroom-beds. The pale clay-coloured
gills, offensive odour, and clammy or even viscid top are decisive
characters. A reference to the accompanying illustration (fig. 2),
which is about one-half natural size, will give a good idea of A.
fastibilis; the difference in the nature of the attachment of the gills
near the stem is seen at R, the absence of a true ring at s, and of a
pendent frill at x. The colour, with the exception of the gills, is
not unlike that of the mushroom. In determining fungi no single
character must be relied upon as conclusive, but all the characters
must be taken together. Sometimes a beautiful, somewhat slender,
fungus peculiar to stumps in woods is mistaken for the mushroom in
A. cervinus; it has a tall, solid, white, ringless stem and somewhat
thin brown cap, furnished underneath with beautiful rose-coloured
gills, which are free from the stem as in the mushroom, and which
FIG. 2. Poisonous Mushroom (Agaricus fastibilis).
never turn black. It is probably a poisonous plant, belonging, as it
does, to a dangerous cohort. Many other species of Agaricus more
or less resemble A. campestris, notably some of the plants found
under the sub-genera Lepiota, Volvaria, Pholiota and Psalliota;
but when the characters are noted they may all with a little care
be easily distinguished from each other. The better plan is to
discard at once all fungi which have not been gathered from open
pastures; by this act alone more than nine-tenths of worthless and
poisonous species will be excluded.
In cases of poisoning by mushrooms immediate medical advice
should be secured. The dangerous principle is a narcotic, and the
symptoms are usually great nausea, drowsiness, stupor and pains
in the joints. A good palliative is sweet oil; this will allay any
corrosive irritation of the throat and stomach, and at the same
time cause vomiting.
Paris mushrooms are cultivated in enormous quantities in dark
underground cellars at a depth of from 60 to 160 ft. from the surface.
The stable manure is taken into the tortuous passages of these cellars,
and the spawn introduced from masses of dry dung where it occurs
naturally. In France mushroom-growers do not use the compact
blocks or bricks of spawn so familiar in England, but much smaller
flakes or " leaves " of dry dung in which the spawn or mycelium can
be seen to exist. Less manure is used in these cellars than we
generally see in the mushroom-houses of England, and the surface
of each bed is covered with about an inch of fine white stony soil.
The beds are kept artificially moist by the application of water
brought from the surface, and the different galleries bear crops in
succession. As one is exhausted another is in full bearing, so that
by a systematic arrangement a single proprietor wiH send to the
surface from 300 Ib to 3000 Ib of mushrooms per day. The passages
sometimes extend over several miles, the beds sometimes occupying
over 20 m., and, as there are many proprietors of cellars, the produce
of mushrooms is so large that not only is Paris fully supplied, but
vast quantities are forwarded to the different large towns of Europe;
the mushrooms are not allowed to reach the fully expanded condi-
tion, but are gathered in a large button state, the whole growth of
the mushroom being removed and the hole left in the manure
covered with fine earth. The beds remain in bearing for six or
eight months, and then the spent manure is taken to the surface
again for garden and field purposes. The equable temperature of
these cellars and their freedom from draught is one cause of their
great success; to this must be added the natural virgin spawn,
for by continually using spawn taken from mushroom-producing
beds the potency for reproduction is weakened. The beds produce
mushrooms in about six weeks after this spawning.
The common mushroom (Agaricus campestris) is propagated by
spores, the fine black dust seen to be thrown off when a mature speci-
men is laid on white paper or a white dish ; these give rise to what
is known as the " spawn " or mycelium, which consists of whitish
threads permeating dried dung or similar substances, and which,
when planted in a proper medium, runs through the mass, and even-
tually develops the fructification known as the mushroom. This
'spawn may be obtained from old pastures, or decayed mushroom
beds, and is purchased from nurserymen in the form of bricks
charged with the mycelium, and technically known as mushroom
spawn. When once obtained, it may be indefinitely preserved.
It may be produced by placing quantities of horse-dung saturated
with the urine of horses, especially of stud horses, with alternate
layers of rich earth, and covering the whole with straw, to_ exclude
rain and air; the spawn commonly appears in the heap in about
two months afterwards. The droppings of stall-fed horses, or of
such as have been kept on dry food, should be made use of.
The old method of growing mushrooms in ridges out of doors, or
on prepared beds either level or sloping from a back wall in sheds or
cellars, may generally be adopted with success. The beds are formed
of horse-droppings which have been slightly fermented and frequently
turned, and may be made 2 or 3 ft. broad and of any length. A layer
of dung about 8 or 10 in. thick is first deposited, and covered with a
light dryish earth to the depth of 2 in. ; and two similar layers with
similar coverings are added, the whole being made narrower as it
advances in height. When the bed is finished, it is covered with
straw to protect it from rain, and also from parching influences.
In about ten days, when the mass is milkwarm, the bed will be
ready for spawning, which consists of inserting small pieces of spawn
bricks into the sloping sides of the bed, about 6 in. asunder. A layer
of fine earth is then placed over the whole, and well beaten down,
and the surface is covered with a thick coat of straw. When the
weather is temperate, mushrooms will appear in about a month after
the bed has been made, but at other times a much longer period may
elapse. The principal things to be attended to are to preserve a
moderate state of moisture and a proper mild degree of warmth;
and the treatment must vary according to the season.
These ordinary ridge beds furnish a good supply towards the end
of summer, and in autumn. To command a regular supply, how-
ever, at all seasons, the use of a mushroom-house will be Found very
convenient. The material employed in all cases is the droppings of
horses, which should be collected fresh, and spread out in thin layers
in a dry place, a portion of the short litter being retained well mois-
tened by horse-urine. It should then be thrown together in ridges
and frequently turned, so as to be kept in an incipient state of fer-
mentation, a little dryish friable loam being mixed with it to retain
the ammonia given off by the dung. With this or a mixture of
horse-dung, loam, old mushroom-bed dung, and half-decayed leaves,
the beds are built up in successive layers of about 3 in. thick, each
layer being beaten firm, until the bed is 9 or 10 in. thick. If the heat
exceeds 80", holes should be made to moderate the fermentation.
The beds are to be spawned when the heat moderates, and the surface
is then covered with a sprinkling of warmed loam, which after
a few days is made up to a thickness of 2 in., and well beaten down.
The beds made partly of old mushroom-bed dung often contain
sufficient spawn to yield a crop, without the introduction of brick or
cake spawn, but it is advisable to spawn them in the regular way.
The spawn should be introduced an inch or two below the surface
when the heat has declined to about 75, indeed the bed ought never
to exceed 80. The surface is to be afterwards covered with hay or
litter. The atmospheric temperature should range from 60 to 65
till the mushrooms appear, when it may drop a few degrees, but not
lower than 55. If the beds require watering, water of about 80
should be used, and it is preferable to moisten the covering of litter
rather than the surface 01 the beds themselves. It is also beneficial,
especially in the case of partially exhausted beds, to water with a
dilute solution of nitre. For a winter supply the beds should be
made towards the end of August, and the end of October. Slugs
and woodlice are the worst enemies of mushroom crops.
The Fairy-ring Champignon. This fungus, Marasmius Oreades,
is more universally used in France and Italy than in England,
although it is well known and frequently used both in a fresh and in
a dry state in England. It is totally different in appearance from the
MUSIC
pasture mushroom, and, like it, its characters are so distinct that
there is hardly a possibility of making a mistake when its peculiari-
ties are once comprehended. It has more than one advantage
over the meadow mushroom in its extreme commonness, its profuse
growth, the length of the season in which it may be gathered, the
total absence of varietal forms, its adaptability for being dried and
preserved for years, and its persistent delicious taste. It is by many
esteemed as the best of all the edible fungi found in Great Britain.
Like the mushroom, it grows in short open pastures and amongst
the short grass of open roadsides; sometimes it appears on lawns,
but it never occurs in woods or in damp shady places. Its natural
habit is to grow in rings, and the grassy fairy-rings so frequent
amongst the short grass of downs and pastures in the spring are
generally caused by the nitrogenous manure applied to the soil
in the previous autumn by the decay of a circle of these fungi. Many
other fungi in addition to the fairy-ring champignon grow in circles,
so that this habit must merely be taken with its other characters in
cases of doubt.
A glance at the illustration (fig. 3) will show how entirely the fairy-
ring champignon differs from the mushroom. In the first place, it
FIG. 3. The Fairy-ring Champignon (Marasmius oreades).
is about one-half the size of a mushroom, and whitish-buff in every
part, the gills always retaining this colour and never becoming
salmon-coloured, brown or black. The stem is ;solid and corky,
much more solid than the flesh of the cap, and perfectly smooth,
never being furnished with the slightest trace of a ring. The buff-
gills are far apart (v), and in this they greatly differ from the some-
what crowded gills of the mushroom; the junction of the gills with
the stem (w) also differs in character from the similar junction in the
mushroom. The mushroom is a semi-deliquescent fungus which
rapidly falls into putridity in decay, whilst the champignon dries
up into a leathery substance in the sun, but speedily revives and takes
its original form again after the first shower. To this character the
fungus owes its generic name (Marasmius) as well as one of its most
valuable qualities for the table, for examples may be gathered from
June to November, and if carefully dried may be hung on strings
for culinary purposes and preserved without deterioration for several
years; indeed, many persons assert that the rich flavour of these
fungi increases with years. Champignons are highly esteemed (and
especially is this the case abroad) for adding a most delicious flavour
to stews, soups and gravies.
A fungus which may carelessly be mistaken for the mushroom is
M . peronatus, but this grows in woods amongst dead leaves, and has a
hairy base to the stem and a somewhat acrid taste. Another is M.
urens ; this also generally grows in woods, but the gills are not nearly
so deep, they soon become brownish, the stem is downy, and the taste
is acrid. An Agaricus named A. dryophilus has sometimes been
gathered in mistake for the champignon, but this too grows in woods
where the champignon never grows ; it has a hollow instead of a solid
stem, gills crowded together instead of far apart, and flesh very
tender and brittle instead of tough. A small esculent ally of the
champignon, named M. scovodonius, is sometimes found in pastures
in Great Britain; this is largely consumed on the Continent, where
it is esteemed for its powerful flavour of garlic. In England, where,
garlic is not used to a large extent, this fungus is not sought for.
Another small and common species, M. porreus, is pervaded with a
garlic flavour to an equal extent with the last. A third species,
M. alliaceus, is also strongly impregnated with the scent and taste
of onions or garlic. Two species, M. impudicus and M. foetidus,
are in all stages of growth highly foetid. The curious little edible
Agaricus esculentus, although placed under the sub-genus Collybia,
is allied by its structure to Marasmius. It is a small bitter species
common in upland pastures and fir plantations early in the season.
Although not gathered for the table in England, it is greatly prized
in some parts of the Continent.
MUSIC. The Greek juouffiK^ (sc. TX"?), from which this
word is derived, was used very widely to embrace all those
arts over which the Nine Muses (Mouaai) were held to preside.
Contrasted with 7iywcumK^ (gymnastic) it included those
branches of education concerned with the development of the
mind as opposed to the body. Thus such widely different arts
and sciences as mathematics, astronomy, poetry and literature
generally, and even reading and writing would all fall under
tiovaiKrj, besides the singing and setting of lyric poetry. On
the educational value of music in the foimation of character
the philosophers laid chief stress, and this biased their aesthetic
analysis. 'Ap/iowa (harmony), or appoviKri (sc. Tt\vri), rather
than fiowM'ht was the name given by the Greeks to the art of
arranging sounds for the purpose of creating a definite aesthetic
impression, with which this article deals.
I. GENERAL SKETCH
i. Introduction. As a mature and independent art music
is unknown except in the modern forms realized by Western
civilization; ancient music, and the non-European music of the
present day, being (with insignificant exceptions of a character
which confirms the generalization) invariably an adjunct of poetry
or dance, in so far as it is recognizable as an art at all. The
modern art of music is in a unique position; for, while its language
has'been wholly created by art, this language is yet so perfectly
organized as to be in itself natural; so that though the music
of one age or style may be at first unintelligible to a listener
who is accustomed to another style, and though the listener
may help himself by acquiring information as to the char-
acteristics and meaning of the new style, he will best learn to
understand it by merely divesting his mind of prejudices and
allowing the music to make itself intelligible by its own self-
consistency. The understanding of music thus finally depends
neither upon t*ehnical knowledge nor upon convention, but
upon the listener's immediate and familiar experience of it;
an experience which technical knowledge and custom can of
course aid him to acquire more rapidly, as they strengthen
his memory and enable him to fix impressions by naming
them.
Beyond certain elementary facts of acoustics (see SOUND),
modern music shows no direct connexion with nature inde-
pendently of art; indeed, it is already art that determines the
selection of these elementary acoustic facts, just as in painting
art determines the selection of those facts that come under the
cognizance of optics. 1 In music, however, the purely acoustic
principles are incomparably fewer and simpler than the optical
principles of painting, and their artistic interaction transforms
them into something no less remote from the laboratory
experiments of acoustic science than from the unorganized
sounds of nature. The result is that while the ordinary non-
artistic experiences of sight afford so much material for plastic
art that the vulgar conception of good painting is that it is
deceptively like nature, the ordinary non-artistic experience
of sound has so little in common with music that musical
realism is, with rare though popular exceptions, generally
regarded as an eccentricity.
This contrast between music and plastic art may be partly
explained by the mental work undergone, during the earliest
infancy both of the race and of the individual, in interpreting
sensations of space. When a baby learns the shape of objects
by taking them in his hands, and gradually advances to the
discovery that his toes belong to him, he goes through an
amount of work that is quite forgotten by the adult, and its
complexity and difficulty has perhaps only been fully realized
through the experience of persons who have been born blind
but have acquired sight at a mature age by an operation. Such
work gives the facts of normal adult vision an amount of organic
principle that makes them admirable raw material for art.
The power of distinguishing sensations of sound is associated
with no such mental skill, and is no more complex than the
power of distinguishing colours. On the other hand, sound
is the principal medium by which most of the higher animals
both express and excite emotion; and hence, though until
1 Thus Chinese and Japanese art has attained high organization
without the aid of a veracious perspective; while, on the other hand,
its carefully formulated decorative principles, though not realistic,
certainly rest on an optical and physiological basis. Again, many
modern impressionists justify their methods by an appeal to pheno-
mena of complementary colour which earlier artists possibly did not
perceive and certainly did not select as artistic materials.
GENERAL SKETCH]
MUSIC
73
codified into human speech it does not give any raw material
for art, yet so powerful are its primitive effects that music
(in the laird-song sense of sound indulged in for its own attractive-
ness) is as long prior to language as the brilliant colours of
animals and flowers are prior to painting (see SONG). Again,
sound as a warning or a menace is eminently important in the
history of tLe instinct of self-preservation; and, above all, its
production is instantaneous and instinctive.
AH these facts, while they tend to make musical expression
an early phenomenon in the history of life, are extremely
unfavourable to the early development of musical art. They
invested the first musical attempts with a mysterious power
over listener and musician, by re-awakening instincts more
powerful, because more ancient and necessary, than any that
could ever have been appealed to by so deliberate a process
as that of drawing on a flat surface a series of lines calculated
to remind the eye of the appearance of solid objects in space.
It is hardly surprising that music long remained as imperfect
as its legendary powers were portentous, even in the hands of
so supremely artistic a race as that of classical Greece; and what-
ever wonder this backwardness might still arouse in us vanishes
when we realize the extreme difficulty of the process by which
the principles of the modern art were established.
2. Non-harmonic and Greek Music. Archaic music is of
two kinds the unwritten, or spontaneous, and the recorded,
or scientific. The earliest musical art-problems were far too
difficult for conscious analysis, but by no means always beyond
the reach of a lucky hit from an inspired singer; and thus folk-
music often shows real beauty where the more systematic music
of the time is merely arbitrary. Moreover, folk-music and the
present music of barbarous and civilized non-European races
furnish the study of musical origins with material analogous to
that given by the present manners and customs of different races
in the study of social evolution and ancient history. We may
mention as examples the accurate comparison of the musical
scales of non-European races undertaken by A. J. Ellis {On
the Musical Scales of Various Nations, 1885); the parallel
researches and acute and cautious reasoning of his friend and
- collaborator, A. J. Hipkins (Ddrian and Phrygian reconsidered
from a Non-harmonic Point of View, 1902); and, perhaps most
of all, the study of Japanese music, with its remarkable if
uncertain signs of the beginning of a harmonic tendency, its
logical coherence, and its affinity to Western scales, points
in which it seems to show a great advance upon the Chinese
music from which most of it is derived (Music and Musical
Instruments of Japan, by J. F. Piggott, 1893). The reader will
find detailed accounts of ancient Greek music in the article
on that subject in Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians
(new ed., ii. 223) and in Monro's Modes of Ancient Greek Music
(Clarendon Press, 1894), while both the Greek music itself,
and the steps by which it passed through Graeco-Roman and
early Christian phases to become the foundation of the modern
art, are traced as clearly as is consistent with accuracy in
The Oxford History of Music, vol. i., by Professor Wooldridge.
Sir Hubert Parry's Evolution of the Art of Music (" International
Scientific Series," originally published under the title of The
Art of Music) presents the main lines of the evolution of modern
musical ideas in the clearest and most readable form yet
attained.
Sir Hubert Parry illustrates in this work the artificiality of
our modern musical conceptions by the word " cadence,"
which to a modern musician belies its etymology, since it
normally means for him no " falling " close but a pair of final
chords rising from dominant to tonic. Moreover, in consequence
of our harmonic notions we think of scales as constructed from
the bottom upwards; and even in the above-mentioned article
in Grove's Dictionary all the Greek scales are, from sheer force
of habit, written upwards. But the ancient and, almost
universally, the primitive idea of music is like that of speech,
in which most inflections are in fact cadences, while rising
inflexions express less usual sentiments, such as surprise or
interrogation. Again, our modern musical idea of " high "
and " low " is probably derived from a sense of greater and less
vocal effort; and it has been much stimulated by our harmonic
sense, which has necessitated a range of sounds incomparably
greater than those employed in any non-harmonic system.
The Greeks derived their use of the terms from the position
of notes on their instruments; and the Greek hypate was what
we should call the lowest note of the mode, while nete was the
highest. Sir George Macfarren has pointed out (Ericy. Brit.,
9th ed., art. " Music ") that Boethius (c. A.D. 500) already fell
into the trap and turned the Greek modes upside down. *
Another radical though less grotesque misconception was
also already well exploded by Macfarren ; but it still frequently
survives at the present day, since the study of non-harmonic
scales is, with the best of intentions, apt rather to encourage
than to dispel it. The more we realize the importance of
differences in position of intervals of various sizes, as producing
differences of character in scales, the more irresistible is the
temptation to regard the ancient Greek modes as differing from
each other in this way. And the temptation becomes greater
instead of less when we have succeeded in thinking away our
modern harmonic notions. Modern harmonization enormously
increases the differences of expression between modes of which
the melodic intervals are different, but it does this in a fashion
that draws the attention almost entirely away from these
differences of interval; and without harmony we find it extremely
difficult to distinguish one mode from another, unless it be
by this different arrangement of intervals. Nevertheless, all
the evidence irresistibly tends to the conclusion that while the
three Greek genera diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic
were scales differing in intervals, the Greek modes were a series
of scales identical in arrangement of interval, and differing,
like our modern keys, only in pitch. The three genera were
applied to all these modes or keys, and we have no difficulty
in understanding their modifying effects. But the only clue
we have to the mental process by which in a preharmonic age
different characteristics can be ascribed to scales identical in
all but pitch, is to be found in the limited compass of Greek
musical sounds, corresponding as it does to the evident sensitive-
ness of the Greek ear to differences in vocal effort. We have
only to observe the compass of the Greek scale to see that in
the most esteemed modes it is much more the compass of speaking
than of singing voices. Modern singing is normally at a much
higher pitch than that of the speaking voice, but there is no
natural reason, outside the peculiar nature of modern music,
why this should be so. It is highly probable that all modern
singing would strike a classical Greek ear as an outcry; and
in any case such variations of pitch as are inconsiderable in
modern singing are extremely emphatic in the speaking voice,,
so that they might well make all the difference to an ear un-
accustomed to organized sound beyond the speaking compass.
Again, much that Aristoxenus and other ancient authorities
say of the character of the modes (or keys) tends to confirm
the view that that character depends upon the position of the
mese or keynote within the general compass. Thus Aristotle
(Politics, v. (viii.) 7, 1342 b. 20) states that certain low-pitched
modes suit the voices of old men, and thus we may conjecture
that even the position of tones and semitones might in the
Dorian and Phrygian modes bring the bolder portion of the
scale in all three genera into the best regions of the average
young voice, while the Ionian and Lydian might lead the voice
to dwell more upon semitones and enharmonic intervals, and
so account for the heroic character of the former and the sensual
character of the latter (Plato, Republic, 398 to 400).
Of the Greek genera, the chromatic and enharmonic (especially
1 It is worth adding that in the i6th century the great contrapun-
tal composer Costanzo Porta had been led by doubts on the subject
to the wonderful conclusion that ancient Greek music was poly-
phonic, and so constructed as to be invertible ; in illustration of which
theory he and Vincentino composed four-part motets in each of the
Greek genera (diatonic, chromatic and enharmonic), Porta's being
constructed like the I2th and I3th fugues in Bach's Kunst der Fuge
so as to be equally euphonious when sung upside down! (See
Hawkins's History of Music, i. 112.)
74
MUSIC
[GENERAL SKETCH
the latter) show very clearly the origin of so many primitive
scales in the interval of the downward fourth. That interval
'(e.g. from C to G) is believed to be the earliest melodic relation-
ship which the ear learnt to fix; and most of the primitive scales
were formed by the accretion of auxiliary notes at the bottom
of this interval, and the addition of a similar interval, with
similar accretions, below the former. In this way a pentatonic
scale, like that of so many Scotch melodies, can easily be formed
(thus, C, A, G; F, D, C) ; and though some primitive scales seem
to have been on the nucleus of the rising fifth,' while the Siamese
now use two scales of which not a single note within the octave
can be accounted for by any known principle, still we may
consider that for general historic purposes the above example
is typical. The Greeks divided their downward fourth into
four notes, called a tetrachord; and by an elaborate system of
linking tetrachords together they gave their scale a compass
of two octaves. The enharmonic tetrachord, being the most
ancient, gathered the lower three notes very closely to the
bottom, leaving the second note no less than a major third
from the top, thus C,Ab, G', G; (where G' stands for a note
between Ab and G). The chromatic tetrachord was C, Bbb,
Ab, G; and the diatonic tetrachord was C, Bb, Ab, G. It is this
last that has become the foundation of modern music, and the
Greeks themselves soon preferred it to the other genera and
found a scientific basis for it. In the first place they noticed
that its notes (and, 'less easily, the notes of the chromatic scale)
could be connected by a series of those intervals which they
recognized as concordant. These were, the fourth; its converse,
or inversion, the fifth; and the octave. The notes of the enhar-
monic tetrachord could not be connected by any such series.
In the articles on HARMONY and SOUND account is given of
the historic and scientific foundations of the modern conception
of concord; and although this harmonic conception applies
to simultaneous notes, while the Greeks concerned themselves
only with successive notes, it is nevertheless permissible to
regard the Greek sense of concord in successive notes as con-
taining the germ of our harmonic sense. The stability of the
diatonic scale was assured as early as the 6th century B.C. when
Pythagoras discovered (if he did not learn from Egypt or India)
the extremely simple mathematical proportions of its intervals.
And this discovery was of unique importance, as fixing the
intervals by a criterion that could never be obscured by the
changes of taste and custom otherwise inevitable in music that
has no conscious harmonic principles to guide it. At the same
time, the foundation of a music as yet immature and ancillary
to drama, on an acoustic science ancillary to a priori mathe-
matics, was not without disadvantage to the art; and it is
arguable that the great difficulty with which during the
medieval beginnings of modern harmony the concords of the
third and sixth were rationalized may have been increased by
the fact that the Pythagorean system left these intervals con-
siderably out of tune. In preharmonic times mathematics
could not direct even the most observant ear to the study of
those phenomena of upper partials of which Helmholtz, in
1863, was the first to explain the significance; and thus though
the Greeks knew the difference between a major and minor
tone, on which half the question depended, they could not
possibly arrive at the modern reasons for adding both kinds
of tone in order to make the major third. (See SOUND.)
Here we must digress in order to illustrate what is implied
by our modern harmonic sense; for the difference that this
makes to our whole musical consciousness is by no means uni-
versally realized. Music, as we now understand it, expresses
itself in the interaction of three elements rhythm, melody and
harmony. The first two are obviously as ancient as human
consciousness itself. Without the third a musical art of per-
manent value and intelligibility has not been known to attain
independent existence. With harmony music assumes the
existence of a kind of space in three dimensions, none of which
can subsist without at least implying the others. When we
hear an unaccompanied melody we cannot help interpreting
it in the light of its most probable harmonies. Hence, when
it does not imply consistent harmonies it seems to us quaint
or strange; because, unless it is very remote from our harmonic
conceptions, it at least implies at any given moment some
simple harmony which in the next moment it contradicts.
Thus our inferences as to the expression intended by music
that has not come under European influence are unsafe, and
the pleasure we take in such music is capricious. The effort of
thinking away our harmonic preconceptions is probably the
most violent piece of mental gymnastics in all artistic experience,
and furnishes much excuse for a sceptical attitude as to the
artistic value of preharmonic music, which has at all events
never become even partially independent of poetry and dance.
Thus the rhythm of classical Greek music seems to have been
entirely identical with that of verse, and its beauty and ex-
pression appreciated in virtue of that identity. From the modern
musical point of view the rhythm of words is limited to a merely
monotonous uniformity of flow, with minute undulations which
are musically chaotic (see RHYTHM). The example of Greek
tragedy, with the reports of its all-pervading music (in many
cases, as in that of Aeschylus, composed by the dramatist
himself) could not fail to fire the imaginations of modern pioneers
and reformers of opera; and Monteverde, Gluck and Wagner
convinced themselves and their contemporaries that their work
was, amongst other things, a revival of Greek tragedy. But all
that is known of Greek music shows that it represents no such
modern ideas, as far as their really musical aspect is concerned.
It represents, rather, an organization of the rise and fall of the
voice, no doubt as elaborate and artistic as the organization
of verse, no doubt powerful in heightening the emotional and
dramatic effect of words and action, but in no way essential
to the understanding or the organization of the works which it
adorned. The classical Greek preference for the diatonic scale
indicates a latent harmonic sense and also that temperance
which is at the foundation of the general Greek sense of beauty;
but, beyond this and similar generalities, all the research in the
world will not enable us to understand the Greek musician's
mind. Non-harmonic music is a world of two dimensions, and
we must now inquire how men came to rise from this " flat kind "
to the solid world of sound in which Palestrina, Bach, Beethoven
and Wagner live.
3. Harmonic Origins. Although the simultaneous blending
of different sounds was never seriously contemplated by the
Greeks, yet in classical times they were fond of singing with
high and low voices in octaves. This was called magadizing,
from the name of an instrument on which playing in octaves
was rendered easy by means of a bridge that divided the strings
at two-thirds of their length. While the practice was esteemed
for the beauty of the blending of different voices, it was tolerated
only because of the peculiar effect of identity furnished by
the different notes of the octave, and no other interval was so
used by the Greeks. In the article on HARMONY the degrees of
identity-in-difference which characterize the simpler harmonic
intervals are analysed, and the main steps are indicated by which
the more complicated medieval magadizing uses of the fourth
and fifth (the symphonia, diaphonia or organum of Hucbald)
gave way (partly by their own interchange and partly through
experiments in the introduction of ornaments and variety)
to the modern conception of harmony as consisting of voices
or parts that move independently to the exclusion of such parallel
motion. In The Oxjord History of Music, vols. i. and ii., will
be found abundant examples of every stage of the process,
which begins with the organum or diaphony that prevailed
until the death of Guido of Arezzo (about 1050) and passes
through the discant, or measured music, of the I3th century,
in which rhythm is first organized on a sufficiently firm basis to
enable voices to sing contrasted rhythms simultaneously,
while the new harmonic criterion of the independence of parts
more and more displaces and shows its opposition to the old
criterion of parallelism.
The most extraordinary example of these conflicting principles
is the famous rota " Sumer is icumen in," a 13th-century round
in four parts on a canonic ground-bass in two. Recent researches
GENERAL SKETCH]
MUSIC
75
have brought to light a number of works in the forms of motet,
conductus, rondel (neither the later rondo nor the round, but a
kind of triple counterpoint), which show that " Sumer is icumen
in " contains no unique technical feature; but no work within
two centuries of its date attains a style so nearly intelligible
to modern ears. Its richness and firmness of harmony are
such that the frequent use of consecutive fifths and octaves,
in strict accordance with 13th-century principles, has to our
ears all the effect of a series of grammatical blunders, so sharply
does it contrast with the smooth counterpoint of the rest. In
what light this smooth counterpoint struck contemporaries,
or how its author (who may or may not be the writer of the
Reading MS., John of Fornsete) arrived at it, is not clear,
though W. S. Rockstro's amusing article, " Sumer is icumen
in," in Grove's Dictionary, is very plausible. All that we know is
that music in England in the I3th century must have been at
a comparatively high state of development; and we may also
conjecture that the tuneful character of this wonderful rota
has something in common with the unwritten but famous
songs of the aristocratic troubadours, or trouveres, of the izth
and i3th centuries, who, while disdaining to practise the art of
accompaniment or the art of scientific and written music,
undoubtedly set the fashion in melody, and, being themselves
poets as well as singers, formed the current notions as to the
relations between musical and poetic rhythm. The music
of Adam de la Hale, surnamed Le Bossu d' Arras (c. 1230-1288),
shows the transformation of the troubadour into the learned
musician; and, nearly a century later, the more ambitious
efforts of a greater French poet (like his contemporary Petrarca,
one of Chaucer's models in poetic technique), Guillaume de
Machault (fl. 1350), mark a further technical advance, though they
are not appreciably more intelligible to the modern ear.
In the next century we find an Englishman, John Dunstable,
who had as early as 1437 acquired a European reputation;
while his works were so soon lost sight of that until recently
he was almost a legendary character, sometimes revered as the
" inventor " of counterpoint, and once or twice even identified
with St Dunstan! Recently a great deal of his work has come
to light, and it shows us (especially when taken in connexion
with the fact that the early Netherlandish master, G. Dufay,
did not die until 1474, twenty-one years after Dunstable) that
English counterpoint was fully capable of showing the composers
of the Netherlands the path by which they were to reach the
art of the " Golden age." In such examples of Dunstable's work
as that appended to the article " Dunstable " in Grove's
Dictionary (new ed., i. 744) we see music approaching a style
more or less consistently intelligible to a modern ear; and in
English Carols of the z^th Century (1891) several two-part
compositions of the period, in a style resembling Dunstable's,
have been made accessible to modern readers and filled out into
four-part music by the editor " in accordance with the rules
of the time." And though it may be doubted whether Mr
Rockstro's skill would not have been held in the 1 5th century to
savour overmuch of the Black Art, still the success of his attempt
shows that the musical conceptions he is dealing with are no
longer radically different from those of our modern musical
consciousness.
4. The Golden Age. The struggle towards the realization
of mature musical art seems incredibly slow when we do not
realize its difficulty, and wonderfully rapid as soon as we attempt
to imagine the effort of first forming those harmonic conceptions
which are second nature to us. Even at the time of Dunstable
and Dufay the development of the contrapuntal idea of inde-
pendence of parts had not yet so transformed the harmonic
consciousness that the ancient parallelisms or consecutive
fourths and fifths that were the backbone of discant could
be seen in their true light as contradictory to the contrapuntal
method. By the beginning of the i6th century, however, the
laws of counterpoint were substantially fixed; practice was
for a while imperfect, and aims still uncertain, but skill was
increasing and soon became marvellous; and in 16th-century
music we leave the archaic world altogether. Henceforth music
may show various phenomena of crudeness, decadence and
transition, but its transition-periods will always derive light
from the past, whatever the darkness of the future.
In the best music of the i6th century we have no need of
research or mental gymnastics, beyond what is necessary in
all art to secure intelligent presentation and attention. Its
materials show us the " three dimensions " of music in their
simplest state of perfect balance. Rhythm, emancipated from
the tyranny of verse, is free to co-ordinate and contrast a multi-
tude of melodies which by the very independence of their flow
produce a mass of harmony that passes from concord to concord
through ordered varieties of transitional discord. The criterion
of discord is no longer that of mere harshness, but is modified
by the conception of the simplicity or remoteness of the steps
by which the flux of independent simultaneous melodies passes
from one concord, or point of repose, to another. When the
music reaches a climax, or its final conclusion, the point of
repose is, of course, greatly emphasized. It is accordingly the
" cadences " or full closes of 16th-century music that show
the greatest resemblance to the harmonic ideas of the present
day; and it is also at these points that certain notes were most
frequently raised so as to modify the ecclesiastical modes which
are derived more or less directly from the melodic diatonic
scale of the Greeks, and misnamed, according to inevitable
medieval misconceptions, after the Greek modes. 1
In other passages our modern ears, when unaccustomed to
the style, feel that the harmony is strange and lacking in definite
direction; and we are apt to form the hasty conclusion that the
mode is an archaic survival. A more familiar acquaintance
with the art soon shows that its shifting and vague modulations
are no mere survival of a scale inadequate for any but melodic
purposes, but the natural result of a state of things in which only
two species of chord are available as points of repose at all. If
no successions of such chords were given prominence, except those
that define key according to modern notions based upon a much
greater variety of harmony, the resulting monotony and triviality
would be intolerable. Moreover, there is in this music just
as much and no more of formal antithesis and sequence as its
harmony will suffice to hold together. Lastly, we shall find,
on comparing the masterpieces of the period with works of
inferior rank, that in the masterpieces the most archaic modal
features are expressive, varied and beautiful; while in the inferior
works they are often avoided in favour of ordinary modern
ideas, and, when they occur, are always accidental and monoto-
nous, although in strict conformity with the rules of the time.
The consistent limitations of harmony, form and rhythm have
the further consequence that the only artistic music possible
within them is purely vocal. The use of instruments is little
more than a necessary evil for the support of voices in case of
insufficient opportunity for practice; and although the origins
of instrumental music are already of some artistic interest in
the 1 6th century, we must leave them out of our account if our
object is to present mature artistic ideas in proper proportions.
The principles of 16th-century art-forms are discussed in
more detail in the article on CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS. Here we
will treat the formal criteria on a general basis; especially as
with art on such simple principles the distinction between one
art-form and another is apt to be either too external or too
subtle for stability. With music there is a stronger probability
than in any other art that merely mechanical devices will be
self-evident, and thus they may become either dangerous or
effective. With the masters of the Netherlands they speedily
became both. Two adjacent groups of illustrations in Burney's
1 The technical nature of the subject forbids us to discuss the
origin and characteristics of the great Ambrosian and Gregorian
collections of melodic church music on which nearly all medieval
and 16th-century polyphony was based, and from which the ecclesi-
astical modes were derived. Professor Wooldridge in The Oxford
History of Music, i. 20-44, has shown- the continuity of this early
Christian music with the Graeco- Roman music, and the origin of its
modes in the Ptolemaic modification (c. A.D. 150) of the Greek
diatonic scale; while a recent defence of the ecclesiastical tradi-
tion of a revision by St Gregory will be found in the article on
" Gregorian music " in Grove's Dictionary (new ed.), ii. 235.
7 6
MUSIC
[GENERAL SKETCH
History of Music will show on the one hand the astonishing
way in which early polyphonic composers learnt to " dance
in fetters," and, on the other hand, tne expressive power that
they attained by that discipline. Burney quotes from the
venerable 15th-century master Okeghem, or Okenheim, some
canons so designed as to be singable in all modes. They are
by no means extreme cases of the ingenuity which Okenheim
and his pupils often employed; but though they are not very
valuable artistically (and are not even correctly deciphered
by Burney) 1 they prove that mechanical principles may be a
help rather than a hindrance to the attainment of a smooth
and plastic style. Burney most appropriately follows them
with Josquin Des Pres's wonderful Deploralion de Jehan Okenheim,
in which the tenor sings the plain chant of the Requiem a degree
below its proper pitch, while the other voices sing a pastoral
dirge in French. The device of transposing the plain chant a
note lower, and making the tenor sing it in that position through-
out the whole piece, is obviously as mechanical as any form of
acrostic: but it is happily calculated to impress our ears, even
though, unlike Josquin's contemporaries, most of us are not
familiar with the plain chant in its normal position; because
it alters the position of all the semitones and gives the chant
a plaintive minor character which is no less impressive in itself
than as a contrast to the orthodox form. And the harmonic
superstructure is as fine an instance of the expressive possibilities
of the church modes at their apogee from modern tonality as
could be found anywhere. A still nobler example, which we
may perhaps acclaim as the earliest really sublime masterpiece
in music, is Josquin's Miserere, which is accessible in a modern
edition. In this monumental work one of the tenor parts is
called Vagans, because it sings the burden Miserere mei Deus
at regular intervals, in an almost monotonous wailing figure,
wandering through each successive degree of the scale throughout
the composition- The effect, aided as it is by consummate
rhetorical power in every detail of the surrounding mass of
harmony and counterpoint, is extremely expressive; and the
device lends itself to every shade of feeling in the works of the
greatest of all Netherland masters, Orlando di Lasso. Palestrina
is less fond of it. Like all more obvious formal devices it is
crowded out of his Roman art by the exquisite subtlety of his
sense of proportion, and the exalted spirituality of his style
which, while it allows him to set the letters of the Hebrew alphabet
in the Lamentations of Jeremiah in much the same spirit as
that in which they would be treated in an illuminated Bible,
forbids him to stimulate a sense of form that might distract
the mind from the sense of mystery and awe proper to objects
of devout contemplation. Yet in one of his greatest motets,
Tribularer si nescirem, the burden of Josquin's Miserere appears
with the same treatment and purpose as in its prototype.
But with the lesser Flemish masters, and sometimes with
the greatest, such mechanical principles often became not only
inexpressive but absolutely destructive to musical effect. The
ingenuity necessary to make the stubborn material of music
plastic was not so easily attainable as the ingenuity necessary
to turn music into a mathematical game; and when Palestrina was
in his prime the inferior composers so outnumbered the masters
to whom music was a devout language, and so degraded the
art, not only by ousting genuine musical expression but by
foisting secular tunes and words into the church services, that
one of the minor questions with which the Council of Trent
was concerned was whether polyphonic church music should be
totally abolished with other abuses, or whether it was capable
of reform. Legendary history relates that Palestrina submitted
for judgment three masses of which the Missa papae Marcelli
proved to be so sublime that it was henceforth accepted as the
ideal church music (see PALESTRINA). This tale is difficult to
reconcile with the chronology of Palestrina's works, but there is
no doubt that Palestrina was officially recognized by the Church
as a bulwark against bad taste. But we must not allow
this to mislead us as to the value of church music before
' * The correct version will be found in The Oxford History of Music,
ii. 215.
Palestrina. Nor must we follow the example of Baini, who,
in his detestation of what he is pleased to call fiammingo squalore,
views with uncritical suspicion any work in which Palestrina
does not confine himself to strictly Italian methods of expression.
A notion still prevails that Josquin represents counterpoint in
an anatomical perfection into which Palestrina was the first
to breathe life and soul. This gives an altogether inadequate
idea of 16th-century music. Palestrina brought the century to a
glorious close and is undoubtedly its greatest master, but he
is primus inter pares; and in every part of Europe music was
represented, even before the middle of the century, by masters
who have every claim to immortality that sincerity of aim,
completeness of range, and depth and perfection of style can
give. It has been rightly called the golden age of music, and
our chronological table at the end of this article gives but an
inadequate idea of the number of its masters whom no lover
of music ought to neglect. It is not exclusively an age of church
music. It is also the age of madrigals, both secular and spiritual ;
and, small as was its range of expression, there has been no
period in musical art when the distinctions between secular and
ecclesiastical style were more accurately maintained by the great
masters, as is abundantly shown by the test cases in which
masses of the best period have been based on secular themes.
(See MADRIGAL.)
5. The Monadic Resolution and its Results. Like all golden
ages, that of music vanished at the first appearance of a knowledge
beyond its limitations. The first and simplest realization of
mature art is widespread and nourishes a veritable army of great
men; its masterpieces are innumerable, and its organization
is so complete that no narrowness or specialization can be felt
in the nature of its limitations. Yet these are exceedingly
close, and the most modest attempt to widen them may have
disastrous results. Many experiments were tried before Pales-
trina's death and throughout the century, notably by the
elder and younger Gabrieli. Perhaps Palestrina himself is
the only great composer of the time who never violates the
principles of his art. Orlando di Lasso, unlike Palestrina,
wrote almost as much secular as sacred music, and in his youth
indulged in many eccentricities in a chromatic style which he
afterwards learnt to detest. But if experiments are to revolu-
tionize art it is necessary that their novelty shall already embody
some artistic principle of coherence. No such principle will
avail to connect the Phrygian mode with a chord containing A$;
and, however proud the youthful Orlando di Lasso may be at
being the first to write A#, neither his early chromatic experiments
nor those of Cipriano di Rore, which he admired so much, left
a mark on musical history. They appealed to nothing deeper
than a desire for sensational variety of harmony; and, while
they carried the successions of chords far beyond the limits
of the modes, they brought no new elements into the chords
themselves.
By the beginning of the I7th century the true revolutionary
principles were vigorously at work, and the powerful genius
of Monteverde speedily made it impossible for men of impres-
sionable artistic temper to continue to work in the old
style when such vast new regions of thought lay open to
them. In the year of Palestrina's death, 1594, Monteverde pub-
lished, in his third book of madrigals, works in which without
going irrevocably beyond the letter of 16th-century law he showed
far more zeal for emotional expression than sense of euphony.
In 1 599 he published madrigals in which his means of expression
involve harmonic principles altogether incompatible with 16th-
century ideas. But he soon ceased to place confidence in the
madrigal as an adequate art-form for his new ideals of expression,
and he found an unlimited field in musical drama. Dramatic
music received its first stimulus from a group of Florentine
dilettanti, who aspired amongst other things to revive the ideals of
Greek tragedy. Under their auspices the first true opera
ever performed in public, Jacopo Peri's Euridice, appeared in
1600. Monteverde found the conditions of dramatic music
more favourable to his experiments than those of choral music,
in which both voices and ears are at their highest sensibility
GENERAL SKETCH]
MUSIC
77
to discord. Instruments do not blend like voices; and players,
producing their notes by more mechanical means, have not
the singer's difficulty in making combinations which the ear
does not readily understand.
The one difficulty of the new art was fatal: there were no
limitations. When Monteverde introduced his unprepared
discords, the effect upon musical style was like that of intro-
ducing modern metaphors into classical Greek. There were
no harmonic principles to control the new material, except
those which just sufficed to hold together the pure loth-century
style; and that style depended on an exquisite continuity of
flow which was incompatible with any rigidity either of har-
mony or rhythm. Accordingly there were also no rhythmic
principles to hold Monteverde's work together, except such
as could be borrowed from types of secular and popular music
that had hitherto been beneath serious attention. If the i7th
century seems almost devoid of great musical names it is not
for want of incessant musical activity. The task of organizing
new resources into a consistent language was too gigantic to
be accomplished within three generations. Its fascinating
dramatic suggestiveness and incalculable range disguised for
those who first undertook it the fact that the new art was as
difficult and elementary in its beginnings as the very beginning
of harmony itself in the I3th and i4th centuries. And the
most beautiful compositions at the beginning of the I7th century
are rather those which show the decadence of 16th-century art
than those in which the new principles were most consistently
adopted. Thus the madrigals of Monteverde, though often
dull and always rough, contain more music than his operas.
On the other hand, almost until the middle of the xyth century
great men were not wanting who still carried on the pure
polyphonic style. Their asceticism denotes a spirit less compre-
hensive than that of the great artists for whom the golden age
was a natural environment; but in parts of the world where the
new influences did not yet prevail even this is not the case,
and a composer like Orlando Gibbons, who died in 1625, is
well worthy to be ranked with the great Italian and Flemish
masters of the preceding century.
But the main task of composers of the iyth century lay
elsewhere; and if the result of their steady attention to it was
trivial in comparison with the glories of the past, it at least
led to the glories of the greater world organized by Bach and
Handel. The early monodists, Monteverde and his fellows,
directed attention to the right quarter in attempting to express
emotion by means of single voices supported by instruments;
but the formless declamation of their dramatic writings soon
proved too monotonous for permanent interest, and such method
as it showed became permanent only by being codified into
the formulas of recitative, which are, for the most part, very
happy idealizations of speech-cadence, and which accordingly
survive as dramatic elements in music at the present day,
though, like all rhetorical figures, they have often lost meaning
from careless use. 1 It was all very well to revolutionize current
conceptions of harmony, so that chords were no longer considered,
as in the days of pure polyphony, to be the result of so many
independent melodies. But in art, as elsewhere, new thought
eventually shows itself as an addition to, not a substitute for,
the wisdom of ages. Moreover, it is a mistake, though one
endorsed by high authorities, to suppose that the 16th-century
composers did not appreciate the beauty of successions of chords
apart from polyphonic design. On the contrary, Palestrina
and Orlando di Lasso themselves are the greatest masters the
world has ever seen of a style which depends wholly on the
beauty of masses of harmony, entirely devoid of polyphonic
detail, and held together by a delicately balanced rhythm in
which obvious symmetry is as carefully avoided as it is in the
successions of chords themselves. Nevertheless, the monody
of the 1 7th century is radically different in principle, not only
because ^ chords are used which were an outrage on i6th-
1 The " invention " of recitative is frequently ascribed to this or
that monodist, with as little room for dispute as when we ascribe
the invention of clothes to Adam and Eve. All monody was recita-
tive, if only from inability to organize melodies.
century ears, but because the fundamental idea is that of a
solo voice declaiming phrases of paramount emotional interest,
and supported by instruments that play such chords as will
heighten the poignancy of the voice. And the first advance
made on this chaotic monody consisted, not in the reintroduction
of vitality into the texture of the harmonies, but in giving formal
symmetry and balance to the vocal surface. This involved the
strengthening of the harmonic system, so that it could carry
the new discords as parts of an intelligible scheme, and not
merely as uncontrollable expressions of emotion. In other words,
the chief energies of the successors of the monodists were devoted
to the establishment of the modern key-system; a system in
comparison with which the subtle variety of modal concord
sounded vague and ill-balanced, until the new key-system
itself was so safely established that Bach and Beethoven could
once more appreciate and use essentially modal successions of
chords in their true meaning.
The second advance of the monodic movement was in the
cultivation of the solo voice. This developed together with
the cultivation of the violin, the most capable and expressive
of the instruments used to support it. Monteverde already
knew how to make interesting experiments with violins, such
as directing them to play pizzicato, and accompanying an excited
description of a duel by rapidly repeated strokes on a major
chord, followed by sustained dying harmonies in the minor.
By the middle of the century violin music is fairly common,
and the distinction between Sonata da chiesa and Sonata da
camera appears (see SONATA). But the cultivation of instru-
mental technique had also a great effect on that of the voice;
and Italian vocal technique soon developed into a monstrosity
that so corrupted musical taste as not only to blind the contem-
poraries of Bach and Handel to the greatness of their choral
art, but, in Handel's case, actually to swamp a great deal of
his best work. The balance between a solo voice and a group
of instruments was, however, successfully cultivated together
with the modern key-system and melodic form; with the result
that the classical aria, a highly effective art-form, took shape.
This, while it totally destroyed the dramatic character of opera
for the next hundred years, yet did good service in furnishing
a reasonably effective means of musical expression which could
encourage composers and listeners to continue cultivating the
art until the day of small things was past. The operatic aria,
as matured by Alessandro Scarlatti, is at its worst a fine oppor-
tunity for a gorgeously dressed singer to display feats of vocal
gymnastics, either on a concert platform, or in scenery worthy
of the Drury Lane pantomime. At its best it is a beautiful
means of expression for the devout fervour of Bach and Handel.
At all times it paralyses dramatic action, and no more ironic
revenge has ever overtaken iconoclastic reformers than the
historic development by which the purely dramatic declama-
tion of the monodists settled down into a series of about thirty
successive displays of vocalization, designed on rigidly musical
conventions, and produced under spectacular conditions by
artificial sopranos as the highest ideal of music-drama.
The principal new art-forms of the I7th century are then,
firstly, the aria (not the opera, which was merely a spectacular
condition under which people consented to listen to some thirty
arias in succession); and, secondly, the polyphonic instrumental
forms, of which those of the suite or sonata da camera were
mainly derived from the necessity for ballet music in the opera
(and hence greatly stimulated by the taste of the French court
under Louis XIV.), while those of the sonata da chiesa were also
inspired by a renaissance of interest in polyphonic texture.
The sonata da chiesa soon settled into a conventionality only
less inert than that of the aria because violin technique had
wider possibilities than vocal; but when Lulli settled in France
and raised to a higher level of effect the operatic style suggested
by Cambert, he brought with him justr enough of the new instru-
mental polyphony to make his typical form of French overture
(with its slow introduction in dotted rhythm, and its quasi-fugal
allegro) worthy of the important place it occupies in Bach's and
Handel's art.
MUSIC
[GENERAL SKETCH
Meanwhile great though subordinate activity was also shown
in the evolution of a new choral music dependent upon an instru-
mental accompaniment of more complex function than that of
mere support. This, in the hands of the Neapolitan masters,
was destined to lead straight to the early choral music of Mozart
and Haydn, both of whom, especially Mozart, subsequently
learnt its greater possibilities from the study of Handel. But the
most striking choral art of the time came from the Germans,
who never showed that thoughtless acquiescence in the easiest
means of effect which was already the bane of Italian art.
Consequently, while the German output of the iyth century fails
to show that rapid attainment of modest maturity which gives
much Italian music of the period a permanent if slight artistic
value, there is, in spite of much harshness, a stream of noble
polyphonic effort in both organ and choral music in Germany
from the time of H. Schiitz (who was born in 1585 and who was a
great friend and admirer of Monteverde) to that of Bach and
Handel just a century later. Nor was Germany inactive in the
dramatic line, and the i yth-century Italian efforts in comic opera,
which are so interesting and so unjustly neglected by historians,
found a parallel, before Handel's maturity, in the work of
R. Keiser, and may be traced through him in Handel's first
opera, Almira.
The best proof of the insufficiency of 17th-century resources
is to be found in the almost tragic blending of genius and failure
shown by our English church music of the Restoration. The
works of Pelham Humfrey and Blow already show the qualities
which with Purcell seem at almost any given moment to amount
to those of the highest genius, while hardly a single work has
any coherence as a whole. The patchiness of Purcell's music
was, no doubt, increased by the influence of French taste then
predominant at court. When Pelham Humfrey was sixteen,
King Charles II., as Sir Hubert Parry remarks, " achieved the
characteristic and subtle stroke of humour of sending him over
to France to study the methods of the most celebrated composer
of theatrical music of the time in order to learn how to compose
English church music." Yet it is impossible to see how such
ideas as Purcell's could have been presented in more than French
continuity of flow by means of any designs less powerful than
those of Bach and Handel. Purcell's ideas are, like those of
all great artists, at least sixty years in advance of the normal
intellect of the time. But they are unfortunately equally in
advance of the only technical resources then conceivable; and
Purcell, though one of the greatest contrapuntists that ever
lived, is probably the only instance in music of a man of really
high genius born out of due time. Musical talent was certainly
as common in the lyth century as at any other time; and if we
ask why, unless we are justified in counting Purcell as a tragic
exception, the whole century shows not one name in the first
artistic rank, the answer must be that, after all, artistic talent
is far more common than the interaction of environment and
character necessary to direct it to perfect artistic results.
6. Bach and Handel. It was not until the i8th century had
begun that two men of the highest genius could find in music a
worthy expression of their grasp of life. Bach and Handel were
born within a month of each other, in 1685, and in the same part
of Saxony. Both inherited the tradition of polyphonic effort
that the German organists and choral writers had steadily
maintained throughout the lyth century; and both profited by
the Italian methods that were penetrating Germany. In Bach's
case it was the Italian art-forms that appealed to his sense of
design. Their style did not affect him, but he saw every possi-
bility which the forms contained, and studied them the more
assiduously because they were not, like polyphonic texture, his
birthright. In recitative his own distinctively German style
attained an intensity and freedom of expression which is one of
the most moving things in art. Nevertheless, if he handled
recitative in his own way it was not for want of acquaintance
with the Italian formulas, nor even because he despised them;
for in his only two extant Italian works the scraps of recitative
are strictly in accordance with Italian convention, and the
arias show (when we allow for their family likeness with Bach's
normal style) the most careful modelling upon Italian forms.
Again, as is well known, Bach arranged with copious additions
and alterations many concertos by Vivaldi (together with some
which though passing under Vivaldi's name are really by German
contemporaries); and, while thus taking every opportunity of
assimilating Italian influences in instrumental as well as in vocal
music, he was no less alive to the importance of the French
overture and suite forms. Moreover, he is very clear as to where
his ideas come from, and extremely careful to maintain every
art-form in its integrity. Yet his style remains his own through-
out, and the first impression of its resemblance to that of his
German contemporaries diminishes the more the period is studied.
Bach's art thus forms one of the most perfectly systematic
and complete records a life's work has ever achieved. His
art-forms might be arranged in a sort of biological scheme, and
their interaction and genealogy has a clearness which might
almost be an object of envy to men of science even if Bach had
not demonstrated every detail of it by those wonderful re-
writings of his own works which we have described elsewhere
(see BACH).
Handel's methods were as different from Bach's as his circum-
stances. He soon left Germany and, while he never betrayed
his birthright as a great choral writer, he quickly absorbed the
Italian style so thoroughly as to become practically an Italian.
He also adopted the Italian forms, but not, like Bach, from any
profound sense of their possible place in artistic system. To
him they were effective, and that was all. He did not trouble
himself about the permanent idea that might underlie an art-
form and typify its expression. He has no notion of a form as
anything higher than a rough means of holding music together
and maintaining its flow; but he and Bach, alone among their
contemporaries, have an unfailing sense of all that is necessary
to secure this end. They worked from opposite points of view:
Bach develops his art from within, until its detail, like that of
Beethoven's last works, becomes dazzling with the glory of the
whole design; Handel at his best is inspired by a magnificent
scheme, in the execution of which he need condescend to finish
of detail only so long as his inspiration does not hasten to the
next design. Nevertheless it is to the immense sweep and
breadth of Handel's choral style, and its emotional force, that all
subsequent composers owe their first access to the larger and
less mechanical resources of music. (See HANDEL.)
7. The Symphonic Classes. After the death of Bach and
Handel another change of view, like that Copernican revolution
for which Kant sighed in philosophy, was necessary for the
further development of music. Once again it consisted in an
inversion of the relation between form and texture. But,
whereas at the beginning of the lyth century the revolution
consisted mainly in directing attention to chords as, so to speak,
harmonic lumps, instead of moments in a flux of simultaneous
melodies; in the later half of the i8th century the revolution
concerned the larger musical outlines, and was not complicated
by the discovery of new harmonic resources. On the contrary,
it led to an extreme simplicity of harmony. The art of Bach
and Handel had given perfect vitality to the forms developed
in the i8th century, but chiefly by means of the reinfusion of
polyphonic life. The formal aspects (that is, those that decree
the shapes of aria and suite-movement and the balance and
contrasts of such choruses as are not fugues) are, after all, of
secondary importance; the real centre of Bach's and Handel's
technical and intellectual activity is the polyphony; and the
more the external shape occupies the foreground the more the
work assumes the character of light music. In the article
SONATA FORMS we show how this state of things was altered,
and attention is there drawn to the dramatic power of a music
in which the form is technically prior to the texture. And it
is not difficult to understand that Gluck's reform of opera would
have been a sheer impossibility if he had not dealt with music
in the sonata style, which is capable of changing its character
as it unfolds its designs.
The new period of transition was neither so long nor so inter-
esting as that of the lyth century. The contrast between the
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MUSIC
79
squalid beginnings of the new art and the glories of Bach and
Handel is almost as great as that between the monodists and
Palestrina, but it appeals far less to our sympathies, because it
seems like a contrast between noble sincerity and idle elegance.
The new art seems so easy-going and empty that it conceals
from us the necessity of the sympathetic historical insight for
which the painful experiments of the monodists almost seem to
cry aloud. And its boldest rhetorical experiments, such as the
fantasias of Philipp Emanuel Bach, show a security of harmony
which, together with the very vividness of their realization of
modern ideas, must appear to a modern listener more like the
hollow rhetoric of a decadent than the prophetic inspiration
of a pioneer. And, just as in the lyth century, so in the time
before Haydn and Mozart, the work that is most valuable artis-
tically tends to be that which is of less importance historically.
The cultivation of the shape of music at the expense of its texture
was destined to lead to greater things than polyphonic art had
ever dreamt of; but no living art could be achieved until the
texture was brought once more into vital, if subordinate, relation
to the shape. Thus, far more interesting artistically than the
epoch-making earlier pianoforte works of Philipp Emanuel Bach
are his historically less fruitful oratorios, and his symphonies,
and the rich polyphonic modifications of the new principles
in the best works of his elder brother Friedemann. Yet the tran-
sition-period is hardly second in historic importance to that of
the lyth century; and we may gather from it even more direct
hints as to the meaning of the tendencies of our own day.
As in the lyth century, so in the i8th the composers and
critics of Haydn's youth, not knowing what to make of the new
tendencies, and conscious rather of the difference between new
and old ideas than of the true nature of either, took refuge in
speculations about the emotional and external expression of
music; and when artistic power and balance fail it is very con-
venient to go outside the limits of the art and explain failure
away by external ideas. Fortunately the external ideas were
capable of serious organic function through the medium of opera,
and in that art-form music was passing out of the hands of
Italians and assuming artistic and dramatic life under Gluck.
The metaphysical and literary speculation which overwhelmed
musical criticism at this time, and which produced paper warfares
and musical party-feuds such as that 'between the Gluckists
and the Piccinists, at all events had this advantage over the
Wagnerian and anti-Wagnerian controversies of the last genera-
tion and the disputes about the legitimate function of instru-
mental music at the present day that it was speculation applied
exclusively to an art-form in which literary questions were
directly concerned, an art-form which moreover had up to that
time been the grave of all the music composers chose to put
into it. But as soon as music once more attained to consistent
principles all these discussions became but a memory. If Gluck's
music had not been more musical as well as more dramatic than
Piccini's, all its foreshadowing of Wagnerian principles would
have availed it no more than it availed Monteverde.
When the new art found symphonic expression in Haydn and
Mozart, it became music pure and simple, and yet had no more
difficulty than painting or poetry in dealing with external
ideas, when these were naturally brought into it by the human
voice or the conditions of dramatic action. It had once more
become an art which need reject or accept nothing on artificial or
extraneous grounds. Beethoven soon showed how gigantic the
scale and range of the sonata style could be, and how tremendous
was its effect on the possibilities of vocal music, both dramatic
and choral. No revolution was needed to accomplish this.
The style was perfectly formed, and for the first and so far the
only time in musical history a mature art of small range opened
out into an equally perfect one of gigantic range, without a
moment of decadence or destruction. The chief glory of the
art that culminates in Beethoven is, of course, the instrumental
music, all of which comes under the head of the sonata-forms
(<?..).
Meanwhile Mozart raised comic opera, both Italian and
German, to a height which has never since been approached
within the classical limits, and from which the operas of Rossini
and his successors show a decadence so deplorable that if
" classical music " means " high art " we must say that classical
opera buffa begins and ends in Mozart. But Gluck, finding his
dramatic ideas -encouraged by the eminent theatrical sensibilities
of the French, had already given French opera a stimulus
towards the expression of tragic emotion which made the classics
of the French operatic school well worthy to inspire Beethoven
to his one noble operatic effort and Weber to the greatest works
of his life. Cherubini, though no more a Frenchman than
Gluck, was Gluck's successor in the French classical school of
dramatic music. His operas, like his church music, account for
Beethoven's touching estimation of him as the greatest composer
of the time. In them his melodies, elsewhere curiously cold and
prosaic, glow with the warmth of a true classic; and his tact in
developing, accelerating and suspending a dramatic climax is
second only to Mozart's. Scarcely inferior to Cherubini in
mastery and dignity, far more lovable in temperament, and
weakened only by inequality of invention, Mehul deserves a far
higher place in musical history than is generally accorded him.
His most famous work, Joseph, is of more historical importance
than his others, but it is by no means his best from a purely
musical point of view, though its Biblical subject impelled
Me'hul to make extremely successful experiments in " local
colour " which had probably considerable influence upon
Weber, whose admiration of the work was boundless. One
thing is certain, that the romantic opera of Weber owes much
of its inspiration to the opera comique of these masters. 1
8. From Beethoven to Wagner. After Beethoven comes
what is commonly though vaguely described as the " romantic "
movement. In its essentials it amounts to little more than
this, that musicians found new and prouder titles for a very
ancient and universal division of parties. The one party set up
a convenient scheme of form based upon the average procedure
of all the writers of sonatas except Haydn and Beethoven,
which scheme they chose to call classical; while the other party
devoted itself to the search for new materials and new means of
expression. The classicists, if so they may be called, did not
quite approve of Beethoven; and while there is much justification
for the charge that has been brought against them of reducing
the sonata-form to a kind of game, they have for that very
reason no real claim to be considered inheritors of classical
traditions. The true classical method is that in which matter
and form are so united that it is impossible to say which is
prior to the other. The pseudo-classics are the artists who set
up a form conveniently like the average classical form, and fill
it with something conveniently like the average classical matter,
with just such difference as will seem like an advance in brilliance
and range. The romanticists are the artists who realize such a
difference between their matter and that of previous art as impels
them to find new forms for it, or at all events to alter the old
forms considerably. But if they are successful the difference
between their work and that of the true classics becomes merely
external; they are classics in a new art-form. As, however,
this is as rare as true classical art is at the best of times, romanti-
cism tends to mean little more than the difference between an
unstable artist who cannot master his material and an artist
who can, whether on trje pseudo-classical or the true classical
plane. The term " romantic opera " has helped us to regard
Weber as a romanticist in that sphere, but when we call his instru-
mental works " romantic " the term ceases to have really
valuable meaning. As applied to pieces like the Concertstiick,
the Invitation a la danse, and other pieces of which the external
subject is known either from Weber's letters or from the titles
of the pieces themselves, the term means simply " programme-
music " such as we have seen to be characteristic of any stage
in which the art is imperfectly mastered. Weber's programme-
music shows no advance on Beethoven in the illustrative
resources of the art; and the application of the term " romantic "
1 We must remember in this connexion that the term Optra
comique means simply opera with spoken dialogue, and has nothing
to do with the comic idea.
8o
MUSIC
[GENERAL SKETCH
to his interesting and in many places beautiful pianoforte
sonatas has no definite ground except the brilliance of his piano-
forte technique and the helplessness in matters of design (and
occasionally even of harmony) that drives him to violent and
operatic outbreaks.
Schubert also lends some colour to the opposition between
romantic and classical by his weakness in large instrumental
designs, but his sense of form was too vital for his defective
training to warp his mind from the true classical spirit; and the
new elements he introduced into instrumental music, though not
ratified by concentration and unity of design, were almost always
the fruits of true inspiration and never mere struggles to escape
from a difficulty. His talent for purely instrumental music was
incomparably higher than Weber's, while that for stage-drama,
as shown in the most ambitious of his numerous operas, Fierra-
bras, was almost nil. But he is the first and perhaps the greatest
classical song writer. It was Beethoven's work on a larger
scale that so increased the possibilities of handling remote
harmonic sequences and rich instrumental and rhythmic effects
as to prepare for Schubert a world in which music, no less than
literature, was full of suggestions for that concentrated expres-
sion of a single emotion which distinguishes true lyric art. And,
whatever the defects of Schubert's treatment of larger forms,
his construction of small forms which can be compassed by a
single melody or group of melodies is unsurpassable and is truly
classical in spirit and result.
Schumann had neither Schubert's native talent for larger
form nor the irresponsible spirit which allowed Schubert to
handle it uncritically. Nor had he the astounding lightness
of touch and perfect balance of style with which Chopin con-
trolled the most wayward imagination that has ever found
expression in the pianoforte lyric. But he had a deep sense of
melodic beauty, a mastery of polyphonic expression which
for all its unorthodox tendency was second only to that of the
greatest classics, and an epigrammatic fancy which enabled
him to devise highly artistic forms of music never since imitated
with success though often unintelligently copied. In his songs
and pianoforte lyrics his romantic ideas found perfectly mature
expression. Throughout his life he was inspired by a deep
reverence which, while it prevented him from attempting to
handle classical forms with a technique which he felt to be
inadequate, at the same time impelled him as he grew older to
devise forms on a large scale externally resembling them. The
German lyric poetry, which he so perfectly set to music, strength-
ened him in his tendency to present his materials in an epi-
grammatic and antithetic manner; and, when he took to writing
orchestral and chamber music, the extension of the principles
of this style to the designing of large spaces in rigid sequence
furnished him with a means of attaining great dignity and weight
of climax in a form which, though neither classical nor strictly
natural, was at all events more true in its relationship to his
matter than that of the pseudo-classics such as Hummel or even
Spohr. Towards the end of his short life, before darkness
settled upon his mind, he rose perhaps to his greatest height as
regards solemnity of inspiration, though none of his later works
can compare with his early lyrics for artistic perfection. Be this
as it may, his last choral works, especially the latter parts of
Faust (which, unlike the first part, was written before his powers
failed), show that the sense of beauty and polyphonic life with
which he began his career was always increasing; and if he was
led to substitute an artificial and ascetic for a natural and
classical solution of the difficulties of the larger art-forms it was
only because of his insight into artistic ideals which he felt to be
beyond his attainment. He shared with Mendelssohn the inevit-
able misunderstanding of those contemporaries who grouped
all music under one or other of the two heads, Classical and
Romantic.
There is good reason to believe that Mendelssohn died before
he had more than begun to show his power, though this may be
denied by critics who have not thought of comparing Handel's
career up to the age at which Mendelssohn's ceased. And his
mastery, resting, like Handel's, on the experience of a boyhood
comparable only to Mozart's, was far too easy to induce him
as a critic to reconcile the idea of high talent with distressing
intellectual and technical failure. This same mastery also
tended to discredit his own work, both as performer and composer,
in the estimation of those whose experience encouraged them
to hope that imperfection and over-excitement were infallible
signs of genius. And as his facility actually did co-operate with
the tendencies of the times to deflect much of his work into
pseudo-classical channels, while nevertheless his independence
of form and style kept him at all times at a higher level of
interest and variety than any mere pseudo-classic, it is not to be
wondered that his reputation became a formidable object of
jealousy to those apostles of new ideas who felt that their own
works were not likely to make way against academic opposition
unless they called journalism to their aid.
Nothing has more confused, hindered and embittered the
careers of Wagner and Liszt and their disciples than the paper
warfare which they did everything in their power to encourage.
No doubt it had a useful purpose, and, as nothing affords a
greater field for intrigue than the production of operas, it is at
least possible that the gigantic and unprecedentedly expensive
works of Wagner might not even at the present day have
obtained a hearing if Wagner himself had been a tactful and
reticent man and his partisans had all been discreet lovers and
practisers of art. As to Wagner's achievement there is now no
important difference of opinion. It has survived all attacks
as the most monumental result music has achieved with the aid
of other arts. Its antecedents must be sought in many very
remote regions. The rediscovery, by Mendelssohn, of the choral
works of Bach, after a century of oblivion, revealed the possi-
bilities of polyphonic expression in a grandeur which even
Handel rarely suggested; and inspired Mendelssohn with impor-
tant ideas in the designing of oratorios as wholes. The complete
fusion of polyphonic method with external and harmonic design
had, under the same stimulus, been carried a step further than
Beethoven by means of Schumann's more concentrated harmonic
and lyric expression. That wildest of all romanticists, Berlioz,
though he had less polyphonic sense than any composer who
ever before or since attained distinction, nevertheless revealed
important new possibilities in his unique imagination in orches-
tral colour. The breaking down of the barriers that check
continuity in classical opera was already indicated by Weber,
in whose Euryanthe the movements frequently run one into the
other, while at least twenty different themes are discoverable
in the opera, recurring, like the Wagnerian leit-motif, in apt
transformation and logical association with definite incidents
and persons.
But many things undreamed of by Weber were necessary to
complete the breakdown of the classical barriers; for the whole
pace of musical motion had to be emancipated from the influence
of instrumental ideas. This was the most colossal reformation
ever attempted by a man of real artistic balance; and even the
undoubted, though unpolished, dramatic genius shown in Wag-
ner's libretti (the first in which a great composer and dramatist
are one) is but a small thing in comparison with the musical
problems which Wagner overcomes with a success immeasur-
ably outweighing any defects his less perfect literary mastery
allowed to remain in his dramatic structure and poetic diction.
Apart from the squabbles of Wagnerian and anti-Wagnerian
journalism, the chief difficulty of his supporters and antagonists
really lay in this question of the pace of the music and the
consequent breadth of harmony and design. The opening of
the Walkiire, in which, before the curtain rises, the sound of
driving rain is reproduced by very simple sequences that take
sixteen long bars to move a single step, does not, as instrumental
music, compare favourably for terseness and variety with the
first twenty bars of the thunderstorm in Beethoven's Pastoral
Symphony, where at least four different incidents faithfully
portray not only the first drops of rain and the distant thunder,
but all the feelings of depression and apprehension which they
inspire, besides carrying the listener rapidly through three
different keys in chromatic sequence. But Beethoven's storm
GENERAL SKETCH]
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81
is idealized, in its whole rise and fall, within a space of five
minutes. Wagner's task is to select five real minutes near the
end of the storm and to treat them with no greater variety than
the action of the drama demands. When we have learnt to
dissociate our minds from irrelevant ideas of an earlier instru-
mental art, we find that Wagner's broad spaces contain all that
is necessary. Art on a large scale will always seem to have
empty spaces, so long as we expect to find in it the kind of detail
appropriate to art on a smaller scale.
Wagner's new harmonic resources are of similar and more
complex but not less legitimate origin. In Derfliegende Hollander
they are, like his wider rhythmic sweep, imperfectly digested;
in fact, much of his work before the Meistersinger is, in patches,
debased by the influence of Meyerbeer. But in his later works
the more closely his harmonic language is studied the more
conclusively does it show itself to be a logical and mastered
thing. His treatment of key is, of course, adapted to a state
of things in which the designs are far too long for the mind to
attach any importance to the works ending in the key in which
it began. To compare Wagner's key-system with that of a
symphony is like comparing the perspective anrl-composition
of a panorama with the perspective and composition of an easel
picture. Indeed the differences are precisely analogous in the
two cases; and Wagner's sense of harmony and key turns out
on investigation to be the classical sense truly adapted to its
new conditions. For this very reason it is in detail quite irrele-
vant to symphonic art; and there was nothing anti-Wagnerian
in the reasons why Brahms had so little to do with it in his
music, although every circumstance of the personal controversies
and thinly disguised persecutions of Brahms's youth were enough
to give any upholder of classical symphonic art a rooted prejudice
to everything bearing the name of " romantic."
Side by side with Wagner many enthusiasts place Liszt; and
it is indisputable that Liszt had in mind a larger and slower flow
of musical sequence closely akin to Wagner's, and, no doubt,
partly independent of it; and moreover, that one of Liszt's
aims was to apply this to instrumental music. Also his mastery
and poetic power as a pianoforte player were faithfully reflected
in his later treatment of the orchestra, and ensured an extra-
ordinary rhetorical plausibility for anything he chose to say.
But neither the princely magnanimity of his personal character,
which showed itself in his generosity alike to struggling artists
and to his opponents, nor the great stimulus he gave (both by
his compositions and his unceasing personal efforts and encour-
agement) to new musical ideas on romantic lines, ought at this
time of day to blind us to the hollowness and essential vulgarity
of. his style. These unfortunate qualities did not secure for his
compositions immediate popular acceptance; for they were
outweighed by the true novelty of his aims. But recently they
have given his symphonic poems an attractiveness which, while
it has galvanized a belated interest in those works, has made
many critics blind to their historical importance as the founda-
tion of new forms which have undergone a development of
sensational brilliance under Richard Strauss.
Meanwhile the party politics of modern music did much to
distract public attention from the works of Brahms, who
carried on the true classical method of the sonata-forms in his
orchestral and chamber music, while he was no less great and
original as a writer of songs and choral music of all kinds. He
also developed the pianoforte lyric and widened its range.
Without losing its characteristic unity it assumed a freedom and
largeness of expression hitherto only attained in sonatas. Hence,
however, Brahms's work, like Bach's, seemed, from its continuity
with the classical forms, to look backward rather than forward.
Indeed Brahms's reputation is in many quarters that of an
academic reactionary; just as Bach's was, even at a time when
the word " academic " was held to be rather a title of honour
than of reproach. When the contemporary standpoints of
criticism are established by the production of works of art in
which the new elements shall no longer be at war with one another
and with the whole, perhaps it will be recognized once more that
the idea of progress has no value as a critical standard unless
it is strictly applied to that principle by which every work of
art must differ in every part of its form from every other
work, precisely as far as its material differs and no further.
Then, perhaps, as the conservative Bach after a hundred years
of neglect revealed himself as the most profoundly modern force
in the music of the ipth century, while that of his gifted and
progressive sons became a forgotten fashion as soon as their
goal was attained by greater masters, so may the musical epoch
that seems now to have closed be remembered by posterity as
the age, not of Wagner and the pioneer Liszt, but the age of
Wagner and Brahms.
It will also in all probability be remembered as the age in
which the performer ceased to be necessarily the intellectual
inferior of the composer and musical scholar. With the excep-
tion of Wagner and Berlioz every great composer, since Palestrina
sang in the papal choir, has paid his way as a performer; but
Joseph Joachim was the first who threw the whole mind of a
great composer into the career of an interpreter; and the example
set by him, Billow, Clara Schumann and Jenny Lind, though
followed by very few other artists, sufficed to dispel for ever
the old association of the musical performer with the mounte-
bank.
Joachim's influence on Brahms was incalculable. The two
composers met at the time when new musical tendencies were
beginning to arouse violent controversy. At the age of twenty-
one Joachim had produced in his Hungarian Concerto a work of
high classical mastery and great nobility, and his technique in
form and texture was then considerably in advance of Brahms's.
For some years Joachim and Brahms interchanged contrapuntal
exercises, and many of the greatest and most perfect of Brahms's
earlier works owe much to Joachim's criticism. Yet it is
impossible to regret that Joachim did not himself carry on as
a composer the work he so nobly began, when we realize the
enormous influence of his playing in the history of modern music.
By it we have become familiar with a standard of truthfulness
in performance which all the generous efforts of Wagner and
Liszt could hardly have rendered independent of their own
special propaganda. And by it the record of classical music has
been made a matter of genuine public knowledge, with a unique
freedom from those popularizing tendencies which invest vulgar
error with the authority of academic truth.
In this respect there is a real change in the nature of modern
musical culture. No serious composer at the present day would
dedicate a great work to an artist who, like F. Clement, for whom
Beethoven wrote his Violin Concerto, would perform the work
in two portions and between them play a sonata for the violin
on one string with the violin upside down. But it is hardly
true that Wagner and Liszt produced a real alteration in the
standard of general culture among musicians. Their work,
especially Wagner's, appealed, like Gluck's, to many specific
literary and philosophical interests, and they themselves were
brilliant talkers; but music will always remain the most self-
centred of the arts, and men of true culture will measure the
depth and range of the musician's mind by the spontaneity
and truthfulness of his musical expression rather than by his
volubility on other subjects. The greatest musicians have not
often been masters of more than one language; but they have
always been men of true culture. Their humanity has been
illuminated by the constant presence of ideals which their
artistic mastery keeps in touch with reality.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
Pythagoras, c. 582-500 B.C. Determines the ratios of the diatonic
scale.
Aristoxenus, /. 320 B.C. Our chief authority on classical Greek
music.
Ptolemy, fl. A.D. 130. Astronomer, geographer, mathematician
and writer on music. Reforms the Greek modes so as to prepare
the way for the ecclesiastical modes.
St Ambrose. Arranges the Ambrosian tones of church music,
A.D. 384.
Hucbald, c. 840-930. Systematizer of Diaphonia or Organum
(cailed by him Symphonia), and inventor of a simple and in-
genious notation which did not survive him.
MUSIC
[RECENT MUSIC
Guido of Arezzo, c. 990-1050. Theorist and systematizer of musical
notation and solmization.
Franco of Cologne, nth century author of treatises on musical
rhythm. Works under the name of Franco appear at dates
and places which have led to the assumption of the existence of
three different authors, who, however, have been partly
explained away again; and the nth century is sometimes called
the Franconian period of discant.
Discantus positio vulgaris. An anonymous treatise written before
1 150; is said to contain the earliest rules for " measured music,"
i.e. for music in which different voices can sing different rhythms.
The Reading MS., c. 1240 (British Museum, MS. Harl.,978, fol. lib.),
contains the rota Sumer is icumen in."
Walter Odington, fl. 1280. English writer on music, and composer.
Adam de la Hale, 1230-1288 ) Connecting-links between the trouba-
Machault, yZ. 1350 Jdoursand the archaic contrapuntists.
John Dunstable, died 1453. English contrapuntal composer.
G. Dufay, died 1474. Netherland contrapuntal composer.
(These two are the principal founders of artistic counterpoint.)
Josquin Des Pres, 1445-1521. The first great composer.
MASTERS OF THE GOLDEN AGE
[In the following list when a name is not qualified as " church
composer " or " madrigalist," the composer is equally great in both
lines ; but the qualification must not be taken as exclusive.]
Netherland Masters.
J. Arcadelt, c. 1514-1560. Madrigalist.
Clemens non Papa, died before 1558.
Orlando di Lasso, born between 1520 and 1530; died 1594.
Jan P. Sweelinck, 1562-1621. Organist, theorist and church com-
poser.
French Masters.
E. Genet, surnamed Carpentrasso, fl. 1520. Church composer.
C. Goudimel. Killed in the massacre of Lyons, 1572.
Italian Masters.
Palestrina, c. 1525-1594.
L. Marenzio, c. 1560; died 1599.
Anerio, Felice c. 1560-1630, and G. Francesco, c. 1567-1620, brothers.
Church composers.
Spanish Masters.
C. Morales, 1512-1553 ~) _, . . . , ,
F. Guerrero, c. 1528-1599 I Exclusively church com-
T. L. de Victoria or Vittoria, fl. 1580 J PO^ TS -
English Masters.
T. Tallis, c. 1515; died 1585. Church composer.
W. Byrd, 1542 or 1543-1623. Greatest as church composer.
J. Wilbye,^. 1600. Madrigalist.
T. Morley, fl. 1590. Theorist and madrigalist.
Orlando Gibbons, 1583-1625.
German Masters.
I. Handl, or Callus, c. 1550-1591.
Hans Leo Hasler or Hassler, 1564-1612. Church composer.
G. Aichinger, c. 1565-1628. Church composer.
THE MONODISTS
Cavalieri's La Rappresentazione di Anima e di Corpo, posthumously
produced in 1600. The first oratorio, one of the first works
dependent on instrumental accompaniment, and one of the
first with a " figured bass " indicating by figures what chords
are to be used.
Peri's Euridice, 1600. The first opera.
Monteverde, 1567-1643. Great pioneer of modern harmony.
THE RENAISSANCE OF TEXTURE
H. Schtitz, 1585-1672. Combines monodic and polyphonic prin-
ciples in German church music and Italian madrigal.
G. Frescobaldi, 1583-1644. Organ composer.
Alessandro Scarlatti, 1659-1725. Founder of the aria-form of
Handelian opera, anal of the Neapolitan school of composition.
J. B. Lulli, 1633-1687. The first classic of French opera.
H. Purcell, c. 1658; died 1695.
A. Corelli, 1653-1713. The first classic of the violin in the forms
of suite (or sonata da camera), sonata da chiesa and concerto.
F. Couperin, 1668-1733. French composer of suites (ordres) and much
addicted to giving fanciful titles to his pieces which are some-
times " programme music " in fact as well as name.
J. P. Rameau, 1683-1764. French opera writer, harpsichordist and
theorist.
D. Buxtehude, 1637-1707.
J. S. Bach, 1685-1750.
G. F. Handel, 1685-1759.
THE SONATA EPOCH
Domenico Scarlatti, 1685-1757, son of Alessandro. Harpsichord
virtuoso and master of a special early type of sonata.
K. Philipp Emanuel Bach, 1714-1788, third son of Sebastian Bach.
The principal pioneer of the sonata style.
C. W. Gluck, 1714-1787. Reformer of opera, and the first classic of
essentially dramatic music.
F. J. Haydn, 1732-1809.
W. A. Mozart, 1756-1791.
Beethoven, 1770-1827.
Cherubini, 1760-1842. A classic of French opera and of church
music.
THE LYRIC AND DRAMATIC OR " ROMANTIC " PERIOD
[In this list the only qualifications given are those of which the
complex conditions of modern art make definition easy as well as
desirable; and, as throughout this table, the definitions must not
be taken as exclusive. The choice of names is, however, guided
by the different developments represented: thus accounting for
glaring omissions and artistic disproportions.]
Weber, 1786-1826. Master of romantic opera.
Schubert, 1797-1828. The classic of song.
Mendelssohn, 1809-1847.
Chopin, 1809-1849. Composer of pianoforte lyrics.
Berlioz, 1803-1869. Master of impressionist orchestration.
Schumann, 1810-1856.
Wagner, 1813-1883. Achieves absolute union of music with drama.
Liszt, 181 1-1886. Pianoforte virtuoso and pioneer of the symphonic
poem.
Bruckner, 1824-1896. The symphonist of the Wagnerian party.
Brahms, 18331897. Classical symphonic and lyric composer.
Joachim, 18311907. Violinist, composer and teacher. Brahms's
chief fellow-worker in continuing the classical tradition.
TschaikovsL^v. 1840-1893.
Dvorak, 1841-1904.
Richard Strauss, 1864- Development of the symphonic
poem. (D. F. T.)
II. RECENT Music
Under separate biographical headings, the work of the chief
modern composers in different countries is dealt with; and here it
will be sufficient to indicate the general current of the art, and to
mention some of the more prominent among recent composers.
Germany. On the death of Brahms, the great German composers
seemed, at the close of the igth century, to have left no successor.
Such merely epigonal figures as A. Bungert (b. 1846) and Cyrill
Kistler (18481907) could not be regarded as important; and E.
Humperdinck's (b. 1854) striking success with Hansel und Gretel
(1893) was a solitary triumph in a limited genre. The outstanding
figure, at the opening of the 2Oth century, was Richard Strauss (g..) ;
but it was not so much now in composition, as in the high excel-
lence of executive art, that Germany still kept up her hegemony in
European music, by her schools, her great conductors and instru-
mentalists, and her devotion as a nation to the production of musical
works.
France. From the earliest days of their music, the French have
had the enviable power of assimilating the great innovations which
were originated in other countries, without losing their habit of
warmly appreciating that which their own countrymen produce.
That which happened with the Netherlandish composers of the
l6th century, and with Lulli in the I7th, was repeated, more or
less exactly, with Rossini in the early part of the igth century and
with Wagner at its close. During the last quarter of the igth
century all that is represented by the once-adored name of Gounod
was discarded in favour of a style as different as possible from his.
The change was mainly due to the Belgian musician, C6sar Auguste
Franck (1822-1890), who established a kind of informal school of
symphonic and orchestral composition, as opposed to the con-
ventional methods pursued at the Paris Conservatoire. Massenet
was left as almost the only representative of the older school, and
from Edouard Lalo (1823-1892) to G. Charpentier (b. 1860), all
the younger composers of France adopted the newer style. With
these may be mentioned Alfred Bruneau (b. 1857), and Gabriel
Faur6 (b.. 1845). Camille Saint-Saens (b. 1835), however, remained
the chief representative of the sound school of composition, if only
by reason of his greater command of resources of every kind and
his success in all forms of music. Among the newer school of
composers the most original unquestionably was Debussy (}..),
and among others may be mentioned Ernest Reyer (b. 1823), the
author of some ambitious and sterling operas; F. L. V. de Joncieres
(b. 1839), an enthusiastic follower of Wagner, and a composer of
merit; Emanuel Chabrier (18411894), a man of extraordinary
gift, who wrote one of the finest operas comiques of modern times,
Le Roi malgre lui (1887) ; Charles Marie Widor (b. 1845), an earnest
musician of great accomplishment; and yincent d'Indy (b. 1851), a
strongly original writer, alike in dramatic, orchestral and chamber
compositions. In the class of lighter music, which yet lies above
the level of opera bouffe, mention must be made of Leo Delibes
(1836-1891) and Andr6 Messager (b. 1855). In describing the
state of music in France, it would be wrong to pass over the work
done by the great conductors of various popular orchestral concerts,
such as Jules E. Pasdeloup (1819-1887), Chas. Lamoureux (1834-
1899), and Judas [Edouard] Colonne (b. 1838).
Italy. In Italy during the last quarter of the igth century
many important changes took place. The later development in
the style ot Verdi (q.v.) was only completed in Otello (1887) and
Falstaf (1893), while his last composition, the four beautiful sacred
vocal works, show how very far he had advanced in reverence,
RECENT MUSIC]
MUSIC
solidity of style and impressiveness, from the time when he wrote
his earlier operas. And Arrigo Bpito's Mefistofele had an immense
influence on modern Italian music. Among the writers of " abso-
lute " music the most illustrious are G. Sgambati (b. 1843) and
G. Martucci (b. 1856), the latter's symphony in D minor being a
fine work. Meanwhile a younger operatic school was growing up,
of which the first production was the Flora mirabtiis of Spiro
Samara (b. 1861), given in 1886. Its culmination was in the
Cavalleria rusticana (1890) of Pietro Mascagni (b. 1863), the
Pagliacci (1892) of R. Leoncavallo (b. 1858), and the operas of
Giacomo Puccini (b. 1858), notably Le Villi (1884), Manon Lescaut
(1893), La Boheme (1896), Tosca (1900), and Madama Butterfly
(1904). The oratorios of Don Lorenzo Perosi (b. 1872) had an inter-
esting influence on the church music of Italy, (see PALESTRINA).
Russia. The new Russian school of music originated with M. A.
Balakirev (b. 1836), who was instrumental in founding the Free
School of Music at St Petersburg, and who introduced the music
of Berlioz and Liszt into Russia; he instilled the principles of
"advanced" music into A. P. Borodin (1834-1887), C. A. Cui
(b. 1835), M. P. Moussorgsky (1839-1881), and N. A. Rimsky-
Korsakov (1844-1908), all of whom, as usual with Russian com-
posers, were, strictly speaking, amateurs in music, having some
other profession in the absence of any possible opportunity for
making money out of music in Russia. The most remarkable
man among their contemporaries was undoubtedly Tschaikovsky
(q.v.). A. Liadov (b. 1855) excels as a writer for the pianoforte,
and A. Glazounov (b. 1865) has composed a number of fine orchestral
works.
United States. Of the older American composers, only John
Knowles Paine (d. 1906) and Dudley Buck (d. 1909), both born in
1839, and Benjamin Johnson Lang (18371909), need be mentioned.
Paine, professor of music at Harvard University, and composer
of oratorios, orchestral music, &c., ranks with the advanced school
of romantic composers. Dudley Buck was one of the first American
composers whose names were known in Europe; and if his numerous
cantatas and church music do not reach a very high standard accord-
ing to modern ideas, he did much to conquer the general apathy
with regard to the existence of original music in the States. Lang,
prominent as organist and conductor, also became distinguished as
a composer. George Whitefield Chadwick (b. 1854) has produced
many orchestral and vocal works of original merit. Though the
works of Clayton Johns (b. 1857) are less ambitious, they have
won more popularity in Europe, and his songs, like those of Arthur
Foote (b. 1853), Reginald De Koven(b. 1859), and Ethelbert Nevin
(18621901), are widely known. Edward Alexander McDowell
(q.v.) may be regarded as the most original modern American
composer. Walter Johannes Damrosch (b. 1862), the eminent
conductor of the New York Symphony Orchestra, and of various
operatic undertakings, has established his position as an original
and poetic composer, not only by his opera, The Scarlet Letter, but
by such song^s as the intensely dramatic " Danny Deever." Dr
Horatio William Parker's (b. 1863) oratorio settings of the hymn
" Hora novissima " and of "The Wanderer's Psalm " are deservedly
popular. Their masterly workmanship and his power of expression
in sacred music mark him as a distinct personality. Numerous
orchestral as well as vocal works have not been heard out of America,
but a group of songs, newly set to the words of familiar old English
ditties, have obtained great success. Mrs H. H. A. Beach, the
youngest of the prominent composers of the United States and an
accomplished pia'nist, has attained a high reputation as a writer
in all the more ambitious forms of music. Many of her songs and
anthems have obtained wide popularity. The achievements of the
United States are, however, less marked in the production of new
composers than in the attention which has been paid to musical
education and appreciation generally. Henry E. Krehbiel (b. 1854),
the well-known critic, was especially prominent in drawing American
attention to Wagner and Brahms. The New York Opera has been
made a centre for the finest artists of the day, and the symphony
concerts at Boston and Chicago have been unrivalled for excellence.
It is worthy of note that no country has produced a greater number
of the most eminent of recent singers. Mesdames E. Eames,
Nordica, Minnie Hauck, Susan Strong, Suzanne Adams, Sybil
Sanderson, Esther Palliser, Evangeline Florence, and very many
more among leading sopranos, with Messrs E. E. Oudin, D. Bispham
and Denis O'Sullivan, to name but three out of the host of excellent
male artists, proved the natural ability of the Americans in vocal
music; and it might also be said that the more notable English-
speaking pupils of the various excellent French schools of voice-
production are American with hardly an exception.
United Kingdom. English music requires more detailed notice,
if only because of the striking change in the national feeling with
regard to it. The nation had been accustomed for so long to
consider music as an exotic, that, notwithstanding the glories of
the older schools of English music, the amount of attention paid to
everything that came from abroad, and the rich treasures of tradi-
tional ancTdistinctively English music scattered through the country,
the majority of educated people adhered to the common belief that
England was not a musical country. The beauty and the enormous
quantity of traditional Irish music, the enthusiasm created in
Scotland by trumpery songs written in what was supposed to be
an imitation of the Scottish style, the existence of the Welsh
Eisteddfodau, were admitted facts; but England was supposed to
have had no share in these gifts of nature or art, and the vogue of
foreign music, from Italian opera to classical symphonies, was held
as evidence of her poverty, instead of being partly the reason of
the national sterility. In the successive periods during which the
music of Handel and Mendelssohn respectively had been held as
all-sufficient for right-thinking musicians, success could only be
attained, if at all, by those English musicians who deliberately set
themselves to copy the style of these great masters; the few men
who had the determination to resist the popular movement were
either confined, like the Wesleys, to one branch of music in which
some originality of thought was still allowed that of the Church,
or, like Henry Hugo Pierson in the days of the Mendelssohn worship,
were driven to seek abroad the recognition they could not obtain
at home. For a time it seemed as if the great vogue of Gounod
would exalt him into a third artistic despot; but no native com-
poser had even the energy to imitate his Faust; and, by the date
of The Redemption (1882) and Mors et vita (1885), a renaissance of
English music had already begun.
For a generation up to the 'eighties the affairs of foreign opera
in England were rather depressing; the rival houses presided over
by the impresarios Frederick Gye (1810-1878) and Colonel J. H.
Mapleson (1828-1901) had been going from bad to worse; the
traditions of what were called " the palmy days " had been for-
gotten, and with the retirement of Christine Nilsson in 1881, and
the death of Therese J. A. Tietjens in 1877, the race of the great
queens of song seemed to have come to an end. It is true that
Mme Patti was_ in the plenitude of her fame and powers, but the
number of her impersonations, perfect as they were, was so small
that she alone could not support the weight of an opera season,
and her terms made it impossible for any manager to make both
ends meet unless the rest of the company were chosen on the
principle enunciated by the husband of Mme Catalan!, " Ma femme
et quatre ou cinq poupees." Mme Albani (b. 1851) had made her
name famous, but the most important part of her artistic career
was yet to come. She had already brought Tannhduser and
Lohengrin into notice, but in Italian versions, as was then usual;
and the great vogue of Wagner's operas did not begin until the series
of Wagner concerts given at the Royal Albert Hall in 1877 with
the object of collecting funds for the preservation of the Bayreuth
scheme, which after the production of the Nibelungen trilogy in
1876 had become involved in serious financial difficulties. The
two seasons of German opera at Drury Lane under Dr Hans Richter
(b. 1843) in 1882 and 1884, and the production of the trijogy at
Her Majesty's in 1882, under Angelo Neumann's managership, first
taught stay-at-home Englishmen what Wagner really was, and an
Italian opera as such {i.e. with Italian as the exclusive language
employed and the old " star " system in full swing) ceased to exist
as a regular institution a few years after that. The revival of
public interest in the opera only took place after Mr (afterwards
Sir) Augustus Harris (1852-1896) had started his series of operas
at Drury Lane in 1887. In the following season Harris took
Covent Garden, and since that time the opera has been restored
to greater public favour than it ever enjoyed, at all events since the
days of Jenny Lind. The clever manager saw that the public
was tired of operas arranged to suit the views of the prima donna
and no one else, and he cast the works he produced, among which
were Un Ballo in maschera and Les Huguenots, with due attention
to every part. The brothers Jean and Edouard de Reszke, both
of whom had appeared in London before the former as a baritone
and the latter during the seasons 1880-1884 were even stronger
attractions to the musical public of the time than the various
leading sopranos, among whom were Mme Albani, Miss M. Mac-
intyre, Mme Melba, Frau Sucher and Mme Nordica, during the
earlier seasons, and Mme Eames, Mile Ravogli, MM. Lassalle and
P. H. Plancon, and many other Parisian favourites later. As
time went on, the excellent custom obtained of giving each work
in the language in which it was written, and among the distinguished
German artists who were added to the company were Frau M.
Ternina, Frau E. Schumann-Heink, Frau Lilli Lehmann and many
more. Since Harris's death in 1896 the traditions started by him
were on the whole well maintained, and as a sign of the difference
between the present and the former position of English composers,
it may be mentioned that two operas by F. H. Cowen, Signa and
Harold, and two by Stanford, The Veiled Prophet and Much Ado
about Nothing, were produced. To Signer Lago, a manager of
more enterprise than good fortune, belongs the credit of reviving
Gluck's Orfeo (with the masterly impersonation of the principal
character by Mile Giulia Ravogli), and of bringing out Cavalleria
rusticana, Tschaikovsky's Eugen Onegin and other works.
If it be just to name one institution and one man as the creator
of such an atmosphere as allowed the genius of English composers
to flourish, then that honour must be paid to the Crystal Palace
and August Manns, the conductor of its Saturday concerts. At
first engaged as sub-conductor, under a certain Schallehn, at the
building which was the lasting result of the Great Exhibition of
1851, he became director of the music in 1855; so for the better
part of half a century his influence was exerted on behalf of the
best music of all schools, and especially in lavour of anything of
MUSIC
I RECENT MUSIC
English growth. Through evil report and good report he supported
his convictions, and for many years he introduced one English
composer after another to a fame which they would have found it
hard to gain without his help and that of Sir George Grove, his
loyal supporter. In 1862, when Arthur Sullivan had lust returned
from his studies in Leipzig, his Tempest music was produced at the
Crystal Palace, and it is beyond question that it was this success
and that of the succeeding works from the same hand which first
showed Englishmen that music worth listening to might be pro-
duced by an English hand. Sullivan reached the highest point of
his achievement in The Golden Legend (1886), his most important
contribution to the music of the renaissance. An important part
of the Crystal Palace music was that the concerts did not follow,
but led, popular taste; the works of Schubert, Schumann and
many other great masters were given constantly, and the whole
repertory of classical music was gone through, so that a constant
attendant at these concerts would have become acquainted with
the whole range of the best class of music. From 1859 onwards
the classical chamber-music could be heard at the Popujar Concerts
started by Arthur Chappell, and for many years their repertory
was not less catholic than that of the Crystal Palace undertaking;
that in later times the habit increased to a lamentable extent of
choosing only the " favourite " (i.e. hackneyed) works of the great
masters does not lessen the educational value of the older concerts.
The lovers of the newer developments of music were always more
fully satisfied at the concerts of the Musical Union, a body founded
by John Ella in 1844, which lasted until 1880. From 1879 onwards
the visits of Hans Richter, the conductor, were a feature of the
musical season, and the importance of his work, not only in spread-
ing a love of Wagner's music, but in regard to every other branch
of the best orchestral music, cannot be exaggerated. Like the
popular concerts, the Richter concerts somewhat fell away in
later years from their original purpose, and their managers were
led by the popularity of certain pieces to give too little variety.
The importance of Richter's work was in bringing forward the finest
English music in the years when the masters of the renaissance
were young and untried. Here were to be heard the orchestral
works of Sir Hubert Parry, Sir Charles Villiers Stanford, Sir A.
Campbell Mackenzie and Dr F. H. Cowen; and the names of these
composers were thus brought into notice much more effectually
than could have been the case in other surroundings. Meanwhile
outside London the work of the renaissance was being carried on,
notably at Cambridge, where by the amalgamation of various
smaller societies with the University Musical Society, Stanford
created in 1875 a splendid institution which did much to foster a
love of the best music for many years; and at Oxford, where private
meetings in the rooms of Hubert Parry brought about the institu-
tion of the Musical Club, which has borne fruit in many ways,
though only in the direction of chamber-music. The Bach Choir,
founded by Mr Arthur Duke Coleridge in 1875, and conducted for
the first ten years of its existence by Mr Otto Goldschmidt and
subsequently by Professor Stanford, worked on purely uncommercial
lines ever since its foundation, and besides many important works
of Bach, it brought forward most important compositions by
Englishmen, and had a prominent share in the work of the renais-
sance. Parry's earlier compositions had a certain austerity in
them which, while it commanded the homage of the cultivated few,
prevented their obtaining wide popularity; and it was not until
the date of his choral setting of Milton's Ode at a Solemn Mustek
that he found his true vein. In this and its many successors,
produced at the autumn festivals, though very rarely given in
London, there was a nobility of utterance, a sublimity of concep-
tion, a mastery of resource, that far surpass anything accomplished
in England since the days of Purcell; while his " Symphonic Varia-
tions " for orchestra, and at least two of his symphonies, exhibit
his command of the modern modifications of classical forms in
great perfection. Like Parry, Stanford first caught the ear of the
public at large with a choral work, the stirring ballad-setting of
Tennyson's Revenge; and in all his earlier and later works alike,
which include compositions in every form, he shows himself a
supreme master of effect ; in dramatic or lyrical handling of voices,
in orchestral and chamber-music, his sense of beauty is unfailing,
and while his ideas have real distinction, his treatment of them is
nearly always the chief interest of his works. The work of the
musical renaissance has been more beneficially fostered by these
two masters than by any other individuals, through the medium
. of the Royal College of Music. In 1876 the National Training
School of Music was opened with Sullivan as principal; he was
succeeded by Sir John Stainer in 1881, and the circumstance that
such artists as Mr Eugen d' Albert and Mr Frederic Cliff e received
there the foundation of their musical education is the only important
fact connected with the institution, which in 1882 was succeeded
by the Royal College of Music, under the directorship of Sir George
Grove, and with Parry and Stanford as professors of composition.
In 1894 Parry succeeded to the directorship, and before and after
this date work of the best educational kind was done in all branches
of the art, but most of all in the important branch of composition.
Mackenzie's place among the masters of the renaissance is assured
by his romantic compositions for orchestra such as La Belle dame
sans merci and the two " Scottish Rhapsodies "; some of his choral
works, such as the oratorios, show some tendency to fall back into
the conventionalities from which the renaissance movement was an
effort to escape: but in The Cottar's Saturday Night; The Story of
Sayid; Veni, Creator Spiritus, and many other things, not except-
ing the opera Colomba or the witty " Britannia " overture, he shows
no lack of spontaneity or power. As principal of the Royal Academy
of Music (he succeeded Macfarren in 1888) he revived the former
glories of the school, and the excellent plan by which it and the Royal
College unite their forces in the examinations of the Associated
Board is largely due to his initiative. The opera just mentioned
was the first of the modern series of English operas brought out
from 1883 onwards by the Carl Rosa company during its tenure
of Drury Lane Theatre: at the time it seemed as though English
opera had a chance of getting permanently established, but the
enterprise, being a purely private and individual one, failed to have
a lasting effect upon the art of the country, and after the production
of two operas by Mackenzie, two by Arthur Goring Thomas, one
by F. Corder, two by Cowen and one by Stanford, the artistic
work of the company grew gradually less and less important. In
spite of the strong influence of French ideals and methods, the music
of Arthur Goring Thomas was remarkable for individuality and
charm ; in any other country his beautiful opera Esmeralda would
have formed part of the regular repertory; and his orchestral
suites, cantatas and a multitude of graceful and original songs,
remain as evidence that if his career had been prolonged, the art
of England might have been enriched by some masterpiece it would
not willingly have let die. After a youth of extraordinary pre
cocity, and a number of variously successful attempts in the more
ambitious and more serious branches of the art, Cowen found his
chief success in the treatment of fanciful or fairy subjects, whether
in cantatas or orchestral works; here he is without a rival, and his
ideas are uniformly graceful, excellently treated and wonderfully
effective. His second tenure of the post of conductor of the Phil-
harmonic Society showed him to be a highly accomplished conductor.
In regard to English opera two more undertakings deserve to be
recorded. In 1891 the Royal English Opera House was opened
with Sullivan's Ivanhoe, a work written especially for the occasion,
the absence of anything like a repertory, and the retention of this
one work in the bills for a period far longer than its attractions
could warrant, brought the inevitable result, and shortly after the
production of a charming French comic opera the theatre was
turned into the Palace Music Hall. The charming and thoroughly
characteristic Shamus O'Brien of Stanford was successfully pro-
duced in 1896 at the Opera Comique theatre. This work brought
into public prominence the conductor Mr Henry J. Wood (b. 1870),
who exercised a powerful influence on the art of the country by
means of his orchestra, which was constantly to be heard at the
Queen's Hall, and which attained, by continual performance
together, a degree of perfection before unknown in England. It
achieved an important work in bringing music within the reach of
all classes at the Promenade Concerts given through each summer,
as well as by means of the Symphony Concerts at other seasons.
The movement thus started by Mr Wood increased and spread
remarkably in later years. His training of the Queen's Hall
Orchestra was characterized by a thoroughness and severity pre-
viously unknown in English orchestras. This was partly made
possible by the admirable business organization which fostered
the movement in its earlier years; so many concerts were guaranteed
that it was possible to give the players engagements which included
a large amount of rehearsing. The result was soon apparent, not
only in the raising of the standard of orchestral playing, but also
in the higher and more intelligent standard of criticism to which
performances were subjected both by experts and by the general
public. The public taste in London for symphonic music grew so
rapidly as to encourage the establishment of other bodies of players,
until in 1910 there were five first-class professional orchestras
giving concerts regularly in London the Philharmonic Society,
the Queen's Hall Orchestra, the London Symphony Orchestra
(described by Dr Hans Richter as " the finest orchestra in the
world "), the New Symphony Orchestra under Mr Landon Ronald
(b. 1873), a composer and conductor of striking ability, and Mr
Thomas Beecham s Orchestra. Mr Beecham, who had come rapidly
to the front as a musical enthusiast and conductor, paid special
attention to the work of British composers. Manchester, Birming-
ham, Liverpool and Edinburgh, had their own orchestras; and it
might be said that the whole of the United Kingdom was now
permeated with a taste for and a knowledge of orchestral music.
The effect of this development has influenced the whole of the musical
life of England. The symphony and the symphonic poem have
taken the place so long held by the oratorio in popular taste; and
English composers of any merit or ability find it possible to get
a hearing for orchestral work which at the end of the igth century-
would have had to remain unperformed and unheard. The result
has been the r?pid development of a school of English orchestral
comppsers-^-a school of considerable achievement and still greater
promise.
The new school of English writers contains many names of
skilled composers. Sir Edward Elgar established his reputation
by his vigorous Caractacus and the grandiose imaginings of his
Dream of Gerontius, as by orchestral and chamber compositions of
RECENT MUSIC]
MUSIC
decided merit and individuality, and by being the composer of a
symphony which attained greater and wider fame than any similar
work since the symphonies of Tschaikovsky. Mr Edward German
(b. 1862) won great success as a writer of incidental music for plays,
and in various lighter forms of music, for which his great skill in
orchestration and his knowledge of effect stand him in good stead.
The quality of Mr Frederic Cliffe's orchestral works is extremely
high. Dr Arthur Somervell (b. 1863), who succeeded Stainer as
musical adviser to the Board of Education, first came into promi-
nence as a composer of a number of charming songs, notably a
fine song-cycle from Tennyson's Maud, but his Mass and various
orchestral works and cantatas and pianoforte pieces show his
conspicuous ability in other forms. Various compositions written
by Mr Hamish MacCunn (b. 1868), while still a student at the
Royal College of Music, were received with acclamation; but his
later work was not of equal value, though his operas Jeanie
Deans and Diarmid were successful. Mr Granville Bantock
(b. 1868), an ardent supporter of the most advanced music, has
written many fine things for orchestra, and Mr William Wallace
(b. 1861), in various orchestral pieces played at the Crystal Palace
and elsewhere, and in such things as his " Freebooter " songs, has
shown strong individuality and imagination. Mr Arthur Hinton
(b. 1869) has produced things of fanciful beauty and quaint origi-
nality. Miss Ethel M. Smyth, whose Mass was given at the Royal
Albert Hall in most favourable conditions, had her opera Fantasia
produced at Weimar and Carlsruhe, and Der Wald at Covent
Garden. Miss Maud Valerie White's graceful and expressive songs
brought her compositions into wide popularity; and Mme Liza
Lehmann made a new reputation by her cycles of songs after
her retirement from the profession of a singer. The first part of
Mr S. Coleridge-Taylor's (b. 1875) Hiawatha scenes was performed
while he was still a student at the Royal College, and so great was
its popularity that the third part of the trilogy was commissioned
for performance by the Royal Choral Society. Mr Cyril Scott is
a composer who aims high, though with a somewhat strained
originality. Dr H. VValford Davies (b. 1869) and W. Y. Hurlstone
(1876-1906) excel in the serious kind of chamber-music and use the
classic forms with notable skill; and Mr R. Vaughan Williams, in
his songs and other works, has shown perhaps the most conspicuous
talent among all of the younger school.
English executive musicians have never suffered from foreign
competition in the same degree as English composers, and the
success of such singers as Miss Anna Williams, Miss Macintyre,
Miss Marie Brema, Miss Clara Butt, Miss Agnes Nicholls, Messrs
Santley, Edward Lloyd, Ben Davies, Plunket Greene and Ffrangcon
Davies; or of such pianists as Miss Fanny Davies and Mr Leonard
Borwick, is but a continuance of the tradition of British excellence.
The scientific study of the music of the past has more and more
decidedly taken its place as a branch of musical education; the
learned writings of VV. S. Rockstro (1823-1895), many of them
made public first in the Encyclopaedia Britannica and Grove's
Dictionary of Music, made the subject clear to many who had been
groping in the dark before; and the actual performance of old
music has been undertaken not only by the Bach Choir, but by the
Magpie Madrigal Society under Mr Lionel Benson's able direction.
In vocal and instrumental music alike the musical side of the Inter-
national Exhibition of 1885 did excellent work in its historical
concerts; and in that branch of archaeology which is concerned
with the structure and restoration of olcf musical instruments,
important work has been done by Mr A. J. Hipkins (1826-1903;
so long connected with the firm of Broad wood), the Rev. F. W.
Galpin. Arnold Dolmetsch and others. The formation of the
Folk-Song Society in 1899 drew attention to the importance and
extent of English traditional music, and did much to popularize
it with singers of the present day.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Among encyclopaedic dictionaries of music
Sir George Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians (1878-
1889; new ed. by J. A. Fuller Maitland, 1904-1908), takes the first
place among publications in English^ while Robert Eitner's (d. 1905)
monumental Quellenlexikon (1900-1904), in German, is an authority
of the first rank. Among other modern works of value on various
accounts may be mentioned F. J. Fetis's Biographic universelle des
musiciens (2nd ed., 1860-1865; supplement by A. Pougin, 1878);
G. Schilling's Encyklopddie der gesammten musikalischen Wissen-
schaft (1835-1838); Mendel and Reissmann's Musikalisches Con-
versations-lexikon (2nd ed., 1883); H. Riemann's Musik-lexikon
(5th ed., 1900; also an Eng. trans., with additions, by J. S. Shed-
lock); the American Cyclopaedia of Music and Musicians (1889
1891) ; and the Oxford History of Music (1901-1905). The literature
of music generally is enormous, but the following selected list of
works on various aspects may be useful :
Aesthetics, Theory, &c. H. Ehrlich, Die Musik-Aesthetik in ihrer
Entwickelung von Kant bis auf die Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1882); E.
Hanslick, The Beautiful in Music (London, 1891); R. Wallaschek,
Aesthetik der Tonkunst (Stuttgart, 1886); R. Pohl, Die Hohenzilge
der musikalischen Entwickelung (Leipzig, 1888); A. Schnez, Die
Geheimnisse der Tonkunst (Stuttgart, 1891); I. A. Zahm, Sound and
Music (Chicago, 1892); C. Bellaique, Psychologie musicale( Paris,
1893); W. Pole, Philosophy of Music (vol. xi. of the English and
Foreign Philosophical Library, 1895); M. Seybel, Schopenhauers
Metaphysik der Musik (Leipzig, 1895); L. Lacombe, Philosophie et
musique (Paris, 1896); Sir C. H. H. Parry, The Evolution of the Art
of Music (London, 1897); H. Riemann, Prdludien untf Studien
(Frankfort, 1896); Geschic hie der Musiktheorie im IX. -XIX. Jahr-
hundert (Leipzig, 1898); Systemalische Modulationslehre (Hamburg,
1887) ; J. C. Lobe, Lehrbuch der musikalischen Komposition (Leipzig,
1884); A. B. Marx, Die Lehre von der musikalischen Komposition
(Leipzig, 1887, 1890); M. L. C. Cherubini, Theorie des Kontra-
punktes und der Fuge (Cologne, 1896); Sir J. F. Bridge and F. J.
Sawyer, A Course of Harmony (London, 1899) ; E. Prout, Counter-
point (London, 1890); Double Counterpoint and Canon (London,
1893); Musical Form (London, 1893); Applied Forms (London,
1895); B. Widmann, Die strengen Fornten der Musik (Leipzig,
1882); S. Jadassohn, Die Formen in den Werken der Tonkunst
(Leipzig, 1885); M. Steinitzer, Psychologische Wirkungen der musik-
alischen Formen (Munich, 1885); J. Combarieu, Theorie du rhythme
dans la composition moderne d'apres la doctrine antique (Paris,
1897); P. Goetschius, Homophonic Forms of Musical Composition
(New York, 1898) ; William Wallace, The Threshold of Music (1007).
English Music. W. Nagel, Geschichte der Musik in England
(Strassburg, 1894); H. Davey, History of English Music (London,
1895); F. J. Crcwest, The Story of British Music (London, 1896);
S. Vautyn, L'Evolution de la musique en Angleterre (Brussels, 1900);
Ernest Walker, English Music (1907).
America. W. S. B. Mathews, A Hundred Years of Music in
America (Chicago, 1889); L. C. Elson, The National Music of
America and its Sources (Boston, 1900) ; T. Baker, Uber die Musik
der nord-amerikanischen Wilden (Leipzig, 1882).
France. H. Laroix, La Musique fran^aise (Paris, 1891); N. M.
Schletterer, Studien zur Geschichte der franzosischen Musik (Berlin,
1884-1885) ; T. Galino, La Musique fran^aise au moyen dge (Leipzig,
1890); A. Ccgnard, De la Musique en France depuis Rameau (Paris,
1891); G. Servieres, La Musique franfaise moderne (Paris, 1897).
Germany. W. Baeumker, Geschichte der Tonkunst in Deutschland
bis zur Reformation (Freiburg, 1881); O. Ebben, Der volksthumliche
deutsche Mannergesang (Tubingen, 1887); L. Meinardus, Die deutsche
Tonkunst; A. Soubies, Histoire de la musique allemande (Paris, 1896).
Italy. O. Chilesotti, / nostri maestri del passato (Milan, 1882);
V. Lee, 77 Settecento in Italia (Milan, 1881); G. Masutto, / Maestri
di musica italiani del secolo XIX. (Venice, 1882).
Russia. A. Soubies, Histoire de la musique en Russie (Paris,
1898).
Scandinavia. A. Gronvoed, Norske Musikere (Christiania,
1883); C. Valentin, Studien uber die schwedischen Volksmelodien
(Leipzig, 1885).
Spain.]. F.
1887); J. Tort y Daniel, Noticia musical del " Lied " 6 CanQO cata-
Riafio, Notes on Early Spanish Music (London,
lana (Barcelona, 1892); A. Soubies, Hist, de la mus. en Espagne
(1899).
Switzerland. A. Niggli, La Musique dans la Suisse allemande
(1900); F. Held, La Musique dans la Suisse romande (1900); A.
Soubies, Hist, de la mus. dans la Suisse (1899).
Church Music. F. L. Humphreys, The Evolution of Church
Music (New York, 1898); E. L. Taunton, History of Church Music
(London, 1887); A. Morsch, Der italienische Kirchengesang bis
Palestrina (Berlin, 1887); G. Masutto, Delia Musica sacra in Italia,
(Venice, 1889) ; G. Felix, Palestrina et la musique sacree (Bruges,
1895); R. v. Liliencron, Liturgisch-musikalische Geschichte der
evangelischen Gottesdienste (Schleswig, 1893).
Instruments (see also the separate articles on each). L. Arrigoni,
Organografia ossia descrizione degli instrumenti musicali antichi
.(Milan, 1881) ; F. Boudoin, La Musique hislorique (Paris, 1886);
A. Jacquot, Etude de I'art instrumental. Dictionnaire des instru-
ments de musique (Paris, 1886) ; H. Boddington, Catalogue of Musical
Instruments illustrative of the History of the Pianoforte (Manchester
1888); M. E. Brown, Musical Instruments and their Homes (New
York, 1888); A. J. Hipkins, Musical Instruments: Historic, Rare
and Unique (Edinburgh, 1888); W. Lynd, Account of Ancient
Musical Instruments and their Development (London, 1897); J.
Weiss, Die musikalischen Instrumente in den heiligen Schriften des
Alien Testaments (Graz, 1895) ; E. Travers, Les Instruments de
musique au xiv. siecle (Paris, 1882); E. A. v. Hasselt, L' Anatomic
des instruments de musique (Brussels, 1899); E. W. Verney, Siamese
Musical Instruments (London, 1888); C. R. Day, Music and Musical
Instruments of Southern India (London, 1891); D. G. Brinton,
Native American Stringed Musical Instruments (1897); I. Ruehl-
mann, Die Geschichte der Bogeninstrumente (Brunswick, 1882);
F. di Caffarelli, Gli Strumenti ad area e la musica da camera (Milan,
1894); Kathleen Schlesinger, Instruments of the Orchestra (1910).
Conducting. W. R. Wagner, On Conducting (London, 1887);
M. Kufferath, L' Art de diriger Vorchestre (Paris, 1891); F. Wein-
gartner, Uber das Dirigiren (Berlin, 1896).
Biography. IP. Hueffer, The Great Musicians (London, 1881
1884) ; F. Clement, Les Grands musiciens (Paris, 1882) ; C. E. Bourne,
The Great Composers (London, 1887); G. T. Ferris, Great Musical
Composers; Sir C. H. H. Parry, Studies of Great Composers (London,
1887); A. A. Ernouf, Compositeurs celebres (Paris, 1888); F. T.
Bennassi-Desplantes, Les Musiciens celebres (Limoges, 1889);
A. Haunedruche, Les Musiciens et compositeurs franfais , (Paris,
1890); N. H. Dole, A Score of Famous Composers (New York,
86
MUSICAL-BOXMUSICAL NOTATION
1891); L. T. Morris, Famous Musical Composers (London, 1891);
H. de Bremont, The World of Music (London, 1892); J. K. Paine,
Famous Composers and their Works (Boston, 1892-1893); E. Polko,
Meister der Tonkunst (Wiesbaden, 1897); R. F. Sharp, Makers of
Music (London, 1898); L. Nohl, Mosaik Denksteine aus dem Leben
beriihmter Tonkunstler (Leipzig, 1899); T. Baker, A Biographical
Dictionary of Musicians (New York, 1900); M.Charles, Zeitgenos-
sische Tondichter (Leipzig, 1888); A. Jullien, Musiciens d'aujourd'hui
(Paris, 1892).
MUSICAL-BOX, an instrument for producing by mechanical
means tunes or pieces of music. The modern musical-box is
an elaboration of the elegant toy musical snuff-box in vogue
during the i8th century. The notes or musical sounds are pro-
duced by the vibration of steel teeth or springs cut in a comb or
flat plate of steel, reinforced by the harmonics generated in the
solid steel back of the comb. The teeth are graduated in length
from end to end of the comb or plate, the longer teeth giving the
deeper notes; and the individual teeth are accurately attuned,
where necessary, by filing or loading with lead. Each tone and
semitone in the scale is represented by three or four separate
teeth in the comb, to permit of successive repetitions of the same
note when required by the music. The teeth are acted upon and
musical vibrations produced by the revolution of a brass cylinder
studded with projecting pins, which, as they move round, raise
and release the proper teeth at due intervals according to the
nature of the music. A single revolution of the cylinder com-
pletes the performance of each of the several pieces of music for
which the apparatus is set, but upon the same cylinder there may
be inserted pins for performing as many as thirty-six separate
airs. This is accomplished by making both the points of the
teeth and the projecting pins which raise them very fine, so that
a very small change in the position of the cylinder is sufficient
to bring an entirely distinct set of pins in contact with the teeth.
In the more elaborate musical-boxes the cylinders are removable,
and may be replaced by others containing distinct sets of music.
In these also there are combinations of bell, drum, cymbal and
triangle effects, &c. The revolving motion of the cylinder is
effected by a spring and clock-work which on some modern instru-
ments will work continuously for an hour and a half without
winding, and the rate of revolution is regulated by a fly regulator.
The headquarters of the musical-box trade is Geneva, where the
manufacture gives employment to thousands of persons.
The musical-box is a type of numerous instruments for producing
musical effects by mechanical means, in all of which a revolving
cylinder or barrel studded with pins is the governing feature. The
position of the pins on the barrel is determined by two considera-
tions: those of pitch and of time or rhythm. The degrees of
pitch or semitones of the scales are in the direction of the length
of the cylinder, while those of time, or the beats in the bars, are in
the path of the revolution of the cylinder. The action of the pins
is practically the same for all barrel instruments; each pin serves to
raise some part of the mechanism for one note at the exact moment
and for the exact duration of time required by the music to be
played, after which, passing along with the revolution of the
cylinder, it ceases to act. The principle of the barrel operating
by friction, by percussion or by wind on reeds, pipes or strings
governs carillons or musical bells, barrel organs, mechanical flutes,
celestial voices, harmoniphones, violin-pianos and the orchestrions
and polyphons in which a combination of all orchestral effects is
attempted. In the case of wind instruments, such as flutes,
trumpets, oboes, clarinets, imitated in the more complex orches-
trions, the pins raise levers which open the valves admitting air,
compressed by mechanical bellows, to various kinds of flue-pipes,
and to others fitted with beating and free reeds. The sticks used
for striking bells, drums, cymbals and triangles are set in motion
in a similar manner. A fine set of full-page drawings, published at
Frankfort in i6is, 1 makes the whole working of the pinned barrel
quite clear, and establishes the exact relation of the pins to the
music produced by the barrel so unmistakably that some bars of
the piece of music set on the cylinder can be made out. The
prototype of the 19th-century musical-box is to be found in the
Netherlands where during the ijth century the dukes of Burgundy
encouraged the invention of ingenious mechanical musical
curiosities such as " organs which played of themselves," musical
snuff-boxes, singing birds, curious clocks, &c. A principle of more
recent introduction than the studded cylinder consists of sheets
of perforated paper or card, somewhat similar to the Jacquard
apparatus for weaving. The perforations correspond in position
and length to the pitch and duration of the note they represent,
1 See S. de Caus, Les forces mouvantes; and article BARREL ORGAN.
and as the web or long sheet of paper passes over the instrument
the perforated holes are brought in proper position and sequence
under the influence of the suction or pressure cf air from a bellows,
and thereby the notes are either directly acted on, as in the case of
reed instruments, or the opening and closing of valves set in motion
levers or liberate springs which govern special notes. The United
States are the original home of the instruments controlled by
perforated paper known as orguinettes, organinas, melodeons, &c.
All these instruments are being gradually replaced in popular
favour by the piano-players and the gramophone. (K. S.)
MUSICAL NOTATION, a pictorial method of representing
sounds to the ear through the medium of the eye. It is probable
that the earliest attempts at notation were made by the Hindus
and Chinese, from whom the legacy was transferred to Greece.
The exact nature of the Greek notation is a subject of dispute,
different explanations assigning 1680, 1620, 990, or 138 signals
to their alphabetical method of delineation. To Boethius we
owe the certainty that the Greek notation was not adopted by
the Latins, although it is not certain whether he was the first
to apply the fifteen letters of the Roman alphabet to the scale
of sounds included within the two octaves, or whether he was
only the first to make record of that application. The reduction
of the scale to the octave is ascribed to St Gregory, as also the
naming of the seven notes, but it is not safe to assume that such
an ascription is accurate or final. Indications of a scheme of
notation based, not on the alphabet, but on the use of dashes,
hooks, curves, dots and strokes are found to exist as early as
the 6th century, while specimens in illustration of this different
method do not appear until the 8th. The origin of these signs,
known as neumes (vtvuara, or nods), is the full stop (punctus),
the comma (virga), and the mound or undulating line (dims),
the first indicating a short sound, the second a long sound, and
the third a group of two notes. The musical intervals were
suggested by the distance of these signals from the words of the
text. The variety of neumes employed at different times, and
the fluctuations due to handwriting, have made them extremely
difficult to decipher. In the loth century a marked advance
is shown by the use of a red line traced horizontally above the
text to give the singer a fixed note (F = fa), thus helping him to
approximate the intervals. To this was added a second line in
yellow (for C = ut), and finally a staff arose from the further
addition of two black lines over these. The difficulty of the
subject is complicated for the student by the fact that an
incredible variety of notations coexisted at one period, all more
or less representing attempts in the direction of the modern
system. A variety of experiments resulted in the assignment
of the four-lined staff to sacred music and of the five-lined staff
to secular music. The yellow and red colours were replaced
by the use of the letters F and C (fa and ut) on the lines. This
use of letters to indicate clef is forestalled in a manuscript of
Guido of Arezzo's Micrologus, dating from the i2th century, in
which is the famous hymn to St John, printed with neumes on
a staff of three lines (see Guroo OF AREZZO). The use of letters
for indicating clefs has survived to the present day, our clef
signatures being modified forms of the letters C, F and G, which
have passed through a multitude of shapes. Before the lath
century there is no trace of a measured notation (i.e. of a
numerical time division separating the component parts of a
piece of music). It is at the time of Franco of Cologne 2 that
measured music takes its rise, together with the black notation
in place of neumes, which disappeared altogether by the end of
the i4th century. Writing four hundred years after St Gregory,
Cottonius complains bitterly of the defects in the system of
neumes: " The same marks which Master Trudo sang as
thirds, were sung as fourths by Master Albinus; while Master
Salomo asserts that fifths are the notes meant, so at last there
were as many methods of singing as teachers of the art." Pos-
sibly the reckless multiplication of lines in the staff may have
contributed to the obscurity of which Cottonius complains.
In the black notation, which led to the modern system, the
square note with a tail fl) is the long sound; the square note
1 The principles of Franco are found in the treatises of Walter
Odington, a monk of Evesham who became archbishop of Canterbury
in 1228.
MUSIC HALLS
without a tail () is the breve; and the lozenge shape (4) is the
semibreve. In a later development there were added the double
long ^ and the minum (fl). The breve, according to Franco of
Cologne, was the unit of measure. The development of a fixed
time division was further continued by Philippe de Vitry. It
has been noted with well-founded astonishment that at this time
the double time (i.e. two to the bar) was unknown, in spite of
this being the time used in marching and also illustrated in the
process of breathing. Triple time (i.e. three to the bar) was
regarded as the most perfect because it was indivisible. It was
as if there lay some mysterious enchantment in a number that
could not be divided into equal portions without the fraction.
" Triple time, " says Jean de Muris, " is called perfect, according
to Franco, a man of much skill in his art, because it hath its name
from the Blessed Trinity which is pure and true perfection."
Vitry championed the rights of imperfect time and invented
signs to distinguish the two. The perfect circle O represented
the perfect or triple time; the half circle C the imperfect or
double-time. This C has survived in modern notation to
indicate four-time, which is twice double-time; when crossed ([
it means double-time. The method of dividing into perfect
and imperfect was described as prolation. The addition of a
point to the circle or semi-circle (0 ( ) indicated major pro-
lation; its absence, minor prolation. The substitution of
white for black notation began with the first year of the I4th
century and was fully established in the I5th century.
It has already been shown how the earlier form of alphabetical
notation was gradually superseded by one based on the attempt
to represent the relative height and depth of sounds pictorially.
The alphabetical nomenclature, however, became inextricably
associated with the pictorial system. The two conceptions
reinforced each other; and from the hexachordal scale, endowed
with the solmization of ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la which was a
device for identifying notes by their names when talked of,
rather than by their positions when seen on a page of music
arose the use of what are now known as accidentals. Of these
it may here be said that the flat originated from the necessity
of sinking the B of the scale in order to form a hexachord on
the note F in such a way as to cause the semitone to fall in the
right place which in the case of all hexachords was between
the third and fourth notes. This softened B was written in a
rounded form thus: b (rotundum), while the original B remained
square thus: [3 (quadrum). The original conception of the sharp
was to cross or lattice the square B, by which it was shown that
it was neither to be softened nor to remain unchanged. The
flat, which originated in the loth century, appears to have been
of far earlier date than the sharp, the invention of which has
been ascribed to Josquin Des Pres (1450-1521). The B-sharp
was called B cancellatum, the cross being formed thus %. The
use of key signatures constructed out of these signs of sharp and
flat was of comparatively late introduction. The key signature
states at the beginning of a piece of music the sharps and flats
which it contains within the scale in which it is written. It is a
device to avoid repeating the sign of sharp and flat with every
fresh occasion of their occurring. The exact distinction between
what were accidental sharps or flats, and what were sharps or
flats in the key, was still undetermined in the time of Handel,
who wrote the Suite in E containing the " Harmonious Black-
smith " with three sharps instead of four. The double bb (some-
times written \> or /3) and the double sharp X (sometimes
written ^, ^ or :$ ) are Conventions of a much later date,
called into existence by the demands of modern music, while
the sign of natural (t|) is the outcome of the original B quadra-
tion or square B (3.
The systems known as Tonic Sol Fa and the Galin-Paris-
Cheve methods do not belong to the subject of notation, as they
are ingenious mechanical substitutes for the experimentally devel-
oped systems analysed above. The basis of these substitutes
is the reference of all notes to key relationship and not to pitch.
AUTHORITIES. E. David and M. Lussy, Hisioire de la notation
musicale (Paris, 1882); H. Riemann, Notenschrift und Notendruck
(1896) ; C. F. Abdy Williams, The Story of Notation (1903) ; Robert
Eitner, Bibliographic der musik. Sammelwerke des 16. und 17. Jahr-
hunderts (Berlin, 1877) ; Friedrich Chrysander, " Abriss einer
Geschichte des Musikdrucks vom I5--I9. Jahrh.," Allgemeine musik-
alische Zeitung (Leipzig, 1879, Nos. n-i6); W. H. James Weale,
A Descriptive Catalogue of Rare Manuscripts and Printed Works,
chiefly Liturgical (Historical Music Loan Exhibition, Albert Hall,
London, January-October, 1885); (London, 1886); W. Barclay
Squire, " Notes on Early Music Printing," in the Zeitschrift biblio-
graphica, p. IX. S. 99-122 (London, 1896); Grove's Diet, of Music.
MUSIC HALLS. The "variety theatre" or "music-hall"
of to-day developed out of the " saloon theatres " which existed
in London about 1830-1840; they owed their form and existence
to the restrictive action of the " patent " theatres at that time.
These theatres had the exclusive right of representing what was
broadly called the "legitimate drama," which ranged from
Shakespeare to Monk Lewis, and from Sheridan and Goldsmith
to Kotzebue and Alderman Birch of Cornhill, citizen and poet,
and the founder of the turtle-soup trade. The patent houses
defended their rights when they were attacked by the " minor "
and " saloon " theatres, but they often acted in the spirit of
the dog in the manger. While they pursued up to fine and
even imprisonment the poachers on their dramatic preserves,
they too often neglected the " legitimate drama " for the
supposed meretricious attractions offered by their illegitimate
competitors. The British theatre gravitated naturally to the
inn or tavern. The tavern was the source of life and heat, and
warmed all social gatherings. The inn galleries offered rather
rough stages, before the Shakespeare and Alleyn playhouses
were built. The inn yards were often made as comfortable as
possible for the " groundlings " by layers of straw, but the tavern
character of the auditorium was never concealed. Excisable
liquor was always obtainable, and the superior members of the
audience, who chose to pay for seats at the side of the stage or
platform (like the " avant-scene " boxes at a Parisian theatre),
were allowed to smoke Raleigh's Virginian weed, then a novel
luxury. This was, of course, the first germ of a " smoking-
theatre."
While the drama progressed as a recognized public entertain-
ment in England, and was provided with its own buildings in the
town, or certain booths at the fairs, the Crown exercised its
patronage in favour of certain individuals, giving them power
to set up playhouses at any time in any parts of London and
Westminster. The first and most important grant was made by
Charles II. to his " trusty and well-beloved " Thomas Killigrew
" and Sir William Davenant." This was a personal grant, not
connected with any particular sites or buildings, and is known
in theatrical history as the " Killigrew and Davenant patent."
Killigrew was the author of several unsuccessful plays, and Sir
William Davenant, said to be an illegitimate chUd of William
Shakespeare, was a stage manager of great daring and genius.
Charles II. had strong theatrical leanings, and had helped to
arrange the court ballets at Versailles for Louis XIV. The
Killigrew and Davenant patent in course of time descended,
after a fashion, to the Theatres Royal, Covent Garden and Drury
Lane, and was and still is the chief legal authority governing
these theatres. The " minor " and outlying playhouses were
carried on under the Music and Dancing Act of George II., and
the annual licences were granted by the local magistrates.
The theatre proper having emancipated itself from the inn or
tavern, it was now the turn of the inn or tavern to develop into
an independent place of amusement, and to lay the foundation
of that enormous middle-class and lower middle-class institution
of interest which we agree to term the music hall. It rose from
the most modest, humble and obscure beginning from the
public-house bar-parlour, and its weekly " sing-songs," chiefly
supported by voluntary talent from the "harmonic meetings"
of the " long-room " upstairs, generally used as a Foresters' or
Masonic club-room, where one or two professional singers were
engaged and a regular chairman was appointed, to the " assem-
bly-room " entertainments at certain hotels, where private balls
and school festivals formed part of an irregular series. The
district " tea-garden," which was then an agreeable feature of
suburban life the suburbs being next door to the city and the
country next door to the suburbs was the first to show dramatic
88
MUSIC HALLS
ambition, and to erect in some portion of its limited but leafy
grounds a lath-and-plaster stage large enough for about eight
people to move upon without incurring the danger of falling
off into the adjoining fish pond and fountain. A few classical
statues in plaster, always slightly mutilated, gave an educational
tone to the place, and with a few coloured oil-lamps hung amongst
the bushes the proprietor felt he had gone as near the " Royal
Vauxhall Gardens '' as possible for the small charge of a sixpenny
refreshment ticket. There were degrees of quality, of course,
amongst these places, which answered to the German beer-
gardens, though with inferior music. The Beulah Spa at
Norwood, the White Conduit House at Pentonville, the York-
shire Stingo in the Marylebone Road, the Monster at Pimlico,
the St Helena at Rotherhithe, the Globe at Mile End, the Red
Cow at Dalston, the Highbury Barn at Highbury, the Manor
House at Mare Street, Hackney, the Rosemary Branch at
Hoxton, and other rus-in-urbe retreats, were up to the level of
their time, if rarely beyond it.
The suspended animation of the law the one Georgian act,
which was mainly passed to check the singing of Jacobite songs
in the tap-rooms and tea-gardens of the little London of 1730,
when the whole population of the United Kingdom was only
about six millions encouraged the growth eventually of a
number of " saloon theatres " in various London districts,
which were allowed under the head of "Music and Dancing"
to go as far on the light dramatic road as the patent theatres
thought proper to permit. The 25 Geo. II. c. 36, which in later
days was still the only act under which the music halls of forty
millions and more of people were licensed, was always liberally
interpreted, as long as it kept clear of politics.
The " saloon theatres," always being taverns or attached to
taverns, created a public who liked to mix its dramatic amuse-
ments with smoking and light refreshments. The principal
" saloons " were the Emngham in the Whitechapel Road, the
Bower in the Lower Marsh, Lambeth, the Albert at Islington,
the Britannia at Hoxton, the Grecian in the City Road, the
Union in Shoreditch, the Stingo at Paddington and several
others of less importance. All these places had good com-
panies, especially in the winter, and many of' them nourished
leading actors of exceptional merit. The dramas were chiefly
rough adaptations from the contemporary French stage,
occasionally flying as high as Alexandre Dumas the elder and
Victor Hugo. Actors of real tragic power lived, worked and
died in this confined area. Some went to America, and acquired
fame and fortune; and among others, Frederick Robson, who
was trained at the Grecian, first when it was the leading
saloon theatre and afterwards when it became the leading music
hall (a distinction with little difference), fought his way to the
front after the abolition of the " patent rights " and was accepted
as the greatest tragi-comic actor of his time. The Grecian
saloon theatre, better known perhaps, with its pleasure garden
or yard, as the Eagle Tavern, City Road, which formed the
material of one of Charles Dickens's Sketches by Boz, was a place
managed with much taste, enterprise and discretion by its pro-
prietor, Mr Rouse. It was the " saloon " where the one and only
attempt, with limited means, was ever made to import almost
all the original repertory of the Opera Comique in Paris, with the
result that many musical works were presented to a sixpenny
audience that had never been heard before nor since in England.
Auber, Herold, Adolphe Adam, Boieldieu, Gretry, Donizetti,
Bellini, Rossini and a host of others gave some sort of advanced
musical education, through the Grecian, to a rather depressing
part of London, long before board schools were established.
The saloon theatres rarely offended the patent houses, and when
they did the law was soon put in motion to show that Shake-
speare could not be represented with impunity. The Union
Saloon in Shoreditch, then under the direction of Mr Samuel
Lane, who afterwards, with his wife, Mrs Sara Lane, at the
Britannia Saloon, became the leading local theatrical manager
of his day, was tempted in 1834 to give a performance of Othello.
It was " raided " by the then rather " new police," and all the
actors, servants, audience, directors and musicians were taken
into custody and marched off to Worship Street police station,
confined for the remainder of the night, and fined and warned
in the morning. The same and only law still exists for those
who are helping to keep a " disorderly house," but there are no
holders of exclusive dramatic patent rights to set it in motion.
The abolition of this privileged monopoly was effected about this
time by a combination of distinguished literary men and drama-
tists, who were convinced, from observation and experience, that
the patent theatres had failed to nurse the higher drama, while
interfering with the beneficial freedom of public amusements.
The effect of Covent Garden and Drury Lane on the art of
acting had resulted chiefly in limiting the market for theatrical
employment, with a consequent all-round reduction of salaries.
They kept the Lyceum Theatre (or English Opera House) for
years in the position of a music hall, giving sometimes two
performances a night, like a " gaff " in the New Cut or White-
chapel. They had not destroyed the " star " system, and
Edmund Kean and the boy Betty the " Infant Roscius "
were able to command sensational rewards. In the end Charles
Dickens, Sir Edward Bulwer-Lytton, Sir Thomas Noon Talfourd
and others got the patents abolished, and the first step towards
free trade in the drama was secured.
The effect of this change was to draw attention to the " saloon
theatres," where during the performances smoking, drinking,
and even eating were allowed hi the auditorium. An act was
soon passed, known as the Theatres Act (1843), appointing a
censor of stage-plays, and placing the London theatres under
the control of a Crown officer, changing with ministries. This
was the lord chamberlain for the time being. The lord chamber-
lain of this period drew a hard-and-fast line between theatres
under his control, where no smoking and drinking were allowed
" in front," and theatres or halls where the old habits and customs
of the audience were not to be interfered with. These latter
were to go under the jurisdiction of the local magistrates,
or other licensing authorities, under the 25 Geo. II. c. 36 the
Music and Dancing Act and so far a divorce was decreed
between the taverns and the playhouses. The lord chamberlain
eventually made certain concessions. Refreshment bars were
allowed at the lord chamberlain's theatres in unobstrusive
positions, victualled under a special act of William IV., and
private smoking-rooms were allowed at most theatres on appli-
cation. All this implied that stage plays were to be kept free
from open smoking and drinking, and miscellaneous entertain-
ments were to enjoy their old social freedom. The position was
accepted by those " saloon theatres " which were not tempted
to become lord chamberlain houses, and the others, with many
additions, started the first music halls.
Amongst the first of these halls, and certainly the very first
as far as intelligent management was concerned, was the Can-
terbury in the Lower Marsh, Lambeth, which was next door
to the old Bower Saloon, then transformed into a " minor
theatre." The Canterbury sprang from the usual tavern
germ, its creator being Mr Charles Morton, who honourably
earned the name of the " doyen of the music halls." It justified
its title by cultivating the best class of music, and exposed the
prejudice and unfairness of Planche's sarcasm in a Haymarket
burlesque " most music hall most melancholy." Mr Charles
Morton added pictorial art to his other attractions, and obtained
the support of Punch, which stamped the Canterbury as the
" Royal Academy over the water." At this time by a mere
accident Gounod's great opera of Faust, through defective inter-
national registration, fell into the public domain in England and
became common property. The Canterbury, not daring
to present it with scenery, costumes and action, for fear of the
Stage-play Act, gave what was called " An Operatic Selection,"
the singers standing in plain dresses in a row, like pupils at a
school examination or a chorus in an oratorio at Exeter Hall.
The music was well rendered by a thoroughly competent com-
pany, night after night, for a long period, so that by the time
the opera attracted the tardy attention of the two principal
opera managers at Her Majesty's Theatre in the Haymarket
and Covent Garden Theatre, the tunes most popular were being'
MUSIC HALLS
89
whistled by the " man in the street," the " boy in the gutter "
and the tradesman waiting at the door for orders.
With the Canterbury Hall, and its brother the Oxford
in Oxford Street a converted inn and coaching yard built
and managed on the same lines by Mr Charles Morton, the
music halls were well started. They had imitators in every
direction some large, some small, and some with architectural
pretensions, but all anxious to attract the public by cheap
prices and physical comforts not attainable at any of the
regular theatres.
With the growth and improvement of these " Halls," the few
old cellar " singing-rooms " gradually disappeared. Evans's
in Covent Garden was the last to go. Rhodes's, or the
Cyder Cellars in Maiden Lane, at the back of the Adelphi
Theatre; the Coal Hole, in the Strand, which now forms
the site of Terry's Theatre; the Doctor Johnson, in Fleet
Street (oddly enough, within the precincts of the City of London)
disappeared one by one, and with them the compound material
for Thackeray's picture of " The Cave of Harmony." This
" Cave," like Dickens's " Old Curiosity Shop," was drawn
from the features of many places. To do the " cellars " a little
justice, they represented the manners of a past time heavy
suppers and heavy drinks, and the freedom of their songs and
recitations was partly due to the fact that the audience and
the actors were always composed of men. Thackeray clung
to Evans's to the last. It was his nightly " chapel of
ease " to the adjoining Garrick Club. In its old age it became
decent, and ladies were admitted to a private gallery, behind
screens and a convent grille. Before its death, and its revival
in another form as a sporting club, it admitted ladies both on
and off the stage, and became an ordinary music hall.
The rise and progress of the London music halls naturally
excited a good deal of attention and jealousy on the part of
the regular theatres, and this was increased when the first
Great Variety Theatre was opened in Leicester Square.
The building was the finest example of Moorish architec-
ture on a large scale ever erected in England. It was burnt
down in the 'eighties, and the present theatre was built in
its place. Originally it was " The Panopticon," a palace of
" recreative science," started under the most distinguished
direction on the old polytechnic institution lines, and with
ample capital. It was a commercial failure, and after being
tried as an " American Circus," it was turned into a great
variety theatre, the greatest of its kind in Europe, under the
name of the Alhambra Palace. Its founder was Mr E.T. Smith,
the energetic theatrical manager, and its developer was Mr
Frederick Strange, who came full of spirit and money from
the Crystal Palace. He produced in 1865 an ambitious ballet
the Dagger Ballet from Auber's Enfant prodigue, which had
been seen at Drury Lane Theatre in 1851, translated as " Azae'l."
The Alhambra was prosecuted in the superior courts for
infringing the Stage-play Act the 6 & 7 Viet. c. 68. The
case is in the law reports Wigan v. Strange; the ostensible
plaintiffs being the well-known actors and managers Horace
Wigan and Benjamin Webster, supported by J. B. Buckstone,
and many other theatrical managers. A long trial before
eminent judges, with eminent counsel on both sides, produced
a decision which was not very satisfactory, and far from final.
It held that, as far as the entertainment went, according to
the evidence tendered, it was not a ballet representing any
distinct story or coherent action, but it might have been a
" divertissement " a term suggested in the course of the
trial. A short time after this a pantomime scene was pro-
duced at the same theatre, called Where's the Police?
which had a clown, a pantaloon, a columbine and a harlequin,
with other familiar characters, a mob, a street and even the
traditional red-hot poker. This inspired proceedings by the
same plaintiffs before a police magistrate at Marlborough Street,
who inflicted the full penalties 20 a performance for 12
performances, and costs. An appeal was made to the West-
minster quarter sessions, supported by Serjeant Ballantine
and opposed by Mr Hardinge Giffard (afterwards Lord Chan-
cellor Halsbury), and the conviction was confirmed. Being
heard at quarter sessions, there is no record in the law reports.
These and other prosecutions suggested the institution of
a parliamentary inquiry, and a House of Commons select
committee was appointed in 1866, at the instigation of the
music halls and variety theatres. The committee devoted
much time to the inquiry, and examined many witnesses
amongst the rest Lord Sydney, the lord chamberlain, who
had no personal objection to undertake the control of these
comparatively young places of amusement and recreation.
Much of the evidence was directed against the Stage-play Act,
as the difficulty appeared to be to define what was not a stage
play. Lord Denman, Mr Justice Byles, and other eminent
judges seemed to think that any song, action or recitation
that excited the emotions might be pinned as a stage-play,
and that the old definition " the representation of any action
by a person (or persons) acting, and not in the form of narration "
could be supported in the then state of the law in any of
the higher courts. The variety theatres on this occasion were
encouraged by what had just occurred at the time in France.
Napoleon III., acting under the advice of M. Miche! Chevalier,
passed a decree known as La LibertS des IheStres, which
fixed the status of the Parisian and other music halls. Operettas,
ballets of action, ballets, vaudevilles, pantomimes and all light
pieces were allowed, and the managers were no longer legally
confined to songs and acrobatic performances. The report
of the select committee of 1866, signed by the chairman, Mr
(afterwards Viscount) Goschen, was in favour of granting the
variety theatres and music halls the privileges they asked for,
which were those enjoyed in France and other countries.
Parliamentary interference and the introduction of several
private bills in the House of Commons, which came to nothing,
checked, if they did not altogether stop, the prosecutions. The
variety theatres advanced in every direction in number and im-
portance. Ballets grew in splendour and coherency. The lighting
and ventilation, the comfort and decoration of the various
" palaces " (as many of them were now called) improved,
and the public, as usual, were the gainers. Population in-
creased, and the six millions of 1730 became forty millions
and more. The same and only act (25 Geo. II. c. 36), adequate
or inadequate, still remained. London is defined as' the
" administrative county of London," and its area the
zo-miles radius is mapped out. The Metropolitan Board
of Works retired or was discharged, and the London County
Council was created and has taken its place. The London
County Council, with extended power over structures and
structural alterations, acquired the licensing of variety theatres
and music halls from the local magistrates (the Middlesex,
Surrey, Tower Hamlets and other magistrates) within
the administrative county of London. The L. C. C. examine
and enforce their powers. They have been advised that
they can separate a music from a dancing licence if they like,
and that when they grant the united licence the dancing
means the dancing of paid performers on a stage, and not the
dancing of the audience on a platform or floor, as at the short-
lived but elegant Cremorne Gardens, or an old-time " Casino."
They are also advised that they can withhold licences, unless
the applicants agree not to apply for a drink licence to the local
magistrates sitting in brewster sessions, who still retain their
control over the liquor trade. Theatre licences are often with-
held unless a similar promise is made the drink authority in
this case being the Excise, empowered by the Act of William IV.
( 5 &6 Will. IV. c. 39, s. 7).
The spread of so-called " sketches " a kind of condensed
drama or farce in the variety theatres, and the action of the
London County Council in trying to check the extension of
refreshment licences to these establishments, with other grounds
of discontent on the part of managers (individuals or " limited
companies "), led to the appointment of a second select com-
mittee of the House of Commons in 1892 and the production
of another blue-book. The same ground was gone over, and
the same objections were raised against a licensing authority
9 o
MUSK MUSKEGON
which is elected by public votes, only exists for three years
before another election is due, and can give no guarantee for
the continuity of its judgments. The consensus of opinion
(as in 1866) was in favour of a state official, responsible to
parliament like the Home Office or the Board of Trade the
preference being given to the lord chamberlain and his staff,
who know much about theatres and theatrical business. The
chairman of the committee was the Hon. David Plunkett (after-
wards Lord Rathmore), and the report in spirit was the same
as the one of 1866. Three forms of licence were suggested:
one for theatres proper, one for music halls, and one for concert
rooms.
Though the rise and progress of the music hall and variety
theatre interest is one of the most extraordinary facts of the
last half of the igth century, the business has little or no
corporate organization, and there is nothing like a complete
registration of the various properties throughout the United
Kingdom. In London the " London Entertainments Pro-
tection Association," which has the command of a weekly
paper called the Music Hall and Theatre Review, looks after
its interests. In London alone over five millions sterling of
capital is said to be invested in these enterprises, employing
80,000 persons of all grades, and entertaining during the year
about 25,000,000 people. The annual applications for music
licences in London alone are over 300. (J. HD.)
HUSK (Med. Lat. muscus, late Gr. tiba\<K, possibly Pers.
mushk, from Sansk. mushka, the scrotum), the name originally
given to a perfume obtained from the strong-smelling substance
secreted in a gland by the musk-deer (q.v.), and hence applied
to other animals, and also to plants, possessing a similar odour.
The variety which appears in commerce is a secretion of the
musk-deer; but the odour is also emitted by the musk-ox and
musk-rat of India and Europe, by the musk-duck (Biziura
lobala) of West Australia, the musk-shrew, the musk-beetle
(Calickroma moschala), the alligator of Central America, and by
several other animals. In the vegetable kingdom it is present
in the common musk (Mimulus moschatus), the musk- wood
of the Guianas and West Indies (Guarea, spp.), and in the seeds
of Hibiscus Abelmoschus (musk-seeds). To obtain the perfume
from the musk-deer the animal is killed and the gland com-
pletely removed, and dried, either in the sun, on a hot stone,
or by immersion in hot oil. It appears in commerce as " musk
in pod," i.e. the glands are entire, or as " musk in grain," in
which the perfume has been extracted from its receptacle.
Three kinds are recognized: (i) Tong-king, Chinese or Tibetan,
imported from China, the most valued; (2) Assam or Nepal,
less valuable; and (3) Karbardin or Russian (Siberian), imported
from Central Asia by way of Russia, the least valuable and
hardly admitting of adulteration. The Tong-king musk is
exported in small, gaudily decorated caddies with tin or lead
linings, wherein the perfume is sealed down; it is now usually
transmitted direct by parcel post to the merchant.
Good musk is of a dark purplish colour, dry, smooth and
unctuous to the touch, and bitter in taste. It dissolves in boiling
water to the extent of about one-half; alcohol takes up one-third
of the substance, and ether and chloroform dissolve still less.
A grain of musk will distinctly scent millions of cubic feet of
air without any appreciable loss of weight, and its scent is not
only more penetrating but more persistent than that of any
other known substance. In addition to its odoriferous principle,
it contains ammonia, cholesterin, fatty matter, a bitter resinous
substance, and other animal principles. As a material in
perfumery it is of the first importance, its powerful and enduring
odour giving strength and permanency to the vegetable essences,
so that it is an ingredient in many compounded perfumes.
Artificial musk is a synthetic product, haying a similar odour to
natural musk. It was obtained by Baur in 1888 by condensing
toluene with isobutyl bromide in the presence of aluminium chloride,
and nitrating the product. It is a symtrinitrp-^-butyl toluene.
Many similar preparations have been made, and it appears that the
odour depends upon the symmetry of the three nitro groups.
MUSK-DEER (Moschus moschiferus) , an aberrant member
of the deer family constituting the sub-family Ceruidae Moschinae
(see DEER). Both sexes are devoid of antler appendage;
but in this the musk-deer agrees with one genus of true deer
(Hydrelaphus), and as in the latter, the upper canine teeth of
the males are long and sabre-like, projecting below the chin,
with the ends turned somewhat backwards. In size the musk-
deer is rather less than the European roe-deer, being about
20 in. high at the shoulder. Its limbs, especially the hinder
pair, are long; and the feet remarkable for the great develop-
ment of the lateral pair of hoofs and for the freedom of motion
The Musk-deer (Moschus moschiferus).
they all present, which must be of assistance to the animal
in steadying it in its agile bounds among the crags of its native
haunts. The ears are large, and the tail rudimentary. The
hair covering the body is long, coarse, and of a peculiarly
brittle and pith-like character, breaking easily; it is generally
of a greyish-brown colour, sometimes inclined to yellowish-red,
and often variegated with lighter patches. The musk-deer
inhabits the forest districts in the Himalaya as far west as
Gilgit, always, however, at great elevations being rarely
found in summer below 8000 ft. above the sea-level, and ranging
as high as the limits of the thickets of birch, rhododendron
and juniper, among which it mostly conceals itself in the day-
time. The range extends into Tibet, Siberia and north-
western China; but the musk-deer of Kansu has been separated
as a distinct species, under the name of M. sifanicus. Musk-
deer are hardy, solitary and retiring animals, chiefly nocturnal
in habits, and almost always found alone, rarely in pairs and
never in herds. They are exceedingly active and surefooted,
having perhaps no equal in traversing rocks and precipitous
giound; and they feed on moss, grass, and leaves of the plants
which grow on the mountains.
Most mammals have certain portions of the skin specially
modified and provided with glands secreting odorous and fatty
substances characteristic of the particular species. The special
gland of the musk-deer, which has made the animal so well
known, and has proved the cause of unremitting persecution
to its possessor, is found in the male only, and is a sac about
the size of a small orange, situated beneath the skin of the
abdomen, the orifice being immediately in front of the preputial
aperture. The secretion with which the sac is filled is dark
brown or chocolate in colour, and when fresh of the consistence
of " moist gingerbread," but becoming dry and granular after
keeping (see MUSK). The Kansu (M. sifanicus) differs from
the typical species in having longer ears, which are black on
the outer surface.
MUSKEGON, a city and the county-seat of Muskegon
county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Muskegon lake, an expansion
of Muskegon river near its mouth, about 4 m. from Lake
Michigan and 38 m. N.W. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1890),
22,702; (1900), 20,818, of whom 6236 were foreign-born;
MUSKET MUSK-OX
9 1
(igio census) 24,062. It is served by the Grand Trunk,
the Pere Marquette, the Grand Rapids & Indiana, and the
Grand Rapids, Grand Haven & Muskegon (electric) railways,
and by steamboat lines to Chicago, Milwaukee and other lake
ports. There are several summer resorts in the vicinity. As
the gifts of Charles H. Hackley (1837-1905), a rich lumberman,
the city has an endowment fund to the public schools of about
$2,000,000; a manual training school, which has an endowment
of $600,000, and is one of the few endowed public schools in
the United States; a public library, with an endowment of
$275,000; a public hospital with a $600,000 endowment; and
a poor fund endowment of $300,000. In Hackley Park there
are statues of Lincoln and Farragut, and at the' Hackley School
there is a statue of McKinley; all three are by C. H. Niehaus.
The municipality owns and operates its water-works. Muskegon
lake is 5 m. long and 15 m. wide, with a depth of 30 to 40 ft.,
and is ice-free throughout the year. The channel from Muskegon
lake to Lake Michigan has been improved to a depth of 20 ft.
and a width of 300 ft. by the Federal government since 1867.
From Muskegon are shipped large quantities of lumber and
market-garden produce, besides the numerous manufactures
of the city. The total value of all factory products in 1904
was $6,319,441 (39-6% more than in 1900), of which more
than one-sixth was the value of lumber. A trading post was
established here in 1812, but a permanent settlement was
not established until 1834. Muskegon was laid out as a town
in 1849, incorporated as a village in 1861, and chartered as a
city in 1869. The name is probably derived from a Chippewa
word, maskeg or muskeg, meaning " grassy bog," still used in
that sense in north-western America.
MUSKET (Fr. mousquet, Ger. Muskete, &c.), the term generally
applied to the firearm of the infantry soldier from about 1550
up to and even beyond the universal adoption of rifled small
arms about 1850-1860. The word originally signified a male
sparrowhawk (Italian moschetto, derived perhaps ultimately
from Latin musca, a fly) and its application to the weapon may
be explained by the practice of naming firearms after birds
and beasts (cf. falcon, basilisk). Strictly speaking, the word
is inapplicable both to the early hand-guns and to the arquebuses
and calivers that superseded the hand-guns. The " musket "
proper, introduced into the Spanish army by the duke of Alva,
was much heavier and more powerful than the arquebus. Its
bullet retained sufficient striking energy to stop a horse at 500
and 600 yards from the muzzle. A writer in 1598 (quoted
s.v. in the New English Dictionary) goes so far as to say
that " One good musket may be accounted for two caUivers."
Unlike the arquebus, it was fired from a rest, which the
" musketeer " stuck into the ground in front of him. But
during the ryth century the musket in use was so far improved
that the rest could be dispensed with (see GUN). The musket
was a matchlock, weapons with other forms of lock being
distinguished as wheel-locks, firelocks, snaphances, &c., and
soldiers were similarly distinguished as musketeers and fusiliers.
On the disuse, about 1690-1695, of this form of firing mechanism,
the term " musket " was, in France at least, for a time discon-
tinued in favour of " fusil," or flint-lock, which thenceforward
reigned supreme up to the introduction of a practicable per-
cussion lock about 1830-1840. But the term " musket "
survived the thing it originally represented, and was currently
used for the firelock (and afterwards for the percussion weapon).
To-day it is generically used for military firearms anterior to
the modern rifle. The original meaning of the word musketry
has remained almost unaltered since 1600; it signifies the fire of
infantry small-arms (though for this " rifle fire " is now a far
more usual term), and in particular the art of using them
(see INFANTRY and RIFLE). Of the derivatives, the only one
that is not self-explanatory is musketoon. This was a short,
large-bore musket somewhat of the blunderbuss type, originally
designed for the use of cavalry, but afterwards, in the i8th
century, chiefly a domestic or coachman's weapon.
MUSKHOGEAN STOCK, a North American Indian stock. The
name is from that of the chief tribe of the Creek confederacy,
the Muskogee. It includes the Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws,
Seminoles and other tribes. Its territory was almost the
whole state of Mississippi, western Tennessee, eastern Kentucky,
Alabama, most of Georgia, and later nearly all Florida. Musk-
hogean traditions assign the west and north-west as the original
home of the stock.. Its history begins in 1527, on the first
landing of the Spaniards on the Gulf Coast. The Muskhogean
peoples were then settled agriculturists with an elaborate social
organization, and living in villages, many of which were fortified
(see INDIANS: North American).
MUSKOGEE, a city and the county-seat of Muskogee county,
Oklahoma, U.S.A., about 3 m. W. by S. of the confluence of the
Verdigris, Neosho (or Grand) and Arkansas rivers, and about
130 m. E.N.E. of Oklahoma City. Pop. (1900), 4154; (1907),
14,418, of whom 4298 were negroes and 332 Indians; (1910), 25, 278.
It is served by the St Louis & San Francisco, the Midland
Valley, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Missouri,
Oklahoma & Gulf railways. Fort Gibson (pop. in 1910, 1344),
about 5 m. N.E. on the Neosho, near its confluence with the
Arkansas, is the head of steam-boat navigation of the
Arkansas; if is the site of a former government fort and of a
national cemetery. Muskogee is the seat of Spaulding Institute
(M.E. Church, South) and Nazareth Institute (Roman Catholic),
and at Bacone, about 2 m. north-east, is Indian University
(Baptist, opened 1884). Muskogee is the commercial centre of
an agricultural and stock-raising region, is surrounded by
an oil and natural gas field of considerable extent producing
a high grade of petroleum, and has a large oil refinery, railway
shops (of the Midland Valley and the Missouri, Oklahoma &
Gulf railways), cotton gins, cotton compresses, and cotton-seed
oil and flour mills. The municipality owns and operates the
water-works, the water supply being drawn from the Neosho
river. Muskogee was founded about 1870, and became the
chief town of the Creek Nation (Muskogee) and the metropolis
and administrative centre of the former Indian Territory,
being the headquarters of the Union Indian Agency to the
Five Civilized Tribes, of the United States (Dawes) Commission
to the Five Civilized Tribes, and of a Federal land office for
the allotment of lands to the Creeks and Cherokees, and the
seat of a Federal Court. The city was chartered in 1898; its
area was enlarged in 1908, increasing its population.
MUSK-OX, also known as musk-buffalo and musk-sheep,
an Arctic American ruminant of the family Bovidae (q.v.),
now representing a genus and sub-family by itself. Apparently
the musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus) has little or no near relation-
ship to either the oxen or the sheep; and it is not improbable
that its affinities are with the Asiatic takin (Budorcas) and the
extinct European Criotherium of the Pliocene of Samos. The
musky odour from which the animal takes its name does not
appear to be due to the secretion of any gland.
In height a bull musk-ox stands about 5 ft. at the shoulder.
The head is large and broad. The horns in old males have
extremely broad bases, meeting in the middle line, and covering
the brow and crown of the head. They are directed at first
downwards by the side of the face, and then turn upwards
and forwards, ending in the same plane as the eye. The basal
half is dull white, oval in section and coarsely fibrous, the middle
part smooth, shining and round, and the tip black. In females
and young males the horns are smaller, and their bases separated
by a space in the middle of the forehead. The ears are small,
erect, pointed, and nearly concealed in the hair. The space
between the nostrils and the upper lip is covered with short
close hair, as in sheep and goats, without any trace of the bare
muzzle of oxen. The greater part of the animal is covered with
long brown hair, thick, matted and curly on the shoulders,
so as to give the appearance of a hump, but elsewhere straight
and hanging down that of the sides, back and haunches
reaching as far as the middle of the legs and entirely concealing
the very short tail. There is also a thick woolly under-fur,
shed in summer, when the whole coat conies off in blanket-like
masses. The hair on the lower jaw, throat and chest is long
and straight, and hangs down like a beard or dewlap, though
MUSK-RAT
there is no loose fold of skin in this situation. The limbs are
stout and short, terminating in unsymmetrical hoofs, the external
being rounded, the internal pointed, and the sole partially
covered with hair.
Musk-oxen at the present day are confined to the most
northern parts of North America, where they range over the
rocky Barren Grounds between lat. 64 and the shores of the
Arctic Sea. Its southern range is gradually contracting, and
it appears that it is no longer met with west of the Mackenzie
river, though formerly abundant as far as Eschscholtz Bay.
The Musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus).
Northwards and eastwards it extends through the Parry
Islands and Grinnell Land to north Greenland, reaching on
the west coast as far south as Melville Bay; and it also occurs
at Sabine Island on the east coast. The Greenland animal is
a distinct race (0. m. wardi), distinguished by white hair on
the forehand; and it is suggested that the one from Grinnell
Land forms a third race. As proved by the discovery of fossil
remains, musk-oxen ranged during the Pleistocene period over
northern Siberia and the plains of Germany and France, their
bones occurring in river-deposits along with those of the rein-
deer, mammoth, and woolly rhinoceros. They have also been
found in Pleistocene gravels in several parts of England, as
Maidenhead, Bromley, Freshfield near Bath, Barnwood near
Gloucester, and in the brick-earth of the Thames valley at Cray-
ford, Kent; while their remains also occur in Arctic America.
Musk-oxen are gregarious in habit, assembling in herds of
twenty or thirty head, or sometimes eighty or a hundred, in
which there are seldom more than two or three full-grown
males. They run with considerable speed, notwithstanding
the shortness of their legs. They feed chiefly on grass, but
also on moss, lichens and tender shoots of the willow and pine.
The female brings forth one young in the end of May or begin-
ning of June, after a gestation of nine months. The Swedish
expedition to Greenland in 1899 found musk-oxen in herds
of varying size some contained only a few individuals, and
in one case there were sixty-seven. The peculiar musky odour
was perceived from a distance of a hundred yards; but accord-
ing to Professor Nathoist there was no musky taste or smell in
the flesh if the carcase were cleaned immediately the animals
were killed.
Of late years musk-oxen have been exhibited alive in Europe;
and two examples, one of which lived from 1899 till 1903, have
been brought to England. The somewhat imperfect skull of an
extinct species of musk-ox from the gravels of the Klondike has
enabled Mr W. H. Osgood to make an important addition to our
knowledge of this remarkable type of ruminant. The skull, which
is probably that of a female, differs from the ordinary musk-ox by
the much smaller and shorter horn-cores, which are widely separ-
ated in the middle line of the skull, where there is a groove-like
depression running the whole length of the forehead. The sockets
of the eyes are also much less prominent, and the whole fore-part of
the skull is proportionately longer. On account of these and other
differences (for which the reader may refer to the original paper,
published in vol. xlviii. of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections)
its describer refers the Klondike skull to a new jjenus, with the
title Symbos tyrrelli, the specific name being given in honour of its
discoverer. This, however, is not all, for Mr Osgood points out
that a skull discovered many years ago in the vicinity of Fort
Gibson, Oklahoma, and then named Ovwos or Bootherium cavifrons,
evidently belongs to the same genus. That skull indicates a bull,
and the author suggests that it may possibly be the male of Symbos
tyrrelli, although the wide separation of the localities made him
hesitate to accept this view. Perhaps it would have been better
had he done so, and taken the name Symbos cavifrons for the species.
A third type of musk-ox skull is, however, known from North
America, namely one from the celebrated Big-Bone Lick, Kentucky,
on which the genus and species Bootherium bombifrons was estab-
lished, which differs from all the others by its small size, convex
forehead and rounded horn-cores, the latter being very widely
separated, and arising from the sides of the skull. This specimen
has been regarded as the female of Symbos cavifrons; but this
view, as pointed out by Mr Osgood, is almost certainly incorrect,
and it represents an entirely distinct form.
This, however, is not the whole of the past history of the musk-
ox group ; and in this connexion it may be mentioned that palaeonto-
logical discoveries are gradually making it evident that the poverty
of America in species of horned ruminants is to a great extent a
feature of the present day, and that in past times it possessed a
considerable number of representatives of this group. One of the
latest additions to the list is a large sheep-like animal from a cave
in California, apparently representing a new generic type, which
has been described by E. L. Furlong in the publications of the
University of California, under the name of Preptoceras sinclairi.
It is represented by a nearly complete skeleton, and has doubly-
curved horns and sheep-like teeth. In common with an allied
ruminant from the same district, previously described as Eucera-
therium, it seems probable that Preptoceras is related on the one
hand to the musk-ox, and on the other to the Asiatic takin, while
it is also supposed to have affinities with the sheep. If these
extinct forms really serve to connect the takin with the musk-ox,
their systematic importance will be very great. From a geographical
point of view nothing is more likely, for the takin forms a type
confined to Eastern Asia (Tibet and Szechuen), and it would be
reasonable to expect that, like so many other peculiar forms from
the same region, they should have representatives on the American
side of the Pacific. (R. L.*)
MUSK-RAT, or MUSQUASH, the name of a large North Ameri-
can rat-like rodent mammal, technically known as Fiber zibe-
thicus, and belonging to the mouse-tribe (Muridae). Aquatic
in habits, this animal is related to the English water-rat and
therefore included in the sub-family Microtinae (see VOLE). It
is, however, of larger size, the head and body being about 1 2 in.
The Musk-rat (Fiber zibelhicus).
in length and the tail but little less. It is rather a heavily-
built animal, with a broad head, no distinct neck, and short
limbs, the eyes are small, and the ears project very little beyond
the fur. The fore-limbs have four toes and a rudimentary
thumb, all with claws; the hind limbs are larger, with five distinct
toes, united by short webs at their bases. The tail is laterally
compressed, nearly naked, and scaly. The hair much resembles
that of a beaver, but is shorter; it consists of a thick soft under-
fur, interspersed with longer stiff, glistening hairs, which oveilie
and conceal the former, on the upper surface and sides of the
MUSK-SHREW MUSPRATT, J.
body. The general colour is dark umber-brown, almost black
on the back and grey below. The tail and naked parts of the
feet are black. The musky odour from which it derives its
name is due to the secretion of a large gland situated in the
inguinal region, and present in both sexes.
The ordinary musk-rat is one of several species of a genus
peculiar to America, where it is distributed in suitable localities
in the northern part of the continent, extending from the
Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Rio Grande to the barren
grounds bordering the Arctic seas. It lives on the shores of
lakes and rivers, swimming and diving with facility, feeding on
the roots, stems and leaves of water-plants, or on fruits and
vegetables which grow near the margin of the streams it inhabits.
Musk-rats are most active at night, spending the greater part
of the day concealed in their burrows in the bank, which consist
of a chamber with numerous passages, all of which open under
the surface of the water. For winter quarters they build more
elaborate houses of conical or dome-like form, composed of
sedges, grasses and similar materials plastered together with
mud. As their fur is an important article of commerce, large
numbers are annually killed, being either trapped or speared
at the mouths of their holes. (See also RODENTIA.)
MUSK-SHREW, a name for any species of the genus Crocidura
of the family Soricidae (see INSECTIVORA). The term is generally
used of the common grey musk-shrew (C. coerulea) of India.
Dr Dobson believed this to be a semi-domesticated variety of the
brown musk-shrew (C. murina), which he considered the original
wild type. The head and body of a full-grown specimen measure
about 6 in.; the tail is rather more than half that length; and
bluish-grey is the usual colour of the fur, which is paler on the
under surface. Dr Blanford states that the story of wine or beer
becoming impregnated with a musky taint in consequence of
this shrew passing over the bottles, is less credited in India
than formerly owing to the discovery that liquors bottled in
Europe and exported to India are not liable to be thus tainted.
MUSLIM IBN AL-HAJJAJ, the Imam, the author of one of
the two books of Mahommedan tradition called Sahih, " sound,"
was born at Nishapur at some uncertain date after A.D. 815 and
died there in 875. Like al-Bukhari (?..), of whom he was a
close and faithful friend, he gave himself to the collecting, sifting
and arranging of traditions, travelling for the purpose as far as
Egypt. It is plain that his sympathies were with the traditionalist
school or opposed to that which sought to build up the system
of canon law on a speculative basis (see MAHOMMEDAN LAW).
But though he was a student and friend of Ahmad ibn Hanbal
(q.v.) he did not go in traditionalism to the length of some, and
he defended al-Bukhari when the latter was driven from Nishapur
for icfusing to admit that the utterance (lafz) of the Koran by
man was as uncreated as the Koran itself (see MAHOMMEDAN
RELIGION; and Patton's Ahmad ibn Hanbal, 32 sqq.). His great
collection of traditions is second in popularity only to that of
al-Bukhari, and is commonly regarded as more accurate and
reliable in details, especially names. His object was more to
weed out illegitimate accretions than to furnish a traditional
basis for a system of law. Therefore, though he arranged his
material according to such a system, he did not add guiding
rubrics, and he regularly brought together in one place the
different parallel versions of the same tradition. His book is
thus historically more useful, but legally less suggestive. His
biographers give almost no details as to his life, and its early
part was probably very obscure. One gives a list of as many
as twenty works, but only his Sahih seems to have reached us.
See further, de Slane's transl. of ibn Khallikan, iii. 348 sqq, and of
Ibn Khaldun's Prolegomenes, ii. 470, 475; Goldziher, Muhammedan-
ische Studien, ii. 245 sqq., 255 sqq.; Brockelmann, Geschichle der
arab. Litt., \. 760 seq.; Macdonald, Development of Muslim Theology,
80, 147 seq.; Dhahabi Tadhkira (edit, of Hyderabad), ii. 165 sqq.
(D. B. MA.)
MUSLIN (through Fr. mousseline from It. mussolino, diminu-
tive of Mussolo, i.e. the town Mosul in Kurdistan) a light cotton
cloth said to have been first made at Mosul, a city of Mesopo-
tamia. Muslins have been largely made in various parts of
India, whence they were imported to England towards the end
93
of the 1 7th century. Some of these Indian muslins were very
fine and costly. Among the specialties are Ami muslin, made
in the Madras presidency, and Dacca muslin, made at Dacca
in Bengal. Muslins of many kinds are now made in Europe
and America, and the name is applied to both plain and fancy
cloths, and to printed calicoes of light texture. Swiss muslin
is a light variety, woven in stripes or figures, originally made
in Switzerland. Book muslin is made in Scotland from very
fine yarns. Mulls, jaconets, lenos, and other cloths exported
to the East and elsewhere are sometimes described as muslins.
Muslin is used for dresses, blinds, curtains, &c.
HUSONIUS RUFUS, a Roman philosopher of the ist century
A.D., was born in Etruria about A.D. 20-30. He fell under
the ban of Nero owing to his ethical teachings, and was exiled
to the island of Gyarus on a trumped-up charge of participation
in Piso's conspiracy. He returned under Galba, and was the
friend of Vitellius and Vespasian. It was he who dared to bring
an accusation against P. Egnatius Celer (the Stoic philosopher
whose evidence had condemned his patron and disciple Soranus)
and who endeavoured to preach a doctrine of peace and good-
will among the soldiers of Vespasian when they were advancing
upon Rome. So highly was he esteemed in Rome that Vespasian
made an exception in his case when all other philosophers were
expelled from the city. As to his death, we know only that
he was not living in the reign of Trajan. His philosophy,
which is in most respects identical with that of his pupil,
Epictetus, is marked by its strong practical tendency. Though
he did not altogether neglect .logic and physics, he maintained
that virtue is the only real aim of men. This virtue is not a
thing of precept and theory but a practical, living reality. It
is identical with philosophy in the true sense of the word, and
the truly good man is also the true philosopher.
Suidas attributes numerous works to him, amongst others a
number of letters to Apollonius of Tyana. The jetters are certainly
unauthentic; about the others there is no evidence. His views
were collected by Claudius (or Valerius) Pollio, who wrote 'Aro-
HvrjuovfbuaTa ^Aovtruviov TOV 4tXoff6<ov, from which Stobaeus
obtained his information. See Ritter and Preller 477, 488, 489;
Tacitus, Annals, xv. 71 and Histories, iii. 81 ; and compare articles
STOICS and EPICTETUS.
MUSPRATT, JAMES (1793-1886), British chemical manu-
facturer, was born in Dublin on the izth of August 1793. At
the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to a wholesale druggist,
but his apprenticeship was terminated in 1810 by a quarrel
with his master, and in 1812 he went to Spain to take part in
the Peninsular War. Lack of influence prevented him from
getting a commission in the cavalry, but he followed the British
army on foot far into the interior, was laid up with fever at
Madrid, and, narrowly escaping capture by the French, succeeded
in making his way to Lisbon. There he joined the navy, but
after taking part in the blockade of Brest he was led to desert,
through the harshness of the discipline on the second of the two
ships in which he served. Returning to Dublin about 1814,
he began the manufacture of chemical products, such as hydro-
chloric and acetic acids and turpentine, adding prussiate of
potash a few years later. He also had in view the manufacture
of alkali from common salt by the Leblanc process, but on the
one hand he could not command the capital for the plant, and
on the other saw that Dublin was not well situated for the experi-
ment. In 1822 he went to Liverpool, which was at once a good
port and within easy reach of salt and coal, and took a lease of
an abandoned glass-works on the bank of the canal in Vauxhall
Road. At first he confined himself to prussiate of potash, until
in 1823, when the tax on salt was reduced from 153. to 2s. a
bushel, his profits enabled him to erect lead-chambers for making
the sulphuric acid necessary for the Leblanc process. In 1828
he built works at St Helen's and in 1830 at Newton; at the latter
place he was long harassed by litigation on account of the
damage done by the hydrochloric acid emitted from his factory,
and finally in 1850 he left it and started new works at Widnes
and Flint. In 1834-1835, in conjunction with Charles Tennant,
he purchased sulphur mines in Sicily, to provide the raw material
for his sulphuric acid; but on the imposition of the Neapolitan
94
MUSSCHENBROEK MUSSEL
government of a prohibitive duty on sulphur Muspratt found
a substitute in iron pyrites, which was thus introduced as the
raw material for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. He was
always anxious to employ the best scientific advice available
and to try every novelty that promised advantage. He was
a close friend of Liebig, whose mineral manures were compounded
at his works. He died at Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool, on the
4th of May 1886. After his retirement in 1857 his business was
continued in the hands of four of his ten children.
His eldest son, JAMES SHERIDAN MUSPRATT (1821-1871),
studied chemistry under Thomas Graham at Glasgow and
London and under Liebig at Giessen, and in 1848 founded the
Liverpool College of Chemistry, an institution for training
chemists, of which he also acted as director. From 1854 to
1860 he was occupied in preparing a dictionary of Chemistry . . .
as applied and relating to the Arts and Manufactures, which
was translated into German and Russian, and he published a
translation of Plattner's treatise on the blow-pipe in 1845, and
Outlines of Analysis in 1849. His original work included a
research on the sulphites (1845), and the preparation of toluidine
and nitro-aniline in 1845-1846 with A. W. Hofmann.
MUSSCHENBROEK, PIETER VAN (1692-1761), Dutch
natural philosopher, was born on the i4th of March 1692 at
Leiden, where his father Johann Joosten van Musschenbroek
(1660-1707) was a maker of physical apparatus. He studied
at the university of his native city, where he was a pupil and
friend of W. J. s'G. Gravesande. Graduating in 1715 with a
dissertation, De aeris praesenlia in humoribus animdlium, Mus-
schenbroek was appointed professor at Duisburg in 1719. In
1723 he was promoted to the chair of natural philosophy and
mathematics at Utrecht. In 1731 he declined an invitation
to Copenhagen, and was promoted in consequence to the chair
of astronomy at Utrecht in 1732. The attempt of George II.
of England in 1737 to attract him to the newly-established
university of Gottingen was also unsuccessful. At length,
however, the claims of his native city overcame his resolution
to remain at Utrecht, and he accepted the mathematical chair
at Leiden in 1739, where, declining all offers from abroad, he
remained till his death on the 9th of September 1761.
His first important production was Epitome elementorum physico-
malhematicorum (i2mo, Leiden, 1726) a work which was after-
wards gradually altered as it passed through several editions, and
which appeared at length (posthumously, ed. by Johann Lulofs,
one of his colleagues as Leiden) in 1762, under the title of Introductio
ad philosophiam naturalem. The Physicae experimentales et geo-
metricae dissertaliones (1729) threw new light on magnetism, capillary
attraction, and the cohesion of bodies. A Latin edition with notes
(1731) of the Italian work Saggi di naturali esperienze fatte nell-
I'Accademia del Cimento contained among many other investigations
a description of a new instrument, the pyrometer, which Musschen-
broek had invented, and of several experiments which he had made
on the expansion of bodies by heat. Musschenbroek was also the
author of Elementa physica (8vo, 1729), and his name is associated
with the invention of the Leyden jar (q.v.).
MUSSEL (O. Eng. muscle, Lat. musculus, diminutive of mus,
mouse, applied to small sea fish and mussels), a term applied
in England to two families of Lamellibranch Molluscs the
marine Mytilacea, of which. the edible mussel, Mytilus edulis,
is the representative; and the fresh- water Unionidae, of which
the river mussel, Unio pictorum, and the swan mussel, Anodonta
cygnea, are the common British examples. It is not obvious
why these fresh-water forms have been associated popularly
with the Mytilacea under the name mussel, unless it be on
account of the frequently very dark colour of their shells. They
are somewhat remote from the sea mussels in structure, and have
not even a common economic importance.
The sea mussel (Mylilus edulis) belongs to the second order
of the class Lamellibranchia (<?..), namely the Filibranchia,
distinguished by the comparatively free condition of the gill-
filaments, which, whilst adhering to one another to form gill-
plates, are yet not fused to one another by concrescence. It is
also remarkable' for the small size of its foot and the large
development of two glands in the foot the byssus-forming and
the byssus-cementing glands. The byssus is a collection of
horny threads by which the sea mussel (like many other Lamelli-
branch or bivalve molluscs) fixes itself to stones, rocks or
submerged wood, but is not a permanent means of attachment,
since it can be discarded by the animal, which, after a certain
amount of locomotion, again fixes itself by new secretion of
byssus from the foot. Such movement is more frequent in
young mussels than in the full-grown. Mytilus possesses no
siphonal tube-like productions of the margin of the mantle-skirt,
nor any notching of the same, representative of the siphons
which are found in its fresh-water ally, the Dreissensia poly-
morpha.
Mytilus edulis is an exceedingly abundant and widely distri-
buted form. It occurs on both sides of the northern Atlantic
and in the Mediterranean basin. It presents varieties of form
and colour according to the depth of water and other circum-
stances of its habitat. Usually it is found on the British coast
encrusting rocks exposed at low tides, or on the flat surfaces
formed by sandbanks overlying clay, the latter kind of colonies
being known locally as " scalps." Under these conditions it
forms continuous masses of individuals closely packed together,
sometimes extending over many acres of surface and numbering
millions. The readiness with which the young Mytilus attaches
itself to wicker-work is made the means of artificially cultivating
and securing these molluscs for the market both in the Bay of
Kiel in North Germany and at the mouth of the Somme and other
spots on the coast of France.
Natural scalps are subject to extreme vicissitudes: an area
of many acres may be destroyed by a local change of current
producing a deposit of sand or shingle over the scalp, or by
exposure to frost at low tide in winter, or by accumulation of
decomposing vegetable matter. The chief localities of natural
scalps on the British coast are Morecambe Bay in Lancashire
and the flat eastern shores, especially that of the Wash of Lincoln,
and similar shallow bays. These scalps are in some cases in
the hands of private owners, and the Fisheries Department has
made arrangements by which some local authorities, e.g. the
corporation of Boston, can lease layings to individuals for the
purpose of artificial cultivation.
The sea mussel is scarcely inferior in commercial value to the
oyster. In 1873 the value of mussels exported from Antwerp
alone to Paris to be used as human food was 280,000. In Britain
their chief consumption is in the deep-sea line fishery, where they
are held to be the most effective of all baits. Twenty-eight boats
engaged in haddock-fishing at Eyemouth used between October
1882 and May 1883 920 tons of mussels (about 47,000,000 in-
dividuals), costing nearly 1800 to the fishermen, about one-half of
which sum was expended on the carriage of the mussels. The
quantity of mussels landed on Scottish coasts has decreased in
recent years owing to the decline in the line fisheries. In 1896
the quantity was over 243,000 cwts., valued at 14,950; in 1902 it
was only 95,663 cwts., valued at 5976. In the statistics for England
and Wales mussels are not separately distinguished. Many thou-
sand tons of mussels are wastefully employed as manure by the
farmers on lands adjoining scalp-producing coasts, as in Lancashire
and Norfolk, three half-pence a bushel being the price quoted in
such cases. It is a curious fact, illustrative of the ignorant pro-
cedure and arbitrary fashions of fisher-folk, that on the Atlantic
seaboard of the United States the sea mussel, Mytilus edulis, though
common,, is not used as bait nor as food. Instead, the soft clam,
Mya arenaria, a Lamellibranch not used by English or Norwegian
fishermen, though abundant on their shores, is employed as bait
by the fishermen to the extent of ij million bushels per annum,
valued at 120,000. At the mouth of the river Conway in North
Wales the sea mussel is crushed in large quantities in order to
extract pearls of an inferior quality which are occasionally found
in these as in other Lamellibranch molluscs (Gwyn Jeffreys).
Mytilus edulis is considered of fair size for eating when it is
2 in. in length, which size is attained in three years after the spat
or young mussel has fixed itself. Under favourable circumstances
it will grow much jarger than this, specimens being recorded of
9 in. in length. It is very tolerant of fresh water, fattening best,
as does the oyster, in water of density 1014 (the density of the water
of the North Sea being 1026). Experiments made by removing
mussels from salt water to brackish, and finally to quite fresh
water show that it is even more tolerant of fresh water than the
oyster; of thirty mussels so transferred all were alive after fifteen
days. Mytilus edulis is occasionally poisonous, owing to conditions
not satisfactorily determined.
The fresh-water Mussels, Anodonta cygnea, Unio pictorum,
MUSSELBURGH MUSSET, ALFRED DE
95
and Unio margaritiferus belong to the order Eulamellibranchia
of Lamellibranch Molluscs, in which the anterior and posterior
adductor muscles are equally developed. An account of the
anatomy of Anodon is given in the article LAMELLIBRANCHIA.
Unio differs in no important point from Anodonta in internal
structure. The family Unionidae, to which these genera belong,
is of world-wide distribution, and its species occur only in ponds
and rivers. A vast number of species arranged in several genera
and sub-genera have been distinguished, but in the British
Islands the three species above named are the only claimants to
the title of "fresh- water mussel."
Anodonta cygnea, the Pond Mussel or Swan Mussel, appears to be
entirely without economic importance. Unio pictorum, the common
river mussel (Thames), appears to owe its name to the fact that the
shells were used at one time for holding water-colour paints as now
shells of this species and of the sea mussel are used for holding
gold and silver paint sold by artists' colourmen, but it has no other
economic value. Unio margaritiferus, the pearl mussel, was at
one time of considerable importance as a source of pearls, and the
pearl mussel fishery is to this day carried on under peculiar state
regulations in Sweden and Saxony, and other parts of the continent.
In Scotland and Ireland the pearl mussel fishery was also of im-
portance, but has altogether dwindled into insignificance since the
opening up of commercial intercourse with the East and with the
islands of the Pacific Ocean, whence finer and more abundant
pearls than those of Unio margaritiferus are derived.
In the last forty years of the 1 8th century pearls were exported
from the Scotch fisheries to Paris to the value of 100,000; round
pearls, the size of a pea, perfect in every respect, were worth 3
or 4. The pearl mussel was formerly used as bait in the Aberdeen
cod fishery.
LITERATURE. For an account of the anatomy of Mytilus edulis
the reader is referred to the treatise by Sabatier on that subject
(Paris, 1875). The essay by Charles Harding on Molluscs used
for Food or Bait, published by the committee of the London Inter-
national Fisheries Exhibition (1883), may be consulted as to the
economic questions connected with the sea mussel. The develop-
ment of this species is described by Wilson in Fifth Ann. Rep.
Scot. Fish. Board (1887). (E. R. L.; J. T. C.)
MUSSELBURGH, a municipal and police burgh of Midlothian,
Scotland, 55 m. E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway.
Pop. (1901), 11,711. The burgh, which stretches for a mile
along the south shore of the Firth of Forth, is intersected by the
Esk and embraces the village of Fisherrow on the left bank of
the river. Its original name is said to have been Eskmouth, its
present one being derived from a bed of mussels at the mouth of
the river. While preserving most of the ancient features of its
High Street, the town has tended to become a suburb of the
capital, its fine beach and golf course hastening this development.
The public buildings include the town-hall (dating"from 1762 and
altered in 1876), the tolbooth (1590), and the grammar school.
Loretto School, one of the foremost public schools in Scotland,
occupies the site of the chapel of Our Lady of Loretto, which
was founded in 1534 by Thomas Duthie, a hermit from Mt
Sinai. This was the favourite shrine of Mary of Guise, who
betook herself hither at momentous crises in her history. The
ist earl of Hertford destroyed it in 1544, and after it was rebuilt
the Reformers demolished it again, some of its stones being
used in erecting the tolbooth. In the west end of the town is
Pinkie House, formerly a seat of the abbot of Dunfermline,
but transformed in 1613 by Lord Seton. It is a fine example
of a Jacobean mansion, with a beautiful fountain in the
middle of the court-yard. The painted gallery, with an elabor-
ate ceiling, too ft. long, was utilized as a hospital after the
battle of Pinkie in 1547. Prince Charles Edward slept in it
the night following the fight at Prestonpans (1745). Near
the tolbooth stands the market cross, a stone column with
a unicorn on the top supporting the burgh arms. At the
west end of High Street is a statue of David Macbeth
Moir (" Delta," 1798-1851), Musselburgh's most famous son.
The antiquity of the town is placed beyond doubt by the
Roman bridge across the Esk and the Roman remains found
in its vicinity. The chief bridge, which carries the high road
from Edinburgh to Berwick, was built by John Rennie in
1807. The principal industries include paper-making, brewing,
the making of nets and twine, bricks, tiles and pottery,
tanning and oil-refining, besides saltworks and seed-crushing
works. The fishery is confined to Fisherrow, where there is
a good harbour. The Links are the scene every year of the
Edinburgh race meetings and of those of the Royal Caledonian
Hunt which are held every third year. Archery contests also
take place at intervals under the auspices of the Royal Company
of Archers. Most of the charitable institutions for instance,
the convalescent home, fever hospital, home for girls and Red
House home are situated at Inveresk, about ij m. up the Esk.
About i m. south-east is the site of the battle of Pinkie,
and 25 m. south-east, on the verge of Haddingtonshire, is
Carberry Hill, where Mary surrendered to the lords of the
Congregation in 1567, the spot being still known as Queen
Mary's Mount. Musselburgh joins with Leith and Portobello
(the Leith Burghs) in returning one member to parliament.
MUSSET, LOUIS CHARLES ALFRED DE (1810-1857), French
poet, play- writer and novelist, was born on the nth of December
1810 in a house in the middle of old Paris, near the H&tel Cluny.
His father, Victor de Musset, who traced his descent back as far
as 1 140, held several ministerial posts of importance. He brought
out an edition of J. J. Rousseau's works in 1821, and followed
it soon after with a volume on the Genevan's life and writing.
In Alfred de Mussel's childhood there were various things
which fostered his imaginative power. He and his brother
Paul (born 1804, died 1880), who afterwards wrote a biography
of Alfred, delighted in reading old romances together, and in
assuming the characters of the heroes in those romances. But
it was not until about 1826 that Musset gave any definite sign of
the mental force which afterwards distinguished him. In the
summer of 1827 he won the second prize (at the College Henri
IV.) by an essay on "The Origin of our Feelings." In 1828,
when Eugene Scribe, Joseph Duveyrier, who under the name of
Melesville, was a prolific playwriter and sometimes collaborator
with Scribe, and others of note were in the habit of coming
to Mme de Mussel's house at Auteuil, where drawing-room
plays and charades were constantly given, Musset, excited
by this companionship, wrote his first poem. This, to judge
from the exlracts preserved, was neither betler nor worse lhan
much olher work of clever boys who may or may nol aflerwards
turn out lo be possessed of genius. He took up the study of
law, threw it over for that of medicine, which he could not
endure, and ended by adopting no set profession. Shortly
afler his firsl altempt in verse he was taken by Paul Foucher
lo Viclor Hugo's house, where he mel such men as Alfred de
Vigny, Prosper Merimee, Charles Nodier and Sainle-Beuve. It
was under Hugo's influence, no doubl, lhal he composed a
play. The scene was laid in Spain, and some lines, showing
a marked advance upon his first effort, are preserved. In
1828, when the war between Ihe classical and Ihe romanlic
school of lileralure was growing daily more serious and exciling,
Mussel had published some verses in a counlry newspaper,
and boldly reciled some of his work lo Sainle-Beuve, who
wrole of il to a friend, " There is amongst us a boy full of genius."
At eighteen years old Mussel produced a Iranslation, with
addilions of his own, of De Quincey's " Opium-Ealer." This
was published by Mame, allracled no allenlion, and has been
long oul of prinl. His firsl original volume was published in
1829 under Ihe name of Contes d'Espagne et d'ltalie, had an
immediale and slriking success, provoked biller opposition,
and produced many unworthy imilalions. This volume con-
lained, along wilh far belter and more importanl Ihings, a
fanlaslic parody in verse on cerlain produclions of Ihe romanlic
school, which made a deal of noise al Ihe time. This was the
famous " Ballade a la lune " with its recurring comparison of
the moon shining above a steeple to the dot over an i. It
was, lo Mussel's delight, taken quite seriously by many worthy
folk.
In December 1830 Musset was jusl Iwenly years old, and was
already conscious of lhat curious double exislence wilhin him
so frequenlly symbolized in his plays in Oclave and Clio
for inslance (in Les Caprices de Marianne), who also sland for
Ihe two camps, Ihe men of mailer and the men of feeling
which he has elsewhere described as characlerislic of his
9 6
MUSSET, ALFRED DE
generation. At this date his piece the Nuit vinilienne was pro-
duced by Harel, manager of the Odeon. The exact causes of its
failure might now be far to seek; unlucky stage accidents had
something to do with it, but there seems reason to believe that
there was a strongly organized opposition. However this may
be, the result was disastrous to the French stage; for it put a
complete damper on the one poet who, as he afterwards showed
both in theoretical and in practical writings, had the fine insight
which took in at a glance the merits and defects both of the
classical and of the romantic schools. Thus he was strong and
keen to weld together the merits of both schools in a new method
which, but for the fact that there has been no successor to grasp
the wand which its originator wielded, might well be called the
school of Mussel. The serious effect produced upon Musset
by the failure of his Nuit vSnitienne is curiously illustrative of
his character. A man of greater strength and with equal belief
in his own genius might have gone on appealing to the public
until he compelled them to hear him. Musset gave up the
attempt in disgust, and waited until the public were eager to
hear him without any invitation on his part. In the case of
his finest plays this did not happen until after his death; but
long before that he was fully recognized as a poet of the first
rank and as an extraordinary master of character and language
in prose writing. In his complete disgust with the stage after
the failure above referred to there was no doubt something of
a not ignoble pride, but there was something also of weakness
of a kind of weakness out of which it must be said sprang some
of his most exquisite work, some of the poems which could only
have been written by a man who imagined himself the crushed
victim of difficulties which were old enough in the experience of
mankind, though for the moment new and strange to him.
Musset now belonged, in a not very whole-hearted fashion,
to the " Cenacle," but the connexion came to an end in 1832.
In 1833 he published the volume called Un Spectacle dans un
fauteuil. One of the most striking pieces in this " Namouna "
was written at the publisher's request to fill up some empty
space; and this fact is noteworthy when taken in conjunction
with the horror which Musset afterwards so often expressed
of doing anything like writing " to order " of writing, indeed,
in any way or at any moment except when the inspiration
or the fancy happened to seize him. The success of the
volume seemed to be small in comparison with that of his Conies
d'Espagne, but it led indirectly to Mussel's being engaged as a
contributor to the Revue des deux mondes. In this he published,
in April 1833, Andre del Sarto, and he followed this six weeks
later with Les Caprices de Marianne. This play afterwards took
and holds rank as one of the classical pieces in the repertory
of the Theatre Franc,ais. Afler Ihe retirement in 1887 from
the stage of the brilliant actor Delaunay the piece dropped
out of the Francais repertory until it was replaced on the
stage by M. Jules Claretie, administrator-general of the Comedie
Franqaise, on the igth of January 1906. Les Caprices de
Marianne affords a fine illuslration of the method referred to
above, a method of which Musset gave somelhing like a definite
explanation five years later. This explanation was also pub-
lished in the Revue des deux mondes, and il sel forth thai Ihe
war belween Ihe classical and Ihe romantic schools could never
end in a definite victory for either school, nor was it desirable
that it should so end. " It was time," Musset said, " for a third
school which should unite the merits of each." And in Les
Caprices de Marianne these merits are most curiously and happily
combined. It has perhaps more of the Shakespearian qualily
Ihe quality of artfully mingling Ihe terrible, the grotesque, and
the high comedy lones which exisls more or less in all Mussel's
long and more serious plays, than is found in any other of these.
The piece is called a comedy, and il owes Ihis litle to its extra-
ordinary brilliance of dialogue, truth of characterization, and
swiftness in action, under which there is ever lalenl a sense of
impending fale. Many of the qualilies indicated are found in
others of Mussel's dramalic works and nolably in On ne badine
pas avec I'amour, where the skill in insensibly preparing his
hearers or readers through a succession of dazzling comedy
scenes for the swift destruction of the end is very marked.
But Les Caprices de Marianne is perhaps for this particular
purpose of illuslralion Ihe mosl compacl and most typical of
all.
The appearance of Les Caprices de Marianne in the Revue
(1833) was followed by thai of " Rolla," a symplom of Ihe
maladie du siecle. Rolla, for all Ihe smack which is nol lo
be denied of Werlherism, has yel a decided individually.
The poem was wrilten at Ihe beginning of Mussel's liaison with
George Sand, and in December 1833 Mussel slarled on Ihe un-
forlunale journey lo Ilaly. Il was well known lhal Ihe ruplure
of what was for a lime a mosl passionale altachment had a
disastrous effect upon Musset, and brought out Ihe weakest
side of his moral character. He was at first absolulely and
complelely slruck down by Ihe blow. But it was not so well
known unlil Paul de Musset pointed it out lhal Ihe passion
expressed in the Nuit de decembre, written aboul Iwelve
monlhs afler the journey to Italy, referred nol lo George
Sand bul lo anolher and quile a differenl woman. The story
of the Italian journey and its results are told under the guise
of fiction from two points of view in the two volumes called
respectively Elle et lui by George Sand, and Lui et elle by
Paul de Mussel. As to the permanenl effecl on Alfred de
Mussel, whose irresponsible gaiely was killed by Ihe breaking
off of Ihe connexion, there can be no doubl.
During Mussel's absence in Italy Fantasia was published in Ihe
Revue, Lorenzaccio is said lo have been written al Venice, and
nol long afler his relurn On ne badine pas avec I'amour was written
and published in the Revue. In 1835 he produced Lucie, La Nuit
de mai, La Ouenouille de Barberine, Le Chandelier, La Loi sur la
presse, La Nuit de decembre, and La Confession d'un enfant du
siecle, wherein is conlained what is probably a Irue accounl of
Mussel's relations with George Sand. The Confession is excep-
tionally inleresling as exhibiling Ihe poel's frame of mind al
Ihe lime, and Ihe approach to a revulsion from the Bonaparlisl
ideas amid which he had been brought up in his childhood. To
Ihe supreme power of Napoleon he in Ihis work allribuled lhal
moral sickness of Ihe lime which he described. " One man,"
he wrole, " absorbed the whole life of Europe; the resl of the
human race slruggled lo fill Iheir lungs wilh Ihe air lhat he had
breathed." When the emperor fell, " a ruined world was a
resting-place for a generation weighled with care." The Con-
fession is further importanl, aparl from ils high literary merit,
as exhibiting in many passages the poet's lendency lo shun or
wildly prolest against all lhal is disagreeable or difficull in human
life a lendency lo which, however, much of his finesl work was
due. To 1836 belong the Nuit d'aout, the Lettre a Lamartine,
the Stances a la Malibran, the comedy // ne faut jurer de rien,
and the beginning of the brillianl letters of Dupuis and Colonel
on romanticism. II ne faut jurer de rien is as lypical of Mussel's
comedy work as is Les Caprices de Marianne of Ihe work in which
a lerrible falalily underlies Ihe brillianl dialogue and keen
polished characterization. In 1837 was published Un Caprice,
which afterwards found its way to the Paris stage by a curious
road. Mme AUan-Despreaux, the aclress, heard of il in
Si Pelersburg as a Russian piece. On asking for a French
Iranslation of the play she received the volume Comedies et
proverbes reprinted from the Revue des deux mondes. In 1837
appeared also some of the Nouvelks. In 1839 Mussel began a
romance called Le Poete dechu, of which the existing fragments
are full of passion and insighl. In 1840 he passed through a
period of feeling lhat the public did not recognize his genius
as, indeed, they did nol and wrole a very short but very
striking series of reflections headed wilh Ihe words "A Irente
ans," which Paul de Musset published in his Life. In 1841
there came out in Ihe Revue de Paris Mussel's " Le Rhin alle-
mand," an answer to Becker's poem which appeared in the
Revue des deux mondes. This fine war-song made a great deal
of noise, and broughl lo the poet quanlilies of challenges from
German officers. Belween Ihis dale and 1845 he wrole compara-
lively little. In the lasl named year Ihe charming " proverbe "
// faut qu'une porte soil ouverte ou fermee appeared. In 1847
MUSSOORIE MUSTARD
97
Un Caprice was produced at the Theatre Francais, and the
employment in it of such a word as " rebonsoir " shocked some
of the old school. But the success of the piece was immediate
and marked. It increased Mussel's reputation with the public
in a degree out of proportion to its intrinsic importance;
and indeed freed him from the burden of depression caused by
want of appreciation. In 1848 // ne faut jurer de rien was
played at the Theatre Francais and the Chandelier at the Theatre
Historique. Between this date and 1851 . Bettine was pro-
duced on the stage and Carmosine written; and between this
time and the date of his death, from an affection of the heart,
on the 2nd of May 1857, the poet produced no large work of
importance.
Alfred de Musset now holds the place which Sainte-Beuve
first accorded, then denied, and then again accorded to him
as a poet of the first rank. He had genius, though not genius
of that strongest kind which its possessor can always keep in
check. His own character worked both for and against his
success as a writer. He inspired a strong personal affection in
his contemporaries. His very weakness and his own conscious-
ness of it produced such beautiful work as, to take one instance,
the Nuit d'oclobre. His Nouvellesaxe extraordinarily brilliant;
his poems are charged with passion, fancy and fine satiric power;
in his plays he hit upon a method of his own, in which no one
has dared or availed to follow him with any closeness. He
was one of the first, most original, and in the end most successful
of the first-rate writers included in the phrase " the 1830 period."
The wilder side of his life has probably been exaggerated; and
his brother Paul de Musset has given in his Biographic a striking
testimony to the finer side of his character. In the later years
of his life Musset was elected, not without opposition, a member
of the French Academy. Besides the works above referred to,
the Nouvelles et conies and the (Euvres posthumes, in which
there is much of interest concerning the great tragic actress
Rachel, should be specially mentioned.
The biography of Alfred de Musset by his brother Paul, partial
as it naturally is, is of great value. Alfred de Musset has afforded
matter for many appreciations, and among these in English may be
mentioned the sketch (1890) of C. F. Oliphant and the essay (1855)
of F. T. Palgrave. See also the monograph by Arvfede Barme
(Madame Vincens) in the " Grands ecrivains francais " series.
Musset 's correspondence with George Sand was published intact for
the first time in 1904.
A monument to Alfred de Musset by Antonin Merci6, presented
by M. Osiris, and erected on the Place du Theatre Francais, was
duly " inaugurated " on the 24th of February 1906. The ceremony
took place in the vestibule of the theatre, where speeches were
delivered by Jules Claretie, Frangois Coppe'e and others, and
Mounet-Sully recited a poem, written for the occasion by Maurice
Magre. (W. H. P.)
MUSSOORIE, or MASTJRI, a town and sanitarium of British
India, in the Dehra Dun district of the United Provinces, about
6600 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1901), 6461, rising to 15,000 in the
hot season. It stands on a ridge of one of the lower Himalayan
ranges, amid beautiful mountain scenery, and forms with
Naini Tal the chief summer resort for European residents in the
plains of the United Provinces. The view from Mussoorie
over the valley of the Dun and across the Siwalik hills to the
plains is very beautiful, as also is the view towards the north,
which is bounded by the peaks of the snowy range. Mussoorie
practically forms one station with Landaur, the convalescent
depot for European troops, 7362 ft. above the sea. Some
distance off, on the road to Simla, is the cantonment of Chakrata,
7300 ft. It was formerly approached by road from Saharanpur
in the plains, 58 m. distant, but in 1900 the railway was opened
to Dehra, 21 m. by road. There are numerous schools for
Europeans, including St George's college, the Philander-Smith
institute, the Oak Grove school of the East Indian railway, and
several Church of England and Roman Catholic institutions,
together with a cathedral of the latter faith. The first brewery
in India was established here in 1850. The town has botanical
gardens, and is the summer headquarters of the Trigonometrical
Survey.
MUSTAFA RESHID PASHA (1800-1858), Turkish statesman
and diplomatist, was born at Constantinople in 1800. He
xix. 4
entered the public service at an early age and rose rapidly,
becoming ambassador at Paris in 1834 and in London 1836,
minister for foreign affairs 1837, again ambassador in London
1838, and in Paris 1841. Appointed vali of Adrianople in
1843, he returned as ambassador to Paris in the same year.
Between 1845 and 1857 he was six times grand vizier. One of
the greatest and most brilliant statesmen of his time, thoroughly
acquainted with European politics, and well versed in affairs,
he was a convinced if somewhat too ardent partisan of reform
and the principal author of the legislative remodelling of Turkish
administrative methods known as the Tanzimat. His ability
was recognized alike by friend and by foe. In the settlement
of the Egyptian question in 1840, and during the Crimean War
and the ensuing peace negotiations, he rendered valuable services
to the state.
MUSTANG, the wild or semi-wild horse of the prairies of
America, the descendant of the horses imported by the Spaniards
after the conquest in the i6th century (see HORSE). The word
appears to be due to two Spanish words, meslrenco, or mostrenco,
defined by Minsheu (1599) as " a strayer. " Mestrenco (now
mesteno) means " wild, having no master," and appears to be
derived from mesta, a grazier-association, which among other
functions appropriated any wild cattle found with the herds.
MUSTARD. The varieties of mustard-seed of commerce are
produced from several species of the genus Brassica (a member
of the natural order Cruciferae). Of these the principal are the
black or brown mustard, Brassica nigra (Sinapis nigra), the
white mustard, Brassica alba, and the Sarepta mustard, B.
juncea. Both the white and black mustards are cultivated
to some extent in various parts of England. The white is to
be found in every garden as a salad plant; but it has come into
increasing favour as a forage crop for sheep, and as a green
manure, for which purpose it is ploughed down when about to
come into flower. The black mustard is grown solely for its
seeds, which yield the well-known condiment. The name of the
condiment was in French mouslarde, mod. moutarde, as being made
of the seeds of the plant pounded and mixed with must (Lat.
mustum, i.e. unf ermented wine) . l The word was thus transferred
to the plant itself. When white mustard is cultivated for its
herbage it is sown usually in July or August, after some early
crop has been removed. The land being brought into a fine
tilth, the seed, at the rate of 12 Ib per acre, is sown broadcast,
and covered in the way recommended for clover seeds. In
about six weeks it is ready either for feeding off by sheep or for
ploughing down as a preparative for wheat or barley. White
mustard is not fastidious in regard to soil. When grown for
a seed crop it is treated in the way about to be described for the
other variety. For this purpose either kind requires a fertile
soil, as it is an exhausting crop. The seed is sown in April,
is once hoed in May, and requires no further culture. As soon as
the pods have assumed a brown colour the crop is reaped and
laid down in handfuls, which lie until dry enough for thrashing
or stacking. In removing it from the ground it must be handled
with great care, and carried to the thrashing-floor or stack on
cloths, to avoid the loss of seed. The price depends much on
its being saved in dry weather, as the quality suffers much
from wet. This great evil attends its growth, that the seeds
which are unavoidably shed in harvesting the crop remain in the
soil, and stock it permanently with what proves a pestilent weed
amongst future crops.
White mustard is used as a small salad generally accompanied
by garden cress while still in the seed leaf. To keep up a
supply the seed should be sown every week or ten days. The
sowings in the open ground may be made from March till October,
earlier or later according to the season. The ground should
be light and rich, and the situation warm and sheltered. Sow
thickly in rows 6 in. apart, and slightly cover the seed, pressing
the surface smooth with the back of the spade. When gathering
the crop, cut the young plants off even with the ground, or pull
1 There were two kinds of mustum, one the best for keeping,
produced after the first treading of the grapes, and called mustum
lixivum; the other, mustum tortivum, obtained from the mass of
trodden grapes by the wine-press, was used for inferior purposes.
9 8
MUSTARD OILS MUSURUS
them up and cut off the roots, beginning at one end of a row.
From October to March the seeds should be sown thickly in
shallow boxes and placed in a warm house or frame, with a
temperature not below 65.
Brassica nigra occurs as a weed in waste and cultivated ground
throughout England and the south of Scotland, but is a doubtful
native. It is a large branching annual 2 to 3 ft. high with stiff,
rather rough, stem and branches, dark green leaves ranging from
Jyrate below to lanceolate above, short racemes of small bright
yellow flowers one-third of an inch in diameter and narrow
smooth pods. B. alba is more restricted to cultivated ground and
has still less claim to be considered a native of Great Britain;
it is distinguished from black mustard by its smaller size, larger
flowers and seeds, and spreading rough hairy pods with a long
curved beak.
The peculiar pungency and odour to which mustard owes much of
its value are due to an essential oil developed by the action of water
on two peculiar chemical substances contained in the black seed.
These bodies are a glucoside termed by its discoverers myronate of
potassium, but since called sinigrin, CioHisKNSjOio, and an albumi-
noid body, myrosin. The latter substance in presence of water
acts as a ferment on sinigrin, splitting it up into the essential oil of
mustard, a potassium salt, and sugar. It is worthy of remark that
this reaction does not take place in presence of boiling water, and
therefore it is not proper to use very hot water (above 120 F.) in
the preparation of mustard. The explanation is that myrosin is
decomposed by water above this temperature. Essential oil of
mustard is in chemical constitution an isothiocyanate of allyl
CaHjNCS. It is prepared artificially by a process, discovered by
Zinzin, which consists in treating bromide of ally! with thiocyanate
of ammonium and distilling the resultant thiocyanate of allyl. The
seed of white mustard contains in place of sinigrin a peculiar gluco-
side called sinalbin, Cail^Nsi^Oij, in several aspects analogous to
sinigrin. In presence of water it is acted upon by myrosin,
present also in white mustard, splitting it up into acrinyl isothio-
cyanate, sulphate of sinapin and glucose. The first of these is a
powerful rubefacient, whence white mustard, although yielding
no volatile oil, forms a valuable material for plasters. The seeds
of Brassica juncea have the same constitution and properties as black
mustard, as a substitute for which they are extensively cultivated
in southern Russia; the plant is also cultivated abundantly in India.
Both as a table condiment and as a medicinal substance, mustard
has been known from a very remote period. Under the name of
rawv it was used by Hippocrates in medicine. The form in which
table mustard is now sold in the United Kingdom dates from 1720,
about which time Mrs Clements of Durham hit on the idea of grinding
the seed in a mill and sifting the flour from the husk. The bright
yellow farina thereby produced under the name of " Durham
mustard " pleased the taste of George I., and rapidly attained wide
popularity. As it is now prepared mustard consists essentially of
a mixture of black and white farina in certain proportions. Several
grades of pure mustard are made containing nothing but the farina
of mustard-seed, the lower qualities having larger amounts of the
white cheaper mustard; and corresponding grades of a mixed
preparation of equal price, but containing certain proportions of
wheaten or starch flour, are also prepared and sold as " mustard
condiment." The mixture is free from the unmitigated bitterness
and sharpness of flavour of pure mustard, and it keeps much better.
The volatile oil distilled from black mustard seeds after maceration
with water is official in the British Pharmacopeia under the title
Oleum sinapis volatile. It is a yellowish or colourless pungent
liquid, soluble only in about fifty parts of water, but readily so in
ether and in alcohol. From it is prepared, with camphor, castor
oil and alcohol, the linimentum sinapis. The official sinapis consists
of black and white mustard seeds powdered and mixed. The advan-
tage of mixture depends upon the fact that the white mustard seeds
have an excess of the ferment myrosin, and the black, whilst some-
what deficient in myrosin, yield a volatile body as compared with the
fixed product of the white mustard seeds. From this mixture is
prepared the charts, sinapis, which consists of cartridge paper covered
with a mixture of the powder and the liquor caoutchouc, the fixed
oil having first been removed by benzol, thus rendering the glucoside
capable of being more easily decomposed by the ferment.
Used internally as a condiment, mustard stimulates the salivary
but not the gastric secretions. It increases the peristaltic move-
ments of the stomach very markedly. One drachm to half an ounce
of mustard in a tumblerful of warm water is an efficient emetic,
acting directly upon the gastric sensory nerves, long before any of
the drug could be absorbed so as to reach the emetic centre in the
medulla oblongata. The heart and respiration are reflexly stimu-
lated, mustard being thus the only stimulant emetic. Some few other
emetics act without any appreciable depression, but in cases of
poisoning with respiratory or cardiac failure mustard should never
be forgotten. In contrast to this may be mentioned, amongst the
external therapeutic applications of mustard, its frequent power of
relieving vomiting when locally applied to the epigastrium.
The uses of mustard leaves in the treatment of local pains are
well known. When a marked counter-irritant action is needed,
mustard is often preferable to cantharides in being more manageable
and in causing a less degree of vesication ; but the cutaneous damage
done by mustard usually takes longer to heal. A mustard sitz
bath will often hasten and alleviate the initial stage of menstruation,
and is sometimes used to expedite the appearance of the eruption
in measles and scarlatina. The domestic remedy of hot water and
mustard for children's feet in cases of cold or threatened cold may
be of some use in drawing the blood to the surface and thus tending
to prevent an excessive vascular dilatation in the nose or bronchi.
The proportion of an ounce of mustard to a gallon of water is a fair
one and easily remembered. But by far the most important
therapeutic application of mustard is as a unique emetic.
MUSTARD OILS, organic chemical compounds of general
formula R-NCS. They may be prepared by the action of
carbon bisulphide on primary amines in alcoholic or ethereal
solution, the alkyl dithio-carbamic compounds formed being
then precipitated with mercuric chloride, and the mercuric
salts heated in aqueous solution,
or the isocyanic esters may be heated with phosphorus penta-
sulphide (A. Michael and G. Palmer, Amer. Chem. Jour., 1884,
6, 257). They are colourless liquids with a very pungent irritating
odour. They are readily oxidized, with production of the corre-
sponding amine. Nascent hydrogen converts them into the
amine, with simultaneous formation of thio-formaldehyde,
RNCS+4H = R-NH 2 +HCSH. When heated with acids to
100 C, they decompose with formation of the amine and libera-
tion of carbon bisulphide and sulphuretted hydrogen. They
combine directly with alcohols, mercaptans, ammonia, amines
and with aldehyde ammonia.
Methyl mustard oil, CH S NCS, melts at 35 C.and boils at nq C.
Allyl mustard oil, CjHsNCS, is the principal constituent of the
ordinary mustard oil obtained on distilling black mustard seeds.
These seeds contain potassium myronate (CioHiaNSjOioK) which in
presence of water is hydrolysed by the myrosin present in the seed,
It may also be prepared by heating allyl sulphide with potassium
sulphpcyanide. It is a colourless liquid boiling at 150-7 C. It
combines directly with potassium bisulphite. Phenyl mustard oil,
CeHsNCS, is obtained by boiling sulphocarbanilide with concentrated
hydrochloric acid, some triohenylguanidine being formed at the same
time. It is a colourless liquid boiling at 222 C. When heated
with copper powder it yields benzonitrile.
MUSTER (Mid. Eng. moslre, moustre, adapted from the similar
O. Fr. forms; Lat. monstrare), originally an exhibition, show,
review, an exhibition of strength, prowess or power. One of
the meanings of this common Romanic word, viz. pattern,
sample, is only used in commercial usage in English (e.g. in
the cutlery trade), but it has passed into Teutonic languages,
Ger. Muster, Du. mouster. The most general meaning is for the
assembling of soldiers and sailors for inspection and review, and
more particularly for the ascertainment and verification of the
numbers on the roll. This use is seen in the Med. Lat. monstrum
and monstratio, "recensio milUum" (Du Cange, Gloss, s.v.). In
the "enlistment" system of army organization during the
1 6th and lyth centuries, and later in certain special survivals,
each regiment was " enlisted " by its colonel and reviewed
by special officers, " muster-masters," who vouched for the
members on the pay roll of the regiment representing its
actual strength. This was a necessary precaution in the days
when it was in the power of the commander of a unit to fill
the muster roll with the names of fictitious men, known in the
military slang of France and England as passe-volants and
"faggots" respectively. The chief officer at headquarters
was the muster-master-general, later commissary general of
musters. In the United States the term is still commonly
used, and a soldier is " mustered out " when he is officially
discharged from military service.
MUSURUS, MARCUS (c. 1470-1517), Greek scholar, was
born at Rhithymna (Retimo) in Crete. At an early age he
became a pupil of John Lascaris at Venice. In 1505 he was
made professor of Greek at Padua, but when the university
was closed in 1509 during the war of the league of Cambrai he
MUTE MUTILATION
99
returned to Venice, where he filled a similar post. In 1516 he
was summoned to Rome by Leo X., who appointed him arch-
bishop of Monemvasia (Malvasia) in the Peloponnese, but he died
before he left Italy. Since 1493 Musurus had been associated
with the famous printer Aldus Manutius, and belonged to
the "Neacademia," a society founded by Manutius and other
learned men for the promotion of Greek studies. Many of the
Aldine classics were brought out under Musurus's supervision,
and he is credited with the first editions of the scholia of Aristo-
phanes (1498), Athenaeus (1514), Hesychius (1514), Pausanias
(1516).
See R. Menge's De M. Musuri vita studiis ingenio, in vol. 5 of
M. Schmidt's edition of Hesychius (1868).
MUTE (Lat. mutus, dumb), silent or incapable of speech. For
the human physical incapacity see DEAF AND DUMB. In
phonetics (q.ii.) a "mute" letter is one which (like p or g) repre-
sents no individual sound. The name of "mutes" is given, for
obvious reasons, to the undertaker's assistants at a funeral. In
music a "mute" (Ital. sordino, from Lat. surdus, deaf) is a device
for deadening the sound in an instrument by checking its vibra-
tions. Its use is marked by the sign c.s. (con sordino), and its
cessation by s.s. (senza sordino). In the case of the violin and
other stringed instruments this object is attained by the use of a
piece of brass, wood or ivory, so shaped as to fit on the bridge
without touching the strings and hold it so tightly as to deaden
or muffle the vibrations. In the case of brass wind instruments
a leather, wooden or papier mache pad in the shape of a pear
with a hole through it is placed in the bell of the instrument,
by which the passage of the sound is impeded. The interference
with the pitch of the instruments has led to the invention of
elaborately constructed mutes. Players on the horn and
trumpet frequently use the left hand as a mute. Drums are
muted or "muffled" either by the pressure of the hand on the
head, or by covering with cloth. In the side drum this is effected
by the insertion of pieces of cloth between the membrane and the
"snares," or by loosening the "snares." The muting of a
pianoforte is obtained by the use of the soft-pedal.
MUTIAN, KONRAD (1471-1526), German humanist, was
born in Homberg on the isth of October 1471 of well-to-do
parents named Mut, and was subsequently known as Konrad
Mutianus Rufus, from his red hair. At Deventer under Alex-
ander Hegius he had Erasmus as schoolfellow ; proceeding( 1486) to
the university of Erfurt, he took the master's degree in 1492.
From 1495 he travelled in Italy, taking the doctor's degree
in canon law at Bologna. Returning in 1502, the landgraf of
Hesse promoted him to high office. The post was not congenial ;
he resigned it (1503) for a small salary as canonicus in Gotha.
Mutian was a man of great influence in a select circle especially
connected with the university of Erfurt, and known as the
Mutianiscker Bund, which included Eoban Hess, Crotus
Rubeanus, Justus Jonas and other leaders of independent
thought. He had no public ambition; except in correspondence,
and as an epigrammatist, he was no writer, but he furnished
ideas to those who wrote. He may deserve the title which has
been given him as "precursor of the Reformation," in so far as he
desired the reform of the Church, but not the establishment
of a rival. Like Erasmus, he was with Luther in his early
stage, but deserted him in his later development. Though he
had personally no hand in it, the Epistolae obscurorum virorum
(due especially to Crotus Rubeanus) was the outcome of the
Reuchlinists in his Bund. He died at Gotha on the 3<5th of
March (Good Friday) 1526.
See F. W. Kampschulte, Die Universitdt Erfurt (1858-1860); C.
Krause, Eobanus Hessus (1879); L. Geiger, in Allgemeine Deutsche
Biog. (1886) ; C. Krause, Der Briefwechsel des Mutianus Rufus (1885) ;
another collection by K. Gillert (1890). (A. Go.*)
MUTILATION (from Lat. mutilus, maimed). The wounding,
maiming and disfiguring of the body is a practice common
among savages and systematically pursued by many entire races.
The varieties of mutilation are as numerous as the instances of
it are widespread. Nearly every part of the body is the object
of mutilation, and nearly every motive common to human
beings vanity, religion, affection, prudence has acted in
giving rise to what has been proved to be a custom of great
antiquity. Some forms, such as tattooing and depilation,
have stayed on as practices even after civilization has banished
the more brutal types; and a curious fact is that analogous
mutilations are found observed by races separated by vast
distances, and proved to have had no relations with one another,
at any rate in historic times. Ethnical mutilations have in
certain races a great sociological value. It is only after sub-
mission to some such operation that the youth is admitted to
full tribal rights (see INITIATION). Tattooing, too, has a semi-
religious importance, as when an individual bears a representa-
tion of his totem on his body; and many mutilations are tribe
marks, or brands used to know slaves.
Mutilations may be divided into: (i) those of the skin; (2) of the
face and head; (3) of the body and limbs; (4) of the teeth; (5) of the
sexual organs.
1. The principal form of skin-mutilation is tattooing (<?..), the
ethnical importance of which is very great. A practice almost as
common is depilation, or removal of hair. This is either by means
of the razor, e.g. in Japan, by depilatories, or by tearing out the hairs
separately, as among most savage peoples. The parts thus mutilated
are usually the eyebrows, the face, the scalp and the pubic regions.
Many African natives tear out all the body hair, some among them
(e.g. the Bongos) using special pincers. Depilation is common, too,
in the South Sea Islands. The Andaman islanders and the Boto-
cudos of Brazil shave the body, using shell-edges and other primitive
instruments.
2. Mutilations of the face and head are usuajly restricted to the
lips, ears, nose and cheeks. The lips are simply perforated or
distended to an extraordinary degree. The Botocudos insert disks
of wood into the lower lip. Lip-mutilations are common in North
America, too, on the Mackenzie river and among the Aleutians.
In Africa they are frequently practised. The Manganja women
pierce the upper lips and introduce small metal shields or rings.
The Mittu women bore the lower lip and thrust a wooden peg through.
In other tribes little sticks of rock crystal are pushed through,
which jingle together as the wearer -talks. The women of Senegal
increase the natural thickness of the upper lip by pricking it repeat-
edly until it is permanently inflamed and swollen. The ear, and
particularly the lobe, is almost universally mutilated, from the ear-
rings of the civilized West to the wooden disks of the Botocudos.
The only peoples who are said not to wear any form of ear ornament
are the Andaman islanders, the Neddahs, the Bushmen, the Fuegians
and certain tribes of Sumatra. Ear mutilation in its most exag-
gerated form is practised in Indo-China by the Mois of Annam and
the Penangs of Cambodia, and in Borneo by the Dyaks. They
extend the lobe by the insertion of wooden disks, and by metal
rings and weights, until it sometimes reaches the shoulder. In
Africa and Asia earrings sometimes weigh nearly half a pound.
Livingstone said that the natives of the Zambesi distend the per-
foration in the lobe to such a degree that the hand closed could be
passed through. The Monbuttus thrust through a perforation in
the body of the ear rolls of leaves, or of leather, or cigarettes. The
Papuans, the inhabitants of the New Hebrides, and most Melanesian
peoples carry all sorts of things in their ears, the New Caledonians
using them as pipe-racks. Many races disfigure the nose with
perforations. The young dandies of New Guinea bore holes through
the septum and thrust through pieces of bone or flowers, a mutilation
found, too, among New Zealanders, Australians, New Caledonians
and other Polynesian races. In Africa the Bagas and Bongos hang
metal rings and buckles on their noses; the Aleutians cords, bits
of metal or amber. In women it is the side of the nose which is
usually perforated; rings and jewelled pendants (as among Indian
and Arabic women, the ancient Egyptians and Jews), or feathers,
flowers, coral, &c. (as in Polynesia), being hung there. Only one
side of the nose is usually perforated, and this is not always merely
decorative. It may denote social position, as among the Ababdes
in Africa, whose unmarried girls wear no rings in their noses. The
male Kulus of the Himalaya wear a large ring in the left nos'ril.
Malays and Polynesians sometimes deform the nose by enlarging
its base, effecting this by compression of the nasal bones of the
newly born.
The cheeks are not so frequently mutilated. The people of the
Aleutian and Kurile Islands bore holes through their cheeks and
place in them the long hairs from the muzzles of seals. The Guaranis
of South America wear feathers in the same manner. In some
countries the top of the head or the skin behind the ears of children
is burnt to preserve them from sickness, traces of which mutilation
are said to be discoverable on some neolithic skulls; while some
African tribes cut and prick the neck close to the ear. By many
peoples the deformation of the skull was anciently practised.
Herodotus, Hippocrates and Strabo mention such a custom among
peoples of the Caspian and Crimea. Later similar practices were
found existing among Chinese mendicant sects, some tribes of
Turkestan, the Japanese priesthood, in Malaysia, Sumatra, Java and
100
MUTINY MUTSU HITO
the south seas. In Europe it was not unknown. But the discovery
of America brought to our knowledge those races which made a fine
art of skull-deformities. At the present day the custom is still
observed by the Haidas and Chinooks, and by certain tribes of Peru
and on the Amazon, by the Kurds of Armenia, by certain Malay
peoples, in the Solomon Islands and the New Hebrides. The
reasons for this type of mutilation are uncertain. Probably the idea
of distinguishing themselves from lower races was predominant in
most cases, as for example in that of the Chinook Indians, who
deformed the skull to distinguish themselves from their slaves.
Or it may have been through a desire to give a ferocious appearance
to their warriors. The deformation was always done at infancy,
and often in the case of both sexes. It was, however, more usually
reserved for boys, and sometimes for a single caste, as at Tahiti.
Different methods prevailed: by bands, bandages, boards, com-
presses of clay and sandbags, a continued pressure was applied to
the half-formed cranial bones to give them the desired shape.
Hand-kneading may also possibly have been employed.
3. Mutilations of the body or limbs by maiming, lopping off or
deforming, are far from rare. Certain races (Bushmen, Kaffirs
and Hottentots) cut off the finger joints as a sign of mourning,
especially for parents. The Tongans do the same, in the belief that
the evil spirits which bring diseases into the body would escape by
the wound. Diseased children are thus mutilated by them. Con-
tempt for female timidity has caused a curious custom among the
Gallas (Africa). They amputate the mammae of boys soon after
birth, believing no warrior can possibly be brave who possesses
them. The fashion of distorting the feet of Chinese ladies of high
rank has been of long continuance and only recently prohibited.
4. Mutilations of the teeth are among the most common and the
most varied. They are by breaking, extracting, filing, inlaying or
cutting away the crown of the teeth. Nearly every variety of dental
mutilation is met with in Africa. In a tribe north-east of the Albert
Nyanza it is usual to pry out with a piece of metal the four lower
incisors in children of both sexes. The women of certain tribes on
the Senegal force the growth of the upper incisors outwards so as
to make them project beyond the lower lips. Many of the aboriginal
tribes of Australia extract teeth, and at puberty the Australian boys
have a tooth knocked out. The Eskimos of the Mackenzie River
cut down the crown of the upper incisors so as not to resemble dogs.
Some Malay races, too, are said to blacken their teeth because dogs
have white teeth. This desire to be unlike animals seems to be at
the bottom of many dental mutilations. Another reason is the wish
to distinguish tribe from tribe. Thus some Papuans break their
teeth in order to be unlike other Papuan tribes which they despise.
In this way such practices become traditional. Finally, like many
mutilations, those of the teeth are trials of endurance of physical
pain, and take place at ceremonies of initiation and at puberty.
The Mois (Stiengs) of Cochin-China break the two upper middle
incisors with a flint. This is always ceremoniously done at puberty
to the accompaniment of feasting and prayers for those mutilated,
who will thus, it is thought, be preserved from sickness. Among
Malay races the filing of teeth takes place with similar ceremony at
puberty. In Java, Sumatra and Borneo the incisors are thinned
down and shortened. Deep transverse grooves are also made with a
file, a stone, bamboo or sand, and the teeth filed to a point. The
Dyaks of Borneo make a small hole in the transverse groove and
insert a pin of brass, which is hammered to a nail-head shape in the
hollow, or they inlay the teeth with gold and other metals. The
ancient Mexicans also inlaid the teeth with precious stones.
5. Mutilations of the sexual organs are more ethnically important
than any. They have played a great part in human history, and
still have much significance in many countries. Their antiquity
is undoubtedly great, and nearly all originate with the idea of
initiation into full sexual life. The most important, circumcisjon
(o.v.)t has been transformed into a religious rite. Infibulation
(Lat. fibula, a clasp), or the attaching a ring, clasp, or buckle to the
sexual organs, in females through the labia majora, in males through
the prepuce, was an operation to preserve chastity very commonly
practised in antiquity. At Rome it was in use; Strabo says it was
prevalent in Arabia and in Egypt, and it is still native to those regions
(Lane, Modern Egyptians, i. 73; Arabic Lexicon, s.v. " hafada ").
Niebuhr heard that it was practised on both shores of the Persian
Gulf and at Bagdad (Description de V Arabic, p. 70). It is common in
Africa (see Sir H. H. Johnston. Kilimanjaro Expedition, 1886), but
is there often replaced by an operation which consists in stitching
the labia majora together when the girl is four or five years old.
Castration is practised in the East to supply guards for harems, and
was employed in Italy until the time of Pope Leo XIII. to provide
" soprani ' for the papal choir ; it has also been voluntarily submitted
to from religious motives (see EUNUCH). The operation has,
however, been resorted to for other purposes. Thus in Africa it is
said to have been used as a means of annihilating conquered tribes.
The Hottentots and Bushmen, too, have the curious custom of
removing one testicle when a boy is eight or nine years old, in the
belief that this partial emasculation renders the victim fleeter of
foot for the chase. The most dreadful of these mutilations is that
practised by certain Australian tribes on their boys. It consists
of cutting open and leaving exposed the whole length of the urethral
canal and thus rendering sexual intercourse impossible. According
to some authorities it is hatred of the white man and dread of slavery
which are the reasons of this racial suicide. Among the Dyaks and
in many of the Melanesian islands curious modes of ornamentation
of the organs (such as the kalang) prevail, which are in the nature of
mutilations.
Penal Use. Mutilation as a method of punishment was common
in the criminal law of many ancient nations. In the earliest laws of
England mutilation, maiming and dismemberment had a prominent
place. " Men branded on the forehead, without hands, feet, or
tongues, lived as examples of the danger which attended the com-
mission of petty crimes and as a warning to all churls " (Pike's
History of Crime in England, 1873). The Danes were more severe
than the Saxons. Under their rules eyes were plucked out; noses,
ears and upper lips cut off; scalps town away; and sometimes the
whole body flayed alive. The earliest forest-laws of which there
is record are those of Canute (1016). Under these, if a freedman
offered violence to a keeper of the king's deer he was liable to lose
freedom and property ; if a serf, he lost his right hand, and on a second
offence was to die. One who killed a deer was either to have his
eyes put out or lose his life. Under the first two Norman kings
mutilation was the punishment for poaching. It was, however, not
reserved for that, as during the reign of Henry I. some coiners were
taken to Winchester, where their right hands were Ijpped off and
they were castrated. Under the kings of the West Saxon dynasty
the loss of hands had been a common penalty for coining (The
Obsolete Punishments of Shropshire, by S. Meeson Morris). Morris
quotes a case in John's reign at the Salop Assizes in 1203, where one
Alice Crithecreche and others were accused of murdering an old
woman at Lilleshall. Convicted of being accessory, Crithecreche
was sentenced to death, but the penalty was altered to that of
having her eyes plucked out. During the Tudor and Stuart periods
mutilations were a common form of punishment extra-judicially
inflicted by order of the privy council and the Star Chamber. There
are said to be preserved at Playford Hall, Ipswich, instruments of
Henry VIII. 's time for cutting off ears. This penalty appears to
have been inflicted for not attending church. By an act of Henry
VIII. (33 Hen. VIII. c. 12) the punishment for "striking in the
king's court or house " was the loss of the right hand. For writing a
tract on The Monstrous Regimen of Women a Nonconformist divine
(Dr W. Stubbs) had his right hand lopped off. Among many cases
of severe mutilations during Stuart times may be mentioned those
of Prynne, Burton, Bastwick and Titus Gates.
MUTINY (from an old verb " mutine," O. Fr. mutin, meutin,
a sedition; cf. mod. Fr. entente; the original is the Late Lat.
mota, commotion, from movere, to move), a resistance by force
to recognized authority, an insurrection, especially applied to
a sedition in any military or naval forces of the state. Such
offences are dealt with by courts-martial. (See MILITARY LAW
and COURT MARTIAL.)
MUTSU, MUNEMITSU, COUNT (1842-1896), Japanese states-
man, was born in 1842 in Wakayama. A vehement opponent
of " clan government " that is, usurpation of administrative
posts by men of two or three fiefs, an abuse which threatened
to follow the overthrow of the Tokugawa shogunate he con-
spired to assist Saigo's rebellion and was imprisoned from 1878
until 1883. While in prison he translated Bentham's Utilitarian-
ism. In 1886, after a visit to Europe, he received a diplomatic
appointment, and held the portfolio of foreign affairs during
the China-Japan War (1894-95), being associated with Prince
(then Count) Ito as peace plenipotentiary. He negotiated
the first of the revised treaties (that with Great Britain), and
for these various services he received the title of count. He
died in Tokyo in 1896. His statue in bronze stands before the
foreign office in Tokyo.
MUTSU HITO, MIKADO, or EMPEROR, OF JAPAN (1852- ),
was born on the 3rd of November 1852, succeeded his father,
Osahito, the former emperor, in January 1867, and was crowned
at Osaka on the 3ist of October 1868. The country was then
in a ferment owing to the concessions which had been granted
to foreigners by the preceding shogun lyemochi, who in 1854
concluded a treaty with Commodore Perry by which it was
agreed that certain ports should be open to foreign trade.
This convention gave great offence to the more conservative
daimios, and on their initiative the mikado suddenly decided
to abolish the shogunate. This resolution was not carried out
without strong opposition. The reigning shogun, Keiki, yielded
to the decree, but many of his followers were not so complaisant,
and it was only by force of arms that the new order of things
was imposed on the country. The main object of those who
had advocated the change was to lead to a reversion to the
MUTTRA
101
primitive condition of affairs, when the will of the mikado was
absolute and when the presence in Japan of the hated foreigner
was unknown. But the reactionary party was not to be allowed
to monopolize revolutions. To their surprise and discomfiture,
the powerful daimios of Satsuma and Choshu suddenly declared
themselves to be in favour of opening the country to foreign
intercourse, and of adopting many far-reaching reforms. With
this movement Mutsu Hito was cordially in agreement, and of
his own motion he invited the foreign representatives to an
audience on the 23rd of March 1868. As Sir Harry Parkes,
the British minister, was on his way to this assembly, he was
attacked by a number of two-sworded samurai, who, but for
his guard, would doubtless have succeeded in assassinating
him. The outrage was regarded by the emperor and his minis-
ters as a reflection on their honour, and they readily made all
reparation within their power. While these agitations were
afoot, the emperor, with his advisers, was maturing a political
constitution which was to pave the way to the assumption by
the emperor of direct personal rule. As a step in this direction,
Mutsu Hito transferred his capital from Kioto to Yedo, the
former seat of the shoguns' government, and marked the event
by renaming the city Tokyo, or Eastern Capital. In 1869 the
emperor paid a visit to his old capital, and there took as his
imperial consort a princess of the house of Ichijo. In the same
year Mutsu Hito bound himself by oath to institute certain
reforms, the first of which was the establishment of a deliberative
assembly. In this onward movement he was supported by the
majority of the daimios, who in a supreme moment of patriotism
surrendered their estates and privileges to their sovereign. This
was the death-knell of the feudalism which had existed for so
many centuries in Japan, and gave Mutsu Hito the free hand
which he desired. A centralized bureaucracy took the place of
the old system, and the nation moved rapidly along the road of
progress. Everything European was eagerly adopted, even
down to frock-coats and patent-leather boots for the officials.
Torture was abolished (1873), and a judicial code, adapted from
the Code Napoleon, was authorized. The first railway that
from Yokohama to Tokyo was opened in 1872; the European
calendar was adopted, and English was introduced into the
curriculum of the common schools. In all these reforms Mutsu
Hito took a leading part. But it was not to be expected that
such sweeping changes could be effected without opposition,
and thrice during the period between 1876 and 1884 the emperor
had to face serious rebellious movements in the provinces.
These he succeeded in suppressing; and even amid these pre-
occupations he managed to inflict a check on his huge neighbour,
the empire of China. As the government of this state declared
that it was incapable of punishing certain Formosan pirates for
outrages committed on Japanese ships (1874), Mutsu Hito
landed a force on the island, and, having inflicted chastisement
on the bandits, remained in possession of certain districts until
the compensation demanded from Peking was paid. The un-
paralleled advances which had been made by the government
were now held by the emperor and his advisers to justify a
demand for the revision of the foreign treaties, and negotiations
were opened with this object. They failed, however, and the
consequent disappointment gave rise to a strong reaction against
everything foreign throughout the country. Foreigners were
assaulted on the roads, and even the Russian cesarevich, after-
wards the tsar Nicholas II., was attacked by would-be assassins
in the streets of Tokyo. A renewed attempt to revise the
treaties in 1894 was more successful, and in that year Great
Britain led the way by concluding a revised treaty with Japan.
Other nations followed, and by 1901 all those obnoxious clauses
suggestive of political inferiority had finally disappeared from the
treaties. In the same year (1894) war broke out with China, and
Mutsu Hito, in common with his subjects, showed the greatest
zeal for the campaign. He reviewed the troops as they left
the shores of Japan for Korea and Manchuria, and personally
distributed rewards to those who had won distinction. In
the war with Russia, 1904-5, the same was the case, and it was
to the virtues of their emperor that his generals loyally ascribed
the Japanese victories. In his wise patriotism, as in all matters,
Mutsu Hito always placed himself in the van of his countrymen.
He led them out of the trammels of feudalism ; by his progressive
rule he lived to see his country advanced to the first rank of
nations; and he was the first Oriental sovereign to form an
offensive and defensive alliance with a first-rate European
power. In 1869 Mutsu Hito married Princess Haru, daughter
of Ichijo Tadaka, a noble of the first rank. He has one son
and several daughters, his heir-apparent being Yoshi Hito, who
was born on the 3ist of August 1879, and married in 1900
Princess Sada, daughter of Prince KujS, by whom he had three
sons before 1909. Mutsu Hito adopted the epithet of Meiji, or
" Enlightened Peace," as the nengo or title of his reign. Thus
the year 1901, according to the Japanese calendar, was the
34th year of Meiji.
MUTTRA, or MATHURA, a city and district of British India
in the Agra division of the United Provinces. The city is on the
right bank of the Jumna, 30 m. above Agra; it is an important
railway junction. Pop. (1901), 60,042. It is an ancient town,
mentioned by Fa Hien as a centre of Buddhism about A.D. 400;
his successor Hstian Tsang, about 650, states that it then con-
tained twenty Buddhist monasteries and five Brahmanical
temples. Muttra has suffered more from Mahommedan plunder
than most towns of northern India. It was sacked by Mah-
mud of Ghazni in 1017-18; about 1500 Sultan Sikandar Lodi
utterly destroyed all the Hindu shrines, temples and images;
and in 1636 Shah Jahan appointed a governor expressly to
" stamp out idolatry." In 1669-70 Aurangzeb visited the city
and continued the work of destruction. Muttra was again
captured and plundered by Ahmad Shah with 25,000 Afghan
cavalry in 1756. The town still forms a great centre of Hindu
devotion, and large numbers of pilgrims flock annually to the
festivals. The special cult of Krishna with which the neighbour-
hood is associated seems to be of comparatively late date.
Much of the prosperity of the town is due to the residence of a
great family of seths or native bankers, who were conspicuously
loyal during the Mutiny. Temples and bathing-stairs line the
river bank. The majority are modern, but the mosque of
Aurangzeb, on a lofty site, dates from 1669. Most of the public
buildings are of white stone, handsomely carved. There are
an American mission, a Roman Catholic church, a museum of
antiquities, and a cantonment for a .British cavalry regiment.
Cotton, paper and pilgrims' charms are the chief articles of
manufacture.
The DISTRICT OF MUTTRA has an area of 1445 sq. m. It consists
of an irregular strip of territory lying on both sides of the
Jumna. The general level is only broken at the south-western
angle by low ranges of limestone hills. The eastern half con-
sists for the most part of a rich upland plain, abundantly irrigated
by wells, rivers and canals, while the western portion, though
rich in mythological association and antiquarian remains, is
comparatively unfavoured by nature. For eight months of the
year the Jumna shrinks to the dimensions of a mere rivulet,
meandering through a waste of sand. During the rains, how-
ever, it swells to a mighty stream, a mile or more in breadth.
Formerly nearly the whole of Muttra consisted of pasture and
woodland, but the roads constructed as relief works in 1837-1838
have thrown open many large tracts of country, and the task
of reclamation has since proceeded rapidly. The population
in 1901 was 763,099, showing an increase of 7 % in the
decade. The principal crops are millets, pulse, cotton, wheat,
barley and sugar cane. The famine of 1878 was severely felt.
The eastern half of the district is watered by the Agra canal,
which is navigable, and the western half by branches of the
Ganges canal. A branch of the Rajputana railway, from
Achnera to Hathras, crosses the district; the chord line of the
East India, from Agra to Delhi, traverses it from north to south ;
and a new line, connecting with the Great Indian Peninsula,
was opened in 1905.
The central portion of Muttra district forms one of the most
sacred spots in Hindu mythology. A circuit of 84 kos around
Gokul and Brindaban bears the name of the Braj-Mandal, and
102
MUTULE MUZAFFARNAGAR
carries with it many associations of earliest Aryan times.
Here Krishna and his brother Balarama fed their cattle upon the
plain; and numerous relics of antiquity in the towns of Muttra,
Gobardhan, Gokul, Mahaban and Brindaban still attest the
sanctity with which this holy tract was invested. During the
Buddhist period Muttra became a centre of the new faith.
After the invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni the city fell into
insignificance till the reign of Akbar; and thenceforward its
history merges in that of the Jats of Bharatpur, until it again
acquired separate individuality under Suraj Mai in the middle
of the 1 8th century. The Bharatpur chiefs took an active part
in the disturbances consequent on the declining power of the
Mogul emperors, sometimes on the imperial side, and at others
with the Mahrattas. The whole of Muttra passed under British
rule in 1804.
See F. S. Growse, Malhura (Allahabad, 1883).
MUTULE (Lat. mutulus, a stay or bracket), in architecture
the rectangular block under the soffit of the cornice of the Greek
Doric temple, which is studded with guttae. It is supposed to
represent the piece of timber through which the wooden pegs
were driven in order to hold the rafter in position, and it follows
the rake of the roof. In the Roman Doric order the mutule
was horizontal, with sometimes a crowning fillet, so that it
virtually fulfilled the purpose of the modillion in the Corinthian
cornice.
MUZAFFAR-ED-DlN, shah of Persia (1853-1907), the second
son of Shah Nasr-ed-Dm, was born on the 25th of March 1853.
He was in due course declared vali ahd, or heir-apparent, and
invested with the governorship of Azerbaijan, but on the
assassination of his father in 1896 it was feared that his elder
brother, Zill-es-Sultan, the governor of Isfahan, might prove
a dangerous rival, especially when it was remembered that
Muzaffar-ed-Dln had been recalled to Teheran by his father upon
his failure to suppress a Kurd rising in his province. The
British and Russian governments, in order to avoid wide-
spread disturbances, agreed however to give him their support.
All opposition was thus obviated, and Muzaffar-ed-Din was
duly enthroned on the 8th of June 1896, the Russian general
Kosakowsky, commander of the Persian Cossacks, presiding over
the ceremony with drawn sword. On this occasion the new
shah announced the suppression of all purchase of civil and
military posts, and then proceeded to remit in perpetuity all
taxes on bread and meat, thus lightening the taxation on food,
which had caused the only disturbances in the last reign. But
whatever hopes may have been aroused by this auspicious
beginning of the reign were soon dashed owing to the extrava-
gance and profligacy of the court, which kept the treasury in
a chronic state of depletion. Towards the end of 1896 the
Amin-es-Sultan, who had been grand vizier during the last
years of Nasr-ed-Dln's reign, was disgraced, and Muzaffar-ed-
Dm announced his intention of being in future his own grand
vizier. The Amin-ad-Dowla, a less masterful servant, took
office with the lower title of prime minister. During his short
administration an elaborate scheme of reforms was drawn up
on paper, and remained on paper. The treasury continued
empty, and in the spring of 1898 Amin-es-Sultan was recalled
with the special object of filling it. The delay of the British
government in sanctioning a loan in London gave Russia her
opportunity. A Russian loan was followed by the establishment
of a Russian bank at Teheran, and the vast expansion of
Russian influence generally. At the beginning of 1900 a
fresh gold loan was negotiated with Russia, and a few
months later Muzaffar-ed-Din started on a tour in Europe
by way of St Petersburg, where he was received with great
state. He subsequently went to Paris to visit the Exhibition
of 1900, and while there an attempt on his life was made
by a madman named Francois Salson. In spite of this
experience the shah so enjoyed his European tour that he
determined to repeat it as soon as possible. By the end of
1901 his treasury was again empty; but a fresh Russian loan
replenished it and in 1902 he again came to Europe, paying
on this occasion a state visit to England. On his way back
he stopped at St Petersburg, and at a banquet given in his
honour by the tsar toasts were exchanged of unmistakable
significance. None the less, during his visit to King Edward VII.
the shah had been profuse in his expressions of friendship for
Great Britain, and in the spring of 1903 a special mission was
sent to Teheran to invest him with the Order of the Garter.
The shah's misguided policy had created widespread dis-
affection in the country, and the brunt of popular disfavour
fell on the atabeg (the title by which the Amin-es-Sultan was
now known), who was once more disgraced in September 1903.
The war with Japan now relaxed the Russian pressure on
Teheran, and at the same time dried up the source of supplies;
and the clergy, giving voice to the general misery and discontent,
grew more and more outspoken in their denunciations of the
shah's misrule. Nevertheless Muzaffar-ed-Dm defied public
opinion by making another journey to Europe in 1905; but,
though received with the customary distinction at St Petersburg,
he failed to obtain further supplies. In the summer of 1906
popular discontent culminated in extraordinary demonstrations
at Teheran, which practically amounted to a general strike.
The shah was forced to yield, and proclaimed a liberal con-
stitution, the first parliament being opened by him on the I2th
of October 1906. Muzaffar-ed-Din died on the 8th of January
1907, being succeeded by his son Mahommed Ali Mirza.
MUZAFFARGARH, a town and district of British India,
in the Multan division of the Punjab. The town is near the
right bank of the river Chenab, and has a railway station.
Pop. (1901), 4018. Its fort and a mosque were built by Nawab
Muzaffar Khan in 1794-1796.
The DISTRICT or MUZAFFARGARH occupies the lower end of
the Sind-Sagar Doab. Area, 3635 sq. m. In the northern
half of the district is the wild thai or central desert, an arid
elevated tract with a width of 40 m. in the extreme north,
which gradually contracts until it disappears about 10 m.
south of Muzaffargarh town. Although apparently a table-land,
it is really composed of separate sandhills, with intermediate
valleys lying at a lower level than that of the Indus, and at
times flooded. The towns stand on high sites or are protected
by embankments; but the villages scattered over the lowlands
are exposed to annual inundations, during which the people
abandon their grass-built huts, and take refuge on wooden
platforms attached to each house. Throughout the cold weather
large herds of camels, belonging chiefly to the Povindah
merchants of Afghanistan, graze upon the sandy waste.
The district possesses hardly any distinct annals of its own,
having always formed part of Multan (?..). The population
in 1901 was 405,656, showing an increase of 6-4% in the decade,
due to the extension of irrigation. The principal crops are
wheat, pulse, rice and indigo. The most important domestic
animal is the camel. The district is crossed by the North-
Western railway, and the boundary rivers are navigable, besides
furnishing numerous irrigation channels, originally constructed
under native rule.
MUZAFFARNAGAR, a town and district of British India,
in the Meerut division of the United Provinces. The town is
790 ft. above the sea, and has a station on the North-Western
railway. Pop. (1901), 23,444. It is an important trading centre
and has a manufacture of blankets. It was founded about 1633
by the son of Muzaffar Khan, Khan-i-Jahan, one of the famous
Sayid family who rose to power under the emperor Shah Jahan.
The DISTRICT OF MUZAFFARNAGAR has an area of 1666 sq. m.
It lies near the northern extremity of the Doab or great alluvial
plain between the Ganges and the Jumna, and shares to a large
extent in the general monotony of that level region. A great
portion is sandy and unfertile; but under irrigation the soil is
rapidly improving, and in many places the villagers have
succeeded in introducing a high state of cultivation. Before
the opening of the canals Muzaffarnagar was liable to famines
caused by drought; but the danger from this has been mini-
mized by the spread of irrigation. It is traversed by four main
canals, the Ganges, Anupshahr, Deoband and Eastern Jumna.
Its trade is confined to the raw materials it produces. The
MUZAFFARPUR MYCENAE
103
climate of the district is comparatively cool, owing to the
proximity of the hills; and the average annual rainfall is 33 in.
The population in 1901 was- 877,188, showing an increase of
13-5 % in the decade, which was a period of unexampled
prosperity. The principal crops are wheat, pulse, cotton and
sugar-cane. The district is crossed by the North-Western
railway from Delhi to Saharanpur.
Hindu tradition represents Muzaffarnagar as having formed a
portion of the Pandava kingdom of the Mahdbharala; authentic
history, however, dates from the time of the Moslem conquests
in the i3th century, from which time it remained a dependency
of the various Mahommedan dynasties which ruled at Delhi
until the practical downfall of the Mogul Empire in the middle
of the i8th century. In 1788 the district fell into the hands
of the Mahrattas. After the fall of Aligarh, the whole Doab
as far north as the Siwalik hills passed into the hands of the
British without a blow, and Muzaffarnagar became part of
Saharanpur. It was created a separate jurisdiction in 1824.
During the Mutiny there was some disorder, chiefly occasioned
by official weakness, but no severe fighting.
See Muzaffarnagar District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1903).
MUZAFFARPUR, a town and district of British India, in the
Patna division of Bengal. The town is on the right bank of
the Little Gandak river, and has a railway station. Pop. (1901),
45,617. The town is well laid out, and is an important centre
of trade, being on the direct route from Patna to Nepal. It is
the headquarters of the Behar Light Horse volunteer corps and
has a college established in 1899.
The DISTRICT OF MUZAFFARPUR has an area of 3035 sq. m. It
was formed in January 1875 out of the great district of Tirhoot,
which up to that time was the largest and most populous district
of Lower Bengal. The district is an alluvial plain between the
Ganges and the Great Gandak, the Baghmat and Little Gandak
being the principal rivers within it. South of the Little Gandak
the land is somewhat elevated, with depressions containing
lakes toward the south-east. North of the Baghmat the land
is lower and marshy, but is traversed by elevated dry ridges.
The tract between the two rivers is lowest of all and liable to
floods. Pop. (1901), 2,754,790, showing an increase of 1-5 %
in the decade. Average density, 914 per sq. m., being exceeded
in all India only by the neighbouring district of Saran. Indigo
(superseded to some extent, owing to the fall in price, by sugar)
and opium are largely grown. Rice is the chief grain crop,
and cloth, carpets and pottery are manufactured. The district
is traversed in several directions by the Tirhoot system of the
Bengal and North-Western railway. It suffered from drought
in 1873-1874, and again in 1897-1898.
See Muzaffarpur District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1907).
MUZIANO, GIROLAMO (1528-1592), Italian painter, was
born at Acquafredda, near Brescia, in 1528. Under Romanino,
an imitator of Titian, he studied his art, designing and colouring
according to the principles of the Venetian school. But it was
not until he had left his native place, still in early youth, and
had repaired to Rome about 1550, that he came into notice.
There his pictures soon gained for him the surname of II Giovane
de' paesi (the young man of the landscapes); chestnut-trees
are predominant in these works. He next tried the more
elevated style of historical painting. He imitated Michelangelo
in giving great prominence to the anatomy of his figures, and
became fond of painting persons emaciated by abstinence or
even disease. His great picture of the " Resurrection of
Lazarus " at once established his fame. Michelangelo praised
it, and pronounced its author one of the first artists of that age.
It was placed in the church of Santa Maria Maggiore, but was
afterwards transferred to the Quirinal Palace. Muziano, with
dogged perseverance (at one time he shaved his head, so as not
to be tempted to go out of doors), continued to proceed in the
path on which he had entered. He grew excellent in depicting
foreign and military costumes, and in introducing landscapes
into his historical pieces after the manner of Titian. Mosaic
working also occupied his attention while he was employed as
superintendent at the Vatican; and it became under his hands
a perfect imitation of painting. His ability and industry soon
gained for him a handsome fortune. Part of this he expended
in assisting to found the Academy of St Luke in Rome. He
died in 1592, and was buried in the church of Santa Maria
Maggiore.
Many of Muziano's works are in the churches and palaces of
Rome; he also worked in Oryieto and Loreto. In Santa Maria
degli Angeli, Rome, is one of his chief works, " St Jerome preaching
to Monks in the Desert " ; his " Circumcision " is in the church of the
Gesu, his " Ascension " in the Araceli, and his " St Francis receiv-
ing the Stigmata " in the church of the Conception. A picture by
him, representing Christ washing the feet of His disciples, is in the
cathedral of Reims.
MUZZIOLI, GIOVANNI (1854-1894), Italian painter, was
born in Modena, whither his family had removed from Castel-
vetro, on the loth of February 1854. From the time that he
began to attend the local academy at the age of thirteen he was
recognized as a prodigy, and four years later, by the unanimous
vote of the judges, he gained the Poletti scholarship entitling
him to four years' residence in Rome and Florence. After his
return to Modena, Muzzioli visited the Paris Exhibition, and
there came under the influence of Sir L. Alma Tadema. His
first important picture was " In the Temple of Bacchus " (1881);
and his masterpiece, " The Funeral of Britannicus," was one of
the chief successes of the Bologna Exhibition of 1888. From
1878 to his death (August 5, 1894) Muzzioli lived in Florence,
where he painted the altar-piece for the church of Castelvetro.
See History of Modern Italian Art, by A. R. Willard (London,
1898).
MWERU, a large lake of Eastern Central Africa, traversed
by the Luapula or upper Congo. It lies 3000 ft. above the sea;
measures about 76 m. in length by some 25 in breadth, and is
roughly rectangular, the axis running from S.S.W. to N.N.E.
It is cut a little south of its centre by 9 S. and through its
N.E. corner passes 29 E. At the south end a shallow bay
extends to 9 31' S. East of this, and some miles further north,
the Luapula enters from a Vast marsh inundated at high water;
it leaves the lake at the north-west corner, making a sharp bend
to the west before assuming a northerly direction. Besides
the Luapula, the principal influent is the Kalungwizi, from the
east. Near the south end of the lake lies the island of Kilwa,
about 8 m. in length, rising into plateaus 600 ft. above the
lake. Here the air is cool and balmy, the soil dry, with short
turf and clumps of shady trees, affording every requirement for
a sanatorium. Mweru was reached by David Livingstone in
1867, but its western shore was first explored in 1890 by Sir
Alfred Sharpe, who two years later effected its circumnavigation.
The eastern shores from the Luapula entrance to its exit,
together with Kilwa Island, belong to British Central Africa;
the western to the Belgian Congo.
MYAUNGMYA, a district in the Irrawaddy division of lower
Burma, formed in 1893 out of a portion of Bassein district, and
reconstituted in 1903. It has an area of 2663 sq. m., and a
population (1901) of 278,119, showing an increase of 49% in
the decade and a density of 104 inhabitants to the square mile.
Among the population were about 12,800 Christians, mostly
Karens. The district is a deltaic tract, bordering south on the
sea and traversed by many tidal creeks. Rice cultivation and
fishing occupy practically all the inhabitants of the district.
The town of Myaungmya had 4711 inhabitants in 1901.
MYCENAE, one of the most ancient cities of Greece, was
situated on a hill above the northern extremity of the fertile
Argive plain nvxy "Apytos i7nro/36roto. Its situation is ex-
ceedingly strong, and it commands all the roads leading from
Corinth and Achaea into the Argive plain. The walls of Mycenae
are the greatest monument that remains of the Heroic age
in Greece; part of them is similar in style and doubtless con-
temporary in date with the walls of the neighbouring town
Tiryns. There can therefore be little doubt that the two
towns were the strongholds of a single race, Tiryns commanding
the sea-coast and Mycenae the inner country. Legend tells
of the rivalry between the dynasties of the Pelopidae at Mycenae
104
MYCENAE
and of the Proetidae at Argos. In early historic times Argos
had obtained the predominance. The Mycenaeans, who had
temporarily regained their independence with the help of
Sparta, fought on the Greek side at Plataea in 479 B.C. The
long warfare between the two cities lasted till 468 B.C., when
Mycenae was dismantled and its inhabitants dispersed. The
city never revived; Strabo asserts that no trace of it remained
in his time, but Pausanias describes the ruins. For the character
of Mycenaean art and of the antiquities found at Mycenae
see AEGEAN CIVILIZATION.
The extant remains of the town of Mycenae are spread over
the hill between the village of Charvati and the Acropolis.
They consist of some traces of town walls and of houses, and
of an early bridge over the stream to the east, on the road
leading to the Heraeum. The walls of the Acropolis are in
of thin slabs of stone set up on end, with others laid across the
top of them; at the part of this enclosure nearest to the Lion
Gate is an entrance. Some have" supposed the circle of slabs
to be the retaining wall of a tumulus; but its structure is not
solid enough for such a purpose, and it can hardly be anything
but a sacred enclosure. It was within this circle that Dr H.
Schliemann found the five graves that contained a marvellous
wealth of gold ornaments and other objects; a sixth was sub-
sequently found. Above one of the graves was a small circular
altar, and there were also several sculptured slabs set up above
them. The graves themselves were mere shafts sunk in the
rock. Dr Schliemann identified them with the graves of
Agamemnon, Cassandra, and their companions, which were
shown to Pausanias within the walls; and there can be little
doubt that they are the graves that gave rise to the tradition,
Based on a plan in Schuchhardt's Scldicmann' s Excavations.
FIG. i. Plan of the Citadel of Mycenae.
the shape of an irregular triangle, and occupy a position of
great natural strength between two valleys. They are preserved
to a considerable height on all sides, except where the ravine
is precipitous and they have been carried away by a landslip;
they are for the most part built of irregular blocks of great
size in the so-called " Cyclopian " style; but certain portions,
notably that near the chief gate, are built in almost regular
courses of squared stones; there are also some later repairs in
polygonal masonry. The main entrance is called the Lion Gate,
from the famous triangular relief which fills the space above
its massive lintel. This represents two lions confronted, resting
their front legs on a low altar-like structure on which is a
pillar which stands between them. The device is a translation
into stone of a type not uncommon in gem-cutter's and
goldsmith's work of the " Mycenaean " age. The gate is
approached by a road commanded on one side by the city wall,
on the other by a projecting tower. There is also a postern
gate on the north side of the wall, and at its eastern extremity
are two apertures in the thickness of the wall. One of these
leads out on to the rocks above the southern ravine, the other
leads to a long staircase, completely concealed in the wall and
the rocks, leading down to a subterranean well or spring. Just
within the Lion Gate is a projection of the wall surrounding a
curious circular enclosure, consisting of two concentric circles
though the historical identity of the persons actually buried in
them is a more difficult question. Outside the circle, especially
to the south of it, numerous remains of houses of the Mycenaean
age have been found, and others, terraced up at various levels,
occupy almost the whole of the Acropolis. On the summit,
approached by a well-preserved flight of steps, are the remains
of a palace of the Mycenaean age, similar to that found at
Tiryns, though not so complicated or extensive. Above them
are the foundations of a Doric temple, probably dating from the
last days of Mycenaean independence in the 5th century.
Numerous graves have been found in the slopes of the hills
adjoining the town of Mycenae. Most of these consist merely of
a chamber, usually square, excavated in the rock, and approached
by a " dromos " or horizontal approach in the side of a hill.
They are sometimes provided with doorways faced with stucco,
and these have painted ornamentation. Many of these tombs
have been opened, and their contents are in the Athens museum.
Another and much more conspicuous kind of tomb is that
known as the beehive tomb. There are eight of them at Mycenae
itself, and others in the neighbourhood. Some of them were
visible in the time of Pausanias, who calls them the places
where Atreus and his sons kept their treasures. There can,
however, be no doubt that they were the tombs of princely
families. The largest and best preserved of them, now
MYCETOZOA
105
commonly called the Treasury of Atreus, is just outside the Lion
Gate. It consists of a circular domed chamber, nearly 50 ft.
in diameter and in height; a smaller square chamber opens out
of it. It is approached by a horizontal avenue 20 ft. wide and
US ft- long, with side walls of squared stone sloping up to a
height of 45 ft. The doorway was flanked with columns of
alabaster, with rich spiral ornament, now in the British Museum;
and the rest of the facade was very richly decorated, as may
be seen from Chipiez's fine restoration. The inside of the
vault was ornamented with attached bronze ornaments, but
not, as is sometimes stated, entirely lined with bronze. It is
generally supposed that these tombs, as well as those excavated
in the rock, belong to a later date than the shaft-tombs on the
Acropolis.
See H. Schliemann, Mycenae (1879) I C. Schuchhardt, SMiemann's
Excavations (Eng. trans., 1891) ; Chr. Tsountas, Mw^vai ai Miwiji'euKAj
ToXtTK7AiAi(i893); Tsountas and Manatt, The Mycenaean Age (1897);
Perrot and Chipiez, Histoire de I'art dans I'antiquite, vol. vi., L'art
Myceneenne. Various reports in OpaxTutd TJJS Apx- iroipios and in
'E$7)iutpis ip\tuoKoyi.K.ii. (E. GR.)
MYCETOZOA (Myxomycetes, Schleimpilze) , in zoology, a
group of organisms reproducing themselves by spores. These
are produced in or on sporangia which are formed in the air
and the spores are distributed by the currents of air. They
thus differ from other spore-bearing members of the animal
kingdom (which produce their spores while immersed in water
or, in the case of parasites, within the fluids of their hosts),
and resemble the Fungi and many of the lower green plants.
In relation with this condition of their fructification the structures
formed at the spore-bearing stage to contain or support the
spores present a remarkable resemblance to the sporangia of
certain groups of Fungi, from which, however, the Mycetozoa
are essentially different.
Although the sporangial and some other phases have long been
known, and Fries had enumerated 192 species in 1829, the
main features of their life-history were first worked out in 1859-
1860 by de Bary (i and 2). He showed that in the Mycetozoa
the spore hatches out as a mass of naked protoplasm which
almost immediately assumes a free-swimming flagellate form
(zoospore), that after multiplying by division this passes into an
amoeboid phase, and that from such amoebae the plasmodia
arise, though the mode of their origin was not ascertained by him.
The plasmodium of the Mycetozoa is a mass of simple proto-
plasm, without a differentiated envelope and endowed with
the power of active locomotion. It penetrates the interstices
of decaying vegetable matter, or, in the case of the species
Badhamia utricularis, spreads as a film on the surface of living
fungi; it may grow almost indefinitely in size, attaining under
favourable conditions several feet in extent. It constitutes
the dominant phase of the life-history. From the plasmodium
the sporangia take their origin. It was Cienkowski who (in
1863) contributed the important fact that the plasmodia arise
by the fusion with one another of numbers of individuals in
the amoeboid phase a mode of origin which is now generally
recognized as an essential feature in the conception of a
plasmodium, whether as occurring among the Mycetozoa or
in other groups (7). De Bary clearly expressed the view that
the life-history of the Mycetozoa shows them to belong not
to the vegetable but to the animal kingdom.
The individual sporangia of the Mycetozoa are, for the most
part, minute structures, rarely attaining the size of a mustard-
seed, though, in the composite form of aethalia, they may
form cake-like masses an inch or more across (fig. 21). They are
found, stalked or sessile, in small clusters or distributed by the
thousand over a wide area many feet in diameter, on the bark
of decaying trees, on dead leaves or sticks, in woods and shrub-
beries, among the stems of plants on wet moors, and, generally,
at the surface in localities where there is a substratum of decaying
vegetable matter sufficiently moist to allow the plasmodium
to live. Tan-heaps have long been known as a favourite habitat
of Fuligo septica, the plasmodia of which, emerging in bright
yellow masses at the surface prior to the sporangial (in this
case aethalial) phase, are known as " flowers of tan." The
film-like, expanded condition of the plasmodium, varying in
colour in different species and traversed by a network of vein-
like channels (fig. 5), has long been known. The plasmodial
stage was at one time regarded as representing a distinct group
of fungi, to which the generic name Mesenterica was applied.
The species of Mycetozoa are widely distributed over the world in
temperate and tropical latitudes where there is sufficient
moisture for them to grow, and they must be regarded as not
inconsiderable agents in the disintegrating processes of nature,
by which complex organic substances are decomposed into
simpler and more stable chemical groups.
Classification. The Mycetozoa, as here understood, fall into
three main divisions. The Endosporeae, in which the spores are
contained within sporangia, form together with the Exosporeae,
which bear their spores on the surface of sporophores, a natural
group characterized by forming true plasmodia. They con-
stitute the Euplasmodida. Standing apart from them is the
small group of the mould-like Sorophora, in which the amoeboid
individuals only come together immediately prior to spore-
formation and do not completely fuse with one another.
A number of other organisms living on vegetable and animal
bodies, alive or dead, and leading an entirely aquatic life, are
included by Zopf (31) under the Mycetozoa, as the " Monadina,"
in distinction from the " Eumycetozoa," consisting of the three
groups above mentioned. The alliance of some of these (e.g.
Protomonas) with the Mycetozoa is probable, and was accepted
by de Bary, but the relations of other Monadina are obscure,
and appear to be at least as close with the Heliozoa (with which
many have in fact been^assed). The limits here adopted,
following de Bary, include a group of organisms which, as
shown by their life-history, belong to the animal stock, and yet
alone among animals 1 they have acquired the habit, widely
found in the ( vegetable kingdom, of developing and distributing
their spores in air.
Class MYCETOZOA.
Sub-class I. EUPLASMODIDA.*
Division I. Endosporeae.
Cohort i. Amaurosporales.
Sub-cohort i. Calcarineae.
Order i. Physaraceae. Genera: Badhamia, Physarum, Physarella,
Trichamphora, Erionema, Cienkowskia, Fuligo, Craterium,
Leocarpus, Chondrioderma, Diachaea.
Order 2. Didymiaceae. Genera: Didymtum, Spumaria, Lepido-
derma.
Sub-cohort 2. Araaurochaetineae.
Order i. Stemonitaceae. Genera: Stemonitis, Comatricha, Ener-
thenema, Echinostelium, Lamproderma, Clastoderma.
Order 2. Amaurochaetaceae. Genera: Amaurochaete, Brefeldia.
Cohort 2. Lamprospprales.
Sub-cohort i. Anemineae.
Order i. Heterodermaceae. Genera: Lindbladia, Cribraria,
Dictydium.
Order 2. Licaeceae. Genera : Licea, Orcadella.
Order 3. Tubulinaceae. Genera: Tubulina, Siphoptychium, A Iwisia.
Order 4. Reticulariaceae. Genera: Dictydiaethalium, Enteridium,
Reticularia.
Order 5. Lycogalaceae. Genus : Lycogala.
Sub-cohort 2. Calonemineae.
Order i. Trichiaceae. Genera: Trichia, Oligonema, Hemilrichia,
Cornuvia.
Order 2. Arcyriaceae. Genera: A rcyria, Lac hnobolus, Perichaena.
Order 3. Margaritaceae. Genera : Margarita, Dianema, Proto-
trichia, Listerella.
Division 2. Exosporeae.
Order i. Ceratiomyxaceae. Genus: Ceratiomyxa.
Sub-class 2. SOROPHORA.
Order i. Guttulinaceae.. Genera: Copromyxa, Gutlulina, Guttu-
linopsis.
Orders. Dictyosteliaceae. Genera: Dictyostelium, Acrasis, Poly-
sphondylium.
1 Bursulla, a member of Zopf's Monadina, likewise forms its spores
in air.
4 The classification of the Euplasmodida here given is that of A.
and G. Lister (22), the outcome of a careful study of the group
extending over more than twenty-five years. The writer of this
article desires to express his indebtedness to the opportunities he
has had of becoming familiar with the work of his father, Mr A. Lister,
F.R.S., whose views on the affinities and life-history of the Mycetozoa
he has endeavoured herein to summarize.
io6
MYCETOZOA
d
After A. Lister.
FIG.
LIFE-HISTORY OF THE MYCETOZOA
EUPLASMODIDA
Endosporeae.
We may begin our survey of the life-history at the point where
the spores, borne on currents of air, have settled among wet decaying
vegetable matter. Shrunken when dry, they rapidly absorb water
and resume the spherical
shape which is found in
nearly all species. Each
is surrounded by a spore
wall, sheltered by which
the protoplasm, though
losing moisture by drying,
may remain alive for as
many as four years. In
several cases it has been
found to give the chemical
reaction of cellulose. It
is smooth or variously
sculptured according to
the species. Within the
protoplasm may be seen
the nucleus, and one or
more contractile vacuoles
make their appearance.
l.^Stages in the Hatching of the After the spore has lain
Spores of Dtdymium difforme. in water for a pe riod
a, The unruptured spore. varying from a few hours
b. The protoplasmic contents of the spore to a day or two the wall
emerging It contains a nucleus with bursts and the contained
the (light) nucleolus, and a contractile protoplasm slips out and
vacuole (shaded). lies free in the water as a
c The same, free from the spore wall. minute colourless mass,
d, Zoospore with nucleus at the base of presenting amoeboid
the flageilum, and contractile vacuole. movements (fig I c) It
e, A zoospore with pseudopodial processes soon assumes an elongated
at the posterior end, to one of which pi r if or m shape, and a
a bacillus adheres. Two digestive fl age llum is developed at
vacuoles in the interior contain in- the narrow end, attaining
gested bacilli. a length equal to the rest
/, Amoeboid phase with retracted o f tne body. The minute
nagellum. zoospore, thus equipped,
swims away with a characteristic dancing motion. The proto-
plasm is granular within but hyaline externally (fig. I, d). The
nucleus, lying at the end of the body where it tapers into the
flagellum, is limited by a definite wall and contains a nuclear
network and a nucleolus. It often
presents the appearance of being
drawn out into a point towards the
flagellum, and a bell-like structure
[first described by Plenge (27)],
staining more darkly than the rest
of the protoplasm, extends from the
base of the flagellum and invests
the nucleus (fig. 2, a and c). The
other end of the zoospore may be
evenly rounded (fig. I, d) or it may
be produced into short pseudo-
podia (fig. I , e). By means of these
the zoospore captures bacteria
which are drawn into the body and
FIG. 2 ZoospotesolBodhamw enc i osed in digestive vacuoles. A
pamcea stained (X .650). contractile vacuole is also present
In a and c the bell-like struc- near the hind end. Considerable
ture investing the nucleus is movement may be observed among
clearly seen. tne granules of the interior, and
in the large zoospores of Amaurochaete atra this may amount to an
actual streaming, though without the rhythm characteristic of the
plasmodial stage.
Other shapes may be temporarily assumed by the zoospore.
Attaching itself to an object it
may become amoeboid, either with
(fig. I, /) or without (fig. 2, c) the
temporary retraction of the flagel-
lum; or it may take an elongated
slug-like shape and creep with the
flagellum extended in front, with
FIG. 3. Three stages in the tactile and apparently exploratory
division of the Zoospore of movements.
Reticularia Lycoperdon (X That the zoospores of many
1000). species of the Endosporeae feed on
bacteria has been shown by A.
Lister (18). New light has recently been thrown on the matter
by Pinoy (26), who has worked chiefly with Sorophora, in which,
as shown below, the active phase of the life-history is passed
1 Figures i, 4, and 11-22 are from the British Museum Guide to
the British Mycetozoa. The other figures are from Lankester's
Treatise on Zoology, part I. Introduction and Protozoa. Fascicle I.
Article Mycetozoa.
a,
After A. Lister.
mainly in the state of isolated amoebae. Pinoy finds that the
amoebae of this group live on particular species of bacteria, and that
the presence of the latter is a necessary condition for the develop-
ment of the Sorophora, and even (as has been recognized by other
workers) for the hatching of their spores. Pinoy's results indicate,
though not so conclusively, that bacteria are likewise the essential
food of the Euplasmodida in the early phases of their life-history.
The zoospores do, however, ingest other solid bodies, e.g. carmine
granules (Saville Kent, 15).
The zoospores multiply by binary fission, the flagellum being
withdrawn and the nucleus undergoing mitotic division, with the
formation of a well-marked achromatic spindle (fig. 3).
It is probable that fission occurs more than once in the zoospore
stage; but there is not satisfactory evidence to show how often
it may be repeated. 2
At this, as at other phases of the life-history, a resting stage
may be assumed as the result of drying, but also from other and
unknown causes. The flagel-
ium is withdrawn and the
protoplasm, becoming spheri-
cal, secretes a cyst wall. The
organism thus passes into the
condition of a micrpcyst, from
which when dry it may be
awakened to renewed activity
by wetting.
At the end of the zoospore
stage the organism finally
withdraws its flagellum and
assumes the amoeboid shape.
It is now known as an amoe-
bula. The amoebulae become
endowed, as was first recog-
nized by Cienkowski, with
mutual attraction, and on After A. Lister,
meeting fuse with one another.
Fig. 4 represents a group of FlG - 4- Amoebulae of Dtdymium
such amoebulae. Several difforme uniting to form a Plas-
have already united to form medium. The common mass
a common mass, to which contains digestive vacuoles ().
others, still free, are con- The clear spherical bodies are
verging. The protoplasmic microcysts and an empty spore-
mass thus arising is the plas- she11 ls seen to the left -
medium. The fusion between
the protoplasmic bodies of the amoebulae which unite to form it is
complete. Their nuclei may be traced for some time in the young
plasmodium and no fusion between them has been observed at this
stage (20). As the plasmodium increases in size by the addition of
amoebulae the task of following the fate of the individual nuclei by
direct observation becomes impossible.
The appearance of an active plasmodium of Badhamia utricularis,
which, as we have seen, lives and feeds on certain fungi, is shown in
fig. 5. It consists of a film of protoplasm, of a bright yellow colour,
varying in size up to a foot or more in diameter. It is traversed
by a network of branching and anastomosing channels, which divide
up and are gradually lost as they approach the margin where the
protoplasm forms a uniform and lobate border. Elsewhere the
FIG. 5. Part of the Plasmodium of Badhamia utricularis (X 8).
main trunks of the network may lie free with little or no connecting
film between them and their neighbours. The plasmodia of other
species, which live in the interstices of decaying vegetable matter,
are less easily observed, but on emerging on the surface prior to
2 Pinoy states (26) that the spores of Spumaria alba, cultivated
with bacteria on solid media, hatch out into amoebae, which under
these conditions do not assume the flagellate stage. The amoeba
from a spore was observed to give rise by three successive divisions
to eight amoebulae.
MYCETOZOA
107
spore formation they present an essentially similar appearance.
There is, however, great variety in the degree of concentration or
expansion presented by plasmodia, in relation with food supply,
moisture and other circumstances. The plasmodia move slowly
about over or in the substratum, concentrating in regions where food
supply is abundant, and leaving those where it is exhausted.
On examining under the microscope a film which has spread over
a cover-slip, the channels are seen to be streams of rapidly moving
granular protoplasm. This movement is rhythmic in character,
being directed alternately towards the margin of an advancing
region of the plasmodium, and away from it. As a channel is
watched the stream of granules is seen to become slower, and after
a momentary pause to begin in the opposite direction. In an active
plasmodium the duration of the flow in either direction varies from
a minute and a half to two minutes, though it is always longer when
in the direction of the general advance over the substratum. When
the flow of the protoplasm is in this latter direction the border be-
comes turgid, and lobes of hyaline protoplasm are seen (under a high
magnification) to start forward, and soon to become filled with granu-
lar contents. When the flow is reversed, the margin becomes thin
from the drainage away of its contents. A delicate hyaline layer
invests the plasmodium, and is apparently less fluid than the material
flowing in the channels. The phenomena of the rhythmic movement
of the protoplasm are not inconsistent with the view that they result
from alternating contraction and relaxation of the outer layer in
different regions of the plasmodium, but any dogmatic statement as
to their causation appears at present inadvisable.
,
.u*. ;*-'-: /\
*
FIG. 6.
a. Part of a stained Plasmodium of Badhamia utricularis.
n, Nuclei (X no).
b. Nuclei, some in process of simple (amitotic) division (X 500).
c. Part of a Plasmodium in which the nuclei are in simultaneous
mitotic division.
d-f, Other stages in this process (X 650).
Minute contractile vacuoks may be seen in great numbers in the
thin parts of the plasmodium between the channels. In stained
preparations nuclei, varying (in Badhamia utricularis) from 2-5 to
5 micrornillimeters in diameter, are found abundantly in the granular
protoplasm (fig. 6, b). They contain a nuclear reticulum and one
or more well-marked nucleoli. In any stained plasmodium some
nuclei may be found, as shown in the figure b, which appear to be
in some stage of simple (amitotic) division, and this is, presumably,
the chief mode in which the number of the nuclei keeps pace with
the rapidly growing plasmodium. There is, however, another mode
of nuclear division in the plasmodium which has hitherto been
observed in one recorded instance (19, p. 541), the mitotic (fig. 6, c-f),
and this appears to befall all the nuclei of a plasmodium simul-
taneously. What the relation of these two modes of nuclear division
may be to the life-history is obscure.
That the amitotic is the usual mode of nuclear division is indicated
by the very frequent occurrence of these apparently dividing nuclei
and also by the following experiment. A plasmodium of Badhamia
utricularis spreading over pieces of the fungus Auricularia' was
observed to increase in size about fourfold in fourteen hours, and
during this time a small sample was removed and stained every
quarter of an hour. The later stainings showed no diminution in
the number of nuclei in proportion to the protoplasm, and yet none
of the sample showed any sign of mitotic division (20, p. 9). It
would appear therefore that the mode of increase of the nuclei during
this period was amitotic.
FIG. 7. Section
Prowazek (28) has recently referred to nuclear stages, similar to
those here regarded as of amitotic division, but has interpreted
them as nuclear fusions. He does not, however, discuss the mode
of multiplication of nuclei in the plasmodium.
In the group of the Calcareae, granules of carbonate of lime are
abundant in the plasmodia, and in all Mycetozoa other granules of
undetermined nature are present. The colour of plasmodia varies
in different species, and may be yellow, white, pink, purple or green.
The colouring matter is in the form of minute drops, and in the
Calcareae these invest the lime granules.
Nutrition. The plasmodium of Badhamia utricularis, advancing
over the pilei of suitable fungi, feeds on the superficial layer dissolving
the walls of the hyphae (!<[) The protoplasm may be seen to
contain abundant foreign bodies such as spores of fungi or sclerotium
cysts (vide infra) which have been taken in and are undergoing
digestion. It has been found experimentally (n) that pieces of
coagulated proteids are likewise taken in and digested in vacuoles.
On the other hand it has been found that plasmodia will live,
ultimately producing sporangia, in nutrient solutions (o). 1 It would
appear therefore that the nutrition of plasmodia is effected in part
by the ingestion of solid foodstuffs, and in part by the absorption
of material in solution, and that there is great variety in the com-
plexity of the substances which serve as their food.
Sclerotium. As the result of drought, the plasmodium, having
become much denser by loss of water, passes into the sclerotial
condition. Drawing together into a
thickish layer, the protoplasm divides
up into a number of distinct masses,
each containing some 10 to 20 nuclei,
and a cyst wall is excreted round each
mass (fig. 7). The whole has now a
hard brittle consistency. In this state
the protoplasm will remain alive for
two or three years. On the addition
of water the cyst walls are ruptured ..
and in part absorbed, their contents Plasmodium of Badhamia
join together, and the active streaming utnculans when i passing into
condition of the plasmodium is re- tne condition of sclerotium.
sumed. It is to be noted, however, . The nuclei contained in
that the sclerotial condition may be * he young sclerotial cysts,
assumed under other conditions than dryness, and sclerotia may
even be formed in water.
The existence of the sclerotial stage affords a ready means of
obtaining the plasmodium for experimental purposes. If a cultiva-
tion of the plasmodium of Badhamia utricularis on suitable fungi
(Stereum, Auricularia) is allowed to become partially dry the plas-
modium draws together and would, if drying were continued, pass
into the sclerotial stage on the fungus. If now strips of wet blotting-
paper are placed so as to touch the plasmodium, the latter, attracted
by the moisture, crawls on the blotting-paper. If this is now removed
and allowed to dry rapidly, the plasmodium passes into sclerotium
on it. 2 By this means the plasmodium is removed from the partially
disintegrated and decayed fungus on which it has been feeding, and
a clean sclerotium is obtained, which, as above stated, remains alive
for years (21, p. 7). An easy method for obtaining small plasmodia
for microscopic examination is to scatter small fragments, scraped
from a piece of the hard sclerotium, over cover-slips wetted with
rain-water and kept in a moist atmosphere. In twelve to twenty-
four hours small plasmodia will be seen spreading on the cover-slips
and these may be mounted for observation.
The plasmodial stage ends by the formation of the sporangia.
The plasmodium withdraws from the interstices of the material
among which it has fed, and emerges on the surface in a diffuse or
concentrated mass. In the case of Badhamia utricularis it may with-
draw from the fungus on which it has been feeding, or change into
sporangia on it. The mode of formation of the sporangia will be
described in the case of Badhamia, some of the chief differences in
the process and in the structure of the sporangia in other forms
being subsequently noticed.
When the change to sporangia begins the protoplasm of the
plasmodium becomes gradually massed in discrete rounded lobes,
about a half to one millimeter in diameter and scattered in clusters
over the area occupied by the plasmodium. The reticulum of
channels of the plasmodium becomes meanwhile less and less
marked. When the whole of the protoplasm is drawn in to the
lobes, the circulation ceases. The lobes are the young sporangia.
Meanwhile foreign bodies, taken in with the food, are ejected, and
the protoplasm secretes on its outer surface a pellicle of mucoid,
transparent substance which dries as the sporangia ripen. This
invests the young sporangia, and as they rise above the substratum
falls together at their bases forming the stalks; extended over the
substratum it forms the hypothallus, and in contact with the
rounded surface of the sporangium it forms the sporangium-wall.
While the sporangium-wall is formed externally a secretion of
1 A solution which has thus been found favourable contains
the following mineral salts: KH 2 PO, K 8 HPO 4 ,MgSO <> KNOj,
CA (NOs)j, a free acid, and 5% of dextrine.
* If the plasmodium is slowly dried it is very apt to pass into
sporangia.
io8
MYCETOZOA
similar material occurs along branching and anastomosing tracts
through the protoplasm of the sporangium, giving rise to the
capilhtium. The greater part of the lime granules pass out of the
protoplasm and are deposited in the capilhtium, which in the ripe
sporangia of Badhamia is white and brittle with the contained lime
(cf. fig. 8). In this genus some granules are found also in the
sporangium-wall. Strasburger concludes that the sporangium-wall
of Trichia is a modification of cellulose (29).
FIG. 8. Sporangia of Badhamia panicea, some intact, others (to
left) ruptured, exposing the black masses of spores and the
capillitium. The latter is white with deposited lime granules.
An empty sporangium is seen above (X 30).
It has been stated (16), but the observation requires confirmation,
that a fusion of the nuclei in pairs occurs early in the development
of the sporangium.
FIG. 9. Part of a section
through a young Sporangium
of Trichivaria, showing the
mitotic division of the nuclei (n)
prior to spore formation.
c, Capillitium thread (X 650).
At a later stage, after the capillitium is formed, the nuclei undergo a
mitotic division which affects all the nuclei of a sporangium simul-
taneously. This was first described by Strasburger (29). While it
FIG. 10. Part of a section
through a Sporangium of Trichia
varia after the spores are formed
(X 650).
FIG. 12. Physarum nutans.
a. Sporangia (X 9).
b, Capillitium threads, with frag-
ment of the sporangium-wall
attached, lime knots at the
junctions and spores (X no).
is in progress the protoplasm of the sporangium divides., into succes-
sively smaller masses, until each daughter nucleus is the centre of a
single mass of protoplasm. 1 These nucleated masses are the young
FIG. n. Badhamia utricularis.
a, Sporangia (X 3i).
b, Capillitium and cluster of
spores (X 140).
1 In some genera such as Arcyria and Trichia (illustrated in figs. 9
and 10) the division of the protoplasm does not occur until the nuclei
have undergone this division. The protoplasm then divides up
about the daughter nuclei to form the spores.
spores. A spore-wall is soon secreted and the sporangium has now
resolved itself into a mass of spores, traversed by the strands of
the capillitium and enclosed in a sporangium-wall, connected with
the substratum by a stalk. As ripening proceeds, the wall becomes
membranous and readily ruptures, and the dry spores may be carried
abroad on the currents of air or washed out by rain.
FIG. 13. Chondrioderma
ceum.
a, GroupofthreeSporangia(X9).
b, Capillitium, fragment of spor-
angium-wall and spores (X
170).
testa- FIG. 14. Cralerium peduncula-
turn.
a, Two Sporangia, in one the lid
has fallen away (X 10).
b, Capillitium with lime knots
and spores (X no).
We may now review some of the main differences in structure
presented by the sporangia. They may be stalked or sessile (fig.
13). If the former, the stalk is usually, as in Badhamia utricularis,
FIG. 15. Didymium effusum.
a. Two Sporangia, one showing
the columella and capillitium
(X 12).
b, Capillitium, fragment of spor-
angium-wall with carbonate
(x'isop)! 1 "^
the continuation of the sporangium-walls (figs, n and 12), but in
Stemonitis and its allies (figs. 17 and 18) it is an axial structure.
A central columella may project into the interior of the sporangium,
either in stalked (fig. 15) or sessile (fig. 13) forms.
FIG. 16. Lepidoderma tigrinum.
c, Sporangium ( X 6) ; the crystal-
line disks of lime are seen
attached to the sporangium-
wall.
b, Capillitium and spores (X 140).
FIG. 17. Lamproderma irlaeum.
a, Sporangia (X 2%).
6, A Sporangium deprived of
spores, showing the capillitium
and remains of the sporangium-
wall (X 25).
FIG. 18. Stemonitis splendens.
a, Group of Sporangia (nat. size).
b, Portion of columella and capil-
litium, the latter branching to
form a superficial network
(X 42)-
The sporangium-wall may be most delicate and evanescent (fig. 1 7) ,
or consist of a superficial network of threads (fig. 18), which in
Dictydium (fig. 19) present a beautifully regular arrangement.
FIG. 19. Dictydium umblicatum. FIG. 20. Arcyria punicca.
a. Group of Sporangia, nat. size, a, Group of Sporangia (X 2).
b, A Sporangium after dispersion b, Capillitium (X 560).
of the spores (X 20). c, Spore (X 560).
In Chondrioderma (fig. 13) the wall is double, the inner layer being
membranous, the outer thickly encrusted with lime granules. In
Cralerium the upper part of the sporangium-wall is lid-like and falls
away, leaving the spores in an open cup (fig. 14).
MYCETOZOA
109
The condition of the capiliitium is very various. In the Calcari-
neae the lime may be generally distributed through it (fig. n), or
aggregated at the nodes of the network in " lime-knots " (figs. 12 and
14) or it may be absent from the capiliitium altogether. The
capiliitium attains its highest development in the Calonemineae
in which the threads, distinct (in which case they are known as
elaters, figs. 9 and 10) or united into a network (fig. 20), present
regular thickenings in the form of spiral bands or transverse bars.
These threads, altering their shape with varying states of moisture,
are efficient agents in distributing the spores. In another group,
the Anemineae, the capiliitium is absent altogether.
The Didymiaceae are characterized by the fact that the lime,
though present in a granular form in the plasmodium, is deposited
on the sporangium-wall in the form of crystals, either in radiating
groups (fig. 15) or in disks (fig. 16).
In most Endosporeae the sporangia are separate symmetrical
bodies, but in many genera a form of fructification occurs in which
FIG. 21. Fuligo septica. FIG. 22" Licea flexuosa.
a, Aethalium ( X 1). a, Groupof Plasmodiocarps (X2).
b, Capiliitium threads (with b, A continuous Plasmodiocarp
lime-knots) and two spores (X 6).
(X 120). c, Spores (X 200).
the spores are produced in masses of more or less irregular outline,
retaining in extreme cases much of the diffuse character of the plas-
modium. With the spores they contain capiliitium, but there are
no traces of sporangial walls to be found in their interior. They are
known as plasmodiocarps (fig. 22). They are characteristic of certain
species, but in others they may be formed side by side with separate
sporangia from the same plasmodium. There is indeed no sharp
line to be drawn between sporangia and plasmodiocarps. On the
other hand, the crowded condition of the sporangia of some species
forms a transition to the large compound fructifications known
as aethalia (fig. 21). These, either in their young stages or up to
maturity, retain some evidence of their formation by a coalescence
of sporangia, and in addition to the capiliitium they are generally
penetrated by the remains of the walls of the sporangia which have
thus united.
Exosporeae.
It will be convenient to begin our survey of the life-history
of Ceratiomyxa, the single
representative of the Exo-
sporeae, at the stage at
which the plasmodium
emerges from the rotten
wood in which it has fed.
At this stage it has been
observed to spread as a film
over a slide, and to exhibit
the network of channels and
rhythmic flow of the proto-
plasm in a manner precisely
similar to that seen in the
Endosporeae (20, p. 10). It
soon, however, draws to-
gether into compact masses,
From the surface of which
finger-like or antler-like
lobes grow upwards. Here
too the secretion of a trans-
parent mucoid substance
occurs, which is at first
From Lankcster's Treatise on Zoology; figs, o penetrated by the anasto-
and c-h after A. Lister; 6g. b after Fatnintzin mosing Strands of the
and Woronin. protoplasm, but gradually
FIG. 23. Ceratiomyxa mucida. the latter tends more and
a, Ripe sporophore (X 40). more to form a reticular and
6, Maturing sporophore showing the ultimately a nearly continu-
development of the spores. ous superficial investment,
c, Ripe spore. Instead of the single covering the mucoid ma-
nucleus here indicated there should terial. The latter even-
be four nuclei, as in d. tually dries and forms the
d, Hatching spore. exceedingly delicate support
e-h. Stages in the development of the of the spores or sporophore
zoospores. (fig. 23, a).
The investing proto-
plasm, with its nuclei, having become arranged in an even
layer, undergoes cleavage and thus forms a pavement-like
layer of protoplasmic masses, each occupied by a single nucleus
(fig. 23, b). Each of these masses now grows out perpendicularly
to the surface of the sporophore. As it does so an envelope is
secreted, which, closing in about the base forms a slender stalk.
The minute mass, borne on the stalk, becomes the ellipsoid spore,
surrounded by the spore-wall. In this manner the whole of the
protoplasmic substance of the plasmodium is converted into spores,
borne on supporting structures (stalks and sporophores) , which are
formed by secretion of the protoplasm.
In the course of the development of which the external features
have now been traced nuclear changes occur of which accounts have
been given by Jahn (14) and by Olive (24 and 25). Jahn has shown
that prior to the cleavage of the protoplasm a mitotic division of
the nuclei takes place, the daughter nuclei of which are those
occupying the protoplasmic masses seen in fig. 23 b. 1 After the
spore has risen on its stalk two further mitotic divisions occur in
rapid succession, and the four-nucleated condition characteristic
of the spore of Ceratiomyxa, is thus attained. The spores, on being
brought into water, soon hatch (fig. 23, d), and the four nuclei
contained in them undergo a mitotic division. Meanwhile the
protoplasm divides, at first into four, then into eight masses, and
the latter acquire flagella, although for some time remaining con-
nected with their fellows (fig. 23, e-h). On separating each is a free
zoospore.
From observation of cultivations of zoospores the impression is
that here, as in the Endosporeae, they multiply by binary division,
though no exact observations of the process have been recorded.
The zoospores lose their flagella and become amoebulae, but the
fusion of the latter to form plasmodia has not been directly observed
in Ceratiomyxa, although from analogy with the Endosporeae it
can hardly be doubted that such fusions occur.
Sorophora.
The Sorophora of Zopf (Acrasiae of Van Tieghem) are a group of
microscopic organisms inhabit-
ing the dung of herbivorous
animals and other decaying
vegetable matter. As Pinoy
(26) has shown, the presence of
a particular species of bacteria
with the spores is necessary
for their hatching and as the
essential food of the amoebulae
which emerge from them. There
is no flagellate stage, and it
is in the form of amoebulae,
multiplying by fission, that the
vegetative stage of the life-
history is passed. At the end
of this stage numbers of amoe-
bulae draw together to form
a " pseudo-plasmodium." This
appears to be merely an aggre-
gation of amoebulae prior to
spore formation. The outlines
of the individual amoebulae are
maintained, and there is no fu-
sion between them, as in the
formation of the plasmodium
of the Euplasmodida.
In some genera certain of the
amoebulae constituting the
pseudo-plasmodium are modi-
fied into a stalk (simple in
Guttulina and Dictyostelium,
branched in Polysphondylium,
fig. 24, d), along which the From
other units creep to encyst,
and become spores at the end
Lankester's Treatise on
a and b after Fayod ; c and d after
from Zopf.
or ends of the" stalk. In"other FlG - 2 4- a , and 6, Copromyxa pro-
cases (Copromyxa, fig. 24, a tea > slightly magnified.
and 6) the pseudo-plasmodium c and d, Polysphondylium via-
is transformed into a mass of laceum.
encysted spores without the 1 c < A young sorus, seen in optical
differentiation of supporting
structures.
It is not impossible that the
Myxobacteriaceae of Thaxter
may, as that author suggests, be
allied to the Sorophora (30).
section. A mass of elongated
amoebulae are grouped round
the stalk, and others are ex-
tended about the base (X 165).
A sorus approaching maturity
(X 30).
Review of the Life-Histories of the Mycetozoa. The data for a
comparison of the life-history of the Mycetozoa with those of other
Protozoa in respect of nuclear changes are at present incomplete.
'Jahn (14) described two mitotic divisions at this stage, but in
' Myxomycetenstudien 7 Ceratiomyxa," Ber. deut. hot. Gesellsch.
xxvi. a (1908) he shows that only one mitotic division occurs in the
maturing sporophore prior to cleavage. Olive gives a preliminary
account of a fusion of nuclei prior to cleavage, but as he has not
seen the mitotic division which certainly occurs at this stage hia
results cannot be accepted as secure.
I IO
MYCONIUS, F. MYDDELTON
At some stage or other we are led by analogy to expect that a
division of nuclei would occur in which the number of chromosomes
would be reduced by one half, that this would be followed by the
formation of gametes, and that the nuclei of the latter would subse-
quently fuse in karyogamy.
It is clear that both in the Endosporeae and Exosporeae a mitotic
division of nuclei immediately precedes spore-formation. This is
regarded by Jahn as a reduction division. If this is the case, the
zoospores or the amoebulae must in some way represent the gametes.
The fusion of the latter to form plasmodia appears to offer a pro-
cess comparable with the conjugation of gametes, but though the
fusion of the protoplasm of the amoebulae has been often observed no
fusion of their nuclei (karyogamy) has been found to accompany it.
A fusion of nuclei has indeed been described as occurring in the
plasmodium, or at stages in the development of the sporangia or
sporophores, but in no case can the evidence be regarded as satis-
factory. 1 Until we have clear evidence on this point the nuclear
history of the mycetozoa must remain incomplete.
Jahn's observation of the mitotic division of nuclei preceding
spore-formation in Ceratiomyxa gives a fixed point for comparison
of the Exosporeae with the Endosporeae. Starting from this divi-
sion it seems clear that the spore of Ceratiomyxa is comparable
with the spore of the Endosporeae except that the nucleus of the
former has undergone two mitotic divisions.
LITERATURE. (i) A. de Bary, " Die Mycetozoen," Zeitschr.f. wiss.
Zool., x. 88 (1860). (2) " Die Mycetozoen," (2nd ed., Leipzig,
1864). (3) Comparative Morphology and Biology of the Fungi,
Mycetozoa and Bacteria, translation (Oxford, Clarendon Press,
1887). (4) O. Butschli, " Protozoa, Abth. g, Sarcodina," Bronn's
Thierreich, Bd. i. (5) L. Cienkowski, " Die Pseudogonidien," Pring-
sheim's Jahrbiicher, i. 371. (6) " Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der
Myxomyceten," Pringsheim's Jahrbiicher, iii. 325 (pub. 1862).
(7)" Das Plasmodium, ibid. p. 400(1863). (8)" Beitrage zur Kennt-
niss der Monaden," Arch. f. mikr. Anal. i. 203 (1865). (9) J. C.
Constantineanu, " Ueber die Entwicklungsbedingungen der Myxo-
myceten," Annales mycologiti, Vierter Jahrg. (Dec. 1906). (io) A.
Famintzin and M. Woronin, " Ueber zwei neue Formen von Schleim-
pilzen Ceratium hydnoides, A. und Sch., and C. porioides, A. und
Sch.," Mem. de Vacad. imp. d. sciences de St Petersburg, series 7, T. 20,
No. 3 (1873). (11) M. Greenwood and E. R. Saunders, " On the R61e
of Acid in Protozoan Digestion," Jour, of Physiology, xvi. 441 (1894).
(12) R. A. Harper, " Cell and Nuclear Division in Fuligo varians,"
Botanical Gazette, vol. 30, No. 4, p. 217 (1900). (13) E. Jahn, " Myxo-
mycetenstudien 3. Kernteilung u. Geisselbildung bei den Schwarmern
von Stemonitis flaccida, Lister," Bericht d. deutschen botanischen
Gesellschaft, Bd. 22 p. 84 (1904). (14) " Myxomycetenstudien 6.
Kernverschmelzungen und Reduktionsteilungen,' ibid. Bd. 25,
p. 23 (1907). (15) W. Saville Kent, " The Myxomycetes or Myceto-
zoa; Animals or Plants?" Popular Science Review, n.s., v. 97
(1881). (16) H. Kranzlin, " Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Spor-
angien bei den Trichien und Arcyrien," Arch. f. Protistenkunde,
Bd. ix. Heft. I, p. 170 (1907). (17) A. Lister, " Notes on the Plasmo-
dium of Badhamia utricularis and Brefeldia maxima," Ann. of
Botany, vol. ii. No. 5 (1888). (18) " On the Ingestion of Food Material
by the Swarm-Cells of the Mycetozoa," Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot)
xxv. 435 (1889). (19) " On the Division of Nuclei in the Mycetozoa,"
Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.) vol. xxix. (1893). ( 2 ) " A Monograph of
the Mycetozoa," British Museum Catalogue (London, 1894). (21)
" Presidential Address to the British Mycological Society," Trans.
Brit. Mycological Soc. (1906). (22) A. and G. Lister, " Synopsis of
the Orders, Genera and Species of Mycetozoa," Journal ofBotany,
vol. xlv. (May 1907). (23) E. W. Olive, " Monograph of the
Acrasiae," Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. History, vol. xxx. No. 6 (1902).
(24) " Evidences of Sexual Reproduction in the Slime Moulds,"
Science, n.s., xxv. 266 (Feb. 1907). (25) " Cytological Studies in
Ceratiomyxa, Trans. Wisconsin Acad. of Sciences, Arts and Letters,
vol. xv., pt. ii. p. 753 (Dec. 1907). (26) E. Pinoy, " Role desbacteries
dans le developpement de certains Myxomycetes," Ann. de I'institut
Pasteur, T. xxi. pp. 622 and 686 (1907). (27) H. Plenge, " Ueber
die Verbindungen zwischen Geissef u. Kern bei den Schwarmer-
zellen d. Mycetozoen," Verh. d. nvturhist.-med. Vereins zu Heidelberg,
N.F. Bd. vi. Heft 3 (1899). (28) S. von Prowazek " Kernverander-
ungen in Myxomycetenplasmodien," Oesterreich. botan. Zeitschr.
Bd. liv. p. 278 (1904). (29) E. Strasburger, " Zur Entwickelungs-
geschichte d. Sporangien von Trifhia fallax," Botanische Zeitung
(1884). (30) R. Thaxter, " On the Myxobacteriaceae, a new order of
Schizomycetes," Botanical Gazette, xvii. 389 (1892). (31) W. Zopf,
" Die Pilzthiere oder Schleimpilze," Schenk's Handbuch der Botanik
(1887). O.J-LR-)
MYCONIUS, FRIEDRICH (1400-1546), Lutheran divine, was
born on the 26th of December 1490, at Lichtenfels on the Main,
of worthy and pious parents, whose family name, Mecum, gave
1 In the work cited in the last footnote Jahn described a fusion
of nuclei as occurring in Ceratiomyxa at the stage at which the
plasmodium is emerging to form sporophores. Jahn was at first
inclined to regard this fusion as the sexual karyogamy of the life-
cycle, but the writer learns by correspondence (July 1910) that he
is inclined to regard this fusion as pathological, ana to look for the
essential karyogamy elsewhere.
rise to proud uses of the word as it appears in various places
in the Vulgate, whereas Myconius, from the island Myconus,
was a proverb for meanness. His schooling was in Lichtenfels
and at Annaberg, where he had a memorable encounter with
the. Dominican, Tetzel, his point being that indulgences should
be given pauperibus gratis. His teacher, Staffelstein, persuaded
him to enter (July 14, 1510) the Franciscan cloister. That same
night a pictorial dream turned his thoughts towards the
religious standpoint which he subsequently reached as a
Lutheran. From Annaberg he passed to Franciscan commu-
nities at Leipzig and Weimar, where he was ordained priest
(1516); he had endeavoured to satisfy his mind with scholastic
divinity, but next year his " eyes and ears were opened " by
the theses of Luther, whom he met when Luther touched at
Weimar on his way to Augsburg. For six years he preached
his new gospel, under difficulties, in various seats of his order,
lastly at Zwickau, whence he was called to Gotha (Aug. 1524)
by Duke John at the general desire. Here he married Margaret
Jacken, a lady of good family. He was intimately connected
with the general progress of the reforming movement, and
was especially in the confidence of Luther. Twice he was
entrusted (1528 and 1533) with the ordering of the churches and
schools in Thuringia. In all the religious disputations and
conferences of the time he took a leading part. At the Con-
vention of Smalkald (1537) he signed the articles on his own
behalf and that of his friend Justus Menius. In 1538 he was in
England, as theologian to the embassy which hoped to induce
Henry VIII. on the basis of the Augsburg Confession, to make
common cause with the Lutheran reformation; a project which
Myconius caustically observed might have prospered on con-
dition that Henry was allowed to be pope. Next year he was
employed in the cause of the Reformation in Leipzig. Not
the least important part of his permanent work in Gotha was
the founding and endowment of its gymnasium. In 1541 his
health was failing, but he lived till the 7th of April 1546. He
had nine children, four of whom were living in 1542.
Though he published a good many tracts and pamphlets, Myconius
was not distinguished as a writer. His Historia reformationis ,
referring especially to Gotha, was not printed till 1715. See Mel-
chior Adam, Vitae theologorum (1706); J. G. Bosseck, F. Myconii
Memoriam . . . (1739) ; C. K. G. Lommatzsch, Narratio de F. Myconio
(1825); K. F. Ledderhose, F. Myconius (1854); also in Allgemeine
deutsche Biog. (1886); O. Schmidt and G. Kawerau in Hauck's
Realencyklopadie (1903). (A. Go.*)
MYCONIUS, OSWALD (1488-1552), Zwinglian divine, was
born at Lucerne in 1488. His family name was Geisshiisler;
his father was a miller; hence he was also called MOLITORIS.
The name Myconius seems to have been given him by Erasmus.
From the school at Rottweil, on the Neckar, he went (1510)
to the university of Basel, and became a good classic. From
1514 he obtained schoolmaster posts at Basel, where he married,
and made the acquaintance of Erasmus and of Holbein, the
painter. In 1516 he was called, as schoolmaster, to Zurich,
where (1518) he attached himself to the reforming party of
Zwingli. This led to his being transferred to Lucerne, and
again (1523) reinstated at Zurich. On the death of Zwingli
(1531) he migrated to Basel, and there held the office of town's
preacher, and (till 1541) the chair of New Testament exegesis.
His spirit was comprehensive; in confessional matters he was for
a union of all Protestants; though a Zwinglian, his readiness
to compromise with the advocates of consubstantiation gave
him trouble with the Zwinglian stalwarts. He had, however,
a distinguished follower in Theodore Bibliander. He died on
the I4th of October 1552.
Among his several tractates, the most important is De H. Zimnglii
vita et obitu (1536), translated into English by Henry Bcnnet
(1561). See Melchior Adam, Vita theologorum (1620); M. Kirch-
hofer, O. Myconius (1813); K. R. Hagenbach, J. Oekolampad und
O. Myconius (1859); F. M. Ledderhose, in Allgemeine deutsche Biog.
(1886) ; B. Riggenbach and Egli, in Hauck's Realencyklopadie (1903).
(A. Go.*)
MYDDELTON (or MIDDLETON), SIR HUGH, BART. (c. 1560-
1631), contractor of the New River scheme for supplying London
with water, was a younger son of Sir Richard Myddelton,
governor of Denbigh Castle. Hugh became a successful London
MYELAT MYERS
in
goldsmith, occupying a shop in Bassihaw, or Basinghall Street;
he made money by commercial ventures on the Spanish main,
being associated in these with Sir Walter Raleigh; and he was
also interested in cloth-making. He was an alderman, and then
recorder of Denbigh, and was member of parliament for this
borough from 1603 to 1628. In 1609 Myddelton took over from
the corporation of London the projected scheme for supplying
the city with water obtained from springs near Ware, in Hert-
fordshire. For this purpose he made a canal about 10 ft. wide
and 4 ft. deep and over 38 m. in length, which discharged its
waters into a reservoir at Islington called the New River Head.
The completion of this great undertaking put a severe strain
upon Myddelton 's financial resources, and in 1612 he was
successful in securing monetary assistance from James I. The
work was completed in 1613 and Myddelton was made the first
governor of the company, which, however, was not a financial
success until after his death. In recognition of his services he
was made a baronet in 1622. Myddelton was also engaged in
working some lead and silver mines in Cardiganshire and in
reclaiming a piece of the Isle of Wight from the sea. He died
on the loth of December 1631, and was buried in the church of
St Matthew, Friday Street, London. He had a family of ten
sons and six daughters.
One of Sir Hugh's brothers was Sir Thomas Myddelton
(c. 1550-1631), lord mayor of London, and another was William
Myddelton (c. 1556-1621), poet and seaman, whc died at Antwerp
on the 27th of March 1621.
Sir Thomas was a member of parliament under Queen Eliza-
beth and was chosen lord mayor on the 2oth of September 1613,
the day fixed for the opening of the New River. Under James I.
and Charles I. he represented the city of London in parliament,
and he helped Rowland Heylyn to publish the first popular
edition of the Bible in Welsh. He died on the i2th of August
1631. Sir Thomas's son and heir, Sir Thomas Myddelton
(1586-1666), was a member of the Long Parliament, being an
adherent of the popular party. After the outbreak of the Civil
War he served in Shropshire and in north Wales, gaining a
signal success over the royalists at Oswestry in July 1644, and
another at Montgomery in the following September. In 1659,
however, he joined the rising of the royalists under Sir George
Booth, and in August of this year he was forced to surrender
his residence, Chirk Castle. His eldest son, Thomas (d. 1663),
was made a baronet in 1660, a dignity which became extinct
when William the 4th baronet died in 1718.
MYELAT, a division of the southern Shan States of Burma,
including sixteen states, none of any great size, with a total
area of 3723 sq. m., and a population in 1901 of 119,415.
The name properly means " the unoccupied country," but it
has been occupied for many centuries. All central Myelat and
great parts of the northern and southern portions consist of
rolling grassy downs quite denuded of jungle. It has a great
variey of different races, Taungthus and Danus being perhaps
the most numerous. They are all more or less hybrid races. The
chiefs of the Myelat are known by the Burmese title of gwegunh-
mu, i.e. chiefs paying the revenue in silver. The amount
paid by the chiefs to the British government is Rs. 99,567.
The largest state, Loi L6ng, has an area of 1600 sq. m., a great
part of which is barren hills. The smallest, Nam Hkon, had no
more than 4 sq. m., and has been recently absorbed in a neigh-
bouring state. The majority of the states cover less than
loo sq. m. Under British administration the chiefs have powers
of a magistrate of the second class. The chief cultivation
besides rice is sugar-cane, and considerable quantities of crude
sugar are exported. There is a considerable potato cultivation,
which can be indefinitely extended when cheaper means of
export are provided. Wheat also grows very well.
MYELITIS (from Gr. juueXos, marrow) a disease which by
inflammation induces destructive changes in the tissues com-
posing the spinal cord. In the acute variety the nerve elements
in the affected part become disintegrated and softened, but
repair may take place; in the chronic form the change is slower,
and the diseased area tends to become denser (sclerosed), the
nerve-substance being replaced by connective tissue. Myelitis
may affect any portion of the spinal cord, and its symptoms and
progress will vary accordingly. Its most frequent site is in
the lower part, and its existence there is marked by the sudden
or gradual occurrence of weakness of motor power in the legs
(which tends to pass into complete paralysis), impairment or
loss of sensibility in the parts implicated, nutritive changes
affecting the skin and giving rise to bed-sores, together with
bladder and bowel derangements. In the acute form, in which
there is at first pain in the region of the spine and much con-
stitutional disturbance, death may take place rapidly from
extension of the disease to those portions of the cord connected
with the muscles of respiration and the heart, from an acute
bed-sore, which is very apt to form, or from some intercurrent
disease. Recovery to a certain extent may, however, take
place; or, again, the disease may pass into the chronic form.
In the latter the progress is usually slow, the general health
remaining tolerably good for a time, but gradually the strength
fails, the patient becomes more helpless, and ultimately sinks
exhausted or is cut off by some complication. The chief
causes of myelitis are injuries or diseases affecting the spinal
column, extension of inflammation from the membranes of the
cord to its substance (see MENINGITIS), exposure to cold and
damp, and occasionally some pre-existing constitutional morbid
condition, such as syphilis or a fever. Any debilitating cause or
excess in mode of life will act powerfully in predisposing to this
malady. The disease is most common in adults. The treatment
for myelitis in its acute stage is similar to that for spinal
meningitis. When the disease is chronic the most that can be
hoped for is the relief of symptoms by careful nursing and
attention to the condition of the body and its functions. Good
is sometimes derived from massage and the use of baths and
douches to the spine.
MYERS, FREDERIC WILLIAM HENRY (1843-1901), English
poet and essayist, son of Frederic Myers of Keswick author of
Lectures on Great Men (1856) andCatholic Thoughts (first collected
1873), a book marked by a most admirable prose style was born
at Keswick, Cumberland, pn the 6th of February 1843, and edu-
cated at Cheltenham and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he
won a long list of honours and in 1865 was appointed classical
lecturer. He had no love for teaching, which he soon discon-
tinued, but he took up his permanent abode at Cambridge in
1872, when he became a school inspector under the Education
Department. Meanwhile he published, in 1867, an unsuccessful
essay for the Seatonian prize, a poem entitled St Paul, which met
at the hands of the general public with a success that would be
difficult to explain, for it lacks sincerity and represents views
which the writer rapidly outgrew. It was followed by small
volumes of collected verses in 1870 and 1882: both are marked
by a flow of rhetorical ardour which culminates in a poem of
real beauty, " The Renewal of Youth," in the 1882 collection.
His best verse is in heroic couplets. Myers is more likely to
be remembered by his two volumes of Essays, Classical and
Modern (1883). The essay on Virgil, by far the best thing he
ever wrote, represents the matured enthusiasm of a student and
a disciple to whom the exquisite artificiality and refined culture
of Virgil's method were profoundly congenial. Next to this in
value is the carefully wrought essay on Ancient Greek Oracles
(this had first appeared in Hellenica). Scarcely less delicate
in phrasing and perception, if less penetrating in insight, is the
monograph on Wordsworth (1881) for the " English Men of
Letters " series. In 1882, after several years of inquiry and
discussion, Myers took the lead among a small band of explorers
(including Henry Sidgwick and Richard Hodgson, Edmund
Gurney and F. Podmore), who founded the society for Psychical
Research. He continued for many years to be the mouthpiece
of the society, a position for which his perfermdum ingenium,
still more his abnormal fluency and alertness, admirably fitted
him. He contributed greatly to the coherence of the society
by steering a mid-course between extremes (the extreme sceptics
on the one hand, and the enthusiastic spiritualists on the
other), and by helping to sift and revise the cumbrous mass of
112
MYINGYAN MYLODON
Proceedings, the chief concrete results being the two volumes of
Phantasms of the Living (1886), to which he contributed the in-
troduction. Like many theorists, he had a faculty for ignoring
hard facts, and in his anxiety to generalize plausibly upon the
alleged data, and to hammer out striking formulae, his insight
into the real character of the evidence may have left something
to be desired. His long series of papers on subliminal conscious-
ness, the results of which were embodied in a posthumous work
called Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death (2 vols.
1903), constitute his own chief contribution to psychical theory.
This, as he himself would have been the first to admit, was little
more than provisional; but Professor William James has pointed
out that the series of papers on subliminal consciousness is " the
first attempt to consider the phenomena of hallucination,
hypnotism, automatism, double personality and mediumship, as
connected parts of one whole subject." The last work published
in his lifetime was a small collection of essays, Science and a
Future Life (1893). He died at Rome on the i7th of January
1901, but was buried in his native soil at Keswick.
MYINGYAN, a district in the Meiktila division of Upper
Burma. It lies in the valley of the Irrawaddy, to the south of
Mandalay, on the east bank of the river. Area, 3137 sq. m.
Pop. (1901), 356,052, showing an increase of i% in the decade
and a density of 1 14 inhabitants to the square mile. The greater
part of the district is flat, especially to the north and along the
banks of the Irrawaddy. Inland the country rises in gently
undulating slopes. The most noticeable feature is Popa hill,
an extinct volcano, in the south-eastern corner of the district.
The highest peak is 4962 ft. above sea-level. The climate is dry
and healthy, with high south winds from March till September.
The annual rainfall averages about 35 in. The temperature
varies between 106 and 70 F. The ordinary crops are millet,
sesamum, cotton, maize, rice, gram, and a great variety of peas
and beans. The district as a whole is not well watered, and most
of the old irrigation tanks had fallen into disrepair before the
annexation. There are no forests, but a great deal of low scrub.
The lacquer ware of Nyaung-u and other villages near Pagan is
noted throughout Burma. A considerable number of Chinese
inhabit Myingyan and the larger villages. The headquarters
town, MYINGYAN, stands on the Irrawaddy, and had a population
in 1901 of 16,139. It i fi the terminus of the branch railway
through Meiktila to the main line from Mandalay to Rangoon.
The steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company also call here.
A cotton-pressing machine was erected here in the time of
independent Burma, and still exists.
MYITKYINA, the most northerly of the districts of Upper
Burma in the Mandalay division, separated from Bhamo district
in 1895. It is cut up into strips by comparatively low parallel
ranges of hills running in a general way north and south. The
chief plain is that of Myitkyina, covering 600 sq. m. To the
east of the Irrawaddy, which bisects the district, it is low-lying
and marshy. To the west it rises to a higher level, and is mostly
dry. Except in the hills inhabited by the Kachin tribes there
are practically no villages off the line of the Irrawaddy. The
Indawgyi lake, a fine stretch of water measuring 16 m. by 6,
lies in the south-west of the district. A very small amount of
cultivation is carried on, mostly without irrigation. Area,
10,640 sq. m.; estimated population (1901) 67,399, showing a
density of six persons to the square mile. More than half the total
are Kachins, who inhabit the hills on both sides of the Irrawaddy.
The headquarters town, MYITKYINA, had in 1901 a population of
3618. It is the limit of navigation on the Irrawaddy, and the
terminus of the railway from Rangoon and Sagaing.
MYLODON (Gr. for " mill-tooth " from io>Ma> and 65ous), a
genus of extinct American edentate mammals, typified by a
species (M . harlani) from the Pleistocene of Kentucky and other
parts of the United States, but more abundantly represented in
the corresponding formations of South America, especially
Argentina and Brazil. The mylodons belong to the group of
ground-sloths, and are generally included in the family Megath-
eriidae, although sometimes made the type of a separate family.
From Megatherium these animals, which rivalled the Indian
rhinoceros in bulk, differ in the shape of their cheek-teeth ; these
(five above and four below) being much smaller, with an ovate
section, and a cupped instead of a ridged crown-surface, thus
resembling those of the.true sloths. In certain species of mylodon
the front pair of teeth in each jaw is placed some distance in front
of the rest and has the crown surface obliquely bevelled by
From Owen.
Skeleton of Mylodon robustus (Pleistocene, South America).
wearing against the corresponding teeth in the opposite jaw. On
this account such species have been referred to a second genus,
under the name of Leslodon, but the distinction scarcely seems
necessary. The skull is shorter and lower than in Megatherium,
without any vertical expansion of the middle of the lower jaw,
and the teeth also extend nearly to the front of the jaws; both
these features being sloth-like. In the fore feet the three inner
toes have large claws, while the two outer ones are rudimentary
and clawless; in the hind-limbs the first toe is wanting, as in
Megatherium, but the second and third are clawed. The skin
was strengthened by a number of small deeply-embedded bony
nodules.
Although the typical M. harlani is North American, the
mylodons are essentially a South American group, a few of the
representatives of which effected an entrance into North America
when that continent became finally connected with South
America. Special interest attaches to the recent discovery in
the cavern of Ultima Esperanza, South Patagonia, of remains of
the genus Glossotherium, or Grypolherium, a near relative of
Mylodon, but differing from it in having a bony arch connecting
the nasal bones of the skull with the premaxillae; these include
a considerable portion of the skin with the hair attached.
Ossicles somewhat resembling large coffee-berries had been
previously found in association with the bones of Mylodon, and in
Glossotherium nearly similar ossicles occur embedded on the
inner side of the thick hide. The coarse and shaggy hair is
somewhat like that of the sloths. The remains, which include
not only the skeleton and skin, but likewise the droppings, were
found buried in grass which appears to have been chopped
up by man, and it thus seems not only evident that these
ground-sloths dwelt in the cave, but that there is a considerable
probability of their having been kept there in a semi-domesti-
cated state by the early human inhabitants of Patagonia. The
extremely fresh condition of the remains has given rise to the
idea that Glossotherium may still be living in the wilds of
Patagonia.
Scelidotherium is another genus of large South American Pleisto-
cene ground-sloths, characterized, among other features, by the
elongation and slenderness of the skull, which thus makes a decided
approximation to the anteater type, although retaining the full
series of cheek-teeth, which were, of course, essential to an herbi-
vorous animal. The feet resemble those of Megatherium. \ much
smaller South American species represents the genus Nothrotherium.
In North America Mylodon was accompanied by another gigantic
species typifying the genus Megalonyx, in which the fore part of the
skull was usually wide, and the third and fourth front toes carried
claws. Another genus has been described from the Pleistocene
MYLONITE MYRA
of Nebraska, as Paramylodon; it has only four pairs of teeth, and an
elongate skull with an inflated muzzle. All the above genera differ
from Megatherium in having a foramen on the inner side of the lower
end of the humerus. A presumed large ground-sloth from Mada-
gascar has been described, on the evidence of a limb-bone, as Brady-
therium, but it is suggested by Dr F. Ameghino that the specimen
really belongs to a lemuroid. Be this as it may, the North American
mammals described as Moropm and Morotherium, in the belief that
they were ground-sloths, are really referable to the ungulate group
Ancylopoda.
Although a few of the Pleistocene ground-sloths, such as Nothro-
pus and Nothrotherium ( = Coelodon), were of comparatively small
size, in the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia few of the representatives
of the family much exceeded a modern sloth in size. The best-
known generic types are Eucholoeops, Hapalops and Pseudahapalops,
of which considerable portions of the skeleton have been disinterred.
In these diminutive ground-sloths the crowns of the cheek-teeth
approached the prismatic form characteristic of Mega[lo]therium,
as distinct from the subcylindrical type occurring in Mylodon,
Glossotherium, &c.
By many palaeontologists a group of 'North American Lower
Tertiary mammals, known as Ganodonta, has been regarded as
representing the ancestral stock of the ground-sloths and those of
other South American edentates; but according to Professor W. B.
Scott this view is incorrect and there is no affinity between the two
groups. If this be so, we are still in complete darkness as to the
stock from which the South American edentates are derived.
See W. B. Scott, Mammalia of the Santa Cruz Beds, Edentata,
Rep., Princeton Exped. to Patagonia, vol. v. (1903-1904) ; B. Brown
A New Genus of Ground-Sloth from the Pleistocene of Nebraska,
Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., xix, 569 (1903). (R. L.*)
MYLONITE (Gr. juuXoiJ', a mill), in petrology, a rock which has
been crushed and ground down by earth movement and at the
same time rendered compact by pressure. Mylonites are fine-
grained, sometimes even flinty, in appearance, and often banded
in parallel fashion with stripes of varying composition. The
great majority are quartzose rocks, such as quartzite and quartz-
schist; but in almost any type of rock mylonitic structure may
be developed. Gneisses of various kinds, hornblende-schists,
chlorite-schists and limestones are not infrequently found in
belts of mylonitic rock. The process of crushing by which
mylonites are formed is known also as " granulitization " and
" cataclasis," and mylonites are often described as granuh'tes,
though the two terms are not strictly equivalent in all their
applications. Mylonites occur in regions where there has
been considerable metamorphism. Thrust planes and great
reversed faults are often bounded by rocks which have all been
crushed to fine slabby mylonites, that split readily along planes
parallel to the direction in which movement has taken place.
These " crush-belts " may be only a few feet or several hundred
yards broad. The movements have probably taken place slowly
without great rise of temperature, and hence the rocks have not
recrystallized to any extent.
Crushing and movement on so extensive a scale are to be expected
principally in regions consisting of rocks greatly folded and
compressed. Hence mylonites are commonest in Archean regions,
but may be found also in Carboniferous and later rocks where the
necessary conditions have prevailed. Within a short space it is
often possible to trace rocks from a normal to a highly mylonized
condition, and to follow by means of the microscope all the stages
of the process. A sandstone, grit, or fine quartzose conglomerate,
for example, when it approaches a mylonitic zone begins to lose
its clastic or pebbly structure. The rounded grains of quartz
become cracked, especially near their edges, and are then surrounded
by narrow borders, consisting of detached granules: this is due to the
pebbles being pressed together and forced to pass one another as the
rock yields to the pressures which overcome its rigidity. Then each
quartz grain breaks up into a mosaic of little angular fragments;
the rounded pebbles are flattened out and become lenticular or cake-
shaped. Finally only a small oval patch of fine interlocking quartz
grains is left to indicate the position of the pebble, and if the matrix
is quartzose this gradually blends with it and a uniform fine-grained
quartzose rock results. If felspar is present it may become crushed
like quartz, but often tends to recrystallize as quartz and muscovite,
the minute scales of white mica being parallel to the foliation or
banding of the rock, and a finely granulitic or mylonitic quartz-
schist is the product. In hornblendic rocks, such as epidiorite,
amphibolite and hornblende-schist, the mineral composition may
remain unchanged, but very often chlorite, carbonates and biotite
develop, epidote and sphene being also frequent. Biotite- and mus-
covite-gneisses yield very perfect mylonites, in which the micas
have parallel orientation, giving the rock a flat banding and marked
schistosity (see PETROLOGY, PI. iv., fig. 6). When these mylonitic
gneisses contain pink garnet (often with kyanite or sillimanite)
they pass into normal granulites; limestones, if fossiliferous, become
changed into finely crystalline masses, often fissile, sometimes with
lenticular or augen structure. An interesting variety of mylonite,
developed in granite-porphyry and gneiss, is fine, dark and almost
vitreous in appearance, consisting mainly of very minute grains of
quartz and felspar and resembling flint in appearance. These
form threads and vein-like streaks ramifying through the normal
rocks. Examples are furnished by the flinty-crushes of west Scot-
land and the " trap-shotten " gneisses of south India. (J. S. F.)
MYMENSINGH, or MAIMANSINGH, a district of British India,
in the Dacca division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It occupies
a portion of the alluvial valley of the Brahmaputra east of the
main channel (called the Jamuna) and north of Dacca. The
administrative headquarters are at Nasirabad, sometimes called
Mymensingh town. Area, 6332 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 3,915,068,
showing an increase of 12-8% in the decade. The district is
for the most part level and open, covered with well-cultivated
fields, and intersected by numerous rivers. The Madhupur
jungle is a slightly elevated tract, extending from the north of
Dacca district into the heart of Mymensingh; its average height
is about 60 ft. above the level of the surrounding country, and it
nowhere exceeds 100 ft. The jungle contains abundance of sal,
valuable both as timber and for charcoal. The only other elevated
tract in the district is on the southern border, where the Susang
hills rise. They are for the most part covered with thick thorny
jungle, but in parts are barren and rocky. The Jamuna forms
the western boundary of Mymensingh for a course of 94 m. It is
navigable for large boats throughout the year; and during the
rainy season it expands in many places to 5 or 6 m. in breadth.
The Brahmaputra enters Mymensingh at its north-western
corner near Karaibari, and flows south-east and south till it
joins the Meghna a little below Bhairab Bazar. The gradual
formation of chars and bars of sand in the upper part of its course
has diverted the main volume of water into the present channel
of the Jamuna, which has in consequence become of much more
importance than the Brahmaputra proper. The Meghna only
flows for a short distance through the south-east portion of
the district, the eastern and south-eastern parts of which
abound in marshes. The staple crops of the country are rice,
jute and oil-seeds. A branch line of the Eastern Bengal railway
runs north from Dacca through Nasirabad, &c., to the Jamuna.
The district was severely affected by the earthquake of the
i2th of June 1897.
MYNGS, SIR CHRISTOPHER (1625-1666), British admiral,
came of a Norfolk family. Pepys' story of his humble birth is
said to be erroneous. It is probable that he saw a good deal of
sea-service before 1648. He first appears prominently as the
captain of the " Elisabeth," which after a sharp action brought
in a Dutch convoy with two men-of-war as prizes. From 1653
to 1655 he continued to command the " Elisabeth," high in
favour with the council of state and recommended for promotion
by the flag officers under whom he served. In 1655 he was
appointed to the " Marston Moor," the crew of which was on the
verge of mutiny. His firm measures quelled the insubordinate
spirit, and he took the vessel out to the West Indies, where he
remained for some years. The Restoration government retained
him in his command, and in 1664 he was made vice-admiral in
Prince Rupert's squadron. As vice-admiral of the White he flew
his flag at Lowestoft in 1665, and for his share in that action
received the honour of knighthood. In the following year he
served under the new lord high admiral, Sandwich, as vice-
admiral of the Blue. He was on detachment with Prince Rupert
when the great Four Days' Battle began, but returned to the
main fleet in time to take part, and in this action he received a
wound of which he died.
MYONEMES, in Infusoria and some Flagellates, the differ-
entiated threads of ectosarc, which are contractile and doubly
refractive, performing the function of muscular fibres in the
Metazoa.
MYRA (mod. Dembre), an ancient town of Lycia situated a
short distance inland between the rivers Myrus and Andracus.
In common with that of most other Lycian towns its early history
MYRIAPODA MYRRH
is not known, and it does not play any part of importance in
either Greek or Roman annals. Its fame begins with Chris-
tianity. There St Paul touched on his last journey westward
(A.D. 62), and changed into " a ship of Alexandria sailing into
Italy." In the 3rd century the great St Nicholas, born at
Patara, was its bishop, and he died and was buried at Myra. His
tomb is still shown, but his relics are supposed to have been trans-
lated to Bari in Italy in the nth century. Theodosius II. made
Myra the Byzantine capital of Lycia, and as such it was besieged
and taken by Harun al-Rashid in 808. The town seems shortly
afterwards to have decayed. A small Turkish village occupied
the plain at the foot of the acropolis, and a little Greek monastery
lay about a mile westward by the church of St Nicholas. The
latter has formed the nucleus of modern Dembre, which has
been increased by settlers from the Greek island of Castelorizo.
Myra has three notable sights, its carved cliff-cemetery, its
theatre, and its church of St Nicholas. The first is the most
remarkable of the Lycian rock-tomb groups. The western scarp
of the acropolis has been sculptured into a number of sepulchres
imitating wooden houses with pillared facades, some of which
have pediment reliefs and inscriptions in Lycian. The theatre
lies at the foot of this cliff and is partly excavated out of it,
partly built. It is remarkable for the preservation of its corri-
dors. The auditorium is perfect in the lower part, and the
scena still retains some of its decoration both columns and
carved entablature. The church of St Nicholas lies out in
the plain, at the western end of Dembre, near a small monastery
and new church recently built with Russian money. Its floor
is far below the present level of the plain, and until recently the
church was half filled with earth. The excavation of it was
undertaken by Russians about 1894 and it cost Dembre dear;
for the Ottoman government, suspicious of foreign designs on
the neighbouring harbour of Kekova, proceeded to inhibit all
sale of property in the plain and to place Dembre under a minor
state of siege. The ancient church is of the domed basilica
form with throne and seats still existent in the tribunal. In
the south aisle as a tomb with marble balustrade which is pointed
out as that wherein St Nicholas was laid. The locality of the
tomb is very probably genuine, but its present ornament, as
well as the greater part of the church, seems of later date (end
of 7th century ?). None the less this is among the most interest-
ing early Christian churches in Asia Minor. There are also
extensive ruins of Andriaca, the port of Myra, about 3 m. west,
containing churches, baths, and a great grain store, inscribed
with Hadrian's name. They lie along the course of the Andraki
river, whose navigable estuary is still fringed with ruinous
quays.
See E. Petersen and F. v. Luschan, Reisen in Lykien, &c. (1889).
(D. G. H.)
MYRIAPODA (Gr. for " many-legged "), arthropod animals
of which cen 
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